China Studies Wiki - User contributions [en]

20201228 cult

2020-12-26T14:10:30Z

Lei kuangxi: /* Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪 */

==Alsied, Saffana==

==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==

==Chen Han 陈涵==

==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==

==Dashkin, Gennadii==

==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==

==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==

==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==

==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==

==Grosheva, Anna==

==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==

==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==

==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==

==Guirou, Barthelemy==

==Guo Lu 郭露==

==Ha, Thi Thu Hang==

==He Changqi 何长琦==

==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==

==Hu Jin 胡瑾==
1. 《道德经》简称老子，是中国的经典文本。根据传统，它是由公元前6世纪的圣人老子所写，老子是周朝的一位记录者，在中国广为人知。尽管最早出土的文字可以追溯到公元前4世纪晚期，但文字的真正作者和撰写或编纂日期仍有争议。

1. The Tao Te Ching simply referred to as the Laozi，is a Chinese classic text. According to tradition, it was written around 6th century BC by the sage Laozi, a record-keeper at the Zhou dynasty court, by whose name the text is known in China. The text's true authorship and date of composition or compilation are still debated, although the oldest excavated text dates back to the late 4th century BC.

2. 《论语》是儒家学派的经典著作之一，由孔子的弟子及其再传弟子编撰而成。它以语录体和对话文体为主，记录了孔子及其弟子言行，集中体现了孔子的政治主张、论理思想、道德观念及教育原则等。

2. The Analects is one of the classical works of Confucianism, compiled by the disciples of Confucius and his disciples. It is mainly in the style of discourses and dialogues, recording the words and deeds of Confucius and his disciples, concentrating on Confucius' political ideas, theoretical thoughts, moral concepts and educational principles.

3. 《慧能经》附有慧能对《金刚经》的逐条注释——这是它有史以来第一次出版的英文译本。他的谈话集也被称为《六祖坛经》，是唯一的禅宗记录，一般被尊称为经，或经文。

3. The Sutra of Hui-neng is here accompanied by Hui-neng's verse-by-verse commentary on the Diamond Sutra—in its very first published English translation ever.This collection of his talks, also known as the Platform or Altar Sutra, is the only Zen record of its kind to be generally honored with the appellation sutra, or scripture.

4. 《生活的艺术》是林语堂旅美专事创作后的第一部书，也是继之后再获成功的又一英文作品。该书于1937年在美国出版，次年便居美国畅销书排行榜榜首达52周，且接连再版四十余次，并为十余种文字所翻译。

4. “The Art of Living” was Lin Yutang's first book after he had traveled to the U.S. and was another successful work in English. It was published in the United States in 1937 and topped the American bestseller list for 52 weeks the following year, and was reprinted more than forty times and translated into more than a dozen languages.--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 07:31, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

4. 《生活的艺术》是林语堂旅美专事创作后的第一部书，也是继《吾国与吾民》之后再获成功的又一英文作品。该书于1937年在美国出版，次年便居美国畅销书排行榜榜首达52周，且接连再版四十余次，并为十余种文字所翻译。

''The Art of Living'' was Lin Yutang's first book after he had traveled to the U.S. and was another successful English work after ''My Country and My People''. It was published in the United States in 1937 and topped the American bestseller list for 52 weeks at the following year. Besides, it was reprinted more than forty times and translated into more than a dozen languages.--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:20, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling

==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==

==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==

==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==

==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==

==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==
1、丝绸之路被认为是连结亚欧大陆的古代东西方文明的交汇之路，而丝绸则是最具代表性的货物。数千年来，游牧民族或部落、商人、教徒、外交家、士兵和学术考察者沿着丝绸之路四处活动。

The Silk Road is considered to be the ancient crossroads of eastern and western civilizations linking Asia and Europe, with Silk being the most iconic cargo. For thousands of years, nomadic peoples or tribes, merchants, religious, diplomats, soldiers and academic researchers moved around along the Silk Road.

2、郑和七次奉旨率船队远航西洋，航线从西太平洋穿越印度洋，直达西亚和非洲东岸，途经30多个国家和地区。他的航行比哥伦布发现美洲大陆早87年，比达·伽马早92年，比麦哲伦早114年。在世界航海史上，他开辟了贯通太平洋西部与印度洋等大洋的直达航线。

Zheng He was ordered to lead seven voyages to the Atlantic Ocean, with routes from the western Pacific Ocean across the Indian Ocean to West Asia and the east coast of Africa, passing through more than 30 countries and regions. His voyage was 87 years before Columbus discovered the American continent, 92 years before Da Gama, and 114 years before Magellan. In the history of world navigation, he opened up a direct route through the western Pacific Ocean and the Indian Ocean and other great oceans.

3、西学书籍的翻译和著述，是西学东渐相当重要的媒介，在当时出现了大量的由教士及士大夫合著合译的书籍，但这些书籍未能受到当时一般社会的重视，也未能打入晚明已十分发达的商业出版界，因此虽西学书籍有刻印出版，但主要仍仅流通于少数有兴趣的士大夫阶层。

The translation and writing of books on Western studies was an important medium for the gradual expansion of Western studies to the east. A large number of books co-authored and translated by clergy and scholars emerged at that time, but these books were not taken seriously by the general society at that time, nor did they penetrate into the commercial publishing world, which was already well developed in the late Ming Dynasty.

4、随着军事工业的创办，洋务派认识到，强大的国防基础在于整个国家经济的发展，要求能源、钢铁等工业与之配套。同时，为了维护民族利益，也必须发展民族经济，与洋人"商战"、"争利"。于是，他们提出了求富的口号，民用工业和新式交通运输业也发展起来了。

With the founding of the military industry, the School of Westernization realized that the basis of a strong national defense lay in the development of the entire national economy, requiring energy, steel and other industries to go along with it. At the same time, in order to safeguard national interests, it was also necessary to develop the national economy and to "negotiate" and "compete for profits" with the foreigners. Thus, they put forward the slogan of seeking wealth, and the civil industry and new transportation industry were developed.--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 14:10, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi

==Li Lili 李丽丽==
1.1417年，永乐皇帝下令郑和将使节送回国内。郑和和他的舰队再次回到海上启航，进行他的第五次远征（1417-1419）。他在许多相同的地方停留，包括爪哇岛、苏门答腊岛，还为他遇到的不同的统治者带来了信件和财富。

By 1417, the Yongle Emperor ordered Zheng He to return the envoys home. Once more back on the seas, Zheng He and his large fleet set sail for his fifth expedition (1417-1419). He stopped in many of the same places, including Java, Sumatra, and also brought letters and riches to the different rulers Zheng He met.

In 1417, Emperor Yongle ordered Zheng He to send the envoys back home. Zheng He and his fleet returned to sea again to set sail on his fifth expedition (1417-1419). He stopped at many of the same places, including Java and Sumatra, and also brought letters and wealth to the different rulers he met. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

2.海上丝绸之路从福建泉州开始, 是秦汉时期形成、三国时期发展到隋朝、盛唐宋朝、明清衰落的最早航程航线。

Starting from Quanzhou Fujian Province, the maritime Silk Road was the earliest voyage route that was formed in the Qin and Han dynasties, developed from the Three Kingdoms Period to the Sui Dynasty, flourished in the Tang and Song dynasties, and fell into decline in the Ming and Qing dynasties.

The Maritime Silk Road began in Quanzhou, Fujian Province, and was the earliest voyage route formed during the Qin and Han dynasties, developed during the Three Kingdoms Period to the Sui dynasty, flourished in the Tang and Song dynasties, and fell into decline in the Ming and Qing dynasties. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

3.西学东渐不仅客观上促成了马克思主义哲学在中国的广泛传播, 构成了马克思主义哲学中国化的一个重要历史前提, 而且引发了中国哲学历史发展过程中的重大变革, 推动了中国哲学从古代传统向近代传统的转变。

The spread of Western learning to the East objectively promoted the dissemination of Marxist philosophy, forming an important historical precondition for its Sinicization. Moreover, it triggered a great transformation in the historical development of Chinese philosophy and facilitated its transition from an ancient to an early modern tradition.

The eastward spread of Western learning has not only objectively contributed to the widespread dissemination of Marxist philosophy in China, constituting an important historical premise for the Chineseization of Marxist philosophy, but also triggered a major change in the historical development of Chinese philosophy, promoting the transformation of Chinese philosophy from the ancient to the modern tradition. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

4.鸦片战争、不平等条约和19世纪中叶的大规模起义的残酷现实，使清朝朝臣和官员认识到壮大中国的必要性。自19世纪40年代以来，中国学者和官员一直在研究和翻译“西学”。

The rude realities of the Opium War, the unequal treaties, and the mid- 19th century mass uprisings caused Qing courtiers and officials to recognize the need to strengthen China. Chinese scholars and officials had been examining and translating "Western Learning" since the 1840s.--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 13:05, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

The harsh realities of the Opium War, the unequal treaties, and the mass uprisings of the mid-19th century made courtiers and officials of the Qing Dynasty realize the need to strengthen China. Since the 1840s, Chinese scholars and officials had been studying and translating "Western Learning". --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Liqin 李丽琴==

==Liu Liu 刘柳==

1.《道德经》是中国历史上最伟大的名著之一，对传统哲学、科学、政治、宗教等产生了深刻影响。

As one of the greatest masterpieces in Chinese history, ''Tao Te Ching'' has a profound impact on traditional philosophy, science, politics, and religion.

Tao Te Ching, as one of the greatest masterpieces in Chinese history, has a profound impact on traditional philosophy, science, politics and religion.--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 13:16, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

2.孔子因材施教，对于不同的对象，考虑其不同的素质、优点和缺点、进德修业的具体情况，给予不同的教诲，表现了诲人不倦的可贵精神。

Confucius taught students in accordance with their aptitude. He gave different instructions to different students, taking into account their different qualities, strengths and weaknesses, and the specific circumstances of their advancement and cultivation, showing the valuable spirit of tireless teaching.

Confucius taught students in accordance with their aptitude. For different objects, he considered their different qualities, advantages and disadvantages, and the specific situation of moral education, and gave different instructions, which showed the valuable spirit of tireless teaching.--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 13:16, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

3.近年来，中国大多数学者都认为《坛经》的基本内容代表了慧能思想，同时其中也有后人增益的成分。

In recent years, most Chinese scholars believe that the basic content of the ''The Sutra of Huineng'' represents the thought of Huineng, while there are also some elements of later additions to it.

In recent years, most Chinese scholars believe that the basic content of Tanjing represents Huineng's thought, and it also contains the later additions.--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 13:16, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

4.《生活的艺术》是林语堂旅美专事创作后的第一部书，也是继《吾国与吾民》之后再获成功的又一英文作品。该书于1937年在美国出版，次年便居美国畅销书排行榜榜首达52周，且接连再版四十余次，被翻译为十余种文字全球发行。

''The Importance of Living'' was the first book after Lin Yutang had traveled to the United States and was another successful work in English after ''My Country and My People''. It was published in the United States in 1937 and topped the American bestseller list for 52 weeks the following year, and was republished more than forty times and translated into more than a dozen languages for global distribution.--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 07:14, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

''The Art of Life'' is the first book written by Lin Yutang after his trip to the United States. It is also another successful English work after ''My Country and My People''. The book was published in the United States in 1937. The following year, it ranked the top of the best seller list in the United States for 52 weeks. It has been reprinted for more than 40 times and has been translated into more than 10 languages for global distribution.--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 13:16, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Ou 刘欧==

==Liu Yi 刘艺==
1、传统的丝绸之路，起自中国古代都城长安，经中亚国家、阿富汗、伊朗、伊拉克、叙利亚等而达地中海，以罗马为终点，全长6440公里。这条路被认为是连结亚欧大陆的古代东西方文明的交汇之路，而丝绸则是最具代表性的货物。

The traditional Silk Road, which started from Chang'an, the ancient capital of China, and reached the Mediterranean Sea via Central Asian countries, Afghanistan, Iran, and Syria, and ended in Rome, was 6,440 kilometers long. This road is considered to be the intersection of ancient eastern and western civilizations linking Asia and Europe, and silk is the most representative cargo. The road reached the Mediterranean Sea from Iraq, Syria, etc. and ended in Rome, with a total length of 6,440 kilometers. This road is considered to be the crossroads of ancient civilizations between East and West, linking Asia and Europe, and silk is the most representative cargo.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 12:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

2、东海航线，也叫“东方海上丝路”。春秋战国时期，齐国在胶东半岛开辟了“循海岸水行”直通辽东半岛、朝鲜半岛、日本列岛直至东南亚的黄金通道。唐代，山东半岛和江浙沿海的中韩日海上贸易逐渐兴起。宋代，宁波成为中韩日海上贸易的主要港口。

The East Sea Route, also known as the "Eastern Sea Silk Road". During the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, the State of Qi opened up a golden route on the Jiaodong Peninsula, which led to the Liaodong Peninsula, the Korean Peninsula, the Japanese islands and Southeast Asia. During the Tang Dynasty, the maritime trade between China, Korea and Japan on the Shandong Peninsula and the coast of Jiangsu and Zhejiang gradually emerged. During the Song Dynasty, Ningbo became the main port for maritime trade between China, Korea and Japan.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 12:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

3、东学西渐指的是一个和西学东渐互相补充的东西方文化交流过程。东学西渐有一千多年的历史，对世界文化的发展有十分深远的影响。

Eastern learning and Western learning refers to a process of cultural exchange between East and West that complements Western learning and Eastern learning. With a history of over a thousand years, East to West has had a profound impact on the development of world culture.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 12:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

4、洋务运动虽然在客观上刺激中国资本主义发展、并且在一定程度上抵制了外国资本主义的经济输入，但并没有使中国走上富强之路。

Although the foreign affairs movement objectively stimulated the development of Chinese capitalism and to a certain extent resisted the economic import of foreign capitalism, it did not put China on the road to wealth and power.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 12:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==

==Lo, Minh Thao==

==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==

==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==

==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==

==Mo Ling 莫玲==

1.“道”作为《道德经》中最抽象的概念范畴，是天地万物生成的动力源。

The way, as the most abstract concept in Tao Te Ching, is the power source for the creation of all things.

As the most abstract conceptual category in Tao Te Ching, "Tao" is the source of power for the creation of heaven and earth.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 13:21, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

2.《论语》主要以语录和对话文体的形式记录了孔子及其弟子的言行，集中体现了孔子的政治、审美、道德伦理和功利等价值思想。

The Analects of Confucius mainly records the words and deeds of Confucius and his disciples in the form of quotations and dialogues, which embodies Confucius' political, aesthetic, moral and utilitarian values.

3.若欲修行，在家亦得，不由在寺。

If people are sincerely keen on the practice,it is no need for them to practise in the temple and they can be successful even at home.

4.林语堂的翻译特点是通畅易懂，少用“行语”，中等文化的读者都能看懂。

The translation works of Lin Yutang are characterized by fluency and transparency since he hardly adopt jargons,so that his works can be understood by less-educated readers.--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:11, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling

==Ngo, Thi Minh Huong==

==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==

==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==

==Phyo, Su Kyi==

==Pingki, Tanchangya==

==Qu Miao 瞿淼==

==Rajabov, Anushervon==

==Seydou, Sagara==

==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==

==Si Yu 司妤==

==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==

1.汉武帝刘彻即位时，张骞已在朝廷担任名为“郎”的侍从官。据史书记载，他“为人强力，宽大信人”。即具有坚韧不拔、心胸开阔，并能以信义待人的优良品质。建元三年，即公元前138年，张骞“以郎应募，使月氏”。“郎”，是皇帝的侍从官，没有固定职务，又随时可能被选授重任。

When Emperor Wu of Han Dynasty Liu Che assumed the throne, Zhang Qian was already working at the court as a retainer named "Lang". According to historical records, he was "a strong, generous and trustworthy". In other words, he was tough, open-minded, and could treat people with faith and justice. In the third year of Jian Yuan, that is, 138 B.C., Zhang Qian was recruited to make a mission to the Moon Dynasty. The "Lang", the emperor's retainer, has no fixed position, and may be chosen at any time to reappoint.

2.有观点认为，明初时海外威胁受到重视，故有郑和下西洋之事。然而，或许郑和过于成功了，“他的海军满载荣誉胜利归来，并确认帝国没有来自海上的威胁”，因此“郑和与他的随从也可以说失去了继续远航的意义。”

It has been argued that the overseas threat was taken seriously at the beginning of the Ming Dynasty, hence Zheng He's voyage to the West. However, perhaps Zheng He was too successful, "his navy returned triumphantly laden with glory and confirmed that there was no threat to the empire from the sea", so "Zheng He and his entourage could be said to have lost the point of continuing their voyage".

3.甲午战争以后，由于中国当时面临着国破家亡的命运，许多有识之士开始更积极全面地向西方学习，出现了梁启超、康有为、谭嗣同等一批思想家。他们向西方学习大量的自然科学和社会科学的知识，政治上也要求改革。这一时期大量的西方知识传入中国，影响非常广泛。许多人以转译日本人所著的西学书籍来接受西学。进入民国时期，由于对政治的不满又进一步导致知识分子们提出全盘西化的主张，在五四时期这种思想造成了很大的影响。这一波的西学东渐，一直持续到当代而未止。

After the First Sino-Japanese War, as China was facing the fate of national ruin, many learned people began to learn more actively and comprehensively from the West, and a group of thinkers emerged, such as Liang Qichao, Kang Youwei and Tan Sitong. They learned a lot of natural and social science knowledge from the West, and also demanded reforms in politics. A great deal of Western knowledge was introduced into China during this period, and its influence was very widespread. Many people embraced Western learning by translating Western books written by the Japanese. In the Republican period, dissatisfaction with politics further led intellectuals to advocate wholesale Westernization, which had a great impact in the May Fourth period. This wave of Western learning continued into contemporary times.

4.洋务派前期创办的军事工业，经费由清政府调拨，产品分配给军队使用，管理方式是封建衙门式的。虽然这些企业采用机器生产，但本质上属于带有资本主义因素的封建官办企业。

The military industries founded by the foreign affairs faction in the early period were financed by the Qing government, and the products were allocated to the army for use, and managed in a feudal government office style. Although these enterprises adopted machine production, they were essentially feudal government-run enterprises with capitalist elements.--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:23, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Tang Bei 汤蓓==

==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==

==Wang Meiling 王美玲==

==Wang Xuan 王轩==

==Wu Qiong 吴琼==

==Wu Yilu 吴一露==

==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==

==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==
1.老子认为世界上的任何事物都是相比较而存在的。美丑、善恶、有无、难易、长短都是相互依存的，有此才有彼，有是才有非，有善才有恶。表面看来，正相反对的两个方面是相互对立的，而实际上又是相互包含、相互渗透的。

1.Laozi believes that everything in the world exists by comparison. Beauty and ugliness, good and evil, existence and existence, difficulty and difficulty, length and length are interdependent. There is one and there is another, there is yes and there is no, there is good and there is evil. On the surface, the two opposite aspects are opposite, but in fact they are mutually contained and permeated.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 13:16, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

2.《论语》既是语录体又是若干断片的篇章集合体。这些篇章的排列不一定有什么道理；就是前后两章间，也不一定有什么关联。而且这些断片的篇章绝不是一个人的手笔。

2.The Analects of Confucius is a collection of quotations and fragments. The arrangement of these chapters does not necessarily make sense; Even between the two chapters, there is not necessarily a connection. And these fragmentary passages are not the work of one man.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 13:16, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

3.毛泽东还谈到过惠能的思想在佛教史上的地位。他说，惠能主张佛性人人皆有，创顿悟成佛之学，一方面使繁琐的佛教简易化，一方面也使从印度传入的佛教中国化。因此，他被视为禅宗的真正创始人。

3.Mao Zedong also talked about the position of Huineng's thought in the history of Buddhism. He said that Huineng advocates that everyone has the Buddha nature and creates the theory of enlightenment to become a Buddha, which, on the one hand, simplifies the tedious Buddhism and, on the other hand, makes the Buddhism introduced from India Chinese. Therefore, he is regarded as the real founder of Zen.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 13:16, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

4.林语堂早年已立志发明“中文打字机”。当时科学严谨的汉字检索系统仍未建立起来；又由于汉字本身是符号文字而非字母文字，长期以来人们对制成中文打字机的可能性多持怀疑态度。

4.In his early years, Lin yutang aspired to invent the "Chinese typewriter". At that time, the scientific and rigorous Chinese character retrieval system had not yet been established. Because Chinese characters are symbolic characters rather than alphabetic characters, people have long been skeptical of the possibility of making Chinese typewriters.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 13:14, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

==Xiao Ting 肖婷==

==Xie Fan 解帆==

==Xu Jia 徐佳==

==Xu Jing 许静==

==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==

==Yang Hairong 杨海容==

==Yang Hui 阳慧==

==Yang Yue 杨悦==

==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==

==Yi Zichu 义子楚==

==You Yuting 游雨婷==

==Yu Ni 余妮==

==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==

==Zeng Liang 曾良==
1.公元前123年，张骞随大将军卫青出使匈奴，在他的引导下，平息了多年来北方匈奴对汉王朝的骚扰，张骞因此被封为博望侯。

In 123 B. C. , Zhang Qian followed General Wei Qing in a major military raid against the Xiongnu. His guidance led to a number of victories, which succeeded in ending the harassment by the Xiongnu of the Han Dynasty. Zhang Qian was therefore conferred the title of Marquis of Bowang.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

In 123 B.C., Zhang Qian accompanied the great general Wei Qing on a mission to the Xiongnu. Under his guidance, the Xiongnu harassment of the Han dynasty in the north for many years was quelled, and Zhang Qian was thus made the Marquis of Bowang.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:00, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

2.郑和的船队由三百艘大船及三万多名水兵组成，船队中最大的一艘船被称为“宝船”，其船身长达133米，船桅多达九根，可搭载一千人。郑和和汉人与穆斯林船员一起打开了中国在非洲、印度及东南亚的贸易航线。

Zheng He’s fleet had more than 300 ships and 30,000 sailors. The largest vessels, 133-meter-long “treasure ships”, had up to nine masts and could carry a thousand people. Along with a Han and Muslim crew, Zheng opened up trade routes in Africa, India, and Southeast Asia.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

Zheng He's fleet consisted of 300 ships and more than 30,000 sailors, the largest ship in the fleet was called the "treasure ship", with a hull length of 133 meters and as many as nine masts, which could carry 1,000 people. Zheng He and the Chinese and Muslim crews together opened up Chinese trade routes in Africa, India and Southeast Asia.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:00, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

Zheng He’s fleet had more than 300 ships and 30,000 sailors. The largest vessels(also called “treasure ships”),133-meter-long ,had up to nine masts and could carry a thousand people. Along with a Han and Muslim crew, Zheng opened up trade routes in Africa, India, and Southeast Asia.--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:26, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

3.清末时，在“西学东渐”浪潮的冲击下，传统儿童教育踏入近代的门槛。

In late Qing dynasty, impacted by the wave of “ The Eastward Spread of Western Learning”, traditional children education stepped into the threshold of modern education. --[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

At the end of the Qing Dynasty, under the impact of the wave of "Western learning", traditional children's education entered the threshold of modern times.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:00, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

4.西进运动促进了农业、工业、交通业的飞速发展，也促进了美国城市化的进程。

The Westernization Movement promoted the rapid devepment of agrilucture, industry, transportation and the urbanization process of the United States as well. --[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

The westward movement contributed to the rapid development of agriculture, industry, and transportation, as well as to the urbanization of the United States.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:00, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==

==Zhang Hui 张慧==

1.张骞出使西域,接触到西域各国的风土人情，是汉朝开始对西域各国有所了解，使汉朝与西域建立了友好关系，为后来西汉政府设置西域都护府，使西域正式归西汉政府管辖打下了基础。

Zhang Qian’s mission to the Western Regions brought in contact with the customs of the Western Regions. It was the Han dynasty that began to understand the Western Regions countries, which enabled the Han dynasty to establish friendly relations with the Western Regions. Later, the Western Han government set up the Western Regions Protectorate and made the Western Regions officially returned to the Western Han government. Jurisdiction laid the foundation.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 11:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

Zhang Qian's mission to the Western Regions brought him into contact with the customs and traditions of the countries in the Western Regions, and enabled the Han Dynasty to establish friendly relations with the Western Regions, which later laid the foundation for the Western Han government to set up the Western Regions Capital Protection Office, making the Western Regions officially under the jurisdiction of the Western Han government.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:12, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

2.海上丝绸之路自秦汉时期开通以来，一直是沟通东西方经济文化交流的重要桥梁，而东南亚地区自古就是海上丝绸之路的重要枢纽和组成部分。

Since the opening of the Maritime Silk Road during the Qin and Han Dynasties, it has always been an important bridge for the economic and cultural exchanges between the East and the West. Southeast Asia has been an important hub and part of the Maritime Silk Road since ancient times.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 11:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

Since the opening of the Maritime Silk Road during the Qin and Han dynasties, it has been an important bridge to bridge the economic and cultural exchanges between the East and the West, and the Southeast Asian region has been an important hub and part of the Maritime Silk Road since ancient times.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:12, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

3.西学东渐将西方近代各种学术上的新成果带入了中国，深深影响到各种学术的发展，而许多在传统中国不被重视甚至不存在的学科也在此影响下得到发展。

Western learning has brought various new academic achievements in modern Western modern times into China, deeply affecting the development of various academics, and many disciplines that are not valued or even existed in traditional China have also been developed under this influence.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 11:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

The gradual expansion of Western learning brought various new achievements in modern Western scholarship into China, which deeply influenced the development of various academic disciplines, and many disciplines that were not valued or even did not exist in traditional China also developed under this influence.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:12, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

4.洋务运动虽然在客观上刺激中国资本主义发展、并且在一定程度上抵制了外国资本主义的经济输入，但并没有使中国走上富强之路。

Although the Westernization Movement objectively stimulated the development of Chinese capitalism, and to a certain extent resisted the economic import of foreign capitalism, it did not make China embark on a path of prosperity.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 11:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

Although the foreign affairs movement objectively stimulated the development of Chinese capitalism and to a certain extent resisted the economic import of foreign capitalism, it did not put China on the road to wealth and power.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:12, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Ling 张玲==

==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==

==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==

==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==

==Zhang Yu 张瑜==
1.除了朴素的唯物主义观点，《道德经》一书中还包括大量朴素辩证法观点，如一切事物均具有正反两面。

In addition to the simple materialistic view, ''Tao Te Ching'' also includes a large number of simple dialectical views, such as all things have positive and negative sides.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:36, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

Apart from the simple materialistic views, ''Tao Te Ching'' also includes a large number of simple dialectical views, for example, every coin has two sides.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 09:50, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

2.《论语》较为集中地体现了孔子及儒家学派的政治主张、伦理思想、道德观念及教育原则等。

''The Analects'' embodies the political ideas, ethical thoughts, moral concepts and educational principles of Confucius and the Confucianism in a more concentrated manner.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:36, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

''The Analects'' embodies the political views, ethical thoughts, moral ideas and educational principles of Confucius and the Confucianism in a relatively concentrated manner.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 09:50, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

3.经文主要记载慧能的生平事迹和言教。《坛经》的思想对禅宗发展起到了重要作用。

The Sutra mainly records the life story and teachings of Hui-neng. ''The Sutra of Hui-neng'' played an important role in the development of Zen Buddhism.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:36, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

The Sutra mainly recorded the life story and teachings of Hui-neng. The thought in ''The Sutra of Hui-neng'' played an important role in the development of Zen Buddhism.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 09:50, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

4.林语堂先生在《生活的艺术》中将中国人旷怀达观、陶情遣兴的生活方式和浪漫高雅的东方情调充分传达出来。

In ''The Importance of Living'', Lin Yutang fully conveys the Chinese way of life of being open-minded and broad-minded, and the romantic and elegant oriental sentiment.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:36, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

In ''The Importance of Living'', Lin Yutang fully conveys the Chinese lifestyle of open-mindedness and broad-mindedness, and the oriental sentiment of romance and elegance.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 09:50, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==

==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==

==Zhao Xi 赵茜==

==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==

1.先秦时期，连接中国东西方交流的通道已经存在，丝绸正式西传始于西汉通西域，丝绸之路真正形成始于西汉张骞凿空。

The pre-Qin period, connecting China's East and West exchange channel has existed, the official western transmission of silk began in the Western Han Dynasty through the Western Regions, the Silk Road really formed from the Western Han Dynasty Zhang Qian chiseling.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 11:53, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

In the pre-Qin period, a channel connecting China's east and west already existed. The official spread of silk to the west began in the Western Han Dynasty, and the real formation of the Silk Road began when Zhang Qian's hollowed out in the Western Han Dynasty.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 12:01, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

2.海上丝绸之路，是古代中国与外国交通贸易和文化交往的海上通道，也称"海上陶瓷之路"和“海上香料之路”，1913年由法国的东方学家沙畹首次提及。

The Maritime Silk Road, also known as the "Maritime Route of Ceramics" and the "Maritime Route of Spices", was first mentioned by the French orientalist Chavannes in 1913, and is a maritime route for traffic, trade and cultural exchanges between ancient China and foreign countries.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 11:53, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

The Maritime Silk Road was an ancient maritime channel for communication and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries. It was also called the "Sea Ceramic Road" and "Sea Spice Road". It was first mentioned in 1913 by the French orientalist Shawan.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 12:01, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

3.明代万历年间，以利玛窦为代表的西书七千部传教士来华传教，同时带来西方科技、文化等。这对中国传统思想文化有所触动。

During the Wanli period of the Ming Dynasty, the seven thousand missionaries of the Western Book, represented by Matteo Ricci, came to China to preach, and at the same time brought Western technology and culture. This has touched the traditional Chinese thought and culture.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 11:53, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

During the Wanli period of the Ming Dynasty, 7,000 missionaries represented by Matteo Ricci came to China to preach, and at the same time brought Western technology and culture. This has touched traditional Chinese thought and culture.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 12:01, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

4.洋务运动，又称自强运动，是19世纪60年代到90年代晚清洋务派所进行的一场引进西方军事装备、机器生产和科学技术以挽救清朝统治的自救运动。

The Foreign Affairs Movement, also known as the Self-Strengthening Movement, was a self-help movement conducted by the Foreign Affairs faction of the late Qing Dynasty from the 1860s to the 1990s to introduce Western military equipment, machinery production and science and technology to save the Qing Dynasty.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 11:53, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

The Westernization Movement, also known as the Self-Strengthening Movement, was a self-rescue movement carried out by the Westernization Movement from the 1860s to the late Qing Dynasty that introduced Western military equipment, machine production, and science and technology to save the Qing rule.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 12:01, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==

==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==

==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==

==Zhu Xu 朱旭==

==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==

==Zubareva, Ekaterina==

20201228 trans

2020-12-26T13:48:18Z

Lei kuangxi: /* Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪 */

==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==
'''Zhu Ziqing'''

A third example, where an author shows another face in his essays is Zhu Ziqing. He is known as the author of the most often reprinted story-like Chinese essay "''Back View''" (Beiying), a standard school text. The success of this essay lies in the fact, that it applies to filial pity. From the reported fare-well scene with his father at the train station, he learned that his father loved him and that he had grown-up too now.
==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==
This self-reflective essay helped Zhu to find himself through the observation of the other (here his father). The 2nd often printed essay is also from Zhu. Parallelistic and repetitive structures are the driving factor in the atmospherical nebulous lyrical landscape desription "''The Moonlit Lotus Pond''", whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader.

Zhu Ziqing supposedly opposed all political engagement and, wrote about unspectacular things. In Taiwan he became a type of substitute for the categorically refused state writer of the People’s Republic, Lu Xun, mainly because of Zhu’s supposed political independence.
==Chen Han 陈涵==
I would like to show with three examples that Zhu had absolutely clear political ideas: He had taken part in the demonstration March 18, 1926, which ended in a massacre. Zhu described this in ''"Report On the Massacre of the Government''"[ (Zhizhengfu da tusha ji).].

''Shots were still being fired, and the entrance of the east gate was packed with people. [...] Pushing and shoving, we climbed over them with great effort. We must have lost our senses then, not seeing, to our shame, the grotesqueness of our action. ''
==Chen Hui 陈惠==
''[...]I was still walking on top of the people. No one dared to miss a single step, filing through the gate that divided safety from danger, one that would give us life or take our lives away. [...] My efforts finally brought me down to the ground, sealing my fate as I rolled down from the human pile. [...] I learned later that some of the people by the gate were dead, killed by the pistol squad firing from the other side of the gate. When I recall stepping over dead bodies, I cannot help but tremble with fear. [...]''
==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==
From this experience, Zhu addresses directly the repsonsible political leaders:

''Duan Qirui, you must think about it! [...] How could we explain this to the world? [...] Granted, Duan Qirui and others could commit such atrocities without a thought; but how could we, the people of China, face the world with such a shameless government? [...] We, [...], must ask, „So many were killed—what should we do?“''
==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==
In contrast, Lu Xun has portrayed the same massacre with sighing undertone and Zhou Zuoren bitter-humorously in his "''Ways to die''"[ (Si fa).] - in which he finds "to be shot" the best method to die. The supposedly less politically engaged Zhu shows here more engagement.

The essay "''Facing the New China''"[ (Xin Zhongguo zai wang zhong).] is Zhu's political manifest: He asks for democracy, enlightenment and an increase of the education level.
==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==
''China has to be born again through democratization. [...] The people should express their own will, concentrate on their own strength. Every level of administration should build up on the expressed will and strength of the people and struggle for the majority and its greatest happiness. This means that the people govern, the people own, the people enjoy.''

A few weeks before his death, he demanded in the speech ''"Today's duty of the Intellectuals''"[ (Zhishifenzi jintian de renwu).] the participation of the intellectual in the struggle for a better society.
==Chen Sha 陈莎==
With only a handful of essays I have demonstrated, that the picture of these three authors changes substantially, if we read carefully also their less known essayistic work. Imagine now how the picture of 20th century Chinese literature might change, if the literary histories and anthologies would not only tell the history of drama, fiction and poetry, but would also grant the essay its proper place. The following part of my paper are results of my monograph on the 20th century Chinese essay.
==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==
'''The essay boom as a mirror reflecting growing individuality, participation in the public sphere, and the giddy-paced character of modern Chinese society'''

Acquiring an overview of the essay and assessing its essence has required extensive research in bookstores and libraries, in the People's Republic of China, Taiwan, Hong Kong and the United States for available resources in the form of essay book collections as well as secondary literature dealing with the essay.
==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==
I built a database for a statistical analysis to rank more than 5000 essays and 1400 essayists. It turned out that out of the top 60 most famous Chinese essays only 14 had been translated into English so far. The forthcoming collection of Tam King-fai adds 4 and my own one the remaining 42.

Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report[ (baogao wenxue) (Klaschka 1998).].
==Cheng Yusi 成于思==
The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous essay bookseries[ sanwen congshu 散文叢書.].

The reason for the increase in essay production, which we can date right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in the sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for the survey. There are three reasons for the increase in Chinese essay production and popularity in the mid-1990s:
==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==
1, The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts, as Hall has put it: “[...] we live in an age of exposition”[ (Hall 1984:xiii).].

2, The increasing consciousness of individuality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands.

3, A revival of interest in discussing socio-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.
==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==
If we look carefully at essay collections not only published in the United States, but also in Hong Kong, Taiwan and the People’s Republic, we find the following three reasons for the under- and overestimation of single essayists or essays which correspond to regional differences:

1, EXOTIC In the United States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones.

如果我们仔细观察在美国出版的，以及在香港、台湾和中华人民共和国出版的散文集，我们会发现以下三个原因导致人们低估和高估了回应地域差异的单个散文家或散文:

1、异国情调在美国，散文往往是根据西方人的口味来选择的，完全不知名的作者和老牌作家拥有一样多的空间。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 09:37, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

如果我们细细研读在美国出版的，以及在中国香港、台湾和大陆出版的散文集，我们会发现以下三个原因导致人们因地域差异而低估或高估了某些散文家或散文:

1、异国情调在美国，散文往往是根据西方人的口味来选择的，名不见经传的作者和著名的作家拥有同样多的市场。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling

==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==
2, SOCIO-POLITICAL In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, as the mentioned survey proofs, he ranks 12th among modern authors there. Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.

3, PERSONAL Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by his disciple Huang Weiliang in favor for Yu.[ (see Lin Yaode 1989:50).]

Having named reasons for the essay boom and for the support for and the suppression of different actors in the cultural field of the essay, I would like to finish my paper by naming a few trends of the essay as they appear at the eve of the century.
==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==
The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consumer-orientation of the masses. The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educational claim with the exception of essays which claim to be "art pourt l'art".
==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==
The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing ("''On dreams''"[ "Shuo meng 說夢" On dreams in: Zhu Ziqing 1928.]) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 ("''My own garden''"[ 9.1923.], "''The Fly''"[ 1924.], "''Reading on the Toilet''"[ 1936.]), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the newly encountered world of mass consumerism.
==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==
In the end of this century not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. Among the upper list places of the political essay after 1949 there are critical essays. For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain.
==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==
A sign for the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publishing houses with an orientation for customers (former: "readers"). Following the emotional essays of Zhu Ziqing who rank 1st and 2nd, ''nostalgia'' is the element of emotional identification in "''Wild vegetables of my home region''" by Zhou Zuoren, which ranks 3rd[ In Jia Pingwa's "Moon traces", which ranks 11, and in Ba Jin's "''Paradise for Birds''", which ranks 19]. Therefore one can state, that moving essays form the top.
==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==
In 1927, Chinese literature took the form of 'engaged literature'. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics in daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology. In the later half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of individuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife.
==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==
In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only remiscent element left is the patriotism.[ ''Trends like the use of ordinary language'', which one finds in novels since 1993 (''Jia Pingwa'', Feidu; ''Gu Cheng'', Yingger) and New Borderlessness since 1995, cannot be proven in the essaywriting.The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable ''object d'art''.]

上个世纪90年代，80年代的政论文随笔文化逐渐隐没了，唯一剩下留有想象空间的元素就是爱国主义。[“比如使用普通语言的趋势”，这是从1993年以来在小说中发现的（“贾平凹”）费杜，古格，英格）以及自1995年以来，《新无边际》都无法在论文写作中得到证明，我们之所以没有找到后现代小说意义上的后现代散文，是因为文章的直接性：随笔作为一种体裁，是作者和读者之间的对话，而不是想要引起不同解释的原因或可能依赖于特殊形式或内容甚至是按顺序引用前现代特征的艺术品，这使它成为一个与众不同的“艺术品”。]--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 13:06, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

'''References''' [partly mentioned with German translation] （不用翻）

Vera Schwarcz 1996, Vera Schwarcz, "The pain of sorrow: public uses of personal grief in modern China", in Daedalus: Journal of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (Winter 1996)

Ba Jin 1982, Ba Jin: "Yi feng huixin 一封回信" (Ein Antwortbrief (26.10.1982)), in: Bing zhong ji 病中集 (Auf dem Krankenlager), Hongkong 香港 1984(?) (Series Suixiang lu 隨想錄 (Thoughts) Bd 4), 147 pp.

Ba Jin 1982a, Ba Jin: "Yi pian xuwen 一篇序文" (Ein Vorwort) [dated 1982.9/10], in: Ba Jin: Auf dem Krankenlager 1984

Ba Jin 1956, Ba Jin 巴金: "Duli sikao 獨立思考" (Unabhängig denken), in: Li Jisheng 李濟生, Li Xiaolin 李小林 (Hgg.): Ba Jin liushi nian wenxuan (1927 - 1986), Suixiang lu, zagan, sanwen, xuba, yanjiang, shuxin 巴金六十年文選（１９２７－１９８６）隨想錄·雜感·散文·序跋· 演講·書信 (Ba Jin. Werkauswahl aus 60 Jahren (1927 - 1986), Gedanken, vermischte Gefühle, Essays, Vor- und Nachworte, Reden, Briefe), Shanghai 上海: Shanghai wenyi chubanshe 上海文藝出版社 (Literatur- und Kunstverlag Shanghai), 1986.12, S. 461 - 462 [Datiert auf 1956.]

Ba Jin 1962, "Zuojia de yongqi yu zerenxin 作家的勇氣與責任心" (Mut und Verantwortungsbewußtsein der Schrifsteller) 1962; der Essay von Zhou Zuoren 周作人: "Wenxue tan 文學談" (Über Literatur), in: Tan long ji 談龍集 (Über Drachen. Sammlung), Shanghai 上海: Kaiming shudian 開明書店 (Kaiming Buchladen) 1927.12, Nachdruck: Hongkong 香港: Shiyong shuju 使用書局 (Praxisverlag) 1972.1, 310 S., S. 165 - 167

Zhou Zuoren 1919, Zhou Zuoren, "Zuxian chongbai 1919 (Ancestor Worship)," in Early Essays, op.cit., pp. 78

Zhou Zuoren 1920: Zhou Zuoren 周作人, Xin wenxue de yaoqiu 新文學的要求" (The demand of the New Literature) [lecture], in Beiping shaonian xuehui 北平少年學會 (Beiping youth conference) 1920.1.6, in: Zhang Ruoying 長若英: Xin wenxue yundong shi ziliao 新文學運動史資料 (Material on the history of the New Literature movement), Shanghai 上海: Guangming shuju 光明書局 (Guangming bookstore) (1934.9) ²1936.9, 291-296

Zhou Zuoren 1923, Zhou Zuoren: Yanzhicao ba (Preface to Yu Pingbo's Yanzhicao), in: Yongri ji (Book of Eternal Day), Shanghai: Beixin shuju 1929, 180-181

Zhou Zuoren 1929, Zhou Zuoren: Ertong de shu (The books of children), in: Chenbao fukan (1923.8.17)

Zhou Zuoren yuanliu, Zhou Zuoren: Zhongguo xin wenxue de yuanliu (Sources of New Chinese Literature), p 71

Zhou Zuoren 1932, Zhou Zuoren: Lun baguwen 1932, in: Kanyun ji p. 148

Source: NEAAS annual meeting 10/09/1999 New Haven (Yale University)

==Guo Lu 郭露==
'''Modern Chinese Literature and the Essay Genre: A New Perspective'''

''Martin Woesler''

In this paper, I will not recount the contents and propose interpretations of any essays, nor will I outline the main topics or styles of essaywriting in China, but I would like to take the opportunity to reflect a little bit on the phenomenon of the genre itself and discuss some conclusions and hypotheses with the attentive and critical audience which can be found at only a few places on earth, EALC at Harvard definitely being one of them.

《中国现代文学与散文体裁：以新视角》

''吴漠汀''

在本文中,我将不再赘述任何文章的内容和提出的观点,我也不会列出其主要主题或风格,但是我想借此机会,反映一些现象本身的类型，并与包括哈佛大学学生在内的观众对一些结论和假设进行探讨。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:16, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

《中国现代文学与散文体裁：新视角》

吴漠汀

本文将不再赘述或解释任何文章的内容，也不会列出中国散文的主要主题或风格。我想借此机会，反思体裁现象，同乐于助人、至关重要且世间少有的读者，包括哈佛大学东亚语言和文化学院的学生，对一些结论和假设进行探讨。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:28, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==
'''1. The unknown genre'''

The literary-historical narrative told by anthologies and collections of the 20th century has drawn an incomplete picture of Chinese literature: The genre of the essay was lacking. In my paper I will ask, if the picture of literature can remain unchanged, if we take into consideration also the essay. The genre has been neglected for a long time as a genre of merit (Margouliès 1949, Schmidt-Glintzer 1990) or overlooked (McNaughton 1974, Leiden 1988-90, McDougall 1998);

'''1.未知体裁'''

二十世纪文选和选集里的文学史的叙述对于整个中国文学来说是不完整的：散文题材是缺失的。在我的论文里我将要探寻是否文学整个文学框架依旧保持不变，是否把散文体裁考虑进去。作为一种具有优势的体裁它已经被忽视了很久了。（马古烈 1949，施寒薇 1990）或者被省略（约翰·麦克诺顿 1974，莱顿 1988-90，杜博妮 1998）；--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 11:09, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

'''1.未知体裁'''

20世纪选集所讲述的文学历史叙事，描绘了一幅不完整的中国文学图景:：散文题材是缺失的。在我的论文里我将要探寻是否文学整个文学框架依旧保持不变，是否把散文体裁考虑进去。作为一种具有优势的体裁它已经被忽视了很久了。（马古烈 1949，施寒薇 1990）或者被省略（约翰·麦克诺顿 1974，莱顿 1988-90，杜博妮 1998）；--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 12:30, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==
whereas its elder brother, fiction, has been prized ever since the valuing of fictional literature and the vernacularisation of writing in early Republican China, which followed from the master narrative established by the May 4th movement. Modern anthologies would have the reader believe that a triumvirate of poetry, fiction and drama forms the backbone of modern Chinese literary output.
==He Changqi 何长琦==
'''Excursion: Defining the essay as a non-fictional subjective representation in a free form'''

Similar to international literature, the basic subdivision of literature in China in general is one in three types: epic (with xiaoshuo (fiction), sanwen (non-fictional prose)), lyrics (shige) and drama (xiqu). Though there is no pure epic form, fiction and prose are often jointly addressed with the Chinese term "wu yunwen" which corresponds to the term "epic" in the West. The types may be distinguished roughly by their nature in the following way: In the epic, bygone events are retold, a broad, filled story dominates the foreground.
==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==
In the lyrics, the reader is encouraged to feel the current sensations and often confessionlike feelings of the poet. The drama recalls a self-contained action directly in monologue or dialogue and in this way unburdens the re-creative imagination of the readers/spectators through it. The essay as a genre of the epic is a detached non-fictional subjective representation in a free form.
==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==
"Essay", Chinese mostly ''sanwen'', is a genre term for shorter, self-contained non-fictional prose texts, in which the author tries to mediate individual experiences on an object or a question out of subjective I-perspective. This it tries associatively and from different sides, not as a text for daily use, but with artistic or educationally demanding means of language, nevertheless in an accessible form. The resource is mastered by the essayist sovereignly and the topic is seen in a larger context and can even be presented humorously. Freedom in form and content is essential for the essay.
==Hu Jin 胡瑾==
Different perspectives range in the international genre of the essay: Genres are primarily divisions of literature through the scholarship of literature for specialized contemplation and in order to be able to compare similar texts more easily. On the other hand, a subcategorization in numerous small entities, like Zheng Mingli does with the essay, questions the sense of such subdivisioning in reference to hermeneutic findings. One must also stay aware of the changing nature of literature itself and the relativity of the scientific perspective, which is still a timely one, even if its accepted internationally.
==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==
Regional deviations seem less important for the essay than for established genres like short stories, novels etc., and far less important than for poems. All these other genres are seen as international genres. My hypothesis, that the Chinese and the Western essay also belong to the same international genre maybe proved by the crosscultural mutualities both in form and content.
==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==

In the 21st century, the world is growing together and culture is mainly determined by the grade of modernization. The Chinese essay, as we find it in newspapers today, has taken on the form and content of the Western essay and is aimed at a target group comparable to that of the Western essay. This is a second hint that the modern Chinese essay belongs to the international genre of the essay.

在21世纪，世界共同发展，文化主要决定于现代化的水平。今天我们在刊物上看到的中国散文，已经具备了西方散文的形式和内容，而且其目标群体与西方散文相当。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文类别的第二个暗示。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 07:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

在21世纪，世界上的国家趋向于走到一起，而文化则主要取决于现代化水平。正如我们从现今报纸里面看到的那样，中国散文采用了西方散文的形式和内容，而且其目标群体与西方散文相当。这是中国现代散文开始趋同于国际散文体裁的第二个标志。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 09:27, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

21世纪，世界在共同成长，文化主要由现代化程度决定。我们今天在报纸上看到的中国散文，在形式和内容上都与西方散文相似，其目标群体也与之相似。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文的第二个暗示。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 09:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

在21世纪，世界共同发展，文化主要决定于现代化的水平。我们今天在报纸上看到的中国散文，已经呈现出西方散文的形式与内容，并且其目标群体也与西方散文不相上下。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文体裁的第二个迹象。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 11:17, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Jiang Hao 姜好==
Even though the translation of ''duanpian xiaoshuo'' with ''short stories'' is commonly accepted, both are less closely related than the Western essay and its Chinese counterpart. The definition, which I developed out of a sample of more than 5000 modern Chinese essays, fits also the special international understanding of the essay (following Bolz 1992 13:269-272 on the development of the western essay; Butrym 1989 on the theory of the western essay).
==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==
Besides the trend towards a globalized society, first expressed in Zhou Zuoren's call to adopt the English essay style, there are special local characteristics of the Chinese essay. How is the Chinese essay to determine culturally, what makes it "Chinese"? In the occidental essay the form seems to be a more important criterion of differentiation than in its Chinese counterpart. In China even those texts are included, which have only a similar content, but cross the borders of the formal generical framework.

除了首先由周作人表达出来的社会全球化趋势，号召采用英语散文风格，中文散文有独特本土的特征。中文散文如何形成其特有文化，其中文性又由何组成？和中文散文相比，西方散文的文章形式似乎是更重要的分类标准。在中国，甚至有些文章内容相似，但形式和类别大相径庭。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 02:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

除了最初由周作人表达出来的社会全球化趋势，号召采用英语散文风格，中文散文具有独特的本土特色。中文散文如何形成其特有文化，其中文性又由何组成？与中文散文相比，西方散文的形式分类标准似乎更重要。在中国，有些文章甚至是内容相似，但形式和类别大相径庭。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:18, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==
This can be shown with Zheng Mingli, who subcategorises the "unfinished diary" or the "unfinished letter". Those texts belong - within the Western context - to texts of personal use and therefor to the non-fictional prose works. Only after they have been altered into essays (Zheng Mingli: "essay in diary form" and "essay in letter form"), they are accepted as essays.
==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==
'''The Chinese understanding of the genre is tendencially broader'''

This tendencial broader understanding of the essay in China can be traced back directly to the connotation, that the term ''sanwen'' possesses in Chinese: ''wú yùnwén'' "non-rhythmic prose", which originally meant all non-fictional prose. In this broader meaning, also texts for personal or everyday use are included. However I deal only with ''sanwen'' in the narrower meaning "short literary essay pieces".

Further differences are that Chinese essays often have ideological contents and show stylistic characteristics like repetitions and the usage of sayings.
==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==
'''The Chinese essay is booming again in the 1980s and 1990s'''

Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report (''baogao wenxue'').[ Klaschka 1998.] The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous ''sanwen congshu'' 散文叢書 (essay bookseries).
==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==
The increase in essay production right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in a sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for a survey.

Thanks to the work of some major Chinese editors, the whole essay culture was compiled from magazines and newspapers and was published in a flood of anthologies since the 1970s. This boom is comparable to the cultural fever of undigging xiangtu literature, which rose in Taiwan in front of the background of the movement of self-identification and independance.
==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==
'''2. Why is the essay as abundant as fiction?'''

Let me name a few reasons, why the essay in fact is as abundant as its prose brother, fiction, and its lyrical sister, poetry, and why it must be valued as highly:

- The essay had a direct impact on Chinese society throughout history (the reform ideas from the end of the Qing dynasty through the May Fourth period with the literary theorethical pieces and the daily political zawen of Lu Xun, until today are mostly presented in essay form). The impact on literary reflection and theory is shown in the collection "Modern Chinese Literary Thought" 1996. The effect of the essay genre with its direct language, its connection to life (e.g. its role in the coming to terms with the cultural revolution), and its direct access to the individual reader through newspapers. This impact is larger than the indirect one of fiction or poetry. The poem is the genre of retreat from social life, from political issues and time references.
==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==
Hu Shi argues, that ''poetry'' is most important in the process of modernity, since poetry rises emotions. But it relies also on images and on linguistic rhythm. Liang Qichao stresses the role of novel and opera in the changing society. But ''sanwen'' is able to name things, it reflects life, caleidoscopic. Modern subjectivity is constructed with the tool of ''sanwen''.

- The essay also reflects trends in the society better than poetry and fiction: Individualism is expressed in the essay more directly than in the poem with its limitation in content and form. Ephemerality is reflected in the short form of the essay, which may be read in the subway on the way to work, where poems may not be so spontaneously enjoyed.

胡适认为“诗”在现代化的过程中是最重要的，因为诗会升华情感。但诗歌依赖于形象和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏曲在社会变迁中的作用。但“三文”却能命名事物，它反映生活千变万化。现代主体性是以“三文”为工具来建构的。

-散文也比诗歌和小说更能反映社会的趋势。个人主义在随笔中表现得比在诗歌中更直接，但在内容和形式上都有局限性。短文的短暂性体现在短文的形式上，可以在上班路上的地铁里读，而在地铁里读诗，可能就不能那么随性的享受了。--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 13:48, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi

==Li Haiquan 李海泉==
- The essay reaches a larger part of the population than poetry, the amount of time spended on reading novels goes back, too. The essay itself a genre of high actuality, if not simply the genre of today.

- The essay tells us more about an author and his time than fiction or poetry, because in this genre, we encounter the author himself without metrical restrictions. We look trough authentic eyes on his contemporary society. Many authors turned to essay writing in the later periods of their lifes, like Lu Xun, Ba Jin, and Wang Meng.
==Li Lili 李丽丽==
- The volume of ''essay'' production exceeds the volume of ''xiaoshuo'' production: Chinese newspapers since the 1870s on[ Shenbao, Shibao etc. Liang Qichao sees the role of the newspaper both as liberal and authoritative: He understands the press as an institution to control the government, on the other hand he favors censorship.] and as a mass media from the early 20th century presented only one or two fictional stories in a serialized form, but invented essay columns like ''zagan'' (from which Lu Xun developed his ''zawen''), ''suibi'' or ''suixiang'' (from which famous collections like Ba Jin's ''Suixiang lu'' derived).

“随笔”的产量超过了“小说”的产量：从19世纪70年代开始，中国的报纸就在《申报》、《时报》等杂志上发表。梁启超认为报纸既自由又权威：他认为报纸是控制政府的机构，另一方面，他主张审查制度，作为20世纪初的一个大众媒体，他以连载的形式呈现一两个虚构的故事，但却发明了散文专栏，如“扎根”（鲁迅从中发展了他的“札文”）、“随笔”或“随想”（巴金的《随想录》就是从中衍生出来的）。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 12:54, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Lingyue 李凌月==
'''3. Let us assign the essay its proper place'''
The consequence which must be driven from the above presented contrast between value and valuing of the essay is: Let us assign the essay its proper place! I will describe the beginnings of the discovery of the essay.
Despite the increase in essay writing from 1979 on, it took a decade for the first theoretical reflections on this phenomenon to appear. It took another decade before the international scholarship of Chinese Studies became aware of the phenomenon of the essay.
==Li Liqin 李丽琴==

In the 1980s, Chinese scholarship made a first major approach to reflect on essay literature by writing essay histories and collecting papers, which concentrated first on the essayistic work of single authors like Lu Xun. Also two essay conferences in the 1990s showed no move towards international scholarship. Not before 1995 did international scholarship started to use common philological methods to explore single essayists (on Gaylord Leung [Liang Xihua] 梁錫華 Kubin 1995, on Wang Meng 王蒙 Woesler 1995, on Liu Zaifu 劉再復 Mansberg 1995 [unpublished]) or essays of groups (on 'Xīnyùe pài 新月派' Wagner 1996).

20世纪80年代，中国学术界首次以撰写散文史和散文集的方式对散文文学进行了重大的反思，这首先集中在鲁迅等单个作家的散文作品上。另外90年代的两次会议也没有趋于国际学术研究的动向。直到1995年，国际学术界才开始使用共同的语言学方法来探讨单个散文家（比如1995年Kubin的《关于梁漱溟》；Woesler的《关于王蒙》；Mansberg的《关于刘再复》[未发表]）或探讨某个群体的散文（1996年瓦格纳的《关于新月派》）。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 12:54, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Luyi 李璐伊==
Not before the second half of the 1990s, did a history of the Chinese essay using the means of Western philology appear (Woesler 1998) and for the first time, the essay was included in Western anthologies of literature as a genre equal to fiction and poetry (''The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature'' 1995, ''Modern Chinese Literary Thought'' 1996).

Regarding the valuing of essays in China, Taiwan and the West, there are regional differences: In the States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones.
==Li Meng 李梦==
In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, in my survey, which Chinese essayists are printed the most in the 1990s, he ranks 16th. If one only take modern authors into account, he even ranks 12th. Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by Huang Weiliang in favor for the first (see Lin Yaode 1989:50), and Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.

Still it remains a ''desideratum'' to get the most important Chinese essays in Western translation.
==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==
Currently at least three essay collections in English translation are in the reviewing process (Tam King-Fai, Woesler) or already published (Pollard 1999). Pollard's selection is a highly subjective and eclective choice of essays, covering even the premodern essay. This year, scholars will meet on a first international conference on the essay (Achern, Germany August 25-26). In the years to come, a new ''Bonn History of Chinese Literature'' will grant the essay its proper place with two to three volumes only dedicated to the ''biji, youji'' and other essays.
==Li Yu 李玉==
'''4. Taking into consideration the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature'''

I will give a few hints, what the essay can contribute to the picture of Chinese Literature, which so far is overshadowed by fiction through the narrative of C.T. Hsia, Prusek and Anderson.

We are used to established narratives, like the emergence and success of the May-Fourth literature. But this view neglects the role, that for example the ''yuanyang hudie pai'' played in the choir of different voices in the awoken intellectual debate in the beginning of this century.
==Lin Min 林敏==
The May-Fourth group at that time was one voice among many and only succeeded because of its agitation and polemic in the public sphere, so we have to use new means to assign the Chinese essay its proper place. We learn from simplifiying narratives, that it is absolutely necessary to differentiate, and to reconstruct the complex time background. Having understood Chinese literature as determined by the development of fiction and poetry only, a broader understanding will change the whole appearance of Chinese literature. A scholarly endeavour is the use of modern literary theories in the approach to this genre.
==Lin Xin 林鑫==
In the following, I will name three aspects (chronologically sorted by past, modern and contemporary time) to hold the argument, that the taking into consideration of the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature and change our current understanding of it.

'''5. The classical and premodern essay documents Chinese philosophy, early subjectivity and still, a native Chinese tradition is questioned'''

How is the Chinese essay to be positioned historically, how did it emerge, what is its generic background? Generically, the ancestors of the essay are both in China and the West notes written on the margins of books, they are letters and travel notes.

==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==
These notes differed from the canonized literature through its informal style, its expression of individuality und subjectivity, a much earlier document for subjectivity than the first autobiographical Chinese novel, ''The Dream of the Red Chamber''.

From the very beginning, the essay was valued lower than poetry: the oldest reference this far for the term ''sanwen'' that I found is Luo Dajing's 羅大經 (? - after 1248) statement from 1240: “Shī sāomiào tiānxià, ér sǎnwén pōjué suǒsuì júcù.
==Liu Bo 刘博==
詩騷妙天下，而散文頗覺瑣碎局促。” (Poetry is moving mankind in a wonderful way, prose inquires into incoherent bagatels, is limited.) (''Helin yulu''). Another reproach Luo Dajing mentions, is a formal one: In comparison to the highly artistic and century-long tradition of poetic writing, the direct and often vernacular langage of the essay in his eyes had less value.

In the West, a real 'art of the essaywriting' came up in the late 16th century as a medium for the newly reorganized knowledge.
==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==
The reorganization originated from the observations of Kopernikus, which destroyed the whole conception of the world of the Middle Age.

In China, particularly the debates on Buddhism in the 4th and 5th century A.D. saw the origination of a tradition of letters. The Chinese tradition of the ''sanwen'' 散文 (essay) however, in the understanding of sǎn 散 as (to dispel, leisure, loose, relaxed, irregular, independant style, free prose, can be seen not before the detachment from the dialogue - or aphorism, which is still visible in the philosophical ''Lunyu''.
==Liu Liu 刘柳==
Xunzi delivered the prototype of the later essay with his philosophical treatises. They are an early form of philosophical didactical essays, in which general theorems are derived not only from quotations of the canonized classical works, but for the first time also from his own individual experience. The individuality is still a main characteristic of the essay today.

During the dynasties the essay manifested itself further in certain subcategories: From reading-notes written at the paper margins originated the ''biji'' µ§°O (occasional notes), flourishing in the Ming Dynasty.

荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形，它们是哲学教学论文的早期形式。其中的一般定理不仅来自于经典著作的引用，而且第一次从他的个人经验中得出。个性仍是现今散文的主要特点。

历朝历代，散文在某些子类中进一步得以表现，如从写在纸边的读书笔记产生了明朝盛行的偶记。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 02:25, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形。其作品是哲学论教散文的早期形式，这些散文中传授的普遍定理不仅有引用经典著作，还首次借鉴其个人经历。这种个体性在当代的散文中仍有保留。

历朝历代，散文通过一些子类别得以呈现，如明朝盛行的在书页边上写的读书注释，它就是源于笔记。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 08:47, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Ou 刘欧==
The marginalism is a link between Western and Chinese tradition of early essays. Occasional notes could contain private historical notes, anecdotes, communications and contemplations. However, the consciousness of the essay as a genre of its own originated in China not before the Qing ²M dynastie, when numerous essay anthologies were compiled.

Taking into consideration the social-historical background draws a different picture of the old society than short stories and novels: Essays are much closer to real life, since they express individual problems and experiences.
==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==
Until now, the Chinese pre-''Hongloumeng'' individual literature spoke only through the indirect language of poems to us. Rediscovering the essays, we have a splendid source of opinions, social-historical pictures etc.

Premodern essay literature consists of much more than its most well-known example, the formally restrictive ''baguwen''. Lu Xun himself wrote some of his essays in ''baguwen'' style, but on the other hand took it as a synonym for the ancient society. Zhou Zuoren saw the rhythm of the language of the "Eight legged essay" as as appealing and intoxicating as the "pleasure of doing opium.'' (Zhou 1932:148).

目前为止，中国红楼梦前的个体文学还只是通过诗中的间接语言与我们对话。通过重拾散文，我们可以知晓不同观点和社会历史状况等文学创作的丰富源泉。
现代散文之前的文学并不限于形式上受限制的八股文，一方面鲁迅本人也有一些散文是用八股文写成的，但另一方面他又把八股文当作古代社会的代名词。周作人把 "八股文 "的语言节奏看作是 "做鸦片的快感 "一样令人陶醉。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 08:42, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

直到现在，中国前“红楼梦”的个体文学只能通过诗歌的间接语言与我们对话。重新发掘这些散文，我们可以拥有丰富的观点来源，社会历史图片等。

前现代散文文学不仅仅包括它最为人所知的例子，正式的、有限制性的“八卦文”。鲁迅自己的一些文章就是用“八卦文”写的，但是在另一方面又把它当作古代社会的同义词。周作人认为《八股文》的语言节奏就像“吸鸦片的快感”一样令人陶醉。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 09:07, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Yi 刘艺==
But he considered it also as a prevalent genre implicit in the modern writings as ''yang bagu'' (westernized bagu) and ''dang bagu'' (party-line bagu) (borrowing from Wu Zhihui, Zhou Yuanliu:71).

Neo-Confucianism stressed ''wen'' (prose) as the most important tool to transmit the ''dao'' (way): ''Wenyi zai dao'' (Literature as the carrier of the way). If we reinterprete this diction in the perspective of genre, we can say, that the essay then has been regarded as an important tool to express truth, subjectivity and Self.

但他认为这也是隐含在现代著作中的''洋包谷''（西化包谷）和''党行包谷''（借用吴稚晖、周远流的说法：71）的一种普遍的文体。

新儒家强调''文''（散文）是传播''道''的最重要工具：''文以载道''（文以载道）。如果我们从文体的角度来重新解读这句话，我们可以说，当时的散文已经被视为表达真理、主体性和自我的重要工具。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:01, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==
Liang Qichao developed a ''xīn wéntǐ'' 新文體 (new prose style), which was influenced by Western languages, but the essay became popular not before the newspapers became mass media, and the language changed into ''baihua''.

'''6. The essay as the medium of modernity, the questioning of the genuiness of the Chinese essay'''

To solve first of all the dispute on whether the Chinese essay grew out of a native tradition or was influenced by Western translations, one finds both traditions relevant: The occidental essay was introduced to the writers of the literature reform movement from 1907 on by translations in Chinese (Lin Shu: ''Irving'' 1907, ''Addison'' 1911).
==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==
The current form of the genre is mostly based on the influence of Western essay translations. First developed a Chinese essay tradition, which consciously leaned upon the Western model in language, form and terminology, its own proponents succumbed soon to the temptation to derive a tradition of the Chinese essay from Chinese history only. A seemingly unbroken Chinese tradition of the native Chinese ''wenyan sanwen'' is presented in Chinese textbooks (Yu Zaichun 1978-82, Li Xishang 1985).

This is older than the ones referred to in the ''Large Chinese Dictionary'' of Morohashi (Morohashi undated) and in the ''Encyclopaedic Dictionary of the Chinese Language'' 1966.

==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==
Still, the value of the native tradition of essay writing and the role of the Western influence upon it is discussed controversially among the scholars. Some admit that Western impact played a key role in what we understand as Chinese essays nowadays: Wang Bin 1992, Fan Peisong 1993; for Western impact in general see Průšek 1964, Gálik 1966, McDougall 1971. Other scholars think that Western influence is overestimated - Denton 1996 showed that the theoretical background was missing for understanding Western theories of literature in China, - and recommended that we understand the essay first by its national tradition.

然而，对于本土论文写作传统的价值以及西方对其的影响，学者们争论不休。有些人承认西方的影响在我们今天所理解的中国散文中起了关键作用:王斌1992，范培松1993;对西方总的影响参考。还有一些学者认为，西方的影响被高估了——Denton 1996表明，中国缺乏理解西方文学理论的理论背景，并建议我们首先从其民族传统来理解这篇文章。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:57, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==
How far personal opinion may influence the narrative of historical facts can be seen by the example of the legendary authors of the May Fourth movement. All of them considered the English essay as the father of the Chinese essay: Zhou Zuoren 1921, Lu Xun 1933, the anarchist and later member of the Guomindang Wu Zhihui [1934]. Later, some of these authors changed their minds to support their own theories on the essay by looking for proof of a native Chinese essay tradition:
==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==
for example, Lu Xun with his theory "'Zhǎnkāi' shuō yǔ 'méngyá' lùn “展開”說與“萌芽”論"" (Theory of "Starting" and "Blossoming") came to see the fighting and critical character of the essay of the Jin dynasty (265 - 420) as the 'father' of the Chinese essay, and Zhou Zuoren first the English essay (1921) and later the ''biji'' (occasional notes) of the Ming, although he still tried to integrate the English essay in his "Gonganpài yu Yīngguo xiaopin 'hecheng' lun 公安派與英國小品“合成”論" (Theory of the Synthesis of the Gongan School and the English Essay).
==Ma Juan 马娟==
Wang Zengqi regrets that the national Chinese tradition of the essay at the time of the 'May Fourth Movement' has not been taken up again and has not continued in contemporary essays (Wang Zengqi 1993). The Chinese essay is an accommodating object of study, because one may look to it to prove any theory of the essay. One can find examples for each topic in almost every period, simply because the essay has a wide range of subjects.
==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==
When Zhou Zuoren showed that only seven months after the incident at Marco Polo bridge it was again possible to write about a candy seller (1924), he was critizised as "paralyzing" (Lu Xun 1934, Zhu Zhaoluo 1943). When he wrote a piece on the "Fly", he was reproached with dealing with subjects of minor importance. Reproaches like this lie in the very nature of the genre, since ''marginalism'' is substantial to the essay. The mentioned formal reproach of Luo Dajing can be found again in the 1990s, Hong Kong students critisized the literary style as it appears in Ba Jins "Thoughts" (Suixiang lu) as too direct and too less artful. But this perspective does not recognize the very nature of the essay, which is a very individual expression of an author's thoughts and not bound to tradition, and therefore much more free also in content.
==Ma Zhixing 马智星==
The essay - from its very nature free and independant - almost disappeared in the time of the Cultural Revolution and - except for the ideologically influenced essays - had a hard struggle between Yan'an and the loss of moral legitimacy by the leadership in 1989.

The essay was ''the'' genre of the modernizing society of the early 20th century. Many writers had to define and often redefine their position and self-understanding in reaction to war and warlordism and later in the modernizing society, often burying their own ideals, in the larger perspective for the seeming "needs" of society, which also claimed the author to be one of its products.
==Meng Ying 孟莹==
But from its very nature, the essay set new boundaries in form and content, and therefore not only survived the ideological restrictions, but also established its own critical subculture within. The essay was not only a medium of discussion and a documentation of the social-political background for us today, but also a documentation of the personal struggle of the writers finding a position in a changing environment, since the essay is "a genre of self-reflection". Some essays even deconstructed master narratives like the one of leftist ideology, often simply by confronting it with subjective experience, reality or art.

I want to mention another position on literature, which stresses the impact of literature on life, especially on the eve of revolutions - following this view, all literature is political (Jameson).
==Mo Ling 莫玲==
Not only the understanding of literature as a whole changes if we take into consideration the essay, also the view of single authors shifts, if we see not only their novels or poems, but also their essays. I mention only Zhou Zuoren. His ideas connected him spiritually to his contemporary collegues in Europe, Japan and America, but these where ideas for which China turned out to be not yet ready. At that time, China had taken a road which led away from progress, wealth, freedom and spiritual enlightenment. The consequences have yet to be overcome.

除开关注作家的小说和诗歌之外，如果我们对他们的散文有所涉猎，就会发现他们不仅对文学整体的理解发生了变化，单个作者的观点也发生了变化。仅就周作人来说，他的思想在精神上把他和他在欧洲、日本和美国的同伴们联系在一起，但是这些设想在中国行不通。当时的中国走的是一条远离进步、财富、自由和精神启蒙的道路，这一现状还并没有得到改变。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:34, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling

==Mo Nan 莫南==
In 1927, Chinese literature has taken the form of 'engaged literature'. The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics of daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology.
==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==
Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consume-orientation of the masses. The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educational claim with the exception of essays which claim to be "art pourt l'art".
==Ou Rong 欧蓉==
The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing ("Shuo meng 說夢" On dreams in: Zhu Ziqing 1928) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 (My own garden 9.1923, "The Fly" 1924, "Reading on the Toilet" 1936), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the new found world of mass consumerism.
==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==
I mentioned the lack of translations in Western languages. One of the reasons might be the impression of some scholars that many of the Chinese essays were just propaganda. This might be true for the 1940s and even the 1950s, but nowadays this has changed, as the overwhelming majority of publications prove. This demands a closer look: Since 1949, politically affirmative literature has been encouraged by the government, resulting in a statistical paradox: not the affirmative authors and their texts form the majority of the essayists read in the 1990s, but the critical essayists, whose texts oppose the order to serve politics through their apolitical, sometimes even defiant character.
==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==
In the 1990s, the texts of 1920s/1930s Republican China are still as often reprinted as their contemporary counterparts. Obviously we can conclude that the politically affirmative essay of the 1950s only survived in special political essay collections and is no longer written by famous contemporary authors nor read by the Chinese audience in the beginning of the 21st century.

Taking into account of a genre shifts the whole perspective on literature, taking into account the essayistic works of an author shifts also the view of the author. I will name only one author as an example for a modern essayist: Zhou Zuoren.

20世纪90年代，20、30年代民国时期的文本和当代的文本一样也经常被重印。显然，我们可得出一个结论：20世纪50年代的那些政治宣传文只能留存在特殊的政治文章选集当中，到了21世纪初，就不再有作者去写这类文章，也不会有中国读者去看这类文章了。

考虑到整个体裁对整个文学角度的转变，以及散文作品反映出的作者观点的变化，我只举一位现代散文家的例子：周作人。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 07:47, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

20世纪90年代，20-30年代民国时期的文章仍然和当代的同类文章一样经常被重印。显然，我们可以得出一个结论：20世纪50年代的政治宣传类散文只保存在专门的政治散文集中，到21世纪初，不再有人去写，也不再有人读这类文章了。

一种文学体裁会转变整个文学的视角，一位作家的散文作品，同样也会转变对这个作家的看法。我只以一位现代散文家为例：周作人。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 09:02, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Peng Dan 彭丹==
'''Zhou Zuoren'''

I mentioned already his theoretical contribution to the Chinese essayism, but still, his essays have been neglected until the 1980s. The reason does not lie in literary quality, but in political valuing. The master narrative of the offical literary history of the People's Republic on Zhou Zuoren is, that the theoretical May Fourth genius "degenerated" and later became a "traitor". Publishing in the Japanese sponsored magazines ''Reminiscences'',* and ''Chinese Literature'', he was blamed together with Zhu Pu and Yuan Xi of collaboration. An unanswered question is, why another author, who published there, Zhang Ailing, was never reproached with collaboratorship. The difference between all of them is that Zhang Ailing tried to avoid political committments, whereas Zhou felt guilty, Zhu justified it and Yuan simply accepted it.
==Peng Juan 彭娟==
''The 'mainstream' writers took an affirmative approach in their writing, whereas the other writers formed a minority. The individual authors did not necessarily belong to either one of these groups throughout their life, but may have moved between them. Since the essay is a medium which enables the individual to express thoughts directly, the writers chosen for this paper can be classified according to their position.''

''Yu Guangzhong's essay'' "The wolves are coming" ''shows that the ideological perspective did not only harm mainland essaywriting.''
==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==
In his small literary pieces, Zhou tried to aesthetizise the little things of the everyday life out of the subjective experience of his private space. The major contribution of Zhou Zuoren is, that he set the turning point in Chinese essay writing with his call for writing short literary pieces (''Meiwen'' 1921).

In foreign literature there is the so-called ''lunwen'' 論文 (treatise), which is roughly divided into two groups: the reflecting ones, piping 批評 (critical), are scientific articles. The others are ''jishu'' 記述 (descriptive) and ''yishuxing'' 藝術性 (artistic), they are also called ''meiwen'' 美文 (aesthetic essay). Within these texts, one can distinguish between ''xushi'' 敘事 (narrative) and ''shuqing'' 抒情 (lyric). But there are also mixed texts. [...] I hope that the aesthetical essay is encouraged to come back, and will open up a new field for the New Literature. Wouldn’t that be wonderful?
==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==
With these words from the essay "''The aesthetic essay''" this new vernacular form was defined. This starting point founded a whole new tradition of essay writing in China. Contemporary writers called this piece the "king of essays".

In order to bring this new form to his compatriots, he tried to find similiarities with the ''xiaopinwen'' of the Ming dynasty. He further discussed these thoughts in his essay theory. In his own essays, he profited a lot from ancient ''suibi''. Later he further developed his literary theory towards an up and down of two trends. In the modernizing society, he advocated the liberation of women and asked to "treat children as full subjects with their own external and internal lives" and to "make children the essence of children's literature" (Zhou 1923). He promoted the ''baguwen'' and the independance of literature from politics and effected the literary scene and the development towards a modern Chinese society especially between 1917 and 1938.

“美学散文”中的这些词语定义了这种新的白话形式。这个起点在中国建立了一种新的散文写作传统。当代作家称此作品为“散文之王”。

为了将这种新形式带给他的同胞，他试图找到其与明朝“小品文”的相似之处。他在散文理论中进一步讨论了这些思想。他自己的散文也从古代的“随笔”中受益匪浅。后来，他将文学理论朝着上下两种趋势进一步发展。在现代化社会中，他呼吁解放妇女、“将儿童看作具有外在和内在生命的完整主体”以及“让儿童成为儿童文学的本质”（Zhou 1923）。他提倡“八股文”和文学脱离政治的独立性，这对文学界产生了影响，并推动了中国向近代社会尤其是1917年至1938年的发展。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 09:48, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==
With this theoretical foundation and his own vo'luÉminous essayistic work, Zhou Zuoren through the example of his own form of short literary pieces within this genre, fought at that stage of the development of his literary theory like Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque 130 years ago in France for the idea "l'art pour l'art" , for individuality and independance of the writer, for disinterested literature. The jugdment, that Zhou was an apolitical author cannot be proved with his essays. Instead, he wanted his abstinence of political statement to be understood as a political statement by itself. For him, literature was a mean not for revolution, but for resistance (Zhou 1929:180-181).
==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==
In fact he saw himself as ‘patriotic underground fighter’ and looked at the collaboration with the Japanese puppet regime as a forced one, following his attempted assasination, through which his driver had lost his life. His own concept of essay writing served less the needs of the building of a nation-state and comes closer to the ideal of the individual.

"I don't really know why, but I am feeling as if I am born into a dark age. I admit, that our forests are not inhabited by dragons, tigers and wolves, but shapeless "monsters" and "goblins" are still creeping around and try to swallow our souls. [...] What alarms me most, is the absence of freedom in this prison, into which we writers have been thrown."
==Qi Kai 漆凯==
Confronting tradition and progress in the essay "''Ancestor Worship''", he is in favor of the latter, since past could only become present through changes (Zhou 1919:7-8).

Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque (1767 - 1830) war französischer Romanschriftsteller und liberaler Politiker, der neben der Freiheit der Kunst nach der Französischen Revolution die Einführung der konstitutionellen Monarchie nach englischem Vorbild forderte.

==Qu Miao 瞿淼==
Siehe ''Journal'' (10.2.1804). Die "Kunst um der Kunst willen" propagierte die Zweckfreiheit der Kunst. Im Gegensatz dazu versteht sich die engagierte Literatur. Die Parallele zwischen Zhou Zuorens Literaturverständnis und dem Konzept "Kunst um der Kunst willen" zieht auch Wolff: ''Chou Tso-jen'' 1971, S. 84.

Siehe Zhou Zuoren: ''Der Ursprung der neuen chinesischen Literatur'' 1934, S. 95 - 98; vgl. auch Chen Zizhan: ''Vorträge zur chinesischen Literaturgeschichte'' 1937, Bd 3, pp. 416 - 422, besonders S. 422. Hinweis in: H. Martin: "''Liang Qichao on Poetry Reform''" 1996, Bd 1, S. 213.
==Quan Meixin 全美欣==
Regarding Zhou Zuoren, I want to correct the official assessment of the People’s Republic, that his work would have experienced a caesura in 1938. In order to explain his opposition of the propaganda to build up national heroes about 1937 and his collaboration from 1939, it has been said officially, that his thoughts had "duoluo 墮落" (degenerated) at that time (Zhu Jinshun 1990:59). In fact, this caesura, namely the change in the style and subject in his essays on literature, art etc. to ''zhengjing'' 正經 (serious, intentional essays), and ''xianshi'' 閑適 (essays for one’s own enjoyment) is located not before his outlawing through Mao Zedong (1942), and his arrest through the Guomindang (1945).
==Sagara Seydou ==
Therefore not the Japanese suppressors are responsible for the retreat of this great writer, but his Chinese compatriots'.

On the basis of the stigma of the 'traitor', he has been undervalued until now. That his work in the 1990s is almost as often published as Lu Xun's and Zhu Ziqing's shows that his texts finally experience a more positive literaric evaluation through the audience, which now must be registered also by scholars.

==Shi Diwen 石迪文==
Another example of a misread Zhou Zuoren is his short essay on "''The Fly''", where he describes his changing attitude towards flies, which he had played with as child but later disgusted when he learned about their danger of passing on diseases. ”''The fly''” shows Zhou Zuoren’s strength to describe details and make them a real topic by recalling memories on them or describing a change of perspective on them. Zhou summarized the philosophical wisdom he learnt from this, that people did not judge on things objectively, but were likely to praise or damn things.
==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==
The official reading re¬proaches Zhou that he "saw only the fly and not the cosmos" , a quotation of the young Zhou about a position he himself clearly opposed.

His ability to chat about the more pleasent things in life is displayed in his essay ”Birds’ twitter”. In ”''Peking cakes and sweet-meat''” and in ”''Wild vegetable of my home region''”, Zhou Zuoren shows his ability to make the reader feel at home at a region, where he feels at home himself, by describing the customs and special regional food.

Siehe Zhou Zuoren: "Cangying 蒼蠅" (Die Stubenfliege), in: ''Chenbao fujuan'' 晨报副镌 (Beilage zur Morgenpost) (1924.7.13). Eine Zu¬sammenfassung des Inhalts findet sich in: Yu Daxiang (Hg.): ''Auswahllexikon chinesischer Essays mit Inhaltsangaben und Analysen'' 1993.

''Siehe Vollständige chinesische Anthologie der Wissenschaften - Bd Chinesische Literatur'' 1988, Bd 2, S. 1300. Dies spielt auf den Essay "''Cangying'' 蒼蠅" (Die Stubenfliege), in: Zhou Zuoren: ''Zhi Tang. Sammlung'' 1933 an.（文献无需翻译）

==Si Yu 司妤==
His piece ”''Bitter rain''” shows the atmosphere, for what his essays had been labelled ”bitter tea”: There remains a taste in one’s mouth after reading. If you compare Lu Xun’s ”''On tea drinking''” (Yang/Yang 1961 3:325-326) with Zhou Zuoren’s essay with the same title, you see the difference of ”short and to the point” and ”eloquent and well-read”. ”''First love''” is more hilarious. The essay ”''Three different ways to die''” shows that Zhou Zuoren can compete with his elder brother in sarcasm. Lu Xun's essay on the same subject, the massacre on March 18, 1926, was a sight.
==Song Jianru 宋建茹==
Zhou asks for the ”best” way to die and favors the short and painless one. In ”''On alcohol''” and ”''The awning bunk boat''” Zhou Zuoren continues the tradition of late Ming ''biji''.

'''7. The essay as a snapshot of contemporary thoughts'''

''What is the state of contemporary essay writing in China? Its position should be brought into its proper relationship to recent approaches, perspectives and terms of categorization, like post-modernist elements, post-colonial thinking, deconstructivism etc.''

==Su Lin 苏琳==
The increase of the essay production after the ‘Cultural Revolution’ might be explained with the ability of the essay, to express personal experiences much more authentically than other genres because of its immanent claim of historical truth. But the essay is not a guarantee for objective truth: In the same time it is subjective, the essayist mediates his image consciously. This restricts the reported truth to a subjective one and bears the risk of a consciously “corrected” truth.
==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==
The individualism of the Republican era has been based on the common feeling to stand at a historical turning point and directed towards common targets like the creation of a New Literature and a new Chinese society. In the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, individualism asks for a critical reflection on the satisfaction of personal consumption needs and tries to give personal orientation, essayists plead for moral virtues (Wang Meng: "''Anxiang'' 安详" (Serene) 1992, "''Zuohao ni ziji de shi'' 做好你自己的事" (First make your own things in a good way) 1994).
==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==
These essays, mainly published in newspapers and magazines, are widely read by people in the rapidly changing, anonymous, alienating and consume-oriented mass cultural society.

Other essays in the 1980s and 1990s are in a kind of new subjectivism targeted away from contemporary contradictions but apply to the feelings of the audience by creating an either positive ("''Shanxi opera''", Jia Pingwa 1984) or negative world ("''The nightmare''", Si Yu 1995).

From the essay, we can see contemporary trends of literature, which are also reasons for the increase in volume of this genre in the 1990s:

==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==
- The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts: “[...] we live in an age of exposition” (Hall 1984:xiii);

- The increasing consciousness of indivi¬duality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjecti¬ve expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands;

- A revival of interest in discussing social-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.

- The banality of everyday life becomes conscious through becoming a literary topic, most commonly in the genre of everyday life, the essay.

- 当下中国社会的浮躁节奏，对转折性和短文的要求。"[...]我们生活在一个论述的时代"(Hall 1984:xiii)。

- 越发增加的独立意识，对其而言，文章是最直接的主体表达形式，甚至比诗的格律和形式要求更直接。

- 通过散文这一媒介讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复苏，就像20世纪20/30年代的情况一样。

- 日常生活的平庸性通过成为文学话题而变得自觉，最常见的是日常生活的文体--散文。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

-当前中国社会节奏轻快，要求有趣味的短文：“[…]我们生活在一个博览会时代”（大厅1984:xiii）；

-对于个人二元性意识的增强，散文是主体性表达的最直接形式，甚至比诗歌的韵律和形式要求更直接；

-通过这篇文章讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复复苏，如同20世纪20年代或30年代的情况一样。

-日常生活的平庸通过成为一个文学主题而变得有意识，最常见的是日常生活的体裁——散文。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 12:59, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Tang Bei 汤蓓==
- The De-ideologization of Chinese society. Today not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. The mostly read political essays after 1949 are critical essays.

- Regarding the compiling of essay collections: For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain.
==Tang Ming 唐铭==
This is a sign of the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publis¬hing houses with an orientation toward customers (former: "readers").

- The criteria for essay best sellers in the P.R. of China are the following: In the most often printed essay "''The Back View''", filial piety is the driving factor, parallelistic and repetitive structures in the atmospherical nebulous "''The Moonlit Lotus Pond''", both written by Zhu Ziqing, whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader.
==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==
Nostalgic home feelings are the emotional identification element in "''Wild vegetables of my home region''" by Wang Zengqi. Therefore one can state, that moving es¬says form the top.

- ''In the latter half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of in¬dividuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife. Time loses worth, since more and more of the daily acctivities are filled with mechanical and autistic actions.''

==Tao Ye 陶冶==
''In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only political replique is the patriotism, for example expressed in the 1996 published monograph'' China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war (''No''! 1996).

- ''The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable object d'art.''
==Wang Meiling 王美玲==
''Also trends like the use of ordinary language, which one finds in novels since 1993 (Jia Pingwa, Feidu; Gu Cheng, Yingger) and'' New Borderlessness ''since'' 1995, ''cannot be pro-ven in the essaywriting. ''

- Also the fictional realism David Der-Wei Wang sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proves helpful for the understanding of some essays, one being "''The Small Dog Baodi''", written by Ba Jin 1981, in which the author turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in allegoric instead of in descriptive truth as before ("''In memoriam of Xiao Shan II''", Ba Jin 1984).
==Wang Xuan 王轩==
Similar is the concept of imaginery nostalgia, as Wang calls the fictional truth in Shen Congwen's work (David Der-Wei Wang 1992), helpful for the reading of Wang Zengqi's "''Rain in Kunming''" as well as for Jia Pingwa's "''Shanxi opera''".
类似的还有想象怀旧的概念，正如王功权所说的沈从文作品中虚构的真实（王大卫·德维王1992），有助于解读汪曾祺的《昆明雨》，也有助于贾平凹的《山西剧》。

- The Schwarcz' concept of ''personal grief'' expressed in a ''metaphorical discourse'' helps us to understand how Ba Jin was able to overcome the ''truth of being'' he was known for, only to reach a more convincing fictional truth through the metaphor of his dog Baodi.
施瓦茨在“隐喻话语”中所表达的“个人悲伤”概念，有助于我们理解巴金是如何克服他以“存在的真理”而闻名的，却通过他的狗“宝坻”的隐喻而获得更具说服力的虚构真相。

Xin zhuangtai xiaoshuo 新狀態小說 new borderless fiction, represented by Chen Dong 韓東, Lu Yang 魯羊, Zhu Wen 朱文, Lin Bai 林白, Chen Liang 陳梁, Zhang Mei 張梅.（文献无需翻译）

''Post-colonialist thinking (Williams et al. 1994), which is to be seen as part of the social-political discourse, appears in essays, especially in the less critical political, but patriotic essays of the 1990s. Kafkaism helps us understand the essay "The nightmare", where Si Yu appears as a de-constructionist, the I-narrator even is drawn near to suicide.''（文献无需翻译）

And maybe for Xie Bingxins* reflections on her experience as one of the chosen voluntaries of the Wuhan military academy: She insisted to remain a lifelong "woman soldier" .（文献无需翻译）

==Wang Yu 王煜==
'''8. Discussion: Is the genre of the essay the form of literary expression in 21st century China?'''

Regarding the future of the Chinese literature, we can only speculate. But out the risk of being wild and provocative, I would like to suggest some questions for considering the place of the essay in the field of Chinese literature and literary studies.

- People have less time for actions like reading, and get used to reduced visualized information through the Internet. Will the brevity of the essay make it the ideal medium?

==Wang Yuan 王源==
- If the Chinese people are rediscovering their individuality, will the essay allow them to express individual thoughts more directly?

- Modern societies are characterized by TV culture, mass consumption, and the loss of consciousness of one's own tradition, often partly due to the American impact on national cultures. Is the essay less bound to the restrictions of tradition, especially compared to the poem and thus more adaptable to the modern phenomenon of mass consumption?

==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==
- The alienation and the anonymity of citylife worldwide, in China is combined with a loss of traditional values like ideology, family, solidarity etc. in favor of the concept of profit for oneself, - if this has produced a longing for new orientation, will it possibly be filled by morally guiding essays or nationalistic thinking?

《红楼梦》与其他世界文学作品的相似性——推荐《红楼梦》列入世界记忆遗产名录

'''Commonness between the Red Chamber Dreams and other World Literature Novels – Proposing the Red Chamber Dreams to the World Documentary Heritage List'''（修改）

吴漠汀，湖南师范大学 Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University

Source: Lecture at Harvard University, Cambridge, MA USA, 14.3.2000（文献无需翻译）
==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==
'''Abstract'''

In every culture, readers associate the literature they know with new literature they read. So literature is always cumulative, it grows out of existing literature and can refer back to it. When Western readers read the Red Chamber Dreams, they foremost associate novels and other pieces of literature of their own cultural tradition with the Dreams. This has also influenced the first full translation into German.

Cao Xueqin and even more his protagonist Jia Baoyu both are early humanists, universalists and world citizens. ''The Red Chamber Dreams'' function worldwide.

摘要

在每一种文化中，读者都会把他们读到的新文学与已知文学联系起来，所以文学总是积累的，它从现有的文学中生长出来，并以已有文学为参考。西方读者在阅读《红楼梦》时，首先会把《红楼梦》与自身文化传统中的小说和其他文学作品联系起来，这也影响了首次德语全译本。

曹雪芹，尤其是他的主人公贾宝玉，都是早期的人文主义者，普世主义者和世界公民。《红楼梦》具有普世价值。（修改）

在每一种文化中，读者都会把他们读到的新文学与已知文学联系起来，所以文学总是积累的，它从现有的文学中衍生出来，并以已有文学为参考。西方读者在阅读《红楼梦》时，首先会把《红楼梦》与自身文化传统中的小说和其他文学作品联系起来，这也影响了首次德语全译本。

曹雪芹，甚至于他的主人公贾宝玉，都是早期的人文主义者，普世主义者和世界公民。《红楼梦》具有普世价值。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:09, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==
''The Dream'' is a complex showroom of diverse aspects of Chinese cultures and is the embodiment and essence of Chinese cultures, but it has also a global impact, therefore it should be honoured as “World Documentary Heritage”.

红楼梦》综合展示了中国的多元文化，是中国文化的集中体现和精华，同时在全球范围内产生影响，理应列入世界记忆遗产名录。（修改）

多元一体

'''Key words'''

Western culture, reception tradition, German translation, Embodiment of Chinese cultures, global compatibility, World Documentary Heritage

“红楼梦”是一个多元的中国文化综合体，是中国文化的体现和精髓，但它也具有全球影响力，因此应该被授予“世界文献遗产”的荣誉。（修改<nowiki>Insert non-formatted text here</nowiki>）

多元一体

'''Key words'''

Western culture, reception tradition, German translation, Embodiment of Chinese cultures, global compatibility, World Documentary Heritage
--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 10:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

《红楼梦》是一个中国文化综合体，展示着中国文化的精髓的同时也极具全球影响力，理应被列入世界记忆遗产名录。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:00, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==
'''1. Chinese Ethics'''

To help the poor and disadvantaged belongs to the traditional core values of Chinese culture.

When we sit in the Beijing Subway today, the loudspeaker announcement reminds us, that it is Chinese traditional ethics to give seats to the disadvantaged (老弱病残孕让座是中国传统道德). We know of Cao Xueqin, that he supported the poor and disadvantaged, and that he made kites for children.

However, when we look closer at these “Chinese Ethics”, we discover, that they are claimed also in Indian Buddhism “karuna” and in the Christian tradition of “caritas” and in almost every civilization. Therefore, we might call these values “human ethics”.

==Wu Kai 吴恺==
'''2. Compatibility
'''
Why do the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' function worldwide and have achieved world literature status even in their translations?

First of all, the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' are, like novels worldwide, a piece of entertainment literature. In comparison to the drama, in which every element is compulsory and plays its part in the overall structure, in the novel the line of action itself is simpler and not so important, most of the scenes or episodes are loosely put together and fit in the broader theme of the novel.
==Wu Qi 吴琪==
However, the lose arrangement of episodes of the ''Dreams'' comes from the tradition of almost unconnected episodes like in the ''Shuihuzhuan'' and is a step towards the greater coherence of the episodes, the aligning into a story line and the greater concentration on fewer protagonists. Therefore, the ''Dreams'' show clearly a step towards the Western tradition of novels, maybe because of growing Western influence in Qing dynasty.

'''3. Impact of translator’s native culture on the translation process'''

There are intercultural parallels between the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' and Western works of literature.
==Wu Qiong 吴琼==
These parallels are fundamental for the translation and were explicitly and implicitly fundamental for the German translator Martin Woesler during his translation and editorial work on the first full German translation. In the following, I will mention some of the Western novels and pieces of literature, which the Western reader of the ''Dreams'' will immediately think of.

'''4. The novel as embodiment of “Zeitgeist”'''

According to Georg Lukács’ ''Theory of the Novel'', while the Epos (like Homer’s ''Ilias'', which like the ''Dream'' reasons the stories in the divine realm) displayed a holistic world experience, a complete, self-contained culture, the novel displays, that the modern world has become infinitely large and has lost its homely quality.
==Wu Xiang 邬香==
The novel as a genre is no longer documenting just one culture, but represents, with the words of Walter Benjamin, the Organon of History. So the understanding of the novel changed with Lukacs to historical-philosophically. A novel is understood as typical for its historical era, the novel embodies the spirit of the epoch (Zeitgeist).

The ''Red Chamber Dreams'' are written in front of the background of the Manchu minority having taken over the power in formerly Han-shaped Ming-China (which was a multi-ethnic and crosscultural society) and families suffering the changing favor of changing emperors, with the Cao family being fostered by Kangxi and being persecuted by Yongzheng.
==Wu Yilu 吴一露==
While the author in his time could not criticize the system and power of emperors, in the novel he came to terms with this life by seeking the guilt for the persecution in the growing decadence of the family (engaging in Daoism, leisure, poetry-writing, arts and music instead of learning for being able to earn a living) and in himself not fulfilling the expectations as the family heir. This description of decadence of a declining family reminds us of the novels of Tschechov (and e.g. in the ''Buddenbrooks'' by Mann, including the turn to arts and music).
==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==
Moreover, with the detailed description of life on all social levels in early Qing Dynasty, the Dream appears as a documentary historical novel very much like Günter Grass’ The Tin Drum 1959.

'''5. Coming-of-age and Alienation'''

Abandoning the paradise-like garden in the Red Chamber Dreams is a symbol for leaving the protected childhood and arriving in the complex world of adults. With George Lukács theory of the novel, the protagonist starts to problematize the sense of his life, in the novel, the protagonist’s self permanently struggles with his environment.
==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==
However, Cao Xueqin’s message is not simply the one of “Paradise Lost”, instead he himself made the best out of his life. Although being less wealthy than when his family still enjoyed the favour of the emperor, there was a payroll system and a social net intact in Early Qing China, where he received enough income to be independent from his rich relatives, to be selective on accepting jobs, to live a relaxed life in a small house in the nature, spending time with his family and friends, follow his own interests, like reading, writing and drinking wine, making kites for the children and thinking of the disadvantaged.

然而，曹雪芹的信息不仅是“失乐园”的信息，而是他本人的一生。尽管不如他的家人仍然享有皇帝的宠爱时富裕，但清初中国有一个工资体系和一个完整的社会网络，在那里他获得了足够的收入以独立于自己的富裕亲戚，可以有选择性地接受工作在大自然的小房子里过着轻松的生活，与家人和朋友共度时光，遵循自己的兴趣，例如读书，写作和喝酒，为孩子们放风筝和思考处境不利的人。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:38, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

==Xiao Ting 肖婷==
Cao Xueqin was fully aware of his time and China’s cultural achievements, he was familiar with the different levels of society, he was a detailed observer and skilful narrator. He may have conceptualized the ending of the novel as a discussion about the different personalities of the characters in the novel and therefore displaying his reflection about life and his psychological understanding of the diversity of human nature. He was able to grasp the “spirit of time” (Zeitgeist) and with his autobiographical experience create an eternal coming-of-age novel not just for his family, for the Qing-Chinese, for Chinese people, but for mankind.

曹雪芹对自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就有充分的认识，他熟悉社会的方方面面，他观察细致，叙事娴熟。他能把小说的结尾构思为对小说中人物不同性格的探讨，从而体现出他对人生的思考和对人性多样性的理解。他能够把握 "时间精神"(Zeitgeist)，并以他的亲身经历为材料创造了一部成熟的绝世之作，这不仅是为他的家庭、为清人、为中国人，更是为全人类。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 11:29, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

曹雪芹充分了解自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就，熟悉社会的不同层次，是一个细致的观察者和娴熟的叙述者。他可能将小说的结局概念化为对小说中人物不同性格的讨论，从而表现出他对生活的反思和对人性多样性的心理理解。他能够把握“时代精神”(时代精神)，并以他的自传体经历，为他的家庭，为清朝人，为中国人，为人类创造了一部永恒的成长小说。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 12:01, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

曹雪芹对自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就了如指掌，他熟悉社会的不同层面，他是一个细致的观察者和娴熟的叙述者。因此，他在小说中对人的不同个性的理解和对小说中人物性格的多样性进行了概念化的探讨。他能够把握“时代精神”，用他的自传体经历，不仅为他的家庭，为清朝的中国人，为中国人民，而且为人类，创作了一部永恒的成人小说。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:43, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

==Xiao Xi 肖茜==
This tradition of Coming-of-age novels is also a European one, like enlightenment philosopher Voltaire’s novel ''Candide or Optimism''《老实人》shows at the very same time (1759) in Europe. Also Voltaire’s Candide has to leave the luxurious paradise of his childhood and strives for true love, but his main learning is more pessimistic, since Voltaire wrote the novel in opposition to Leibniz, who optimistically looked to China as “the best of all worlds”. Recent research findings show that China had a much larger influence on European enlightenment philosophers and we can be sure, that also Cao Xueqin was aware of some European literary traditions.
==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==
Also the German readership is familiar with the chronological following of the life of the protagonist and his development, the fate of a family over generations, the German readership knows this type of novel as the “Education novel” or “Coming-of-age-novel”. In Germany, the genre of the coming-of-age novel has a long tradition and it is shaped more by single characters, who appear as teachers (Goethe: ''Wilhelm Meister’s Apprenticeship''威廉·麦斯特的学徒岁月 1795-96, Novalis 诺瓦利斯: ''Heinrich von Ofterdingen''《海因利·封·歐福特丁根》1802).
==Xie Fan 解帆==
Wilhelm Meister, parallely to Jia Baoyu, is struggling with the traditional education, in ''Wilhelm Meister'' this is represented with the classics revived in Shakespeare’s dramas. Tradition can give orientation, but the personality of the protagonist needs to develop through emancipation is a wisdom, we can learn from all mentioned novels including the ''Dreams''.

'''6. Pornography and True Love, female rivals'''

Sexuality is a basic human need and has developed into different shapes in all cultures. The German audience is familiar with erotic topics from the Middle Ages, in which sexuality was stylized. In the “Schwänke” of the 15th century (Wittenwielers Ring), erotic scenes are described sexually explicit.

与贾宝玉一样，威廉·迈斯特也在与传统教育作斗争，这通过莎士比亚的经典戏剧得以体现。传统可以作为方向标，但主人公的个性需要通过解放才能发展，这是一种智慧，我们可以以上提过包括《梦》的所有小说中学习。
“6.色情与真爱，女性对手"
性是人类的一种基本需求，在不同文化中展现出不同的形态。德国观众熟悉中世纪的情色话题，在这些话题中，性是有固定程式的。在15世纪的“Schwanke”(Wittenwielers Ring)中，情色场景被描述为露骨的性。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:37, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

与贾宝玉一样，威廉·迈斯特也在与传统教育作斗争，在《威廉·迈斯特》中，莎士比亚戏剧中复兴的经典作品代表了这一点。传统可以给予导向，但主人公的个性需要通过解放来发展是一种智慧，我们可以从包括《梦》在内的所有小说中学习。
“6。色情与真爱，女性对手"
性是人类的一种基本需求，在各种文化中形成了不同的形态。德国观众熟悉中世纪的情色话题，在这些话题中，性是程式化的。在15世纪的“Schwanke”(Wittenwielers Ring)中，情色场景被描述为露骨的性。--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 01:37, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==
In the barock literature of the 17th century even the physical act is described extensively.

According to „cumulativity“, every human being is a product of history and literature is based on previous literature, therefore the author of this pager thinks that this background has to be taken into account while translating.

The best study on ''qing'' passion in the Dreams is the one by Anthony Yu, who understood it as ''desire'' and as the central motif of the ''Dreams''. „The centrality of qing in shaping virtually every aspect of The Story of the Stone’s structure and meaning cannot be denied [...].“ (Anthony Yu 2001, 54).

==Xu Jia 徐佳==
In the framework story of the Dreams, the narrator consciously takes a stand against low-action and stereotypical pornographic literature as well as against the widespread romance novels (with the classic roles of the beautiful, talented woman and the poor scholar who finally achieves a respected position and prosperity by passing a civil service exam).

In chapter 1 he says: ”of the true feelings of young people [...] nobody has reported about so far.”

Erotic scenes are described in a decent and associative way (“Game of clouds and rain”), while displaying another quality in its openness e.g. towards bisexuality.

==Xu Jing 许晶==
The ''Dreams'' narrate the story of unfortunate lovers. Unfortunate lovers also in the West have a literary tradition, they constitute an archetype, such as Hero and Leander, Pyramus and Thisbe, Tristan and Isolde, Flore and Blanscheflur as well as Troilus and Cressida, the latter being considered the model for Arthur Brookes, who wrote Romeo and Juliet in 1562 and thus directly influenced Shakespeare.

While Marián Galik saw as the central topic of both, the ''Dream'' and ''Faust'', the eternal feminine, which draws us on high, Gu Cheng called it the “eternal virgine”.

==Xu Jing 许静==
In Goethe’s coming-of-age novel ''Wilhelm Meisters Wanderjahre'', we find a similar motif of female rivals, in the Keller 凯勒 ''The Green Henry'' 《绿衣亨利》1855, the hero turns away from an emphatically sexually designed figure and turns to the 'real' woman. In Jane Austen’s ''Pride and Prejudice'' 1813 Elizabeth and Lin Daiyu are similar, e.g. they both strive for real love (Zhuang 2011).
==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==
'''7. Feudal society and slavery'''

A widespread interpretation is that Jia Baoyu’s equal treatment of family members and slaves would be a manifesto to free the slaves. I also do not share this interpretation, since Aristotle, when he demanded democracy, would exclude slaves from the right to vote. So we cannot use modern concepts to judge on the past. In my understanding, Jia Baoyu was not fighting inequality, but looked at the people as humans and individuals.

封建社会和奴隶
一种普遍的解释是，贾宝玉对家庭成员和奴隶一视同仁，这将成为奴隶解放的宣言。我并不同意这个解释，因为亚里士多德的民主就排除了奴隶的投票权。所以，我们并不能用现代观念去评判过去。在我看来，贾宝玉并不是和不平等作斗争，而是把人视作群体和个人。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 09:55, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie

一种普遍的解释是，贾宝玉对家庭成员和奴隶的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我也不同意这种解释，因为亚里士多德，当他要求民主的时候，会排除奴隶的投票权。所以我们不能用现代的概念来判断过去。在我的理解中，贾宝玉并不是在与不平等作斗争，而是把人看成是群体和个人。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 10:31, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==
Also the understanding of the servants as slaves does not match the description in the Dream, since some servants had servants themselves, the family took care after they left the Jia family to find a match for them and Jia Zheng refers to his daughter Yingchun as „yatou 丫头“, so it is inappropriate to translate this expression with slave. Therefore, the translator preferred “servant” over “slave” in the translation.

另外，把仆人理解为奴隶也与《红楼梦》中所描述的不符，因为有些仆人自己也有仆人，他们离开贾家后，家人会照顾他们，为他们婚配，并且贾正把女儿迎春称为“丫头”，所以用奴隶来翻译这个词是不合适的。因此，译者在翻译中更倾向于“仆人”而不是“奴隶”。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 09:14, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

而且把仆人理解为奴隶与《红楼梦》中的描写不符，因为有些仆人自己还有仆人，贾府会在她们离府的时候为她们寻一门亲事，作为贾府对她们的照料；贾政也把自己的女儿迎春喊作 “丫头”，所以把这些翻译成奴隶是不合适的。因此英文翻译中采用“servant”会比“slave”更为合适。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 10:08, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie

==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==
Mo Yan in his speech at the Frankfurt Bookfair in 2009, when China was the guest of honor, draws the (similarly) parallel between the ''Dream'' and Goethe’s ''Sorrows of the Young Werther'', that both expressed the wish to abandon feudal society. My own impression is that both do not express this wish, but that this is a later concept and interpretation and we should not apply this to judge the past.

2009年，莫言代表中国作为主宾国参加法兰克福书展时，他在演讲中把《梦》和歌德的《少年维特之哀》画上了约等号，表达了抛弃封建社会的愿望。我自己的印象是，两者都没有表达这个愿望，但这是后来的概念和解释，而我们不应该以此来判断过去。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:36, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting

2009年，莫言代表中国作为主宾国参加法兰克福书展时，在演讲中把《梦》和歌德的《少年维特之哀》画上了约等号，表达了抛弃封建社会的愿望。我自己的感觉是，两者都没有表达这个愿望，但这是后来的概念和解释，我们不应该以此来判断过去。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:43, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Hairong 杨海容==
'''8. Tragedy of all tragedies'''

Aristotle explained in ''On the Tragedy'' (Poetics VI), that tragedies move people more than comedies because they “imitate [mimēsis] an action that is serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude” (Aristotle 1971, 51), This high esteem of the tragedy in Europe is partly ascribed to the loss of Aristotle’s work ''On the Comedy''.

==Yang Hui 阳慧==
While Europe has the Hamlet as its tragedy of all tragedies, the lack of tragic literature in Chinese literary tradition has long been lamented. Wang Guowei sees the Dream as "tragedy of all tragedies". To Wang Guowei the suffering of Faust and Jia Baoyu is central in the novels. However, many scholars contest that Faustianism is central for Chinese culture.

In 18th century Europe, we saw a new development in the genre of the drama, to establish a “bourgeois tragedy”.

==Yang Yi 杨逸==
It developed as an emancipatory movement in the 18th century in London, Paris and Germany, and demonstrated that tragedy was not reserved to rulers, but was also imagineable for lower noblemen and ordinary citizens. The ''Dream'' at the same time as the bourgeois tragedy in Europe shows a tragic story of a mid-level noble family which loses its titles and privileges.

==Yang Yue 杨悦==
'''9. “Non-Binary” Novels'''

One of the things attracting Western readers is the adorable but mysterious protagonist Jia Baoyu. With his open bisexual orientation and his interest in his mates regardless of their social status, he appears “modern” or at least displaced in time. His struggle with traditional learning makes him appear sympathetic, his long states of rapture out of the world give him both the aura of a timeless character and of mystery.

==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==
With the bisexual orientation of the Dreams’ protagonist, the novel appears non-binary.
According to Karl-Heinz Pohl, binaries are just superficial, ultimately decisive is the ''Heart Sutra''. Today, the novel is listed among the genre of non-binary literature (see e.g. the bibliographical list on https://www.goodreads.com/list/tag/non-binary), in which contrasts are dissolved deconstructivistically.

==Yao Cheng 姚诚==
'''10. Foreign Cultures in the Red Chamber Dreams'''

Foreign Cultures frequently appear in the Dreams in all kinds of varieties, like exoticism with the many objects in the household and presented to the household as novelties, especially the blond girl of the same age as Baoyu referred to in person (combining different origins and cultures, including European, Japanese, Chinese) or several times on paintings, one time shown with wings as an angel.

==Yao Jia 姚佳==
The playful combination of different traditions we can see also when a religious dress is described, which carries characteristics of different religions. Similarly, the Daoist monk and the Confucian priest appear together. Cao Xueqin wanted to show the richness and diversity, also with the many topics and societal levels of the novel. Even a variety of Christian motifs can be found, like when Jia Baoyu is not recognized by his father in chapter 120 and when he disappears, all parallel to Jesus Christ.

==Yi Huan 易欢==
The variety of cultures is paralleled with the variety of elements of different dynasties, which makes it timeless and therefore even more a masterpiece of Chinese art and a masterpiece of human art. Therefore I would like to nominate the Red Chamber Dreams as “World Documentary Heritage”.

'''References'''（参考文献不用翻译）

Anthony, C. Yu. (2001). ''Rereading the Stone: Desire and the Making of Fiction in Dream of the Red Chamber''. Princeton University Press.

Aristotle. (1971). ''Poetics''. Trans. S. H. Butcher. Ed. Hazard Adams. Critical Theory since Plato. ew York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 48-66.

Woesler, Martin, ed., Cao Xueqin, Gao E et al. (2016). ''Der Traum der Roten Kammer oder Die Geschichte vom Stein'' [''Red Chamber Dreams or The Story of the Stone''], Peking: Foreign Languages Press, ISBN 9787119094120, 4813 pages, 6 vols., hardcover, transl. by Rainer Schwarz and Martin Woesler; Chinese-German bilingual edition

Woesler, Martin. (2011). “Being Explicit About the Implicit – John Minford’s Translation of the last Forty Chapters of The Story of the Stone with a Field Study on two Sexually Arousing Scenes”. ''Hong lou meng xue kan'' 6: 274-289

Woesler, Martin. (2010). “ ’To Amuse the Beaux and Belles’ The Early Western Reception of the Hongloumeng”. ''Journal of Sino-Western Communications'' 2 (2010.12) 2:81-107

Zhuang, Xiuhua. (2011). Self, Ideal and Salvation: A Comparative Study of Jane Austen’s Elizabeth and Cao Xueqin’s Lin Daiyu. ''Journal of Language Teaching and Research'', Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 420-423, March 2011. Fulltext: http://www.academypublication.com/issues/past/jltr/vol02/02/19.pdf.

==Yi Zichu 义子楚==
'''Virtual Communication Between Machines with the Human as Their Object
'''

A new stage of multimodal communication after oral, written, printed, electronic and machine-human communication

Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University

'''Abstract'''

Luhmann and Baecker described the development of communication from orality (media epoch 1.0) to script (2.0), through print (3.0) and finally to digital communication (4.0). In all these stages, technology played only an assisting role.

==You Yuting 游雨婷==
This paper argues, that there is a fundamentally new media epoch of “virtual communication” (communication 5.0), in which artificial intelligence (initialized by humans) has taken over and humans have become the object of analysis and manipulation (as customers, voters etc.).

Algorithms do not only listen to oral or read written human communication (between humans or between humans and bots), but they analyze multimodal communication (including likes, behaviour, surfing habits, mobility profile, values, dreams, aims, beliefs etc.), compare them with Big Data (e.g. cloud data) and base decisions of manipulation on a prediction of behavior according to a personality profile and correlations.

本文认为，“虚拟传播”(5.0传播版本)是一个全新的媒体时代，在这个时代，人工智能(由人类初始化)已经接管，人类成为分析和操纵的对象(如顾客、选民等)。

算法不仅听人类口头或书面沟通(在人类之间或人类和机器人之间),但他们分析多通道通信(包括喜欢、行为、上网习惯,流动剖面,价值观,梦想,目标,信念等),比较他们与大数据(例如云数据)和基础操作的预测行为的决策根据个性特征和相关性。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 12:34, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yu Ni 余妮==
These algorithms target not only the explicit communications, but the emotions and thoughts of humans too and predict future behavior, therefore allowing simulations of reality. Mightier algorithms have also taken over decision-making roles in societies where they: replace human court decisions, fine tune just-in-time and on-demand production, censor chatrooms etc. Sets of algorithms help to manage smart cities and a whole society.

----
==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==
Although the human is still part of the communication, especially as the analyzed object and the target of the manipulation, the human is often unaware of the virtual communication and a passive receiver of the machine’s decisions, while the main actors in the virtual communication are machines.

虽然人仍然是通信的一部分，特别是作为被分析的对象和操纵的目标，但是人往往没有意识到虚拟通信和机器决策的被动接受者，而虚拟通信的主要参与者是机器。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 08:55, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

尽管人类仍然是交流活动的一个组成部分，特别是作为被分析的对象和操纵的目标，但是人类往往没有意识到，自己是虚拟沟通和机器决策的被动接受者，而虚拟沟通的主导者是机器。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:11, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

虽然人仍然是构成通信的一部分，尤其是作为分析对象和操纵目标，但人往往没有意识到人们在虚拟通信中扮演机器决策的被动接受者，而机器才是主要参与者。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:42, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==
Research describes these forms of virtual communication, finds evidence in social management systems and credit systems (in Germany, we have the “Schufa”, in the USA there are big players in credit history, which leads to credit-orientation and gamification of human life) or customized (fake) news filter bubbles and in customized consumption offers (Amazon, Facebook, Google, Netflix) and analyzes benefits, including security enhancements through such virtual communication.

研究对这些形式的虚拟沟通进行了描述，在社会管理系统、信用系统（定制的（虚假）新闻筛选泡沫）和定制的消费商（亚马逊、脸书、谷歌、网飞）里面找到了证据（德国有“Schufa”，美国则因为信用史有重大人物而使得社会信用至上并日趋游戏化），并对益处加以分析，这些益处包含通过这类虚拟沟通提升安全。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 09:20, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

研究描述了这些虚拟通信的形式，在社会管理系统和信用系统中找到证据（在德国，我们有 "Schufa"，在美国有信用记录的大玩家，这导致了信用导向和人类生活的游戏化）或定制化（假）新闻过滤气泡，以及在定制化的消费优惠中（亚马逊，Facebook，谷歌，Netflix），并分析了好处，包括通过这种虚拟通信增强安全性。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:03, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==
But research also has the duty to warn of abuse or harmful developments and to raise ethical questions. Exoskeletal ethics, imposed by gamifications like credit systems, especially need to be valued against intrinsic ethics.

'''Introduction'''

In this paper dealing with machine to machine communication, I skip the machines assisting humans to make their life more convenient (ranging from “The milk is out, please add the usual amount of milk to the delivery list,” to “The old lady has not left her bed this morning, I’ll better call the doctor”).

但研究也有责任对滥用或有害的发展发出警告，同时要对引起的伦理问题也要承担责任。特别是信用体系游戏化所造成的外骨骼伦理问题更需要得到重视，要反对内在的伦理问题。

引言

本论文在涉及机器与机器之间的交流时，我不考虑那些帮助人类让生活更便捷的机器（从“牛奶没了，请在送货单上加平常剂量的牛奶”到“老太太今早卧床不起，我最好叫医生吧”）。
--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:10, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

但研究也有责任对滥用或有害的发展提出警告，并提出伦理问题。特别是信用体系等游戏化所强加的外骨骼伦理，更需要对照内在伦理加以重视。

引言

在本文中涉及机器与机器之间的交流，我跳过了机器协助人类提高生活便利的内容（从 "牛奶没了，请把平时的牛奶量加到送货单上"，到 "老太太今天早上还没下床，我还是叫医生吧"。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 11:40, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==
Instead, I deal with communication like: “Let’s create a user personality profile and compare it with Big Data to learn how I can best catch this user’s attention and make him/her vote for presidential candidate A or B.”; “Let’s check this users’ mouse movements and compare it with Big Data to get a correlation to estimate if (and if “yes” when) he will get Parkinson, to decide whether or not to deny him the loan or health insurance.”
实际上，本人研究涉及的方面如下：比如，“让我们创建一名用户的个性化主界面，并将其与大数据进行比对，学习如何最好的吸引该用户的注意，让他/她投票给总统候选人甲或乙。”“让我们检查这名用户鼠标的运动轨迹，通过与大数据进行比对，建立关联，来估计他是否会得帕金森。如果他患有帕金森疾病，我们会决定是否需要对他的贷款或医疗保险的申请予以拒绝。”--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:41, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Liang 曾良==
“Let’s check this users sexual orientation, religious beliefs, fears, secrets like adultery etc. to blackmail him to get ransom money for my programmer.”; or even “Let’s use this user’s location to aim the killer drone.”

The current neoliberal system with Amazon, Facebook, WhatsApp, Instagram, Google, Netflix etc. provides incentives to collect as much user data as possible and to abuse user data for manipulation, which creates huge profits.

“让我们检查该用户的性取向、宗教信仰、恐惧、诸如通奸之类的秘密去勒索他为我的程序员去获取赎金”。或者甚至“使用用户的位置瞄准杀手无人机。”

当前具有亚马逊、脸谱网、瓦茨艾普、照片墙、谷歌、奈飞等的新自由主义系统激励人们尽可能多地收集用户信息，并滥用用户信息进行操纵，从而创造可观利益。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:04, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

"让我们查一查这个用户的性取向、宗教信仰、恐惧、通奸等秘密，以勒索他为我的程序员获取赎金。"；甚至"利用这个用户的位置来瞄准杀手无人机。"
目前亚马逊、脸书、WhatsApp、Instagram、谷歌、奈飞等的新自由主义体系，为收集尽可能多的用户数据，并滥用用户数据，从而创造了巨大的利润。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:39, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting

“让我们检查该用户的性取向、宗教信仰、惧怕的事物、诸如通奸之类的秘密，从而勒索他让我的程序员获取赎金”。更有甚时，“让我们使用用户的位置让攻击机瞄准他。”

当前亚马逊、脸书、联络电话、Instagram、谷歌、网飞等的新自由主义的系统软件，激励人们尽可能多地收集用户信息，并滥用用户信息进行操纵，从而创造可观利益。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==
Very much like the financial crisis, which was caused by the unregulated use of derivatives, this is a systemic development, which currently follows a path to enslave the human race under the control of algorithms for the benefit of tech companies. The enslavement has already begun, as we can see from the world wide addiction to social media, from the growing mass of conspiracy theorists and from the polarization of the USA over Trump or the polarization of Great Britain over the Brexit.

==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==
'''1 History of Media Epochs'''

Luhmann and Baecker described the development of communication from orality (media epoch 1.0) to script (2.0), through print (3.0) and finally to digital communication (4.0). In all these stages, technology played only an assisting role.

This paper argues, that there is a fundamentally new stage of “virtual communication” (media epoch 5.0), in which artificial intelligence (initialized by humans) has taken over and humans have become the object of analysis and manipulation (as customers, voters etc.).

==Zhang Hu 张虎==
While Luhmann would still summarize this under digital communication, I see a full new quality here, and have therefore coined the term “communication 5.0” or “virtual communication” for it. In Luhmann’s view, the computer consists out of the “surface” of the machine (the visible interfaces like screen, keyboard, mouse) and the “depth” of the machine (the invisible, often incomprehensive inside).

虽然卢曼仍然会在数字通信中总结这一点，但我在这里看到了一个全新的品质，因此创造了术语“通信5.0”或“虚拟通信”。在卢曼看来，计算机是由机器的“表面”(屏幕、键盘、鼠标等可见界面)和机器的“内里”(看不见的、内部不全面的部分)组成的。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:41, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Hui 张慧==
However, we are almost constantly producing data, with our chats and geotracked movements, with our addiction to social media, our carrying of cell phones and more and more smart devices at all times, and we are therefore an object of analysis by algorithms.

The traditional setting of a communicative act blurs: The machine can directly communicate with the human (there the Turing test marks a threshold), and, after a certain complexity, it can hide its machine nature.

但是，我们几乎一直在通过聊天和地理位置追踪运动，不断沉迷于社交媒体，携带手机以及越来越多的智能设备来生成数据，因此，我们一直是通过算法进行分析的对象。

交流行为的传统设置变得模糊：机器可以直接与人类交流（图灵测试标记了阈值），并且在经过一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏机器的本质。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 11:49, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

然而，我们几乎在不断地产生数据，我们的聊天和地理追踪的动作，我们对社交媒体的沉迷，我们随时携带手机和越来越多的智能设备，我们因此成为算法分析的对象。

传统的交流行为的设定模糊了。机器可以直接与人类交流（图灵测试标志着一个门槛），在一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏自己的机器本质。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:03, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Ling 张玲==
The machine can also indirectly communicate with the human by simply analyzing humans’ verbal communication, non-verbal multimodal communication, behavior, personality etc. and interacting with the human with, or without, revealing its existence. A human, growing up in a filter bubble and believing in conspiracy theories is one such example: The human has been manipulated by social media and news which prefer lies over truth.

==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==
Without even noticing that there was an interaction taking place between the human and the machine, the human has lost his/her independence to the machine.

'''2 Types of communicative acts'''

1.Texts (oral and written comments/chat texts/blogs/emails)

2.Surf behavior (websites visited)

3.Consumer behavior (purchases)

4.Likes (see OCEAN, UEBA)

5.Duration/Attention (see UEBA)

6.habits/repetitiveness/occurrences (is an element of analysis in different AI apps/tools)

==Zhang Qi 张琪==
7.Unconscious, often unique data allowing identification (way of writing, mouse movements pattern, see Raj Kannan 2020)

8.social interaction incl. friendships, sexual relationships

9.mobility behavior/pattern (e.g. immediate environment – e.g. unconsciously recording the inside of houses while playing “Pokemon Go”), travel: Travel Behavior (Yu Cui et al. 2018)

==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==
'''3 Types of analysis'''

1.General (User and Entity Behavior Analytics UEBA: AI-assisted cybersecurity tools like by Gartner, Inc.)

2.True identity (e.g.: mouse movements, face recognition, find real name) (Verschuere 2016)

3.Personality profile: Big Five Personality Inventory: Openness to Experience, Consciousness, Extroversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism “OCEAN” (Golbeck 2011), by only analyzing the users' likes, Facebook can generate personality profiles (AI-Demand 2020)

4.Mobility profile/pattern

==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==
5.Health situation (health apps, ai supported disease research, see Daley 2020)

6.Job situation/job market (Talent Search People 2020 analyzes the job market, and classifies 4 different AI systems: 1. systems that think like humans, 2. systems that act like humans, 3. systems that think rationally, and 4.) systems that act rationally.)

==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==
7.Financial credit-worthiness: E.g. German Schufa company uses AI in addition to human expertise for evaluations, see Banken-Technologie 2020. Banken-Technologie 2020. Schufa’s attempt to gain access to customers’ bank account transfer information was discussed in the news.

8.Consumer Behavior: e.g. the "clickworker" company analyses and optimizes customers' searches in respect to a client company's goals/products with the help of AI (clickworker 2019)

9.Secrets (like adultery)

==Zhang Yu 张瑜==
'''4 Unique quality of media epoch 5.0'''[ I have coined the terms “media epoch 5.0” and “virtual communication” I have developed it from concepts like „Industry 4.0“ in Germany and the four media epochs Luhmann and Baecker developed (by Baecker called 1.0 … 4.0). There are several authors speculating about the media epoch 4.0, like Ray Kurzweil. The Age of Intelligent Machines. 1990.]

1.the human switches from active to passive

2.the human switches from subject to object

3.the human becomes addicted to social media, which enhances depression (Van Den Eijnden et al. 2016, Jasso-Medrano et al. 2018, Shensa et al. 2017)

4.the human switches from puppeteer, or entity with seemingly free will, to puppet

5.nature of the internet turns from freedom to surveillance

4.媒介5.0时代的独特品质 [我创造了 "媒介5.0时代"和 "虚拟通信 "这两个词，它们是从德国的“工业4.0”以及卢曼和贝克提出的媒介4.0时代（贝克称之为1.0...4.0）等概念发展而来的。一些作者揣测媒介4.0时代这个词的含义，比如1990年出版的雷-库兹韦尔的《灵魂机器时代》]

1.人从主动到被动的转换

2.人从主体到客体的转换

3.人沉迷于社交媒体，提高了患抑郁症的风险

4.人从木偶操纵者或看似拥有自由意志的实体到木偶人的转换

5.互联网的性质从自由到监测的转换--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 01:25, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==
6.direct communication turns into indirect communication (humans may not be aware of this communication/analysis)

7.explicit communication (voice, words) turns into implicit communication (preferences/thoughts/dreams/wishes/ values (first experiments with brain scanners in worker hats have started in Shanghai and Peking))

8.man-man communication turns to man-machine communication (phone bot) to machine-machine

9.4.0 was from centralization to decentralization, 5.0 is partial centralization and partial decentralization, but also concentration

==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==
So far, mass media has been considered one-way. The interaction and processing of data of millions of individual users seemed simply too much work. In the age of virtual communication, the media epoch 5.0, mass media is individualized and interactive and therefore even more influential.

'''5 Types of manipulation (consciously or unconsciously, sometimes half-consciously)
'''

1.Priming by unconscious advertisements: Influencing consumer decisions

2.Filter bubbles => supports conspiracy theories, influences judgments

==Zhao Xi 赵茜==
3.Nature of social media: lies spread 6 times faster than truth. (Vosoughi et al. 2018).

4.Change of political attitude: Case Cambridge Analytica: Helped minority to win election by manipulating young people of majority not to vote (Do so: Don’t vote campaign, Oddleifson 2020); Trump election and Brexit were won by manipulation

5.Use of private information/dependencies to obtain advantages (blackmailing for money or for conducting crimes etc.)

6.Identity theft

==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==
'''6 Consequences'''

1.Virtual Communication is mostly “hidden”, the human is mostly unaware of it, but may endure the consequences (policeman may detain suspect simply because the face recognition glass recognizes a pedestrian passing by and assesses him/her as “dangerous”; loan is declined; insurance company declines to accept new customer)

6.后果

1.虚拟通讯大多是 "隐蔽 "的，人多半不知道，但可能会承受后果（警察可能仅仅因为人脸识别玻璃识别出路过的行人，并评估其为 "危险 "而拘留嫌疑人；贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新的客户）--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:02, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

6.后果

1.虚拟通信通常是“隐藏的”，人类大多数情况下是不知道的，但可能会承受后果（警察可能只是因为面部识别玻璃杯识别出行人经过并将他/她评估为“危险”而拘留嫌疑人；贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新客户）。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 12:05, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

'''6.后果
'''

1.大多情况下，虚拟通信是“隐藏的”，人类也没有意识到这一点，但可能会承担由此带来的后果（警察可能会因为面部识别玻璃检测到行人通过，并将其评估为“危险人物”而将嫌疑犯拘留‘贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新客户）。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 09:29, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==
2.User becomes transparent (government can fight terrorism, any user can be blackmailed, jealous spouse can check on adultery)

3.Less will to communicate and discuss (since positions are too far apart)

4.Populists and populist views gain supporters

5.Polarization of Society

6.There is an incentive not to reveal how much one knows about the object, because the object then could question the legality, the system etc.

7.Last resort, the thinking, is tackled: Machine interprets “real” attitudes, not lip-service words

==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==
8.The knowing ones (algorithms, hackers, controllers of algorithms) have power over the unknowing ones (victims)

9.Exoskeleton ethics (like points/awards for measurable performances) reduce incentives to build inner ethics
'''
7 Simulation of the imminent future'''

1.The imminent future behavior of a human can be predicted

2.With many analyzed humans, the imminent future of reality can be predicted => simulation

==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==
Is this an Orwellian dystopia or reality? Some cases of the above listed phenomena have been documented. However, we are still at the beginning of “little” AI development (optimizing existing processes) and on the brink of a much more powerful development, that of “big” AI (rethinking whole industries, being able to reproduce and enhance itself). (cf. Euchner 2019).

==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==
'''8 Conclusion and Outlook'''

Data has succeeded oil as the most valuable resource for today’s economy. Big Tech companies already use users’ data and make big profits with it while legislation is delayed and national boundaries (which do not exist for the Tech companies) are struggled over.
Although input-legitimized liberal democracies and market economies, like that of the European Union, still protect privacy and data security, US- and China-based technology companies are already penetrating the European market.

==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==
We need to raise awareness and guide the youth to be careful with screen time and what they share online. We need to avoid addiction to social media.

'''The algorithms do not just check which film to suggest viewing next, they have started to invade the innermost sanctum of personality, our thoughts, dreams, wishes, visions, hopes, fears and secrets.
'''
'''
The listed consequences document a fundamental change of paradigms:
'''
我们需要提高意识，引导青少年注意屏幕时间和他们在网上分享的东西。我们需要避免沉迷于社交媒体。

'''算法不只是检查建议接下来看哪部电影，它们已经开始侵入人格、我们的思想、梦想、愿望、愿景、希望、恐惧和秘密的最深处的圣殿。'''

所列出的后果证明了范式的根本变化:--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 01:38, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==
'''The cause-based decision-making by humans with established institutions like politicians, judges etc. is being replaced with correlation-based decision-making by algorithms which often serve the profit interests of tech companies or the political interests of election-manipulators.
'''

AI took the wrong development path, when it changed from serving humans to trying to manipulate humans for economic or political profit. When AI is used to educate citizens – like helping German customers to keep a clean credit history and a good credit score – then it changes the behavior of citizens to an exoskeletal ethic.

==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==
However, animals with an exoskeleton reduce their inside muscles and develop a soft inside, making them totally incapable of living without the exoskeleton. An exoskeletal ethic, giving reward points, for example, for behavior which is deemed positive and subtracting points for behavior which is deemed negative, deprives the human of the natural learning and developing process, in a social environment, of his responsibility and inner ethical judgment. If you were to meet a human with exoskeletal ethics and one who has inner ethics, whom would you trust more?

==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==
If we want to avoid the consequences listed in point 6, the public needs to become aware of this and nations and supranational organizations need to define legislation to a) protect privacy and data security, and b) give the user the control over his/her data including the commercial use of it where they earn a share from the profit made with the usage of his/her data.

==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==
'''9 Outlook'''

We need to accept, that the development is irreversible. Every new technology has created fears. Important is, that we become aware of the developments and adjust where the development heads into the wrong direction. We need set the right framework and incentives that the new technology stays on track to serve humanity.

==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==
New developments open new possibilities. We need to make sure that not only a few tech companies and terrorists use this powerful new technology to achieve their goals, but that the mass of smart device users emancipate themselves from addiction to and manipulation by technology and gain back their dignity, privacy and free will.

'''References
'''
（参考文献不用翻译）

AI-Demand. (2020). www.ai-demand.com/insights/data/big-data/big-data-and-facebook-the-heavenly-pair-that-isnt-quite-in-heaven/

Baecker, Dirk. (2007). ''Studien zur nächsten Gesellschaft''. Frankfurt 2007

Banken-Technologie. (2020). 26. Handelsblatt Jahrestagung. Banken-Technologie. „New Normal” in der Finanzwirtschaft: digital – intelligent – automatisiert – hybrid. 2. und 3.12.2020, Digital [Conference Announcement] https://veranstaltungen.handelsblatt.com/bankentechnologie/ki-machine-learning-finanzanalyse/

Booth, T. "Cambridge Analytica controversy must spur researchers to update data ethics." ''Nature'' 555.7698 (2018): 559-560.

Clickworker. (2019). www.clickworker.com/2019/04/30/ai-for-ecommerce/

Cui, Yu, Qing He, and Alireza Khani. (2018). Travel behavior classification: an approach with social network and deep learning. ''Transportation research record'', 2672(47), 68-80. https://par.nsf.gov/servlets/purl/10109453

Daley, Sam. (2020). 32 Examples of AI in Healthcare that Will Make you Feel better about the Future (July 4, 2019, updated July 29, 2020). builtin.com/artificial-intelligence/artificial-intelligence-healthcare

Euchner, Jim. (2019). Little ai, Big AI—Good AI, Bad AI. Terminology Management 62:3, 10-12. pdf:

https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/08956308.2019.1587280?needAccess=true

Golbeck, Jennifer, Cristina Robles, and Karen Turner. (2011). "Predicting personality with social media." ''CHI'11 extended abstracts on human factors in computing systems''. 2011. 253-262.

Jasso-Medrano, José Luis, and Fuensanta Lopez-Rosales. (2018). "Measuring the relationship between social media use and addictive behavior and depression and suicide ideation among university students." Computers in Human Behavior 87: 183-191.

Luhmann, Niklas. (1997). ''Die Gesellschaft der Gesellschaft''. 1997

Oddleifson, Evan. 2020, The Effects of Modern Data Analytics in Electoral Politics: Cambridge Analytica’s Suppression of Voter Agency and the Implications for Global Politics, ''Political Sciences Undergraduate Review'' 5 (2020) 7, 1-7.

https://journals.library.ualberta.ca/psur/index.php/psur/article/view/130/90/130-Article%20Text-642-1-10-20200401.pdf

Raj Kannan, J., Sabitha, R., Karthik, S., & Shanthini, J. (2020). Mouse Movement Pattern Based Analysis of Customer Behavior (CBA-MMP) Using Cloud Data Analytics. ''Wireless Personal Communications'', OnlineFirst, 1-17.

Ruan, Lotus, et al. "One App, Two Systems: How WeChat uses one censorship policy in China and another internationally." (2016).
Shensa, Ariel, et al. (2017). "Problematic social media use and depressive symptoms among US young adults: A nationally-representative study." ''Social Science & Medicine ''182: 150-157.

Talent Search People. (2020). How Will Artificial Intelligence Affect the Job Market? www.talentsearchpeople.com/en/blog/494-how-will-artificial-intelligence-affect-the-job-market/.

Van Den Eijnden, Regina JJM, Jeroen S. Lemmens, and Patti M. Valkenburg. (2016). "The social media disorder scale." ''Computers in Human Behavior ''61: 478-487.

Verschuere, Bruno, and Bennett Kleinberg. "ID‐check: Online Concealed Information Test reveals true identity." ''Journal of forensic sciences'' 61 (2016): S237-S240.

Vosoughi, Soroush, Deb Roy, and Sinan Aral. (2018). The spread of true and false news online. Science 359.6380: 1146-1151.. science.sciencemag.org/content/359/6380/1146

==Zhu Xu 朱旭==
'''Bio'''

Martin Woesler, PhD, is Jean Monnet Chair in European Studies with Hunan Normal University since 2020. At its Foreign Studies College, he is Distinguished Professor of Chinese Studies, Translation Studies and Comparative Literature since 2019. Woesler was elected Academian of the European Academy of Sciences and Arts, Salzburg in 2019.
Woesler has co-edited the books "China's Digital Dream", "Ethics of Information Society" and Springer has scheduled to publish the book "Diverse Voices in Chinese Translation and Interpretation" including his book chapter "Modern Interpreting with Digital and Technical Aids" in February 2021.

==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==
Woesler was a Senior Fellow of the German Science Foundation's (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft) Research College "Media Cultures of Computer Simulations" 2019‐2020 and hosted a related workshop with Bertelsmann Foundation in 2020. Woesler is also a researcher with Witten/Herdecke University, Germany, investigating the impact of daily screen time of children and of young people on their health.

History of Translation Studies 3

2020-12-21T15:30:03Z

Lei kuangxi: /* Bibliography */

这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第三部分(Part 3)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。

学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。

*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]
*Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].

=Skopos and Functional Equivalence=
==A Comparative Study between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory and My thoughts on the Two Theories==

==Abstract==
This paper first makes a brief introduction of the two very important translation theories, which are Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory, put forward by Eugene Nida and Hans Vermeer respectively. Then the paper analyzes the similarities and differences between the two theories from many different perspectives. Through the analysis of the two theories, the author finally puts forwards its own thoughts on the two translation theories.

==Key words==
Functional Equivalence Theory; Skopos theory; Eugene Nida; Hans Vermeer

==摘要==
本文首先对翻译研究中两种极为重要的翻译理论，即尤金·奈达提出的功能对等翻译理论和汉斯·弗米尔进行了简要介绍，之后从多个不同的方面对这两种理论的相似点和不同之处进行分析。最后，在对两种理论进行分析后，作者提出自己对这两种理论的看法和认识。

==关键词==
功能对等理论；翻译目的论；尤金·奈达；汉斯·弗米尔

==(1)Introduction==

===1.1. Functional Equivalence Theory===

In 1964, Eugene Nida, the famous American linguist and ''Bible'' Translator, first put forward the notion of “dynamic equivalence” in his book ''Toward a Science of Translating''. According to Nida, “dynamic equivalence” refers to “ the closest natural equivalence to the source language message(Tan Zaixi, 1984: 10)”. In saying this, Nida means to appeal translators to put emphasis on expressing to the target readers both the messages conveyed in the source language and the forms and styles of the original text. Later, he realizes the name “dynamic equivalence” may confuse some translation learners and they may think he only focuses on translating the content and meaning of the source text and ignores its form and style, he then changes the name of “dynamic equivalence” into “functional equivalence”. Nida thinks that the response made by the target language receptor to the target text should generally be equivalent to the response made by the source language receptor to the source text, so when the translator cannot retain both the form and the content of the original text, he or she should give priority to the content of the original text and change the form of the source text. And in response to questions like how and to what degree the translator can change the form of the original text, Nida then points out that in translation, there are four aspects in dynamic equivalence, namely, lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence respectively. If a translator can convey the language form, the content and the style of the source text in natural target language, and make the target readers give the same response to the target text as the source language made to the original text, then his translation can be said to have achieved the maximal equivalence. On the other hand, if a translation only transmit the content of the original text generally, then the translation can be said to have achieved the minimal equivalence.

===1.2. Skopos Theory===

Skopos theory was first put forward by Hans Vermeer in his book ''Framework for a General Translation Theory'' in 1978. According to Skopos theory, translation means to “'''produce a text at target setting for a target purpose and target addressee in target circumstances'''”(Liu Junping, 2009: 377). Based on this definition, Vermeer Hans concludes the three rules of Skopos theory, which are skopos rule, coherence rule and loyalty rule.

Firstly, skopos rule, or purpose principle, is the primary principle to be followed in translation. It holds that the purpose to be achieved of the target text determines the whole process of translation, including the choice of the translator in translation skills and strategies, and that all translation activities are determined by its purpose. Generally speaking, the skopos rule has under its umbrella three types of purposes: the first one is the basic purpose of the translator; the second is the communicative purpose of the translation; and the third is the purpose of specific translation strategies or means. But at most of times, “purpose” refers to the communicative purpose of the translation.

Secondly, coherence rule, also called intra-textual coherence, means that the translation must be understandable and readable to the receptors, and meaningful in the communicative environment of the target culture and the target text.

Thirdly, fidelity rule, which means that there should be inter-textual coherence between the source text and the target text. Inter-textual coherence is similar to what is usually called “信” or “be faithful to the original text”. In the traditional translation theory, “faithfulness” is always regarded as the basic translation standard to obey, but in Skopos theory, to what degree the form and style of the target text should be faithful to the original text totally depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator’s understanding of the source text.

Under Vermeer’ s Skopos theory, the skopos rule is the most important rule among the three rules, the coherence rule the second important, and the fidelity rule the least important. This indicates that in Skopos theory, the end justifies the means(Liu Junping, 2009: 377-378)

==II.Similarities and Differences==

===2.1. The Similarities between the Two Theories===

'''2.1.1. Both Attach Great Importance to the Target Receptor’s Status'''

Functional Equivalence Theory is a receptor-oriented theory. As revealed by Nida’s definition of translation, that “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes that the primary aim of translation is such that the target text should bring the target receptors the similar or same response as the response made by receptors in the source language. Besides, to bring to the readers a similar or same response, Nida even put forward that, if it is necessary, different target texts should be made according to the needs of different receptors. All of the two points reflects that in Functional Equivalence Theory, the target receptor’s status is very important.

While the Skopos theory, too, put the reader’s needs on a high status. Of the three rules in Skopos theory, the most important one is skopos rule, which includes three purposes, the basic purpose of the translator, the communicative purpose of the translation, and the purpose of specific translation strategies or means. However, to take all the three purposes into consideration, a translator must first know what and who the target text serves, so he or she can immediately know the purpose of the translation task and do a corresponding and qualified translation. This, on the other hand, also means that in Skopos theory, the target reader’s needs indirectly determine the purpose of the translation, so it is also given priority to by the translator.

'''2.1.2. Both Emphasize the Communicative Function of Translation'''

Under the Functional Equivalence Theory, the translation should achieve a functional equivalence, bringing the target readers the roughly same experience and making them give the responses as the receptors in the source language culture. In doing this, the translator is in fact trying to achieve the communicative function of the original text by shortening the distance of the source text receptors and the target text receptors, which, on the other hand, means that the process of translation is a communicative process between the original language culture and the culture of the target language.

In Skopos theory, of the three purposes under the skopos rule, the communicative purpose is regarded as the most important purpose of a target text. Skopos theory holds that translation is a communicative activity with a purpose, and the process of translation is determined by the intended function or purpose of the target text.

'''2.2 The Differences between the Two Theories'''

'''2.2.1. Different Status of the Source Language and the Target Language'''

From the perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory, a good translation achieving the goal of translation not only needs to provide another message similar to the original message conveyed in the source text, but also needs to clearly reflect the meaning and intention of the original text, bringing to the target readers similar or even same effects and making them give a same response. From this point, one can easily see that Functional Equivalence Theory is centered on the original text, which, to some degree, reflects that Functional Equivalence still put the source language on a high status. The status of the target language is secondary to the source language as the choice of the words, sentence structures of the target text still heavily depend on the source text.

Skopos theory, on the other hand, gets rid of the point of view of the traditional text-centered translation theory, and focuses on the function and purpose of the target text. From the perspective of Skopos theory, a successful translation is not one that places the original text in a sacred and unattainable position. Vermeer further put forward the view of “subverting the source language” in Skopos theory. He stated that “the linguistic and stylistic features of the original text are no longer the only criteria to measure the translation”. All of these reflect that the source text enjoys a relatively low status in Skopos theory compared with its status in Functional Equivalence Theory. Besides, from the three rules of Skopos theory, one can easily know that, the most important one is the skopos rule, then the coherence of the target text, namely the intra-textual coherence and finally the fidelity of the target text to the source text, namely the inter-textual coherence. Therefore, we can see that the status of the source language actually lower than the target language in Skopos theory, which is different from the case in Functional Equivalence Theory.

'''2.2.2. Different Translation Principles'''

Nida believes that equivalence is the goal of translation. His translation standard is that the target text should be faithful to the original text in terms of content and style while also being expressive in the eyes of the target readers. As put forward by Nida that, “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, the translation standard of Functional Equivalence Theory include “equivalence”, which is the equivalence of meaning and style, namely be faithful to the meaning and style of the source text. Besides, in front of “equivalence”, there is also a word “natural”, which means the target text should be fluent and be in conformity with the habits of the target culture, namely “expressiveness” in traditional translation theory.

In Skopos theory, however, “faithfulness” is no longer regarded as the primary translation criteria. As Skopos theory judges the success of a translation by its intended purpose, which reflects the requirements of the target readers. However, as the requirements of the readers are different, Skopos theory advocates the diversification of translation standards. Only when the communicative purpose of the translation requires the translation to have the same communicative function as the original text, equivalence becomes the standard of the translation process. Otherwise, the translation may be very different from the original text in its style and form.

'''2.2.3. Different Translation Skills and Translation Strategies Used in the Translation Process'''

In Functional Equivalence Theory, as determined by its definition for translation, the translation skills and strategies used in the translation process are all for one common goal, which is to bring the target readers the roughly same or same response. In order to achieve the aim, some translation skills are frequently used under the Functional Equivalence Theory, including literal translation, liberal translation, domestication and borrowing translation. And among all these translation skills, domestication and borrowing translation are two translation strategies most favorably advocated by Functional Equivalence Theory. Here, I will list the translation of a phrase to briefly explain the reason why the two translation skills are often used in translation process. We all know that to grow like mushrooms is an English phrase which means to rapidly grow or increase in number. It vividly describes the scene that after the incessant rain in London, the explosive growth of the mushrooms. While in China, there is also a similar phrase “雨后春笋”, to describe the scene that after a spring rain, the bamboo shoots sprout overnight in the forest. Therefore, when doing a E-C translation, the translator often uses domestication and translate “to grow like mushrooms” into “雨后春笋”, so as to enable the Chinese readers give a same response as English readers did.

However, Skopos theory is different. In Skopos theory, the end justifies the means, which means all the translation skills and strategies are determined by the purpose and use of the target text as well as the reader it serves. Therefore, it usually adopts different translation strategies to meet different translation purposes. Translators can freely choose the translation skills he wants to use, whether it is literal translation or liberal translation, domestication or foreignization, transliteration or borrowing translation, even simplifying translation and reduction translation, in consideration of the author's writing intention, the theme of the original text, the translator’s purpose and the needs of the readers.

Here, I want to firstly compare the difference between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory in dealing with content with cultural characteristics. As I wrote before, the Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes the same response between the original readers and the target readers and the presence of a natural text to the target readers, so it prefers to use the existed words, phrases, and cultural images in the target language to replace the expressions in the original text, which explains why domestication and borrowing translation are often use under the theory -- that is because by using the two ways, functional equivalence can be achieved. However, in Skopos theory, the translator enjoys a higher degree of freedom. He can select translation skills flexibly according to the skopos of the text. For example, when it comes to cultural translation, the translator should carefully consider the cultural differences between the two languages and have full understanding of the purpose and usage of the original text. If the purpose of a translated text is to diffuse the language characteristics of the original author, the author’s writing intention, or the language characteristics of the source language culture, then the translator can adopt the strategy of foreignization or the strategy of literal translation with some annotations in the target text to help the target readers better understand a foreign concept. For example, in order to maintain the cultural characteristics of Chinese, the Chinese proverb “谋事在人，成事在天” should be translated as “man proposals, heaven disposes." instead of “man proposals, God disposes”. This is because the translator wants foreign people to know our beliefs -- we Chinese believe in Heaven rather than God. At the same time, sometimes, to meet the needs of some special readers, simplifying translation and reduction translation are also used in the translation process. For example, there are some publishers in China which publish the simplified version of those foreign classics to meet the the children’s needs in reading.

'''2.2.4. Different Status of the Translator'''

In what Nida thinks of, the translator is only a cultural envoy, transmitting the idea of a culture to people in another culture. Nida believes that as the second source of information, the translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. Therefore, the translator must understand what the original author thinks. The translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. In addition, the translator should not introduce any personal ideas into the translation of the original text, no matter whether the original point of view is consistent with his own. “The translator should not intervene in, edit or rewrite the original text even if it has shortcomings and errors, nor should he improve the original text even if he has the ability”(Tan Zaixi, 1984). Of course, we can critically accept Nida’s words. When there are obvious mistakes in the original text (such as the original text not conforming to the facts), we should correct them in the translation.

Skopos theory improves the position of translator. The translator is the receptor of the original text and transmits the information of the original text to the reader. Skopos theory allows the translator to determine the faithfulness of the translation to the source text and determine the proportion of the faithfulness of the target text to the original text. It adopts the translation strategies such as “modification, abridgement and reduction”, and denies that there is only one “correct or best” translation of the source language. Therefore, the translator has more freedom in the process of translation, and can transfer the original text according to the needs, expectations and knowledge background of the readers, so as to achieve the purpose of a translation task.

'''2.2.5. Different translation processes'''

In order to achieve functional equivalence, Nida proposed the famous back translation theory by referring to the concepts of core sentence, non-core sentence and transformation. In Functional Equivalence Theory, translation is a complicated process, which includes four stages: analysis, transfer, reconstruction and test (Tan Zaixi, 1984, 144). Specifically speaking, as far as Nida is concerned, when doing a translation task, the translator needs to transform the original text from the surface structure to the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure on the basis of grammatical and semantic analysis, and then translate the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally from the deep structure of the target text to the surface structure of the target text. After the translation is done, the translator needs to re-examine and test the translation.(Peng Changjiang, 2017: 09)
Skopos theory, however, unlike the Functional Equivalence Theory, it does not put forward specific translation procedures. The Skopos theory does not give detailed guidelines for the translation of words, phrases, paragraphs and texts, but it do gives some guidance to the translator from the macro perspective, giving the translator more autonomy to do translation and enabling them freely translate a text.

'''III.My Thoughts on the Two Theories'''

'''3.1. My thought on Functional Equivalence Theory'''

'''3.1.1. Strengths and Contributions of Functional Equivalence Theory'''

Firstly, the Functional Equivalence Theory brings modern linguistics, communication studies, information theory, semiotics and aesthetics into the field of translation. From the macro perspective, it breaks through the limitations of the traditional thoughts on translation and provides a new perspective for translation research. It studies translation in a more detailed way from multiple perspectives, applies new thoughts, concepts and methods to translation studies, and provides many new methods for translation research. Besides, it also lays a solid foundation for modern translation studies.

Secondly, it must be emphasized that, Functional Equivalence Theory has given many constructive suggestions to translators. From a micro perspective, Functional Equivalence Theory has solved the long-standing dispute between literal translation and liberal translation. It requires the translator use the target language to reproduce the meaning of the source language as fully as possible in different language structures, thus both breaking the restrictions of traditional word-for-word translation and limiting the free and random play of the translator. To some extent, Functional Equivalence Theory has greatly promoted the translation of some types of literary works, such as the translation of prose, help avoiding the creation of many pseudo--translation and translationese cases. At the same time, it eases the argument of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of language and culture, and seeks the balance point of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of multiple disciplines.

Thirdly, Functional Equivalence Theory provides with the target readers a chance to know other country’s culture in their own language. Traditionally, translation is to transform the original language that are different from ours into the familiar language that we use. It can let the people who have not learned a foreign language also understand and appreciate the message under some phrases written in a foreign language. For example, if one has no common sense in English, he will regard “a piece of cake” as “一块蛋糕”. This example reflects the culture gap between the people of two countries. Good translation is one that overcomes these culture gaps and turn them into what the target readers is familiar with. So, it is better for the translator use the Functional Equivalence Theory to translate “a piece of cake” with the well-known Chinese proverb “小菜一碟” .

'''3.1.2. Deficiency of Functional Equivalence Theory'''

Although Functional Equivalence Theory has made many contributions to the translation studies, it is not without its deficiencies. Here I list three disadvantages of it.

First, Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory is concluded from the translation of the ''Bible''. It is, in fact, cannot be a guideline for all kinds of translation. For example, some texts, including some articles with profound historic significance and cultural characteristics, some scientific articles, some lyrical articles, movie subtitles, government reports, actually need different translation standards. Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate fields, but it is not universal or omnipotent rule. Though, in fact, there is nothing omnipotent and flawless in the world. Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate area. If it is used in the right place, it can help the translator present a more brilliant translation.
Second, the Functional Equivalence Theory requires the target text to be written in a “common language”, which should be understood by the less educated readers and accepted by the readers with high literacy, but this turns out to be very difficult to achieve in practice. It can be said that the requirements of this theory are way too demanding. Although this is a goal worth pursuing, it is nearly impossible to achieve, as even in the same country, different knowledge levels, different regional cultures and even different life experiences will lead to different understanding abilities.

In addition, Nida also ignores an important thing, that is, culture is very complex. The generation, evolution and creation of each nation and its culture are different from each other. Some cultural images in foreign works may be something the other country’s readers have never seen and cannot understand. In translation process, it is certainly ideal if the translator can find a corresponding cultural object in the target culture. But at most of times, it is in fact very difficult for the translator to find such a substitute. This makes the so called “functional equivalence” very difficult to achieve, and even show its loopholes -- which is also a difficulty in translation process -- it is usually difficult for translators to translate and explain certain words with special cultural meanings. In fact, the differences between different cultures are absolute and inevitable, while the similarities are rare and precious. For example, in order to avoid the danger and inauspicious emotions of the word “red” in western culture, some British translators translate the original title of the book 《红楼梦》 into “''The Story of the Stone''”. This kind of translation, however, fails to transmit the message of a rich, luxurious, dreamy life hidden in the original book name, let alone bring the western readers the same response.

'''3.1.3. My Point of View towards Functional Equivalence Theory'''

The great influence of Functional Equivalence Theory on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not a universal theory. The advantages and disadvantages of the theory of functional equivalence should be treated in a dialectical way. Functional Equivalence Theory is the product of a particular historical period, and it may have some inconsistencies with contemporary translation theories. Therefore, we should take a comprehensive view of Nida’s translation theory. On the whole, Nida’s translation thought can be regarded as a bright gem in the treasure house of western translation studies.

'''3.2. My thoughts on Skopos Theory'''

'''3.2.1. Strengths and Contributions of Skopos Theory'''

Skopos theory has many advantages. First of all, as a major breakthrough in the study of contemporary western translation theory, Skopos theory breaks the limitations of Functional Equivalence Theory at the linguistic level and puts forward a translation standard dominated by skopos principle. Skopos theory provides the translator with another perspective in translation practice, which is more conducive to the choice of translation strategies.

Secondly, Skopos theory focuses on the requirements of the translation client, points out the influence of the client on the translation process, and breaks the limitation of traditional translation theory, which only takes the original author, the translator and the target reader into consideration. From this perspective, Skopos theory can be called a real breakthrough in the history of translation studies.

Thirdly, Skopos theory emphasizes the initiative and participation of the translator, and holds that the original text mainly plays the role of providing information. Therefore, it shifts the focus of translation from faithful reproducing the source text to the creation of the translation. It overthrows the central position of the original text and establishes the central position of the target text and the translator, which gives all translation learners and researchers a new insight towards translation studies.

Finally, Skopos theory further studies the development of translation from the perspective of culture. From the perspective of Skopos theory, translation is a kind of cultural comparison and a kind of cross-cultural communication in a certain cultural context, which benefits the target readers a lot.

'''3.2.2. Deficiency of Skopos Theory'''

However, all thing is not perfect, Skopos theory is no exception, of course.

Firstly, Skopos theory allows the translator to rewrite the original text to a certain extent, but it does not indicate the extent to which the translator can rewrite the original text. It gives the translator too much freedom, which may let the translator easily translate the source text out of its context. Besides, the original meaning and usage of the source text may be distorted if the translator unscrupulously use every means in order to achieve the so-called “purpose of translation”. Accordingly, the translator will fall into the whirlpool of random translation, which may violate the intention of the original text.

Secondly, the Skopos theory overemphasizes the purpose of translation, the purpose of the translator and the purpose of the target language, so that the translator may easily change or omit many stylistic features of the original text in the target text. This makes it not suitable for some styles of text, such as poems. Because if a translator translates a poem into a prose or a descriptive passages out of the purpose of the translation client, he or she may be better said to rewrite or recreate something than translate. After all, translation is based on the original text, otherwise it cannot be called translation.

Last but not least, there are tens of thousands of readers. To meet the needs of different people, a translation must adopt multiple standards. When there are contradictions among various standards, the translator will be at a loss and the multiple standards will be equal to no standards. For example, if a translator receives the mission of the translation client that he should translate a song faithfully but also retain the beauty of the original text for both the children and adults to appreciate it, then the translator may feel hard to do the translation task with the three contradictory translation requirements.

'''3.2.3. My Point of View towards Skopos Theory'''

There are more or less deficiencies in every translation theory, and Skopos theory is no exception. To some extent, the shortcomings of Skopos theory mentioned above are also a major feature of it. It is this distinctive theoretical feature that can make it stand out in many translation theories and attract the attention of many scholars and translation enthusiasts. The author believes that the contribution of Skopos theory to the development of translation theory and its guiding significance in translation practice is far greater than its shortcomings and deficiencies. People should treat it with a more objective and rational attitude and let it play its due role in the field of translation. Generally speaking, the Skopos theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is regarded as a major theoretical breakthrough in the study of western translation theory, and it also plays an important role in guiding the successful translation practice.

'''IV.Conclusion'''

Through the above comparison, we find that both Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory have their own advantages and disadvantages, and their differences are greater than their similarities. Functional equivalence pays attention to the equivalence between the form and content of the translation and the original text as well as the reader’s response. Skopos theory can solve some problems that can not be solved by Functional Equivalence Theory and widen the research perspective of translation theory, which is to some extent the inheritance and development of Functional Equivalence Theory. The scope of application of the two is different, but both of them have their own unique excellencies.

Reference books: 《奈达论翻译》by谭载喜&《西方翻译理论通史》by刘军平

Bibliography：

[1] Eugene A. Nida. ''Toward a Science of Translating'' [M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.

[2] Eugene A. Nida, Charles Taber. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' [M]. Leiden: the Netherlands, E. J. Brill, 1969.

[3] Hans Vermeer. ''Framework for a General Translation Theory'' [M] ,1978.

[4]谭载喜.奈达论翻译 [M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司,1984.

[5]刘军平.西方翻译理论通史 [M].武汉：武汉大学出版社,2009.9.

[6]百度百科：功能对等理论

[7]百度百科：翻译目的论

[8]百度百科：目的论的优点与不足

[9]百度百科：功能对等理论的贡献与局限性

[10]彭长江.英汉--汉英翻译教程[M].长沙：湖南师范大学出版社，2017.8.

[11]百度百科：功能对等理论与目的论的比较

=='''Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory'''==

'''摘要'''

近几十年来，翻译理论层出不穷，翻译理论也带有多元化倾向。奈达从语言学的角度出发，根据翻译的本质，提出了功能对等理论，在这一理论中，他指出“翻译是用最恰当、自然和对等的语言从语义到文体再现源语的信息”。功能主义目的论的代表人物弗米尔认为翻译是一项有目的的活动，并且以实现译文的预期功能和效果为首要原则。
这两种理论都是具有较大影响力的西方翻译理论。它们在不同的时期由不同流派提出，本文着重分析两大理论在理论基础、翻译标准、文化观等层面上的差异性，并分析其相似性。通过对这两种理论的共性和差异进行比较，旨在加深我们对这两种貌似神离的翻译理论的认识与了解，让我们在不同的领域中能恰当地使用这两种翻译理论,更好地发挥各自的指导作用。

'''关键词'''

功能对等；目的论；差异性；相似性

'''Abstract'''

In recent decades, translation theories have emerged in an endless stream, and translation theories have a tendency to diversify. From the perspective of linguistics, Eugene Nida puts forward the theory of functional equivalence according to the nature of translation. In this theory, he points out that "Translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style". While one of the representatives of functionalist skopos theory, Hans J. Vermeer, considers that translation is a purposeful activity, taking the realization of the target text’s intended function as its first principle.
These two theories have great influence in western translation theories. They are proposed by different schools in different periods. This paper will focus on the differences between these two theories in terms of theoretical basis, translation standards, and cultural direction, and then analyze their similarities. By comparing the differences and similarities between the two theories, it will deepen our understanding of these two translation theories so that we can properly use them in different fields, thus better playing their respective guiding roles.

'''Key words'''
Functional Equivalence; Skopos Theory; comparison

'''Introduction'''

'''Research background'''

Contemporary western translation theories are flourishing, providing a new perspective for translation studies. In the 1960s, Eugene A. Nida proposed a translation theory based on reader response, namely "functional equivalence theory". With the development of the times, people have further understanding of the complex phenomenon of translation. The theory of equivalence sets the translation within the scope of the language level. However, the essence of translation is not only the conversion of pure language, but also the communication between different cultures based on language form. In the 1970s, translation studies oriented to the target language culture appeared in the West, breaking the traditional translation theory of textual centralism, which made the translator pay more attention to the translation and the target language receivers, the social and communicative functions of the translation. The German functionalist translation theory got rid of the shackles of the equivalence theory that prevailed at that time, broadened the field of translation theory research.

'''Significance of the study'''

By comparing the differences and similarities of these two translation theory, it can deepen our understanding of them. Therefore, when we do translation, we can choose the most appropriate translation theory to guide us to translate according to the specific situation. So it is very necessary to make a comparison between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.

'''Layout of this chapter'''

This thesis will be divided into three chapters. In the first chapter, a brief introduction of functional equivalence will be presented, such as the definition of functional equivalence, and its four criteria: conveying information; conveying the spirit and style of the original work; fluent language; and similar reader response. The second chapter involves three parts, that is, the development of skopos theory; the definition of skopos theory and the three rules of skopos theory. The final chapter falls into two part: the differences and similarities between these two theories.

'''1. A brief introduction of Functional equivalence theory'''

'''1.1 The definition of functional equivalence theory'''

Functional equivalence theory is the core of the famous American translator Eugene Nida’s translation theory. It attaches great importance to the response of the target language receivers, that is, the target language receiver and the source language receiver produce the same viewing response. He holds that translation should not only ensure the correctness of information exchange and achieve information equivalence in lexical sense, but also take into account the cultural background and behavioral patterns of the target language receiver and achieve information equivalence in style, semantics and other aspects in the process of translation, that is, to achieve functional equivalence of language. In the process of translation, we should not only consider the formal factors such as vocabulary and grammar, but also pay attention to the linguistic factors such as context, culture and social background, which are very important to translation. Nida’s definition of translation indicates that translation is not only equivalence in lexical sense, but also equivalence in semantics, text and style. The information conveyed by translation includes both surface lexical information and deep cultural information. This kind of “dynamic equivalence” includes four aspects: 1. lexical equivalence；2. syntactic equivalence；3. textual equivalence；4. stylistic equivalence. Among these four aspects, Nida believes that “meaning is the most important and form is the second”(张春柏，1998：50).

'''1.2 The criteria of functional equivalence theory'''

Nida’s functional equivalence translation theory has four criteria (Nida, 2001:117):

'''1.2.1 Conveying information'''

The “information” includes all kinds of information conveyed by the original language: semantics, style, literary image, scene and psychological effect. In the theory of functional equivalence, the criterion of “conveying information” means that the target language information conveyed by the translator to the target language receiver should be basically the same as the original text information conveyed by the original author to the target language receiver.

Example: “presidential historian...”

“总统的史学家......”

It is not clear that the message conveyed by “presidential historian” to Chinese readers is not the same as that conveyed by “presidential historian” to English readers. However, according to Nida’s functional equivalence theory, the translator translates it into “研究总统的历史学家” by adding words, so that Chinese readers can correctly understand the true meaning of “presidential historian” in the original text.

'''1.2.2 Conveying the spirit and style of the original work'''

From Nida’s point of view, translation is to reproduce the original text in the most natural way in the target language, first of all, meaning, then spiritual style, so that the receivers of the translated text can produce basically the same psychological response as the receivers of the original text.

Example:“来吧，朋友!”

It is a column broadcast by CCTV. If translated into “come on, friends!”, it seems to be close to the original in form, as a column is not solemn enough. And “solemnity” is the style of “来吧，朋友！”in the original Chinese text, which should be reproduced in the translation. Therefore, “A time to make friends” is quite different from the original Chinese in form, but it accurately conveys the spiritual style of the original to the target readers.

'''1.2.3 Fluent language: fully in line with the norms and conventions of the target language'''

This criterion means that, on the premise of conveying the information and spiritual style of the original text, the process of translation should not be constrained by the linguistic form and structure of the original text, and should grasp the connotation and spirit of the original text.

Example：“车来了！”

“Here comes the car / truck / bus / minibus / lorry / taxi!”
In Chinese, the category word “car” is used to replace any form of vehicle. But this method is not found in English. On the contrary, English is accustomed to using specific vocabulary. Therefore, when translating similar Chinese into English, it is necessary to make clear the means of transportation and to translate the specific means of transportation according to the habits of English expression. If you cross the street, remind your peers to say “车来了！”You should translate it into “Be careful!” according to English expression habits, so that English readers can really understand the meaning of the original text.

'''1.2.4 Similar reader responses'''

The first two standards focus on the transmission of linguistic information, content and style, while the latter two focus on the acceptability of the translation to the audience：The relationship between the target reader and the target text should be basically the same as that between the original reader and the target text, so as to achieve the spiritual fit between the translator and the original author, thus enabling the target reader to get the same feelings as the original reader.
Example: “as white as snow.”

It can sometimes be translated into “very white” because people in the translated culture may not know what snow is. We can also translate “to grow like mushroom” into “如雨后春笋般地成长起来”, because “mushroom” means exactly the same in English as“春笋”in Chinese.

'''Ⅱ. A brief introduction of Skopos theory'''

Skopos theory is the core concept of German functionalist theory, which is put forward by Hans. J. Vermeer. Skopos theory holds that the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies that are to be employed. Vermeer thinks that translators should follow three basic rules in the process of their translation, which are respectively skopos theory, coherence theory and fidelity theory.

'''2.1 The development of Skopos theory'''

Before the 1970s, the focus of translation studies was equivalence. In fact, this kind of equivalence was hard to achieve because the differences between cultures are hard to eliminate. In order to solve this problem, translation theorists put forward new theories, using functional and communicative methods to study translation. In this context, functionalist skopos theory continues to develop, and boldly shakes off the bondage of equivalence, taking the skopos as the general principle. So translation is examined in the framework of behavioral theory and intercultural communication, which opens a new path for the world translation theories, including the Chinese translation (Li Changshuan, 2009:11). The development of skopos theory has experienced the following four stages:

The first stage: Katharina Reiss firstly introduced the concept of equivalence into translation criticism, proposing the prototype of functionalist theory. On the one hand, Reiss still insisted on the equivalence theory with the original text as the center, and pointed out that the ideal translation should be equivalent to the original text from the conceptual content, language form and communicative function. She believed that the ideal translation should be comprehensive communicative translation. On the other hand, Reiss also realized that some equivalence is impossible. For example, the translation and the original text have different functions. In this case, Reiss believes that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the translation rather than the equivalence principle (Zhang Jinglan, 2004:1). Reiss's research laid the foundation for skopos theory.

The second stage: Reiss’s student Hans J. Vermeer proposed skopos theory, taking the skopos of the translation as the paramount principle during the process of translation. Vermeer believed that translation is a kind of human behavior, and any kind of human behavior is purposeful, so the purpose of translation should be determined before the translation begins. Vermeer thinks that translation should be based on the original text, and translation is a purposeful behavior that must be completed by negotiation. In addition, translation must follow three basic rules, of which the skopos rule is the most important. After these three rules are put forward, the criteria for judging the good or bad translation are no longer “equivalence”, but whether the translation fully achieves the expected goal of translation or not.

The third stage: Based on communication theory and action theory, Holz-Manttari proposed translational action. Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer (Jeremy Munday, 2001:77). Translation is a communicative process involving a series of roles and players Manttari regards text as a pure tool for achieving communicative function, and believes that its inherent value is completely subordinate to its purpose. The translator only needs to be responsible for the purpose environment, and the target text can be completely independent of the original text, thus further developing the functionalist translation theory.

The fourth stage: Christane Nord comprehensively summarized and perfected the functionalist theory. Nord proposed the principle of "function plus loyalty", which systematically elucidates the internal and external factors that need to be considered in text analysis of translation, and how to formulate a translation strategy that is consistent with the purpose of translation based on the original text.

'''2.2 The definition of skopos'''

Skopos theory was originally put forward by the German scholar Han J. Vermeer in 1978. “Skopos is a Greek word for 'aim' or 'purpose' and was introduced into translation theory by Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and of the action of translating”(Munday, 2001: 78). Translation actions have many purposes, but Vermeer divides them into three categories: translator’s basic purpose, such as make a living; the target text’s communicative purpose, like enlightening the readers; and the purpose realized by selecting some special translation strategies or steps, for example, translating one language word by word aims to show the structure feature of this language. Generally speaking, the skopos theory refers to the communicative purpose of the source text.

'''2.3 Three basic rules of skopos theory'''

In this part, a detailed analysis of these rules will be presented with examples.

'''2.3.1 The skopos rule'''

In the three rules of Skopos theory, Skopos theory is the prime principle to be followed in any translation. Vermeer explains this rule as follows:

''Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.''(Vermeer, 1988:20)

Therefore, skopos theory believes that any translation action is determined by the purpose of the translation. That is to say, “The ends justify the means” (Reiss &Vermeer, 1984:101) the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies.

Example: I wear nothing but a few drops of Channel No.5

无限芬芳的超脱，点滴即可创造。

If using the literal translation, this sentence can be translated as “我什么都不穿，除了滴几滴香奈儿五号”. However, this kind of translation extremely lacks of beauty and there is no more elegance. Considering that the ultimate goal of advertisement is to induce consumers to buy the products and services it promotes. This advertisement adopts free translation and combines with Chinese traditional culture, which makes it like a ancient poem with quaint charm. It not only expresses the meaning of the advertisement, but also injects the characteristics of art, thus letting Channel No.s full of magic. It satisfies some people's pursuit high quality of life, and also makes consumers deeply impressed. So it can be called a successful translation.

'''2.3.2 The coherence rule'''

Coherence rule is also called intratextual coherence rule. It holds that the translated text must be coherent, readable and acceptable. In other words, the TT receivers can understand the TT according to their cultural and intellectual background. Any text is a provider of information and functions, but the information and functions are not always obvious from a linguistic point of view. The translator selects aspects and components that serve the purpose according to the skopos rule, and then translates the source text through language processing to make the translated text become a new information provider. In the language processing process, translators must be concerned that translation is readable and understandable in the translated language. Only the translation is meaningful in the communicative context of the TL receivers can the culture and information of the source text be effectively transmitted to the target language readers.

Example: Enchanting medieval house with five acres of delightful gardens.

这里是迷人的中世纪住宅，外有五英亩的美丽花园。

This is a part of the travel propaganda. In order to ensure that translation is smooth and coherent, the original prepositional phrase is changed into a complete sentence with a subject-predicate structure, which doesn’t make the relationship among sentences appear loose.

'''2.3.3 The fidelity rule'''

Fidelity rule is also called inter-textual coherence and states that there must be coherence between the ST and the TT. It is similar to the “faithfulness” of Yan Fu’s theory. Fidelity rule maintains the status of the original text and constrains translation actions of different translation purpose. However, the concept of Fidelity rule is relative. The form and degree of faithfulness is determined by the purpose of translation and the translators’ understanding of the original text.

Example: Free entry into farm, Dogs on lead.

OPEN DAILY: 1 March--30 November 10:00 am--5:00 pm

农场免费进入，宠物狗请带好狗绳。

开放时间：3月1日--11月30日上午10点--下午五点

The time, place and various precautions in the travel text are very important, because the error of this kind of information will bring unnecessary trouble to the tourists. Therefore, the translation, according to the fidelity rule, faithfully and effectively conveys the original information to the reader for the purpose of facilitating the tourists.

There exists a hierarchical order of these rules. The skopos rule is the most important one and other two rules are subordinate to it. At the same time, the fidelity rule is also subordinate to the coherence rule.

'''Ⅲ. Comparative study on Nida's functional equivalence theory and functionalist skopos theory'''

This chapter will mainly discuss the differences and similarities between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.

'''3.1 The differences'''

'''3.1.1 Different theoretical basis'''

The early equivalence theory was directly influenced by American structuralist linguistics and human linguistics. Later, Nida combined translation studies with the syntactic structure analysis method, semantic component analysis method and Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar that were popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, took structural analysis of language expressions and translation procedures, and injected fresh blood into translation studies (Chen Gang, 2011: 145). Using communication theory and cross-cultural content as the starting point, Nida revised Chomsky's deep transfermation grammar, paid attention to the psychology of information receivers, and stimulated the potential of information receivers as .much as possible.

German skopos theory is an emerging school in the late 1970s. It criticizes that the translation theory based on linguistic school pays much attention to form, and is developed on the basis of communication theory, information theory, behavior theory, discourse linguistics, and text theory. Based on the behavior theory, Skopos theory proposes the concept of translation action, which extends translation to a new field. That is to say, translation is a kind of purposeful and conscious intercultural communication action of human. As the name suggests, Skopos theory regards translation activities as a kind of "action", and any action has its goals or skopos. One of the representatives of the skopos theory, Hans J. Vermeer, summarizes the essence of skopos theory in a concise language: the ends justify the means, that is, the purpose of translation determines the translation process.

'''3.1.2 Different translation principles and standards'''

Nida's functional equivalence refers to “the closest natural equivalence to the source language information”. “Natural” here means that the translation must conform to the language and culture of the target language, in line with the context and the requirements of the target receivers. "Equivalence" here, he clearly stated that it is not "equivalence" in mathematics, but "approximation", that is, the approximation of functional equivalence from varying degrees. From the above Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory, the translator must conform to four criteria in order to achieve "close and natural equivalence": (1) conveying meaning; (2) conveying the spirit and style of the original work; (3) fluent; (4) similar reader responses. In order to achieve these four standards, there will be contradictions between content and form from time to time. It is either the content giving way to form, or the form giving way to content. The two form a unified whole.

Skopos theory advocates that translation should follow three rules: the skopos rule, the coherence rule and the fidelity rule, of which the skopos rule is the highest principle. The main purpose is to make the translation achieve the expected function of the target language receivers in the target language environment. In addition to the highest principle, the translation must follow the coherence rule and the fidelity rule. The former requires the translation to be "coherent within the text," that is, the translation needs to meet the communication context and cultural background of the target language so that the target reader can understand. The latter requires the translation to be coherent between the ST and the TT. That is, the translation should try to imitate the original text, whether it is formal imitation or content imitation is permissible, which depends on the purpose of the translation. The latter two rules are subordinate to the highest rule-- the skopos rule.

But this also makes the translation theorists produce questions. Is the translator free to do anything for the purpose? Then Nord put forward the theory of “function plus loyalty”. Nord believes that "there is no translation without the original text", and free rewriting does not belong to translation; "Translators should be responsible for both the original text and the translation environment, and be responsible for both the sender of the original information and the recipient of the translation." This responsibility of the translator is "loyalty"(Zhang Meifang, 2005:60-65). The principle of "function plus loyalty" avoids the skopos theory to go to extremes, and complements skopos theory, highlighting the responsibility of translators, and limiting the translator's freedom. Because the skopos theory believes that the success of the translation is judged by whether the expected purpose of the source text is realized or not, and the expectation also reflects the requirements of the target language reader. Since the target language readers reflect differently, so the translation standard of the skopos theory is also diversified.

'''3.1.3 Different cultural directions'''

Nida tried to overcome the cultural difference and eliminate the cultural atmosphere in the source text. His theory is mainly oriented to the original text. That is, the source language culture, emphasizing the consistency of cultural environment between the source language and the target language. At the same time, Nida is a support of language commonality. His theory reflects the translation thought of structuralist linguistics, that is, the "mirror reflection" of the objective world and the universality of language expression. The translators’ full imitation and the independence of express the value of their culture, especially the cultural consistency of the target language culture and the source language culture.

Vermeer regards translation as a purposeful action, firstly in its outcome, that is, the target text. The target text is oriented towards the target culture, and the target culture determines the suitability of the target text. Therefore, Skopos theory believes that Translation is an irreversible transmission of information to the source language culture or language in the target culture. There is no intermediate position, it is intercultural communication action, and it is communicative and cultural. In addition, Skopos theory is oriented to the context of macro-postmodern culture, especially the habits, traditions and norms of the target language culture (Fan Derui, 2019:67).

'''3.2 The Similarities'''

'''3.2.1 Both are a combination of translation and language function'''

The skopos theory represented by Hans J. Vermeer and Christane Nord, and the functional equivalence theory of Nida are put forward by different schools in different periods, but there are still many internal connections and intercommunity. There is no doubt that both have their rationality of existence and show progress in their translation activities of their respective periods. Whether it is "skopos theory" or "functional equivalence theory", both their ultimate goals are to achieve smooth communication between different languages and reduce misunderstandings and conflicts arising from information exchange. In particular, both combine translation with language functions, focusing on the role of language functions in translation. Skopos theorists believe that translation is a purposeful communicative activity, and the translation process is determined by the expected function or purpose of the translation. This purpose is to a great extent influenced by the target receivers and the context and cultural background of the target receivers. Therefore, the translator should decide the choice of the original text information, the use of the translation strategy and the expression of the translation according to the requirements of the clients, combined with the purpose of the translation and the specific situation of the target receivers

Nida also put forward the translation principle of functional equivalence from the perspective of language function, and also combines translation with language functions. He pointed out that due to the differences in language and culture, it is impossible for translation to obtain the formal equivalence between the source text and the target text, but only functional equivalence. Although the expressions of various languages are different, they have the same expressive power and have the same or similar language functions, that is, expressive, cognitive, interpersonal, informative, imperative, empathetic, sympathetic, empathy and aesthetic function. If the translation of these aspects is basically the same, then the functional equivalence of translation is achieved. According to this, he put forward that "the preservation of the original content must change the form, the degree of change, and must depend on different languages in the distance between language and cultural." In order to produce efficacy, the adjustment of the translation from form to content is the specific application of functional ideas. However, Nida did not develop further in the direction of functionalism, but still focused on the concept of equivalence. Therefore, his theory is fundamentally different from the views of the German functional translation school.

'''3.2.2 Both emphasize the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.'''

Vermeer believes that the recipients of the translation, that is, the readers, as an important part of the translation requirements, is one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of translation; the target language receivers is the recipient or listener of the translated text with the knowledge, expectation and communication needs of his own specific culture world. Translation is the text in the environment of the target language produced for the purpose of the target language and the reader of the target language in the context of the target language. In addition, the coherence rule of skopos theory emphasizes that the translation must meet the criteria of "coherence within the text" that is, only the text is fully understood by the recipient can they make sense. It can be seen that the skopos theory emphasizes the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.

Nida's functional equivalence theory is also readers-oriented. Nida believes that the research object of translation is the reader; the recipient is not a passive target of language communication, but an active participant in communicative activities. The reader's response is the only criterion for judging the quality of the translation. Therefore, the translation must be fluent and understandable. In order to achieve the intelligibility of the translation, it is even possible to delete parts that the reader cannot understand, such as metaphors.

'''Conclusion'''

By comparatively analyzing Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory and the German functionalist skopos theory, skopos theory critically inherited the rational factors of Nida's functional equivalence theory, and abandoned its irrational part. Skopos theory gets rid of the shackles of equivalence theory, breaking the traditional perspective of single translation studies, turning attention to the study of other relevant factors in translation activities other than language. Skopos theory broke through the framework of equivalence translation theory, and proposed a theoretical system of diversification of translation standards led by the skopos rule. The diversification of translation standards makes the function closer to reality. This is clearly more scientific, more operative and more versatile than Nida's theory that takes functional equivalence as the sole criterion. Moreover, compared with the traditional language translation theory that emphasizes the internal study of translation, Skopos theory denies that translation is a simple language conversion, and pays more attention to the external of translation. Compared with Nida, Skopos theory are more concerned with the humanity and sociality of translation activities. In addition, the Skopos theory shifts the focus of translation from the reproduction of the original text to the more challenging creation of target text, which enhances the active participation of the translator as the main body of the translation, overturning the center status of the original text, and establishing the central status of the target text and the translator. The functionalist skopos theory puts translation in a dynamic cultural context, emphasizing the translator's active intervention. Therefore, it solves some problems that the functional equivalence theory fails to solve, broadens the research perspective of traditional translation theory, is a major breakthrough and important supplement to the functional equivalence theory, and erects a distinctive flag in modern translation theory.

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=='''On the Comparison between "Sublimation" an "Functional Equivalence" Theories'''==

'''Abstract''': Qian Zhongshu and Eugene Nida are outstanding and renowned translators in the history of Chinese and Western translation respectively. It is believed that Mr.Qian’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” theories have a broad and profound impact on Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will recognize the theoretical value of these two theories from the dialectical point of view by comparing the similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”. It aims to better apply translation theory to translation practice, and advocate us to view Chinese and Western translation theories from a historical and contradictory perspective, and thus making Translation Studies become more systematic and scientific.

'''Key words''': sublimation; functional equivalence; Qian Zhongshu; Eugene Nida

'''Introduction''':
As a famous master of literature, translation and academy, Qian Zhongshu is considered as “the Kunlun Mountain of culture” by many scholars on account of his remarkable achievements and a wide range of knowledge. His literary masterpieces include “Pipe-awl Chapters” , “Discourses on Art”, “Seven Patches”, “Selected Essays of Qian Zhongshu”, “Fortress Besieged” and so on. What’s more, he proposed “Sublimation” theory in translation field, which does great contribution to traditional Chinese translation theory and make Translation Studies more systematic. As Chinese scholar Chen Fukang said: “He (Qian) has made a great many outstanding achievements in some important fields like literature and academic research. Although the discussion on translation is only a carved railing in his academic palace, it can have a huge impact in the field of translation studies.” (Chen Fukang 2000: 417).

Eugene Nida is a famous American contemporary linguist and translation theorist. He has been devoted to the translation of the Bible and has summarized a set of translation theories from his own translation practice. The core point of his translation theory is “Functional Equivalence” (initially called “Dynamic Equivalence”). From his point of view, “Functional Equivalence” is to refer to the type of equivalent reflected in a TT which seeks to adapt the function of the original to suit the specific context in and for which it was produced” (Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004: 64). It requires that the translation should focus on the meaning and spirit of the original text, instead of being constrained by formal correspondence. According to this theory, he deems that the translation must have four criteria: (1) conveying meaning; (2) expressing spirit; (3) natural and smooth wording; (4) similar receptor response. In his book “From one language to another”, he replaced “Dynamic Equivalence” with “Functional Equivalence” and put forward two levels of meaning, say, referential meaning and associative meaning.

'''1.The theoretical origin of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''

'''1.1 The theoretical origin of “Sublimation”'''

The idea of Qian Zhongshu’s translation theory of “Sublimation” comes from his book “Lin Shu's Translation” written in 1963 and “The Pipe-awl Chapters” published by Zhonghua Book Company in 1979. He proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. Then he pointed out: “The highest ideal of literary translation is ‘sublimation’. When you translate the literary works from one language to another, you can not only avoid the trace of stiffness and awkward expressions resulting from the different habits of language use, but also completely preserve the flavor of the original. Then we can say, that's the realization of ‘Sublimation’ ” (Qian Zhongshu, 2002: 77). According to his explanation, it can be easily seen that the core of his translation theory is “Sublimation”. What’s more, we can extract 3 levels of “Hua” (Sublimation) from his theory, the first is to transform the source text to target text, and then use the domesticating method to make the source language be naturally and smoothly expressed in target language without any transparent feeling of translation caused by the differences of culture and language. Finally, it is the ultimate goal of “Sublimation” that is to say, “the transmigration of souls”, replacing the external shell and retaining the inner spirit and style without the slightest deviation. In other words, a translation should cleave to the original with such fidelity that it would not read like a translation, for a literature work in its own language will never read as though it were through a process of translation (Kao, 1975: 8-9).

'''1.2 The theoretical origin of “Functional Equivalence”'''
Nida first proposed the concept of dynamic equivalence in the 1964 book “Toward s Science of Translating”. He believed that there were two kinds of equivalence in translation, namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Specifically, formal equivalence is the “quality of a translation in which the features of the form of the source text have been mechanically reproduced in the receptor language”. On the contrary, dynamic equivalence is the quality which characterizes a translation in which “the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors” (Nida & Taber, 1982: 200-201). Nida’s translation theory has its origin from his own translation practice of the Bible, in which he emphasized the communicative function of translation from the perspective of semantics and information theory. What's more, he regarded translation as interlingual translation, and he stressed the importance of paying attention to the receptors' response, in order to pursue the standard that target readers could have the same response as the original readers. In his book “From one language to another”, he changed the term “Dynamic Equivalence” to “Functional Equivalence” and he emphasized that we should try to achieve formal equivalence on the basis of the accordant information conveyed from the source text to the target language. In addition, he divided the translation process into three steps, say, “analysis, transfer, restructuring and check”. Through these four steps, the original information can be accurately conveyed, the response of the target receptors is also concerned, and the purpose of communication will be well achieved.

'''2.Similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''

'''2.1 Similarities between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''

(1) The same concern for the translation processes: As we mentioned above, Mr. Qian Zhongshu proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. To put them specifically, “enticement” refers to the role that plays in cultural exchanges by means of translation. In this sense, translation can be regarded as a guide that will lead target readers to understand the original language and culture and to better understand foreign excellent works. This process is of great significance because If the readers have little interest in the source language culture and foreign literature; then the translation works will lose its value. So we can say that translation is not only a conversion of two languages, but also a collision between different cultures and thoughts. The so-called term “Misinformation” refers to the distortion and wrong expression of the translation. Since “Misinformation” is the inevitable shortcoming of translation, no matter how excellent a translator is and no matter how smooth his translations are, he can not avoid making mistakes of one sort or another in one way or another, but he can exhaust every means to reduce misinformation to its minimum (Yu Chengfa,2003: 43). This is due to the gap between different languages, the gap between the translator's understanding, the style of writing and the form of original content, and even the gap between the translator's comprehension and his ability of expression. The final step is called “Hua Jing”; here “Hua” means “Sublimation”,which is the highest ideal of literary translation and also the ultimate goal of translation processes. A translator should try to figure out what the original writer means and ponder over what he imagines so so to immerge oneself with the writer(Luo Xinzhang, 1984: 511). Qian Zhongshu's explanation of the process of translation is the essential condition for the realization of “Sublimation” (Hua). Therefore, when doing translation practice, the translator has to make each step be well prepared, which requires a high standard of the translator's ability and quality.

Similarly, based on the theory of “functional equivalence”, Nida proposed a “four-step model” of the translation process from the perspective of linguistics, namely, “Analysis, Transfer, Restructuring and Check”. Nida and Taber claim that all languages have between six and a dozen basic kernel structures and “agree far more on the level of kernels than on the level of more elaborate structures” such as word order. First of all, “Analysis” denotes that we have to analyze the surface structure of the source text and then to master the grammatical meaning of the sentence, in other words, the referential meaning and connotative meaning of the source text. In order to convey the original information correctly, the translator must analyze the text from surface structure to the deep structure. Then, “Transfer”, it means that the translator renders the analyzed source text to the target text. This step contains the conversion of two different language symbols and language forms, and it is also an exchange of different thinking modes. Next, “Restructuring” is the re-processing and re-creation of the original text, in which the translator will translate the original text into the target one that conforms to the expression of the target language, getting rid of the constraints of the surface structure of the original text, thus further excavating the meaning of the deep structure. Restructuring is thus defined as forward translation, or in other words the process which is the reverse of back-transformation (Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004: 145). Last but not least, "Check" refers to the process of comparing the text of the original language with the target language so as to avoid semantic errors in the translation works, and pursue the maximum equivalence between the content of the target text and the content of the original text. Nida and Taber’s own description of the process (1969: 63–9) emphasizes the ‘scientific and practical’ advantages of this method compared to any attempt to draw up a fully comprehensive list of equivalences between specific pairs of SL and TL systems (Jeremy Munday, 2016: 63).

(2)The same concern for the response of the target readers: Since ancient times, the domestic and foreign translators have different opinions on the criteria of excellent translation. Yan Fu proposed his famous three-character guideline, namely, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” in his translation work “Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays”. Similarly, western translator Alexander Fraser Tytler put forward the “Three principles of translation”. To put it simply, that the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; that the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; that the translation should have all the ease of the original composition. From the analysis of Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s description of translation criteria, we can see the fact that the study of the principles and standards of translation is precisely the translator’s emphasis on the target readers, and also reflects the translator’s sense of responsibility for the target culture. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory stressed that translators should guide our readers to read foreign literary works or let our readers be attracted by the foreign culture and introduce foreign writers to them. “Sublimation” is not only a standard for translation, but also a reflection of translators’ care for the target readers. Mr. Qian said: “The translation should be faithful to the original work, so that it does not read like a translation work, because the original work will never be read like a translation in the situation of source culture.” A good translation can stimulate the reader's curiosity about the original work and also give the reader the enjoyment of beauty. What’s more, Mr. Qian also commented the three principles proposed by Yan Fu:

“Faithfulness in translation should include expressiveness and elegance. Expressiveness gives full scope to faithfulness, and elegance is not just to adore expressiveness. To convey the original in the same style---that is faithfulness. ...Many have come to understand that a translation is not supposed to beautify or polish to attain elegance. Yet few have realized that a translation has to give up the words for the spirit. A translation can be intelligible without being faithful to the original, yet can be faithful to the original without being intelligible to the reader.”(Qian Zhongshu, 1986: 1101)

In the meanwhile, Nida deemed that the accuracy of the translation depends on the extent to which the ordinary readers correctly understand the original text, that is, whether the target reader can obtain similar or identical feelings when reading the translation works. The purpose of “functional equivalence” is to satisfy the communication needs of the readers. In order to achieve this goal, we have to change the form of the original text if it is necessary and consider the reader's acceptance of the translation work. Nida's “Functional Equivalence” requires not only the faithfulness to the original text, but also the accountability to the target readers and the original readers. Nida describes various “scientific approaches to meaning” related to work that had been carried out by theorists in semantics and pragmatics. Central to Nida's work is the move away from the old idea that a word has a fixed meaning and towards a functional definition of meaning in which a word acquires meaning through its context and can produce varying responses according to culture.

From what we has discussed above, we can see that both Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” and Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” must take the reader’s reaction into consideration. Therefore, as a standard for translation, these theories avoid mechanical textual equivalence and bilingual conversion, which promotes the development of translation practice.

(3)The Domesticating tendency of the two theories: As we mentioned in the very beginning, Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation”(化) theory has three meanings, namely “Transfer”(转化), “Domesticating”(归化) and “Sublimation”(化境). It can be seen easily that “Domesticating” is a bridge connecting the transformation of source text and the realization of Sublimation in target language. In the book “Seven Patches”, he wrote: “whether the target version is ‘European-oriented’ or ‘Chinese-oriented’, the translation is always based on the language system from the original country to the language system of the target country(2002: 78). Although he did not explicitly state whether the translation should be “domestication-oriented” or “foreignization-oriented”, he compared the translation to the “reincarnation” of the original and regarded that the translation was an “out form” of the original. In addition, he appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, and comments that he would rather read Lin Shu’s translation than read Haggard’s original text. In this way, Mr. Qian Zhongshu seems to prefer the text of “Chinese-oriented” style, which demonstrates the tendency of “Domestication”. In the theory of “Functional Equivalence”, Nida advocates the use of the expression habits of the target language to transform the original text. He believes that language is the means of communication, and communication is the ultimate goal and an important role of translation, so he pays more attention to the receptors' response to the target text. In order to allow the target readers to accept the translation, it is necessary to make the translation correspond to the cultural traditions and language habits of the target language. At the same time, the translator has to make the translation natural and smooth under the premise of ensuring loyalty. Nida's “Domesticating” translation tendency can be seen from the above view. Please look at the following example:

S: “white as snow”

T: “白如木棉花” or “白如鹭毛” or “白如蘑菇”

From the point of view of traditional translation standards, the above example runs counter to the original information. However, for those who have never seen snow will never know what snow is alike, and therefore he can't understand what "white as snow" means. Through the strategy of “Domestication”, the target readers can have a similar response to the original readers, so as to better achieve the purpose of communication.

'''2.2 Differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''

(1) Different theoretical basis: Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory is based on Yan Fu’s criteria of translation “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, which is the development of Chinese traditional translation theory. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory has pushed the study of translation to the extreme of art from the category of aesthetics. Eventually, the “Sublimation” theory was included in the course of the development of Chinese translation thought, say, “Case - Seeking faithfulness - Spiritual likeness - the Sublimation”. These four concepts, are independent, but also interconnected. They developed gradually to constitute a whole translation system and this whole system works as an important part of our traditional translation theory (Luo Xinzhang, 2009: 20).

Nida’s “functional equivalence” was established on the basis of his Bible translation practice. Under the guidance of Chomsky’s transform-generating grammar, Nida’s functional equivalence requires that the translator analyze the given text from the surface structure to the deep structure; then transform it from the deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally adjust the target language structure to obtain the surface structure of the translated version. From a series of steps, we can see that the hierarchical and theoretical property of translation studies, so Nida put forward his opinion that translation could be considered as a science. Qian Zhongshu thought that the translated works could surpass the original works and sometimes even should be much better than the original; while Nida did not choose the advantageous version between the original and the target text- his more emphasis goes to the equivalence between the two languages and the response of the target receptors thus more priorities were given to the communicative function.

(2)Different scopes of their application: “Huajing” (Sublimation) was proposed by Mr. Qian Zhongshu for literary translation standards; hence it may be more appropriate for the translation of literary genre. He considered that translator should “break through” the barriers of cultural differences and make the translation “surpass” the original work. However, it seems unreasonable for the translations of applied styles which relates to politics, economics, law, trade, etc. In addition, some scholars believe that Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation” has over-emphasized the mystery of art and has become a vague standard that could be hard to reach (Gao Huali, 2009: 154). The “highest ideal” of the literary translation he described will inevitably produce the problems of “Misinformation”, which would limit the scope of application of “Sublimation”. Despite the fact that scholars and experts of one generation after another have made their fruitful efforts to shed light on “Sublimation” from various aspects, it remains theoretical unexplainable and practical unattainable, like “an attic, in the air” to many people in the translation circle (Yu Chengfa, 2003: 8)

On the contrary, Nida’s translation of Bible carries religious culture with integrity and solemnity. He preached to people from all walks of life in order to spread the will of God; therefore, his translation must not only meet the needs of the aristocracy, but also the needs of ordinary people who lack knowledge of religious culture. The target readers of the “functional equivalence” theory is the masses from all walks of life in the society, and its range of application is more practical. Nida’s equivalence of translation is derived from the translation practice of the Bible. As we know, western languages have a lot in common in culture and words of expression, so Nida’s “equivalence” is relatively easy to achieve between two European languages. In English-Chinese translation, it may be more difficult to achieve complete “equivalence”, because Chinese and English belong to different language systems, and their cultures are rather divergent. Nida strictly divides the translation steps into four, which can be used as a practical translation method to guide the translation of some scientific and technical articles, announcements, and application articles. For literary genres, such as the translation of poetry and prose, the translator's creativity may be more important. It is difficult to convey the literary nature of the original text by mechanical methods and steps.

'''3.A Critical Understanding of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''

'''3.1 Is “Sublimation” faithful ?'''

According to traditional translation theory, the translator is always regarded as the "servant" of both the original and the translated text. He must be faithful to the original author while concerning the target readers. Xu Jun (2003: 321) wrote in his book “On Translation”: “Three points are often emphasized in traditional translation theory: first of all, translators should not incorporate their own subjective thoughts in translation; then they should not express their individuality in translation; in the end, translators should render the text on the basis of original message, and loyally follow the thoughts of the original writer. From the analysis of Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory, it is clear to see that he is more inclined to the translation strategy of “Domestication”, which emphasizes that the target version can surpass the source text. He, himself appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, because of their common advocacy and similar historical background. From the point of view of historical materialism, “social existence determines social consciousness, and social consciousness has an adverse effect on social existence.” For example, Lin Shu was living in a closed country and at that time , Qing Dynasty was extremely arrogant or even ignorant. His style and characteristics of the translation were naturally influenced by this national sentiment. Therefore, his translation had tendency to “Domestication” or even an unfaithful translation. Qian Zhongshu lived in a period of prosperity in literature and art since the establishment of People's Republic of China and at that time Chairman Mao proposed the policy of “All flowers blossoming and hundreds of schools contending (百花齐放，百家争鸣). So our Chinese people were overflowing high spirit and proud emotion; some translators’ translation works are more inclined to take the advantages of “Domestication” and make the translation work more excellent than the original one. Such a translation strategy will be somewhat “disloyal” to the original text, and will not “sincerely imitate” the original text as Lu Xun advocates from his “Foreignization” method. It is difficult to concretely implement “Sublimation” theory, because it has become an “unattainable” goal. Whether the translation should be “Chinese-oriented” or “European-oriented”; be “faithful” or “creative”, and whether the translator should be “visible” or “invisible” in translation are all difficult standards to measure since these factors are inevitably affected by the subjective and historical objectivity of the translator. Is “Sublimation” really a faithful translation to the original text? Perhaps just as Mr. Qian himself said: “The translator’s ability to use his native language is more flexible and smooth than the original author’s ‘source language’ and that is what always happens in the history of translation.” We can consider that such “disloyal” is “faithful” in a certain sense.

'''3.2 Problems of Nida’s “Functional Equivalence”'''

The questions of meaning, equivalence and translatability became a constant theme of translation studies in the 1960s and were tackled by a new ‘scientific’ approach followed by one of the most important figures in translation studies, the American Eugene Nida. Eugene Nida’s theory of translation developed from his own practical work from the 1940s onwards when he was translating and organizing the translation of the Bible, training often inexperienced translators who worked in the field.
As for Nida's “functional equivalence” theory, praise and opposition to his theory are always existing in the translation circle. Some people think that the theory is a representative of the science of translation science and has a good guiding role in translation practice. However, there are also some scholars who disagree with this theory and for example Peter Newmark is one of its critics. He believed that Nida’s equivalence theory takes the reader too seriously, but sometimes sacrifices the actually original thoughts of the writer. It is also doubtful whether “functional equivalence” can be applied to the original texts of various subjects. If the translator partially pursue “functional equivalence”, which will makes it difficult for the target readers to fully understand the original cultural information and it is not conducive to the mutual communication between different countries and cultures. For the above example: if we render “White as snow” as “白如鹭毛”, target readers may understand the meaning of the original author, but they still have no idea of what the word “snow” actually means. This has become a situation where we cannot get two things at the same time, or in Chinese “鱼和熊掌不可兼得”. However, If the original text is literally translated as “white as snow”, then the translator continues to explain what substance a “snow” is and what characteristics it may have and why we say its color is as white as egret’s feathers. In this way, not only can the readers of the translation work have the same response as the readers of the original, but also it is conducive for them to learn to understand new things and new concepts, which will gradually promote the communication of different cultures and the mutual interests of different countries.

'''4.Conclusion'''

Mr. Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” respectively represent huge progress in Chinese and Western translation studies, and they played an important role for the reference of translation studies and practice. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration. Furthermore, we must learn their theories with a critical view, so as to strive for innovation and establishment of a new era for translation studies.

'''References'''

[1]Chen Fukang. A History of Chinese Translation Theories in China [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.2000.

[2]Gao Huali. A Short History of Translation And Interpretation in China And Other Countries [M].Hangzhou：Zhejiang University Press.2009.

[3]Kao, Gorge. (trans.) Lin CH'in-nan Revisited [A]. By Qian Zhongshu. Renditions [J], autumn, 1975: 8-21

[4]Luo Xinzhang.On Translation [M].Beijing：The Commercial Press.1984.

[5]Mark, Shuttleworth, Moira Cowie. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 2004.

[6]Munday, Jeremy. Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications. Routledge, 2013.

[7]Nida, Eugene A. & Charles R.Taber (1969/1982) The Theory and Practice of Translation, Leiden: E. J. Brill.

[8]Qian Zhongshu.Pipe-awl Chapters [M].Beijing：Zhonghua Book Company.1986.

[9]Qian Zhongshu.Seven Patches [M].Beijing：SDX Joint Publishing Company.2002.

[10]Xu Jun.On Translation[M].Wuhan：Hubei Education Press.2003.

[11]Yu Chengfa. Interpreting Sublimation [D].Central China Normal University,2003.

=Theory and Practise=
=='''Translators' Views on Translation Influence Their Translation Behavior'''==

'''Abstract:''' A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.

'''Key words:''' translator’s view; translation behavior; translation principles; responsibility

'''译者翻译观对其翻译行为的影响'''

'''摘要：'''译者在翻译中处于核心位置。译者的翻译观指译者本身对于翻译的理解，其中包含了译者的翻译策略和价值取向。不同的译者受其社会与文化及个人经历和意识形态的影响，会有不同的翻译观。翻译观作为译者意识形态的一种，对翻译行为有着很大的影响。对于译者来说，翻译从来不是个人行为，而是一种对原作者、原作、读者及译入语文化的责任。

'''关键词：'''译者；翻译观；翻译行为；翻译原则；责任

A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. And “translation behavior”, in a broad sense, includes the translators’ linguistic translation behavior and the social transcend-translation behavior. In a narrow sense, it only means the translators’ translation as a “pure” translator (Zhou 18). The “translator behavior” in this thesis is a broad one, that is, translators’ translation behavior can be influenced by their social and cultural context, their motivations for translation, their views on translation and the linguistic translatability of the SL and their translation competence (Xu Jun 199-254). Specifically, the translation behavior we will discuss is “what to translate (what works they translated)” and “how to translate (their translation principles)”. According to A. Lefevere, ideology and poetics together dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems (39). The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior.

So how is translation behavior associated with translator’s views?

From the very beginning the research of translation was limited in a certain extent, and then there were some scholars starting to study on the relationship between translation and other systems, including Even-Zohar, Bassett, Lefevere and Venuti.

'''I.Some Previous Studies'''

A.Even-Zohar’s Polysystem

According to ''Introducing Translation Studies'':

“Polysysten theory was developed in the 1970s by the Israeli scholar Itamar Even-Zohar borrowing ideas from the Russian Formalists of the 1920s and the Czech structuralists of the 1930s and 1940s . . . For the Formalists, a literary work was not studied in isolation but as part of a literary system . . . Literature is thus part of the social, cultural, literary and historical framework . . .” (Munday 165).

In 1978, Even-Zohar in his “The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem”, first gives a new term, the polysystem (Even-Zohar 22), emphasizing the translated literature operates as a system in itself:

(1)in the way the TL culture selects works for translation;

(2)in the way translation norms, behavior and policies are influenced by other co-systems (Even-Zohar 22).

Thus, translation is not isolated, but associated with other systems, for instance, the TL culture. And the ST that chosen by a culture correspond to the organized system rather than arbitrary decisions made by individuals. Also translation works occupies different position in different cultures and has something to do with the position of the national literature.

B.Bassett and Lefevere

Later, “Bassett and Lefevere go beyond language and focus on the interaction between translation and culture, on the way in which culture impacts and constrains translation and on ‘the larger issues of context, history and convention (11)’ ” (Munday 192).

C.Lefevere: Rewriting and Manipulation

Furthermore, “Lefevere focuses particularly on the examination of ‘very concrete factors’ that systemically govern the reception, acceptance or rejection of literary texts; that is, ‘issues such as power, ideology, institution and manipulation (2)’ . The people involved in such power positions are the ones Lefevere sees as ‘rewriting’ literature and governing its consumption by the general public. The motivation for such rewriting can be ideological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant ideology) or poetological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant/preferred poetics)” (Munday 194). And translation is the most obviously recognizable type of rewriting (Lefevere 9).

Translator’s view on translation, for example, reflecting the translators’ ideology, can conform to or rebel against the social dominant ideology.
For Lefevere, the literary system in which translation functions is controlled by two main factors, which are: (1) professionals within the literary system, who partly determine the dominant poetics; and (2) patronage outside the literary system, which partly determines the ideology.
The “professionals within the literary system” include translators themselves, who decide on the poetics and at times influence the ideology of the translated text (Munday 194).

Thus, the role of translator is essential and the translator’s ideology have an great influence on the translation text and the text reader.
“For Lefevere, the most important consideration is the ideological one. In this case, it refers to the translator’s ideology or the ideology imposed upon the translator by patronage. The poetological consideration refers to the dominant poetics in the TL culture. Together, ideology and poetics dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems” (Munday 197).

D.Venuti

Then Venuti insists that the scope of translation studies needs to be broadened to take account of the value-driven nature of the sociocultural framework.

“Norms may be in the first instance linguistic or literary, but they will also include a diverse range of domestic values, beliefs, and social representations which carry ideological force in serving the interests of specific groups. And they are always housed in the social institutions where translations are produced and enlisted in cultural and political agendas” (29).

Munday suggests, the groups and social institutions to which Venuti refers would include the various players in the publishing industry as a whole . . . Each of these players has a particular position and role within the dominant cultural and political agendas of their time and place. The translators themselves are part of that culture, which they can either accept or rebel against (217).

Therefore, being part of the culture, translators are influenced by the social and patronage ideology, and the poetics. Nevertheless, translators more or less enjoys some autonomy. For example, translators’ views on translation, i.e. the understanding of translation, can be conformed to or rebellious against the culture. And then their views on translation, influence their specific translation behavior such as the works they choose to translate and their translation principles. Next are three examples for us to discuss how the translators’ views on translation immediately influence their translation behaviors.

To narrow the differences of the social ideology down, three translators in modern period of China (after 1949) will be discussed in this thesis. However, because they are born in different climate and stage of the society, no doubt that they have distinctive world outlook from each other, resulting in their distinctive views on translation. But focus will still be on the influence exerted by their views on their translation behavior.

II.Three Examples in Modern Period of China

A.Xu Yuanchong (1921-): Translation is translators’ responsibility.

For Xu Yuanchong, Chinese translators have a responsibility to translate the foreign masterpieces into Chinese and Chinese excellent works of literature into foreign languages, in order to introduce the advanced ideas to China and also bring the foreigners the splendid culture of China, during which the world will be more culturally rich and diversely civilized.

In this case, Xu Yuanchong further puts forward that the histories and evolution of the two cultures are very different from each other, with distinct advantages and disadvantages If they can learn the strong points from each other to offset their weakness, they can both be improved. In this respect, translation can be considered as a rivalry between two different cultures. The translation can even surpass the original work. If we make full use of the advantages of one culture to perfect another , the culture of all the humanity will be developed. This is the ultimate goal of the translator (“Surpass” 47). Based on this view, Xu Yuanchong proposed the Rivalry Theory and the Theory of Advantage.

Therefore, in order to exchange the advantages between cultures, the foreign works Xu Yuanchong had translated are some western masterpieces includes: ''Madame Bovary'', ''Le Rouge et le Noir'', ''Jean Christophe'', etc. And also some Chinese classical works especially the classical Chinese poetry: ''150 Tang Poems'', ''100 Tang and Song Poems'', ''300 Poems Chinois Classiques'', ''Selected Poems of Mao Zedong'', ''The Romance of Western Bower'', ''Earth-shaking Songs'' (the selected poems written by Chinese modern revolutionists), etc. By translating the essence of one culture and ideology into another languages, he demonstrates our advantages and at the same time offers Chinese people the opportunities to enjoy the classics of another culture.

Xu Yuanchong’s view on translation also influences his translation principles. Take the first sentence of ''Jean Christophe'' as an example:

Le grondement du fleuve monte derrére la maison. (Jean Christophe)

From behind the house rises the murmuring of the river. (English)

江声浩荡，自屋后上升。(Fu Lei)

江流滚滚，声震屋后。(Xu Yuanchong)

The french word “grondement” means “roaring” or “murmuring” in English. The English translation seems to be coherent in the paragraph and the following content. However, as to the whole work, Xu Yuanchong considers that “浩荡” in Fu Lei’s translation is more powerful and symbolic of the spectacular river cutting through Europe, and some readers even take Fu Lei’s translation as “the classical opening sentence” of the work, which proves it a translation that surpasses the original one.

And then Xu Yuanchong also translated this sentence (as above), replacing “浩荡” with “滚滚” for its more similar sound to “grondement”. And “声震屋后” is also a symbol of the impact of the great achievement of the musician in the work (Yang et.al 35-38). Here appears another translation principle of Xu Yuanchong: “literary translation is art (''Art 20'')” and “beauty in three aspects”, namely, “beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form”, having developed Lu Xun as well as Lin Yutang’s theory of beauty. This is the reason why Xu Yuanchong emphasizes the similar sound of “滚滚” to “grondement”. Another example is still a sentence in ''Jean Christophe'':

Il marchait sur le monde. (''Jean Christophe'')

他踏着全世界直立着。（鲁迅）

他顶天立地的在世界上走着。（傅雷）

(qtd. “Re-creation” 222)

Which translation corresponds to the original best? Lu Xun’s translation is similar in from while Fu Lei’s is in style. In this case, Xu Yuanchong considers there is one solution, that is to change the question as “Which translation is more beautiful and delightful for readers?” He also quotes “Qu’ importe celui qui crée? Il’y a de réel que ce qu’on crée” said by Romain Rolland to indicate that the translator ought to make the translation more of art to give readers an enjoyment of beauty rather than to captiously keep the author’s style. So he is in favor of Fu Lei’s translation.

The last example goes to the translation of the last sentence of ''Uprising Songs'' (《起义歌》) written by Sun Zhongshan, collected in ''Earth-shaking Songs'':

顶天立地奇男子，要把乾坤扭转过来。(''Uprising Songs'')

Heroes of indomitable spirit, arise!

Let us transform the old world and reverse the tide! (previous translation)

Heroes who would move heaven and earth, arise! (Xu Yuanchong)

Xu Yuanchong suggests that in the previous translation, translating “顶天立地” only into “indomitable spirit” is in want of the image of “天” and “地”. Also, as it were, the readers cannot enjoy the beauty of the SL, which is thus a failure in the rivalry of two cultures. So he translated the sentence as above, keeping the impression of “天地” to have the readers appreciate the beauty of the original work, in other words, to win the rivalry between the ST and TT (“Re-creation” 221-222).

For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized. The translation not only should be faithful to the original, but also be powerful and infectious to readers, even giving an much more profound impression than the original work.

B.Liu Zhongde (1914-): Translation is a way to make foreign masterpieces to serve China.

In order to make the western masterpieces more popular in China, Liu Zhongde decided to devote himself to a career in translation. By translating the western works into Chinese, as far as he concerns, the advanced thoughts can serve Chinese intellectuals and further improve the whole country. He was the first person who introduced Jane Austin’s ''Emma'' to China. But he were not satisfied with his first translation of ''Emma'' and at last in 1990s he re-translated it and corrected the errors he had made, which reflected his spirit of improving himself constantly and his rigorous scholarship (Ten 178 ).

Thus, most works Liu Zhongde translated were the western classics such as ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'', ''Confessions of an English Opium-Eater'', ''Emma'', ''Darwin'', etc. He seldom translated Chinese works into English.

In order to convey to the Chinese readers the exact ideas and original style and content of the ST, Liu Zhongde puts much emphasis on the “closeness” of the translation. He says the translator should always remember what he is working at is a literacy work written by somebody else and try his utmost to turn his translation into a work of art which is in conformity with the thought, feeling and style of the original. Thus, the translation will be as moving and vivid as the original work and the reader may be aesthetically entertained as well (''Ten'' 122-123).

Therefore he developed from Yan Fu’s three principles－“信达雅 (faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance)” into “信达切 (faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness)” as a set of principles for translation reference: “The style of your translation must correspond, or at least, be close, to that of the original you are working at . . . the ideological content, linguistic expression and stylistic characteristics of a literary work constitute a unified entity, and the translator should reproduce the three elements as a whole” (''Ten'' 122).

Being different from Xuyuanchong, Liu Zhongde holds that “literary translation has a double nature. That’s to say, on the one hand, it is a science with its own laws and methods and on the other, it is an art” (''Ten'' 2).

So how exactly does Liu Zhongde’s views on translation influence his translation principles? There are two examples as follows.

Here is a translation of “回乡偶书” by Liu Zhongde:

回乡偶书
少小离家老大回，乡音无改鬓毛衰。
儿童相见不相识，笑问客从何处来。
(the original poem)

Homecoming
I left home quite young, and I come back very old.
My accent remains the same, but my hair turns gray.
Kids don’t know me when one another we behold.
“Where do you come from?” with a smile to me they say.
(Liu Zhongde’s translation)

This translation adapts so well the style and features of TT to the ST that it seems to be an original work written by Liu Zhongde himself. We can appreciate the same meaning and emotion the original work expresses. The TT keeps the the same number of lines just as the ST: each of the sentence has 12 syllables. The rhyme pattern of ST is also kept: the first line rhymes with the third, and the second with the forth. The TT is exactly an expression of sound, form and sense of the ST (Jiang 196-197).

The next two examples are from Liu Zhongde’s re-translation of ''Emma'':

(1)The truth is, Harriet, that my playing is Just good enough to be praised, but Jane Fairfax’s is much beyond it.

事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却是神乎其技了。(Previous translation)

事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却大大超过我的弹奏。(Liu Zhongde)

“神乎其技” in the previous translation does not correspond to the plain style of “much beyond it” in ST. It is true that a Chinese four-character-word can embody a complex meaning, but the style it can be applied to is supposed to be formal and academic. In this sentence, the style of “神乎其技” is not appropriate at all, while a simpler word should be used. Thus Liu Zhongde replaced “神乎其技” with “大大超过我的弹奏”.

(2)“Just as they always do-very vulgar.”

还不是像他们平常那样——俗不可耐。(Previous translation)

还不是像他们平常那样——很庸俗。(Liu Zhongde)

(Jiang 278-279)

The four-character-word “俗不可耐” in the previous translation does not conform to the plain or colloquial style of ST, either, just like “神乎其技” mentioned above. Liu Zhongde changed it into “庸俗” to be in line with the original style.

For Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected by him and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original.

C.Li Jihong (1980-): Translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings.

As to Li Jihong, translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings. In an article called “The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace with the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay” against the view of another translator, Shi Kangqiang, he says that the pay of translation in the new period is different from that of the old times, mainly because of the translation tools which belonging to the production tools, have already been developed today into computers, digital data, Internet, etc. As a result, the translation speed is supposed to be improved. Therefore, a professional translator nowadays can definitely earn a decent life by translating 1000 words each hour, 8 hours a day. And for every 1000 words they can earn 60 ''yuan''.

The article aims to oppose to Shi Kangqiang’s opinion that the appalling pay translators receive influence the quality of the translation, but it also reveals Li Lihong’s view on translation from his borrowing lots of economic theories and activities, numbers, calculation of the pay to support his opinion, his favors to the publishers’ increasing reward on the sales of the translation work and his announcement that he have translated ''The Kite Runner'' (written by Khaled Hosseini), 195190 words, for only 10 days, 15 hours a day.

In this article he also says: “Any responsible translators will not translate for the personal income,” but he adds next, “ In fact, the support for his translation is the letters from readers, in addition to the high income.” Although the total contradiction in his saying is confusing, it still can be inferred that money is an important motivation for his translation, if not the most important one.

The works Li Jihong translated are foreign classics such as ''Le Petit Prince'', ''The Old Man and the Sea'', ''Animal Farm'', ''The Great Gatsby'', ''Walden'', ''The Moon and Sixpence'', ''Pride and Prejudice'' and ''The Sound and Fury''. However, all those works and the values of them have already been well received in China, with several translations in market.

To begin with the work that he have translated “for only 10 days, 15 hours a day” as he says, ''The Kite Runner'' written by Khaled Hosseini:

(1)We left the old man on the steps of that building. I meant to take him up on his offer, come back and see if he’d unearthed any more stories about my mother. But I never saw him again (Hosseini 251).

我们离开了坐在那座房子台阶上的老人。我原想带他到他的办公室去，看看他能否想起更多关于我妈妈的事情。但我再也没有见到他 (Li 243)。

In this text, “take somebody. up on something” means “to accept an offer, an invitation that somebody has made 接受（提议或邀请）” in ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary'' (438). Also according to the whole context, the old man, a beggar, had been a colleague of “my” mother who I had never met. He told me a story about “my” mother and promised me more details about her: “ The old man smiled. ‘I’ll try to remember and that’s a promise. Come back and find me ’ (Hosseini 250).” It can be inferred that the old man offered the narrator a chance to know more about his mother. Thus, the “offer” means “邀请” instead of “办公室 (office)”. What’s more, It seems like the word “offer” is misread as “office” by the translator. Perhaps the translator is too busy translating as fast as possible to check his translation carefully.

(2)“Your job today is to pass gas. You do that and we can start feeding you liquids. No fart, no food.” He laughed again (Hosseini 297).

“你今天的工作是排便。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不见粪便，不给食物。”他又哈哈大笑 (Li 287)。

The speaker was a staff in hospital, and he was asking the patient who had just come to himself from a surgery “to pass gas”. The relevant meaning of “gas” in ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary'' is “[物理]气体、瓦斯” (726), of “pass” is “通过” (1338). And “fart” as a noun means “放屁 (emit wind from the anus)” (632). In conclusion, “排便” does not correspond to the original meaning of the ST. So the translation can be righted as “你今天的工作是排气。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不放屁，不给食物。” This is also a very small and simple mistake. The translator should be more cautious about translating.
This summer holiday I have read another book translated by Li Jihong: The Moon and Sixpence written by William Somerset Maugham, and also find some odd translation and neglect. Here are two examples:

(1)“Do you think it’s likely that a man will do any good when he starts at your age? Most men begin painting at eighteen.”

“I can learn quicker than I could when I was eighteen (Mauguam 48).”

你认为一个人从你这个年纪开始学画能学得好吗？大多数人从十八岁就开始画了。”

“如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些 (Li 54)。”

The second sentence, a very simple one, means that even if “I” am old now, I can learn even quicker than I could when I was at eighteen. In Chinese it can be translated as, for instance, “我能比我十八岁的时候学得还快.” But Li’s translation “如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些” means “I can learn quicker if I were eighteen,” which has a totally different meaning from the ST.

(2)...for they felt themselves freemen of a country whose frontiers include them all, the great country of Cockaigne (Mauguam 169).

因为他们觉得大家都是自由民，同属于想象中的天堂之国 (Li 203)。

According to Encyclopedia Britannica, “Cockaigne, also spelled Cockayne, imaginary land of extreme luxury and ease where physical comforts and pleasures are always immediately at hand. References to Cockaigne are especially prominent in medieval European lore. These accounts describe rivers of wine, houses built of cake and barley sugar, streets paved with pastry, and shops that gratuitously give goods to everyone. Roast geese wander about inviting people to eat them, and buttered larks fall from the skies like manna.” Being ignorant of the rich meaning of this word, Li Jihong translated it to “天堂之国” without any explanation. In fact, in this book, Li Jihong adds 206 explanatory notes for the words like “Shakespeare (莎士比亚)”, “Balzac (巴尔扎克)” and “Footnote (生丁)”, however, “Cockaigne” is not included.

Li Jihong’s translation is popular for his elaborate introduction of the work and explanatory notes, which as he says, can help readers to understand the work easier. And some famous people also recommend his translations for his translation is more understandable than others. However, as far as I am concerned, being understandable is not the essence of a translation.

From Xu Yuanchong and Liu Zhongde we know there are various translation principles, for instance the former’s “beauty in three aspects: sense, sound and form” and the latter’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness”, nevertheless, the “faithfulness” to the original is emphasized.

III.Conclusion

This is how the views of translation influence the translators’ behavior, specifically the translation work choosing and their translation principles demonstrated by the translation examples of the three translators.

For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized; while for Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. In fact, for both of them translation should be a responsibility that should be treated serious by translators, while as for Li Jihong, translation is just a production activity, a tool to make money or to gain the population, fame and the sense of superiority. Therefore, the economic effect and the speed is highlighted, the minor mistakes were made, and the translator’s personality was manifested so much that it even overshadowed the style and meaning of the original work.

For those responsible translators, their translations, imprinted all their individual ideology, experience and reflection, almost like an original work, are supposed to be a special thing. As Thomas C. Foster puts at the end of his How to Read Literature Like a Professor, “My favorite was the apology to the poem itself: ‘Well, little book, you’re not that much but you’re the best I could make you. Now you’ll just have to make your way in the world as best you can. Fare thee well.’” (129), a lot of care and attachment will be taken to the work you made, whatever it is, a poem, a fiction or a translation work. Only if you devote yourself to the translation with painstaking effort, can the translation be respected and appreciated by your readers.

Fu Lei had ever said, “translation should be based on the knowledge of art: without a sensitive soul, earnest sympathy, appropriate appreciation, relative social experience or sufficient common sense (i.e. broad knowledge), a translator neither will understand the original work thoroughly nor grasp the essence of it” (qtd. Xu Jun 253). Because that translators’ views on translation have a great influence on his translation, he should first be earnest to “translation”, and then be diligent, especially when the translation work is carrying the weight of the original work. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.

'''Work Cited'''

胡塞尼· 卡勒德. (Hosseini, Khaled). 《追风筝的人》 (''The Kite Runner''). 李继宏译 (Tran. Li Jihong). 上海: 上海人民出版社, 2008.

蒋坚松 (Jiang Jiansong) 彭利元 (Peng Liyuan), ed. 《刘重德翻译思想及其他》(''Liu Zhongde’s Tanslation Theories and Others''). 长沙(Changsha): 湖南师范大学出版社 (Hunan Normal University Press), 2003. Print.

李继宏 (Li Jihong), 《文学翻译也需与时俱进：谈谈翻译速度和稿酬问题》 (“The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace With the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay”). 豆瓣网 (douban). 13 Jan. 2013 <https://site.douban.com/179084/widget/articles/10191245/article/23864139/?dt_dapp=1>

刘重德 (Liu Zhongde), ed.《文学翻译十讲》(''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation''). 北京(Beijing): 中国对外翻译出版社 (China Duiwai Translation Press), 2000. Print.

毛姆·威廉. (Maugham, William). 《月亮和六便士》 (''The Moon an Sixpence'').李继宏译 (Trans. Li Jihong). 天津 (Tianjin): 天津人民出版社 (Tianjin Renmin Press), 2018. Print.

许钧. (Xu Jun).《翻译论》(''Translation Theory''). 武汉 (Wuhan)：湖北教育出版社 (Hubei Education Press), 2003. Print.

许渊冲. (Xu Yuanchong). 《译文能否胜过原文》(“Can the Translation Surpass the Original”). 《教学研究》(''Teaching Method Research''), no. 2 (1982): 39-47.
---. ed.《再创作与翻译风格》(“Re-creation and Translation Style”). 《文学与翻译》 (''Literature and Translation''). 北京 (Beijing)：北京大学出版社 (Beijing University Press), 2016. 221-229. Print.

---.《翻译的艺术》(''The Art of Translation''). 北京 (Beijing): 五洲传播出版社 (Wuzhou Chuanbo Press), 2006. Print.

杨绛(Yang Jiang), 李文俊 (Li Wenjun, et al.) 等. 《一本书和一个世界》(''A Book and A World''). 北京 (Beijing): 昆仑出版社 (Kun Lun Press), 2005: 35-38. Print.
周领顺. (Zhou Lingshun). 《译者行为批评：理论框架》(''A Theoretical Framework for Translator Behavior Criticism''). 北京 (Beijing)：商务印书馆 (The Commercial Press), 2014. Print.

Bassnett, S. and A. Lefevere. ''Translation History and Culture''. London and New York: Pinter, 1990. Print.

Cockaigne. ''Encyclopedia Britannica''. 27 Jun. 2013. Web. 17 Nov. 2019 <https://www.britannica.com/topic/Cockaigne >

Even-Zohar, Itamar. The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem. ''Papers in Historical Poetics''. Tel Aviv: The Porter Institute, 1978. 21-7. Print.

Fart. ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary''. Beijing: Renmin University of China, 2004. Print.

Foster. C. Thomas. ''How to Read Literature Like a Professor''. New York: HarperCollins Publishers Inc. 2003. Print.

Hosseini, Khaled. The Kite Runner. New York: The Berkley Publishing Group, 2003. Print.

Lefevere, A. ''Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulation of Literary Fame''. London and New York: Routledge, 1992a. Print.

Maugham, William. ''The Moon an Sixpence''. London: Pan Books Ltd, 1974. Print.

Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies''. New York: Routledge, 2012. Print.

Take sb. up on sth.” ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary''. 2013. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Publishing Co., Ltd, 2017. Print.

Venuti. L. The Scandals of Translation: ''Towards an Ethics of Difference''. London and New York: Routledge, 1998. Print.

=Contemporary Translation Studies=
=='''An Analysis of the Book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'''''==

'''摘要：'''爱德温·根茨勒的《当代翻译理论》和杰米里·芒迪的《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》被视为翻译史上不可多得的巨作。本文通过对两本巨著的介绍之后，节选了其中有名的翻译理论即尤金·奈达的形式对等理论和功能对等理论以及亚历山大弗雷泽·泰特勒和严复的翻译原则进行比较，来阐述了翻译的基本准则。通过对比尤金·奈达的形式对等和功能对等理论，找出其优缺点并结合适当的例子，有利于读者把握奈达的翻译思想来更好地指导其翻译实践。同时，通过分析亚历山大弗雷泽·泰特勒的翻译原则的优缺点再将其与严复的翻译理论做比较，有利于读者理解中西方翻译的差异，来更好地理解在跨文化的语境中如何做好翻译。

'''关键词：'''爱德温·根茨勒、《当代翻译理论》、杰米里·芒迪、《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》、尤金·奈达、形式对等、功能对等、亚历山大·弗雷泽·泰特勒、严复、翻译原则

'''Abstract:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler’s ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and Jeremy Munday’s ''Introducing Translation studies: Theories and Applications'' are both regarded as the masterpieces in the discipline of translation. After giving a brief introduction of these two great works, this paper tends to select the famous translation theories from the book namely Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and functional equivalence and the translation principles of Alexander Fraser Tytler and Yan Fu to define the basic principles of translation. After analyzing the Nida’s theories of formal equivalence and functional equivalence, it is better for the readers to understand the Nida’s translation ideas to better guide him in the translation practice by combining the concrete examples to illustrate its advantages and disadvantages. In the meantime, by analyzing the advantages and disadvantages of Tytler’s translation principles and the comparison between the translation principles of Tytler and Yan Fu, it’s better for the readers to understand the influence of difference in the eastern and western cultures on translation. In such a way, it’s better for the translators to do the translation practice in the cross-cultural situation.

'''Key words:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler; ''Contemporary Translation Theories''; Jeremy Munday; ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''; Eugene Nida; Formal Equivalence; Functional Equivalence; Alexander Fraser Tytler; Yan Fu; Translation Principles

'''Introduction:'''

In this essay, it presents the author’s understanding of the two books: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''. After a brief introduction of these two books, this paper tends to concentrate on the discussion of four important translation theories. This paper will be divided into three parts. Firstly, after a brief introduction of the great book: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', and then it will focus on the analyzing of the Eugne Nida’s two famous translation theories namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. By giving out its definition, it’s easier to find the advantage and disadvantage of these two concepts. Then, this paper will go on introducing briefly the Chomsky’s translation studies. And then it will find some commonness and distinction in Nida’s and Chomsky’s opinions in translation. Secondly, it will give a short introduction of the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' and it will fix its attention on the translation principles of Tytler and then make a comparison of Yan Fu’s translation principle “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. By deeper analyzing these two similar translation theories, we can find some commonness and difference in these two translation theories by taking the culture and thinking modes into consideration. At last, this paper intend to give a brief comparison between these two great books by taking the consideration of writing style and content arrangement. All in all, this paper intends to give the readers a better understanding of these two great books and provoke their reflection about these two books.

'''I Analysis of the book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'''''

Recently, it is a great pleasure to read a very famous book called ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' whose author is called Edwin Gentzler. The second edition of this book has received great success. The publication of this book is significant to the global translation study academia. “Since the mid-19th century, translation theory has maderapid progress, Edwin Gentzler finds out what is useful and rejects what is useless on the translation of today's theories in this book”(Li 2014:111). He also makes a Detailed description in detail several major schools of translation:The North American Translation Workshop, the “Science” of Translation, Early Translation Studies, the Polysystem Translation and Deconstruction. In this book, it presents what is happening in different parts within the discipline. “Gentzler uses his provoke thinking viewpoint to trace the development of literary translation studies from the American translation workshop program, through the polysystems research to deconstruction and postcolonial translation theory and beyond”(Xu and Wang 2000:42). This book not only provides us with a deep way of theorizing the translation but also is effectively a translation practice . At the end of this book, he also points out the future of translation and sends his positive attitude about the translation’s future. The author turns a whole number of the complex theoretical material into accessible language, so that everyone who doesn’t read any books about translation can read this book freely. Apart from that, each chapter in this book is separated so you can read each chapter alone without relying on your understanding of the other chapters. By this way, it is more convenient for us to find the topic of translation that we are interested in to read and find valuable informationfor us. Gentzler’s book provides us with a precise analysis about what the translation school achieved so far and gives his insight into the future of translation.

“This book stands as a continuing translation textbook with some of the most important theories in the field such as “the same aesthetic experience, dynamic equivalence, corresponding literary function, or the deconstruction theory of Derrida”(Li 2014:112). Despite distinct focus, each theory is completed by a conceptual framework that thinks original existence and an understanding of it in the target society. At present, “all translation theories have kept rigid distinction between original texts and their translations text”(Xu and Wang 2000:43).

In the chapter 2, this book introduces the American translation workshop. In this chapter, it mainly introduces the A. Richard’s new criticism and translation, Ezra Pound’s theory of luminous details, Frederic Will’s the paradox of translation and Lawrence Venuti’s rethinking translation. In it workshop, “it emphasizes that translation is a marginal activity, not considered as a proper field of study”(Gentzler 2001:5). However, as time goes by, the process of growth and acceptance of translation boost when many translation courses and workshops were being offered at many universities. There appears many works about this translation workshop but it does not have many books about the translation theories. “In this workshop, the personal opinions may offer some help, but it still lacks the consistent theory to support translation”(Gentzler 2001:44). Therefore, it needs urgently a classified theory for the translation and it yields the coming of the “science” of translation. In this book, it mainly introduces Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and Noam Chomsky’s syntactic structure and generative-transformation grammar. Here, it will illustrate my understanding of these two concepts about formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Edwin Gentzler illustrated the concept of dynamic equivalence in his book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', ''Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. The relationship between the target language receptor and the target text should generally be equivalent to that between the source language receptor and the source text''(2001:48).

In the dynamic equivalence, Nida focus on the correspondence of the feeling between the target language and the receptor and the source language and the learner. By his understanding, these two feeling should be the similar. More specifically, “dynamic equivalence considers more about the relationship between the reader and the information, which means that the target reader's response to the target text should be the same as that of the source reader's response to the source text”(Liu 2012:242). “Any foreignness and translationese should be avoided in the target text”(Ju 2000:203). Now, it will
list the advantages of dynamic equivalence.

“On the one hand, the dynamic equivalence is “somewhat like the free translationwhich emphasizes the translation should achieve the same effect instead of being limitedin the content and form” (Li 2014:112). “It concentrates on the correct way of translating the content of the original text”(Shakernia 2013:2). On the other hand, “it focuses on readers' reaction and analyzes the translation process from the viewpoint of target readers”(Nida 1995:225). In this way, translation is not a single activity, but more social elements are added to make the translation concrete and specific. Moreover, in the dynamic equivalence, due to its classified translation principle it is more suitable to the translation of technology and science essays. The dynamic equivalence provides us a
detailed rule of translation during our process of translation so when we translate, we can find the reasonable principles to rely on. These essays should be more formal and official.

However, although the dynamic equivalence has gained a lot of praises it still deserves some limitations. Firstly, “it is just a language conversion and ignores the cultural information taken by the language, resulting in cultural domestication”(Liu 2012: 245). In fact, cultural differences are objective and can not be inevitable, and no one can avoid them. If you have to maintain a dynamic equivalent translation, it will definitely have a negative impact on cultural communication. For example, “‘dongfeng’ is a positive image in Chinese culture while in western society it thinks the west wind is goodmorality”( Shakerni 2013:2) Therefore, it is strange that Shelley's singing of the west wind is translated into "ode to the east wind", because it will hinder the Chinese readers' understanding of the western world. What's more, to judge whether the target readers have similar effects is uncertain and unpractical because they are different in gender, age,educational background and life experience, etc. Strictly speaking, the reader's response is a variable that cannot be regarded as equivalent to the standard effect. Finally, dynamicequivalence information in the text does well, just like the Bible, but it is difficult to realize literary translation, text language is different from general language. Dynamic equivalence, as a concept, puts an .an overly narrow focus on the response of the active hearers, perhaps sometimes at the expense of other factors which are also crucial to adequate translation, such as the accuracy of the message, the uniqueness of the original historical setting.

Next, it will list the definition of formal equivalence. “Formal equivalence is simple and source-oriented. It is like a word for word literal translation”(Shakernia 2013:2). Formal equivalence concentrates on the message itself, in both form and content. “One is concerned that the message in the receptor language should match asclosely as possible the different elements in the source language”(Shakernia 2013:3).The use of formal equivalents might at times have serious implications in the target text since the translation will not be easily understood by the target readership. For example, “in the translation of the sentence of greet others with a holy kiss, these two different equivalence can have distinctly different translation”(Shakernia 2013:3). In the formal equivalence translation, we need to translate it into the translation of saying hello to others with a holly kiss. But it seems strange to others because what’s the meaning of holy kiss. Then, we need to add one explanation of holy kiss which is in the ''old testament'' the holly kiss is usually treated as a usual way to greet others. However, in the dynamic equivalence, we need not to take the correspondence of the structure into consideration. We only need to pay attention to the reaction of receptorsof language. We can translate it into the translation of shaking hands with others enthusiastically. From the above example, it’s clear to find the focus of these two equivalences is very different therefore the translation can be different.

Here, it will try to figure out the advantages and disadvantages of formal equivalence. One of the most distinguished advantage of the formal equivalence is that in this translation, “the formal equivalence is keenly oriented towards the source language structure, which exerts strong language influence in determining accuracy and Correctness”(Nida 1995:223). Because the formal equivalence emphasizes the completetranscript of the original text’s content and form so it will have the consistent structure of the original text.Another advantage of formal equivalence is that it put much focus on the accuracy.Because in such translation theory, the target language will try to find a equivalent in the source language. For example, in the sentence of “Please fetch me a glass of water” when translating it into Chinese, we will try to find each word equivalent in Chinese. We will try to find each word such as “please”“fetch”“me” and so on. Then we can find the equivalent in Chinese which can be transliterated into Chinese as “Qing gei wo yi bei shui”. Apart from that, let’s move on to the disadvantages of formal equivalence. One of the obvious disadvantage of the formal equivalence is that sometimes it will neglect the intent of the original text. Because the formal equivalence isreferred as to the literal translation and in such way it may overlook the author’s intent. For example, we often hear Chinese people say:“Ni chi le ma?” In fact, it’s a way to greetpeople in Chinese custom while we cannot translate it into English as “Have you eat your dinner or lunch?”. Instead we should translate it into English as “Hello!”or “Hi!”

Among these two theories, Nida puts the dynamic equivalence in the first place. It has been viewed as his core contribution to the modern translation filed. “Nida pays attention to readers' response and advocates replacing the expression of foreign culture in the original text with the expression habit of the receiving language, namely, domestication”(Nida 1995:224). By far, “Nida has achieved a lot in translation study. He simplifies Chomsky’s theory and adopts only the later two part of the model in order to validate his science”(Gentzler 2001:52). “He is aware of the nature of a practice-oriented approach, attempts to scientifically validate his methodology and apply it to translation as a whole” (Panou 2013: 1) . In this chapter, it also talks about Noam Chomsky’s contribution to the linguistic and translation. In Chomsky’s opinion, the linguistic is a study of science and we can apply many linguistic principles to translation, therefore, the translation can also be said a study of science. Among the Noam Chomsky’s contribution is his transformational-generative grammar. “It is a theory that talks about why people can talk and how people can learn new sentences. It is a theory about language ability. Chomsky holds his opinion that basics and transformation form grammar” (Zhou 2019:5). The basics form deep structure and deep structure transforms to surface structure. Word’s meaning belongs to deep structure . Besides, “he thinks thatlanguage is a unique human natural constitution. Language ability should be more focused on not rather language behavior”(Zhou 2019:6). “The TG Grammar tries to reveal the unity of particular grammars and universal grammars, to explore the universal rules with the hope of revealing the human cognitive system and the essential nature of human being”(Zhu 2018:241).

Both Chomsky and Nida believe that deep, coherent and unified entity exists behind whatever manifestation language takes. However, there exists some difference
between their opinions. “Chomsky would not jump to conclusions based on correlations between just two languages, nor assume that a grammar to a particular to one language would work systematically for another” (Li 2011:395). While Nida holds the belief that deep structure and transformatio-nal rules which is divorced from all the problems of translation are similar across languages. All in all, these two great persons all make a big contribution to translation and their theories are still widely used today.

'''II Analysis of ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'''''

As for the second book: ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , it is a very populary book which has undergone through the fourth edition. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' remains the definitive guide to the theories and concepts that make up the field of translation studies. This fourth edition has been fully revised and continues to provide a balanced and detailed guide to the theoretical landscape. “Each theory is applied to a wide range of languages, including Bengali, Chinese, English, French, German, Italian, Punjabi, Portuguese and Spanish”(Liu and Deng 2010:54). It starts with the definition of translation and then presents us the translation theory before the twentieth century to the modern translation theory. It focus on many important translation theories such as systematic translation theory, polysystem theory translation, functional theories of translation, and so on. There are three reasons why I like this book very much. Firstly, this book is full of content which is arranged carefully and skillfully for the readers to read. It contain an introductory table clearly presenting key terms and ideas, the main text, describing in detail the models and issues under discussion, an illustrative case study, which applies and evaluates the main model of the chapter, suggestions for further reading, a brief evaluative summary of the chapter and a series of discussion and research points to stimulate further thought and research. I am extremely fond of the case study in this book which is also a unique feature of this book. In the case study, it will list a related case about the translation issue in this chapter for readers to think and then this book provide us with a discussion of case studies for us to reflect our thinking. I think it’s a good way for us to relate the knowledge of book into reality which it’s more helpful and useful for us to remember the knowledge in the book. And by applying our knowledge to the real problem in reality, it’s more helpful for us truly understand the essence of translation studies.

Secondly, there are a large number of charts are cited, and the names of the charts are listed on a special page after the table of contents at the front of the book for easy reference. In this way, it is easier for readers to absorb much information contained in the charts. In the meantime, it is clear for the readers to relate the knowledge with the information in the charts. It is also a good way to sort out the large number of information in an ordered way for the readers to have a quick way to absorb the information.

Thirdly, the book includes an appendix to the web sites relevant to translation studies before the final notes and index. These include two web sites that publish information about conferences, recent publications and research, six web sites for international translation journals and four web sites for translation organizations that often contain useful links. In this way, it becomes much easier for the readers to search the information on the websites for further reading and studying.

Now, let’s move on to talk about the content of this book. In the second chapter, this book lists the debate about the word-for-word and sense-for-sense translation which is debate that dominated much of translation theory. “Faithful translation” is an attempt to reach a compromise between the two. Many great translators object to word-for-word translation and they advocate the sense-for-sense translation”(Munday 2013:18). For example, Cicero oppose the word-for-word translation strongly by saying “that I did not hold it necessary to render word for word, but I preserved the general style and force of the language”(Munday 2013:19). “The issues of free and literal translation were for over a thousand years with the translation of the Bible and other religious and philosophical texts”(Munday 2013:22). As for the translation of Bible, there must mention the Martin Luther whose major influence is made by his translation of the ''New Testament'' and later the ''Old Testament''. Martin Luther advocates the revolutionary nature of translation. “At that time, the Bible was only available in Europe in a Latin translation. This meant that the majority of the people had no access to the Bible in their native languages”(Stolt 2014:373). He is concerned with the German readers. “Here, he supports the idea of using of “pure, clear German and the building of new languages in translation. Therefore, he used a non-literal translation in his translation of Bible”(Stolt 2014:373). Also, his use of a regional yet socially broad dialect went a long way to reinforcing that form of the German language as standard. “His aim is to keep communication with readers and listeners, but the audience for his new translation of the scriptures was composed not of scholars but plain speakers of vernacular German”(Stolt 2014:374). And thanks to Martin Luther’s efforts of translating Bible, the Germany people now could read Bible freely. Later, the book talks about the translation principle of Dryden, Dolet and Tytler. Here it will put emphasize on the Tytler’s translation principles. As for Dolet has five translation principles while Tytler proposes his three translation rules. “They are the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work. Secondly, the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original. Thirdly, the translation should have all the ease of the original composition.” (Munday 2013:26) Here, we can see that Tytler pursues the balance between the source language and target language. The translator must have the capacity of employing the exact manner and skill in translating his target language. For example, “there are two sentences which express the same meaning but they are different in their writing style”(Xi 2009:41). One is on Monday morning, the park is usually crowded with too many people. The other is on Monday morning, the park attracts many people. It’s obvious that the first sentence is in a negative mood while the second sentence is in a positive mood. These two sentences all convey the same meaning but they differs each other in the mood and style. To be a good translator, you need to be skillful in bringing the same style of the source language to the target language.

The advantages of his translation principle are as follows. First of all, “he abandons the traditional translation idea of dichotomies and he tries not to use these controversial term such as literal translation, free translation to give his translation rules a better and clear way to present”(Bie and Huang 2007:164). Here, in his translation principles, we cannot see the mentioning of the literal translation and free translation which can cause misunderstanding in the translation studies. Secondly, “he clarifies and extends people’s understanding of the metaphor that translators are painters. In his opinion, he advocates that the job of a translator is distinct different from the painter” (Bie and Huang 2007: 166). Although the translator does not use the same color as the original, he must give his "picture" the same power and effect. The translator cannot copy the original style, but must use his own style to translate the perfect script. The more he studies a imitation, the less his copy will reflect the ease and spirit of the original.

Now, let’s move on to talk about the disadvantages of his translation principles. Tytler’s translation thoughts are mainly on the base of his exact experience and subjective observation. “Some people even say that the book just looks like a textbook addressing the translation arts. In the meantime, from his translation theories, we can know that he imitates other translator’s theory, especially Dryden”(Firdaus 2012:285). For example, his first principle “That the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work, which is almost same as the Campbell’s accurately reproduce the original meaning”(Firdaus 2012:286). Tytler, “points out that the three principles are in a necessary order. The order arrangement is appropriate, natural and is arranged according to their importance to the translation which cannot change casually”(Firdaus 2012:287). In this way, we can concluded that his idea that if in a case of need to sacrifice a certain principle, the translator should notice the importance of order of translation principle. The translator cannot try to get a beautiful and fluent translation at the expense of the faithful translation of the script. Tytler’s translation has exerted great influence on the later translation studies and left a big influence on the later translators such as our Chinese great translator-Yan Fu. Here, it will list the Yan Fu’s translation theories and then we can have a brief comparison between Yan Fu’s translation principles and Tytler’s translation principles. “Yan Fu is our Chinese great scholar and translator, most famous for introducing western ideas, including Darwin’s natural selection to China in the late 19th century”(Wang 2008:70). Just as Shi Chunrang and Zhao Wei proposed their opinions in their essay ''Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation'' that Yan Fu proposed three difficulties in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethnic''.

“Faithfulness” means the full and complete conveying or transmission of the original content or thought. It emphasizes the right way of expressing content of the original source. “Expressiveness” demands that the version must be clear and follow without any grammatical mistakes or confused logic and sense. The translation should convey freely the content of the original source. “Elegance” means that the target translation should be similar to the source text in style(2005:96).

It means that the mood of the target translation should be almost same as the source language. By analyzing carefully, it’s clear to find there are many things in common between these two translation theories.

Firstly, “the first principle and second principle of Tytler are the same as the saying that translation should be faithful to the source language’s content and mood which is similar to the first principle of Yan Fu that emphasizes on the full and complete conveying of the original content”(Shi and Zhao 2005:97). Secondly, these two translation theories all focus on stressing the conveying the thought and content of the source language. And the translation should be available for people to read. “These two theories all emphasize on the conveying the complete transcript of the source text”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98).

It’s clear to see many differences between these two translation theories. Firstly, “they are different in thinking mode. Yan Fu does not make a clear and detailed explanation of his translation theory. Instead it relies on others’ explanation of his translation theory”(Xi 2009:41). Just as a saying, “Everything is clear without saying a word”. To better understand Yan Fu’s translation theory, we need to have the associated “relation and reflection about the great thought of our great ancestors. As we all know, “traditional Chinese mode of thinking is perceptual which tends to make the theory obscure and received. However, westerners attach great importance to rational thinking which makes the theory more concrete”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). The thinking mode of western is putting emphasize on the rational thinking and it emphasizes one’s rational understanding of the objects and people. Also, “it concentrates on the formal explanation of the objects and people”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). Therefore, the Tytler’s three translation principles all give respect to the object to the original text. And it repeatedly emphasizes on the importance of the original text and treat the original text as it start point. Apart from that, it also gives the literal explanation in a detailed way. In this way, after analyzing the different thinking between the western and eastern, we can say that Yan Fu do not give a literal explanation of his translation principle. Thus, we can say that his translation principle understands tacitly.

Secondly,“they are distinctly different in the importance. Since the three principles of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are presented, the importance of them has not been clearly classified”(Shi and Zhao 2005:99). One of the most important features of Yan Fu’s translation standard is its ambiguous semantic meaning. But in fact, “Yan Fu put emphasizes on the free translation and he proposed the principle of expressiveness to support the principle of faithfulness”(Xi 2009:41). “Since during the process of translation, except adhering to the expressiveness of the original text, the principle of faithfulness is the most difficult task to finish as to the conveying the original text’s mode and style”(Xi 2009:42). Therefore, we can draw a conclusion that principle of expressiveness is vital in his three principles and then is the expressiveness and the last is elegance. We should stick to the general principle of “original meaning”, only then can we have a reasonable logic to give an order on the importance of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “While Tytler thinks the order of his three principles is suitable, natural and could not be changed”(Wang 2008:71). Tytler proposes that we can make the conveying the faithful translation of the content at the expense to pursue the beautiful and fluent translation of the original text. “If we must give up one of principles he proposes, he advises that we can give up the least important principle namely the third principle”(Wang 2008:71). In other words, it is the first sacrifice of the original “style and effectiveness”. What's more, the style and mood of the original painting must be conveyed in order to convey a faithful picture of the sense.

Thirdly, “these two translation theories are different in the aspect of value orientation. The reason of this difference is due to the difference in the academic tradition of the emphasizing on the practice and theory level of the east and west”(Wang 2008:73). As is known to all, traditional Chinese translation paid more attention to practice rather than theory. The idea of translation should guide translation practice and should be of reference value. Yan Fu's “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was originally used to describe the difficulty of translation, not as a translation standard. He summed it up from his own practice and was concerned with practice rather than theory. However, western translator put practice and theory at the same level. Tytler's three principles are three levels of difficulties in detail, from the content loyal to distinct style. The reflected logical form is clear and obvious, which is significantly different from the implicit three translation principles of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “Western translation theories focus on detailed analysis, rational abstraction and theoretical deduction, and pay attention to logical organization, hierarchy and clarity of content in language expression”(Wang 2008:73). Influenced by traditional philosophy, western translation theories have a strong sense of subject and object throughout the whole process. Taking “expressiveness” as an example, Yan Fu's “expressiveness” and Tytler's third principle “translation should have all the ease of the original composition” have roughly the same meaning, but it’s obvious that they are different in thinking mode. “The Chinese adopt a thought pattern of intuition and understanding while the Englishmen follow a thought pattern of logic and reason, which makes a profound impact on each language”(Chen 2012:126). To this extent, the difference between understanding and rational thinking, as well as the degree of respect for the original text can be best reflected. At last, “these two translation theories are distinct in their motivation. Yan Fu’s criterion is purposeful which aims to attract the elite’s attention”(Wang 2008:73). The literature works that Yan Fu translated from the western world are mainly the great and famous work in the period of western capitalism. “He fully understand this mode of thinking is difficult for the Chinese intellectuals at that time so in this way, he need to make the translation principles easier for the Chinese intellectuals to absorb”(Chen 2012:127). In this regard, he chose this way of spreading his translation ideas which makes his translation principles purposeful. While Tylter just wants to make the whole translation system more systematic and cover content, form and text these three aspects. “His aim in his translation principle is simply trying to make his translation principle known by people and suggest a reasonable translation principle for translators to follow”(Xi 2009:42).

'''III Comparison between the book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'''''

'''1.From the aspect of arrangement of the content'''

Both of these two books all take the line of main translation workshops as its main chapter and then list its contribution to illustrate the content. “In the ''contemporary translation studies'', the author compare the translation group’s advantages and weakness and then give out his own understanding of the study of the translation group” (Li :2014 111).” In the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , the author lists the introduction of each translation workshop’s contribution and achievement to translation” (Liu and Deng 2010:54). While these two books’ difference in arrangement is that in the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' adds a case study to extend the readers’ inflection about the translation study listed in the book. Apart from that, this book also adds the discussion of case study, summary, further reading and discussion and research points into the book which are lack in the ''Contemporary Translation Studies''. These added parts to the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' helps extend the readers’ personal study and help the readers relate the theoretical knowledge with the translation practices.

'''2.From the content of the material'''

Both of the books all list the major contribution of each translation workshop but they differ in their focus and approach. In the ''contemporary Translation Theories'', the author will “analyze the advantage and weakness of the each translation workshop and then study the interrelationship between these translation workshops and at last describe the importance of each translation theory to the world and then pose its questions to the presupposition of each translation theory”(Li 2014:111). While in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'', the author firstly gives a brief introduction of the chapter content and then illustrates the introduction of each translation workshop in a detailed way. To make the book in a more precise way, the author also lists the summary, case study, discussion of study, further reading and discussion and research points in his book to make the readers to have a more comprehensive way of the book.

Apart from that, these two books all take a method of incorporating the theories and practices into the whole. In these two books, each book all include the material of theories and practices as its contents. For some important parts, the authors all give out their questions in the book. For example, in the ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', the author poses his question about Pound’s translation idea“ Was he talking about intuition, guessing the author’s original intention, or something else?(Gentzler 2001:20) After this question, the author gives out his opinions about Pound’s translation idea emphasizing the translator should both inside a tradition and outside any institutionalized logic. While this point of asking question in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' is more obvious. At the end of each chapter, the author will give several questions in his part of discussion and research points. Some of these questions can find the answers in the textbook while some will require the readers to do some additional researches.

'''Conclusion:'''

All in all, after this paper’s careful introduction of these two books and detailed analyzing of the translation theories, it hopes to help the readers to have better understanding of these two books. After the deep analysis of the two theories of Nida’s translation theories and the comparison between Tytler’s three translation principles and Yan Fu’s translation rules, it’s better for the readers to understand the basic rule of translation. And also after analyzing the two big translation theories, it’s clear to draw a conclusion that to be able to be a good translator, the translator should not only be skillful in adapting to two kinds of different language and also he needs to have the solid translation practice experiences. He needs to have the complete transcript of the original text by conveying the content of the original text, but also he should imitate the style and mood of the original text.

'''Works Cited'''

Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary Translation Theories. Vol. 21. Multilingual Matters, 2001.

Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications. Routledge, 2013.

Li Jiangchun. “The comment of the second edition of the Contemporary translation theories.” Foreign Language Education. 35.1(Jan. 2014): 111-114. CNKI. Web. 1 Nov. 2019

Xu Dongping and Wang Dongfeng. “Giving comment about the Edwin’s Contemporary Translation theories.” Foreign Language and Their teaching.12(2000):42-44. CNKI. Web. 1 Nov. 2019

Nida, Eugene A. “Dynamic equivalence in translating.” An Encyclopaedia of Translation: Chinese-English English-Chinese [C/Z]. Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press (1995): 223-30.

Shakernia, Shabnam. “Study of Nida’s (formal and dynamic equivalence) and Newmark’s (semantic and communicative translation) translating theories on two short stories.” Merit Research Journal of Education and Review 2.1 (2013): 001-007.

Liu Dayan. “Dynamic equivalence and formal correspondence in translation between Chinese and English.” International Journal of Humanities and Social Science 2.12 (2012): 242-247.

Panou, Despoina. “Equivalence in translation theories: A critical evaluation.” Theory and Practice in Language Studies 3.1 (2013): 1.

Miao, Ju. “The limitations of ‘equivalent effect.” Perspectives: Studies in Translatology 8.3 (2000): 197-205. CNKI. Web. 3 Nov. 2019

Zhou Wenmei. “Interpreting the linguistic idea in Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammar construction.”Yinshan Academic Journal. 32.3(Jun 2019):5-10. CNKI. Web. 4 Nov. 2019

Zhu Enlue. “A brief analysis of Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammar.” Overseas English. (2018):241-242. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019

Li Zhiwang. “An analysis of Chomsky’s generative transformational grammar and Nida’s ideas about translation.” Journal of Inner Mongolia Agricultural University. 3(2011):394-396. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019

Liu Fang and Deng Jie. “The comment of the new edition of Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications.” Contemporary Foreign Languages Studies. 4.(Apr 2010):54-58. CNKI. Web. 6 Nov. 2019

Stolt Birgit “Luther’s Translation of the Bible.” Lutheran Quarterly 28.4 (2014): 373-74.

Shi Chunrang, Zhao Wei. “Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation.” Foreign Language Research 5 (2005):96-100. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019

Xi Yan. “ Faithfulness-Expressiveness-Elegance, Tytler's three principles and Dynamic Equivalence——New Analyses on the Differences and Similarities of the Standard of Translation and the Causes.” Journal of Cangzhou Teachers' College 3 (2009): 40-42. CNKI. Web. 8 Nov. 2019
Bie Fangfang, and Huang Qin. “Dolet’s Translation Principles and Tytler’s Translation Principles: A Comparison.” Foreign Language Education 2007.0 (2007): 30. CNKI. Web. 9 Nov. 2019

Firdaus, Sonia. “Evolution of translation theories and practice.” The Dialogue (2012):272-294

Wang Chenjie. “A Systematic Comparison between Yan Fu's Theory of Faithfulness, Fluency, and Expressiveness and Tytler's Three General Rules of Translation.” Journal of Ningbo Institute of Education 1 (2008):70-73. CNKI. Web. 10 Nov. 2019

Chen Wen,. “On Yan Fu and the Influence of the “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance.” Journal of Chongqing University of Arts and Sciences (Social Sciences Edition) 6 (2012): 125-129. CNKI. Web. 11 Nov. 2019

='''The Emergence of Translation and Interpretation'''=

==On the Influences of Eugene Nida’s Translation Theory on Chinese Translation Studies 蒋凤仪 Jiang Fengyi 202070080636 MTI 英语口译==
<center>蒋凤仪 Jiang Fengyi 202070080636</center>

===Abstract===

Dr. Eugene Nida is well-known and influential western translation theorist, and as one of the representatives of linguistic translation theorist, his translation theory involves various aspects of translation, including the definition, principles, and process of translation, exerting profound influences on western countries and Asian countries, especially China. Since the 1980s, Nida’s translation theory entered China and has received profound attention from a wide range of Chinese scholars. This paper, taking ''Chinese Translators Journal'' as the object, aims to have a clear picture of the influences of his translation theory on the Chinese translation studies by investigating the number and content of papers related to Nida from the 1980s to the present.

===Key words===

Nida; translation theory; influence; Chinese translation studies

===摘要===

尤金·奈达博士是一位西方杰出的翻译理论家，作为语言学翻译理论派的代表人物之一，其翻译理论涉及翻译的各个方面，包括翻译的定义、原则和过程等，对西方国家及亚洲国家，尤其是中国影响深远。自20世纪80年代奈达翻译思想进入中国，得到了中国翻译学者的广泛关注和研究，本文以权威杂志《中国翻译》为调查目标，对其从20世纪80年代至今的奈达相关论文的数量和内容进行解读，并分析其翻译理论对于中国翻译研究领域所带来的影响。

===关键词===

奈达；翻译理论；影响；中国翻译研究

===Introduction===

Eugene Nida (1914-2011) is considered "one of the most influential theorists in the field of translation" by Delisle. (Tu & Xiao 2000, 100) Based on his biblical translation researches, he has created his own unique translation theory and published many well-known books such as ''The Scientific Exploration of Translation'', ''Translation Theory and Practice'', ''Language, Culture and Translating'', etc, in which he proposed his famous translation theories like “dynamic equivalence” and “reader’s response theory”, which have been popular and influential in the world till now. (Tan 1999, X)

Unlike western translators, Chinese translators have devoted themselves to translation practices but neglected the compiling of systematic and comprehensive theories. “Although there are dedicated translators who have produced many excellent translation works, the influential theories and researches lag behind.” (Tu & Xiao 2000, 3) After the proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance”, Yan Fu’s translation theory has dominated Chinese translation theories for more than one hundred years, which deprived the diversity of translation studies in China. (Tu & Xiao 2000, 3)

In the 1980s, Nida’s theory was introduced to China and has soon been widely studied and discussed by Chinese scholars. Among them Tan Zaixi and Lao Long are the representatives, who compiled and translated Nida’s works into Chinese and introduced his translation theory to China. The name Nida is deeply engraved on the history of Chinese translation, and Chinese scholar Chen Hongwei even defined it as “Nida Phenomenon". (Chen 2001, 46)

Founded in 1980, ''Chinese Translators Journal'', is an academic journal supported by China Foreign Languages Publishing Administration. Under the guidance of the Translators Association of China, it not only serves as the conference journal of the association but also a window for translation workers to exchange their views on translation and share the fruits of their translation studies. (Chen 2001, 46)

As a national-level core academic journal, it represents the authority in the Chinese translation field. Through publishing papers on this journal, Chinese scholars share the latest and hottest issues around translation, and the journal sets up columns such as ''Translation Research'', ''Translation Theory and Strategy'' for scholars to discuss and study translation theories at home and abroad, which make it an excellent object to have a glimpse at the trend and development of Chinese translation studies.

This paper takes the ''Chinese Translators Journal'' as the object, going through all the Nida-related papers published on the journal from 1980s to the present, and divides the time period into four stages, each taking for 10 years. By analyzing the number and content of the papers in each stage, it aims to figure out the acceptance and application of Nida’s theory by Chinese scholars and have a clear picture of the influences of Nida’s translation theory on the development of Chinese translation studies.

===1. Nida and His Translation Theory===

The name Eugene Nida is well known in the history of world translation and even in the world linguistic circles. During his life, he has conducted research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, communication tools, etc. He worked on the translation of ''The Bible'', published piles of papers, and wrote numerous books to share his views on translation, left the world with precious translation theory treasure. (Tan 1999, X)

Nida was born in November 1914 in Oklahoma, United States, and moved to California with his parents when he was five years old. He was raised as a Christian and aspired to be a missionary. After graduating summa cum laude from college, he went on to the University of Michigan, where he earned a master’s degree in 1939 and a doctoral degree in linguistics in 1943. In the same year, he worked for the American Bible Society, and after 1946 he became executive secretary of The Bible Translation Department. It was Nida’s serving this base for a long time that made his translation ideas deeply connected with ''The Bible'' and established his own banner in the western translation theory. (Tan 1999, XI-XII)

According to Tan Zaixi's book, Nida’s translation theory has mainly gone through three different stages: (1) the stage of descriptive language, (2) the stage of communication theory, and (3) the stage of social symbols. (Tan 1999, XV)

Devoted himself to the translation of ''The Bible'', he has summarized his experience and theories in some major works like ''The Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating'' (1959), ''Toward a Science of Translating'' (1964), and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''(1969), which are all of great significance for the world translation study. His major translation theory could be summarized as the followings:

1) Nida believed that “translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is an art”. (Nida & Taber 1969, Preface) By science, Nida meant to treat the problems of translating with scientific perspectives like linguistic structures, semantics analysis, and information theory. As there were different types of studies at that time, he tempted to provide an essentially descriptive approach to the translation process, and “the fundamental thrust is linguistics, as it must be in any descriptive analysis of the relationship between the corresponding message in different languages." (Nida 1964, 8)

2) Nida considered the study of translation as a study of communication by applying the theory of communication and information. Like communication, there are source, message and receptor in translation, and if the receptor could not understand the message, the communication is not accessible, so if the readers could not understand the meaning of the translated text, the translation could not be regarded as a success. (Nida 1964, chapter 6)

One should consider the amount of the message and the decoder channel to make sure that the message could be transferred by the decoder channel. A really successful translation, judged in terms of the response of the audience for which it is designed, must provide a challenge as well as information. In the process of translating, the translator should make a full analysis of the source language text from various aspects, such as the author, the message, the receptor and so on. (Nida 1964, chapter 6)

3) One of the well-known theories created by Nida is the “dynamic equivalence”, which was renamed “functional equivalence” later on. He claimed that there were fundamentally two types of equivalence: one of which may be called formal and another which is primarily dynamic. “One way of defining a dynamic translation is to describe it as the closest naturally equivalent to the source language message.“ (Nida 1964, 163)

Under this theory, a translator should not only seek to produce something relatively equivalent in the source language but also produce responses similar to that of the original language for readers. A good translation should meet the following requirements: (1) making sense, (2) conveying the spirit and manner of the original, (3) having a natural and easy form of expression, and (4) producing a similar response. (Nida 1964, 164)

4) Nida has also put forward a four-step procedure in the translation process: analysis, transfer, restructuring, and testing. The most complicated and fundamental part is analysis, especially the analysis of meaning. He focused on the study of grammatical meaning, which concerned the relationship with the words and the kernel sentence, referential meaning, and connotative meaning. He also mentioned that the translators need not to follow this order strictly as some procedures could happen at the same time. (Tan 1999, XIX)

In addition to these theories, Nida also focused on semantic analysis and rhetorical research in his later time. Although Nida’s theory has created new perspectives on language and culture and has profound influences in the world, it does not mean that his theory is perfect.

Tan Zaixi points out that “his theories focus too much on solving the problem of communicativeness and intelligibility of translations, thus limiting their scope of application.”（Tan 1999, XXIV) Besides, Nida once proposed in his book that translation is a science, but later he changed this claim, and Nida’s early view of translation is very different from his later view of translation, he even questioned whether translation needs to be guided by translation theory in his reply to Zhang Jinghao’s letter. (Zhang 2000, 5)

Throughout his life, Nida has made his own contribution to the biblical translation, yielding fruitful achievements in translation theory, and has opened up new perspectives for the field of translation such as linguistics and social semiotics. Even though his translation theory could not be considered perfect, it remains a shining jewel in the western translation theory despite of its limitations.

===2. The Studies of Nida’s Theory in China===

As soon as the introduction of Nida’s theory began in the 1980s, his new perspectives and valuable guidance for translating practice quickly captured the eyes of the Chinese scholars and has hit the Chinese translation field on a large scale, which could be reflected from the translation studies of Chinese scholars. Compared with other materials, journals have a shorter issuance cycle so as to be more time-sensitive and could quickly respond to the latest developments in the academic world. (Tu 2000, 15 )

As an authoritative magazine in the field of Chinese translation, ''Chinese Translators Journal'' records the trend and progress of Chinese Translation studies. The papers published on it related to Nida demonstrates the understanding, studies, and applications of Nida’s translation theory by Chinese scholars. By examining the number and content of relevant papers on ''Chinese Translators Journal'' from the 1980s to the present, this chapter aims to analyze the papers around Nida and his theory in 10-year periods to figure out the overall picture of the studies of Nida in China.

====2.1 The First Period: Beginning Stage====

The first 10-year was from 1980 to 1989: The number of papers focusing on Nida and his theory during this time was 13, the contents of which mostly limited to the introductions of Nida and his theory as scholars in China were not familiar with Nida and his theory at that time. In 1982, Professor Tan Xizai published his paper Translation is a Science----Review on Nida’s ''Toward a Science of Translating'', which introduced Nida’s book—T''oward a Science of Translating'' and some of his major theories like basic principles of translation, the function of translation, and the analysis of meaning, marked as the beginning of the studies of Nida’s translation in China. (Tan 1982, 4-11)

Some scholars joined him to have more introductions on Nida and his theories. Lao Long introduced the book ''On Translation'' written by Nida and Chinese translator Jin Di, which is a practice combing Nida’s theories with the Chinese translation practice (Lao 1987, 56-57), and Shi Heping made introductions on the book ''From one Language to Another'' (Shi 1987, 42-44).

Moreover, several scholars also attempted to apply Nida’s theory to solve other translation problems of free translation and literal translation, such as Lao Long. He believed that the equivalence of form and function raised by Nida is the key point to the free translation and literal translation, and the translators must cover the two aspects: form and function to achieve the closest natural equivalent. (Lao 1989, 3-6)

Among all those papers, there were also voices of criticism but was very few in number. Although Mr. Lao was among the first to introduce Nida’s theory, he published a paper to share his views after reading what Tan Xizai translated and edited from Nida’s ''Toward a Science of Translating''. He spoke highly of Tan’s work. Meanwhile, he reminded the translators in China that some of the western theories might not be applicable in China, especially the idea of kernel sentence. (Lao 1987, 56-57) Qian Linsheng also indicated in his paper that it might not be appropriate to set the reader’s response as the standard of the translation. He argued that the reader's response would be subjective and idealistic to some extent if it separates from the analysis of the original work, which could be used as reference but could never be the standard. (Qian 1988, 43)

====2.2 The Second Period: Surging Stage====

The second 10-year went from 1990 to 1999. The number of papers related to Nida and his theory during that period reached its peak to 22. This period could be regarded as a booming stage of the entering of Nida’s theory, not only owing to the mounting number of papers but also the diversity of the studies.

1) The scholars continued to have a further introduction of Nida’s theory, and at the same time, they compared Nida’s theory with other scholars in a large amount. As Nida has always devoted himself to the compiling of his works, the scholars in China have also spared no effort to follow his theories. Sun Yu has made a full introduction of the book ''Language, Culture and Translating'' and considered the views in this book of great reference meaning to Chinese translators. (Sun 1994, 47-49)

Moreover, more scholars tried to make comparisons between Nida and other western translators. Liao Qiyi studied the concept of "equivalence" between Nida’ “closest natural” and “dynamic equivalent” and Catford’s “textual equivalence” and had analyses in his paper, demonstrating that the equivalence in translation was a key concept in the process of translation. (Liao 1994, 35-37) Lin Kenan had an overall comparison between Nida's and Newmark's theory to find out the similarities and differences between their theories, aiming to give some references for Chinese scholars. (Lin 1992, 2-5)

2) There were still a group of scholars, including Lin Kenan (Lin 1996, 7-10+17), Xi Zhaoyan (Xi 1996, 3-6), and Heng Xiaojun & Wang Chengzhi (Heng & Wang 1995, 18-20), tried to employ Nida’s theory to solve the translation difficulties in China, and the concept of “translation equivalence” was the major one, for almost all those scholars regarded it as their theoretical support. Lin Kenan took Nida's theory into his translation of documents released by International Table Tennis Federation. In this practice, he used concepts like "dynamic equivalence", "seven kernel sentence", and reader's response, and argued that Nida's way of conveying message in the translating process was practical. (Lin 1996, 7-10+17)

3) With studies went further, more and more scholars recognized that even though Nida’s theory had provided ingenious perspectives for translation, it still had its own shortcomings. Scholars like Huang Bangjie (Huang 1996: 40-42+46) and Wang Shoureng (Wang 1992, 45-48) directly pointed out their critics towards the incompetence of the application of Nida’s theory in Chinese-English translation. Yang Xiaorong reflected upon the question in her paper that did the translators in China trully understand Nida's theory, and should the translation field in China make some adjustments towards the study of his theories. (Yang 1996, 9) Heng Xiaojun and Wang Chengzhi took Nida’s dynamic equivalence into compiling a bilingual dictionary but found out it might not work. (Heng & Wang 1995, 18-20)

====2.3 The Third Period: Transitioning Stage====

The third period was from 2000 to 2009. The number of papers connected with Nida and his theory during this period was 20. During this transition time, though the number of papers remained high, the contents have changed: the introductive papers at this period slumped, instead the scholars applied his theory to discuss the hotspot issues in China during that time, such as the possibility of setting the “translatology” for translation studies. Unlike the previous studies that focused on Nida’s theory only, more and more scholars regarded Nida‘s theory as an object for the comparisons with other major theorists during this time, among which the key concept has transferred from "equivalence" to "function". On top of this, a group of scholars continued to rethink the applications of Nida’s theory in China.

1) Li Tianxin mentioned the transformation of Nida’s thoughts in the possibility of whether translation could be a science to support her idea that translation could never be considered as a science in 2000. (Li 2000, 8-10) Lv Jun regarded Nida’s theory part of structuralism and made a review of Nida’s theory, together with some other major translation theories, to list the difficulties and major tasks that Chinese scholars faced when building the discipline of "translatology". (Lv 2001, 8-11.)

2) As Halliday’s functional grammar theory and other western theories came to China, more and more scholars compared those theories with Nida’s “functional equivalence” to have a better understanding of these translation theories, Among who Zhang Meifang and Qian Hong was two of the representatives. They listed Nida’s functional equivalence, Holmes’s function-oriented studies, Halliday’s functional grammar theory, and functionalism from German to make analyses between those theories and figure out the meaning of function in each of these theories, which pave the way for the study around function. (Zhang & Qian 2007, 10-16+93.)

3) As more and more western theories came to China and have been accepted by the translators, a group of translators pointed out the problems. However, at that time, Nida and his theory were no longer the major subject but were included in all the western theories. Lin Kenan, based on four M.A. degree theses, revealed the prevailing problems when scholars and M.A. students applyiing the overseas translation theories, one of which was Nida’s "dynamic equivalence", and gave some suggestions to improve the situation. (Lin 2003, 46) Zhang Jinghao, taking Nida’s theories as an example, illustrated that most the Chinese scholars have not really understood the essence of those western theories because of some reason like that most of the scholars only read the translated version and never delve in to the original books, and they simply accepted those theories without questioning and further practicing.(Zhang 2006, 59-61)

====2.4 The Fourth Period: Falling Stage====

The last period was from 2010 to 2020. The number of papers focusing on Nida and his theory during this period dropped to 8. The latest Nida-related paper on ''Chinese Translators Journal'' was published in 2015. The shrinking number clearly showed that Nida is not the main focus in the translation studies in this new century. Although ''Chinese Translators Journal'' could not represent the whole scope of translation study in China, it exactly showed that the research on Nida is no longer mainstream for Chinese translators.

For those 8 related papers, the contents still covered Nida’s major concepts like equivalence in scholar Cai Lijian's (Cai 2015, 81-87) and Liu Runze & Wei Xiangqing & Zhao Wenjing's papers. (Li & Wei & Zhao 2015, 18-24+127), but more scholars stretched to some theories that have been neglected in the early periods. Li Shaoyan quoted Nida’s social dialects to explain why interpreters should keep the culture in mind when working (Li 2011, 41-44), and both Wang Aiqin (Wang 2012, 98-102) and Wang Zhaoyuan (Wang 2012, 113-116) applied Nida’s translation procedures to form their own mode of translation procedures.

Besides translation studies, as this master of translation passed away in 2011, there was a piece of an obituary together with an article written by Ye Zinan to memorize him, which showed the great grief among the Chinese scholars for the loss of Nida and also the significance of Nida for the translation studies in China as Ye Zinan mentioned in his article:" Nida has a tremendous influences on the translation studies in China". (Ye 2011, 86)

====2.5 Summary====

According to the above number and content of the papers, in general, Nida’s theory in China has gone through the process of (1) introduction of works and theories, (2)study and comparison, and (3) retrospection and criticism. Since the 1980s when Tan Zaixi first published Nida's theory in China Translation, it has led to a Nida fever, and translators not only introduced Nida’s theory to China in a large scale but also try to apply Nida’s theory to solve Chinese translation problems, such as the debate between free translation and literal translation.

As the study went further, more and more criticism was formed upon the shortcomings of his theory and the imcompatibility of his theory in China, and then a group of scholars made retrospections on the study of Nida in China, and at the same time, they argued that Chinese scholars should have a dialectical view towards Nida’s theory, to learn its merits and abandon those incompatible. The study of Nida reached its climax in 1990-1999, for the entry of other Western translation theories then distracted Chinese scholars from their research, which was also the reason why a large group of scholars compared Nida’ theory with other translators’ in order to have a deeper understanding of their theories and provide a better reference for Chinese translation.

With only few theories under discussion, the passion for Nida’s theory has been gradually cooled down entering the 21 Century. Among all Nida’s theories, the concepts of dynamic equivalence, function, and translation procedure have been discussed and studied the most and have the greatest influence on Chinese translation scholars.

===3. The Influences of Nida’s Theory in China===

As a major figure in the translation field, Nida is regarded as one of the most influential theorists in the translation field. His translation theory was the first and most systematically western theory that was introduced and studied in China, which could be indicated from the number and content of the papers on ''Chinese Translators Journal'' from the 1980s till present.

====3.1 The Studies of Translation in China Before the Introduction of Nida’s Theory====

The large-scale translation activities in China originated in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The first person who formed a theory in China was the Buddhist master Dao An (312-385), who was enlightened by the process of his translating of Buddhist scriptures and proposed the theory of “Five Losses and Three Difficulties”, which was the beginning of Chinese translation theory. In his theory, he raised the question of “Wen” (text) and “Zhi” (form), which is essentially was the comparison of free translation and literal translation. The “Five Losses” covered aspects like the source language, syntax and style of the original text, and the later translation scholars also followed his path to have more researches on separate perspectives but never formed a standard for the evaluation of the translation. (Liu 1994, 2-3)

It was not until Yan Fu put forward the translation standard of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” that established a translation standard for Chinese translators. After Yan Fu put forward his concept, there were a large number of supporters. However, there were also many criticisms. Moreover, some translators gave new meanings to this theory and form their own theories, such as Liu Zhongde’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness”, and many others tried to put aside Yan Fu’s theory and created their own new translation theories, such as Lin Yutang’s “Faithfulness, Fluency, and Beauty” (Liu 1994, 5).

However, it is not difficult to recognize that these theories were still under the framework of Yan Fu’s theory. While the dispute between free translation and literal translation continued among the scholars, they still failed to provide practical criteria for judging translation in China. It was right at the time when Nida’s translation theory was spread into China.

====3.2 The Influences on Chinese Translation Studies After the Introduction of Nida’s Theory====

Based on the stagnant situation of the Chinese translation theory at that time, Nida brought a new light to the field of Chinese translation, led the trend of studying western translation theories in China, and triggered Chinese scholars to have a critical mind towards western translation theories.

=====3.2.1 It Brought New Perspectives for Translation Theory in China.=====

In contrast with the booming studies in translation studies in the West in the 1960s to 1970s, the development of translation studies in China almost paused in the 1950s because of some social unrest, which has been stagnating for at least 20 years. What’s more, translators have been struggling in the dispute between free translation and literal translation without producing a systematic and thorough interpretation. Since Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” was proposed, it has dominated Chinese translation theory for a long time. The reason why Yan Fu’s theory has been passed down for so many years was that there was no scientific and acceptable theory to take his place for the time being. (Tu & Xiao 2000, 100)

Hence, there was an urgent demand for breakthroughs in translation studies. Nida's theory on translation and the theoretical understanding of translation have brought Chinese translators brand perspectives, such as functional equivalence and readers’ response, which have never been fully covered by Chinese scholars and opened a window for Chinese scholars to study the language from the language itself instead of only translation such as linguistics and social symbols. (Tu & Xiao, 2000, 19)

In addition, Nida’s theory set specific standards for the evaluation of the translation. By studying, learning, and applying Nida’s theory, Chinese scholars have also produced their own corresponding theoretical structures, enriching the theories of Chinese scholars themselves. based on Nida’s theory, Wang Zhaoyuan had made his own translation procedures, which contains six steps: prepare, translate, examine the content, examine the style, examine the form and proofread. (Wang 2012, 113-116)

=====3.2.2 It Led the Trend of Studying Western Translation Theories.=====

Since the shortcomings and problems of the traditional translation theories in China appeared, the translators in China were also desperate to draw on some helpful theoretical elements from the achievements of the west in this field. Among them, Nida’s theory was a critical one. Since the introduction of Nida’s theory, scholars have conducted extensive discussions and studies from various perspectives. With Nida as a precedent, more and more Chinese scholars recognized the advancement of western theories and introduced other foreign translation theories to China. (Tu & Xiao 2000, 18)

Chen Hongwei scanned the papers on ''Chinese Translators Journal'' from 1980 to 2000 in all aspects and divided them into four stages. In addition to the introduction of Nida's theory, the theories of five translators were introduced in the first stage (1980-1984), the works and theories of 20 foreign translators were introduced in the second stage (1985-1989), 13 translators were introduced in the third stage (1990-1994), and the approaches and works of 17 translators were introduced in the fourth stage (1995-2000). (Chen 2001, 46-48)

While introducing the theories of other translators, a large number of scholars have compared them with Nida’s translation theories, and a large number of Western theories have entered China, enlivening the academic atmosphere of translation theories and enriching the theoretical foundation of the Chinese translation study.

=====3.2.3 It Liberated the Minds of Chinese Scholars Towards the Western Translation Theories.=====

After the introduction of Nida’s theory, a large group of translation scholars were attracted to his theory and carried out extensive studies, and almost all of them agreed with his unique perspectives. However, they gradually realized the shortcomings of Nida’s theory. since his theory was based on biblical translation, which bore religious and dissemination elements, and was different from the area of research among Chinese translation scholars, some of his theory was not applicable to Chinese translation.

This reflection on Nida’s theory has also prompted more Chinese scholars to reflect on the introduction and application of other western theories, realizing that Chinese and western theoretical systems are different and that they need to adopt a critical attitude, taking the essence and the dross. In his paper, Zhang Jinghao proposed that it is necessary to look at foreign translation theories calmly and objectively and at the same time return to the proper path of translation research in China, that is, to study Chinese traditions and experiences mainly, supplemented by foreign theories, which is the proper path that translation theory research in China should step on. (Zhang 2006, 61)

Moreover, it has encouraged Chinese scholars to question the western authority. In the later studies, it is obvious that even though scholars compared Nida’s theory with other theories and introduced more western translation theories, scholars no longer took the one-sided attitude that they had before, they tried to explore the foreign theories from multiple perspectives of a critical point of view, like positive and negative sides and promote the translation study in China to a more stable and mature path.

===Conclusion===

From the analysis of ''Chinese Translators Journal'', it can be seen that Nida’s theory has entered China through three stages: translation and introduction of works, study and comparison, and retrospection and criticism, and the number of Nida-related has experienced three periods: surging, transitioning and falling. In terms of time, the discussion was most enthusiastic from the 1980s to the beginning of the 21st century, and the important translation concepts under study included:“ functional equivalence”, “reader‘s response’, and ‘the procedure of translation’, which had a significant influence on Chinese translation scholars.

Throughout the history of translation in China, Chinese translators emphasize practice but not the guiding theory, and even though a small number of translators have summarized certain theoretical experiences, they have not been able to form a complete set of influential theories. Nida’s theory was novel in perspective, excelling in guiding the translation of ''The Bible'', and since the publication of ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'', his theoretical achievements have enjoyed a worldwide reputation in translation, which could add new sparks for Chinese translation study. This is why Nida’s theory has triggered such a strong impact after entering China, which can also be seen from the number of relevant papers in the ''Chinese Translators Journal''.

However, in the later period, Chinese scholars gradually discovered the incompatibility between Nida’s theory and the actual situation of Chinese translation and began to criticize Nida’s theory on a large scale.

At the same time, some scholars proposed to look at Nida's theory calmly and objectively, and finally the scholars realized that it is necessary to adopt an objective attitude towards foreign translation theories, focusing on Chinese translation experiences and practices, and some scholars extracted the merits from Nida’s theories and created their own theoretical systems, which is a new and mature path for the Chinese translation study.

Nida’s theory of translation has opened up a new perspective for Chinese translation and propelled Chinese translation to step on a new and correct path. Although Chinese translation scholars have taken some detours in the middle of this process, they made progress while groping and gradually discovered the path that Chinese translation itself should take, which could be regarded as one of the greatest contribution Nida’s theory has brought to Chinese translation studies.

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--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 15:23, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==A Study on the History of Interpretation and the Prospect of Interpretation in China 雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi 202070080639 MTI 英语口译==

<center>雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi 202070080639</center>

===Abstract===
This paper mainly outlines the development history of interpretation, briefly compares the development history of interpretation in China and the West and their respective development characteristics, and compares the interpretation research in the West with the late start of interpretation research in China, and the development history of interpretation research in China in the past 40 years of reform and opening up, mainly through four stages: the "budding period" from the late 1970s to the late 1980s, the "initial development period" in the 1990s, the "emerging period" in the first decade of the 21st century, and the "diversified development period" in the second decade of the 21st century.Finally reviewed the current state of development and future prospects of interpretation research in China.

===Key Words===
Interpretation, historical development, interpretation studies, development trends

===摘要===
本文主要概述了口译的发展历史，简要对比中西方口译发展历程和各自的发展特点，对比西方的口译研究，中国对口译的研究起步较晚，在改革开放40年来中国口译研究的发展历程，主要经历四个阶段：20世纪70年代末到80年代末的“萌芽期”、20世纪90年代的“初步发展期”、21世纪头十年的“新兴期”、21世纪第二个十年进行中的“多元发展期”，最后就目前中国口译研究的发展现状和未来展望进行评析。

===关键词===
口译，历史发展，口译研究，发展趋势

===1.Introduction===

The expression of the meaning of one language through another language is called translation. There are two main forms of translation, namely, interpretation and translation. Interpretation can be between two different national languages, or between a standard language and a dialect or between a dialect and another dialect.

Interpreting has a long history and is one of the oldest professions of human beings. In primitive societies, primitive tribal groups ruled separately.with the development of history, this self-enclosed form of society hindered the economic and cultural progress of human beings, so the tribes had the desire and need to cross the frontiers and develop outward into the countryside for trade and cultural exchange. The language barrier became the biggest obstacle to this cross-ethnic communication. Interpretation as a language intermediary can make people realize the desire of economic and cultural communication with the outside world. Thus,bilingual or multilingual interpretation is born.

Human interpretation activities have also recorded the political, economic, military, cultural, scientific and technological, health and educational interactions between people of all races in the world over the centuries. All the major events in human history have been marked by interpretation. In the history of human development, interpretation activities have become the lubricant that drives the wheels of human society to roll. With the development of the times, people's communication has become deeper and deeper, and the concept of "global village" has gradually come to the fore, so the status of interpretation has become extremely important. The establishment of the United Nations, especially the Geneva International Conference Interpreters Association, has brought its status to an unprecedented level. At the same time, interpretation has also entered the universities as a discipline, and its development has become increasingly rapid and perfect.As a country that attaches importance to international friendship and multilateral trade, China has been paying more attention to interpretation and cultivating interpretation talents, and the research on interpretation in China has been increasing year by year, and China will continue to pay attention to the development and progress of interpretation in the future, and the overall development will show a good and steady rise.（Zhao Yonghong,2007）

===2.The overall development and overview of the Interpretation===

Language interpreting is known to date back to Ancient Egypt during the 3rd millennium B.C. The first records of interpreting were in the form of Egyptian low-relief sculptures in a prince’s tomb that made reference to an interpreter supervisor.In ancient China as early as the Spring and Autumn period there was the work of translation, at that time was called "tongue man", while we in the "Book of Rites - King's system" “五方之民，言语不通，嗜欲不同，达其志，通其欲。东方曰寄，南方曰象，西方曰狄鞮，北方曰译。”And "The Rites of Zhou - Autumn Officials - Preface Official" (Jia Gongyan, a great scribe and linguist of Tang Dynasty)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book.

Oral communication preceded the emergence of writing, so the work of interpretation also preceded that of translation, so the history of interpretation as a social phenomenon or social activity can be traced back to a long time ago. However, interpretation as an internationally recognized profession began at the end of World War I at the Paris Peace Conference. Although there have been interpreters in Western countries for hundreds of years, most of them are part-time interpreters. It was at the beginning of the 20th century that interpreting was recognized as a formal profession internationally. In 1919, after the end of World War I, the organizers of the Paris Peace Conference recruited a large number of full-time interpreters who worked as official interpreters for the Paris Peace Conference as 'successive interpreters. '(or "consecutive translators," as they were called). "The founders of the Paris Peace Conference ended the agency.

From then on, the professional nature of interpreting was recognized, and the training of basic methods and skills of interpreting began to be emphasized. After the end of the World War Two, the Nuremberg War Criminals Trial adopted the method of near-simultaneous interpretation of the original and translated languages. The emergence of new forms of interpretation, marked by "simultaneous interpretation", made people look at the uniqueness of the profession of senior interpreters. With the creation of the United Nations and the emergence of various global and regional organizations, international interactions have become more frequent, and a vivid modern drama has been performed on the multilateral and bilateral stages of the world, in which interpreters have played a unique role.

The status of professional international conference interpreters is getting higher and higher, the United Nations has established a special translation agency, and the study of its principles and methods by the International Association of Senior Interpreters has also entered higher education institutions. For over half a century, senior interpreters have been looked for by international agencies, governments, and various cross-cultural institutions and organizations. Professional interpreters have become a highly respected and noble profession, especially senior international conference interpreters, who are both intelligent linguists and knowledgeable international diplomats.

However, the history of formal interpreting that we now see commonly used in various international conferences and negotiations is not very long. The first large-scale use of conference interpretation in history was at the end of World War I. The Paris Peace Conference held in 1919 was the first large-scale official use of consecutive interpretation in history.The first large-scale use of simultaneous interpretation in history was at the end of World War II.Before that, consecutive interpretation was commonly used at international conferences because the working languages were mostly limited to French and English, and the science and technology required for simultaneous interpretation equipment had not yet been developed. It was not until 1947, when the trial of Nazi war criminals was held in Nuremberg, Germany, where four languages were used simultaneously: German, English, French and Russian, that the use of simultaneous interpretation began to be experimented with in order to improve the efficiency of the court. Initially, the method used was that after a speech, different interpreters simultaneously translated the speech into the other three languages and transmitted it through headphones to the ears of different listeners. Of course, this was still in fact consecutive interpretation.

Later, further experiments were conducted with simultaneous interpretation of speeches, which greatly improved the efficiency and thus began to be used on a large scale, which led to the first real simultaneous interpretation in history.Now,with the development of science and technology, there were more equipment helping the work of interpreting.It is the golden age of the interpreting profession.

====2.1 The development of the Interpretation in west====

Interpreting is ancient. Maybe as ancient as languages or mankind. Interestingly enough there are references to interpreters in many different historical sources.
Cicero in ancient Rome spoke highly of his interpreter and the services the interpreter did for him. In the Ottoman empire interpreters were called dragoman and their roles were not just interpreting but also acting as guides, go-betweens and door-openers to the Ottoman empire. The Ottoman empire also had sworn court interpreters, as can be seen from old court records from the Ottoman empire. Update December 6, 2010: Another interesting post on dragomans and the history of interpreting by Unprofessional Translations
There were also sworn court interpreters in Spain in the 16th Century. And interpreters were also used by the conquistadors to communicate with the indigenous people in the Americas. Although the training those interpreters received were perhaps not to be envied. Natives were brought back to Spain where they worked as slaves and learnt the language. If they were judged good enough they were brought back to their origins to act as interpreters.

Interpreters continued to be employed throughout the middle Ages. Monks of many different nationalities interpret in monasteries; preachers of foreign lands interpret in councils, as well as some individuals interpreting on business expeditions, military incursions and diplomatic meetings.During the Age of Discovery,the use of new and different languages had greatly changed the way we see interpretation today. Christopher Columbus in his first voyage noted that his Arabic and Hebrew-speaking interpreters we not very helpful in communicating with the Indians. After this voyage he decided to capture some Native Americans and teach them Spanish so they could help him as interpreters on his next expedition.

But interpreting hit the headlines with the Nüremberg Trials. Although interpreting was used at the international organizations before the Second World War, this was the first time that large scale simultaneous interpreting was used. Technology now allowed interpreters to listen to the original in head phones and interpret into a microphone that broadcast the interpreting to listeners. Hardly any of the interpreters who interpreted at the Nüremberg Trials had any interpreting training. But most of the interpreters there then went on to a career in interpreting. These interpreters were the founding fathers and mothers of the profession. They were active in the professionalization of interpreters, they helped training new interpreters and they lay the foundations of AIIC, the international association for conference interpreters.

Community interpreters are a different case. Community interpreting has not started its professionalization until the past 10 or 15 years. Community interpreters were typically because of friends and and family of the person needing community interpreting. However, thanks to researchers and very active community interpreters, and in particular thanks to the critical link conference, community interpreting is slowly gaining professional standards in the same way as its big sister conference interpreting.
（https://interpretings.net/2010/09/13/history-of-interpreting/）
（https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.）

====2.1.1The four development stages of western interpretation research====

The Pre-research Period

From the 1950s to the early 1960s, mainly focused on interpreters talking about their personal experiences, observing and reflecting on interpreting behaviors and the working environment of interpreters, and exploring issues such as the language and knowledge requirements of interpreters, the difficulties encountered by interpreters in their work, the relationship with clients or fatigue, etc. The issues discussed include the language and knowledge requirements of translators, the difficulties they encounter in their work, their relationship with clients or their fatigue, etc. The research at this stage was not very theoretical, but the two manuals published during this period, Rozen (1956) and Herbert (1952)1, are classics, among which the basic principles and methods of consecutive interpreting notes described in Rozen's book are still widely accepted today.

The Experimental Psychology Period

From the 1960s to the early 1970s, mainly some psychologists and psycho-linguists used the theoretical framework of psychology and psycholinguistics to study the cognitive problems of interpreting, put forward some hypotheses about the process of interpreting, and analyzed source language, noise speaking speed, the impact of variables such as EVS (Ear-Voice Span, i.e. the time difference between the two streams of the source language and the translated language) on interpretation and the countermeasures often adopted by interpreters, etc.. However, some authors are skeptical about whether this phase of research can really help people better understand the interpreting process.

The early 1970s to the mid-1980s was dominated by theoretical research conducted by interpreting practitioners (most of them were part-time interpreting teachers). The most representative theory was the théorie du sens (interpretation theory) created by the École Supérieure des Interprètes de Paris (ESIT), which emphasized that interpretation was centered on meaning rather than on the translation of words and language structures. The théorie du sens theory was once the dominant theory in the interpretation community and still has a positive influence in interpretation training today. However, research at this stage was relatively isolated, there was a lack of communication between schools of thought, and the significance of empirical research was almost completely ignored.

The Renewal Period

It began in the latter half of the 1980s, marked a turning point with an important conference on interpretation held at the University of Trieste in Italy in 1986, from which interpretation research entered a new historical period. In the third stage, the dominant views and theories were openly questioned and challenged, and the interpreting community ended its isolation for many years, and extensive and in-depth exchanges among various schools of thought began.
(Xiao Xiaoyan，2002，71-72)

====2.2 The development of the Interpretation in china====

Interpretation as a specialized profession has a history of more than 2,000 years in China. In ancient times,as early as the Spring and Autumn period,people who were engaged in the profession of interpretation were called "tongue man" or “Yi”. (“译”、“寄”、“象”、“狄银”、“通事”或“通译”) In the Book of Rites(《礼记·王制》), it is written that“五方之民言语不通，嗜欲不同。达其志，通其欲，东方日寄，南方曰象，西方日狄革是，北方曰译。”The "Kueixing miscellaneous knowledge after the collection - translator" (《癸幸杂识后集·译者》)made this explanation: "translation, Chen also; Chen said that the internal and external words are established this transmitter of the language to pass its will, now the north is said to be through the matter."(“译，陈也；陈说内外之言皆立此传语之人以通其志，今北方谓之通事。”) The Later Han Dynasty - The Chronicle of Emperor He mentions the demand for translators at that time: "Duguo Xi refers to, then pass translators 40,000." (“都护西指，则通译四万。”)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book.

Interpretation as a discipline began to be studied by some experts and scholars, and it started relatively late. The study of interpretation in the West basically started after World War II, while in China, it was not until the early 1980s that some articles analyzing the characteristics and techniques of interpretation were published, and its development was relatively slow. Only after 1996 did it start to develop rapidly and achieve some scientific achievements.

Since the founding of the People's Republic of China, China has become more and more active in the international arena. In the early 1970s, China returned to the United Nations and since then its international status has been rising rapidly. After entering the 1980s, marked by reform and opening up, China's economy began to take off and the door to the outside world opened wider and wider. In the 1990s, when the economies of many countries and regions in the East and West were in recession, China's economic train continued to run at high speed with its strong vitality along the track to the ranks of the world's economically developed countries. A China that has chosen a socialist market economy with great success and has become the preferred target of many overseas investors and tourists. A fully open China, which is following the path of a strong nation at a steady pace, has more and more contact points and a larger contact area for foreign exchanges. The demand for all kinds of interpreters is increasing day by day, and the contradiction between the supply and demand of senior interpreters is becoming more and more prominent.

The "Shanghai English Interpreting Qualification Examination" has come into being, and English undergraduate majors in all colleges and universities across China have been offering practical courses on interpreting, and "Research and Practice of Interpreting" as a course combining theory and practice has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree classes by more and more colleges and universities. As a course combining theory and practice, "Interpretation Research and Practice" has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree courses by more and more universities. Some universities have also held national seminars on interpretation. This is the need of the times, the need of the country and the need of the market. At the same time, the study of interpretation has also enriched the theories of linguistics and applied linguistics (such as psycholinguistic studies, discourse studies, bilingual studies and translation studies).

====2.2.1The four development stages of Chinese interpretation research====

The "budding period" from the late 1970s to the late 1980s

During this period, there were only 27 papers on interpretation published in core foreign language journals,and the research on interpretation in China was still in the nascent stage, and the topics discussed in the papers were mostly at the level of experience introduction, and many papers only raised some phenomena and problems without in-depth discussion from the theoretical level.The landmark event of this period is the opening of the "United Nations Interpreter and Translator Training Course" in Beijing Foreign Language Institute in 1979, which has trained nearly 100 interpreters by the early 1990s.(Chen Bei,2009)

The "Initial Development Period" in the 1990s

Between 1990 and 1999, 112 papers on interpretation were published in core foreign language journals, and the research on interpretation in China entered the "initial development period". Most of the papers in this period were mainly focused on the summary of interpretation skills and the discussion of the prescriptive teaching methods, and in general, the interpretation research in this period lacked theoretical guidance. Although a few scholars (e.g. Bao Gang and Liu Heping) began to pay attention to the combination of interpretation teaching concepts and interpretation theories, the theoretical perspectives are still relatively homogeneous and mainly focus on interpretation theories.

During this period, professional interpretation teaching started to be initiated in institutions. In the 1990s, Beijing Foreign Studies University started to establish a senior translation school, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies established a translation department in the College of English, and with the support of the British Council, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies and Xiamen University both offered professional interpretation courses, and Beijing Language and Culture College also offered professional interpretation courses in the French major.The first and second National Symposium on Interpretation Theory and Teaching held in 1996 and 1998 were the main academic events of interpretation in this period, marking the beginning of the development of interpretation research in China with the awareness of research fields.(Chen Bei,2009)

The "Emerging Period" in the first decade of the 21st century

With the formal establishment of interpretation majors in some universities and the development of interpretation practice in the direction of professionalization and specialization, interpretation research in China entered the emerging period. 251 papers on interpretation were published in core foreign language journals from 2000 to 2009.
In this period, not only the number of interpretation papers has increased significantly, which is equivalent to twice of the previous period, but also the quality of research has improved significantly, and interpreting researchers have started to break away from the traditional research perspective, pay attention to the research results of other disciplines (Liu Heping 2001a), and are not satisfied with putting forward some prescriptive principles and methods of interpreting and interpreting teaching, but begin to try to explore the inner laws of interpreting and the principles and methods of teaching In this period, Shanghai Foreign Language Institute (SFLI) has been working on the concept behind the teaching of interpretation.

During this period, Shanghai Foreign Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, etc. established senior translation schools one after another, and the training of doctoral students in interpretation studies also started in Beijing Foreign Studies University, Shanghai Foreign Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, etc.

The "National Conference on Interpretation" was held every two years and became an important academic event to unite the strengths of interpretation research, and the 5th National Conference and International Conference on Interpretation held in 2004 was themed "Interpretation Professionalization: International Experience and Development in China".With the theme of "Professionalization of Interpretation: International Experience and Development in China", the conference focused on the problems and challenges faced by Chinese interpreters on the road to professionalization, such as the standardization and professionalization of the profession and the marketization of interpretation, and discussed the training and certification of interpreters, interpretation theory and interdisciplinary research, as well as interpretation teaching and evaluation (Yuanyuan Mu and Jun Pan 2005), and began to publish the Proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference. The conference also started to publish the proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference.(Chen Bei,2009)

The "Period of Diversified Development" in the Second Decade of the 21st Century

From 2010 to 2017, there were more than 300 papers on interpretation in core journals. In this period, not only the number of published papers continued to increase, but also the quality of research has been significantly improved, the research themes were diversified, and the research methods are also more diversified.
The vigorous development of interpretation research in China during this period is inseparable from two driving forces: first, the establishment of undergraduate translation majors and master's degrees in translation (MTI) in mainland China; second, the strengthening of exchanges between the Chinese interpretation research community and the international interpretation research community.

During the 7th National Conference and International Symposium on Interpretation, the interaction between the conference organizers and representatives of the international interpretation research community led to the publication of the authoritative international journal Interpreting: International Journal of Research and Practice in Interpreting in 2009. In 2011, the book was published in John Benjamins Publishing's famous "Benjamins Translation Library" under the title of "Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China". The book was published in 2011 as a stand-alone book entitled Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China in John Benjamins' famous Benjamins Translation Library series, which then became "an international showcase of the interface of Chinese interpreting research" (Wang Binhua and Zheng Xun 2011).

And,some young Chinese scholars have completed their doctoral dissertations in the field of interpretation research and become the new force of Chinese interpretation research; some Chinese interpretation researchers have started to go to international academic circles, either publishing papers in international important translation journals or applying for teaching positions in international famous universities, forming interaction with international interpretation research circles.

===3.Current situation and the prospect of the interpretation in China===

At present, the interpretation work is subdivided into five major categories:conference interpreting,court interpreting,business interpreting,accompaniment interpreting and document translation. From the perspective of language, there is a need for Spanish, Korean, Japanese, French, German and other small language talents.

Nowadays, with the expanding foreign economic and cultural exchanges, a translation market of ten billion RMB has been created in China. Especially in the past two years, a large number of translation companies emerged all over the country, and the translation service market in China is expanding rapidly. At present, there are more than 6,000 professional translation registration companies of various kinds, and there are tens of thousands of companies registered in the name of consulting companies, printing agencies, etc., which actually undertake translation business. In Shanghai alone, there are more than 200 translation registration companies.

However, the shortage of translation service teams is still a major problem plaguing the translation industry. The existing translation professionals employed in China are about 60,000, and the number of translation practitioners is conservatively estimated to be 600,000, while the relevant sample survey shows that the number may reach 1 million. Even so, the existing translation team is still unable to meet the huge market demand.(wenku)

Guo Xiaoyong, executive deputy director of the China Foreign Language Bureau and first executive vice president of the China Translation Association, said that the biggest challenge facing Chinese translation work is undoubtedly the shortage of qualified translators, and "it is not a shortage in the general sense, but an extreme shortage, especially the serious shortage of high-quality and professional translators who can undertake the ever-expanding tasks of foreign cultural exchanges.(http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm)

The current translation work also faces many problems and challenges, including the lack of scientific understanding and due attention to the importance of translation work and its laws, as well as the unclear positioning of the industry, which affects the sustainable development of the industry, and the lack of access system, which causes a number of poorly qualified translation enterprises and practitioners to enter the translation market.

according to the statistics of the Ministry of Human Resources and Social Security, by the end of 2010, there were less than 30,000 professional translators (i.e. those who have obtained professional and technical titles of translation) in state-owned enterprises and institutions; the number of people who have passed the national translation professional qualification (level) examination is more than 27,000; the undergraduate and master's degree education in translation which started not long ago It is estimated that only a few thousand translation graduates have been trained so far, and it is difficult for such a limited professional team to meet the needs of increasingly extensive international exchanges.

Over the past 30 years, with the joint efforts of the Chinese translation industry and people inside and outside the industry, the face of China's translation industry has undergone great changes. Among them, as of November this year, 57 colleges and universities in China have been approved to offer professional degree courses in translation and 159 colleges and universities have been approved to offer professional degree courses in translation. Translation education has developed from being an auxiliary means of foreign language teaching in the past to becoming an independent discipline specialty for training professional translation talents and translation research talents, and has made a major breakthrough in the status of higher education, and the translation discipline system has become more and more perfect; the language service industry with The language service industry with translation as its core has developed into a new industry, with an average annual growth rate of 18.4% between 2003 and 2011; it is expected to grow at an average annual rate of 15% during the 12th Five-Year Plan period, which will be higher than the average speed of China's economic development.

With the increasing international status of China, the density of international conferences is also greater, and the number of professional English interpreters capable of handling larger international conferences in China is only about 10,000. so we should cultivated more interpreting talents and attach great importance to the cultivation of high-quality and specialized translation talents in shortage,establish an industry-university-research combination model linking industry associations, colleges and universities and employers, further improve the translation professional education system, further improve the evaluation and certification system for translation talents and promote it in the whole society to form a consensus in the industry.(http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm)

With the increasing international status of China, the density of international conferences is also greater, and the number of professional English interpreters capable of handling larger international conferences in China is only about 10,000. so we should cultivated more interpreting talents and attach great importance to the cultivation of high-quality and specialized translation talents in shortage,establish an industry-university-research combination model linking industry associations, colleges and universities and employers, further improve the translation professional education system, further improve the evaluation and certification system for translation talents and promote it in the whole society to form a consensus in the industry.

===4.Conclusion===

Interpretation has gone through a long process of development from low to high level, from imperfect to increasingly perfect, and it continues to develop steadily along a long development trajectory of more than two thousand years, and its characteristics will be increasingly enriched and intermingled.

Today, the wheel of history has brought us into a new century. It is the century of comprehensive revitalization of our country, the century of recasting glory, the century of extensive exchanges and common prosperity between Chinese culture and cultures of all ethnic groups in the world, and it is also the golden age of the interpreting profession. Over the years, China has carried out all-round and multi-level exchanges with other countries in the world, allowing us to better understand the world and the world to better understand us. As an indispensable intermediary force in Sino-foreign exchanges, foreign interpreters are shouldering the heavy responsibility of history. Today, more than ever, China needs a large number of qualified full-time or part-time interpreters to build and strengthen the bridge of foreign communication.

===Reference===

* Li Nanqiu 黎难秋(2002),中国口译史[The history of interpretation in China],青岛出版社[Qingdao Press]
* Zhao Yonghong, Zhao Hualing, Yao Jiaonv, Huang Lina, Wan Lili 赵永红，赵华玲，姚脚女，黄丽娜，万莉莉(2007),口译的发展史及特点[The history and characteristics of interpretation]
* Xiao Xiaoyan 肖晓燕(2002),西方口译研究：历史与现状[Study of Western Interpretation: History and Current Situation],71-72
* https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.
* http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm
* Chen Bei 陈蓓(2009),中国口译研究：历史和现状分析[Study of Interpretation in China: An Analysis of History and Current Situation]
* https://interpretings.net/2010/09/13/history-of-interpreting/--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 15:28, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi

==The Three Translation Climaxes in the History of Chinese Translation in Relation to the Social and Cultural Development of China 郑华君 Zheng Huajun 202020080669 亚非语言文学（朝鲜韩国文学方向）==
===Abstract===
The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Eastern Han Dynasty, formed the first important period in the history of translation in China. In the following thousands of years, the history of Chinese translation has gone through some important historical periods, and the theory and practice of translation have constantly interacted with each other. When we open the history of translation, we can see that a large number of translators appeared during the translation climaxes in different periods of Chinese history, and both the theory and practice of translation have made great achievements. The several translation climaxes in Chinese history have had an important impact on Chinese literature, culture and society, including the development of Chinese translation itself.

===Key words===
History of Chinese；Translation Climax； Socio-Cultural Development in China

===题目===
中国翻译史上的三次翻译高潮与中国社会文化发展的关系

===摘要===
起始于东汉时期的佛经翻译形成了我国翻译历史上第一个重要时期。在此后的一千多年的时间里, 中国翻译史上又经历了一些重要的历史时期, 翻译理论与实践不断互动。打开翻译史册, 可以看到中国不同时期的翻译高潮都产生了一大批翻译家, 翻译理论和实践都取得了很大成就。中国历史上的几次翻译高潮对中国的文学、文化、社会包括中国翻译事业自身发展产生了重要影响。

===关键词===
中国翻译史翻译高潮中国社会文化发展

===I.Introduction===
Scholars who study translation have different views on the division of historical periods of translation climaxes.
Some think that the translation circles in China has experienced five great climaxes so far, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement, the translation of Eastern and Western literature from the early period of the Founding of the People's Republic to the Cultural Revolution, and the period when translation has blossomed in various fields from the 1970s to the present.

According to some people, "the fourth translation climax in Chinese history is now flourishing on the land of China, and it is a spectacular scenario. There were three translation climaxes in Chinese history: the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, and the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement. But this translation climax is incomparable to the three previous ones in terms of scale, scope, quality and contribution to the development of Chinese society." (Ma Zuyi 1998:46).

And André Lefevere, in his article ''Thinking about Chinese and Western Translation'', mentions that "there were three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures from 2nd to 7th centuries AD, the spread of Western Christian culture in the 16th century, and the introduction of modern Western thoughts from the 19th century onwards. " (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2) :66-71)

We believe that the second viewpoint is similar to the third viewpoint to some extent, therefore, this paper will analyze the relationship between the three translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation and the development of Chinese society and culture by examining the first three translation climaxes that have been completed.

This is because such a division is conducive to analyzing the interactions between translation and society and culture. The four translation climaxes have made translation no longer a "pigtail" or a "matchmaker", and have freed translation from the superficial understanding that it is only a tool of communication. Next, we will focus on the impact of these climaxes on the development and change of society and culture, and the role of each climax on the society and culture of a specific period.

===II.Introduction of the three translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation===

====1.The First Translation Climax-The Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties====

The first high point of translation in China was the translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Han Dynasty, flourished in the Tang Dynasty, declined in the Song Dynasty, and came to an end in the Yuan Dynasty, and its influence on Chinese culture and thought was enormous. Generally speaking, the emergence of any phenomenon in human history has its specific political, economic and cultural background, which provides the soil for the germination and growth of such phenomenon, and translation of Buddhist scriptures is no exception.

During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the translators were mainly some monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. All of them have their own representative translation theories, and the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation are inseparable from their efforts.

At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also had a great influence on Chinese culture, such as influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning, enriching the world of imagination, strengthening storytelling, changing the form of literature, and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; or vice versa, the development of translation cause also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.

====2.The Second Climax of Translation-Technical Translation in the Late Ming and Early Qing Dynasties====
The second climax of translation went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to technological progress and social development. With the development of maritime navigation, the exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not limited to commodities, but also included culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.

In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as the medium for the exchange of Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendar, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc. into China. During this period, many of the most famous translators emerged, such as Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbao, the Germans Tang Ruowang, and the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo.

The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize Chinese cultural deficiencies and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China itself, and to be inspired in their thinking.

====3.The Third Climax of Translation: Translation of Western Studies from the Opium War to the Post-May Fourth Period====
China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the aspect of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and intended to learn from Western countries by various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress.During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, including traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented.

A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists included Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xubai, Chen XiYing, Lin Yutang and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China.

On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on Chinese was also great. Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on using ancient style to translate Western studies; some translators, such as Qu Qubai, insisted on "absolute vernacular"; others, such as Lu Xun, "disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'absolute vernacular'. Other translators, such as Lu Xun, "disagreed with the idea that the so-called 'absolute vernacular' should be advocated for the absolute exclusion of literary and written languages from translation.

In short, this culmination of translation has freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expression of the language, making it very different from before in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors,at the same time, its grammatical functions have also been enhanced.

===The constraints and influence of socio-cultural factors on the three translation climaxes===
"Translation is never produced in a vacuum" (Lefevere 1998:3). Therefore, translation studies need to "objectively examine the dynamics of translation in a particular historical and cultural context, analyze and study the constraints of social, historical and cultural factors on translation strategies and methods, and the impact of translations on the receiving culture". (Liao Qiyi 2002 (2):106-109) Translation usually reflects the position of the subject culture to the foreign culture, and the translation strategy is usually the result of the interaction between the subject culture and the foreign culture, so the choice of translation strategy is never accidental.

====1.The first translation climax====
The first translation climax spanned the Han and Tang Dynasties. There was no lack of translators from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang Dynasty, for example, Xuanzang, a landmark translator in the history of translation, was born in the Tang Dynasty. Long-term political stability and unprecedented socio-economic development built up its national power and created a harmonious cultural atmosphere at that time. All kinds of ideas, cultural and artistic forms blossomed and competed with each other.

The country as a whole showed a healthy and positive cultural mentality, because it was tolerant and unrestrained, and dared to introduce foreign cultures, which led to an unprecedented peak of economic and cultural exchanges between China and other countries. A healthy national cultural mentality undoubtedly provided a wonderful platform for Xuanzang to achieve immortal works in the history of Chinese translation. Before that, many translators had already established translation standards and translation theories worthy of reference, such as "On the Five Failures" and "Three Failures" by Dao An of the Western Jin Dynasty, and "The Eight Preparations" by Yan Bo of the Sui Dynasty, The translation method is already quite thorough.

As a patriarch of his generation, Xuanzang, who was well versed in Sanskrit and Chinese, deeply studied Buddhist texts, and was well excelled in Buddhist doctrine, changed the old practice of relying on foreigners for translations and became the founder of new translations by taking charge of his own translations and punishing the mistakes of previous generations. It is no coincidence that his translations have met the demand of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" from the beginning to the end, i.e., they are both "true" and "popular", and no one has been able to surpass them so far.

The rigorous attitude of Xuanzang in translating the scriptures, the large number of volumes, and the fluency of his translations have surpassed those of the masters before and after him. His translation is prudent and precise in language, so it has reached the "perfection". He does not advocate the style of translation of Hatamurashi, which is "not strict to get the original text, but directly taking the meaning", and opposes the style of direct translation. His translation strives to match the words and meaning of the original text, while the text follows the words, and he does not stick to one case of direct translation.

His aim was not to exoticize the Chinese language, but to create an original style of translation that was "strict and serious", without compromising the original meaning, to make it easy for the reader to understand. Firstly, he understood the original text thoroughly, and then expressed it clearly in appropriate Chinese, and often added a concluding phrase after a section to make the translation exegetical and enriching; sometimes he used another translation name instead of specialized terms to make it easy for readers to understand. His theory of "five non-translations" of sound and meaning became the model for later translations of scriptures.

Liang Qichao, in "Translation of Literature and Buddhist Texts," argued 'If Xuanzang is a translator, then the translation is straightforward, full and harmonious, and the ultimate track of the Way. According to the research of Indian scholar Pak Lok Tin and Chinese scholar Zhang Jianmu, Xuan Zang successfully used translation techniques, such as complementary method, omission method, transposition method, division method, transliteration method and pronouns reduction method in his translation of the scriptures.

After an in-depth study of the Sanskrit and Chinese Buddhist scriptures, Liang considers Xuanzang's translation 'faithful to the original text and not awkward to read, it has reached the pinnacle of excellence'. Although the main culture of Xuanzang's time 'occupied the central position of culture', it 'absorbed heterogeneous cultures' (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2): 66-71).

It has enriched itself, and has been promoted and developed. "Liang Qichao found that, in terms of vocabulary alone, there are about 35,000 words in Chinese that come from translations of Buddhist scriptures, such as 'cause and effect', 'world', 'perfection ', 'enlightenment', 'true meaning', etc. In terms of syntax, the judgment-sentence 'is', the interrogative sentence 'what is ', the dictum 'not also', and the passive sentence 'be done' and so on.The Chinese language has been introduced one after another, and has become familiar to people." (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71)

====2.The second translation climax====
The second translation climax occurred in the middle and late Ming Dynasty. During this period, the feudal rulers adopted a policy of seclusion, which hampered China's progress and its exchanges with the outside world., and only a few translations were published, such as the Northern Song Dynasty, where Emperor Taizong built a translation institute in the Taiping Xingguo Temple in Kaifeng and issued an edict to translate the scriptures. In the Yuan Dynasty, several people, such as Bahesipa and Guanshangba, were ordered to translate the scriptures.

In the Ming Dynasty, the government's control over society was the tightest it had ever been; the eunuchs were poisoned, adding to the misery; the scholars were trapped in the eight examinations and lacked independent thought; and the reopened Great Wall prevented nomadic encroachment and cut off free communication.By the time of the Great Geographic Discoveries and the European Reformation in the sixteenth century, the old religions did no longer exist in the West and had to go to the East to find new horizons with the colonial expansion.

The famous missionary Matteo Ricci created a new way of missionary work, which also led to the climax of translation. He studied Chinese, studied the Confucian classics, put on wear Confucian costume, and integrated himself into the Chinese culture as much as possible; he also interpreted Catholic doctrine with Confucianism, and allowed his followers to worship Heaven, ancestors, and Confucius.

In the "General Catalogue of the Calendar" submitted by Xu Guangqi in the spring of 1631, he put forward not only the opinion that the translation of the Western calendar must be prioritized and progressed step by step, but also his own translation ideas: "In my humble opinion, if we want to surpass, we must understand; before we understand, we must first translate." That is to say, only through translation can we "understand" (learn and master), and only through "understanding" can we "surpass" (win).

It can be seen that the translation and importation of scientific knowledge at that time played a certain role in promoting the socio-economic and cultural development of China, and had an awakening effect on many intellectuals of the Chinese scholarly class. The influence of missionaries in China, through translation, led to the spread of Western learning to the East, far more so in terms of scientific and cultural exchange than in terms of mission itself. As a result, "a period of peak science and technology emerged at the end of the Ming Dynasty, when scientific development took on a new life after a long period of silence". (Da Xiang 2005:61-64)

====3.The third Translation Climax====
The third translation climax was seen in the Qing Dynasty. The three dynasties of Kang Xi, Yong Zheng and Qian Long were the most important ones, which seriously suppressed the wisdom and freedom of the people; the rulers were conservative and arrogant, and they enjoyed themselves in a closed country. The whole country closed its eyes and ears, and inhibited the development of thought, culture, science and technology lagged seriously, which inevitably led to backwardness and defeat. In the nineteenth century, the Western ships and cannons opened the closed-door of China, completely shattering the daydream of a great nation.

Along with the division of spheres of influence by the powers, the Western modern thinking also poured in. However, "when a world-centered culture accepts other cultures, it usually takes the way of behavior of its own culture as 'natural' and only correct, and the foreign cultural components will be 'naturalized' without any doubts and restrictions. '". (Gu Jun, Gu Nong 1999 (9):12-13) The deformed nature of semi-colonial and semi-feudal society made the translators in the late Qing Dynasty eager to introduce advanced Western ideas on the one hand, and to submit to the ideology and values of feudal culture on the other hand.

It is difficult not only to translate but also to read. As a result, the translations were not only difficult to understand, but also unfaithful to the original text, resembling adaptations. At that time, China was facing a crisis of national survival, and the dominant culture was about to break up, "no longer occupying the central position of culture, it had to achieve the purpose of creative transformation and cultural reconstruction through the absorption of heterogeneous cultures". (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71)

Therefore, in order to "seek new voices in foreign countries", "not only will the outside not lag behind the world's trend of thinking, but the inside will still lose its inherent bloodline" (Lu Xun 1992:12-13), translation must (Lu Xun 1992:12-13) Translation must "seek the truth"; in order to "seek the truth", translation must "tolerate as much disorder as possible". (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71)

At the end of Qing Dynasty, Ma Jianzhong proposed the saying of "good translation" in his "Ma's Text": "We must first translate the words of the translator of the two countries, deeply enjoy the words, and compare the words and sentences, in order to examine the source of the breeding of each other's words, and the reason of the similarity and difference. All the actual meanings of the current phase, and the elaborate investigation, to examine the sound of its high and low, analyze the complexity of its words and sentences, and exhaust the perversion of its style, as well as the meaning of the profound and mysterious reasons."

The meaning of this passage is quite rich and comprehensive. It covers style, grammar, rhetoric, and even the field of general cultural studies. Ma Jianzhong's standard of "good translation" is to strive for a translation that does not differ in meaning from the original text, and that enables the reader to read the translation and feel the same as the reader of the original text. This formulation is very close to the modern equivalence translation theory."The May Fourth Literary Revolution" replaced the literary language with the vernacular language, changing the direction of Chinese literature and becoming a watershed event in the history of modern translation.

Lu Xun, who was the most influential translator among the left-wing literaries in the 1930s, opposed the localization of the cultural "other" and advocated that "all translations must take into account both sides, one of course striving for its easy interpretation and the other preserving the richness of the original work". He advocates changing the cultural narcissism of the nation through translation, and proposes the principle of "hard translation" of "preferring to believe rather than obey" in response to Zhao Jingshen's "preferring to obey rather than believe", which gives translation another function: promoting the culture of the subject. It was also given another function: to promote the language reform of the main culture.

The representatives of the three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation have one thing in common, that is, to promote the scientific and technological cultural development of the country and the nation through translation. As an accompanying culture of language, translation is inevitably subject to the constraints and influences of social, historical and cultural factors, which in turn reacts on social and historical culture. Translation strategies and methods cannot presuppose a totally correct premise, but change with the development of the subject culture. Therefore, under certain historical conditions, one cannot simply promote or criticize a certain type of translation method, but should examine whether it can enrich the subject culture or promote the reform of the subject culture.

===III.The Impact of Three Translation Climaxes on Chinese Society and Culture in the History of Chinese Translation===

====1.The first translation climax====
"The first high point of translation in China was the translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Han Dynasty, flourished in the Tang Dynasty, declined in the Song Dynasty, and came to an end in the Yuan Dynasty, and its influence on Chinese culture and thought was enormous. Generally speaking, the emergence of any phenomenon in human history has its specific political, economic and cultural background, which provides the soil for the germination and growth of such phenomenon, and translation of Buddhist scriptures is no exception."(Cai Xinle 2006 (10): 23)

During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the translators were mainly some monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on.

All of them have their own representative translation theories, and their efforts are inseparable from the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation. At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also brought great influence to Chinese culture, such as: influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning, enriching the world of imagination, strengthening storytelling, changing the form of literature, and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; or vice versa, the development of translation cause also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.

====2.The second translation climax====
The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties from the 16th to the 18th century was the second climax of translation after the translation of Buddhist scriptures, and the first climax of scientific and technological translation in the history of China. The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties not only introduced advanced scientific and technological knowledge from abroad and made modern scientific research in China spring up, but also some translation concepts in this climax of scientific and technological translation are still worthy of reference for translation researchers. Therefore, scientific and technological translation had a profound impact on Chinese society.

The second climax of translation went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to technological progress and social development. With the development of maritime navigation, the exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not limited to commodities, but also included culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.

"In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as a medium of exchange between Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendars, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc., into China. (Chen Fukang 2002: 13)

During this period, many of the most famous translators emerged, such as Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbao, the Germans Tang Ruowang, and the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo. The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize Chinese cultural deficiencies and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China itself, and to be inspired in their thinking.

====3.The third Translation Climax====
China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the aspect of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and intended to learn from Western countries by various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress.

"During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, including traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented." (Hu Cui'e 2007: 43)

A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists included Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xubai, Chen XiYing, Lin Yutang and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China.

On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on Chinese was also tremendous. Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on "absolute vernacular"; others, such as Lu Xun, "disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'absolute vernacular'. (Jiang Xiaohua 2003: 12)"

In short, this culmination of translation has freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expression of the language, making it very different from before in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors,at the same time, its grammatical functions have also been enhanced.

===IV.Conclusion===
Translation as an intercultural communication activity has a long history. Xu Jun once said, "Translation activity itself is not static, but constantly enriched and developed in form according to the actual communication needs at different historical stages. And with the continuous enrichment of the concrete practice of translation, people's understanding of translation is bound to change constantly." (Xu Jun 2006: 30).

The representatives of the three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation have one thing in common, that is, to promote the scientific and technological culture of the country and the nation forward through translation. Translation, as an accompanying culture of language, is inevitably conditioned and influenced by social, historical and cultural factors, and in turn, it reacts to social history and culture.

Translation exposes people to new cultures, new ideas and new concepts, broadens their horizons and enriches their languages, thus to a certain extent promoting the development of cultural history, and some people even put forward the saying that "the history of translation in a country is the history of culture". It has been said that the history of translation is the history of culture. In the future, with the further deepening of various exchanges between countries, translation is bound to play an increasingly important role and further promotes the development of world history and culture.

===References===
Ma Zuyi. 马祖毅.(1998).中国翻译简史.[A brief history of Chinese translation]. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Foreign Translation and Publishing Corporation]46-48.

Lefevere Andre.(1998).Introduction:Where Are We in Translation Studies [A] In Susan Bassnett&Andre Lefevere (eds.) .Constructing Cultures: Essays on translation [C] . Clevedon: Multilingual Matters Ltd.3.

Zhang Jinghua.张景华.(2006).从“硬译”透视鲁迅对中国文化转型的探索.[Lu Xun's exploration of Chinese cultural transformation through the lens of "hard translation"].四川外语学院学报.[Journal of Sichuan Institute of Foreign Languages]66-71.

Liao Qiyi.廖七一.(2002).重写神话:女性主义与翻译研究.[Rewriting myths: Feminism and translation studies]. 四川外语学院学报[Journal of Journal of Sichuan International Studies University]106-109.

Da Xiang.达向.(2005).文明探索:明朝.[Exploration of civilization: Ming Dynasty].郑州:大象出版社.[Zhengzhou: Elephant Press]61-64.

Gu Jun,Gu Nong.顾均,顾农.(1999).鲁迅主张“硬译”的文化意义.[The cultural significance of Lu Xun's advocacy of "hard translation"].鲁迅研究月刊.[ Lu Xun Studies Monthly]12-13.

Lu Xun.鲁迅.鲁迅散文 (第3集).Lu Xun's Prose (3rd collection).(1992).北京:中国广播电视出版社.[Beijing: China Radio and Television Press]12-13.

Cai Xinle.蔡新乐.(2006).文化史就是翻译—陈寅恪的历史发现与其翻译观初探[Cultural history is translation: A preliminary investigation of Chen Yinke's historical discovery and his view of translation ].外语与外语教学, [Foreign Languages and Foreign Language Teaching]23.

Chen Fukang.陈福康.(2002).中国译学理论史稿[A draft of the history of Chinese translation theory].上海:上海外语教育出版社 [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press]13.

Hu Cui'e.胡翠娥.(2007).文学翻译与文化参考—晚清小说翻译的文化研究[Literary Translation and Cultural Reference:A Cultural Study of the Translation of Novels in the Late Qing Dynasty].上海:上海外语教育出版社 [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]43.

Jiang Xiaohua.蒋晓华.(2003).意识形态对翻译的影响:阐发与新思考[The Influence of Ideology on Translation: Explanation and New Thinking.中国翻译[Chinese Translation]12.

--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 09:23, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

='''Western Translation Theories'''=

==An Analysis of the Limits of Translatability from the Perspectives of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida's Translation Theories 文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi,202020080650==
<center>文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi</center>
===Abstract===
Since there are no identical languages in the world, languages differ not only in the system of linguistic signs but also in culture. In the process of translation, there might be some limits of translatability. Briefly speaking, the limits of translatability are divided into two types. One is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida both have mentioned their opinions about the limits of translatability in their works. After introducing their translation theories and their definitions of translation, this paper will give a brief introduction to their views of untranslatability. Then, this paper also exemplifies some examples of these two kinds of untranslatability. The aim of this paper is to analyze the reasons which cause the limits of translatability and to find some translation strategies to deal with these limits.

===Key Words===
Untranslatability, J. C. Catford, Eugene A. Nida
===题目===
根据卡特福德和尤金·奈达的翻译理论观点分析翻译的限制

===摘要===
世界上没有两种完全相同的语言，每种语言都有独特的语言结构和文化内涵。翻译中可能会出现一些不可译的现象。一般来说，翻译的限制大致分为语言不可译和文化不可译两种。对于翻译的限制的问题，卡特福德和尤金·奈达都有各自的看法。本文除了介绍他们各自的翻译理论和对翻译的定义以外，还介绍了他们各自对翻译的限制的看法。同时，本文还分别列举了语言不可译和文化不可译的一些实例，希望借此进一步分析造成翻译中语言不可译和文化不可译的原因以及寻找其对应的翻译策略。

===关键词===
不可译；卡特福德；尤金·奈达
===1.Introduction===
Translation is an activity that concerns more than two languages. Narrowly speaking, every language contains its own linguistic structure and cultural connotation so that some aspects of various languages are quite different. These may cause the gap between the source language and the target language in translation. Accordingly, some problems of translation may be certain to arise at the same time such as the dispute over the translatability and untranslatability. Different scholars hold their own opinions.

On the one hand, some scholars are very strict to the definition of translation and the limits of translatability. For example, J. C. Catford states that each language is an isolated linguistic system and the formal and contextual meaning of a language are decided by the formal and contextual relations of the language. It is impossible to translate the linguistic meaning from one language to another. But it can implant the values of the source language into the target language by using the process of transference. And Catford also proposes two kinds of untranslatability which are linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability.

On the other hand, some scholars are positive to the limits of translatability. For example, Eugene A. Nida approves that there are some general principles of all languages so that all languages can produce the same expression effects to satisfy the needs of expressing ideas and communication. He holds that translation should take the readers as its primary objective.

J. C. Catford's and Eugene A. Nida’s views of the limits of translatability are different. To study this question further, it is of necessary to understand and assimilate some opinions of Catford and Nida. And based on both of their translation theories, the aim of this paper is to provide some new ideas about the limits of translatability.

===2.The Limits of Translatability===
====2.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida’s Translation Theories====
2.1.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and His Translation Theory

J. C. Catford is a famous linguist and translation theorist in Britain and his representative work in the field of translation is called ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' which has first published by Oxford University Press in 1965. This book is an important milestone in the field of translation theory and exerts a profound influence to the western translation theory. In this book, Catford holds that translation has to be based on a general linguistic theory and the theory of translation is a branch of comparative linguistics. The reason why is that “translation has to do with language, the analysis and description of translation-processes must take considerable use of categories set up for the description of languages.” And Catford mentions that the general linguistic theories used in this book to a large extent are influenced by the works of M. A. K. Halliday and J. R. Firth.(Catford, 1965,vii)

He also holds that language is a two-directional process while translation is a unidirectional process which is performed from a source language to a target language. Besides, he believes that “translation equivalences may be set up, and translation performed, between any pair of languages or dialects- related or unrelated and with any kind of spatial, temporal, social or other relationship between them.” He also distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. The former refers to that the meanings of target language items are set up by the formal and contextual relations in the target language itself while the later refers to that parts of the target text have values set up in the source language. (Catford, 1965,20)

In this way, Catford proposes his ideas about the conditions of translation equivalence and the types of translation shifts. In the final part of this book, he discusses the limits of translatability and mentions two kinds of untranslatability called linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. And he holds that “cultural untranslatability is ultimately describable in all cases as a variety of linguistic untranslatability.” From this perspective, we can find that Catford emphasizes the values of the linguistic items in its own linguistic system and he pays attention to formal equivalence and conceptual meaning. All in all, Catford provides a scientific and objective way of studying translation theories.(Catford, 1965,103)

2.1.2 A Brief Introduction to Eugene A. Nida and His Translation Theory

Eugene A. Nida is one of the pioneers of modern discipline of translation studies. He is keen on the translation of Bible and he is also one of the main editors of the magazine called ''The Bible Translator''. As the executive secretary of the American Bible Society Translation Department and one of the main members of the United Bible Society Working Committee, Nida undertakes much of the organization of Bible translation. Although Nida doesn’t translate any complete works by himself, he proposes lots of translation principles which influence the practice of Bible translation. He encourages translators to use a common language which refers to a language that could be accepted and understood by most readers.(Nida, 1982,vii)

The development of Nida’s translation theories can be divided into three parts. The first part is the stage of descriptive linguistics whose main focus is the syntactical and lexical phenomenon of languages. He is influenced by the father of the structuralist linguistics in the United States called Leonard Bloomfield and an American anthropologist and linguist called Edward Sapir. The second stage is the communication theory in which Nida’s achievements ensure his status in the field of the western translation theory study. In this period, he publishes his famous works such as ''Toward a Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. （谭载喜，1999,xv）

Nida states that “translation is far more than a science and it is also a skill and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art.” He also proposes the communicative translation theory by adding the information theory into translation. Moreover, he also proposes his famous theory called the dynamic-equivalence theory which refers to translate “thought for though” rather than “word for word”. And in the third stage, Nida mainly focuses on the componential analysis of meaning. His main ideas of this period are that language is a system of signs so that the analysis of translation should be taken from the perspectives of sociolinguistics and semiotics. And Nida replaces dynamic equivalence by functional equivalence. And he also pays attention to the problems of rhetoric in translation, especially the contrastive rhetoric. All in all, Nida has contributed to the biblical translation and translation theories all his life.(Nida, 1982,vii)

====2.2The Definition of Translation according to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida====
2.2.1 The Definition of Translation according to J. C. Catford

The definition of translation is a subject at issue in the field of translation theories. Broadly speaking, every translation theorist clings to the ideas of his own understanding. According to Catford, translation is a process performed from a source language into a target language. He states that “translation is the replacement of textual material in one language (source language) by equivalent textual material in another language (target language).” He explains the implication of “textual material” that there may be some replacements by no-equivalent target language material. The main focus of translation practice is to find target language translation equivalents and the main focus of translation theory is to define the nature and conditions of translation equivalence.(Catford, 1965,20)

Besides, Catford distinguishes textual equivalence and formal correspondence. For him, the former refers to that "any target language form is observed to be the equivalent of a given source language form." The later one refers to that "any target category occupies the same place in the economy of the target language as the given category occupies in the source language." He adds that formal correspondence can be only approximate rather than identical.(Catford, 1965,27)

As for the theory of meaning in translation, Catford holds that it is impossible for the source language texts and the target language ones to have that same meaning. He borrows the definition of meaning proposed by J. R. Firth that “meaning is the total network of relations entered into by any linguistic forms.” There are two relations called formal relations and contextual relations so that there are accordingly two kinds of meanings. One is formal meaning that is constituted by the various formal relations. The other is contextual meaning that is constituted by a range of situational elements.(Catford, 1965,27)

Because of the approximation of the formal correspondence, it is nearly impossible for the formal meanings of source language items to be identical with target language items. Therefore, Catford proposes a process called transference that refers to an operation to set up values of the source language into the target language text. As a result, Catford distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. He states that translation means the substitution of target language meanings for source language meanings while transference contains the implantation of source language meanings into the target language text.(Catford, 1965,35)

The source language and target language items have little similarities of the meaning in the linguistic sense so the aim of the translation is to select target language equivalents with the greatest possible overlap of situational range as the source language items. Catford concludes conditions for translation equivalence that translation equivalence occurs when there are some identical features of substance between the source language and target language. According to his distinction of the total translation and restricted translation, Catford proposes some limits of translatability.(Catford, 1965,35)

2.2.2 The Definition of Translation according to Eugene A. Nida

In the book called ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'', Nida has mentioned that “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” To define translation in this way, Nida emphasizes the importance of reproducing the message rather than remaining the form of the utterance. He also emphasizes the closet natural equivalent which refers to the closet relationship between the meaning of source language and target language. Besides, he deems the priority of meaning and the significance of style. Therefore, he states that the departures from the formal structure are legitimate and desirable. Nida proposes some principles of translation, for example, contextual consistency is prior verbal over consistency and dynamic equivalence is prior over formal correspondence.(Nida, 1982,12)

Nida states two types of equivalence that one is formal equivalence and the other is dynamic equivalence and he also deems that the aim of translation is to find the closet possible equivalent. Formal correspondence refers to a kind of gloss translation that the translator tries to reproduce the form and content of the message in the source language. In such a translation, it is concerned with correspondences as sentence to sentence or concept to concept.It may be determined by the translation standards such as accuracy and correctness.(Nida, 1982,13)

In contrast to formal correspondence, a translation of dynamic equivalence is based on the principle to produce equivalent effects. It pays attention to the dynamic relationship between receptor and message which needs to be similar to the relationship between the original receptors and the message. The aim of dynamic equivalence is the naturalness of expression so that the receptor could understand the message under his own cultural patterns rather than that of the source language context.(Nida, 1982,13)

Nida also mentions the restrictions of the permissible degree of dynamic equivalence in translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. The linguistic restrictions involve the literary forms and the vehicles and the cultural restrictions involve the standard of “faithfulness” and the diversity of dialects in the receptor language.(Nida, 1982,12)

====2.3The Limits of Translatability according to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida====
2.3.1The Limits of Translatability according to J. C. Catford

In ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford distinguishes two kinds of translations which are called total translation and restricted translation according to the levels of language involved in translation. Total translation is defined as “replacement of source language grammar and lexis by equivalent target language grammar and lexis with consequential replacement of source language phonology/graphology by(non-equivalent) target language phonology/graphology.” And restricted translation is defined as “replacement of source language textual material by equivalent target language textual material, at only one level.” This kind of translation is performed only at the phonological or at the graphological level, or at only one of the two levels of grammar and lexis.(Catford,1965, 22)

As for the limits of translatability for restricted translation, Catford generalizes two limits. The first is that translation between media is impossible. In other words, to translate the spoken form of a text to a written form is impossible. The reason is that the phonic and graphic substances are absolutely different. The phonic substance is relevant to the sound produced in the human vocal tract while the graphic substance is relevant to visible marks on papers or stones.Therefore, it is only a universal practice among literates to converse spoken medium to written medium.(Catford,1965, 22)

And the second kind of limit is that translation between either of the medium-levels and the levels of grammar and lexis is impossible. It is the same that phonic and graphic substances are absolutely different from situation- substance. As a result, there is never any translation from the levels of grammar and/or lexis to the levels of phonology or graphology, and vice versa.(Catford,1965, 23)

As for the limits of translatability for total translation, Catford states that “translatability appears to be a cline rather than a clear- cut dichotomy.” In other words, source language texts are not absolutely translatable or untranslatable. As for total translation, both source language and target language texts must be relatable to be functionally relevant features of the situation. And the untranslatability or the limits of translatability will occur if it is impossible to build functionally relevant features of the situation into the contextual meaning of the target language text. (Catford,1965, 23)

Broadly speaking, there are two kinds of untranslatability which are linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability occurs when the target language has no formally corresponding features with the source language text. A best example of linguistic untranslatability is an ambiguity peculiar to the source language text. One source of ambiguity is that two or more distinct grammatical or lexical items are expounded in the same phonological or graphological form. Another source of ambiguity is that polysemy. Polysemy means that one single item has a wide contextual meaning so that it may cover a wide range of specific situational features.(Catford, 1965, 93)

All in all, linguistic untranslatability is leaded by the formal linguistic differences when the formal feature of the source language is itself the functionally relevant feature. And cultural untranslatability occurs when a situational feature is completely absent from the culture of which the target language is a part. It is not so absolutely as linguistic untranslatability. Catford also adds that cultural untranslatability might be a type of linguistic untranslatability in that it refers to the impossibility of finding an equivalent collocation in the target language.(Catford, 1965, 93)

2.3.2 The Limits of Translatability according to Eugene A. Nida

Although there are no identical languages and no absolute correspondences between languages, many languages have the potential and actual equivalence and equivalent idioms. The total impact of a translation may be reasonably close to the original but little identity in detail. It is the fact that each language has its own characteristics and is rich in vocabulary for the area of cultural focus. Each language has its own system of symbolizing meaning. It is also the fact that “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another, unless the form is an essential element of the message.” Nida states that the translator must attempt to reproduce the meaning of a passage. (Nida, 1982,4)

When the form is of its significance in the source language text, there may be a limitation to express this significance from one language to another. Nida holds that “to preserve the content of the massage the form must be changed.” (Nida, 1982,5) It means that translators may be prepared to alter the forms or sacrifice certain formal niceties to preserve the content. And Nida also adds that “the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend on the linguistic and cultural distance between languages.” (Nida, 1982,5)

As regards to the linguistic and cultural distance, there are three different types of relatedness between the codes used to convey the messages. Firstly, a translation may involve comparatively closely related languages and cultures. Secondly, in a translation, the language may not be related, even though the cultures are closely parallel. Thirdly, a translation may involve not only differences of linguistic affiliation but also highly diverse cultures. In Nida’s view, “differences between cultures cause many more severe complications for the translator than do differences in language structure.” (Nida, 1964,161)

In ''Toward a Science of Translation'', Nida mentions the restrictions on the permissible degree of dynamic equivalence in translation. He states that there are certain serious restrictions of a linguistic and a cultural nature when translators undertake the process of translation with a considerable degree of dynamic equivalence. The linguistic restrictions include the literary forms such as poetry and proverbs and the vehicle used to convey the message such as songs. As for literary forms, sound effect is impossible to be reproduced in that languages are different in the types of sounds they use and the values they tend to attach to these uses. (Nida, 1964,161)

In the translation of poetry, it is hard to agree with the poetic superstructure in the target language text. Nida deems that the translators may abandon formal equivalence to strive for dynamic equivalence which means to take the liberty of composing another poem capable of eliciting similar feeling. This is the same to the song translators that the form must be maintained, so some contents might be sacrificed. It demands much greater conformity to the musical vehicles in the translation of a song. (Nida, 1964,163)

Nida also mentions the cultural restrictions which involve attitudes about so-called “faithfulness” in translation, the diversity of dialects in the receptor language and so on. As for pressures from tradition, it concerns that the standards of translation such as “faithfulness”’ “accuracy” and “effect”. The reason is that there are differences of taste in translation at different historical periods. Dialectal differences also cause restrictions upon the form of a translation. (Nida, 1964,162)

Problems of dialectal differences may occur in the phenomenon that how to accommodate these complex linguistic facts or how to deal with the dialectal variations in the text itself. Although there are many restrictions in translation, a good translation is to fulfill the same purpose in a new language as the original does in the language in which it is written.(Nida, 1964,161)

====2.4 Specific Examples to Illustrate the Limits of Translatability====
2.4.1Specific Examples to Illustrate Linguistic Untranslatability

It is obvious that no two languages are identical and each language has its own way to constitute words, phrases and sentences. Each language has its own characteristics especially in vocabulary containing the cultural elements. Some languages may be rich in vocabulary of fishing and hunting while some languages may be rich in the expressions of technology.

Every language has its own ways of classifying the various elements of experiences with the symbols which are quite different from all other languages. The system of language is very complex in that there are lots of ways to symbolize meaning. The way of thinking may be illustrated in the deep layer of language. Different native speakers of different languages may differ in the using of the rhetoric techniques and expressions. There are some examples to illustrate the limits of translatability between Chinese and English.

The first type of these examples is the rhetorical technique called pun. Pun is a clever and amusing use of a word or phrase with more than one meaning or of words with the same or nearly the same sound but different meanings. It just like a game playing with language. There are broadly two kinds of pun which are homophonic pun and homographic pun.

Examples of homophonic pun:

Example 1:
*King: My cousin Hamlet, and my son-how is it that the clouds still hang on you?
*Hamlet: Not so, my lord. I am too much in the sun.(''Hamlet'')

Example 2:
More sun and air for your son and heir.(Hu Yi,1999,8)

Example 3:
东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。(刘禹锡《竹枝词》)

There are many homophonic words in these examples which share the same sound but with different meanings. In English, “sun” and “son” have the same sound as well as “air” and “heir”. In Chinese, “晴” and “情” are identical in pronunciation but containing different meanings. These examples exemplify that it is nearly impossible to translate the form and content of these puns at the same time. The forms of the puns must be changed to convey the meanings.

Examples of homographic pun:

Example 4:
Spoil yourself and not your figure.(Xiang Chengdong,1996,2)

Example 5:
Better late than late.(Hou Weirui,1988)

Example 6:
白团扇，今来此去捐。愿得入郎手，团圆郎眼前。( 张祜《团扇郎》)

There are many homographic words in these expressions. “Spoil oneself” means one gives himself something nice as a treat while “spoil one’s figure” means to get fat. The same is to the word “late” which has two meanings. Late can express the meaning of after the planned, expected or usual time and also can express that someone has died. It is hard to remain the form of the words in the process of translation. It is necessary to scarify the form of the words to express the meanings.

Besides, there is another interesting phenomenon to illustrate the limits of linguistic translatability called palindrome. Palindrome is a word or phrase which is the same when you spell it backwards. It is also a typical character of a language. It is almost impossible to find the formal equivalents of a palindrome in the target language.

Examples of palindrome:

Example 7:
*Madam，I’ m Adam.
*No x in Nixon.
*上海自来水来自海上。

These examples imply the differences between the system of linguistic signs of different languages. Each language has its isolated linguistic system. What translators could do is to find the closet natural equivalent rather than the identical. There are also good examples to translate palindrome in Chinese. A good example to illustrate is to translate “Ma is as selfless as I am” into “妈妈为我, 我为妈妈”.（Zuo Biao,2000） Another example is to translate “Able was I ere I saw Elba” into “不到俄岛我不倒”. Both translations try to maintain the forms and contents of the palindrome of the source text. Although it is not identical expressions, it is better illustrations of the potential and actual equivalence of languages.（Xu Yuanchong,1984）

The limits of linguistic translatability also manifest in the translation of poetry. There is a large focus on formal elements in the translation of poetry. In this kind of translation, sometimes forms are sacrificed for the sake of contents while more often the contents are restricted in the formal molds. Each poetry has its specific emotional intensity and flavor which are hard to be reproduced in another different language. Taking English poetry as examples, there are foots and rhythm which are particular to the expressions of English poetry. There are eight kinds of foot like iambic, trochee and so on. Besides, there are tetrameter, pentameter and so on to express the flowing of words.

Example 8:
Life is the lust of a lamp for the light that is dark till the dawn of the day that we die．(Algernon Charles Swinburne, ''Nephelidia'')

From this examples, it is obvious that the use of rhymes in poetry is various in different languages. It is hard to reproduce these elements with another kind of linguistic signs. The ways of rhymes like alliteration and assonance are impossible to find the formal equivalents in Chinese. One of the reasons may be that the linguistic distance of English and Chinese is so far that there is little linguistic affirmation. The codes used to convey the message are totally different.

2.4.2 Specific Examples to Illustrate Cultural Untranslatability

Culture is integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief and behavior. It consists ideas, customs, taboos and so on. Each human society has its own particular culture which is manifested in folk culture, enterprise culture or food culture. Each language has a system of linguistic signs to express its own cultural substances and values. In fact, the limits of cultural translatability are not so absolute as linguistic untranslatability. It is a kind of relative untranslatability.

Idioms is a product of culture which is also called the linguistic forms of culture. Idiom refers to a group of words that have a special meaning whose meaning can’ t be guessed from each separate word. Idiom is related to some connotative meanings which differs in the cultural background of each national community. As a result, the translation of idioms needs to convey the massage of some cultural elements. Although culture differs from each community, translators need to use different translation strategies to convey the cultural information as more as possible. Usually, there are three methods to translate idioms.

The first method is literal translation which can both convey the literal meaning and rhetorical meaning.

Example 9:
*Pour oil on fire 火上浇油

*Strike while the iron is hot 趁热打铁

*Practice makes perfect 熟能生巧

*Seeing is believing 眼见为实 (Zhang Peiji,1979)

In fact, there are many commonalities between human beings so that there are also some similarities between two languages. This kind of translation is very ideal which expresses both the literal and rhetorical meaning.However, there are still differences between the cultural background of two languages which are mirrored in the translation of idioms.

The second method is literal translation with annotation which is to translate the literal meaning and explain the rhetorical meaning with annotations.

Example 10:
Every family is said to have at least one skeleton in the cupboard.
衣橱藏骷髅，丑事家家有。(Peng Changjiang,2012,277)

The third method is free translation which is to translate the rhetorical meaning only or to translate the rhetorical meaning and parts of the literal meaning.

Example 11:
*Fish where the fish are. 有的放矢

*You can’t catch old birds with chaff. 有经验的人不易上当受骗

*Shrouds have no pockets. 人死带不走钱财

*Revenge is a dish best eaten cold. 君子报仇十年不晚

These examples are just translating the rhetorical meanings. There are other examples including the translation of both the rhetorical meaning and parts of the literal meaning. For example, translating “破釜沉舟” in Chinese to “burn one’s boat” in English is expressing the rhetorical meaning and similar literal meaning of the idiom.

All in all, the differences between culture deserve further consideration in the translation of idioms. Translators are supposed to choose an appropriate approach to convey the message contained in idioms.

===3.Conclusion===
Each language has its own genius so that it has its special way to build word, phrases and sentences. And it also has its special way to symbolize meaning which depends on its native speakers’ understanding and experiences of the world. And each language has its typical expressions which can be manifested in its specific types of poetry, proverbs and dialects.

All these reasons may have an impact on translation in that there are lots of differences between languages. The limits of translatability are briefly divided into linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. Sometime the linguistic untranslatability is absolute for languages differ in the system of linguistic signs. Therefore, there may be a choice between the form and content of the source language. Sometimes the form of the source text might be sacrificed for the sake of the contents. But the cultural untranslatability is not absolute as the linguistic untranslatability. It is relatively untranslatable. Translators can use some translation strategies to convey the cultural message and explain the implication of the cultural information. Although there are lots of limits of translatability, the ultimate aim of translation is to convey the message rather than to find equivalents in the target language.

--[[User:Wen Xiaoyi|Wen Xiaoyi]] ([[User talk:Wen Xiaoyi|talk]]) 03:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

===References===
*Catford, J. C.1965. ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation: An Essay in Applied Linguistics''[M]. London: Oxford University Press.
*Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (1999). 《新编奈达论翻译》.[The New Edition of Nida's Theory on Translation]. 中国对外翻译出版公司 [China Translation and Publishing Corporation].
*Nida, Eugene A. & Charles R. Taber. 1982. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill.
*Nida, Eugene A .1964. ''Towards a Science of Translating''[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill.
*Hu Yi. 胡一. (1999). 广告英语的修辞魅力. [Rhetorical Charm of Advertising English]. ''英语学习''[Journal of English Study] (8).
*Xiang Chengdong.项成东.(1996).试谈广告英语中的复义[On Polysemy in Advertising English].''山东外语教学''[Journal of Foreign Language Teaching in Shandong](2).
*Hou Weirui.候维瑞.(1988).《英语语体》[English Style].上海外国教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Education Press].
*Zuo Biao. 左飙.(2000).论文化的可译性[On Translatability of Culture].扬自俭Yang Zijian.英汉语比较与翻译[Comparison and Translation between English and Chinese].上海教育出版社[Shanghai Education Press].
*Xu Yuanchong.许渊冲. (1984).翻译中的几对矛盾[A Few Pairs of Contradictions in Translation].翻译的艺术[Art of Translation].中国对外翻译出版社[China Foreign Translation Press].
*Zhang Peiji. 张培基. (1979).习语汉译英研究[A Study of Chinese-English Translation of Idioms ].商务印书室[Commercial Press].
*Peng Changjiang. 彭长江. (2012).英汉-汉英翻译教程[English-Chinese-English Translation Course].湖南师范大学出版社[Hunan Normal University Press].

==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 陶冶 Tao Ye==
=== Cultural Differences on English Interpretation and the Coping Strategies ===
< c e n t e r > Tao Ye 202020080644 < / c e n t e r >

===Abstract===
Since the reform and opening up,China’s communication with the world has become more and more frequently. At the same time, with the economic globalization, the world has become a global village,and interpretation has becoming more and more needful to human beings. However,because of the lack of intercultural awareness,the interpretation activities has emerged many problems. This thesis introduced the history of interpretation,and the purpose is to point out the intercultural differences in interpretation and the coping strategies.

=== Key Words ===
Key words:intercultural awareness;intercultural differences;coping strategies

=== 题目 ===
英语口译中的文化差异及解决策略

=== 摘要 ===
改革开放以来，中国与世界的交往愈发频繁。同时，随着经济全球化，世界变成了一个“地球村”。口译也越来越为人们所需要。然而，因为缺少跨文化意识，口译也出现了不少问题。本文介绍了口译的历史，本文的目的是指出中英在口译中的文化差异以及解决策略。

=== 关键词 ===
跨文化意识；文化差异；解决办法

=== Introduction ===
Although the origin of interpretation predates translation, there is little evidence for the existence of interpretation history. Until the beginning of the 20th century, interpreters were still generally composed of non-professional translators. In the West, they were mostly university professors, diplomats and journalists with equivalent language and knowledge. Their working style was rigorous and faithful, but there was no theoretical refinement. Such extensive interpretation did not change in the West until after the first World War.(Bao Gang 1998,2)

At the beginning of the 20th century, there was more and more communication between different countries in the world. During this period,the demand for interpreters throughout the world increased as more and more countries came into contact with each other in wars, agreements and international conferences, and the international community diversified its languages. In just a few decades, there has been a great development in interpreting pairs, continuous interpretation is becoming more and more perfect, and a number of famous part-time interpreters had appeared.

Examples include Pauer Mantoux(historian, professor of University of London), an early interpreter who first used sophisticated interpretation techniques in the Paris Peace Conference; Jean Herbert, founder of the United Nations Translation Service and chief interpreter of international conferences, etc. Since then, interpreters have developed a set of systematic working methods, and interpretation has gradually become a professional bilingual communication work.(Bao Gang 1998,3)

During this period, the interpreters translated after the speaker finishing a paragraph. Because speech and translation are done alternately, it is called "consecutive interpretation" or "continuous interpretation". It was not until the Nuremberg Trial which was after The Second World War that simultaneous interpretation was used for the first time, to make sure that the long trial and the conversations between the judge and the criminals can be done fluently,and to save time. After that, the simultaneous interpretation had becoming popular around the world. The Nuremberg trial after the End of the Second World War is undoubtedly an important turning point in the history of interpretation.(Bao Gang 1998,4)

In 1957, the Sorbonne University of Paris (ESIT-- ECOLE SUPERIEEURE D’INTERPRETES ET TRADUCTEURS) established the first systematic interpretation theory in the world in the 1980s, namely the "interpretive theory" of interpretation. The theory was founded by Danika Selescovic and Mariana Ludere. According to this theory, the essence of interpretation is to release the meaning in the external form of language, and extralinguistic factors such as thinking, knowledge and cognitive process play an important role in its concrete process.(Bao Gang,1998,6)

In contrast, the interpretation work in China started relatively late. In the 1970s, Beijing Translation and Publication Office published a publication translation Communication, which was later renamed China Translation. Most important papers on interpretation in our country are published in this journal. In the 1980s, it published many insightful summaries of interpreting practice by famous Chinese senior interpreters, such as Li Yue Ran and Qi Zong Hua. In the early 1990s, a small number of exploratory papers with the nature of preliminary theoretical sublimation were published, but scientific and systematic research results on interpretation theory have been lacking up to now.(Bao Gang 1998,8)

In 1996, the Translators' Association of China, Nanjing Institute of International Relations, Nanjing Institute of Translators and Interpreters and Beijing Foreign Affairs University jointly hosted the first "National Seminar on Translation Teaching". In the following year, it co-sponsored the International Translation Seminar with Beijing Foreign Studies University, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, etc. .Until now,English interpretation in China has step into a new stage. With more and more Chinese interpreter’s name appeared in the international translation magazines, the interpreters in China has gown a lot of attention,and their theories are becoming important around the world.(Bao Gang,1998,6)

=== 1.Cultural Differences in English Interpretations===
Because of different language system and different cultural background,Chinese and English have their unique expression way and formed different way of thinking and value standard. This character of language makes it hard to learn a foreign language, for one thing has different way of saying in different languages. The following paragraphs will explain this relatively in two aspects:color and animal. According to the two different expressions and definitions of them, that the cultural differences between English and Chinese will make sense.
==== 1.1Color ====
Different color represents different meanings in Chinese and English,the following part will explain it in three colors:red,yellow and green.

===== 1.1.1Red=====

Chinese people is very familiar with red. In major festive festivals such as the Spring Festival and Lantern Festival and important life events such as weddings, red will become the main decorative color to express festival, auspiciousness and passion. The Chinese words that express this meaning include "满堂红", "万紫千红", "大红大紫", etc., which all entrust people's yearning and joy for a better life. During the Spring Festival, the traditional custom is to put a red couplet on the door, “千门万户瞳瞳日，总把新桃换旧符”(Du Tian Yu 2020,187)

In the traditional wedding ceremony, the bride must wear red formal dress. In addition, the "five-star red flag", "red scarf", and "red revolution" embody the solemnity and awe of red in Chinese. However, in English, although red sometimes does contain similar colors of joy and happiness and serious meanings, such as remembrance day and red carpet, etc. The meaning of cruelty, danger, terror and warning is also very common, such as red-cock (fire caused by arson), red flag (danger signal), red revenge (bloody revenge), and even red in English. It also implies low-level tastes of lewdness, such as red light district,a place which full of brothels,discotheques,bars,nightclubs,etc. (Du Tian Yu 2020,187)

In "The Scarlet Letter" , the red letter A which means adultery stands out on the heroine's chest. In economic terms, red means "loss". Such as in the red,which means a lack of money. In addition, we should also pay attention to the non-correspondence of the concept of color expression in Chinese and English expressions. In the English-Chinese corresponding translation, words of different colors may be used to describe the objective phenomenon of the same thing.

===== 1.1.2Yellow=====

Yellow has multiple images in the expression of Chinese. In ancient times, yellow was regarded as the "color of the emperor". It represents royalty and power,such as the emperor's dragon robe. We sometimes use “黄袍加身”"yellow robe plus body" to describe the emperor's accession to the throne. Both of the two things show the important status and power that yellow represents in Chinese culture. But in English, the color that generally represents the supremacy is purple. The reason is that in ancient Greece and Rome, emperors, consuls, and generals were all dressed in purple. (Du Tian Yu 2020,188)

Wearing purple robe means the rise of power and high social status, such as The Chinese "生在帝王之家" corresponds to the English translation of be born in the purple, and "marry with the royal family or nobles" is to marry into the purple. In English culture, yellow is the color worn by the Jewish people who betrayed Jesus in the Bible, so the expression of yellow in English is often associated with traits such as betrayal, cowardice, and helplessness, such as yellow streak (cowardly) , Yellow-low looks (sullen and suspicious look), yellow livered (cowardly). (Du Tian Yu 2020,188)

At the same time, in Chinese, yellow is also used to express low-level interest, corruption, and other meanings, but we cannot literally translate pornographic magazines as yellow magazines. The yellow corresponding to express pornography in Chinese should be blue in English, such as blue joke (indecent joke), blue movie (porn movie). Due to cultural non-correspondence, the same color produces different images in the brains of people of different nationalities. We should pay special attention to the expression of this situation, and use different color words to express the same associative meaning.
Some words with "黄" in Chinese have nothing to do with yellow in English. For example, "黄道吉日" in English translates it into good luck, "黄毛丫头" in English translates it into a silly little girl, and "黄花" in English. It translates into clay lily and so on. Yellow also has an extended meaning, which means "cowardly, mean," and so on, for example: He is too yellow to stand up and fight. (He is too weak to stand up and fight). It is worth mentioning that, unlike Chinese using "yellow" to mean "obscene and pornographic", blue is often used to mean "yellow" in Chinese, which means "indecent and obscene". For example, blue jokes (indecent jokes), blue revolution (sexual liberation), blue films (yellow movies), blue software (yellow software) and so on.（Tian Yan 2014,121）

===== 1.1.3Green=====
In Both Chinese and English, green is basically related to hope and good wish, which is often used in environmental protection, such as green consumerism, green energy, etc. But in ancient Chinese culture, green meant low, because low people wore green clothes,such as “绿林好汉”The color green in English has many extended meanings. Green in English often is used to represent a "jealousy, envy, is said to be jealous, unhappy or disease causes the body's secretion of yellow bile, one of the symptoms is either eyes blue or pale, so in English, there is green with envy (very jealous), green as jealousy, in Shakespeare's famous tragedy" Othello "has the green - eyed monster (pro monster, refers to envy) this phrase. "As green as grass," "a green eye," "a green hand," "As green as grass," "A green eye," （Du Tian Yu,2020,187）

==== 1.2Animal====
Due to different cultural background,though the same word will have different representative meaning in different culture. The following paragraph will explain the different meaning of the same word in different culture.
===== 1.2.1Dog=====
Though Chinese people feed dog as pet nowadays,dog has been seen as inferior and stupid animal in Chinese culture. In China, people raise dog to protect themselves. Because of the serving capability of dog, people in China often look down upon dogs, and there are many idioms and proverbs to describe Chinese people’s discrimination for dogs. For example:
1.狗胆包天—monstrously audacious
2.狗急跳墙—a cornered beast will dosomething desperate
3.狗屁不通—mere trash；unreadable rubbish
4.猪狗不如---that one is too evil to compare as a pig and dog
5.狗头军师—a person who offers bad advice
6.狗尾续貂—a dog’s tail joined to sable

7.狗血喷头—pour out a flood of invective against somebody
8.狗眼看人低—be a bloody snob

9.狗仗人势—like a dog threatening people depending on the strength its master’s power

10.狗嘴里吐不出象牙—no ivory issues from the mouth of a dog(Liu Xiang Ya 2009,154)
On the contrary, the English people regard dog as their best friend. Dog can play with them,eat dinner with them,and even sleep with them. Dog is a kind of family member in English society,and a trustful friend to English people. There are some examples:
Hot dog——A lucky dog——幸运儿
Top dog——胜利者，夺魁者；主要人物
A clever dog——聪明的小孩子；伶俐的小伙子Sea dog——老练的水手，海员
Big dog——要人，大亨，保镖
A gay dog——快活的人，爱开玩笑的人Love me，love dog——爱屋及乌
Work like a dog——拼命工作的人
To help a lame dog over a stile——雪中送炭As a dog with two tails——非常开心
A good dog deserves a good bone——有功者受赏An old dog——经验丰富的人，年事已高的人
An old dog barks not in vain——老将出马一个顶俩
The more I see of men，the more I admire dogs——我愈观察人，我愈爱慕狗(Zhao Le 2013,155)
According to the Bible, everything in the world is created by God, and animals are also created by him. Everyone is equal before God, and the core of the democratic spirit in the doctrine itself is the direct theoretical source of the modern Western thought of "freedom, equality and fraternity". Since then, the concept of equality has become an unshakable idea in the West and a kind of national cultural psychology in the West. "Dog is man's best friend" is not just a verbal expression. Westerners' love for dogs is also reflected in their daily life. In Europe, dog ownership is common in both rural and urban areas. (Zhao Le 2013,155)
English people treat dogs as companions, as friends, as family members. In some European homes, the dog does not have an extra meaning. It can walk and rest in every room of its owner. The host treats, the guest friend is full, it is free, still around the table to eat, the dog's saliva water flows down, the host or the guest will use the napkin to wipe it, even directly with the hand wipe, just like to treat their own children. There is no cultural psychology of "respecting guests before scolding dogs" as Chinese people think, which is also related to the abstract logical thinking mode of Westerners. There is no connection between the "fawning and fawning" image of dogs, but it is just a kind of nature of dogs.(Zhao Le 2013,155)

===== 1.2.2Dragon=====
In Western myths and legends, a dragon is an extremely fierce monster that can breathe fire to destroy buildings and is extremely destructive. Dragon refers to people often contain derogatory sense, for example: Shakespeare writes of Juliet hearing Romeo kill:
O serpent heart, hid with a flowering face!
Did ever dragon keep so fair a cave?
Beautiful tyrant! fiend angelical!
Oh, the heart of a viper in the face of a flower!
Which dragon dwelt in this elegant cave?
Beautiful tyrant! The angelic devil！(Huang Fu Hong 2000,8)

In English, the old dragon means a devil. Westerners believe that Dragon is a symbol of satyr and a monster of cruelty and abuse, which should be destroyed. In some legends about saints and heroes, the deeds of fighting against monsters like dragons often end with the monsters being killed. The letter is probably best known as the Anglo-Saxon narrative poem Beowulf. Regardless of his old age, Beowulf determined to kill the dragon to rescue people. He took the eleven warriors to fight and and devoted his life for the people happiness.(Huang Fu Hong 2000,8)

The word "龙" in Chinese, as we are all familiar with, cannot be translated literally as "Dragons". The reason is that the English people have a terrible impression of the dragon, which is the symbol of crime. Many English-language newspapers cater to the habits of their British and American readers, and their translations have undergone a cultural transformation. Asia's "Four Tigers" is an apt translation.(Huang Fu Hong 2000,8)

Dragon means in the year of the Dragon, from the comparison of dragon culture, we can see the fusion of Chinese and Western culture and national psychological characteristics. This is the problem that we should pay attention to in the study and teaching of Chinese as a foreign language. (huang fuhong, 2000,8)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan

=== 2.Coping Strategies===
Since there a lot of cultural differences between Chinese and English,interpreters should figure out ways to settle them. The following paragraphs introduced some good qualities of interpreters and the ways that interpreters can use to deal with these cultural problems.
==== 2.1Good qualities of interpreters====
===== 2.1.1Clear and accurate speech=====
Interpreter's speech should be clear and accurate, with no fluctuation of volume. Don't make your voice too harsh, or break or shake because of tension. In more formal Settings, interpreters should also control their distance from the microphone and keep the tone at a labor-saving and pleasant height, depending on the situation. At the same time, it accentuates and lengthens certain syllables of affairs or certain vowels of Chinese, thus making the speech chain appear cadence and giving one's voice a certain solemn and specific delivery effect in the hall.(Bao Gang 1998,226)

Do not, however, be so artificial as to incur the general dislike of the audience. The interpreter may have minor speech defects, such as a less severe accent, but in general the interpreter's voice condition should be better than that of ordinary people. In the scene of interpretation, the most taboo words are stagnation of language flow and tension of voice, because this will make the audience have doubts about the translation ability of the interpreter, which will lead to a crisis of confidence in the interpreter.(Bao Gang 1998,226)

Secondly, the speed of the interpreter should be appropriate, not the faster the better. Of course, a qualified interpreter should be able to publish the target language quickly, but the interpreter must be adjusted as appropriate in the specific interpretation environment. In fact, the most important thing is to keep the language flow on the level of fluency and communication.(Bao Gang 1998,226)

At the level of paralanguage information transmission, attention should be paid to convey appropriate paralanguage and other information of the source language to meet the needs of on-site communication. Interpreters should not excessively imitate the intonation, tone and other paralinguistic information of the source speaker, let alone exaggerate the information. In theory, most of the paralinguistic information of the source language is conveyed without an interpreter.

Because these information can be directly and clearly felt by all the listeners on the scene, such as gestures, facial expressions and other body language information. Only intonation and tone are the important paralinguistic information that must be taken into account by the translator in the output of the target language. Translators should not be indifferent to the intonation, tone and other information of the source speaker, but should translate mechanically in a flat tone. Don't dazzle or mime around others to appear dominant.(Bao Gang 1998,227)

===== 2.1.2Intercultural awareness=====
For example, when greeting an American at a Chinese airport, if the Chinese receptionist says, "Are you tired from the trip”? Maybe Americans can accept this, but it's not the best expression. In America, interpreters should better say:”Did you have a nice trip? "Because Americans don't like to be asked too personal questions. Similarly,it is inappropriate to ask English people about their age,salary,weight and so on. Interpreters should keep this in mind when interpreting. Although it is difficult to define the interpreter and the speaker had how much the same cultural background, but the more the interpreter know the speaker's knowledge background, the interpretation will do the more smoothly. That is to say, when interpreting,the interpreter should prepare for the information of the speaker in advance,such as his or her cultural background,speaking habit and so on,which can benefit both the speaker and the interpreter.(Liu Ya Feng 2018,57)

In the communication with the English countries,there are many intercultural problems. The following paragraphs will show what problems that interpreter should pay attention to.
===== 2.1.3 Differences in social systems, values and world views=====
Culture brings different contexts to language. The same expression is sometimes very different in the two cultures, and this difference also represents the difference in values. For example, a Chinese host meets a foreign friend in the morning and asks, “您吃了吗?” Then the interpreter should not interpret it into”Have you eaten yet?” Instead, the interpreter should translate this sentence into:”How are you?” This is because that in Chinese culture,”您吃了吗？”is just a greeting. Another difference is that China is a socialist country, words related to socialism with Chinese characteristics often appear. When interpreting such words, the differences between Chinese and foreign cultures should be taken into account. For example, if the interpretation of "不忘初心" is "Don't forget our first heart”,then the English listeners will feel quite confused. The interpretation should be combined with our social conditions,”不忘初心” can be translated as “Don’t forget our initial determination” or "Don't forget why we started", "Remain true to our original aspiration", "Stay true to our original mission", etc. With the continuous expansion of the Chinese government's external publicity work, foreigners have become more and more understanding of this English expression.
===== 2.1.4 Differences in customs and habits=====
The English people are fond of dogs and often regard them as their companions and lovely animals. They use a dog as a metaphor for a person's life. For example:in Chinese,people say:”他是个幸运儿”. While in English,this sentence should be interpreted into “He is a lucky dog”. (Liu Ya Feng 2018,57)
What’s more,”He is dog-tired.” is to describe that he is terribly tired. It would be a mistake to translate "He works like a dog" into "他像狗一样地工作"since the meaning of this sentence is to say that he is a workaholic. In our country's political life, We often see other figurative uses, for example, "坚定不移地打虎、拍蝇、猎狐" translated into "We have taken firm action to take out tigers, swat flies, and hunt down foxes." In this context, Chinese people compare "tigers", "flies" and "foxes" to officials of different levels of corruption. (Liu Ya Feng 2018,57)
===== 2.1.5 Different usage habits in English and Chinese=====
Compared with English, some words are put in a different order. For example, if "中小企业" is translated into "Medium and small-sized Enterprises"do not fit British and American habits, but instead are translated into "Small and medium-sized Enterprises". “贫富差距” is not “the gap between the poor and the rich” but “the gap between rich and poor”. The translation of "暖心的故事" is not "warming-heart stories", but "heart-warming stories". (Liu Ya Feng 2018,58)

===3.Analysis of interpretation===

Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing answered the question raised by the reporter of China Radio International on China's relations with other developing countries.
　　
Example 1: Integration of key points in oral interpretation

Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing; 我也访问了一个人口很少的国家，叫佛得角。这个国家的领导人对我很热情，又特别客气。不断地说：“ 啊，我们国家很小很小。”我被他们的谦虚态度所感动，但我也诚恳地告诉佛得角朋友：“ 山不在高，有仙则名。国不在大，热爱和平，主持公道就好。”(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)
Interpreter: And I also visited a country with a very small size of population，called Cape Vede. I was received with tremendous warm and kindness there. The people there were very modest.They kept telling me that our country is very small But in spite of their modest attitude，I told them sincerely that as an old saying goes in China： A mountain，no matter how high it is，if it is blessed with a touch of divine，it will be well-known. And a country，no matter how big it is，if it can uphold peace and justness in the world， it w ill be a good country.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)

Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing; What matters with a mountain is not its height. And what matters with a country is not its size.
Comments:In this passage, Foreign Minister Li borrowed the first sentence of Liu Yu-suk's Humble House Inscription, "The mountain is not high, but the immortal name is", and extended it to the analogy of international relations. Due to the time pressure of the scene, the translator did not fully understand the meaning of the sentence and adopted the word-for-word translation.

Although on the surface, the translator translated every word and sentence, but a little careful, it can be seen that the translation does not express the information meaning of the original. Apparently, Li also felt that the interpreter did not accurately convey the meaning he wanted to convey. So, no sooner had the interpreter spoken than Li retranslated it (in bolded English). Li's translation makes it clear that he does not use the corresponding translation of words and phrases, but directly conveys the message meaning of the source language (i.e. the interpretive translation of the ideograms).(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)

Example 2: Cultural considerations in oral interpretation

Foreign Minister Li Zhaoxing answered the question raised by CCTV reporter on overseas travel of Chinese citizens:

Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing; 为以防万一，你最好能了解离你到的地方最近的中国大使馆或者总领事馆的电话，一旦出事，你可以放心，中国驻有关国家或地区的大使馆或者总领事馆，会全力以赴、会依法为你提供帮助。

Interpreter: And what you could do，beside that if you are the unlucky one is you could find the telephone numbers o f embassy and consulate general the closest to you. So whenever there is an incident you could ask for help f rom our embassy and consulate general. Our people will surely go all out to give you lawful protection.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)

Comments:The translator has a thorough understanding of the additional points in the original language and provides a smooth and accurate translation by means of interpretive translation. What is particularly commendable is a translation of "If you are the hype one" for a rainy day. The language form of the clause "you can rest assured" is not given in the target language, but its meaning is incorporated into the subsequent translation. Building protection refers to a direct interpretation of "lawful assistance" as "to give you guidance".

This approach takes into account the differences between Chinese and Western ways of thinking and the differences between Chinese and English ways of expression. This is exactly what the interpretive theory advocates. According to the theory of interpretive interpretation, interpreters must consider the acceptability of both sides in the context of two languages and cultures.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)
　　
Example 3: Emotional communication in oral interpretation

Foreign Minister Li Zhao Xing answered a question on China-Us trade raised by the Reuters news Agency.
Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing：实际上，很难说得清楚什么叫军用，什么叫民用。比如说这杯茶，我和姜恩柱主任委员喝了就是民用，要是当兵的喝了就是军用，说得清楚吗？
Interpreter: Actually it would be very difficult to distinguish from military purposes and civilian purposes. Just take the cup of tea in front of me as an example. If I and Chair man Jiang drink this tea， it w ill be rendered as for civilian use. But if a soldier drinks this tea， then the tea becomes for military use. So it is very difficult to have a clear definition of this term.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)

Comments:In the part that add in the original language is the Chinese commonly used rhetorical question. The form of rhetorical questions in Chinese is equivalent to rhetorical questions in English. But the rhetorical function is not the same. In Chinese, rhetorical questions are usually used for intensification, as in the original "Is it clear? "Is for the purpose of emphasizing" can't say clearly ".

And rhetorical questions in English also have the function of moderating mood. Therefore, translators adopt the way of interpretation to the rhetorical directly translated into statements, both to avoid the ambiguity, and to accurately convey the original meaning of language information (including emotional information), the effect of interpretation as sent interpreting theory emphasizes: the interpreter in interpreting process must consider how to accurately convey the original language discourse information such as the thoughts, images, and emotions.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)

Example 4: Syntactic recombination in oral interpretation

Foreign Minister Li Zhaoxing answered a question on China-Us trade raised by the Reuters news Agency.

Foreign Minister Li Zhao Xing：你的问题富有战略眼光，你问到十年甚至二十年之后的中美关系。

Interpreter： Your question show s that you are a person with a strategic perspective， because you asked about the outlook o f Sino-US relations in ten or twenty years’ time.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)

Comments:Of course, this sentence cannot be translated in the corresponding way of words. "Problems" can't have "strategic vision," it's the person asking the question who has "strategic vision." When the true meaning of the source language is understood, the expression of the target language becomes accurate and clear.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)

Example 5: Semantic interpretation in oral interpretation

Xinhua News Agency reporter asked Premier Wen About education:

Reporter: In your report, education is a highlight, especially compulsory education. You proposed the policy of "two exemptions and one subsidy" starting from this year.

Interpreter：We can see that education figures quite prominently in your government’s report particularly the compulsory education. We know starting from this year， the government is going to exempt the tuition and miscellaneous fees for the rural poor students receiving compulsory education and government is also going to give subsidies to the students attending schools f rom poor families.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)

Comments:This way of using numbers to sum up a policy, an idea, etc., is a feature of The Chinese language. From the "three Antis", "Five Antis", "four Antis", "four Qing dynasties", "Five stresses, four Beauties and three loves" to the present "three Represents", "three agricultrals", "eight honors and eight disgraces" and so on, there are many examples. Therefore, when the "two free and one supplement" appeared in the reporter's question, the country's top interpreters naturally have a good idea. Without any hesitation, the field interpreter directly explained the exact meaning of "two exemption and one supplement", without any word-to-word translation of the phrase itself. The interpretive nature of interpretation is further supported here.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)

Example 6: Logical processing in oral translation and interpretation

Premier Wen Jiabao answered the question on education raised by Xinhua News Agency.

Premier Wen: I'd like to stress the importance of civilian education here, because the vast majority of people in the world are civilians. The quality of common people is related to the quality of the whole people of a country. We have 1.3 billion people, 900 million farmers, a higher proportion of civilians.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)

Interpreter: Here，I would like to give the stress and the importance to the education for the general public. Most of the people in this world are ordinary people and belong to the general public. I think the competence of the general public is a direct reflection of the overall competence of the country. China is a country with a population of 1. 3 billion and 900 million of the Chinese people live in the countryside. So we have even a bigger proportion of our people receiving ordinary education.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)

Comments:There is no conjunctions between clauses, and the logical relation is clear at a glance, which is also the charm of Chinese "meaning meeting". However, English focuses on "speech and communication", and the logical relationship is reflected in the language form. Therefore, the interpreter must thoroughly understand the logical relations between Chinese clauses: they are not parallel relations, "there are 1.3 billion people" and "there are 900 million farmers" are inclusive relations, and the relationship between the first two clauses and the last one is causal.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)

Interpreters interpret on the basis of understanding the true connotation of the source language, which is not the corresponding language translation of words and phrases, but the interpretive interpretation (the italic part of the translation) that conveys the overall message meaning of the source language. This also explains the definition of "meaning" in interpretive theory: the meaning of speech refers to "the overall meaning of discourse" in interpreting activities.

On March 18, 2008 held a press conference, premier Wen Jiabao quote the old saying or answer questions from Chinese and foreign journalists, ancient Chinese poems before and after nine times, and the interpreter is also easy to immediately after the prime minister stated to complete these classical Chinese sentence translation, not only embodies the solid basic language interpreter itself strength and extensive knowledge, also for the interpretation of the study and research provides vivid data, more convenient to our understanding of cross-cultural awareness of the significance of a good interpreter.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)

Through the analysis of the above examples, it can be seen that interpretation is not only a technology, but also an art, which requires translators to have a keen cross-cultural awareness and overcome the obstacles behind language and cultural factors. Through extensive reading, translators should actively expand their knowledge fields, strengthen the accumulation of their own cultural knowledge and the cultivation of cross-cultural dialogue, and strive to avoid mistranslation caused by ignoring language and cultural differences through constant practice and summary, so as to achieve the purpose of external communication.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:41, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan

Interpreters in the interpreting process is not constrained in the primitive form of language, but fully considering the situation and primitive released into their related knowledge, a thorough understanding of primitive information, abandon words corresponding translation methods, focus on search to find the right words within the prescribed time to convey meaning in the context of a specific information.

=== Conclusion ===
With the deep economic globalization and many international issues,interpreters has become more and more important throughout the world. As an interpreter,it’s essential for them to learn more about the cultural differences. As an interpreter,he or she should keep learning to keep up with the fast-changing world.Rich cultural background and relevant professional knowledge will help interpreters improvise. But a solid language foundation is the key. Therefore, we should accumulate relevant professional knowledge in our daily study and strengthen the training of interpretation, so as to be able to do well in on-site interpretation.Due to the cultural differences that lead to the untranslatability between Chinese and English in some occasions, we should admit that translation is not always possible, but only within certain limits and limits. As an interpreter,daily learning and accumulation of cultural knowledge are very important.Only by having a thorough understanding of the similarities and differences between Chinese English and their cultures can translators reduce mistakes in interpreting and effectively serve as a bridge between them.

=== References ===

*Bao Gang鲍刚.(1998).口译理论概述[M].[An Overview of Interpretation Theory].北京:旅游教育出版社Beijing:Travel and Education Press.

*Du Tianyu杜恬雨.(2020).浅析文化差异对汉英颜色词翻译的影响[J].[A Brief Analysis of the Influence of Cultural Differences on the Translations of Chinese-English Color Words].科教文汇The Science Education Article Collects(07):187-188

*Huang Fuhong黄福洪.(2000).汉英龙文化差异浅析[J].[The Influence of Cultural Differences Between Chinese and English].修辞学习The Rhetoric Study(03):8.

*Liu Yafeng刘亚峰.(2018).中英文化的差异对口译的影响[J].[The Influence of Cultural Differences Between Chinese and English on Interpretation].辽宁经济职业技术学院.辽宁经济管理干部学院学报 Liaoning Economic Vocational And Technical College. Journal of Liaoning Economic Management Cadre Institute(06):56-58.

*Liu Xiangya刘相娅.(2009).英汉文化中“dog”“狗”的对比研究[J].新课程学习(学术教育)A Comparative Study of Dogs in English and Chinese Cultures New Curriculum Learning (Academic Education)(12):154-155.

*Zhao Le赵乐.(2013).汉英“狗”族词汇褒贬义对比及成因分析[J].A Comparative Analysis of the Commendatory and Derogatory Meanings of Chinese and English "Dog" Words and their Causes.现代语文(语言研究版) Modern Chinese (Language Research Edition)(02):155-158.

*The Spirit of Interpretation 译之灵.记者招待会现场口译实例评析Comments on interpretation examples at the reception.2012.

*Woesler, Martin. (2020). Responsibility and Ethics in Times of Corona. Woesler, Martin and Hans-Martin Sass eds. Medicine and Ethics in Times of Corona Muenster: LIT
--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 12:13, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye

==On Lefevere's manipulating theory 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan 202020080609 英语语言文学==

<center> 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan, 202020080609</center>

===Abstract===
In 1980s, the research object of translation studies changed from text itself to culture. Cultural factors were brought into translation studies. Andre Lefevere, as the founder of cultural transformation, puts forward the famous manipulation theory and its three elements-poetics, ideology and patron. He believes that translation is not a simple change between languages, and translators' translation activities are influenced and restricted by social factors such as ideology, poetics and patronage. He points out that translation is a form of rewriting the text, and it is "manipulating" the original text to make it compatible with the cultural background of the target text. The main body of the thesis is divided into three parts, which explore the rewriting phenomenon caused by poetics, ideology and sponsors in translation activities by displaying different translation cases.

===Key Words===
Ideology; Poetics; Patronage; Manipulation

===题目===
勒弗菲尔的操纵理论

===摘要===
20世纪80年代，翻译研究的研究对象从文本本身转向文化，将文化因素纳入翻译研究之中。安德烈勒弗菲尔作为文化转换的奠基人提出了著名的操纵理论及其三要素—诗学、意识形态和赞助人。他认为翻译不是一件简单的语言间的转换，译者的翻译活动受到意识形态、诗学和赞助人等社会因素的影响和制约。他指出翻译是改写文本的一种形式，是对原文的“操纵”，使其与目的语文本所在的文化背景相容。论文主体主要分为三部分，分别通过展示不同的译本分析，探究诗学、意识形态和赞助人在翻译活动中造成的改写现象。

===关键词===
意识形态；诗学；赞助人；操纵

===1.Introduction===

Before the 20th century, western translation theories mainly fell into the category of literature and art, which regarded translation as an art and emphasized the translator's creative reproduction of the original text. Until the mid-20th century, translation theorists introduced the theories and achievements of modern linguistics into translation studies, thus producing a linguistic school.Linguistic school regarded translation as a science of mutual transformation at the linguistic level, emphasizing the language equivalence between the original text and the target text.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)

Compared with the literary school, the linguistic school has deepened translation studies and achieved fruitful results, which was beyond doubt. However, it only limited translation studies to the linguistic level, ignoring external linguistic factors such as discourse and context, which led to the fossilization of translation studies.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)

Since the 1980s, under the influence of post-modernism and cross-cultural studies, translation studies have ushered in a "cultural turn", which has gradually transformed translation studies from a linguistic perspective to a cultural perspective, and thus a cultural school of translation has emerged. The cultural school broke through the traditional text comparative study mode of literature and linguistics, and paid attention to many social factors that influenced translation under the broad cultural background, thus broadening the scope of translation studies and injecting new blood into translation studies. Manipulation school was one of the most influential schools of culture.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)

The development of Manipulation School was based on comparative literature research, which mainly studied literary translation. The representative figures were Hermans and Lefevere. Hermans first applied "manipulation" to the study of translation theory, forming the embryonic stage of the manipulation school.In the book "Manipulation of Literature: Studies of Literary Translation", Hermans gave the programmatic view of Manipulation School: Manipulation School thinks that literature is a complex dynamic system. As Hermans said: "From the perspective of the target text, all translations are manipulations of the original text for some purpose." (Hermans 1985, 10-11)

Andre Lefevere, a famous Belgian American comparative writer and translation theorist, pointed out that literary translation always came into being in a certain historical period and a certain cultural context. In this sense, translation was a rewriting of the original text and a form of creating the text. Lefevere further pointed out that literary criticism, biography, literary history, film, drama, reader's guide and so on were all rewriting the text and creating another form of text image.(Zhang xiaojuan 2010, 130)

In other words, translation created the original author, the original text and the literary and cultural images of the original text. All rewritings, regardless of its intention, reflected certain ideology and poetics under the influence of the patronage. He thought that translation was rewriting, and rewriting was manipulation.The rewriting in different historical periods should be controlled by the ideology and main stream poetics, which was finally related to power and became a means to serve them. He believed that translation cannot truly reflect the original appearance, which was mainly manipulated by these three factors: ideology, poetics and patronage.(Zhang xiaojuan 2010, 130)

===2 Three Elements of Lefevere's manipulation Theory===

===2.1 Ideology===

Generally speaking, ideology refers to the concept system that reflects the interests and requirements of specific economic forms, specific classes or social groups, and its basic contents include people's political, legal, moral, philosophical, artistic and religious views, etc. In Lefevere's view, translation practice is a practice related to certain historical reality, a practice of reinterpreting the original text according to the interests of a certain social group in the new historical environment, and it is essentially a practice of culture and politics. Manipulation school is most concerned about not how the translation should be translated, but why it is translated like this.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)

Translations are not made in a vacuum. Translators function in a given culture at a given time. The way they understand themselves and their culture is one of the factors that may influence the way in which they translate. (Andre Lefevere 1992,14)

Translation, as a cross-language and cross-cultural communication activity, is inevitably influenced by ideology. It includes the translator's personal ideology and the ideology imposed on the translator by the authority or sponsor. These personal, social or upper-level ideologies will limit the selection of the theme of translated works and the form of expressing the theme and affect the translator's basic translation strategies and the interpretation of the original language and culture. Therefore, under the control of ideology, the translator will arbitrarily add, delete or change the original text, so that the translated text serves his own political purpose. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 130)

===2.2 Poetics===

Poetics involves two parts: literary technique and translator's view of literary function. Literary technique mainly includes genre, symbol, theme, etc. Translator's view of literary function refers to the role or function of literature in the whole social system. Translators not infrequently use their translations to influence the evolution of the poetics of their time. The compromises translators find between the poetics of the original and the poetics of their culture provide fascinating insights into the process of acculturation and incontrovertible evidence of the extent of the power of a given poetics. (Andre Lefevere 1992,26)

According to Lefevere, the translation method adopted by translators is carried out and developed under a certain system of factors of poetics, and the object of the study of poetics is as small as one word or as large as one sentence and the style of the whole chapter, translation strategies and other aspects of the rewriting of the poetics, which are the important components of the cultural system where the rewriting writers are engaged in their creation. In order to conform to the ideology and poetics which occupied the dominant position in the period where they live and to achieve the goal of making the rewritten works accepted by as many readers as possible, the original works will be adjusted in a fixed degree. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 131)

===2.3 Patronage===

Generally speaking, sponsors refer to individuals and groups that can promote or hinder the production and dissemination of literary works in a certain historical period, and institutions that regulate the dissemination of literature and literary thoughts. Patrons can encourage the publication of translations they consider acceptable and they can also quite effectively prevent the publication of translations they do not consider so. (Andre Lefevere 1992,19)

Lefevere regarded various rewriting forms, such as literary translation, as one of the various systems of the society. This department of philology has double factors of operation and control. One is the internal factor of the department of philology, which is composed of various professionals including critics, teachers and translators. The other is the patron who plays a role in the external department of the department.There are all kinds of powers (people or mechanisms) that promote or stop reading, writing or rewriting , such as religious groups, orders, government departments, publishing agencies, mass media mechanisms, or individual power.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 82)-

Sponsors can encourage works that they think are suitable, and can also effectively curb works that they think are inappropriate. Generally speaking, they play a vital role in the dynamic direction of translation, the development of translated literature, and social status where translators are located. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 131)

===3.Cases Study===

===3.1 Cases Study on Ideology===

Example one: In the dialogue between Wang Lifa and Cui Jiufeng in the second act of Teahouse, Wang Lifa said, "可是住在我这里, 天天念经" Cui Jiufeng replied, "我现在只能修持, 忏悔!" As for "念经" in the sentence, Ying Ruocheng's translation of "chanting Buddhist scriptures" is rich in Christian color; Huo Hua's translation "chanting sutras" abandons the meaning of Buddhism. From this, it can be seen that in order to meet the requirements of mainstream ideology, translators will choose corresponding translation strategies and delete or euphemistically treat some of the original texts in the process of translation. From the perspective of manipulation theory, this is the manipulation of ideology on translation.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 144)

Example two: Facing globalization, the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation must be strongly supported by the prosperity of culture. Under the background of vigorously advocating the use of literature output to improve the soft power of Chinese culture, we should treat the translation of Chinese literature more rationally. China has been a collectivist country since ancient times and advocated unity and unity. For families, there is a saying that "home is harmonious and everything is prosperous"; For the neighborhood, there is the advocacy of "good neighborliness and friendship".(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)

Therefore, when translating the report of the 19th National Congress into English, it is inevitable to be influenced by the feelings of home and country, which can be seen everywhere in the text.Original text: 大会的主题是：不忘初心，牢记使命…… Translation version：The theme of the Congress is: Remain true to our original aspiration and keep our mission firmly in mind... Analysis: There is no human appellation like "we" in the original text of the sentence, but it appears in the translation that “our original aspiration” and “our mission”.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)

Thus, its text translation is manipulated by our country's ideology, which is intended to show the collectivism consciousness of the Chinese nation and show that all ethnic groups in our country are united and love each other dearly.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)

Example three: As an important media of cultural communication, American TV drama not only has an eye-catching story, but also contains a lot of foreign cultural factors, such as authentic American slang and spoken language, strange historical allusions, and novel network neologisms. As a bridge between Chinese and American cultures, subtitle translation of American TV drama is particularly important. First of all, when the social values of the translation and the source text conflict, ideology will manipulate the translator to rewrite the sensitive parts of the text to meet the social ideology requirements of the target language.(Long juan 2020, 64)

In addition, American TV series contains a lot of local cultural factors, which is difficult to find the corresponding symbols in the process of translation and introduction, so the rewriting of culture in subtitles is inevitable.
English version: Hewlett and Packard
Chinese version: 休利特和帕卡德
(比尔·休利特和戴维·帕卡德是惠普(HP)公司创始人，两者均为男性。)
-Quoted from the Big Bang Theory

Many Chinese audiences are familiar with HP brand, but know little about its founders. Therefore, in addition to translating the names of the two founders literally at the bottom of the screen, the subtitle group members also added their identities and remarks "Both are male" at the top of the screen. This not only preserves the characteristics of the source language culture, but also helps the audience enjoy the movie-watching activities smoothly, and also increases the comedy sense of the play.(Long juan 2020, 64)

Example four: In 1930s, the western world knew very little about Chinese culture at that time, and most people thought that China was a savage and backward nation. The Chinese people in Westerners' minds were ignorant, superficial and vulgar. Facing the misunderstanding and discrimination of Westerners towards China, Lin Yutang tried to show the western world the true philosophy of life and attitude of Chinese people by translating “浮生六记” which told the story of a Chinese couple's quiet and simple life. He adopted the translation strategy of combining domestication and foreignization, which made the translated works not only retain the characteristics of Chinese culture, but also be easily understood and accepted by western readers.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 106)

Original text: 彼非作《琵琶行》者耶?
English translation: Isn’t he the one who wrote the poem on The Pi Pa Player?
Here, Lin Yutang translated "琵琶行" into "The Pi Pa Player" rather than "lute" and other forms that were easy for western readers to understand. He adopted the translation strategy of alienation and retained Chinese cultural characteristics according to the idea of himself, with the aim of making Chinese culture go abroad and giving western readers a certain understanding of traditional Chinese culture.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 106)

Example five: In the Chinese translation of Peter Pan, Yang Jingyuan chooses the combination of written language and spoken English in Beijing, and downplays the indecent language in the original text. The choice of this language translation strategy must be determined by his ideology.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)

In the original text, the topic of "mother" appears in many occasions, such as storytelling and character dialogue, and Yang Jingyuan translates it into written language "母亲" in most occasions. "Twins" in the original text is translated by Yang as "孪生子" in written language. Yang Jingyuan tends to use the northern dialect to translate, which is reflected in her translation sequence: when it comes to children's pleasure in never having a hometown, "他们不用上学读那些劳什子的书" "Sweater" is translated as "线衣" and "frock" is translated as "罩褂". "劳什子", "线衣" and "罩褂" are typical northern dialects.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)

In the story, the fairy Ding Keling has a pet phrase "You silly ass", which Yang translated as "你这笨蛋". The severely abusive language in the original text is treated as generally critical language in the translated text. Yang Jingyuan was born into a scholarly family and received higher education. Therefore, when she translated words, she intentionally or unintentionally chose the combination of written language and spoken English in Beijing, and downplayed the indecent language in the original text. Therefore, the translator's ideology really controls her translation process.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)

Example six: Zhu Shenghao translated King Lear in 1942. At that time, China was economically backward and politically turbulent. "Saving the country and the people" and "national liberation in an all-round way" became the mainstream ideology of the society at that time. When it was learned that Japanese translator laughed at the backwardness of Chinese culture, which was a barren place without Shakespeare's complete works, Zhu's patriotic enthusiasm was thoroughly aroused. In order to make the people with low education level understand this western classic better, he paid special attention to the harmony of phonology and the smoothness of the whole article in the process of translation. Meanwhile, he wanted to keep the verve of the original as far as possible. Therefore, he mainly adopts domestication.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)

(Act II, Scene IV)
Lear: No, rather I abjure all roofs, and choose
To wage against the enmity o’the air;
To be a comrade with the wolf and owl,
Necessity’s sharp pinch! (Shakespeare, 1972)
Zhu’s translation: 不, 我宁愿什么屋子也不要住, 过着风餐露宿的生活, 和无情的大自然抗争, 和豺狼鸱鸮做伴侣, 忍受一切饥寒的痛苦!
Zhu Shenghao is inspired by national honor and disgrace. His three parallelism sentences are full of momentum, like flowing water. Words such as "风餐露宿" and "无情的大自然" also pour out his inner anger and patriotic enthusiasm for the domestic status.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)

===3.2 Cases Study on Poetics ===

Example one: There is such a scene in the third act of Teahouse. “美国针、美国线、美国牙膏、美国消炎片。还有口红、雪花膏、玻璃袜子细毛线。”
Ying’s translation: Yankee needles, Yankee thread; Toothpaste white and lipstick red. Patent potions, facial lotions; Nylons sheer, you’ll find here.
Huo’s translation: Yankee needles, Yankee notions, Yankee toothpaste, Yankee potions. Lipsticks red, and cold cream white; Nylon stockings, sheer delight.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 144)

By comparing these two translations, in order to better conform to the rhythm of English poetry and make the whole ditty read fluently, Ying Ruocheng splits the structural meaning of the original text and then reorganizes it. He adopts more alienation translation strategies in order to achieve the same rhythm as the original text. On the other hand, because of his love for Chinese culture and the influence of Chinese traditional literature, Huo Hua is more faithful to the original text in his translation, and translates the whole ditty in the order of the original text. From this, it can be seen that Huo Hua's translation is mostly based on domestication, so as to truly reproduce the cultural level in the source text.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 145)

Example two: The opening report of the 19 th National Congress contains a large number of words with Chinese characteristics, and its English translation is manipulated by the socialist culture with Chinese characteristics. For example：Translate“不忘初心，方得始终”into “Never forget why you started, and you can accomplish your mission” “行百里者半九十”into “As the Chinese saying goes, the last leg of a journey just marks the halfway point”. English translation of such words with Chinese characteristics must be carried out on the basis of fully understanding the connotation of Chinese culture, which also well reflects the translator's own literary accomplishment and mastery of poetic ability.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)

Example three: From the perspective of mainstream poetics, Chinese and Western translation circles tend to combine "domestication" with "foreignization" in translation practice, which can not only solve the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, but also reproduce the characteristics of the source culture in the target language as much as possible.
English version: Look at that, the problem solved itself.
Chinese version: 你瞧!不攻自破了。
English version: Preparation can only take you so far.
Chinese version: 谋事在人，成事在天。
-Quoted from the Big Bang Theory(Long juan 2020, 64)

Influenced by mainstream poetics, translators rewrite the subtitles of American TV series by combining domestication and foreignization. If literal translation is adopted, the over-colloquial expression lacks poetic aesthetic feeling, while subtitle translators use “不攻自破” “谋事在人，成事在天”. These Chinese idioms with profound traditional culture not only accurately convey the meaning of the original sentence, but also cater to the audience's preference of the target language.(Long juan 2020, 64)

Example four: In order to make the target readers better understand and accept and spread the translated version smoothly, Lin Yutang adhered to the translation criteria of "faithfulness, fluency and beauty" and adjusted the original text to a certain extent.
Original text: 桥南有莲心寺。寺中突起喇嘛白塔,金顶缨络,高矗云霄,殿角红墙,松柏掩映,钟磬时闻;此天下园亭所未有者。
English translation: On the south of the bridge there was the Lotus-Seed Temple, with a Tibetan pagoda rising straight up from its midst and its golden dome rising into the clouds, with the terracotta walls and temple roofs nestling under the kind shade of pine-trees and cypresses and the sounds of temple bells and ch’ing [musical stone] coming to the traveler’s ears intermittently——all combining to achieve a unique effect that could not be duplicated in any other pleasure garden of the world.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)

The original text described the beautiful scenery of Lianxin Temple in concise language. Lin Yutang combined the two sentences of the original text into a long sentence, forming a compact and clear structure, which vividly presented the scene of Lianxin Temple to western readers. This beautiful sight of China can bring unique aesthetic feeling to western readers, realize the function of literature, and conform to the mainstream poetics at that time.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)

Example five: Yang Jingyuan definitely affirms Peter Pan's literary value and aesthetic value in the translation sequence. Under the control of this poetics, the translator builds a bridge of fantasy with exquisite and beautiful language in his translation, and poetry is perfectly reflected. The original story happened in Neverland, and Yang Jingyuan translated it as "永无乡". This translation method accurately grasps the spirit of the original work-although this place is good, it is the other side that can never be reached in reality, and the depth of melancholy and helplessness are expressed incisively and vividly. The following examples more fully reflect the manipulation of the original text by the poetics of the target language.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)

Original text: when children died he went part of the way with them.
Translated text: 孩子们死了, 在黄泉
Original text: she used to say afterwards to her husband.
Translated text: 她老是对丈夫说这些事后诸葛亮的话。
The translator deliberately chooses the words "黄泉" and "事后诸葛亮" in a way of additional translation, which are unique in Chinese culture. The manipulation of the target text by the poetics of the target language culture can be seen.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)

Example six: With the rise of the New Culture Movement in China in the 1930s, foreign literature and ideas were constantly introduced by translation. The creation of vernacular Chinese was valued and welcomed. With the principle of letting the general public enjoy Shakespeare's plays, he adopted a more colloquial prose style as the main translation style.
(Act I, Scene I)
Cordelia: But yet, alas! stood I within his grace,
I would prefer him to a better place.
So farewell to you both. (Shakespeare, 1972)
Zhu’s translation: 考狄利娅:可是, 唉!要是我没有失去他的欢心, 我一定不让他依赖你们的照顾。再会了, 两位姊姊。
Zhu Shenghao abandoned the framework of the original text and translated its meaning directly in the form of easy-to-understand prose, reflecting his preference for more colloquial prose translation.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)

===3.3 Cases Study on Patronage===

Example one:In the first act of Teahouse, Grandpa Four often complained to Wang Lifa, "我也得罪了他?我今天出门没挑好日子! " In this sentence, Ying Ruocheng translates "没挑好日子" into "This is not my lucky day!" The big reason is that his translation publishing house is China Foreign Publishing House, and Ying is more suitable for the traditions and habits of foreign readers, so as to facilitate the acceptance of foreign readers.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 145)

On the other hand, Huo Hua translates it as "I should've taken the Almanac's advice and stayed home today." Based on his understanding
Chinese traditional culture, Huo Hua knows that this is what Chinese people usually say orally that going out depends on the lunar calendar, so he translated it as "Take the Almanac's advice and stayed home", which is more faithful to the connotation of Chinese traditional culture. (Huang Mingjuan 2020, 145)

Example two: The report in the opening ceremony of the 19th National Congress belongs to the official documents of the party and government organs, and its sponsors are obviously the Communist Party of China and its leaders. Therefore, the report represents the will of the party and the people, in which every word, phrase and sentence collocation must be carefully screened before being finalized and must conform to the will of the country and represent the interests of the party and the people. This also requires translators to keep a clear head and high political acumen at all times, and to represent and safeguard the national image at all times. (Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)

Example three: In order to obtain social and economic resources and establish their own influence in the target language society, the sponsors will actively encourage the media system to produce as many film and television works as possible and meet the needs of the audience. In order to achieve this goal, they will introduce the mainstream social value orientation in the selection of film and television dramas, and also manipulate subtitle translators to adjust and change the subtitles of American TV dramas to some extent according to the target people's acceptance ability and expectation horizon. (Long juan 2020, 65)

Example four:Sponsors not only have a profound influence on the publication of translated works, but also have an inseparable connection with translators' selection of translation materials. For Lin Yutang's translation of “浮生六记”, the monthly magazine Tianxia and the couple Pearl Buck are influential patrons. (Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)

Example five:Yang Jingyuan was suffering from severe cataract at that time. It was difficult for her to read and write. In order to relieve her distress, her husband helped her translate the book. After reading Peter Pan, Fan Yong especially appreciated it and published it. It can be seen that Peter Pan was originally a spontaneous academic behavior of Yang Jingyuan. The initial sponsor was her lover, and later Fan Yong, general manager of Sanlian Bookstore, so the publishing house was also one of the sponsors. Together, they contributed to the publication of this book. (Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)

Example six: Zhan Wenxu and Zhu Shenghao worked together in the World Publishing House for many years, and Zhan quite appreciated Zhu's literary talent and translation level. Later, Zhan was appointed editor-in-chief of the World Publishing House. He suggested that Zhu Shenghao translate Shakespeare's works, which coincided with Zhu's own ideas. So Zhu signed a contract with the World Publishing House in 1935 and started the process of translating Shakespeare. So Zhan helped Zhu a lot in the road of translation. (Zhou Ya 2014, 178)

===Conclusion===

Lefevere's manipulation theory has a wide influence in the translation field. He holds that translation is a creative process and translators will inevitably be influenced by the culture of the target language, and he emphasizes three major elements: ideology, poetics and patronage. Because of using a different language from the original, facing a completely different readership and operating in different cultural categories, the translator, as the representative of the target culture, would be restricted by various target cultural conditions from the choice of the translation text at the beginning to the selection of translation strategies in the translation process until the acceptance of the final version. Moreover, the translator would have various considerations in translation. Therefore, it is impossible to reproduce the exactly identical translation of the original text.

Lefevere emphasizes the translator's position and role in literary translation, and pointed out that the translator's subjectivity is extremely complex, and its exertion is restricted by subjective and objective factors such as ideology and custom system. Ideology can be divided into mainstream social ideology and translator's personal ideology. Its influence on translation is everywhere, and the translator's thoughts, viewpoints, writing style and even his surroundings will be manipulated by invisible ideology. In the process of translation, the intended readers and clients in the translator's mind come from the target language system, and the translator himself is immersed in the culture of the target language system. Therefore, the mainstream poetic form of the target language system and the popular literary view at that time are largely used in the whole process of translation literature creation. Sponsors have a certain status and can provide remuneration and other help to translators. They can restrict the translation norms and decide the publication of translated works, and even decide the translator's translation goals and strategies and the acceptance of translated works.

===Bibliography===

Theo Hermans.The Manipulation of literature: Studies of literary translation [M]. London and Sydney: Croom Helm, 1985.

Andre Lefevere. Translation, History and Culture [M]. London: Routledge, 1992.

Huang Mingjuan 黄明娟. (2020). 从操纵论看《茶馆》翻译——以英若诚和霍华译本为例. [Translation from the Perspective of Manipulation Theory on Cha Guan--A Case Study of Ruocheng and Huo Hua's versions]. ''青年文学家''Youth Literator (14) 144-145.

Jia Shanshan 贾珊珊. (2018). 翻译操纵理论下的外宣文本英译研究——以十九大开幕式报告为例. [A Study on English Translation of Publicity Texts from the Perspective of Translation Manipulation: A Case Study of the Opening Report of the 19th National Congress]. ''疯狂英语''Crazy English (02) 168-169.

Long Juan, Tang Bo 龙娟,唐博. (2020). 基于操纵理论的美剧字幕翻译研究. [A Study on Subtitle Translation of American TV Series Based on Manipulation Theory]. ''现代英语''Modern English (02) 63-65.

Xie Chengfeng 谢承凤. (2016). 剖析翻译中的操纵论——以译作《彼得·潘》为例. [Analysis of Manipulation in Translation--A case study of the translation of Peter Pan as an example]. ''科教文汇''The Science Education Article Collects (12) 180.

Zhang Baihua, Hu Yajie 张白桦,胡雅洁. (2017). 改写理论三要素对翻译的影响——以林语堂《浮生六记》英译本为例. [The Three Factors of Rewriting Theory's Influence on Translation--A Case Study of Six Chapters of a Floating Life Translated by Lin Yutang]. ''中州大学学报''Journal of Zhongzhou University (01) 105-108.

Zhang Xiaojuan 张晓娟. (2010). 浅谈勒弗菲尔操控理论的三大要素对翻译的影响. [The Three Factors of Manipulation Theory's Influence on Translation]. ''西安社会科学''Xi 'an Social Sciences (04) 130-131.

Zhang Yuanyuan 张园园. (2010). 翻译就是操纵——操纵学派综述. [Translation Is Manipulation--An overview of the Manipulation School]. ''商丘职业技术学院学报''Journal of Shangqiu Vocational and Technical College (03) 81-82.

Zhou Ya 周亚. (2014). 操纵论与《李尔王》译本的对比研究——以梁实秋和朱生豪译本为例. [Comparative Analysis on Two Translations of ''King Lear''from the Perspective of Manipulation Theory]. ''海外英语''Overseas English (23) 176-178.

==Roger T.Bell's Special Outlook on Translation Studies 陈江宁 Chen Jiangning 202020080594 英美文学==

<center>陈江宁 Chen Jiangning,202020080594, </center>

===Abstract===
“What is translation?” It has been discussed over years since the emergence of the translation activities. As we all know, it is difficult to give translation a unified definition as a result of its complicated nature. This paper will mainly discuss British translator Roger T.Bell's Translation Process Theory based on the Systemic Functional Linguistics, cognitive science and cognitive psychology so as to understand how meaning is perceived and transformed and how the combination of the new and old information form a completely new target text. The contribution Bell has made lies in that he tried to use the graphics mode to fully show translation process, which better explains the interdisciplinary trait of translation and how the translator's thinking mode works during this complex activity.

===Key words===
Roger T.Bell; translation process; Systemic Functional linguistics; cognitive psychology

===题目===
罗杰·贝尔的特殊翻译观

===摘要===
自翻译活动开始之际，人们就开始讨论“什么是翻译”这一问题，却始终没有得到一个统一的答案，由此可见翻译活动之复杂。本文主要探讨英国翻译家罗杰·贝尔提出的翻译过程模式，贝尔的创新之处在于他尝试用图形模式来描述翻译的过程，他以系统功能语言模式为理论基础，结合认知科学、认知心理学探讨意义是如何被认知又如何被转换，新信息与旧信息如何组合形成一个全新的目标语译文，从而更好地解释了翻译学科的跨学科性以及译者在翻译活动中的思维运转方式和操作过程。

===关键词===
罗杰·贝尔；翻译过程；系统功能语言学；认知心理学

===1. Introduction===
Barhudalov, former Soviet Union translation theorist, expressing his opinion in his book called ''Language and Translation'' that the word “translation” has two meanings: one refers to the result of a process, which is the target text itself; the other refers to the translation process itself.(1895,19) That is to say, it emphasizes the act of translating. Therefore,here come the questions: What is the main focus of translation? Is the target text more important as a translation product or the process that contains translation act more significant? These questions attract many translation scholars' attention and according to the research results of recent translation, both in eastern and western translation academia, almost all scholars put their focus on the study of product and its standardization; however, translation process is rarely studied.(Wu Yiicheng 1988,54）

What's worse, the way they study the translation process is almost the same, all starting from analyzing the source text and target text, then comparing the two, that is to say, comparing the product of source text and target text to see whether it is the same, we call it a product-to-product comparison. Meanwhile, from the perspective of the purpose of translation study, it seems that we should pay more attention to analyze the complex process of the conversion between two languages, and explains the problems and gives some feasible solutions and operating procedures. There is no doubt that taking translation as a process to study is beneficial to both perfect the translation theory and improve translation level.(Wu Yicheng 1998, 55)

Therefore, this paper will mainly focus on the study of Roger T.Bell's Translation Process Model, which claims that the essence of translation is the process rather than product. It is also worthy of mentioning that he not only studies the process of translation, but also makes a great breakthrough by connecting the translation with Systemic Functional linguistics and cognitive psychology, which exhibits a more comprehensive translation theory for the whole academia. And it is these two elements that make Bell's translation process model a special and valuable one (Wu Yicheng 1998, 55)

===2. The Main Content of Bell's Translation Process Model ===

====2. 1 The Complexity of Translation Process ====
Generally speaking, previous translators have divided translation into two parts: understand and express. First of all, translator needs to understand the meaning of the source text and its author's intention, and what a translator should do next is to translate precisely on the basis of understanding the source text's meaning, its author's writing purpose and the goal of the target text. Even so, it is still hard for us to explain what exactly the translation process is. There are many outstanding translation theorists expressing their principle about what the translation is. For instance, Yan Fu, a brilliant translator once puts forward his brief but powerful view about translation, that is, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. Professor Qian Zhongshu also shows his opinion towards translation and bring forth the principle “Sublimation Theory”.(Zhang Meifang 2005, 42)

As for western translators, there are also some marvellous translators with their unique thoughts, like Eugene Nida's “Functional Equivalence Theory”; James Holmes' “Text-level Translation Process” and Roger T.Bell's “Translation Process Model” and so on. All of them have come up with meaningful ideas about translation. For instance, Holmes has raised some critical questions about translation like how does the translator create a completely new target text which more or less attaches some similarities with the source text during the translation process? How does his “Black Box” operate when he or she is translating an original text? There are a huge amount of obstacles that translators need to come over. However, few scholars have stretched their foot on this area. (Zhang Meifang 2005, 43)

Taking Nida's translation theory as an example, in his opinion, translation process is composed of four stages: analysis, conversion, reconstruction and examination. Nida further elucidates this conception in his ''The Meaning of Translation'' that the analysis stage is the stage where the translator determines the meaning of the original text (lexical, syntactic and rhetorical meaning). The translator should consider content and form at this stage; he believes that the process by which people stop thinking in one language and start thinking in another language is still a mystery. According to some concepts of transformational-generative grammar, the analysis process is mainly the process of determining the inner meaning. The conversion process takes place at this level, because languages are more similar in deep structurethan in surface structure. Once the conversion occurs, the translator must reconstruct the form of the original information to make it suitable for the potential reader, and the detection phase is the phase in which the target text is compared. (Nida 1969, 484)

Although Nida has mentioned a relatively complete translation theory, one of his translation model's deficiencies is that it doesn't reveal the translator's psychological process when he or she is translating. That is to say, he doesn't consider the function of the translator, like how does he or she analyze the source text? How does translator cut the original text into fundamental structure and rebuild them into the target text? All of these questions haven't been answered yet. In a word, Nida's translation model doesn't concern the translator's thinking activity during the translation process. On the contrary, in Roger T.Bell's translation process model, the role of translator is taken into consideration, that's why Bell's translation model is more comprehensive and better interpret the complexity of translation process. (Xiao Hui 2001, 34)

====2.2 Bell's Main Idea about Translation====
Bell in his book ''Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice'' has showed his view towards translation in a different way, considering some factors that may also influence the product of the target text which is never put forward before. He says that one of the goals in this book is to generalize the components that help to constitute all kinds of competences and knowledge of a translator, the other is to establish a translation model on the basis of this generalization. (1991, 18)

In order to figure out what exactly the translation process is, he has put forward some relevant questions: What is translation? What is a translator? What is translation theory? And he tries to answer them by combining translation process with Systemic Functional linguistics and cognitive psychology. What's more, Bell has showed his point of view quite clearly, he stresses that translation must be regarded as a kind of communicative behavior among human beings, which can be guided by linguistics and helped by the fruits of cognitive science and cognitive psychology to build his Translation Process Model. (Bell 1991, 19)

As Liao Qiyi says in the book ''Contemporary Translation Studies in UK'' that Bell has taken great efforts to establish the translation process model, which is placed in the larger field of human communicative behavior, so it inevitably has to resort to psychology and linguistics. On the one hand, we need to be familiar with the mode of memory and information processing of psychology and psycholinguistics. On the other hand, it requires an understanding of the linguistic mode of the broadest sense of meaning, including the meaning of “beyond sentences”. It is for this reason that Bell takes “mode”, “meaning” and “memory” as the focus of his discussion. (Liao Qingyi 2001, 208)

Generally speaking, Bell's translation theory starts from answering such questions like what translation,translator, and translation theory is. Next, he comes to the conclusion that it is the act of translation that truly matters, so he makes the translation process as his major study. In his book ''Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice''， Bell focuses on theoretical exploration, but his focus is also closely related to all aspects involved in specific translation activities. Therefore, as he says in the title of the book, the proposition of combining theory and practice has been found in his research and it has got a comprehensive implementation. Before describing and constructing the Translation Process Model, he defines the concept “translation”first, using this as a starting point, and compares the steps involved in monolingual communication with those in bilingual communication, revealing the commonality of the two points and differences to define the characteristics of the communicative act of translation.(Bell 1991, 44)

At the same time, Bell always put translator in the center position and on the basis of studying the competence of a translator, he comes up with six presumptions towards translation process. According to these materials and assumptions, Bell divides translation process into two stages: analysis and synthesis, which separately means convert a special language text (primitive text) into a non-semantic expression of special language; synthesize this semantic expression into a text in a second special language (the target language text). Each stage also contains three levels of syntax, semantic and pragmatics. We will talk about it in the next part in detail. (Bell 1991, 45)

All in all, in Roger T.Bell's book ''Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice'' we find that the explanation of theory is combined with the display of schema. The nearly 50 schemas in the book contribute to translation activities, translation specific steps, including analysis procedures, synthesis procedures, text reproduction and synthesis procedures, and the relationship among meaning, meaning generation, text information processing, text processing skills. He makes an intuitive display, which fully demonstrates his efforts to direct translation study to present its systematic and scientific nature.

===3. The First Special Outlook on Translation: Systemic Functional Linguistics===

====3.1 Systemic Functional linguistics and translation====
Although translation process is related to many nonverbal problems linked with two languages, including the psychological and thinking process, philosophy aesthetics and cultural tradition loaded by different languages, it is still extremely hard to achieve systematization and theorization without the guidance of linguistic theory. As Bell says that if translation theorists do not use the research results of linguistics, their comments on texts will inevitably be subjective, and it is also inevitable that there will be prescriptive colors.(1991, 15) Thus, one of the special outlooks of Bell's translation process model is attributed to the Systemic Functional linguistics. Therefore, it is quite necessary to know what the Systemic Functional linguistics is first.(Sun Huijun 2000, 53)

Systemic Functional linguistics is one of the most influential linguistic schools in the world today. It has been developed under the anthropological tradition. The difference between Systemic Functional linguistics and other linguistic schools is that they emphasize the social nature of language users and focus on the characteristics of language in practical application and the functionality of language. Although Systemic Functional linguistics is not a specific translation theory, it can be used to study translation theory and improve the development of translation as a result of its universality.(Sun Huijun 2000, 53)

The representative of Systemic Functional linguistics Halliday once wrote an article about linguistics and machine translation and put forward a hypothesis about building translation process model theory. And he further talked about the relationship between translation and comparison in his book ''The Linguistic Sciences and Language Teaching''. In the book, he made his own point of view about the essence of translation, and established a hierarchical selection of translation patterns on the basis of hierarchy and category grammar. According to this model, the translator's process of translation is from the low-level to the high-level, that is, from the morpheme level to the word level, phrase level, clause level, and finally up to the sentence level, which is a step-by-step selection process. The translator must find the equivalent structure for each item and category at each level.(Halliday 1964, 145)

In Halliday's opinion, the essence of translation process is actually a kind of language activity, and the essence of equivalence is not formal, but contextual. Since the meaning system is subject to the linguistic social and cultural context, the search for meaning equivalence is actually the search for the equivalence of two linguistic contexts, that is, the search for the functional equivalence of the texts of the two languages in the same context. For example, when translating application styles such as invitations, notices, regulations and letters, the translator should know how to find a translation that meets the specifications in the target language. In a word, when it comes to translation, what a translator should do is to find the tasks that should be done in the range of language activities, rather than to see whether it is formally equivalent in the level of grammar and vocabulary between source text and target text. (Halliday 1964, 158)

====3.2 Bell's Application with Systemic Functional Linguistics and Translation Process====
It is well known that Systemic Functional linguistics regards the actual use of language as the object of study, and they think that language is the tool for social communication. Meanwhile, it is also acknowledged that translation process is related to two communicative processes. The first is a communication process between the original author and the original reader, and then a communication process between the translator and the target reader. The identification of translator is quite particular, because he or she is an information addressee at the first communicative process, while he or she becomes an information addresser at the second communicative process, and both two processes need to use language to communicate.(Sun Huijun 2000, 54)

Although translation is different from general communication, it involves many issues such as culture, psychology, philosophy and aesthetics. It is essentially constituted by the communicative process of language. From this point of view, it is self-evident that the actual use of language in the communication process is regarded by the Systemic Functional linguistics theory as the research object which will guide the translation process. The translation process model that Bell tries to establish is exactly in the frame of Systemic Functional linguistics. It is built on the basis of systemic theory and cognitive theory, and uses the three meta-functions of language in systemic function theory to discuss the understanding of the meaning of the source text, and the interpretation of textual issues, and the explanation of the text problem is also entirely the text theory of the systemic functional linguistics school. (Sun Huijun 2000, 54)

According to Roger T.Bell's book ''Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice'', he contends that the translation process should cover the following contents: first of all, translation is a special case in the universal phenomenon of human information processing; then, the translation process model should belong to the psychological field of translation information processing; thirdly, the translation process takes place in short-term memory and long-term memory, which requires a text decoding device in the original language and a text encoding device in the target language, and a semantic representation that has nothing to do with language (semantic representation).(Bell 1991, 227)

Next, whether in the analysis of incoming signals or the synthesis of outgoing signals, the translation process is carried out at the language level of clauses. Processing a text in a bottom-up and top-down manner, and combining the two methods through a cascaded operation; analysis or synthesis in one stage must be completed after being activated, corrected and allowed in the next stage; Last but not least, the translation process needs two languages, including visual word-recognition system and writing system; it also needs syntactic processor, which is the choice of dealing with mood system. Furthermore, the translation process must have FLS(frequent lexical store),LSM(a lexical search mechanism) and FSS(a frequent structure store) and a mechanism that is used to analyze sentence grammatically. (Bell 1991, 228)

It requires a semantic processor to handle the choice and use of Transitivity system and exchange information as well. At the same time, the process needs a pragmatic processor to deal with all kinds of choices gained from the Theme system. The last requirement is idea organizer, which the process of tracking and organizing the language behavior of the text (if the translator does not know the type of the text, the organizer of the concept will make inferences based on the existing information) as part of the strategy for the implementation of the goal plan, which is planned and stored in idea organizer. (Bell 1991, 228)

Specifically speaking, in the process of syntactic processing and analysis, clauses are decomposed into many syntactic structures. People can choose clause structure in model system. First, the clauses are used in the form of a series of linear symbols through Common Vocabulary Storage (FLS) and Common Structure Storage (FSS), without having to go through the vocabulary search mechanism or grammatical analysis, and then the vocabulary can directly enter the semantic level during the analysis.

In the synthesis,it directly enters the writing system during the process. The so-called common structure storage refers to the frequently occurring structures developed and stored in memory by the translator (such as subject-predicate structure, subject-predicate complement structure, etc.) The so-called grammatical analysis of sentences refers to the task of analyzing clauses when analysis becomes necessary. The so-called vocabulary search mechanism means that when the translator cannot find a matching term in the common vocabulary storage, the translator must use this mechanism to try to find the term that can “produce meaning”. (Xiao Hui 2001, 35)

In the process of semantic analysis, the task performed by the semantic analysis program is to recover the concept, retrieve the transitive relationship under the clause syntax, and derive content from the syntactic structure through the previous analysis. In the process of pragmatic analysis, the tasks performed by the pragmatic analysis program are off-topic structure and conducting register analysis on topic structure. Translation process cannot be simply regarded as translating clause to clause between two languages, what a translator should do is to disintegrate the clauses of source text into the form of semantic expression, then put this as foundation to rebuild the language of target text.(Xiao Hui 2001, 35)

The so-called concept organizer has three functions: first,perfect analysis content; second, control the collection of information from time to time; third, modify semantic expression. This kind of analysis is finally absorbed by the planner, at which time people can make a decision to continue reading or translate. When the clauses of the original text are transformed into semantic expressions and the reader decides to translate them, we can assume that once the information has been stored in the semantic expressions, the semantic expressions are sufficient to indicate what type of text the clauses are expected to be translated into. In the process of pragmatic synthesis, the target language processing program accepts all the information expressed in semantics and faces three main problems, such as how to deal with the purpose of the original text;how to deal with the subject structure of the original text and how to deal with the style of the original text. (Xiao Hui 2001, 36)

In the process of semantic synthesis, the target language semantic processor accepts the meaning of intra-language behavior, and generates some structure to transfer the theme content, and the generated satisfactory theme content is passed to the next step of the synthesis stage. In the process of syntactic synthesis, the translation syntax processor accepts the input information from the semantic stage, and finds suitable terms through the storage of common vocabulary; checks the common syntactic storage to find out the appropriate clause type that can represent the proposition.

If there is no available clause structure to express special meaning in the vocabulary storage, this proposition must be analyzed grammatically, and finally the writing system is activated. Thus this string of written symbols constitutes the target language text. The last process ends with returning to the original text and the next clause is like a monolingual reader. In conclusion, the translation process is a series of interactive processes, mainly including three stages: synthesis, semantic and pragmatic processing stages, and each of these three stages is related to both analysis and synthesis. Therefore, the translation process is very complicated. (Xiao Hui 2001, 36)

It is very difficult to describe such a complicated process, especially the textual analysis of the entire interactive integrated process that is not completely linear. Roger Bell makes full use of the advantages of schemas and shows us a more intuitive display of the factors involved in the translation process, main activities and activity trends. (Xu Jun 2003, 36)

====3.3 Benefits and Deficiencies of such Combination====
It can be inferred that the study of translation process models will definitely help the theoretical exploration and development of translation machines. It is necessary to point out that with the deepening of the research on the issues involved in the translation process, we will encounter difficulties that are difficult to solve by translation studies itself, such as the study of the process of translation thinking activities and translation mechanisms, and other disciplines, such as neurolinguistics and psycholinguistic development and breakthroughs.(Xu Jun 2003, 37)

There are also some deficiencies existing in Bell's model. First of all, Bell emphasizes that the translation process is a comprehensive and non-linear process. There is no fixed order at each stage, because the translator “is not occasionally but often revises and overturns previous decisions.” (Bell 1991, 49) The terms “sequence” and “linear” showed that Bell's main concern was the time dimension of translation behavior, and the choice is not fully reflected in the model. (Li Li 2019, 18)

===4. The Second Outlook on Translation: Cognitive Psychology===

====4.1 Cognitive Psychology and Translation====
Regarding translation as a process is actually to research the cognitive psychology process during the transformation of bilinguals.Some translators believe that the problem of translation is still nothing but the mentality of the translator and the relationship between the translator and the translated texts, so the problem of translation can be said to be a language and psychological problem.As we all know, translation contains two steps: the understanding of the source text and the output of the target text. The former one means the translator uses visual primitives to construct meaning in the brain, which is a psychological process. As for the output of target text, it refers to the process by which the meaning that the translator has constructed is re-expressed in the form of the target language.(Xiao Hui 2003, 33)

Bilingual conversion is a relatively complex cognitive psychological process; whether it is the understanding of the source language or the output of the target language, it must be restricted by mental representations, that is, cognitive constraints. From the perspective of cognitive science, learning by a person first involves the mechanisms of sensory organs, brain, muscles, etc. Secondly, the stimulation acting on the sensory organs, and thirdly, the known information recovered from the learner's memory. This is a process of interaction between new and old information, which can be called an information processing model. Therefore, cognitive science considers that human being's cognition is a sort of information processing. And the study of the translation process from a cognitive perspective should focus on explaining the cognitive psychological process of the translator when translating bilingualism from the point of human processing information. (Xiao Hui 2003, 33)

Another important point is that the axis of translation activities is the conversion process; this process is not a pure language activity, but a thinking activity. Accordingly, the translator must grasp the laws of thinking activities. Then how does the discourse change? The original work is the source of information, and the translator's brain also stores an information database. The former one stores more or less emotionally specific information processed by the author, while the latter stores mainly conceptual information. Only when the translator is stimulated by the second signal of the original discourse, can he use the existing concepts to reproduce all the information of the original. The translator's information database stores knowledge units, mainly concepts. Most of these units and the words in the information source are corresponding or similar, so we call “similar blocks”.(Dong Junhong 2008, 43)

Information conversion is mainly carried out by “similar blocks”. When translating, the translator compares the received original information with the “similar” information deposited in his own database. The old and new information forms a “similar block” and feeds back to each other. The translator mobilizes all kinds of information related to the new information in his mind, transforms, corrects, supplements, and enriches it. Until the new and old information is similar to each other and reaches the extreme, the translator uses the target language to externalize and change the similar products to the target text. Since bilingual conversion as a kind of thinking process is invisible and intangible, the theoretical goal of its research should be to establish a psychological reality mechanism and thinking pattern that prompts bilingual conversion through an analysis of the translation process. (Dong Junhong 2008, 43)

====4.2 Bell's Application with Cognitive Psychology and Translation====
As we mentioned before, Roger T.Bell tries to use Systemic Functional linguistics to describe translation process and what knowledge and skill the translator should grasp, and he also combines psychology with information theory model to depict the work process in the mind of the translator when he or she is translating. He says in the book ''Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice'' that translators are just like many other communicators living in a world filled with meanings, where they could conceive all kinds of meanings so as to form the conception. And their experience could recall or even gain revive through the memory system. Bell uses“aggregates” “wholes” “system” to depict the process of cognition. (Bell 1991, 15-18)

It is generally accepted that the translator is the communicator between two languages, but first of all he must be the message receiver. And as a message receiver, no matter a listener or a reader, intralingual or interlingual—has to face the same problem: to receive information and carry signals (utterances or texts) and extract them from the source language information and use the target language to construct the best performance model. Bell uses the conception of schema to explain the cognitive process of the translator and the productive process of the target text. In the translator's cognitive process, the recognized objects are “aggregates”, which enter the translator's mind through intuition, and are then perceived and transformed into the “wholes” that carries information, and conceptualized as “system” or “pattern”. (Bell 1991, 15-18)

Bell believes that all communicators have knowledge of semantics, grammar and rhetoric. Semantic knowledge helps him to convert concepts into propositions; grammatical knowledge helps him to mark propositions in a language system that can produce clauses; rhetorical knowledge helps him to organize clauses into propositions which could be used in the surroundings of utterance or discourse. Human being's perceptual experience towards the inner and outer world is expressed through language, and the conception stored in the memory is also expressed by language. People understand the characteristics of things by comparing the similarities between different things, and understand their living world from a new perspective. In Bell's opinion, translator is actually a bilingual communicator in the form of written language. (Zhang Meifang 2005, 43)

To sum up, the translation process is not a linear process which strictly follows one stage, but a comprehensive process, that is, the sequence of each stage must be experienced in the translation process, and it is not fixed. The translator can move from the next stage to the previous stage. Besides, the translator's amendment or cancellation of the previous decision is usually in line with the norms. Bell explaines the thinking process of translators during the bilingual conversion, which is a huge step in the history of translation studies. (Bell 1991, 56)

====4.3 Benefits and Deficiencies of the Combination of Cognitive Psychology and Translation====
As we talked before, Bell has adopted a new research method for translation procedures and ability analysis. And there are some following advantages. In the first place, by exploring translation from the perspective of psychology, people can make assumptions about the content constructed in the translator's mind based on the empirical research and application process of translation ability—analysis. It is necessary for people to elaborate on the psychological process of translation; nevertheless, this psychological process is not yet known or investigated. Secondly, as far as the overall psychological research is concerned, one can expect the fact that empirical research on translation ability will provide an in-depth understanding of language processing, speech acceptance, speech production in psychological processes while language users use psychological strategy. (Xiao Hui 2001, 33)

===5. Conclusion===
In summary, Roger T.Bell has provided us with a relatively comprehensive and elaborated outlook of translation process. Foremost, the author puts the translation process in the systemic model of the language, describes and interprets the translation process from a theoretical and practical perspective, and tries to shape it. Afterwards, he has considered the importance of the translator's thinking activities and applies some knowledge of cognitive psychology to translation process to fully elucidate his translation theory. Finally, he has built a more complete translation theory based on these. His effort is worthy of complete recognition, because it not only adds a lot of scientific elements to translation studies, but also lays a solid foundation for the construction of translation studies. (Wu Yicheng 1998, 56)

===References===
Dong Junhong. 董俊虹. (2008). 基于贝尔模型的翻译过程心理认知探究. [A Probe into Psychological Cognition in Translation Process Based on Bell's Model]. “西北工业大学学报”[Journal of Northwestern Polytechnical University]. 42-46.

Liao Qiyi. 廖七一. (2001). 《当代英国理论》[Contemporary British Theory]. “湖北出版社”[Hubei Education Press]. 208.

Li Li. 李力. (2019). 译者选择的类坐标系模式 [Coordinate-like Mode Chosen by the Translator]. “中国翻译”[China Translation]. 18-19.

Sun Huijun. 孙会军. (2000). 系统功能理论与翻译理论研究 [System Function Theory and Translation Theory Research]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and ForeignLanguage Teaching]. 53-56.

Wu Yicheng. 吴义诚. (1998). 贝尔的翻译与翻译过程：理论与实践评介 [A Review of Bell's Translation and Translation Process: Theory and Practice]. “中国翻译”[China Translation]. 55-56.

Xiao Hui. 肖辉. （2001）. 翻译过程模式论断想 [On the Model of Translation Process]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 33-36.

Xu Jun. 许钧. (2003). 简论翻译过程的实际体验与理论探索 [Briefly on the Practical Experience and Theoretical Exploration of the Translation Process]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 33-38.

Zhang Meifang. 张美芳. (2005). 图示分析隐喻翻译中的认知过程 [Schematic Analysis of the Cognitive Process in Metaphor Translation]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 43-46.

Bell, Roger T. (1991). Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice. London and New York: Longman.

Halliday, M.A.K. (1961). Linguistics and Machine Translation in McIntosh. London: Longman.

Nida, Eugene A. (1964). Toward a Science of Translating—with Special Reference to Principles Involved in Bible Translating. Leiden: E.J.Brill.--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 08:21, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

History of Translation Studies 3

2020-12-21T15:28:40Z

Lei kuangxi: /* A Study on the History of Interpretation and the Prospect of Interpretation in China 雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi 202070080639 英语口译 */

这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第三部分(Part 3)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。

学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。

*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]
*Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].

=Skopos and Functional Equivalence=
==A Comparative Study between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory and My thoughts on the Two Theories==

==Abstract==
This paper first makes a brief introduction of the two very important translation theories, which are Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory, put forward by Eugene Nida and Hans Vermeer respectively. Then the paper analyzes the similarities and differences between the two theories from many different perspectives. Through the analysis of the two theories, the author finally puts forwards its own thoughts on the two translation theories.

==Key words==
Functional Equivalence Theory; Skopos theory; Eugene Nida; Hans Vermeer

==摘要==
本文首先对翻译研究中两种极为重要的翻译理论，即尤金·奈达提出的功能对等翻译理论和汉斯·弗米尔进行了简要介绍，之后从多个不同的方面对这两种理论的相似点和不同之处进行分析。最后，在对两种理论进行分析后，作者提出自己对这两种理论的看法和认识。

==关键词==
功能对等理论；翻译目的论；尤金·奈达；汉斯·弗米尔

==(1)Introduction==

===1.1. Functional Equivalence Theory===

In 1964, Eugene Nida, the famous American linguist and ''Bible'' Translator, first put forward the notion of “dynamic equivalence” in his book ''Toward a Science of Translating''. According to Nida, “dynamic equivalence” refers to “ the closest natural equivalence to the source language message(Tan Zaixi, 1984: 10)”. In saying this, Nida means to appeal translators to put emphasis on expressing to the target readers both the messages conveyed in the source language and the forms and styles of the original text. Later, he realizes the name “dynamic equivalence” may confuse some translation learners and they may think he only focuses on translating the content and meaning of the source text and ignores its form and style, he then changes the name of “dynamic equivalence” into “functional equivalence”. Nida thinks that the response made by the target language receptor to the target text should generally be equivalent to the response made by the source language receptor to the source text, so when the translator cannot retain both the form and the content of the original text, he or she should give priority to the content of the original text and change the form of the source text. And in response to questions like how and to what degree the translator can change the form of the original text, Nida then points out that in translation, there are four aspects in dynamic equivalence, namely, lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence respectively. If a translator can convey the language form, the content and the style of the source text in natural target language, and make the target readers give the same response to the target text as the source language made to the original text, then his translation can be said to have achieved the maximal equivalence. On the other hand, if a translation only transmit the content of the original text generally, then the translation can be said to have achieved the minimal equivalence.

===1.2. Skopos Theory===

Skopos theory was first put forward by Hans Vermeer in his book ''Framework for a General Translation Theory'' in 1978. According to Skopos theory, translation means to “'''produce a text at target setting for a target purpose and target addressee in target circumstances'''”(Liu Junping, 2009: 377). Based on this definition, Vermeer Hans concludes the three rules of Skopos theory, which are skopos rule, coherence rule and loyalty rule.

Firstly, skopos rule, or purpose principle, is the primary principle to be followed in translation. It holds that the purpose to be achieved of the target text determines the whole process of translation, including the choice of the translator in translation skills and strategies, and that all translation activities are determined by its purpose. Generally speaking, the skopos rule has under its umbrella three types of purposes: the first one is the basic purpose of the translator; the second is the communicative purpose of the translation; and the third is the purpose of specific translation strategies or means. But at most of times, “purpose” refers to the communicative purpose of the translation.

Secondly, coherence rule, also called intra-textual coherence, means that the translation must be understandable and readable to the receptors, and meaningful in the communicative environment of the target culture and the target text.

Thirdly, fidelity rule, which means that there should be inter-textual coherence between the source text and the target text. Inter-textual coherence is similar to what is usually called “信” or “be faithful to the original text”. In the traditional translation theory, “faithfulness” is always regarded as the basic translation standard to obey, but in Skopos theory, to what degree the form and style of the target text should be faithful to the original text totally depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator’s understanding of the source text.

Under Vermeer’ s Skopos theory, the skopos rule is the most important rule among the three rules, the coherence rule the second important, and the fidelity rule the least important. This indicates that in Skopos theory, the end justifies the means(Liu Junping, 2009: 377-378)

==II.Similarities and Differences==

===2.1. The Similarities between the Two Theories===

'''2.1.1. Both Attach Great Importance to the Target Receptor’s Status'''

Functional Equivalence Theory is a receptor-oriented theory. As revealed by Nida’s definition of translation, that “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes that the primary aim of translation is such that the target text should bring the target receptors the similar or same response as the response made by receptors in the source language. Besides, to bring to the readers a similar or same response, Nida even put forward that, if it is necessary, different target texts should be made according to the needs of different receptors. All of the two points reflects that in Functional Equivalence Theory, the target receptor’s status is very important.

While the Skopos theory, too, put the reader’s needs on a high status. Of the three rules in Skopos theory, the most important one is skopos rule, which includes three purposes, the basic purpose of the translator, the communicative purpose of the translation, and the purpose of specific translation strategies or means. However, to take all the three purposes into consideration, a translator must first know what and who the target text serves, so he or she can immediately know the purpose of the translation task and do a corresponding and qualified translation. This, on the other hand, also means that in Skopos theory, the target reader’s needs indirectly determine the purpose of the translation, so it is also given priority to by the translator.

'''2.1.2. Both Emphasize the Communicative Function of Translation'''

Under the Functional Equivalence Theory, the translation should achieve a functional equivalence, bringing the target readers the roughly same experience and making them give the responses as the receptors in the source language culture. In doing this, the translator is in fact trying to achieve the communicative function of the original text by shortening the distance of the source text receptors and the target text receptors, which, on the other hand, means that the process of translation is a communicative process between the original language culture and the culture of the target language.

In Skopos theory, of the three purposes under the skopos rule, the communicative purpose is regarded as the most important purpose of a target text. Skopos theory holds that translation is a communicative activity with a purpose, and the process of translation is determined by the intended function or purpose of the target text.

'''2.2 The Differences between the Two Theories'''

'''2.2.1. Different Status of the Source Language and the Target Language'''

From the perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory, a good translation achieving the goal of translation not only needs to provide another message similar to the original message conveyed in the source text, but also needs to clearly reflect the meaning and intention of the original text, bringing to the target readers similar or even same effects and making them give a same response. From this point, one can easily see that Functional Equivalence Theory is centered on the original text, which, to some degree, reflects that Functional Equivalence still put the source language on a high status. The status of the target language is secondary to the source language as the choice of the words, sentence structures of the target text still heavily depend on the source text.

Skopos theory, on the other hand, gets rid of the point of view of the traditional text-centered translation theory, and focuses on the function and purpose of the target text. From the perspective of Skopos theory, a successful translation is not one that places the original text in a sacred and unattainable position. Vermeer further put forward the view of “subverting the source language” in Skopos theory. He stated that “the linguistic and stylistic features of the original text are no longer the only criteria to measure the translation”. All of these reflect that the source text enjoys a relatively low status in Skopos theory compared with its status in Functional Equivalence Theory. Besides, from the three rules of Skopos theory, one can easily know that, the most important one is the skopos rule, then the coherence of the target text, namely the intra-textual coherence and finally the fidelity of the target text to the source text, namely the inter-textual coherence. Therefore, we can see that the status of the source language actually lower than the target language in Skopos theory, which is different from the case in Functional Equivalence Theory.

'''2.2.2. Different Translation Principles'''

Nida believes that equivalence is the goal of translation. His translation standard is that the target text should be faithful to the original text in terms of content and style while also being expressive in the eyes of the target readers. As put forward by Nida that, “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, the translation standard of Functional Equivalence Theory include “equivalence”, which is the equivalence of meaning and style, namely be faithful to the meaning and style of the source text. Besides, in front of “equivalence”, there is also a word “natural”, which means the target text should be fluent and be in conformity with the habits of the target culture, namely “expressiveness” in traditional translation theory.

In Skopos theory, however, “faithfulness” is no longer regarded as the primary translation criteria. As Skopos theory judges the success of a translation by its intended purpose, which reflects the requirements of the target readers. However, as the requirements of the readers are different, Skopos theory advocates the diversification of translation standards. Only when the communicative purpose of the translation requires the translation to have the same communicative function as the original text, equivalence becomes the standard of the translation process. Otherwise, the translation may be very different from the original text in its style and form.

'''2.2.3. Different Translation Skills and Translation Strategies Used in the Translation Process'''

In Functional Equivalence Theory, as determined by its definition for translation, the translation skills and strategies used in the translation process are all for one common goal, which is to bring the target readers the roughly same or same response. In order to achieve the aim, some translation skills are frequently used under the Functional Equivalence Theory, including literal translation, liberal translation, domestication and borrowing translation. And among all these translation skills, domestication and borrowing translation are two translation strategies most favorably advocated by Functional Equivalence Theory. Here, I will list the translation of a phrase to briefly explain the reason why the two translation skills are often used in translation process. We all know that to grow like mushrooms is an English phrase which means to rapidly grow or increase in number. It vividly describes the scene that after the incessant rain in London, the explosive growth of the mushrooms. While in China, there is also a similar phrase “雨后春笋”, to describe the scene that after a spring rain, the bamboo shoots sprout overnight in the forest. Therefore, when doing a E-C translation, the translator often uses domestication and translate “to grow like mushrooms” into “雨后春笋”, so as to enable the Chinese readers give a same response as English readers did.

However, Skopos theory is different. In Skopos theory, the end justifies the means, which means all the translation skills and strategies are determined by the purpose and use of the target text as well as the reader it serves. Therefore, it usually adopts different translation strategies to meet different translation purposes. Translators can freely choose the translation skills he wants to use, whether it is literal translation or liberal translation, domestication or foreignization, transliteration or borrowing translation, even simplifying translation and reduction translation, in consideration of the author's writing intention, the theme of the original text, the translator’s purpose and the needs of the readers.

Here, I want to firstly compare the difference between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory in dealing with content with cultural characteristics. As I wrote before, the Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes the same response between the original readers and the target readers and the presence of a natural text to the target readers, so it prefers to use the existed words, phrases, and cultural images in the target language to replace the expressions in the original text, which explains why domestication and borrowing translation are often use under the theory -- that is because by using the two ways, functional equivalence can be achieved. However, in Skopos theory, the translator enjoys a higher degree of freedom. He can select translation skills flexibly according to the skopos of the text. For example, when it comes to cultural translation, the translator should carefully consider the cultural differences between the two languages and have full understanding of the purpose and usage of the original text. If the purpose of a translated text is to diffuse the language characteristics of the original author, the author’s writing intention, or the language characteristics of the source language culture, then the translator can adopt the strategy of foreignization or the strategy of literal translation with some annotations in the target text to help the target readers better understand a foreign concept. For example, in order to maintain the cultural characteristics of Chinese, the Chinese proverb “谋事在人，成事在天” should be translated as “man proposals, heaven disposes." instead of “man proposals, God disposes”. This is because the translator wants foreign people to know our beliefs -- we Chinese believe in Heaven rather than God. At the same time, sometimes, to meet the needs of some special readers, simplifying translation and reduction translation are also used in the translation process. For example, there are some publishers in China which publish the simplified version of those foreign classics to meet the the children’s needs in reading.

'''2.2.4. Different Status of the Translator'''

In what Nida thinks of, the translator is only a cultural envoy, transmitting the idea of a culture to people in another culture. Nida believes that as the second source of information, the translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. Therefore, the translator must understand what the original author thinks. The translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. In addition, the translator should not introduce any personal ideas into the translation of the original text, no matter whether the original point of view is consistent with his own. “The translator should not intervene in, edit or rewrite the original text even if it has shortcomings and errors, nor should he improve the original text even if he has the ability”(Tan Zaixi, 1984). Of course, we can critically accept Nida’s words. When there are obvious mistakes in the original text (such as the original text not conforming to the facts), we should correct them in the translation.

Skopos theory improves the position of translator. The translator is the receptor of the original text and transmits the information of the original text to the reader. Skopos theory allows the translator to determine the faithfulness of the translation to the source text and determine the proportion of the faithfulness of the target text to the original text. It adopts the translation strategies such as “modification, abridgement and reduction”, and denies that there is only one “correct or best” translation of the source language. Therefore, the translator has more freedom in the process of translation, and can transfer the original text according to the needs, expectations and knowledge background of the readers, so as to achieve the purpose of a translation task.

'''2.2.5. Different translation processes'''

In order to achieve functional equivalence, Nida proposed the famous back translation theory by referring to the concepts of core sentence, non-core sentence and transformation. In Functional Equivalence Theory, translation is a complicated process, which includes four stages: analysis, transfer, reconstruction and test (Tan Zaixi, 1984, 144). Specifically speaking, as far as Nida is concerned, when doing a translation task, the translator needs to transform the original text from the surface structure to the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure on the basis of grammatical and semantic analysis, and then translate the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally from the deep structure of the target text to the surface structure of the target text. After the translation is done, the translator needs to re-examine and test the translation.(Peng Changjiang, 2017: 09)
Skopos theory, however, unlike the Functional Equivalence Theory, it does not put forward specific translation procedures. The Skopos theory does not give detailed guidelines for the translation of words, phrases, paragraphs and texts, but it do gives some guidance to the translator from the macro perspective, giving the translator more autonomy to do translation and enabling them freely translate a text.

'''III.My Thoughts on the Two Theories'''

'''3.1. My thought on Functional Equivalence Theory'''

'''3.1.1. Strengths and Contributions of Functional Equivalence Theory'''

Firstly, the Functional Equivalence Theory brings modern linguistics, communication studies, information theory, semiotics and aesthetics into the field of translation. From the macro perspective, it breaks through the limitations of the traditional thoughts on translation and provides a new perspective for translation research. It studies translation in a more detailed way from multiple perspectives, applies new thoughts, concepts and methods to translation studies, and provides many new methods for translation research. Besides, it also lays a solid foundation for modern translation studies.

Secondly, it must be emphasized that, Functional Equivalence Theory has given many constructive suggestions to translators. From a micro perspective, Functional Equivalence Theory has solved the long-standing dispute between literal translation and liberal translation. It requires the translator use the target language to reproduce the meaning of the source language as fully as possible in different language structures, thus both breaking the restrictions of traditional word-for-word translation and limiting the free and random play of the translator. To some extent, Functional Equivalence Theory has greatly promoted the translation of some types of literary works, such as the translation of prose, help avoiding the creation of many pseudo--translation and translationese cases. At the same time, it eases the argument of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of language and culture, and seeks the balance point of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of multiple disciplines.

Thirdly, Functional Equivalence Theory provides with the target readers a chance to know other country’s culture in their own language. Traditionally, translation is to transform the original language that are different from ours into the familiar language that we use. It can let the people who have not learned a foreign language also understand and appreciate the message under some phrases written in a foreign language. For example, if one has no common sense in English, he will regard “a piece of cake” as “一块蛋糕”. This example reflects the culture gap between the people of two countries. Good translation is one that overcomes these culture gaps and turn them into what the target readers is familiar with. So, it is better for the translator use the Functional Equivalence Theory to translate “a piece of cake” with the well-known Chinese proverb “小菜一碟” .

'''3.1.2. Deficiency of Functional Equivalence Theory'''

Although Functional Equivalence Theory has made many contributions to the translation studies, it is not without its deficiencies. Here I list three disadvantages of it.

First, Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory is concluded from the translation of the ''Bible''. It is, in fact, cannot be a guideline for all kinds of translation. For example, some texts, including some articles with profound historic significance and cultural characteristics, some scientific articles, some lyrical articles, movie subtitles, government reports, actually need different translation standards. Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate fields, but it is not universal or omnipotent rule. Though, in fact, there is nothing omnipotent and flawless in the world. Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate area. If it is used in the right place, it can help the translator present a more brilliant translation.
Second, the Functional Equivalence Theory requires the target text to be written in a “common language”, which should be understood by the less educated readers and accepted by the readers with high literacy, but this turns out to be very difficult to achieve in practice. It can be said that the requirements of this theory are way too demanding. Although this is a goal worth pursuing, it is nearly impossible to achieve, as even in the same country, different knowledge levels, different regional cultures and even different life experiences will lead to different understanding abilities.

In addition, Nida also ignores an important thing, that is, culture is very complex. The generation, evolution and creation of each nation and its culture are different from each other. Some cultural images in foreign works may be something the other country’s readers have never seen and cannot understand. In translation process, it is certainly ideal if the translator can find a corresponding cultural object in the target culture. But at most of times, it is in fact very difficult for the translator to find such a substitute. This makes the so called “functional equivalence” very difficult to achieve, and even show its loopholes -- which is also a difficulty in translation process -- it is usually difficult for translators to translate and explain certain words with special cultural meanings. In fact, the differences between different cultures are absolute and inevitable, while the similarities are rare and precious. For example, in order to avoid the danger and inauspicious emotions of the word “red” in western culture, some British translators translate the original title of the book 《红楼梦》 into “''The Story of the Stone''”. This kind of translation, however, fails to transmit the message of a rich, luxurious, dreamy life hidden in the original book name, let alone bring the western readers the same response.

'''3.1.3. My Point of View towards Functional Equivalence Theory'''

The great influence of Functional Equivalence Theory on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not a universal theory. The advantages and disadvantages of the theory of functional equivalence should be treated in a dialectical way. Functional Equivalence Theory is the product of a particular historical period, and it may have some inconsistencies with contemporary translation theories. Therefore, we should take a comprehensive view of Nida’s translation theory. On the whole, Nida’s translation thought can be regarded as a bright gem in the treasure house of western translation studies.

'''3.2. My thoughts on Skopos Theory'''

'''3.2.1. Strengths and Contributions of Skopos Theory'''

Skopos theory has many advantages. First of all, as a major breakthrough in the study of contemporary western translation theory, Skopos theory breaks the limitations of Functional Equivalence Theory at the linguistic level and puts forward a translation standard dominated by skopos principle. Skopos theory provides the translator with another perspective in translation practice, which is more conducive to the choice of translation strategies.

Secondly, Skopos theory focuses on the requirements of the translation client, points out the influence of the client on the translation process, and breaks the limitation of traditional translation theory, which only takes the original author, the translator and the target reader into consideration. From this perspective, Skopos theory can be called a real breakthrough in the history of translation studies.

Thirdly, Skopos theory emphasizes the initiative and participation of the translator, and holds that the original text mainly plays the role of providing information. Therefore, it shifts the focus of translation from faithful reproducing the source text to the creation of the translation. It overthrows the central position of the original text and establishes the central position of the target text and the translator, which gives all translation learners and researchers a new insight towards translation studies.

Finally, Skopos theory further studies the development of translation from the perspective of culture. From the perspective of Skopos theory, translation is a kind of cultural comparison and a kind of cross-cultural communication in a certain cultural context, which benefits the target readers a lot.

'''3.2.2. Deficiency of Skopos Theory'''

However, all thing is not perfect, Skopos theory is no exception, of course.

Firstly, Skopos theory allows the translator to rewrite the original text to a certain extent, but it does not indicate the extent to which the translator can rewrite the original text. It gives the translator too much freedom, which may let the translator easily translate the source text out of its context. Besides, the original meaning and usage of the source text may be distorted if the translator unscrupulously use every means in order to achieve the so-called “purpose of translation”. Accordingly, the translator will fall into the whirlpool of random translation, which may violate the intention of the original text.

Secondly, the Skopos theory overemphasizes the purpose of translation, the purpose of the translator and the purpose of the target language, so that the translator may easily change or omit many stylistic features of the original text in the target text. This makes it not suitable for some styles of text, such as poems. Because if a translator translates a poem into a prose or a descriptive passages out of the purpose of the translation client, he or she may be better said to rewrite or recreate something than translate. After all, translation is based on the original text, otherwise it cannot be called translation.

Last but not least, there are tens of thousands of readers. To meet the needs of different people, a translation must adopt multiple standards. When there are contradictions among various standards, the translator will be at a loss and the multiple standards will be equal to no standards. For example, if a translator receives the mission of the translation client that he should translate a song faithfully but also retain the beauty of the original text for both the children and adults to appreciate it, then the translator may feel hard to do the translation task with the three contradictory translation requirements.

'''3.2.3. My Point of View towards Skopos Theory'''

There are more or less deficiencies in every translation theory, and Skopos theory is no exception. To some extent, the shortcomings of Skopos theory mentioned above are also a major feature of it. It is this distinctive theoretical feature that can make it stand out in many translation theories and attract the attention of many scholars and translation enthusiasts. The author believes that the contribution of Skopos theory to the development of translation theory and its guiding significance in translation practice is far greater than its shortcomings and deficiencies. People should treat it with a more objective and rational attitude and let it play its due role in the field of translation. Generally speaking, the Skopos theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is regarded as a major theoretical breakthrough in the study of western translation theory, and it also plays an important role in guiding the successful translation practice.

'''IV.Conclusion'''

Through the above comparison, we find that both Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory have their own advantages and disadvantages, and their differences are greater than their similarities. Functional equivalence pays attention to the equivalence between the form and content of the translation and the original text as well as the reader’s response. Skopos theory can solve some problems that can not be solved by Functional Equivalence Theory and widen the research perspective of translation theory, which is to some extent the inheritance and development of Functional Equivalence Theory. The scope of application of the two is different, but both of them have their own unique excellencies.

Reference books: 《奈达论翻译》by谭载喜&《西方翻译理论通史》by刘军平

Bibliography：

[1] Eugene A. Nida. ''Toward a Science of Translating'' [M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.

[2] Eugene A. Nida, Charles Taber. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' [M]. Leiden: the Netherlands, E. J. Brill, 1969.

[3] Hans Vermeer. ''Framework for a General Translation Theory'' [M] ,1978.

[4]谭载喜.奈达论翻译 [M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司,1984.

[5]刘军平.西方翻译理论通史 [M].武汉：武汉大学出版社,2009.9.

[6]百度百科：功能对等理论

[7]百度百科：翻译目的论

[8]百度百科：目的论的优点与不足

[9]百度百科：功能对等理论的贡献与局限性

[10]彭长江.英汉--汉英翻译教程[M].长沙：湖南师范大学出版社，2017.8.

[11]百度百科：功能对等理论与目的论的比较

=='''Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory'''==

'''摘要'''

近几十年来，翻译理论层出不穷，翻译理论也带有多元化倾向。奈达从语言学的角度出发，根据翻译的本质，提出了功能对等理论，在这一理论中，他指出“翻译是用最恰当、自然和对等的语言从语义到文体再现源语的信息”。功能主义目的论的代表人物弗米尔认为翻译是一项有目的的活动，并且以实现译文的预期功能和效果为首要原则。
这两种理论都是具有较大影响力的西方翻译理论。它们在不同的时期由不同流派提出，本文着重分析两大理论在理论基础、翻译标准、文化观等层面上的差异性，并分析其相似性。通过对这两种理论的共性和差异进行比较，旨在加深我们对这两种貌似神离的翻译理论的认识与了解，让我们在不同的领域中能恰当地使用这两种翻译理论,更好地发挥各自的指导作用。

'''关键词'''

功能对等；目的论；差异性；相似性

'''Abstract'''

In recent decades, translation theories have emerged in an endless stream, and translation theories have a tendency to diversify. From the perspective of linguistics, Eugene Nida puts forward the theory of functional equivalence according to the nature of translation. In this theory, he points out that "Translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style". While one of the representatives of functionalist skopos theory, Hans J. Vermeer, considers that translation is a purposeful activity, taking the realization of the target text’s intended function as its first principle.
These two theories have great influence in western translation theories. They are proposed by different schools in different periods. This paper will focus on the differences between these two theories in terms of theoretical basis, translation standards, and cultural direction, and then analyze their similarities. By comparing the differences and similarities between the two theories, it will deepen our understanding of these two translation theories so that we can properly use them in different fields, thus better playing their respective guiding roles.

'''Key words'''
Functional Equivalence; Skopos Theory; comparison

'''Introduction'''

'''Research background'''

Contemporary western translation theories are flourishing, providing a new perspective for translation studies. In the 1960s, Eugene A. Nida proposed a translation theory based on reader response, namely "functional equivalence theory". With the development of the times, people have further understanding of the complex phenomenon of translation. The theory of equivalence sets the translation within the scope of the language level. However, the essence of translation is not only the conversion of pure language, but also the communication between different cultures based on language form. In the 1970s, translation studies oriented to the target language culture appeared in the West, breaking the traditional translation theory of textual centralism, which made the translator pay more attention to the translation and the target language receivers, the social and communicative functions of the translation. The German functionalist translation theory got rid of the shackles of the equivalence theory that prevailed at that time, broadened the field of translation theory research.

'''Significance of the study'''

By comparing the differences and similarities of these two translation theory, it can deepen our understanding of them. Therefore, when we do translation, we can choose the most appropriate translation theory to guide us to translate according to the specific situation. So it is very necessary to make a comparison between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.

'''Layout of this chapter'''

This thesis will be divided into three chapters. In the first chapter, a brief introduction of functional equivalence will be presented, such as the definition of functional equivalence, and its four criteria: conveying information; conveying the spirit and style of the original work; fluent language; and similar reader response. The second chapter involves three parts, that is, the development of skopos theory; the definition of skopos theory and the three rules of skopos theory. The final chapter falls into two part: the differences and similarities between these two theories.

'''1. A brief introduction of Functional equivalence theory'''

'''1.1 The definition of functional equivalence theory'''

Functional equivalence theory is the core of the famous American translator Eugene Nida’s translation theory. It attaches great importance to the response of the target language receivers, that is, the target language receiver and the source language receiver produce the same viewing response. He holds that translation should not only ensure the correctness of information exchange and achieve information equivalence in lexical sense, but also take into account the cultural background and behavioral patterns of the target language receiver and achieve information equivalence in style, semantics and other aspects in the process of translation, that is, to achieve functional equivalence of language. In the process of translation, we should not only consider the formal factors such as vocabulary and grammar, but also pay attention to the linguistic factors such as context, culture and social background, which are very important to translation. Nida’s definition of translation indicates that translation is not only equivalence in lexical sense, but also equivalence in semantics, text and style. The information conveyed by translation includes both surface lexical information and deep cultural information. This kind of “dynamic equivalence” includes four aspects: 1. lexical equivalence；2. syntactic equivalence；3. textual equivalence；4. stylistic equivalence. Among these four aspects, Nida believes that “meaning is the most important and form is the second”(张春柏，1998：50).

'''1.2 The criteria of functional equivalence theory'''

Nida’s functional equivalence translation theory has four criteria (Nida, 2001:117):

'''1.2.1 Conveying information'''

The “information” includes all kinds of information conveyed by the original language: semantics, style, literary image, scene and psychological effect. In the theory of functional equivalence, the criterion of “conveying information” means that the target language information conveyed by the translator to the target language receiver should be basically the same as the original text information conveyed by the original author to the target language receiver.

Example: “presidential historian...”

“总统的史学家......”

It is not clear that the message conveyed by “presidential historian” to Chinese readers is not the same as that conveyed by “presidential historian” to English readers. However, according to Nida’s functional equivalence theory, the translator translates it into “研究总统的历史学家” by adding words, so that Chinese readers can correctly understand the true meaning of “presidential historian” in the original text.

'''1.2.2 Conveying the spirit and style of the original work'''

From Nida’s point of view, translation is to reproduce the original text in the most natural way in the target language, first of all, meaning, then spiritual style, so that the receivers of the translated text can produce basically the same psychological response as the receivers of the original text.

Example:“来吧，朋友!”

It is a column broadcast by CCTV. If translated into “come on, friends!”, it seems to be close to the original in form, as a column is not solemn enough. And “solemnity” is the style of “来吧，朋友！”in the original Chinese text, which should be reproduced in the translation. Therefore, “A time to make friends” is quite different from the original Chinese in form, but it accurately conveys the spiritual style of the original to the target readers.

'''1.2.3 Fluent language: fully in line with the norms and conventions of the target language'''

This criterion means that, on the premise of conveying the information and spiritual style of the original text, the process of translation should not be constrained by the linguistic form and structure of the original text, and should grasp the connotation and spirit of the original text.

Example：“车来了！”

“Here comes the car / truck / bus / minibus / lorry / taxi!”
In Chinese, the category word “car” is used to replace any form of vehicle. But this method is not found in English. On the contrary, English is accustomed to using specific vocabulary. Therefore, when translating similar Chinese into English, it is necessary to make clear the means of transportation and to translate the specific means of transportation according to the habits of English expression. If you cross the street, remind your peers to say “车来了！”You should translate it into “Be careful!” according to English expression habits, so that English readers can really understand the meaning of the original text.

'''1.2.4 Similar reader responses'''

The first two standards focus on the transmission of linguistic information, content and style, while the latter two focus on the acceptability of the translation to the audience：The relationship between the target reader and the target text should be basically the same as that between the original reader and the target text, so as to achieve the spiritual fit between the translator and the original author, thus enabling the target reader to get the same feelings as the original reader.
Example: “as white as snow.”

It can sometimes be translated into “very white” because people in the translated culture may not know what snow is. We can also translate “to grow like mushroom” into “如雨后春笋般地成长起来”, because “mushroom” means exactly the same in English as“春笋”in Chinese.

'''Ⅱ. A brief introduction of Skopos theory'''

Skopos theory is the core concept of German functionalist theory, which is put forward by Hans. J. Vermeer. Skopos theory holds that the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies that are to be employed. Vermeer thinks that translators should follow three basic rules in the process of their translation, which are respectively skopos theory, coherence theory and fidelity theory.

'''2.1 The development of Skopos theory'''

Before the 1970s, the focus of translation studies was equivalence. In fact, this kind of equivalence was hard to achieve because the differences between cultures are hard to eliminate. In order to solve this problem, translation theorists put forward new theories, using functional and communicative methods to study translation. In this context, functionalist skopos theory continues to develop, and boldly shakes off the bondage of equivalence, taking the skopos as the general principle. So translation is examined in the framework of behavioral theory and intercultural communication, which opens a new path for the world translation theories, including the Chinese translation (Li Changshuan, 2009:11). The development of skopos theory has experienced the following four stages:

The first stage: Katharina Reiss firstly introduced the concept of equivalence into translation criticism, proposing the prototype of functionalist theory. On the one hand, Reiss still insisted on the equivalence theory with the original text as the center, and pointed out that the ideal translation should be equivalent to the original text from the conceptual content, language form and communicative function. She believed that the ideal translation should be comprehensive communicative translation. On the other hand, Reiss also realized that some equivalence is impossible. For example, the translation and the original text have different functions. In this case, Reiss believes that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the translation rather than the equivalence principle (Zhang Jinglan, 2004:1). Reiss's research laid the foundation for skopos theory.

The second stage: Reiss’s student Hans J. Vermeer proposed skopos theory, taking the skopos of the translation as the paramount principle during the process of translation. Vermeer believed that translation is a kind of human behavior, and any kind of human behavior is purposeful, so the purpose of translation should be determined before the translation begins. Vermeer thinks that translation should be based on the original text, and translation is a purposeful behavior that must be completed by negotiation. In addition, translation must follow three basic rules, of which the skopos rule is the most important. After these three rules are put forward, the criteria for judging the good or bad translation are no longer “equivalence”, but whether the translation fully achieves the expected goal of translation or not.

The third stage: Based on communication theory and action theory, Holz-Manttari proposed translational action. Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer (Jeremy Munday, 2001:77). Translation is a communicative process involving a series of roles and players Manttari regards text as a pure tool for achieving communicative function, and believes that its inherent value is completely subordinate to its purpose. The translator only needs to be responsible for the purpose environment, and the target text can be completely independent of the original text, thus further developing the functionalist translation theory.

The fourth stage: Christane Nord comprehensively summarized and perfected the functionalist theory. Nord proposed the principle of "function plus loyalty", which systematically elucidates the internal and external factors that need to be considered in text analysis of translation, and how to formulate a translation strategy that is consistent with the purpose of translation based on the original text.

'''2.2 The definition of skopos'''

Skopos theory was originally put forward by the German scholar Han J. Vermeer in 1978. “Skopos is a Greek word for 'aim' or 'purpose' and was introduced into translation theory by Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and of the action of translating”(Munday, 2001: 78). Translation actions have many purposes, but Vermeer divides them into three categories: translator’s basic purpose, such as make a living; the target text’s communicative purpose, like enlightening the readers; and the purpose realized by selecting some special translation strategies or steps, for example, translating one language word by word aims to show the structure feature of this language. Generally speaking, the skopos theory refers to the communicative purpose of the source text.

'''2.3 Three basic rules of skopos theory'''

In this part, a detailed analysis of these rules will be presented with examples.

'''2.3.1 The skopos rule'''

In the three rules of Skopos theory, Skopos theory is the prime principle to be followed in any translation. Vermeer explains this rule as follows:

''Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.''(Vermeer, 1988:20)

Therefore, skopos theory believes that any translation action is determined by the purpose of the translation. That is to say, “The ends justify the means” (Reiss &Vermeer, 1984:101) the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies.

Example: I wear nothing but a few drops of Channel No.5

无限芬芳的超脱，点滴即可创造。

If using the literal translation, this sentence can be translated as “我什么都不穿，除了滴几滴香奈儿五号”. However, this kind of translation extremely lacks of beauty and there is no more elegance. Considering that the ultimate goal of advertisement is to induce consumers to buy the products and services it promotes. This advertisement adopts free translation and combines with Chinese traditional culture, which makes it like a ancient poem with quaint charm. It not only expresses the meaning of the advertisement, but also injects the characteristics of art, thus letting Channel No.s full of magic. It satisfies some people's pursuit high quality of life, and also makes consumers deeply impressed. So it can be called a successful translation.

'''2.3.2 The coherence rule'''

Coherence rule is also called intratextual coherence rule. It holds that the translated text must be coherent, readable and acceptable. In other words, the TT receivers can understand the TT according to their cultural and intellectual background. Any text is a provider of information and functions, but the information and functions are not always obvious from a linguistic point of view. The translator selects aspects and components that serve the purpose according to the skopos rule, and then translates the source text through language processing to make the translated text become a new information provider. In the language processing process, translators must be concerned that translation is readable and understandable in the translated language. Only the translation is meaningful in the communicative context of the TL receivers can the culture and information of the source text be effectively transmitted to the target language readers.

Example: Enchanting medieval house with five acres of delightful gardens.

这里是迷人的中世纪住宅，外有五英亩的美丽花园。

This is a part of the travel propaganda. In order to ensure that translation is smooth and coherent, the original prepositional phrase is changed into a complete sentence with a subject-predicate structure, which doesn’t make the relationship among sentences appear loose.

'''2.3.3 The fidelity rule'''

Fidelity rule is also called inter-textual coherence and states that there must be coherence between the ST and the TT. It is similar to the “faithfulness” of Yan Fu’s theory. Fidelity rule maintains the status of the original text and constrains translation actions of different translation purpose. However, the concept of Fidelity rule is relative. The form and degree of faithfulness is determined by the purpose of translation and the translators’ understanding of the original text.

Example: Free entry into farm, Dogs on lead.

OPEN DAILY: 1 March--30 November 10:00 am--5:00 pm

农场免费进入，宠物狗请带好狗绳。

开放时间：3月1日--11月30日上午10点--下午五点

The time, place and various precautions in the travel text are very important, because the error of this kind of information will bring unnecessary trouble to the tourists. Therefore, the translation, according to the fidelity rule, faithfully and effectively conveys the original information to the reader for the purpose of facilitating the tourists.

There exists a hierarchical order of these rules. The skopos rule is the most important one and other two rules are subordinate to it. At the same time, the fidelity rule is also subordinate to the coherence rule.

'''Ⅲ. Comparative study on Nida's functional equivalence theory and functionalist skopos theory'''

This chapter will mainly discuss the differences and similarities between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.

'''3.1 The differences'''

'''3.1.1 Different theoretical basis'''

The early equivalence theory was directly influenced by American structuralist linguistics and human linguistics. Later, Nida combined translation studies with the syntactic structure analysis method, semantic component analysis method and Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar that were popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, took structural analysis of language expressions and translation procedures, and injected fresh blood into translation studies (Chen Gang, 2011: 145). Using communication theory and cross-cultural content as the starting point, Nida revised Chomsky's deep transfermation grammar, paid attention to the psychology of information receivers, and stimulated the potential of information receivers as .much as possible.

German skopos theory is an emerging school in the late 1970s. It criticizes that the translation theory based on linguistic school pays much attention to form, and is developed on the basis of communication theory, information theory, behavior theory, discourse linguistics, and text theory. Based on the behavior theory, Skopos theory proposes the concept of translation action, which extends translation to a new field. That is to say, translation is a kind of purposeful and conscious intercultural communication action of human. As the name suggests, Skopos theory regards translation activities as a kind of "action", and any action has its goals or skopos. One of the representatives of the skopos theory, Hans J. Vermeer, summarizes the essence of skopos theory in a concise language: the ends justify the means, that is, the purpose of translation determines the translation process.

'''3.1.2 Different translation principles and standards'''

Nida's functional equivalence refers to “the closest natural equivalence to the source language information”. “Natural” here means that the translation must conform to the language and culture of the target language, in line with the context and the requirements of the target receivers. "Equivalence" here, he clearly stated that it is not "equivalence" in mathematics, but "approximation", that is, the approximation of functional equivalence from varying degrees. From the above Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory, the translator must conform to four criteria in order to achieve "close and natural equivalence": (1) conveying meaning; (2) conveying the spirit and style of the original work; (3) fluent; (4) similar reader responses. In order to achieve these four standards, there will be contradictions between content and form from time to time. It is either the content giving way to form, or the form giving way to content. The two form a unified whole.

Skopos theory advocates that translation should follow three rules: the skopos rule, the coherence rule and the fidelity rule, of which the skopos rule is the highest principle. The main purpose is to make the translation achieve the expected function of the target language receivers in the target language environment. In addition to the highest principle, the translation must follow the coherence rule and the fidelity rule. The former requires the translation to be "coherent within the text," that is, the translation needs to meet the communication context and cultural background of the target language so that the target reader can understand. The latter requires the translation to be coherent between the ST and the TT. That is, the translation should try to imitate the original text, whether it is formal imitation or content imitation is permissible, which depends on the purpose of the translation. The latter two rules are subordinate to the highest rule-- the skopos rule.

But this also makes the translation theorists produce questions. Is the translator free to do anything for the purpose? Then Nord put forward the theory of “function plus loyalty”. Nord believes that "there is no translation without the original text", and free rewriting does not belong to translation; "Translators should be responsible for both the original text and the translation environment, and be responsible for both the sender of the original information and the recipient of the translation." This responsibility of the translator is "loyalty"(Zhang Meifang, 2005:60-65). The principle of "function plus loyalty" avoids the skopos theory to go to extremes, and complements skopos theory, highlighting the responsibility of translators, and limiting the translator's freedom. Because the skopos theory believes that the success of the translation is judged by whether the expected purpose of the source text is realized or not, and the expectation also reflects the requirements of the target language reader. Since the target language readers reflect differently, so the translation standard of the skopos theory is also diversified.

'''3.1.3 Different cultural directions'''

Nida tried to overcome the cultural difference and eliminate the cultural atmosphere in the source text. His theory is mainly oriented to the original text. That is, the source language culture, emphasizing the consistency of cultural environment between the source language and the target language. At the same time, Nida is a support of language commonality. His theory reflects the translation thought of structuralist linguistics, that is, the "mirror reflection" of the objective world and the universality of language expression. The translators’ full imitation and the independence of express the value of their culture, especially the cultural consistency of the target language culture and the source language culture.

Vermeer regards translation as a purposeful action, firstly in its outcome, that is, the target text. The target text is oriented towards the target culture, and the target culture determines the suitability of the target text. Therefore, Skopos theory believes that Translation is an irreversible transmission of information to the source language culture or language in the target culture. There is no intermediate position, it is intercultural communication action, and it is communicative and cultural. In addition, Skopos theory is oriented to the context of macro-postmodern culture, especially the habits, traditions and norms of the target language culture (Fan Derui, 2019:67).

'''3.2 The Similarities'''

'''3.2.1 Both are a combination of translation and language function'''

The skopos theory represented by Hans J. Vermeer and Christane Nord, and the functional equivalence theory of Nida are put forward by different schools in different periods, but there are still many internal connections and intercommunity. There is no doubt that both have their rationality of existence and show progress in their translation activities of their respective periods. Whether it is "skopos theory" or "functional equivalence theory", both their ultimate goals are to achieve smooth communication between different languages and reduce misunderstandings and conflicts arising from information exchange. In particular, both combine translation with language functions, focusing on the role of language functions in translation. Skopos theorists believe that translation is a purposeful communicative activity, and the translation process is determined by the expected function or purpose of the translation. This purpose is to a great extent influenced by the target receivers and the context and cultural background of the target receivers. Therefore, the translator should decide the choice of the original text information, the use of the translation strategy and the expression of the translation according to the requirements of the clients, combined with the purpose of the translation and the specific situation of the target receivers

Nida also put forward the translation principle of functional equivalence from the perspective of language function, and also combines translation with language functions. He pointed out that due to the differences in language and culture, it is impossible for translation to obtain the formal equivalence between the source text and the target text, but only functional equivalence. Although the expressions of various languages are different, they have the same expressive power and have the same or similar language functions, that is, expressive, cognitive, interpersonal, informative, imperative, empathetic, sympathetic, empathy and aesthetic function. If the translation of these aspects is basically the same, then the functional equivalence of translation is achieved. According to this, he put forward that "the preservation of the original content must change the form, the degree of change, and must depend on different languages in the distance between language and cultural." In order to produce efficacy, the adjustment of the translation from form to content is the specific application of functional ideas. However, Nida did not develop further in the direction of functionalism, but still focused on the concept of equivalence. Therefore, his theory is fundamentally different from the views of the German functional translation school.

'''3.2.2 Both emphasize the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.'''

Vermeer believes that the recipients of the translation, that is, the readers, as an important part of the translation requirements, is one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of translation; the target language receivers is the recipient or listener of the translated text with the knowledge, expectation and communication needs of his own specific culture world. Translation is the text in the environment of the target language produced for the purpose of the target language and the reader of the target language in the context of the target language. In addition, the coherence rule of skopos theory emphasizes that the translation must meet the criteria of "coherence within the text" that is, only the text is fully understood by the recipient can they make sense. It can be seen that the skopos theory emphasizes the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.

Nida's functional equivalence theory is also readers-oriented. Nida believes that the research object of translation is the reader; the recipient is not a passive target of language communication, but an active participant in communicative activities. The reader's response is the only criterion for judging the quality of the translation. Therefore, the translation must be fluent and understandable. In order to achieve the intelligibility of the translation, it is even possible to delete parts that the reader cannot understand, such as metaphors.

'''Conclusion'''

By comparatively analyzing Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory and the German functionalist skopos theory, skopos theory critically inherited the rational factors of Nida's functional equivalence theory, and abandoned its irrational part. Skopos theory gets rid of the shackles of equivalence theory, breaking the traditional perspective of single translation studies, turning attention to the study of other relevant factors in translation activities other than language. Skopos theory broke through the framework of equivalence translation theory, and proposed a theoretical system of diversification of translation standards led by the skopos rule. The diversification of translation standards makes the function closer to reality. This is clearly more scientific, more operative and more versatile than Nida's theory that takes functional equivalence as the sole criterion. Moreover, compared with the traditional language translation theory that emphasizes the internal study of translation, Skopos theory denies that translation is a simple language conversion, and pays more attention to the external of translation. Compared with Nida, Skopos theory are more concerned with the humanity and sociality of translation activities. In addition, the Skopos theory shifts the focus of translation from the reproduction of the original text to the more challenging creation of target text, which enhances the active participation of the translator as the main body of the translation, overturning the center status of the original text, and establishing the central status of the target text and the translator. The functionalist skopos theory puts translation in a dynamic cultural context, emphasizing the translator's active intervention. Therefore, it solves some problems that the functional equivalence theory fails to solve, broadens the research perspective of traditional translation theory, is a major breakthrough and important supplement to the functional equivalence theory, and erects a distinctive flag in modern translation theory.

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=='''On the Comparison between "Sublimation" an "Functional Equivalence" Theories'''==

'''Abstract''': Qian Zhongshu and Eugene Nida are outstanding and renowned translators in the history of Chinese and Western translation respectively. It is believed that Mr.Qian’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” theories have a broad and profound impact on Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will recognize the theoretical value of these two theories from the dialectical point of view by comparing the similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”. It aims to better apply translation theory to translation practice, and advocate us to view Chinese and Western translation theories from a historical and contradictory perspective, and thus making Translation Studies become more systematic and scientific.

'''Key words''': sublimation; functional equivalence; Qian Zhongshu; Eugene Nida

'''Introduction''':
As a famous master of literature, translation and academy, Qian Zhongshu is considered as “the Kunlun Mountain of culture” by many scholars on account of his remarkable achievements and a wide range of knowledge. His literary masterpieces include “Pipe-awl Chapters” , “Discourses on Art”, “Seven Patches”, “Selected Essays of Qian Zhongshu”, “Fortress Besieged” and so on. What’s more, he proposed “Sublimation” theory in translation field, which does great contribution to traditional Chinese translation theory and make Translation Studies more systematic. As Chinese scholar Chen Fukang said: “He (Qian) has made a great many outstanding achievements in some important fields like literature and academic research. Although the discussion on translation is only a carved railing in his academic palace, it can have a huge impact in the field of translation studies.” (Chen Fukang 2000: 417).

Eugene Nida is a famous American contemporary linguist and translation theorist. He has been devoted to the translation of the Bible and has summarized a set of translation theories from his own translation practice. The core point of his translation theory is “Functional Equivalence” (initially called “Dynamic Equivalence”). From his point of view, “Functional Equivalence” is to refer to the type of equivalent reflected in a TT which seeks to adapt the function of the original to suit the specific context in and for which it was produced” (Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004: 64). It requires that the translation should focus on the meaning and spirit of the original text, instead of being constrained by formal correspondence. According to this theory, he deems that the translation must have four criteria: (1) conveying meaning; (2) expressing spirit; (3) natural and smooth wording; (4) similar receptor response. In his book “From one language to another”, he replaced “Dynamic Equivalence” with “Functional Equivalence” and put forward two levels of meaning, say, referential meaning and associative meaning.

'''1.The theoretical origin of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''

'''1.1 The theoretical origin of “Sublimation”'''

The idea of Qian Zhongshu’s translation theory of “Sublimation” comes from his book “Lin Shu's Translation” written in 1963 and “The Pipe-awl Chapters” published by Zhonghua Book Company in 1979. He proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. Then he pointed out: “The highest ideal of literary translation is ‘sublimation’. When you translate the literary works from one language to another, you can not only avoid the trace of stiffness and awkward expressions resulting from the different habits of language use, but also completely preserve the flavor of the original. Then we can say, that's the realization of ‘Sublimation’ ” (Qian Zhongshu, 2002: 77). According to his explanation, it can be easily seen that the core of his translation theory is “Sublimation”. What’s more, we can extract 3 levels of “Hua” (Sublimation) from his theory, the first is to transform the source text to target text, and then use the domesticating method to make the source language be naturally and smoothly expressed in target language without any transparent feeling of translation caused by the differences of culture and language. Finally, it is the ultimate goal of “Sublimation” that is to say, “the transmigration of souls”, replacing the external shell and retaining the inner spirit and style without the slightest deviation. In other words, a translation should cleave to the original with such fidelity that it would not read like a translation, for a literature work in its own language will never read as though it were through a process of translation (Kao, 1975: 8-9).

'''1.2 The theoretical origin of “Functional Equivalence”'''
Nida first proposed the concept of dynamic equivalence in the 1964 book “Toward s Science of Translating”. He believed that there were two kinds of equivalence in translation, namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Specifically, formal equivalence is the “quality of a translation in which the features of the form of the source text have been mechanically reproduced in the receptor language”. On the contrary, dynamic equivalence is the quality which characterizes a translation in which “the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors” (Nida & Taber, 1982: 200-201). Nida’s translation theory has its origin from his own translation practice of the Bible, in which he emphasized the communicative function of translation from the perspective of semantics and information theory. What's more, he regarded translation as interlingual translation, and he stressed the importance of paying attention to the receptors' response, in order to pursue the standard that target readers could have the same response as the original readers. In his book “From one language to another”, he changed the term “Dynamic Equivalence” to “Functional Equivalence” and he emphasized that we should try to achieve formal equivalence on the basis of the accordant information conveyed from the source text to the target language. In addition, he divided the translation process into three steps, say, “analysis, transfer, restructuring and check”. Through these four steps, the original information can be accurately conveyed, the response of the target receptors is also concerned, and the purpose of communication will be well achieved.

'''2.Similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''

'''2.1 Similarities between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''

(1) The same concern for the translation processes: As we mentioned above, Mr. Qian Zhongshu proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. To put them specifically, “enticement” refers to the role that plays in cultural exchanges by means of translation. In this sense, translation can be regarded as a guide that will lead target readers to understand the original language and culture and to better understand foreign excellent works. This process is of great significance because If the readers have little interest in the source language culture and foreign literature; then the translation works will lose its value. So we can say that translation is not only a conversion of two languages, but also a collision between different cultures and thoughts. The so-called term “Misinformation” refers to the distortion and wrong expression of the translation. Since “Misinformation” is the inevitable shortcoming of translation, no matter how excellent a translator is and no matter how smooth his translations are, he can not avoid making mistakes of one sort or another in one way or another, but he can exhaust every means to reduce misinformation to its minimum (Yu Chengfa,2003: 43). This is due to the gap between different languages, the gap between the translator's understanding, the style of writing and the form of original content, and even the gap between the translator's comprehension and his ability of expression. The final step is called “Hua Jing”; here “Hua” means “Sublimation”,which is the highest ideal of literary translation and also the ultimate goal of translation processes. A translator should try to figure out what the original writer means and ponder over what he imagines so so to immerge oneself with the writer(Luo Xinzhang, 1984: 511). Qian Zhongshu's explanation of the process of translation is the essential condition for the realization of “Sublimation” (Hua). Therefore, when doing translation practice, the translator has to make each step be well prepared, which requires a high standard of the translator's ability and quality.

Similarly, based on the theory of “functional equivalence”, Nida proposed a “four-step model” of the translation process from the perspective of linguistics, namely, “Analysis, Transfer, Restructuring and Check”. Nida and Taber claim that all languages have between six and a dozen basic kernel structures and “agree far more on the level of kernels than on the level of more elaborate structures” such as word order. First of all, “Analysis” denotes that we have to analyze the surface structure of the source text and then to master the grammatical meaning of the sentence, in other words, the referential meaning and connotative meaning of the source text. In order to convey the original information correctly, the translator must analyze the text from surface structure to the deep structure. Then, “Transfer”, it means that the translator renders the analyzed source text to the target text. This step contains the conversion of two different language symbols and language forms, and it is also an exchange of different thinking modes. Next, “Restructuring” is the re-processing and re-creation of the original text, in which the translator will translate the original text into the target one that conforms to the expression of the target language, getting rid of the constraints of the surface structure of the original text, thus further excavating the meaning of the deep structure. Restructuring is thus defined as forward translation, or in other words the process which is the reverse of back-transformation (Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004: 145). Last but not least, "Check" refers to the process of comparing the text of the original language with the target language so as to avoid semantic errors in the translation works, and pursue the maximum equivalence between the content of the target text and the content of the original text. Nida and Taber’s own description of the process (1969: 63–9) emphasizes the ‘scientific and practical’ advantages of this method compared to any attempt to draw up a fully comprehensive list of equivalences between specific pairs of SL and TL systems (Jeremy Munday, 2016: 63).

(2)The same concern for the response of the target readers: Since ancient times, the domestic and foreign translators have different opinions on the criteria of excellent translation. Yan Fu proposed his famous three-character guideline, namely, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” in his translation work “Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays”. Similarly, western translator Alexander Fraser Tytler put forward the “Three principles of translation”. To put it simply, that the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; that the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; that the translation should have all the ease of the original composition. From the analysis of Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s description of translation criteria, we can see the fact that the study of the principles and standards of translation is precisely the translator’s emphasis on the target readers, and also reflects the translator’s sense of responsibility for the target culture. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory stressed that translators should guide our readers to read foreign literary works or let our readers be attracted by the foreign culture and introduce foreign writers to them. “Sublimation” is not only a standard for translation, but also a reflection of translators’ care for the target readers. Mr. Qian said: “The translation should be faithful to the original work, so that it does not read like a translation work, because the original work will never be read like a translation in the situation of source culture.” A good translation can stimulate the reader's curiosity about the original work and also give the reader the enjoyment of beauty. What’s more, Mr. Qian also commented the three principles proposed by Yan Fu:

“Faithfulness in translation should include expressiveness and elegance. Expressiveness gives full scope to faithfulness, and elegance is not just to adore expressiveness. To convey the original in the same style---that is faithfulness. ...Many have come to understand that a translation is not supposed to beautify or polish to attain elegance. Yet few have realized that a translation has to give up the words for the spirit. A translation can be intelligible without being faithful to the original, yet can be faithful to the original without being intelligible to the reader.”(Qian Zhongshu, 1986: 1101)

In the meanwhile, Nida deemed that the accuracy of the translation depends on the extent to which the ordinary readers correctly understand the original text, that is, whether the target reader can obtain similar or identical feelings when reading the translation works. The purpose of “functional equivalence” is to satisfy the communication needs of the readers. In order to achieve this goal, we have to change the form of the original text if it is necessary and consider the reader's acceptance of the translation work. Nida's “Functional Equivalence” requires not only the faithfulness to the original text, but also the accountability to the target readers and the original readers. Nida describes various “scientific approaches to meaning” related to work that had been carried out by theorists in semantics and pragmatics. Central to Nida's work is the move away from the old idea that a word has a fixed meaning and towards a functional definition of meaning in which a word acquires meaning through its context and can produce varying responses according to culture.

From what we has discussed above, we can see that both Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” and Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” must take the reader’s reaction into consideration. Therefore, as a standard for translation, these theories avoid mechanical textual equivalence and bilingual conversion, which promotes the development of translation practice.

(3)The Domesticating tendency of the two theories: As we mentioned in the very beginning, Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation”(化) theory has three meanings, namely “Transfer”(转化), “Domesticating”(归化) and “Sublimation”(化境). It can be seen easily that “Domesticating” is a bridge connecting the transformation of source text and the realization of Sublimation in target language. In the book “Seven Patches”, he wrote: “whether the target version is ‘European-oriented’ or ‘Chinese-oriented’, the translation is always based on the language system from the original country to the language system of the target country(2002: 78). Although he did not explicitly state whether the translation should be “domestication-oriented” or “foreignization-oriented”, he compared the translation to the “reincarnation” of the original and regarded that the translation was an “out form” of the original. In addition, he appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, and comments that he would rather read Lin Shu’s translation than read Haggard’s original text. In this way, Mr. Qian Zhongshu seems to prefer the text of “Chinese-oriented” style, which demonstrates the tendency of “Domestication”. In the theory of “Functional Equivalence”, Nida advocates the use of the expression habits of the target language to transform the original text. He believes that language is the means of communication, and communication is the ultimate goal and an important role of translation, so he pays more attention to the receptors' response to the target text. In order to allow the target readers to accept the translation, it is necessary to make the translation correspond to the cultural traditions and language habits of the target language. At the same time, the translator has to make the translation natural and smooth under the premise of ensuring loyalty. Nida's “Domesticating” translation tendency can be seen from the above view. Please look at the following example:

S: “white as snow”

T: “白如木棉花” or “白如鹭毛” or “白如蘑菇”

From the point of view of traditional translation standards, the above example runs counter to the original information. However, for those who have never seen snow will never know what snow is alike, and therefore he can't understand what "white as snow" means. Through the strategy of “Domestication”, the target readers can have a similar response to the original readers, so as to better achieve the purpose of communication.

'''2.2 Differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''

(1) Different theoretical basis: Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory is based on Yan Fu’s criteria of translation “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, which is the development of Chinese traditional translation theory. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory has pushed the study of translation to the extreme of art from the category of aesthetics. Eventually, the “Sublimation” theory was included in the course of the development of Chinese translation thought, say, “Case - Seeking faithfulness - Spiritual likeness - the Sublimation”. These four concepts, are independent, but also interconnected. They developed gradually to constitute a whole translation system and this whole system works as an important part of our traditional translation theory (Luo Xinzhang, 2009: 20).

Nida’s “functional equivalence” was established on the basis of his Bible translation practice. Under the guidance of Chomsky’s transform-generating grammar, Nida’s functional equivalence requires that the translator analyze the given text from the surface structure to the deep structure; then transform it from the deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally adjust the target language structure to obtain the surface structure of the translated version. From a series of steps, we can see that the hierarchical and theoretical property of translation studies, so Nida put forward his opinion that translation could be considered as a science. Qian Zhongshu thought that the translated works could surpass the original works and sometimes even should be much better than the original; while Nida did not choose the advantageous version between the original and the target text- his more emphasis goes to the equivalence between the two languages and the response of the target receptors thus more priorities were given to the communicative function.

(2)Different scopes of their application: “Huajing” (Sublimation) was proposed by Mr. Qian Zhongshu for literary translation standards; hence it may be more appropriate for the translation of literary genre. He considered that translator should “break through” the barriers of cultural differences and make the translation “surpass” the original work. However, it seems unreasonable for the translations of applied styles which relates to politics, economics, law, trade, etc. In addition, some scholars believe that Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation” has over-emphasized the mystery of art and has become a vague standard that could be hard to reach (Gao Huali, 2009: 154). The “highest ideal” of the literary translation he described will inevitably produce the problems of “Misinformation”, which would limit the scope of application of “Sublimation”. Despite the fact that scholars and experts of one generation after another have made their fruitful efforts to shed light on “Sublimation” from various aspects, it remains theoretical unexplainable and practical unattainable, like “an attic, in the air” to many people in the translation circle (Yu Chengfa, 2003: 8)

On the contrary, Nida’s translation of Bible carries religious culture with integrity and solemnity. He preached to people from all walks of life in order to spread the will of God; therefore, his translation must not only meet the needs of the aristocracy, but also the needs of ordinary people who lack knowledge of religious culture. The target readers of the “functional equivalence” theory is the masses from all walks of life in the society, and its range of application is more practical. Nida’s equivalence of translation is derived from the translation practice of the Bible. As we know, western languages have a lot in common in culture and words of expression, so Nida’s “equivalence” is relatively easy to achieve between two European languages. In English-Chinese translation, it may be more difficult to achieve complete “equivalence”, because Chinese and English belong to different language systems, and their cultures are rather divergent. Nida strictly divides the translation steps into four, which can be used as a practical translation method to guide the translation of some scientific and technical articles, announcements, and application articles. For literary genres, such as the translation of poetry and prose, the translator's creativity may be more important. It is difficult to convey the literary nature of the original text by mechanical methods and steps.

'''3.A Critical Understanding of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''

'''3.1 Is “Sublimation” faithful ?'''

According to traditional translation theory, the translator is always regarded as the "servant" of both the original and the translated text. He must be faithful to the original author while concerning the target readers. Xu Jun (2003: 321) wrote in his book “On Translation”: “Three points are often emphasized in traditional translation theory: first of all, translators should not incorporate their own subjective thoughts in translation; then they should not express their individuality in translation; in the end, translators should render the text on the basis of original message, and loyally follow the thoughts of the original writer. From the analysis of Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory, it is clear to see that he is more inclined to the translation strategy of “Domestication”, which emphasizes that the target version can surpass the source text. He, himself appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, because of their common advocacy and similar historical background. From the point of view of historical materialism, “social existence determines social consciousness, and social consciousness has an adverse effect on social existence.” For example, Lin Shu was living in a closed country and at that time , Qing Dynasty was extremely arrogant or even ignorant. His style and characteristics of the translation were naturally influenced by this national sentiment. Therefore, his translation had tendency to “Domestication” or even an unfaithful translation. Qian Zhongshu lived in a period of prosperity in literature and art since the establishment of People's Republic of China and at that time Chairman Mao proposed the policy of “All flowers blossoming and hundreds of schools contending (百花齐放，百家争鸣). So our Chinese people were overflowing high spirit and proud emotion; some translators’ translation works are more inclined to take the advantages of “Domestication” and make the translation work more excellent than the original one. Such a translation strategy will be somewhat “disloyal” to the original text, and will not “sincerely imitate” the original text as Lu Xun advocates from his “Foreignization” method. It is difficult to concretely implement “Sublimation” theory, because it has become an “unattainable” goal. Whether the translation should be “Chinese-oriented” or “European-oriented”; be “faithful” or “creative”, and whether the translator should be “visible” or “invisible” in translation are all difficult standards to measure since these factors are inevitably affected by the subjective and historical objectivity of the translator. Is “Sublimation” really a faithful translation to the original text? Perhaps just as Mr. Qian himself said: “The translator’s ability to use his native language is more flexible and smooth than the original author’s ‘source language’ and that is what always happens in the history of translation.” We can consider that such “disloyal” is “faithful” in a certain sense.

'''3.2 Problems of Nida’s “Functional Equivalence”'''

The questions of meaning, equivalence and translatability became a constant theme of translation studies in the 1960s and were tackled by a new ‘scientific’ approach followed by one of the most important figures in translation studies, the American Eugene Nida. Eugene Nida’s theory of translation developed from his own practical work from the 1940s onwards when he was translating and organizing the translation of the Bible, training often inexperienced translators who worked in the field.
As for Nida's “functional equivalence” theory, praise and opposition to his theory are always existing in the translation circle. Some people think that the theory is a representative of the science of translation science and has a good guiding role in translation practice. However, there are also some scholars who disagree with this theory and for example Peter Newmark is one of its critics. He believed that Nida’s equivalence theory takes the reader too seriously, but sometimes sacrifices the actually original thoughts of the writer. It is also doubtful whether “functional equivalence” can be applied to the original texts of various subjects. If the translator partially pursue “functional equivalence”, which will makes it difficult for the target readers to fully understand the original cultural information and it is not conducive to the mutual communication between different countries and cultures. For the above example: if we render “White as snow” as “白如鹭毛”, target readers may understand the meaning of the original author, but they still have no idea of what the word “snow” actually means. This has become a situation where we cannot get two things at the same time, or in Chinese “鱼和熊掌不可兼得”. However, If the original text is literally translated as “white as snow”, then the translator continues to explain what substance a “snow” is and what characteristics it may have and why we say its color is as white as egret’s feathers. In this way, not only can the readers of the translation work have the same response as the readers of the original, but also it is conducive for them to learn to understand new things and new concepts, which will gradually promote the communication of different cultures and the mutual interests of different countries.

'''4.Conclusion'''

Mr. Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” respectively represent huge progress in Chinese and Western translation studies, and they played an important role for the reference of translation studies and practice. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration. Furthermore, we must learn their theories with a critical view, so as to strive for innovation and establishment of a new era for translation studies.

'''References'''

[1]Chen Fukang. A History of Chinese Translation Theories in China [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.2000.

[2]Gao Huali. A Short History of Translation And Interpretation in China And Other Countries [M].Hangzhou：Zhejiang University Press.2009.

[3]Kao, Gorge. (trans.) Lin CH'in-nan Revisited [A]. By Qian Zhongshu. Renditions [J], autumn, 1975: 8-21

[4]Luo Xinzhang.On Translation [M].Beijing：The Commercial Press.1984.

[5]Mark, Shuttleworth, Moira Cowie. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 2004.

[6]Munday, Jeremy. Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications. Routledge, 2013.

[7]Nida, Eugene A. & Charles R.Taber (1969/1982) The Theory and Practice of Translation, Leiden: E. J. Brill.

[8]Qian Zhongshu.Pipe-awl Chapters [M].Beijing：Zhonghua Book Company.1986.

[9]Qian Zhongshu.Seven Patches [M].Beijing：SDX Joint Publishing Company.2002.

[10]Xu Jun.On Translation[M].Wuhan：Hubei Education Press.2003.

[11]Yu Chengfa. Interpreting Sublimation [D].Central China Normal University,2003.

=Theory and Practise=
=='''Translators' Views on Translation Influence Their Translation Behavior'''==

'''Abstract:''' A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.

'''Key words:''' translator’s view; translation behavior; translation principles; responsibility

'''译者翻译观对其翻译行为的影响'''

'''摘要：'''译者在翻译中处于核心位置。译者的翻译观指译者本身对于翻译的理解，其中包含了译者的翻译策略和价值取向。不同的译者受其社会与文化及个人经历和意识形态的影响，会有不同的翻译观。翻译观作为译者意识形态的一种，对翻译行为有着很大的影响。对于译者来说，翻译从来不是个人行为，而是一种对原作者、原作、读者及译入语文化的责任。

'''关键词：'''译者；翻译观；翻译行为；翻译原则；责任

A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. And “translation behavior”, in a broad sense, includes the translators’ linguistic translation behavior and the social transcend-translation behavior. In a narrow sense, it only means the translators’ translation as a “pure” translator (Zhou 18). The “translator behavior” in this thesis is a broad one, that is, translators’ translation behavior can be influenced by their social and cultural context, their motivations for translation, their views on translation and the linguistic translatability of the SL and their translation competence (Xu Jun 199-254). Specifically, the translation behavior we will discuss is “what to translate (what works they translated)” and “how to translate (their translation principles)”. According to A. Lefevere, ideology and poetics together dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems (39). The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior.

So how is translation behavior associated with translator’s views?

From the very beginning the research of translation was limited in a certain extent, and then there were some scholars starting to study on the relationship between translation and other systems, including Even-Zohar, Bassett, Lefevere and Venuti.

'''I.Some Previous Studies'''

A.Even-Zohar’s Polysystem

According to ''Introducing Translation Studies'':

“Polysysten theory was developed in the 1970s by the Israeli scholar Itamar Even-Zohar borrowing ideas from the Russian Formalists of the 1920s and the Czech structuralists of the 1930s and 1940s . . . For the Formalists, a literary work was not studied in isolation but as part of a literary system . . . Literature is thus part of the social, cultural, literary and historical framework . . .” (Munday 165).

In 1978, Even-Zohar in his “The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem”, first gives a new term, the polysystem (Even-Zohar 22), emphasizing the translated literature operates as a system in itself:

(1)in the way the TL culture selects works for translation;

(2)in the way translation norms, behavior and policies are influenced by other co-systems (Even-Zohar 22).

Thus, translation is not isolated, but associated with other systems, for instance, the TL culture. And the ST that chosen by a culture correspond to the organized system rather than arbitrary decisions made by individuals. Also translation works occupies different position in different cultures and has something to do with the position of the national literature.

B.Bassett and Lefevere

Later, “Bassett and Lefevere go beyond language and focus on the interaction between translation and culture, on the way in which culture impacts and constrains translation and on ‘the larger issues of context, history and convention (11)’ ” (Munday 192).

C.Lefevere: Rewriting and Manipulation

Furthermore, “Lefevere focuses particularly on the examination of ‘very concrete factors’ that systemically govern the reception, acceptance or rejection of literary texts; that is, ‘issues such as power, ideology, institution and manipulation (2)’ . The people involved in such power positions are the ones Lefevere sees as ‘rewriting’ literature and governing its consumption by the general public. The motivation for such rewriting can be ideological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant ideology) or poetological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant/preferred poetics)” (Munday 194). And translation is the most obviously recognizable type of rewriting (Lefevere 9).

Translator’s view on translation, for example, reflecting the translators’ ideology, can conform to or rebel against the social dominant ideology.
For Lefevere, the literary system in which translation functions is controlled by two main factors, which are: (1) professionals within the literary system, who partly determine the dominant poetics; and (2) patronage outside the literary system, which partly determines the ideology.
The “professionals within the literary system” include translators themselves, who decide on the poetics and at times influence the ideology of the translated text (Munday 194).

Thus, the role of translator is essential and the translator’s ideology have an great influence on the translation text and the text reader.
“For Lefevere, the most important consideration is the ideological one. In this case, it refers to the translator’s ideology or the ideology imposed upon the translator by patronage. The poetological consideration refers to the dominant poetics in the TL culture. Together, ideology and poetics dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems” (Munday 197).

D.Venuti

Then Venuti insists that the scope of translation studies needs to be broadened to take account of the value-driven nature of the sociocultural framework.

“Norms may be in the first instance linguistic or literary, but they will also include a diverse range of domestic values, beliefs, and social representations which carry ideological force in serving the interests of specific groups. And they are always housed in the social institutions where translations are produced and enlisted in cultural and political agendas” (29).

Munday suggests, the groups and social institutions to which Venuti refers would include the various players in the publishing industry as a whole . . . Each of these players has a particular position and role within the dominant cultural and political agendas of their time and place. The translators themselves are part of that culture, which they can either accept or rebel against (217).

Therefore, being part of the culture, translators are influenced by the social and patronage ideology, and the poetics. Nevertheless, translators more or less enjoys some autonomy. For example, translators’ views on translation, i.e. the understanding of translation, can be conformed to or rebellious against the culture. And then their views on translation, influence their specific translation behavior such as the works they choose to translate and their translation principles. Next are three examples for us to discuss how the translators’ views on translation immediately influence their translation behaviors.

To narrow the differences of the social ideology down, three translators in modern period of China (after 1949) will be discussed in this thesis. However, because they are born in different climate and stage of the society, no doubt that they have distinctive world outlook from each other, resulting in their distinctive views on translation. But focus will still be on the influence exerted by their views on their translation behavior.

II.Three Examples in Modern Period of China

A.Xu Yuanchong (1921-): Translation is translators’ responsibility.

For Xu Yuanchong, Chinese translators have a responsibility to translate the foreign masterpieces into Chinese and Chinese excellent works of literature into foreign languages, in order to introduce the advanced ideas to China and also bring the foreigners the splendid culture of China, during which the world will be more culturally rich and diversely civilized.

In this case, Xu Yuanchong further puts forward that the histories and evolution of the two cultures are very different from each other, with distinct advantages and disadvantages If they can learn the strong points from each other to offset their weakness, they can both be improved. In this respect, translation can be considered as a rivalry between two different cultures. The translation can even surpass the original work. If we make full use of the advantages of one culture to perfect another , the culture of all the humanity will be developed. This is the ultimate goal of the translator (“Surpass” 47). Based on this view, Xu Yuanchong proposed the Rivalry Theory and the Theory of Advantage.

Therefore, in order to exchange the advantages between cultures, the foreign works Xu Yuanchong had translated are some western masterpieces includes: ''Madame Bovary'', ''Le Rouge et le Noir'', ''Jean Christophe'', etc. And also some Chinese classical works especially the classical Chinese poetry: ''150 Tang Poems'', ''100 Tang and Song Poems'', ''300 Poems Chinois Classiques'', ''Selected Poems of Mao Zedong'', ''The Romance of Western Bower'', ''Earth-shaking Songs'' (the selected poems written by Chinese modern revolutionists), etc. By translating the essence of one culture and ideology into another languages, he demonstrates our advantages and at the same time offers Chinese people the opportunities to enjoy the classics of another culture.

Xu Yuanchong’s view on translation also influences his translation principles. Take the first sentence of ''Jean Christophe'' as an example:

Le grondement du fleuve monte derrére la maison. (Jean Christophe)

From behind the house rises the murmuring of the river. (English)

江声浩荡，自屋后上升。(Fu Lei)

江流滚滚，声震屋后。(Xu Yuanchong)

The french word “grondement” means “roaring” or “murmuring” in English. The English translation seems to be coherent in the paragraph and the following content. However, as to the whole work, Xu Yuanchong considers that “浩荡” in Fu Lei’s translation is more powerful and symbolic of the spectacular river cutting through Europe, and some readers even take Fu Lei’s translation as “the classical opening sentence” of the work, which proves it a translation that surpasses the original one.

And then Xu Yuanchong also translated this sentence (as above), replacing “浩荡” with “滚滚” for its more similar sound to “grondement”. And “声震屋后” is also a symbol of the impact of the great achievement of the musician in the work (Yang et.al 35-38). Here appears another translation principle of Xu Yuanchong: “literary translation is art (''Art 20'')” and “beauty in three aspects”, namely, “beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form”, having developed Lu Xun as well as Lin Yutang’s theory of beauty. This is the reason why Xu Yuanchong emphasizes the similar sound of “滚滚” to “grondement”. Another example is still a sentence in ''Jean Christophe'':

Il marchait sur le monde. (''Jean Christophe'')

他踏着全世界直立着。（鲁迅）

他顶天立地的在世界上走着。（傅雷）

(qtd. “Re-creation” 222)

Which translation corresponds to the original best? Lu Xun’s translation is similar in from while Fu Lei’s is in style. In this case, Xu Yuanchong considers there is one solution, that is to change the question as “Which translation is more beautiful and delightful for readers?” He also quotes “Qu’ importe celui qui crée? Il’y a de réel que ce qu’on crée” said by Romain Rolland to indicate that the translator ought to make the translation more of art to give readers an enjoyment of beauty rather than to captiously keep the author’s style. So he is in favor of Fu Lei’s translation.

The last example goes to the translation of the last sentence of ''Uprising Songs'' (《起义歌》) written by Sun Zhongshan, collected in ''Earth-shaking Songs'':

顶天立地奇男子，要把乾坤扭转过来。(''Uprising Songs'')

Heroes of indomitable spirit, arise!

Let us transform the old world and reverse the tide! (previous translation)

Heroes who would move heaven and earth, arise! (Xu Yuanchong)

Xu Yuanchong suggests that in the previous translation, translating “顶天立地” only into “indomitable spirit” is in want of the image of “天” and “地”. Also, as it were, the readers cannot enjoy the beauty of the SL, which is thus a failure in the rivalry of two cultures. So he translated the sentence as above, keeping the impression of “天地” to have the readers appreciate the beauty of the original work, in other words, to win the rivalry between the ST and TT (“Re-creation” 221-222).

For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized. The translation not only should be faithful to the original, but also be powerful and infectious to readers, even giving an much more profound impression than the original work.

B.Liu Zhongde (1914-): Translation is a way to make foreign masterpieces to serve China.

In order to make the western masterpieces more popular in China, Liu Zhongde decided to devote himself to a career in translation. By translating the western works into Chinese, as far as he concerns, the advanced thoughts can serve Chinese intellectuals and further improve the whole country. He was the first person who introduced Jane Austin’s ''Emma'' to China. But he were not satisfied with his first translation of ''Emma'' and at last in 1990s he re-translated it and corrected the errors he had made, which reflected his spirit of improving himself constantly and his rigorous scholarship (Ten 178 ).

Thus, most works Liu Zhongde translated were the western classics such as ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'', ''Confessions of an English Opium-Eater'', ''Emma'', ''Darwin'', etc. He seldom translated Chinese works into English.

In order to convey to the Chinese readers the exact ideas and original style and content of the ST, Liu Zhongde puts much emphasis on the “closeness” of the translation. He says the translator should always remember what he is working at is a literacy work written by somebody else and try his utmost to turn his translation into a work of art which is in conformity with the thought, feeling and style of the original. Thus, the translation will be as moving and vivid as the original work and the reader may be aesthetically entertained as well (''Ten'' 122-123).

Therefore he developed from Yan Fu’s three principles－“信达雅 (faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance)” into “信达切 (faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness)” as a set of principles for translation reference: “The style of your translation must correspond, or at least, be close, to that of the original you are working at . . . the ideological content, linguistic expression and stylistic characteristics of a literary work constitute a unified entity, and the translator should reproduce the three elements as a whole” (''Ten'' 122).

Being different from Xuyuanchong, Liu Zhongde holds that “literary translation has a double nature. That’s to say, on the one hand, it is a science with its own laws and methods and on the other, it is an art” (''Ten'' 2).

So how exactly does Liu Zhongde’s views on translation influence his translation principles? There are two examples as follows.

Here is a translation of “回乡偶书” by Liu Zhongde:

回乡偶书
少小离家老大回，乡音无改鬓毛衰。
儿童相见不相识，笑问客从何处来。
(the original poem)

Homecoming
I left home quite young, and I come back very old.
My accent remains the same, but my hair turns gray.
Kids don’t know me when one another we behold.
“Where do you come from?” with a smile to me they say.
(Liu Zhongde’s translation)

This translation adapts so well the style and features of TT to the ST that it seems to be an original work written by Liu Zhongde himself. We can appreciate the same meaning and emotion the original work expresses. The TT keeps the the same number of lines just as the ST: each of the sentence has 12 syllables. The rhyme pattern of ST is also kept: the first line rhymes with the third, and the second with the forth. The TT is exactly an expression of sound, form and sense of the ST (Jiang 196-197).

The next two examples are from Liu Zhongde’s re-translation of ''Emma'':

(1)The truth is, Harriet, that my playing is Just good enough to be praised, but Jane Fairfax’s is much beyond it.

事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却是神乎其技了。(Previous translation)

事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却大大超过我的弹奏。(Liu Zhongde)

“神乎其技” in the previous translation does not correspond to the plain style of “much beyond it” in ST. It is true that a Chinese four-character-word can embody a complex meaning, but the style it can be applied to is supposed to be formal and academic. In this sentence, the style of “神乎其技” is not appropriate at all, while a simpler word should be used. Thus Liu Zhongde replaced “神乎其技” with “大大超过我的弹奏”.

(2)“Just as they always do-very vulgar.”

还不是像他们平常那样——俗不可耐。(Previous translation)

还不是像他们平常那样——很庸俗。(Liu Zhongde)

(Jiang 278-279)

The four-character-word “俗不可耐” in the previous translation does not conform to the plain or colloquial style of ST, either, just like “神乎其技” mentioned above. Liu Zhongde changed it into “庸俗” to be in line with the original style.

For Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected by him and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original.

C.Li Jihong (1980-): Translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings.

As to Li Jihong, translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings. In an article called “The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace with the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay” against the view of another translator, Shi Kangqiang, he says that the pay of translation in the new period is different from that of the old times, mainly because of the translation tools which belonging to the production tools, have already been developed today into computers, digital data, Internet, etc. As a result, the translation speed is supposed to be improved. Therefore, a professional translator nowadays can definitely earn a decent life by translating 1000 words each hour, 8 hours a day. And for every 1000 words they can earn 60 ''yuan''.

The article aims to oppose to Shi Kangqiang’s opinion that the appalling pay translators receive influence the quality of the translation, but it also reveals Li Lihong’s view on translation from his borrowing lots of economic theories and activities, numbers, calculation of the pay to support his opinion, his favors to the publishers’ increasing reward on the sales of the translation work and his announcement that he have translated ''The Kite Runner'' (written by Khaled Hosseini), 195190 words, for only 10 days, 15 hours a day.

In this article he also says: “Any responsible translators will not translate for the personal income,” but he adds next, “ In fact, the support for his translation is the letters from readers, in addition to the high income.” Although the total contradiction in his saying is confusing, it still can be inferred that money is an important motivation for his translation, if not the most important one.

The works Li Jihong translated are foreign classics such as ''Le Petit Prince'', ''The Old Man and the Sea'', ''Animal Farm'', ''The Great Gatsby'', ''Walden'', ''The Moon and Sixpence'', ''Pride and Prejudice'' and ''The Sound and Fury''. However, all those works and the values of them have already been well received in China, with several translations in market.

To begin with the work that he have translated “for only 10 days, 15 hours a day” as he says, ''The Kite Runner'' written by Khaled Hosseini:

(1)We left the old man on the steps of that building. I meant to take him up on his offer, come back and see if he’d unearthed any more stories about my mother. But I never saw him again (Hosseini 251).

我们离开了坐在那座房子台阶上的老人。我原想带他到他的办公室去，看看他能否想起更多关于我妈妈的事情。但我再也没有见到他 (Li 243)。

In this text, “take somebody. up on something” means “to accept an offer, an invitation that somebody has made 接受（提议或邀请）” in ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary'' (438). Also according to the whole context, the old man, a beggar, had been a colleague of “my” mother who I had never met. He told me a story about “my” mother and promised me more details about her: “ The old man smiled. ‘I’ll try to remember and that’s a promise. Come back and find me ’ (Hosseini 250).” It can be inferred that the old man offered the narrator a chance to know more about his mother. Thus, the “offer” means “邀请” instead of “办公室 (office)”. What’s more, It seems like the word “offer” is misread as “office” by the translator. Perhaps the translator is too busy translating as fast as possible to check his translation carefully.

(2)“Your job today is to pass gas. You do that and we can start feeding you liquids. No fart, no food.” He laughed again (Hosseini 297).

“你今天的工作是排便。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不见粪便，不给食物。”他又哈哈大笑 (Li 287)。

The speaker was a staff in hospital, and he was asking the patient who had just come to himself from a surgery “to pass gas”. The relevant meaning of “gas” in ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary'' is “[物理]气体、瓦斯” (726), of “pass” is “通过” (1338). And “fart” as a noun means “放屁 (emit wind from the anus)” (632). In conclusion, “排便” does not correspond to the original meaning of the ST. So the translation can be righted as “你今天的工作是排气。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不放屁，不给食物。” This is also a very small and simple mistake. The translator should be more cautious about translating.
This summer holiday I have read another book translated by Li Jihong: The Moon and Sixpence written by William Somerset Maugham, and also find some odd translation and neglect. Here are two examples:

(1)“Do you think it’s likely that a man will do any good when he starts at your age? Most men begin painting at eighteen.”

“I can learn quicker than I could when I was eighteen (Mauguam 48).”

你认为一个人从你这个年纪开始学画能学得好吗？大多数人从十八岁就开始画了。”

“如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些 (Li 54)。”

The second sentence, a very simple one, means that even if “I” am old now, I can learn even quicker than I could when I was at eighteen. In Chinese it can be translated as, for instance, “我能比我十八岁的时候学得还快.” But Li’s translation “如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些” means “I can learn quicker if I were eighteen,” which has a totally different meaning from the ST.

(2)...for they felt themselves freemen of a country whose frontiers include them all, the great country of Cockaigne (Mauguam 169).

因为他们觉得大家都是自由民，同属于想象中的天堂之国 (Li 203)。

According to Encyclopedia Britannica, “Cockaigne, also spelled Cockayne, imaginary land of extreme luxury and ease where physical comforts and pleasures are always immediately at hand. References to Cockaigne are especially prominent in medieval European lore. These accounts describe rivers of wine, houses built of cake and barley sugar, streets paved with pastry, and shops that gratuitously give goods to everyone. Roast geese wander about inviting people to eat them, and buttered larks fall from the skies like manna.” Being ignorant of the rich meaning of this word, Li Jihong translated it to “天堂之国” without any explanation. In fact, in this book, Li Jihong adds 206 explanatory notes for the words like “Shakespeare (莎士比亚)”, “Balzac (巴尔扎克)” and “Footnote (生丁)”, however, “Cockaigne” is not included.

Li Jihong’s translation is popular for his elaborate introduction of the work and explanatory notes, which as he says, can help readers to understand the work easier. And some famous people also recommend his translations for his translation is more understandable than others. However, as far as I am concerned, being understandable is not the essence of a translation.

From Xu Yuanchong and Liu Zhongde we know there are various translation principles, for instance the former’s “beauty in three aspects: sense, sound and form” and the latter’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness”, nevertheless, the “faithfulness” to the original is emphasized.

III.Conclusion

This is how the views of translation influence the translators’ behavior, specifically the translation work choosing and their translation principles demonstrated by the translation examples of the three translators.

For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized; while for Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. In fact, for both of them translation should be a responsibility that should be treated serious by translators, while as for Li Jihong, translation is just a production activity, a tool to make money or to gain the population, fame and the sense of superiority. Therefore, the economic effect and the speed is highlighted, the minor mistakes were made, and the translator’s personality was manifested so much that it even overshadowed the style and meaning of the original work.

For those responsible translators, their translations, imprinted all their individual ideology, experience and reflection, almost like an original work, are supposed to be a special thing. As Thomas C. Foster puts at the end of his How to Read Literature Like a Professor, “My favorite was the apology to the poem itself: ‘Well, little book, you’re not that much but you’re the best I could make you. Now you’ll just have to make your way in the world as best you can. Fare thee well.’” (129), a lot of care and attachment will be taken to the work you made, whatever it is, a poem, a fiction or a translation work. Only if you devote yourself to the translation with painstaking effort, can the translation be respected and appreciated by your readers.

Fu Lei had ever said, “translation should be based on the knowledge of art: without a sensitive soul, earnest sympathy, appropriate appreciation, relative social experience or sufficient common sense (i.e. broad knowledge), a translator neither will understand the original work thoroughly nor grasp the essence of it” (qtd. Xu Jun 253). Because that translators’ views on translation have a great influence on his translation, he should first be earnest to “translation”, and then be diligent, especially when the translation work is carrying the weight of the original work. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.

'''Work Cited'''

胡塞尼· 卡勒德. (Hosseini, Khaled). 《追风筝的人》 (''The Kite Runner''). 李继宏译 (Tran. Li Jihong). 上海: 上海人民出版社, 2008.

蒋坚松 (Jiang Jiansong) 彭利元 (Peng Liyuan), ed. 《刘重德翻译思想及其他》(''Liu Zhongde’s Tanslation Theories and Others''). 长沙(Changsha): 湖南师范大学出版社 (Hunan Normal University Press), 2003. Print.

李继宏 (Li Jihong), 《文学翻译也需与时俱进：谈谈翻译速度和稿酬问题》 (“The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace With the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay”). 豆瓣网 (douban). 13 Jan. 2013 <https://site.douban.com/179084/widget/articles/10191245/article/23864139/?dt_dapp=1>

刘重德 (Liu Zhongde), ed.《文学翻译十讲》(''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation''). 北京(Beijing): 中国对外翻译出版社 (China Duiwai Translation Press), 2000. Print.

毛姆·威廉. (Maugham, William). 《月亮和六便士》 (''The Moon an Sixpence'').李继宏译 (Trans. Li Jihong). 天津 (Tianjin): 天津人民出版社 (Tianjin Renmin Press), 2018. Print.

许钧. (Xu Jun).《翻译论》(''Translation Theory''). 武汉 (Wuhan)：湖北教育出版社 (Hubei Education Press), 2003. Print.

许渊冲. (Xu Yuanchong). 《译文能否胜过原文》(“Can the Translation Surpass the Original”). 《教学研究》(''Teaching Method Research''), no. 2 (1982): 39-47.
---. ed.《再创作与翻译风格》(“Re-creation and Translation Style”). 《文学与翻译》 (''Literature and Translation''). 北京 (Beijing)：北京大学出版社 (Beijing University Press), 2016. 221-229. Print.

---.《翻译的艺术》(''The Art of Translation''). 北京 (Beijing): 五洲传播出版社 (Wuzhou Chuanbo Press), 2006. Print.

杨绛(Yang Jiang), 李文俊 (Li Wenjun, et al.) 等. 《一本书和一个世界》(''A Book and A World''). 北京 (Beijing): 昆仑出版社 (Kun Lun Press), 2005: 35-38. Print.
周领顺. (Zhou Lingshun). 《译者行为批评：理论框架》(''A Theoretical Framework for Translator Behavior Criticism''). 北京 (Beijing)：商务印书馆 (The Commercial Press), 2014. Print.

Bassnett, S. and A. Lefevere. ''Translation History and Culture''. London and New York: Pinter, 1990. Print.

Cockaigne. ''Encyclopedia Britannica''. 27 Jun. 2013. Web. 17 Nov. 2019 <https://www.britannica.com/topic/Cockaigne >

Even-Zohar, Itamar. The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem. ''Papers in Historical Poetics''. Tel Aviv: The Porter Institute, 1978. 21-7. Print.

Fart. ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary''. Beijing: Renmin University of China, 2004. Print.

Foster. C. Thomas. ''How to Read Literature Like a Professor''. New York: HarperCollins Publishers Inc. 2003. Print.

Hosseini, Khaled. The Kite Runner. New York: The Berkley Publishing Group, 2003. Print.

Lefevere, A. ''Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulation of Literary Fame''. London and New York: Routledge, 1992a. Print.

Maugham, William. ''The Moon an Sixpence''. London: Pan Books Ltd, 1974. Print.

Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies''. New York: Routledge, 2012. Print.

Take sb. up on sth.” ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary''. 2013. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Publishing Co., Ltd, 2017. Print.

Venuti. L. The Scandals of Translation: ''Towards an Ethics of Difference''. London and New York: Routledge, 1998. Print.

=Contemporary Translation Studies=
=='''An Analysis of the Book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'''''==

'''摘要：'''爱德温·根茨勒的《当代翻译理论》和杰米里·芒迪的《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》被视为翻译史上不可多得的巨作。本文通过对两本巨著的介绍之后，节选了其中有名的翻译理论即尤金·奈达的形式对等理论和功能对等理论以及亚历山大弗雷泽·泰特勒和严复的翻译原则进行比较，来阐述了翻译的基本准则。通过对比尤金·奈达的形式对等和功能对等理论，找出其优缺点并结合适当的例子，有利于读者把握奈达的翻译思想来更好地指导其翻译实践。同时，通过分析亚历山大弗雷泽·泰特勒的翻译原则的优缺点再将其与严复的翻译理论做比较，有利于读者理解中西方翻译的差异，来更好地理解在跨文化的语境中如何做好翻译。

'''关键词：'''爱德温·根茨勒、《当代翻译理论》、杰米里·芒迪、《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》、尤金·奈达、形式对等、功能对等、亚历山大·弗雷泽·泰特勒、严复、翻译原则

'''Abstract:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler’s ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and Jeremy Munday’s ''Introducing Translation studies: Theories and Applications'' are both regarded as the masterpieces in the discipline of translation. After giving a brief introduction of these two great works, this paper tends to select the famous translation theories from the book namely Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and functional equivalence and the translation principles of Alexander Fraser Tytler and Yan Fu to define the basic principles of translation. After analyzing the Nida’s theories of formal equivalence and functional equivalence, it is better for the readers to understand the Nida’s translation ideas to better guide him in the translation practice by combining the concrete examples to illustrate its advantages and disadvantages. In the meantime, by analyzing the advantages and disadvantages of Tytler’s translation principles and the comparison between the translation principles of Tytler and Yan Fu, it’s better for the readers to understand the influence of difference in the eastern and western cultures on translation. In such a way, it’s better for the translators to do the translation practice in the cross-cultural situation.

'''Key words:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler; ''Contemporary Translation Theories''; Jeremy Munday; ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''; Eugene Nida; Formal Equivalence; Functional Equivalence; Alexander Fraser Tytler; Yan Fu; Translation Principles

'''Introduction:'''

In this essay, it presents the author’s understanding of the two books: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''. After a brief introduction of these two books, this paper tends to concentrate on the discussion of four important translation theories. This paper will be divided into three parts. Firstly, after a brief introduction of the great book: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', and then it will focus on the analyzing of the Eugne Nida’s two famous translation theories namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. By giving out its definition, it’s easier to find the advantage and disadvantage of these two concepts. Then, this paper will go on introducing briefly the Chomsky’s translation studies. And then it will find some commonness and distinction in Nida’s and Chomsky’s opinions in translation. Secondly, it will give a short introduction of the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' and it will fix its attention on the translation principles of Tytler and then make a comparison of Yan Fu’s translation principle “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. By deeper analyzing these two similar translation theories, we can find some commonness and difference in these two translation theories by taking the culture and thinking modes into consideration. At last, this paper intend to give a brief comparison between these two great books by taking the consideration of writing style and content arrangement. All in all, this paper intends to give the readers a better understanding of these two great books and provoke their reflection about these two books.

'''I Analysis of the book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'''''

Recently, it is a great pleasure to read a very famous book called ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' whose author is called Edwin Gentzler. The second edition of this book has received great success. The publication of this book is significant to the global translation study academia. “Since the mid-19th century, translation theory has maderapid progress, Edwin Gentzler finds out what is useful and rejects what is useless on the translation of today's theories in this book”(Li 2014:111). He also makes a Detailed description in detail several major schools of translation:The North American Translation Workshop, the “Science” of Translation, Early Translation Studies, the Polysystem Translation and Deconstruction. In this book, it presents what is happening in different parts within the discipline. “Gentzler uses his provoke thinking viewpoint to trace the development of literary translation studies from the American translation workshop program, through the polysystems research to deconstruction and postcolonial translation theory and beyond”(Xu and Wang 2000:42). This book not only provides us with a deep way of theorizing the translation but also is effectively a translation practice . At the end of this book, he also points out the future of translation and sends his positive attitude about the translation’s future. The author turns a whole number of the complex theoretical material into accessible language, so that everyone who doesn’t read any books about translation can read this book freely. Apart from that, each chapter in this book is separated so you can read each chapter alone without relying on your understanding of the other chapters. By this way, it is more convenient for us to find the topic of translation that we are interested in to read and find valuable informationfor us. Gentzler’s book provides us with a precise analysis about what the translation school achieved so far and gives his insight into the future of translation.

“This book stands as a continuing translation textbook with some of the most important theories in the field such as “the same aesthetic experience, dynamic equivalence, corresponding literary function, or the deconstruction theory of Derrida”(Li 2014:112). Despite distinct focus, each theory is completed by a conceptual framework that thinks original existence and an understanding of it in the target society. At present, “all translation theories have kept rigid distinction between original texts and their translations text”(Xu and Wang 2000:43).

In the chapter 2, this book introduces the American translation workshop. In this chapter, it mainly introduces the A. Richard’s new criticism and translation, Ezra Pound’s theory of luminous details, Frederic Will’s the paradox of translation and Lawrence Venuti’s rethinking translation. In it workshop, “it emphasizes that translation is a marginal activity, not considered as a proper field of study”(Gentzler 2001:5). However, as time goes by, the process of growth and acceptance of translation boost when many translation courses and workshops were being offered at many universities. There appears many works about this translation workshop but it does not have many books about the translation theories. “In this workshop, the personal opinions may offer some help, but it still lacks the consistent theory to support translation”(Gentzler 2001:44). Therefore, it needs urgently a classified theory for the translation and it yields the coming of the “science” of translation. In this book, it mainly introduces Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and Noam Chomsky’s syntactic structure and generative-transformation grammar. Here, it will illustrate my understanding of these two concepts about formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Edwin Gentzler illustrated the concept of dynamic equivalence in his book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', ''Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. The relationship between the target language receptor and the target text should generally be equivalent to that between the source language receptor and the source text''(2001:48).

In the dynamic equivalence, Nida focus on the correspondence of the feeling between the target language and the receptor and the source language and the learner. By his understanding, these two feeling should be the similar. More specifically, “dynamic equivalence considers more about the relationship between the reader and the information, which means that the target reader's response to the target text should be the same as that of the source reader's response to the source text”(Liu 2012:242). “Any foreignness and translationese should be avoided in the target text”(Ju 2000:203). Now, it will
list the advantages of dynamic equivalence.

“On the one hand, the dynamic equivalence is “somewhat like the free translationwhich emphasizes the translation should achieve the same effect instead of being limitedin the content and form” (Li 2014:112). “It concentrates on the correct way of translating the content of the original text”(Shakernia 2013:2). On the other hand, “it focuses on readers' reaction and analyzes the translation process from the viewpoint of target readers”(Nida 1995:225). In this way, translation is not a single activity, but more social elements are added to make the translation concrete and specific. Moreover, in the dynamic equivalence, due to its classified translation principle it is more suitable to the translation of technology and science essays. The dynamic equivalence provides us a
detailed rule of translation during our process of translation so when we translate, we can find the reasonable principles to rely on. These essays should be more formal and official.

However, although the dynamic equivalence has gained a lot of praises it still deserves some limitations. Firstly, “it is just a language conversion and ignores the cultural information taken by the language, resulting in cultural domestication”(Liu 2012: 245). In fact, cultural differences are objective and can not be inevitable, and no one can avoid them. If you have to maintain a dynamic equivalent translation, it will definitely have a negative impact on cultural communication. For example, “‘dongfeng’ is a positive image in Chinese culture while in western society it thinks the west wind is goodmorality”( Shakerni 2013:2) Therefore, it is strange that Shelley's singing of the west wind is translated into "ode to the east wind", because it will hinder the Chinese readers' understanding of the western world. What's more, to judge whether the target readers have similar effects is uncertain and unpractical because they are different in gender, age,educational background and life experience, etc. Strictly speaking, the reader's response is a variable that cannot be regarded as equivalent to the standard effect. Finally, dynamicequivalence information in the text does well, just like the Bible, but it is difficult to realize literary translation, text language is different from general language. Dynamic equivalence, as a concept, puts an .an overly narrow focus on the response of the active hearers, perhaps sometimes at the expense of other factors which are also crucial to adequate translation, such as the accuracy of the message, the uniqueness of the original historical setting.

Next, it will list the definition of formal equivalence. “Formal equivalence is simple and source-oriented. It is like a word for word literal translation”(Shakernia 2013:2). Formal equivalence concentrates on the message itself, in both form and content. “One is concerned that the message in the receptor language should match asclosely as possible the different elements in the source language”(Shakernia 2013:3).The use of formal equivalents might at times have serious implications in the target text since the translation will not be easily understood by the target readership. For example, “in the translation of the sentence of greet others with a holy kiss, these two different equivalence can have distinctly different translation”(Shakernia 2013:3). In the formal equivalence translation, we need to translate it into the translation of saying hello to others with a holly kiss. But it seems strange to others because what’s the meaning of holy kiss. Then, we need to add one explanation of holy kiss which is in the ''old testament'' the holly kiss is usually treated as a usual way to greet others. However, in the dynamic equivalence, we need not to take the correspondence of the structure into consideration. We only need to pay attention to the reaction of receptorsof language. We can translate it into the translation of shaking hands with others enthusiastically. From the above example, it’s clear to find the focus of these two equivalences is very different therefore the translation can be different.

Here, it will try to figure out the advantages and disadvantages of formal equivalence. One of the most distinguished advantage of the formal equivalence is that in this translation, “the formal equivalence is keenly oriented towards the source language structure, which exerts strong language influence in determining accuracy and Correctness”(Nida 1995:223). Because the formal equivalence emphasizes the completetranscript of the original text’s content and form so it will have the consistent structure of the original text.Another advantage of formal equivalence is that it put much focus on the accuracy.Because in such translation theory, the target language will try to find a equivalent in the source language. For example, in the sentence of “Please fetch me a glass of water” when translating it into Chinese, we will try to find each word equivalent in Chinese. We will try to find each word such as “please”“fetch”“me” and so on. Then we can find the equivalent in Chinese which can be transliterated into Chinese as “Qing gei wo yi bei shui”. Apart from that, let’s move on to the disadvantages of formal equivalence. One of the obvious disadvantage of the formal equivalence is that sometimes it will neglect the intent of the original text. Because the formal equivalence isreferred as to the literal translation and in such way it may overlook the author’s intent. For example, we often hear Chinese people say:“Ni chi le ma?” In fact, it’s a way to greetpeople in Chinese custom while we cannot translate it into English as “Have you eat your dinner or lunch?”. Instead we should translate it into English as “Hello!”or “Hi!”

Among these two theories, Nida puts the dynamic equivalence in the first place. It has been viewed as his core contribution to the modern translation filed. “Nida pays attention to readers' response and advocates replacing the expression of foreign culture in the original text with the expression habit of the receiving language, namely, domestication”(Nida 1995:224). By far, “Nida has achieved a lot in translation study. He simplifies Chomsky’s theory and adopts only the later two part of the model in order to validate his science”(Gentzler 2001:52). “He is aware of the nature of a practice-oriented approach, attempts to scientifically validate his methodology and apply it to translation as a whole” (Panou 2013: 1) . In this chapter, it also talks about Noam Chomsky’s contribution to the linguistic and translation. In Chomsky’s opinion, the linguistic is a study of science and we can apply many linguistic principles to translation, therefore, the translation can also be said a study of science. Among the Noam Chomsky’s contribution is his transformational-generative grammar. “It is a theory that talks about why people can talk and how people can learn new sentences. It is a theory about language ability. Chomsky holds his opinion that basics and transformation form grammar” (Zhou 2019:5). The basics form deep structure and deep structure transforms to surface structure. Word’s meaning belongs to deep structure . Besides, “he thinks thatlanguage is a unique human natural constitution. Language ability should be more focused on not rather language behavior”(Zhou 2019:6). “The TG Grammar tries to reveal the unity of particular grammars and universal grammars, to explore the universal rules with the hope of revealing the human cognitive system and the essential nature of human being”(Zhu 2018:241).

Both Chomsky and Nida believe that deep, coherent and unified entity exists behind whatever manifestation language takes. However, there exists some difference
between their opinions. “Chomsky would not jump to conclusions based on correlations between just two languages, nor assume that a grammar to a particular to one language would work systematically for another” (Li 2011:395). While Nida holds the belief that deep structure and transformatio-nal rules which is divorced from all the problems of translation are similar across languages. All in all, these two great persons all make a big contribution to translation and their theories are still widely used today.

'''II Analysis of ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'''''

As for the second book: ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , it is a very populary book which has undergone through the fourth edition. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' remains the definitive guide to the theories and concepts that make up the field of translation studies. This fourth edition has been fully revised and continues to provide a balanced and detailed guide to the theoretical landscape. “Each theory is applied to a wide range of languages, including Bengali, Chinese, English, French, German, Italian, Punjabi, Portuguese and Spanish”(Liu and Deng 2010:54). It starts with the definition of translation and then presents us the translation theory before the twentieth century to the modern translation theory. It focus on many important translation theories such as systematic translation theory, polysystem theory translation, functional theories of translation, and so on. There are three reasons why I like this book very much. Firstly, this book is full of content which is arranged carefully and skillfully for the readers to read. It contain an introductory table clearly presenting key terms and ideas, the main text, describing in detail the models and issues under discussion, an illustrative case study, which applies and evaluates the main model of the chapter, suggestions for further reading, a brief evaluative summary of the chapter and a series of discussion and research points to stimulate further thought and research. I am extremely fond of the case study in this book which is also a unique feature of this book. In the case study, it will list a related case about the translation issue in this chapter for readers to think and then this book provide us with a discussion of case studies for us to reflect our thinking. I think it’s a good way for us to relate the knowledge of book into reality which it’s more helpful and useful for us to remember the knowledge in the book. And by applying our knowledge to the real problem in reality, it’s more helpful for us truly understand the essence of translation studies.

Secondly, there are a large number of charts are cited, and the names of the charts are listed on a special page after the table of contents at the front of the book for easy reference. In this way, it is easier for readers to absorb much information contained in the charts. In the meantime, it is clear for the readers to relate the knowledge with the information in the charts. It is also a good way to sort out the large number of information in an ordered way for the readers to have a quick way to absorb the information.

Thirdly, the book includes an appendix to the web sites relevant to translation studies before the final notes and index. These include two web sites that publish information about conferences, recent publications and research, six web sites for international translation journals and four web sites for translation organizations that often contain useful links. In this way, it becomes much easier for the readers to search the information on the websites for further reading and studying.

Now, let’s move on to talk about the content of this book. In the second chapter, this book lists the debate about the word-for-word and sense-for-sense translation which is debate that dominated much of translation theory. “Faithful translation” is an attempt to reach a compromise between the two. Many great translators object to word-for-word translation and they advocate the sense-for-sense translation”(Munday 2013:18). For example, Cicero oppose the word-for-word translation strongly by saying “that I did not hold it necessary to render word for word, but I preserved the general style and force of the language”(Munday 2013:19). “The issues of free and literal translation were for over a thousand years with the translation of the Bible and other religious and philosophical texts”(Munday 2013:22). As for the translation of Bible, there must mention the Martin Luther whose major influence is made by his translation of the ''New Testament'' and later the ''Old Testament''. Martin Luther advocates the revolutionary nature of translation. “At that time, the Bible was only available in Europe in a Latin translation. This meant that the majority of the people had no access to the Bible in their native languages”(Stolt 2014:373). He is concerned with the German readers. “Here, he supports the idea of using of “pure, clear German and the building of new languages in translation. Therefore, he used a non-literal translation in his translation of Bible”(Stolt 2014:373). Also, his use of a regional yet socially broad dialect went a long way to reinforcing that form of the German language as standard. “His aim is to keep communication with readers and listeners, but the audience for his new translation of the scriptures was composed not of scholars but plain speakers of vernacular German”(Stolt 2014:374). And thanks to Martin Luther’s efforts of translating Bible, the Germany people now could read Bible freely. Later, the book talks about the translation principle of Dryden, Dolet and Tytler. Here it will put emphasize on the Tytler’s translation principles. As for Dolet has five translation principles while Tytler proposes his three translation rules. “They are the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work. Secondly, the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original. Thirdly, the translation should have all the ease of the original composition.” (Munday 2013:26) Here, we can see that Tytler pursues the balance between the source language and target language. The translator must have the capacity of employing the exact manner and skill in translating his target language. For example, “there are two sentences which express the same meaning but they are different in their writing style”(Xi 2009:41). One is on Monday morning, the park is usually crowded with too many people. The other is on Monday morning, the park attracts many people. It’s obvious that the first sentence is in a negative mood while the second sentence is in a positive mood. These two sentences all convey the same meaning but they differs each other in the mood and style. To be a good translator, you need to be skillful in bringing the same style of the source language to the target language.

The advantages of his translation principle are as follows. First of all, “he abandons the traditional translation idea of dichotomies and he tries not to use these controversial term such as literal translation, free translation to give his translation rules a better and clear way to present”(Bie and Huang 2007:164). Here, in his translation principles, we cannot see the mentioning of the literal translation and free translation which can cause misunderstanding in the translation studies. Secondly, “he clarifies and extends people’s understanding of the metaphor that translators are painters. In his opinion, he advocates that the job of a translator is distinct different from the painter” (Bie and Huang 2007: 166). Although the translator does not use the same color as the original, he must give his "picture" the same power and effect. The translator cannot copy the original style, but must use his own style to translate the perfect script. The more he studies a imitation, the less his copy will reflect the ease and spirit of the original.

Now, let’s move on to talk about the disadvantages of his translation principles. Tytler’s translation thoughts are mainly on the base of his exact experience and subjective observation. “Some people even say that the book just looks like a textbook addressing the translation arts. In the meantime, from his translation theories, we can know that he imitates other translator’s theory, especially Dryden”(Firdaus 2012:285). For example, his first principle “That the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work, which is almost same as the Campbell’s accurately reproduce the original meaning”(Firdaus 2012:286). Tytler, “points out that the three principles are in a necessary order. The order arrangement is appropriate, natural and is arranged according to their importance to the translation which cannot change casually”(Firdaus 2012:287). In this way, we can concluded that his idea that if in a case of need to sacrifice a certain principle, the translator should notice the importance of order of translation principle. The translator cannot try to get a beautiful and fluent translation at the expense of the faithful translation of the script. Tytler’s translation has exerted great influence on the later translation studies and left a big influence on the later translators such as our Chinese great translator-Yan Fu. Here, it will list the Yan Fu’s translation theories and then we can have a brief comparison between Yan Fu’s translation principles and Tytler’s translation principles. “Yan Fu is our Chinese great scholar and translator, most famous for introducing western ideas, including Darwin’s natural selection to China in the late 19th century”(Wang 2008:70). Just as Shi Chunrang and Zhao Wei proposed their opinions in their essay ''Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation'' that Yan Fu proposed three difficulties in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethnic''.

“Faithfulness” means the full and complete conveying or transmission of the original content or thought. It emphasizes the right way of expressing content of the original source. “Expressiveness” demands that the version must be clear and follow without any grammatical mistakes or confused logic and sense. The translation should convey freely the content of the original source. “Elegance” means that the target translation should be similar to the source text in style(2005:96).

It means that the mood of the target translation should be almost same as the source language. By analyzing carefully, it’s clear to find there are many things in common between these two translation theories.

Firstly, “the first principle and second principle of Tytler are the same as the saying that translation should be faithful to the source language’s content and mood which is similar to the first principle of Yan Fu that emphasizes on the full and complete conveying of the original content”(Shi and Zhao 2005:97). Secondly, these two translation theories all focus on stressing the conveying the thought and content of the source language. And the translation should be available for people to read. “These two theories all emphasize on the conveying the complete transcript of the source text”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98).

It’s clear to see many differences between these two translation theories. Firstly, “they are different in thinking mode. Yan Fu does not make a clear and detailed explanation of his translation theory. Instead it relies on others’ explanation of his translation theory”(Xi 2009:41). Just as a saying, “Everything is clear without saying a word”. To better understand Yan Fu’s translation theory, we need to have the associated “relation and reflection about the great thought of our great ancestors. As we all know, “traditional Chinese mode of thinking is perceptual which tends to make the theory obscure and received. However, westerners attach great importance to rational thinking which makes the theory more concrete”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). The thinking mode of western is putting emphasize on the rational thinking and it emphasizes one’s rational understanding of the objects and people. Also, “it concentrates on the formal explanation of the objects and people”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). Therefore, the Tytler’s three translation principles all give respect to the object to the original text. And it repeatedly emphasizes on the importance of the original text and treat the original text as it start point. Apart from that, it also gives the literal explanation in a detailed way. In this way, after analyzing the different thinking between the western and eastern, we can say that Yan Fu do not give a literal explanation of his translation principle. Thus, we can say that his translation principle understands tacitly.

Secondly,“they are distinctly different in the importance. Since the three principles of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are presented, the importance of them has not been clearly classified”(Shi and Zhao 2005:99). One of the most important features of Yan Fu’s translation standard is its ambiguous semantic meaning. But in fact, “Yan Fu put emphasizes on the free translation and he proposed the principle of expressiveness to support the principle of faithfulness”(Xi 2009:41). “Since during the process of translation, except adhering to the expressiveness of the original text, the principle of faithfulness is the most difficult task to finish as to the conveying the original text’s mode and style”(Xi 2009:42). Therefore, we can draw a conclusion that principle of expressiveness is vital in his three principles and then is the expressiveness and the last is elegance. We should stick to the general principle of “original meaning”, only then can we have a reasonable logic to give an order on the importance of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “While Tytler thinks the order of his three principles is suitable, natural and could not be changed”(Wang 2008:71). Tytler proposes that we can make the conveying the faithful translation of the content at the expense to pursue the beautiful and fluent translation of the original text. “If we must give up one of principles he proposes, he advises that we can give up the least important principle namely the third principle”(Wang 2008:71). In other words, it is the first sacrifice of the original “style and effectiveness”. What's more, the style and mood of the original painting must be conveyed in order to convey a faithful picture of the sense.

Thirdly, “these two translation theories are different in the aspect of value orientation. The reason of this difference is due to the difference in the academic tradition of the emphasizing on the practice and theory level of the east and west”(Wang 2008:73). As is known to all, traditional Chinese translation paid more attention to practice rather than theory. The idea of translation should guide translation practice and should be of reference value. Yan Fu's “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was originally used to describe the difficulty of translation, not as a translation standard. He summed it up from his own practice and was concerned with practice rather than theory. However, western translator put practice and theory at the same level. Tytler's three principles are three levels of difficulties in detail, from the content loyal to distinct style. The reflected logical form is clear and obvious, which is significantly different from the implicit three translation principles of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “Western translation theories focus on detailed analysis, rational abstraction and theoretical deduction, and pay attention to logical organization, hierarchy and clarity of content in language expression”(Wang 2008:73). Influenced by traditional philosophy, western translation theories have a strong sense of subject and object throughout the whole process. Taking “expressiveness” as an example, Yan Fu's “expressiveness” and Tytler's third principle “translation should have all the ease of the original composition” have roughly the same meaning, but it’s obvious that they are different in thinking mode. “The Chinese adopt a thought pattern of intuition and understanding while the Englishmen follow a thought pattern of logic and reason, which makes a profound impact on each language”(Chen 2012:126). To this extent, the difference between understanding and rational thinking, as well as the degree of respect for the original text can be best reflected. At last, “these two translation theories are distinct in their motivation. Yan Fu’s criterion is purposeful which aims to attract the elite’s attention”(Wang 2008:73). The literature works that Yan Fu translated from the western world are mainly the great and famous work in the period of western capitalism. “He fully understand this mode of thinking is difficult for the Chinese intellectuals at that time so in this way, he need to make the translation principles easier for the Chinese intellectuals to absorb”(Chen 2012:127). In this regard, he chose this way of spreading his translation ideas which makes his translation principles purposeful. While Tylter just wants to make the whole translation system more systematic and cover content, form and text these three aspects. “His aim in his translation principle is simply trying to make his translation principle known by people and suggest a reasonable translation principle for translators to follow”(Xi 2009:42).

'''III Comparison between the book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'''''

'''1.From the aspect of arrangement of the content'''

Both of these two books all take the line of main translation workshops as its main chapter and then list its contribution to illustrate the content. “In the ''contemporary translation studies'', the author compare the translation group’s advantages and weakness and then give out his own understanding of the study of the translation group” (Li :2014 111).” In the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , the author lists the introduction of each translation workshop’s contribution and achievement to translation” (Liu and Deng 2010:54). While these two books’ difference in arrangement is that in the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' adds a case study to extend the readers’ inflection about the translation study listed in the book. Apart from that, this book also adds the discussion of case study, summary, further reading and discussion and research points into the book which are lack in the ''Contemporary Translation Studies''. These added parts to the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' helps extend the readers’ personal study and help the readers relate the theoretical knowledge with the translation practices.

'''2.From the content of the material'''

Both of the books all list the major contribution of each translation workshop but they differ in their focus and approach. In the ''contemporary Translation Theories'', the author will “analyze the advantage and weakness of the each translation workshop and then study the interrelationship between these translation workshops and at last describe the importance of each translation theory to the world and then pose its questions to the presupposition of each translation theory”(Li 2014:111). While in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'', the author firstly gives a brief introduction of the chapter content and then illustrates the introduction of each translation workshop in a detailed way. To make the book in a more precise way, the author also lists the summary, case study, discussion of study, further reading and discussion and research points in his book to make the readers to have a more comprehensive way of the book.

Apart from that, these two books all take a method of incorporating the theories and practices into the whole. In these two books, each book all include the material of theories and practices as its contents. For some important parts, the authors all give out their questions in the book. For example, in the ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', the author poses his question about Pound’s translation idea“ Was he talking about intuition, guessing the author’s original intention, or something else?(Gentzler 2001:20) After this question, the author gives out his opinions about Pound’s translation idea emphasizing the translator should both inside a tradition and outside any institutionalized logic. While this point of asking question in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' is more obvious. At the end of each chapter, the author will give several questions in his part of discussion and research points. Some of these questions can find the answers in the textbook while some will require the readers to do some additional researches.

'''Conclusion:'''

All in all, after this paper’s careful introduction of these two books and detailed analyzing of the translation theories, it hopes to help the readers to have better understanding of these two books. After the deep analysis of the two theories of Nida’s translation theories and the comparison between Tytler’s three translation principles and Yan Fu’s translation rules, it’s better for the readers to understand the basic rule of translation. And also after analyzing the two big translation theories, it’s clear to draw a conclusion that to be able to be a good translator, the translator should not only be skillful in adapting to two kinds of different language and also he needs to have the solid translation practice experiences. He needs to have the complete transcript of the original text by conveying the content of the original text, but also he should imitate the style and mood of the original text.

'''Works Cited'''

Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary Translation Theories. Vol. 21. Multilingual Matters, 2001.

Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications. Routledge, 2013.

Li Jiangchun. “The comment of the second edition of the Contemporary translation theories.” Foreign Language Education. 35.1(Jan. 2014): 111-114. CNKI. Web. 1 Nov. 2019

Xu Dongping and Wang Dongfeng. “Giving comment about the Edwin’s Contemporary Translation theories.” Foreign Language and Their teaching.12(2000):42-44. CNKI. Web. 1 Nov. 2019

Nida, Eugene A. “Dynamic equivalence in translating.” An Encyclopaedia of Translation: Chinese-English English-Chinese [C/Z]. Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press (1995): 223-30.

Shakernia, Shabnam. “Study of Nida’s (formal and dynamic equivalence) and Newmark’s (semantic and communicative translation) translating theories on two short stories.” Merit Research Journal of Education and Review 2.1 (2013): 001-007.

Liu Dayan. “Dynamic equivalence and formal correspondence in translation between Chinese and English.” International Journal of Humanities and Social Science 2.12 (2012): 242-247.

Panou, Despoina. “Equivalence in translation theories: A critical evaluation.” Theory and Practice in Language Studies 3.1 (2013): 1.

Miao, Ju. “The limitations of ‘equivalent effect.” Perspectives: Studies in Translatology 8.3 (2000): 197-205. CNKI. Web. 3 Nov. 2019

Zhou Wenmei. “Interpreting the linguistic idea in Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammar construction.”Yinshan Academic Journal. 32.3(Jun 2019):5-10. CNKI. Web. 4 Nov. 2019

Zhu Enlue. “A brief analysis of Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammar.” Overseas English. (2018):241-242. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019

Li Zhiwang. “An analysis of Chomsky’s generative transformational grammar and Nida’s ideas about translation.” Journal of Inner Mongolia Agricultural University. 3(2011):394-396. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019

Liu Fang and Deng Jie. “The comment of the new edition of Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications.” Contemporary Foreign Languages Studies. 4.(Apr 2010):54-58. CNKI. Web. 6 Nov. 2019

Stolt Birgit “Luther’s Translation of the Bible.” Lutheran Quarterly 28.4 (2014): 373-74.

Shi Chunrang, Zhao Wei. “Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation.” Foreign Language Research 5 (2005):96-100. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019

Xi Yan. “ Faithfulness-Expressiveness-Elegance, Tytler's three principles and Dynamic Equivalence——New Analyses on the Differences and Similarities of the Standard of Translation and the Causes.” Journal of Cangzhou Teachers' College 3 (2009): 40-42. CNKI. Web. 8 Nov. 2019
Bie Fangfang, and Huang Qin. “Dolet’s Translation Principles and Tytler’s Translation Principles: A Comparison.” Foreign Language Education 2007.0 (2007): 30. CNKI. Web. 9 Nov. 2019

Firdaus, Sonia. “Evolution of translation theories and practice.” The Dialogue (2012):272-294

Wang Chenjie. “A Systematic Comparison between Yan Fu's Theory of Faithfulness, Fluency, and Expressiveness and Tytler's Three General Rules of Translation.” Journal of Ningbo Institute of Education 1 (2008):70-73. CNKI. Web. 10 Nov. 2019

Chen Wen,. “On Yan Fu and the Influence of the “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance.” Journal of Chongqing University of Arts and Sciences (Social Sciences Edition) 6 (2012): 125-129. CNKI. Web. 11 Nov. 2019

='''The Emergence of Translation and Interpretation'''=

==On the Influences of Eugene Nida’s Translation Theory on Chinese Translation Studies 蒋凤仪 Jiang Fengyi 202070080636 MTI 英语口译==
<center>蒋凤仪 Jiang Fengyi 202070080636</center>

===Abstract===

Dr. Eugene Nida is well-known and influential western translation theorist, and as one of the representatives of linguistic translation theorist, his translation theory involves various aspects of translation, including the definition, principles, and process of translation, exerting profound influences on western countries and Asian countries, especially China. Since the 1980s, Nida’s translation theory entered China and has received profound attention from a wide range of Chinese scholars. This paper, taking ''Chinese Translators Journal'' as the object, aims to have a clear picture of the influences of his translation theory on the Chinese translation studies by investigating the number and content of papers related to Nida from the 1980s to the present.

===Key words===

Nida; translation theory; influence; Chinese translation studies

===摘要===

尤金·奈达博士是一位西方杰出的翻译理论家，作为语言学翻译理论派的代表人物之一，其翻译理论涉及翻译的各个方面，包括翻译的定义、原则和过程等，对西方国家及亚洲国家，尤其是中国影响深远。自20世纪80年代奈达翻译思想进入中国，得到了中国翻译学者的广泛关注和研究，本文以权威杂志《中国翻译》为调查目标，对其从20世纪80年代至今的奈达相关论文的数量和内容进行解读，并分析其翻译理论对于中国翻译研究领域所带来的影响。

===关键词===

奈达；翻译理论；影响；中国翻译研究

===Introduction===

Eugene Nida (1914-2011) is considered "one of the most influential theorists in the field of translation" by Delisle. (Tu & Xiao 2000, 100) Based on his biblical translation researches, he has created his own unique translation theory and published many well-known books such as ''The Scientific Exploration of Translation'', ''Translation Theory and Practice'', ''Language, Culture and Translating'', etc, in which he proposed his famous translation theories like “dynamic equivalence” and “reader’s response theory”, which have been popular and influential in the world till now. (Tan 1999, X)

Unlike western translators, Chinese translators have devoted themselves to translation practices but neglected the compiling of systematic and comprehensive theories. “Although there are dedicated translators who have produced many excellent translation works, the influential theories and researches lag behind.” (Tu & Xiao 2000, 3) After the proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance”, Yan Fu’s translation theory has dominated Chinese translation theories for more than one hundred years, which deprived the diversity of translation studies in China. (Tu & Xiao 2000, 3)

In the 1980s, Nida’s theory was introduced to China and has soon been widely studied and discussed by Chinese scholars. Among them Tan Zaixi and Lao Long are the representatives, who compiled and translated Nida’s works into Chinese and introduced his translation theory to China. The name Nida is deeply engraved on the history of Chinese translation, and Chinese scholar Chen Hongwei even defined it as “Nida Phenomenon". (Chen 2001, 46)

Founded in 1980, ''Chinese Translators Journal'', is an academic journal supported by China Foreign Languages Publishing Administration. Under the guidance of the Translators Association of China, it not only serves as the conference journal of the association but also a window for translation workers to exchange their views on translation and share the fruits of their translation studies. (Chen 2001, 46)

As a national-level core academic journal, it represents the authority in the Chinese translation field. Through publishing papers on this journal, Chinese scholars share the latest and hottest issues around translation, and the journal sets up columns such as ''Translation Research'', ''Translation Theory and Strategy'' for scholars to discuss and study translation theories at home and abroad, which make it an excellent object to have a glimpse at the trend and development of Chinese translation studies.

This paper takes the ''Chinese Translators Journal'' as the object, going through all the Nida-related papers published on the journal from 1980s to the present, and divides the time period into four stages, each taking for 10 years. By analyzing the number and content of the papers in each stage, it aims to figure out the acceptance and application of Nida’s theory by Chinese scholars and have a clear picture of the influences of Nida’s translation theory on the development of Chinese translation studies.

===1. Nida and His Translation Theory===

The name Eugene Nida is well known in the history of world translation and even in the world linguistic circles. During his life, he has conducted research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, communication tools, etc. He worked on the translation of ''The Bible'', published piles of papers, and wrote numerous books to share his views on translation, left the world with precious translation theory treasure. (Tan 1999, X)

Nida was born in November 1914 in Oklahoma, United States, and moved to California with his parents when he was five years old. He was raised as a Christian and aspired to be a missionary. After graduating summa cum laude from college, he went on to the University of Michigan, where he earned a master’s degree in 1939 and a doctoral degree in linguistics in 1943. In the same year, he worked for the American Bible Society, and after 1946 he became executive secretary of The Bible Translation Department. It was Nida’s serving this base for a long time that made his translation ideas deeply connected with ''The Bible'' and established his own banner in the western translation theory. (Tan 1999, XI-XII)

According to Tan Zaixi's book, Nida’s translation theory has mainly gone through three different stages: (1) the stage of descriptive language, (2) the stage of communication theory, and (3) the stage of social symbols. (Tan 1999, XV)

Devoted himself to the translation of ''The Bible'', he has summarized his experience and theories in some major works like ''The Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating'' (1959), ''Toward a Science of Translating'' (1964), and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''(1969), which are all of great significance for the world translation study. His major translation theory could be summarized as the followings:

1) Nida believed that “translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is an art”. (Nida & Taber 1969, Preface) By science, Nida meant to treat the problems of translating with scientific perspectives like linguistic structures, semantics analysis, and information theory. As there were different types of studies at that time, he tempted to provide an essentially descriptive approach to the translation process, and “the fundamental thrust is linguistics, as it must be in any descriptive analysis of the relationship between the corresponding message in different languages." (Nida 1964, 8)

2) Nida considered the study of translation as a study of communication by applying the theory of communication and information. Like communication, there are source, message and receptor in translation, and if the receptor could not understand the message, the communication is not accessible, so if the readers could not understand the meaning of the translated text, the translation could not be regarded as a success. (Nida 1964, chapter 6)

One should consider the amount of the message and the decoder channel to make sure that the message could be transferred by the decoder channel. A really successful translation, judged in terms of the response of the audience for which it is designed, must provide a challenge as well as information. In the process of translating, the translator should make a full analysis of the source language text from various aspects, such as the author, the message, the receptor and so on. (Nida 1964, chapter 6)

3) One of the well-known theories created by Nida is the “dynamic equivalence”, which was renamed “functional equivalence” later on. He claimed that there were fundamentally two types of equivalence: one of which may be called formal and another which is primarily dynamic. “One way of defining a dynamic translation is to describe it as the closest naturally equivalent to the source language message.“ (Nida 1964, 163)

Under this theory, a translator should not only seek to produce something relatively equivalent in the source language but also produce responses similar to that of the original language for readers. A good translation should meet the following requirements: (1) making sense, (2) conveying the spirit and manner of the original, (3) having a natural and easy form of expression, and (4) producing a similar response. (Nida 1964, 164)

4) Nida has also put forward a four-step procedure in the translation process: analysis, transfer, restructuring, and testing. The most complicated and fundamental part is analysis, especially the analysis of meaning. He focused on the study of grammatical meaning, which concerned the relationship with the words and the kernel sentence, referential meaning, and connotative meaning. He also mentioned that the translators need not to follow this order strictly as some procedures could happen at the same time. (Tan 1999, XIX)

In addition to these theories, Nida also focused on semantic analysis and rhetorical research in his later time. Although Nida’s theory has created new perspectives on language and culture and has profound influences in the world, it does not mean that his theory is perfect.

Tan Zaixi points out that “his theories focus too much on solving the problem of communicativeness and intelligibility of translations, thus limiting their scope of application.”（Tan 1999, XXIV) Besides, Nida once proposed in his book that translation is a science, but later he changed this claim, and Nida’s early view of translation is very different from his later view of translation, he even questioned whether translation needs to be guided by translation theory in his reply to Zhang Jinghao’s letter. (Zhang 2000, 5)

Throughout his life, Nida has made his own contribution to the biblical translation, yielding fruitful achievements in translation theory, and has opened up new perspectives for the field of translation such as linguistics and social semiotics. Even though his translation theory could not be considered perfect, it remains a shining jewel in the western translation theory despite of its limitations.

===2. The Studies of Nida’s Theory in China===

As soon as the introduction of Nida’s theory began in the 1980s, his new perspectives and valuable guidance for translating practice quickly captured the eyes of the Chinese scholars and has hit the Chinese translation field on a large scale, which could be reflected from the translation studies of Chinese scholars. Compared with other materials, journals have a shorter issuance cycle so as to be more time-sensitive and could quickly respond to the latest developments in the academic world. (Tu 2000, 15 )

As an authoritative magazine in the field of Chinese translation, ''Chinese Translators Journal'' records the trend and progress of Chinese Translation studies. The papers published on it related to Nida demonstrates the understanding, studies, and applications of Nida’s translation theory by Chinese scholars. By examining the number and content of relevant papers on ''Chinese Translators Journal'' from the 1980s to the present, this chapter aims to analyze the papers around Nida and his theory in 10-year periods to figure out the overall picture of the studies of Nida in China.

====2.1 The First Period: Beginning Stage====

The first 10-year was from 1980 to 1989: The number of papers focusing on Nida and his theory during this time was 13, the contents of which mostly limited to the introductions of Nida and his theory as scholars in China were not familiar with Nida and his theory at that time. In 1982, Professor Tan Xizai published his paper Translation is a Science----Review on Nida’s ''Toward a Science of Translating'', which introduced Nida’s book—T''oward a Science of Translating'' and some of his major theories like basic principles of translation, the function of translation, and the analysis of meaning, marked as the beginning of the studies of Nida’s translation in China. (Tan 1982, 4-11)

Some scholars joined him to have more introductions on Nida and his theories. Lao Long introduced the book ''On Translation'' written by Nida and Chinese translator Jin Di, which is a practice combing Nida’s theories with the Chinese translation practice (Lao 1987, 56-57), and Shi Heping made introductions on the book ''From one Language to Another'' (Shi 1987, 42-44).

Moreover, several scholars also attempted to apply Nida’s theory to solve other translation problems of free translation and literal translation, such as Lao Long. He believed that the equivalence of form and function raised by Nida is the key point to the free translation and literal translation, and the translators must cover the two aspects: form and function to achieve the closest natural equivalent. (Lao 1989, 3-6)

Among all those papers, there were also voices of criticism but was very few in number. Although Mr. Lao was among the first to introduce Nida’s theory, he published a paper to share his views after reading what Tan Xizai translated and edited from Nida’s ''Toward a Science of Translating''. He spoke highly of Tan’s work. Meanwhile, he reminded the translators in China that some of the western theories might not be applicable in China, especially the idea of kernel sentence. (Lao 1987, 56-57) Qian Linsheng also indicated in his paper that it might not be appropriate to set the reader’s response as the standard of the translation. He argued that the reader's response would be subjective and idealistic to some extent if it separates from the analysis of the original work, which could be used as reference but could never be the standard. (Qian 1988, 43)

====2.2 The Second Period: Surging Stage====

The second 10-year went from 1990 to 1999. The number of papers related to Nida and his theory during that period reached its peak to 22. This period could be regarded as a booming stage of the entering of Nida’s theory, not only owing to the mounting number of papers but also the diversity of the studies.

1) The scholars continued to have a further introduction of Nida’s theory, and at the same time, they compared Nida’s theory with other scholars in a large amount. As Nida has always devoted himself to the compiling of his works, the scholars in China have also spared no effort to follow his theories. Sun Yu has made a full introduction of the book ''Language, Culture and Translating'' and considered the views in this book of great reference meaning to Chinese translators. (Sun 1994, 47-49)

Moreover, more scholars tried to make comparisons between Nida and other western translators. Liao Qiyi studied the concept of "equivalence" between Nida’ “closest natural” and “dynamic equivalent” and Catford’s “textual equivalence” and had analyses in his paper, demonstrating that the equivalence in translation was a key concept in the process of translation. (Liao 1994, 35-37) Lin Kenan had an overall comparison between Nida's and Newmark's theory to find out the similarities and differences between their theories, aiming to give some references for Chinese scholars. (Lin 1992, 2-5)

2) There were still a group of scholars, including Lin Kenan (Lin 1996, 7-10+17), Xi Zhaoyan (Xi 1996, 3-6), and Heng Xiaojun & Wang Chengzhi (Heng & Wang 1995, 18-20), tried to employ Nida’s theory to solve the translation difficulties in China, and the concept of “translation equivalence” was the major one, for almost all those scholars regarded it as their theoretical support. Lin Kenan took Nida's theory into his translation of documents released by International Table Tennis Federation. In this practice, he used concepts like "dynamic equivalence", "seven kernel sentence", and reader's response, and argued that Nida's way of conveying message in the translating process was practical. (Lin 1996, 7-10+17)

3) With studies went further, more and more scholars recognized that even though Nida’s theory had provided ingenious perspectives for translation, it still had its own shortcomings. Scholars like Huang Bangjie (Huang 1996: 40-42+46) and Wang Shoureng (Wang 1992, 45-48) directly pointed out their critics towards the incompetence of the application of Nida’s theory in Chinese-English translation. Yang Xiaorong reflected upon the question in her paper that did the translators in China trully understand Nida's theory, and should the translation field in China make some adjustments towards the study of his theories. (Yang 1996, 9) Heng Xiaojun and Wang Chengzhi took Nida’s dynamic equivalence into compiling a bilingual dictionary but found out it might not work. (Heng & Wang 1995, 18-20)

====2.3 The Third Period: Transitioning Stage====

The third period was from 2000 to 2009. The number of papers connected with Nida and his theory during this period was 20. During this transition time, though the number of papers remained high, the contents have changed: the introductive papers at this period slumped, instead the scholars applied his theory to discuss the hotspot issues in China during that time, such as the possibility of setting the “translatology” for translation studies. Unlike the previous studies that focused on Nida’s theory only, more and more scholars regarded Nida‘s theory as an object for the comparisons with other major theorists during this time, among which the key concept has transferred from "equivalence" to "function". On top of this, a group of scholars continued to rethink the applications of Nida’s theory in China.

1) Li Tianxin mentioned the transformation of Nida’s thoughts in the possibility of whether translation could be a science to support her idea that translation could never be considered as a science in 2000. (Li 2000, 8-10) Lv Jun regarded Nida’s theory part of structuralism and made a review of Nida’s theory, together with some other major translation theories, to list the difficulties and major tasks that Chinese scholars faced when building the discipline of "translatology". (Lv 2001, 8-11.)

2) As Halliday’s functional grammar theory and other western theories came to China, more and more scholars compared those theories with Nida’s “functional equivalence” to have a better understanding of these translation theories, Among who Zhang Meifang and Qian Hong was two of the representatives. They listed Nida’s functional equivalence, Holmes’s function-oriented studies, Halliday’s functional grammar theory, and functionalism from German to make analyses between those theories and figure out the meaning of function in each of these theories, which pave the way for the study around function. (Zhang & Qian 2007, 10-16+93.)

3) As more and more western theories came to China and have been accepted by the translators, a group of translators pointed out the problems. However, at that time, Nida and his theory were no longer the major subject but were included in all the western theories. Lin Kenan, based on four M.A. degree theses, revealed the prevailing problems when scholars and M.A. students applyiing the overseas translation theories, one of which was Nida’s "dynamic equivalence", and gave some suggestions to improve the situation. (Lin 2003, 46) Zhang Jinghao, taking Nida’s theories as an example, illustrated that most the Chinese scholars have not really understood the essence of those western theories because of some reason like that most of the scholars only read the translated version and never delve in to the original books, and they simply accepted those theories without questioning and further practicing.(Zhang 2006, 59-61)

====2.4 The Fourth Period: Falling Stage====

The last period was from 2010 to 2020. The number of papers focusing on Nida and his theory during this period dropped to 8. The latest Nida-related paper on ''Chinese Translators Journal'' was published in 2015. The shrinking number clearly showed that Nida is not the main focus in the translation studies in this new century. Although ''Chinese Translators Journal'' could not represent the whole scope of translation study in China, it exactly showed that the research on Nida is no longer mainstream for Chinese translators.

For those 8 related papers, the contents still covered Nida’s major concepts like equivalence in scholar Cai Lijian's (Cai 2015, 81-87) and Liu Runze & Wei Xiangqing & Zhao Wenjing's papers. (Li & Wei & Zhao 2015, 18-24+127), but more scholars stretched to some theories that have been neglected in the early periods. Li Shaoyan quoted Nida’s social dialects to explain why interpreters should keep the culture in mind when working (Li 2011, 41-44), and both Wang Aiqin (Wang 2012, 98-102) and Wang Zhaoyuan (Wang 2012, 113-116) applied Nida’s translation procedures to form their own mode of translation procedures.

Besides translation studies, as this master of translation passed away in 2011, there was a piece of an obituary together with an article written by Ye Zinan to memorize him, which showed the great grief among the Chinese scholars for the loss of Nida and also the significance of Nida for the translation studies in China as Ye Zinan mentioned in his article:" Nida has a tremendous influences on the translation studies in China". (Ye 2011, 86)

====2.5 Summary====

According to the above number and content of the papers, in general, Nida’s theory in China has gone through the process of (1) introduction of works and theories, (2)study and comparison, and (3) retrospection and criticism. Since the 1980s when Tan Zaixi first published Nida's theory in China Translation, it has led to a Nida fever, and translators not only introduced Nida’s theory to China in a large scale but also try to apply Nida’s theory to solve Chinese translation problems, such as the debate between free translation and literal translation.

As the study went further, more and more criticism was formed upon the shortcomings of his theory and the imcompatibility of his theory in China, and then a group of scholars made retrospections on the study of Nida in China, and at the same time, they argued that Chinese scholars should have a dialectical view towards Nida’s theory, to learn its merits and abandon those incompatible. The study of Nida reached its climax in 1990-1999, for the entry of other Western translation theories then distracted Chinese scholars from their research, which was also the reason why a large group of scholars compared Nida’ theory with other translators’ in order to have a deeper understanding of their theories and provide a better reference for Chinese translation.

With only few theories under discussion, the passion for Nida’s theory has been gradually cooled down entering the 21 Century. Among all Nida’s theories, the concepts of dynamic equivalence, function, and translation procedure have been discussed and studied the most and have the greatest influence on Chinese translation scholars.

===3. The Influences of Nida’s Theory in China===

As a major figure in the translation field, Nida is regarded as one of the most influential theorists in the translation field. His translation theory was the first and most systematically western theory that was introduced and studied in China, which could be indicated from the number and content of the papers on ''Chinese Translators Journal'' from the 1980s till present.

====3.1 The Studies of Translation in China Before the Introduction of Nida’s Theory====

The large-scale translation activities in China originated in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The first person who formed a theory in China was the Buddhist master Dao An (312-385), who was enlightened by the process of his translating of Buddhist scriptures and proposed the theory of “Five Losses and Three Difficulties”, which was the beginning of Chinese translation theory. In his theory, he raised the question of “Wen” (text) and “Zhi” (form), which is essentially was the comparison of free translation and literal translation. The “Five Losses” covered aspects like the source language, syntax and style of the original text, and the later translation scholars also followed his path to have more researches on separate perspectives but never formed a standard for the evaluation of the translation. (Liu 1994, 2-3)

It was not until Yan Fu put forward the translation standard of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” that established a translation standard for Chinese translators. After Yan Fu put forward his concept, there were a large number of supporters. However, there were also many criticisms. Moreover, some translators gave new meanings to this theory and form their own theories, such as Liu Zhongde’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness”, and many others tried to put aside Yan Fu’s theory and created their own new translation theories, such as Lin Yutang’s “Faithfulness, Fluency, and Beauty” (Liu 1994, 5).

However, it is not difficult to recognize that these theories were still under the framework of Yan Fu’s theory. While the dispute between free translation and literal translation continued among the scholars, they still failed to provide practical criteria for judging translation in China. It was right at the time when Nida’s translation theory was spread into China.

====3.2 The Influences on Chinese Translation Studies After the Introduction of Nida’s Theory====

Based on the stagnant situation of the Chinese translation theory at that time, Nida brought a new light to the field of Chinese translation, led the trend of studying western translation theories in China, and triggered Chinese scholars to have a critical mind towards western translation theories.

=====3.2.1 It Brought New Perspectives for Translation Theory in China.=====

In contrast with the booming studies in translation studies in the West in the 1960s to 1970s, the development of translation studies in China almost paused in the 1950s because of some social unrest, which has been stagnating for at least 20 years. What’s more, translators have been struggling in the dispute between free translation and literal translation without producing a systematic and thorough interpretation. Since Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” was proposed, it has dominated Chinese translation theory for a long time. The reason why Yan Fu’s theory has been passed down for so many years was that there was no scientific and acceptable theory to take his place for the time being. (Tu & Xiao 2000, 100)

Hence, there was an urgent demand for breakthroughs in translation studies. Nida's theory on translation and the theoretical understanding of translation have brought Chinese translators brand perspectives, such as functional equivalence and readers’ response, which have never been fully covered by Chinese scholars and opened a window for Chinese scholars to study the language from the language itself instead of only translation such as linguistics and social symbols. (Tu & Xiao, 2000, 19)

In addition, Nida’s theory set specific standards for the evaluation of the translation. By studying, learning, and applying Nida’s theory, Chinese scholars have also produced their own corresponding theoretical structures, enriching the theories of Chinese scholars themselves. based on Nida’s theory, Wang Zhaoyuan had made his own translation procedures, which contains six steps: prepare, translate, examine the content, examine the style, examine the form and proofread. (Wang 2012, 113-116)

=====3.2.2 It Led the Trend of Studying Western Translation Theories.=====

Since the shortcomings and problems of the traditional translation theories in China appeared, the translators in China were also desperate to draw on some helpful theoretical elements from the achievements of the west in this field. Among them, Nida’s theory was a critical one. Since the introduction of Nida’s theory, scholars have conducted extensive discussions and studies from various perspectives. With Nida as a precedent, more and more Chinese scholars recognized the advancement of western theories and introduced other foreign translation theories to China. (Tu & Xiao 2000, 18)

Chen Hongwei scanned the papers on ''Chinese Translators Journal'' from 1980 to 2000 in all aspects and divided them into four stages. In addition to the introduction of Nida's theory, the theories of five translators were introduced in the first stage (1980-1984), the works and theories of 20 foreign translators were introduced in the second stage (1985-1989), 13 translators were introduced in the third stage (1990-1994), and the approaches and works of 17 translators were introduced in the fourth stage (1995-2000). (Chen 2001, 46-48)

While introducing the theories of other translators, a large number of scholars have compared them with Nida’s translation theories, and a large number of Western theories have entered China, enlivening the academic atmosphere of translation theories and enriching the theoretical foundation of the Chinese translation study.

=====3.2.3 It Liberated the Minds of Chinese Scholars Towards the Western Translation Theories.=====

After the introduction of Nida’s theory, a large group of translation scholars were attracted to his theory and carried out extensive studies, and almost all of them agreed with his unique perspectives. However, they gradually realized the shortcomings of Nida’s theory. since his theory was based on biblical translation, which bore religious and dissemination elements, and was different from the area of research among Chinese translation scholars, some of his theory was not applicable to Chinese translation.

This reflection on Nida’s theory has also prompted more Chinese scholars to reflect on the introduction and application of other western theories, realizing that Chinese and western theoretical systems are different and that they need to adopt a critical attitude, taking the essence and the dross. In his paper, Zhang Jinghao proposed that it is necessary to look at foreign translation theories calmly and objectively and at the same time return to the proper path of translation research in China, that is, to study Chinese traditions and experiences mainly, supplemented by foreign theories, which is the proper path that translation theory research in China should step on. (Zhang 2006, 61)

Moreover, it has encouraged Chinese scholars to question the western authority. In the later studies, it is obvious that even though scholars compared Nida’s theory with other theories and introduced more western translation theories, scholars no longer took the one-sided attitude that they had before, they tried to explore the foreign theories from multiple perspectives of a critical point of view, like positive and negative sides and promote the translation study in China to a more stable and mature path.

===Conclusion===

From the analysis of ''Chinese Translators Journal'', it can be seen that Nida’s theory has entered China through three stages: translation and introduction of works, study and comparison, and retrospection and criticism, and the number of Nida-related has experienced three periods: surging, transitioning and falling. In terms of time, the discussion was most enthusiastic from the 1980s to the beginning of the 21st century, and the important translation concepts under study included:“ functional equivalence”, “reader‘s response’, and ‘the procedure of translation’, which had a significant influence on Chinese translation scholars.

Throughout the history of translation in China, Chinese translators emphasize practice but not the guiding theory, and even though a small number of translators have summarized certain theoretical experiences, they have not been able to form a complete set of influential theories. Nida’s theory was novel in perspective, excelling in guiding the translation of ''The Bible'', and since the publication of ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'', his theoretical achievements have enjoyed a worldwide reputation in translation, which could add new sparks for Chinese translation study. This is why Nida’s theory has triggered such a strong impact after entering China, which can also be seen from the number of relevant papers in the ''Chinese Translators Journal''.

However, in the later period, Chinese scholars gradually discovered the incompatibility between Nida’s theory and the actual situation of Chinese translation and began to criticize Nida’s theory on a large scale.

At the same time, some scholars proposed to look at Nida's theory calmly and objectively, and finally the scholars realized that it is necessary to adopt an objective attitude towards foreign translation theories, focusing on Chinese translation experiences and practices, and some scholars extracted the merits from Nida’s theories and created their own theoretical systems, which is a new and mature path for the Chinese translation study.

Nida’s theory of translation has opened up a new perspective for Chinese translation and propelled Chinese translation to step on a new and correct path. Although Chinese translation scholars have taken some detours in the middle of this process, they made progress while groping and gradually discovered the path that Chinese translation itself should take, which could be regarded as one of the greatest contribution Nida’s theory has brought to Chinese translation studies.

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--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 15:23, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==A Study on the History of Interpretation and the Prospect of Interpretation in China 雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi 202070080639 MTI 英语口译==

<center>雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi 202070080639</center>

===Abstract===
This paper mainly outlines the development history of interpretation, briefly compares the development history of interpretation in China and the West and their respective development characteristics, and compares the interpretation research in the West with the late start of interpretation research in China, and the development history of interpretation research in China in the past 40 years of reform and opening up, mainly through four stages: the "budding period" from the late 1970s to the late 1980s, the "initial development period" in the 1990s, the "emerging period" in the first decade of the 21st century, and the "diversified development period" in the second decade of the 21st century.Finally reviewed the current state of development and future prospects of interpretation research in China.

===Key Words===
Interpretation, historical development, interpretation studies, development trends

===摘要===
本文主要概述了口译的发展历史，简要对比中西方口译发展历程和各自的发展特点，对比西方的口译研究，中国对口译的研究起步较晚，在改革开放40年来中国口译研究的发展历程，主要经历四个阶段：20世纪70年代末到80年代末的“萌芽期”、20世纪90年代的“初步发展期”、21世纪头十年的“新兴期”、21世纪第二个十年进行中的“多元发展期”，最后就目前中国口译研究的发展现状和未来展望进行评析。

===关键词===
口译，历史发展，口译研究，发展趋势

===1.Introduction===

The expression of the meaning of one language through another language is called translation. There are two main forms of translation, namely, interpretation and translation. Interpretation can be between two different national languages, or between a standard language and a dialect or between a dialect and another dialect.

Interpreting has a long history and is one of the oldest professions of human beings. In primitive societies, primitive tribal groups ruled separately.with the development of history, this self-enclosed form of society hindered the economic and cultural progress of human beings, so the tribes had the desire and need to cross the frontiers and develop outward into the countryside for trade and cultural exchange. The language barrier became the biggest obstacle to this cross-ethnic communication. Interpretation as a language intermediary can make people realize the desire of economic and cultural communication with the outside world. Thus,bilingual or multilingual interpretation is born.

Human interpretation activities have also recorded the political, economic, military, cultural, scientific and technological, health and educational interactions between people of all races in the world over the centuries. All the major events in human history have been marked by interpretation. In the history of human development, interpretation activities have become the lubricant that drives the wheels of human society to roll. With the development of the times, people's communication has become deeper and deeper, and the concept of "global village" has gradually come to the fore, so the status of interpretation has become extremely important. The establishment of the United Nations, especially the Geneva International Conference Interpreters Association, has brought its status to an unprecedented level. At the same time, interpretation has also entered the universities as a discipline, and its development has become increasingly rapid and perfect.As a country that attaches importance to international friendship and multilateral trade, China has been paying more attention to interpretation and cultivating interpretation talents, and the research on interpretation in China has been increasing year by year, and China will continue to pay attention to the development and progress of interpretation in the future, and the overall development will show a good and steady rise.（Zhao Yonghong,2007）

===2.The overall development and overview of the Interpretation===

Language interpreting is known to date back to Ancient Egypt during the 3rd millennium B.C. The first records of interpreting were in the form of Egyptian low-relief sculptures in a prince’s tomb that made reference to an interpreter supervisor.In ancient China as early as the Spring and Autumn period there was the work of translation, at that time was called "tongue man", while we in the "Book of Rites - King's system" “五方之民，言语不通，嗜欲不同，达其志，通其欲。东方曰寄，南方曰象，西方曰狄鞮，北方曰译。”And "The Rites of Zhou - Autumn Officials - Preface Official" (Jia Gongyan, a great scribe and linguist of Tang Dynasty)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book.

Oral communication preceded the emergence of writing, so the work of interpretation also preceded that of translation, so the history of interpretation as a social phenomenon or social activity can be traced back to a long time ago. However, interpretation as an internationally recognized profession began at the end of World War I at the Paris Peace Conference. Although there have been interpreters in Western countries for hundreds of years, most of them are part-time interpreters. It was at the beginning of the 20th century that interpreting was recognized as a formal profession internationally. In 1919, after the end of World War I, the organizers of the Paris Peace Conference recruited a large number of full-time interpreters who worked as official interpreters for the Paris Peace Conference as 'successive interpreters. '(or "consecutive translators," as they were called). "The founders of the Paris Peace Conference ended the agency.

From then on, the professional nature of interpreting was recognized, and the training of basic methods and skills of interpreting began to be emphasized. After the end of the World War Two, the Nuremberg War Criminals Trial adopted the method of near-simultaneous interpretation of the original and translated languages. The emergence of new forms of interpretation, marked by "simultaneous interpretation", made people look at the uniqueness of the profession of senior interpreters. With the creation of the United Nations and the emergence of various global and regional organizations, international interactions have become more frequent, and a vivid modern drama has been performed on the multilateral and bilateral stages of the world, in which interpreters have played a unique role.

The status of professional international conference interpreters is getting higher and higher, the United Nations has established a special translation agency, and the study of its principles and methods by the International Association of Senior Interpreters has also entered higher education institutions. For over half a century, senior interpreters have been looked for by international agencies, governments, and various cross-cultural institutions and organizations. Professional interpreters have become a highly respected and noble profession, especially senior international conference interpreters, who are both intelligent linguists and knowledgeable international diplomats.

However, the history of formal interpreting that we now see commonly used in various international conferences and negotiations is not very long. The first large-scale use of conference interpretation in history was at the end of World War I. The Paris Peace Conference held in 1919 was the first large-scale official use of consecutive interpretation in history.The first large-scale use of simultaneous interpretation in history was at the end of World War II.Before that, consecutive interpretation was commonly used at international conferences because the working languages were mostly limited to French and English, and the science and technology required for simultaneous interpretation equipment had not yet been developed. It was not until 1947, when the trial of Nazi war criminals was held in Nuremberg, Germany, where four languages were used simultaneously: German, English, French and Russian, that the use of simultaneous interpretation began to be experimented with in order to improve the efficiency of the court. Initially, the method used was that after a speech, different interpreters simultaneously translated the speech into the other three languages and transmitted it through headphones to the ears of different listeners. Of course, this was still in fact consecutive interpretation.

Later, further experiments were conducted with simultaneous interpretation of speeches, which greatly improved the efficiency and thus began to be used on a large scale, which led to the first real simultaneous interpretation in history.Now,with the development of science and technology, there were more equipment helping the work of interpreting.It is the golden age of the interpreting profession.

====2.1 The development of the Interpretation in west====

Interpreting is ancient. Maybe as ancient as languages or mankind. Interestingly enough there are references to interpreters in many different historical sources.
Cicero in ancient Rome spoke highly of his interpreter and the services the interpreter did for him. In the Ottoman empire interpreters were called dragoman and their roles were not just interpreting but also acting as guides, go-betweens and door-openers to the Ottoman empire. The Ottoman empire also had sworn court interpreters, as can be seen from old court records from the Ottoman empire. Update December 6, 2010: Another interesting post on dragomans and the history of interpreting by Unprofessional Translations
There were also sworn court interpreters in Spain in the 16th Century. And interpreters were also used by the conquistadors to communicate with the indigenous people in the Americas. Although the training those interpreters received were perhaps not to be envied. Natives were brought back to Spain where they worked as slaves and learnt the language. If they were judged good enough they were brought back to their origins to act as interpreters.

Interpreters continued to be employed throughout the middle Ages. Monks of many different nationalities interpret in monasteries; preachers of foreign lands interpret in councils, as well as some individuals interpreting on business expeditions, military incursions and diplomatic meetings.During the Age of Discovery,the use of new and different languages had greatly changed the way we see interpretation today. Christopher Columbus in his first voyage noted that his Arabic and Hebrew-speaking interpreters we not very helpful in communicating with the Indians. After this voyage he decided to capture some Native Americans and teach them Spanish so they could help him as interpreters on his next expedition.

But interpreting hit the headlines with the Nüremberg Trials. Although interpreting was used at the international organizations before the Second World War, this was the first time that large scale simultaneous interpreting was used. Technology now allowed interpreters to listen to the original in head phones and interpret into a microphone that broadcast the interpreting to listeners. Hardly any of the interpreters who interpreted at the Nüremberg Trials had any interpreting training. But most of the interpreters there then went on to a career in interpreting. These interpreters were the founding fathers and mothers of the profession. They were active in the professionalization of interpreters, they helped training new interpreters and they lay the foundations of AIIC, the international association for conference interpreters.

Community interpreters are a different case. Community interpreting has not started its professionalization until the past 10 or 15 years. Community interpreters were typically because of friends and and family of the person needing community interpreting. However, thanks to researchers and very active community interpreters, and in particular thanks to the critical link conference, community interpreting is slowly gaining professional standards in the same way as its big sister conference interpreting.
（https://interpretings.net/2010/09/13/history-of-interpreting/）
（https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.）

====2.1.1The four development stages of western interpretation research====

The Pre-research Period

From the 1950s to the early 1960s, mainly focused on interpreters talking about their personal experiences, observing and reflecting on interpreting behaviors and the working environment of interpreters, and exploring issues such as the language and knowledge requirements of interpreters, the difficulties encountered by interpreters in their work, the relationship with clients or fatigue, etc. The issues discussed include the language and knowledge requirements of translators, the difficulties they encounter in their work, their relationship with clients or their fatigue, etc. The research at this stage was not very theoretical, but the two manuals published during this period, Rozen (1956) and Herbert (1952)1, are classics, among which the basic principles and methods of consecutive interpreting notes described in Rozen's book are still widely accepted today.

The Experimental Psychology Period

From the 1960s to the early 1970s, mainly some psychologists and psycho-linguists used the theoretical framework of psychology and psycholinguistics to study the cognitive problems of interpreting, put forward some hypotheses about the process of interpreting, and analyzed source language, noise speaking speed, the impact of variables such as EVS (Ear-Voice Span, i.e. the time difference between the two streams of the source language and the translated language) on interpretation and the countermeasures often adopted by interpreters, etc.. However, some authors are skeptical about whether this phase of research can really help people better understand the interpreting process.

The early 1970s to the mid-1980s was dominated by theoretical research conducted by interpreting practitioners (most of them were part-time interpreting teachers). The most representative theory was the théorie du sens (interpretation theory) created by the École Supérieure des Interprètes de Paris (ESIT), which emphasized that interpretation was centered on meaning rather than on the translation of words and language structures. The théorie du sens theory was once the dominant theory in the interpretation community and still has a positive influence in interpretation training today. However, research at this stage was relatively isolated, there was a lack of communication between schools of thought, and the significance of empirical research was almost completely ignored.

The Renewal Period

It began in the latter half of the 1980s, marked a turning point with an important conference on interpretation held at the University of Trieste in Italy in 1986, from which interpretation research entered a new historical period. In the third stage, the dominant views and theories were openly questioned and challenged, and the interpreting community ended its isolation for many years, and extensive and in-depth exchanges among various schools of thought began.
(Xiao Xiaoyan，2002，71-72)

====2.2 The development of the Interpretation in china====

Interpretation as a specialized profession has a history of more than 2,000 years in China. In ancient times,as early as the Spring and Autumn period,people who were engaged in the profession of interpretation were called "tongue man" or “Yi”. (“译”、“寄”、“象”、“狄银”、“通事”或“通译”) In the Book of Rites(《礼记·王制》), it is written that“五方之民言语不通，嗜欲不同。达其志，通其欲，东方日寄，南方曰象，西方日狄革是，北方曰译。”The "Kueixing miscellaneous knowledge after the collection - translator" (《癸幸杂识后集·译者》)made this explanation: "translation, Chen also; Chen said that the internal and external words are established this transmitter of the language to pass its will, now the north is said to be through the matter."(“译，陈也；陈说内外之言皆立此传语之人以通其志，今北方谓之通事。”) The Later Han Dynasty - The Chronicle of Emperor He mentions the demand for translators at that time: "Duguo Xi refers to, then pass translators 40,000." (“都护西指，则通译四万。”)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book.

Interpretation as a discipline began to be studied by some experts and scholars, and it started relatively late. The study of interpretation in the West basically started after World War II, while in China, it was not until the early 1980s that some articles analyzing the characteristics and techniques of interpretation were published, and its development was relatively slow. Only after 1996 did it start to develop rapidly and achieve some scientific achievements.

Since the founding of the People's Republic of China, China has become more and more active in the international arena. In the early 1970s, China returned to the United Nations and since then its international status has been rising rapidly. After entering the 1980s, marked by reform and opening up, China's economy began to take off and the door to the outside world opened wider and wider. In the 1990s, when the economies of many countries and regions in the East and West were in recession, China's economic train continued to run at high speed with its strong vitality along the track to the ranks of the world's economically developed countries. A China that has chosen a socialist market economy with great success and has become the preferred target of many overseas investors and tourists. A fully open China, which is following the path of a strong nation at a steady pace, has more and more contact points and a larger contact area for foreign exchanges. The demand for all kinds of interpreters is increasing day by day, and the contradiction between the supply and demand of senior interpreters is becoming more and more prominent.

The "Shanghai English Interpreting Qualification Examination" has come into being, and English undergraduate majors in all colleges and universities across China have been offering practical courses on interpreting, and "Research and Practice of Interpreting" as a course combining theory and practice has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree classes by more and more colleges and universities. As a course combining theory and practice, "Interpretation Research and Practice" has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree courses by more and more universities. Some universities have also held national seminars on interpretation. This is the need of the times, the need of the country and the need of the market. At the same time, the study of interpretation has also enriched the theories of linguistics and applied linguistics (such as psycholinguistic studies, discourse studies, bilingual studies and translation studies).

====2.2.1The four development stages of Chinese interpretation research====

The "budding period" from the late 1970s to the late 1980s

During this period, there were only 27 papers on interpretation published in core foreign language journals,and the research on interpretation in China was still in the nascent stage, and the topics discussed in the papers were mostly at the level of experience introduction, and many papers only raised some phenomena and problems without in-depth discussion from the theoretical level.The landmark event of this period is the opening of the "United Nations Interpreter and Translator Training Course" in Beijing Foreign Language Institute in 1979, which has trained nearly 100 interpreters by the early 1990s.(Chen Bei,2009)

The "Initial Development Period" in the 1990s

Between 1990 and 1999, 112 papers on interpretation were published in core foreign language journals, and the research on interpretation in China entered the "initial development period". Most of the papers in this period were mainly focused on the summary of interpretation skills and the discussion of the prescriptive teaching methods, and in general, the interpretation research in this period lacked theoretical guidance. Although a few scholars (e.g. Bao Gang and Liu Heping) began to pay attention to the combination of interpretation teaching concepts and interpretation theories, the theoretical perspectives are still relatively homogeneous and mainly focus on interpretation theories.

During this period, professional interpretation teaching started to be initiated in institutions. In the 1990s, Beijing Foreign Studies University started to establish a senior translation school, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies established a translation department in the College of English, and with the support of the British Council, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies and Xiamen University both offered professional interpretation courses, and Beijing Language and Culture College also offered professional interpretation courses in the French major.The first and second National Symposium on Interpretation Theory and Teaching held in 1996 and 1998 were the main academic events of interpretation in this period, marking the beginning of the development of interpretation research in China with the awareness of research fields.(Chen Bei,2009)

The "Emerging Period" in the first decade of the 21st century

With the formal establishment of interpretation majors in some universities and the development of interpretation practice in the direction of professionalization and specialization, interpretation research in China entered the emerging period. 251 papers on interpretation were published in core foreign language journals from 2000 to 2009.
In this period, not only the number of interpretation papers has increased significantly, which is equivalent to twice of the previous period, but also the quality of research has improved significantly, and interpreting researchers have started to break away from the traditional research perspective, pay attention to the research results of other disciplines (Liu Heping 2001a), and are not satisfied with putting forward some prescriptive principles and methods of interpreting and interpreting teaching, but begin to try to explore the inner laws of interpreting and the principles and methods of teaching In this period, Shanghai Foreign Language Institute (SFLI) has been working on the concept behind the teaching of interpretation.

During this period, Shanghai Foreign Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, etc. established senior translation schools one after another, and the training of doctoral students in interpretation studies also started in Beijing Foreign Studies University, Shanghai Foreign Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, etc.

The "National Conference on Interpretation" was held every two years and became an important academic event to unite the strengths of interpretation research, and the 5th National Conference and International Conference on Interpretation held in 2004 was themed "Interpretation Professionalization: International Experience and Development in China".With the theme of "Professionalization of Interpretation: International Experience and Development in China", the conference focused on the problems and challenges faced by Chinese interpreters on the road to professionalization, such as the standardization and professionalization of the profession and the marketization of interpretation, and discussed the training and certification of interpreters, interpretation theory and interdisciplinary research, as well as interpretation teaching and evaluation (Yuanyuan Mu and Jun Pan 2005), and began to publish the Proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference. The conference also started to publish the proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference.(Chen Bei,2009)

The "Period of Diversified Development" in the Second Decade of the 21st Century

From 2010 to 2017, there were more than 300 papers on interpretation in core journals. In this period, not only the number of published papers continued to increase, but also the quality of research has been significantly improved, the research themes were diversified, and the research methods are also more diversified.
The vigorous development of interpretation research in China during this period is inseparable from two driving forces: first, the establishment of undergraduate translation majors and master's degrees in translation (MTI) in mainland China; second, the strengthening of exchanges between the Chinese interpretation research community and the international interpretation research community.

During the 7th National Conference and International Symposium on Interpretation, the interaction between the conference organizers and representatives of the international interpretation research community led to the publication of the authoritative international journal Interpreting: International Journal of Research and Practice in Interpreting in 2009. In 2011, the book was published in John Benjamins Publishing's famous "Benjamins Translation Library" under the title of "Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China". The book was published in 2011 as a stand-alone book entitled Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China in John Benjamins' famous Benjamins Translation Library series, which then became "an international showcase of the interface of Chinese interpreting research" (Wang Binhua and Zheng Xun 2011).

And,some young Chinese scholars have completed their doctoral dissertations in the field of interpretation research and become the new force of Chinese interpretation research; some Chinese interpretation researchers have started to go to international academic circles, either publishing papers in international important translation journals or applying for teaching positions in international famous universities, forming interaction with international interpretation research circles.

===3.Current situation and the prospect of the interpretation in China===

At present, the interpretation work is subdivided into five major categories:conference interpreting,court interpreting,business interpreting,accompaniment interpreting and document translation. From the perspective of language, there is a need for Spanish, Korean, Japanese, French, German and other small language talents.

Nowadays, with the expanding foreign economic and cultural exchanges, a translation market of ten billion RMB has been created in China. Especially in the past two years, a large number of translation companies emerged all over the country, and the translation service market in China is expanding rapidly. At present, there are more than 6,000 professional translation registration companies of various kinds, and there are tens of thousands of companies registered in the name of consulting companies, printing agencies, etc., which actually undertake translation business. In Shanghai alone, there are more than 200 translation registration companies.

However, the shortage of translation service teams is still a major problem plaguing the translation industry. The existing translation professionals employed in China are about 60,000, and the number of translation practitioners is conservatively estimated to be 600,000, while the relevant sample survey shows that the number may reach 1 million. Even so, the existing translation team is still unable to meet the huge market demand.(wenku)

Guo Xiaoyong, executive deputy director of the China Foreign Language Bureau and first executive vice president of the China Translation Association, said that the biggest challenge facing Chinese translation work is undoubtedly the shortage of qualified translators, and "it is not a shortage in the general sense, but an extreme shortage, especially the serious shortage of high-quality and professional translators who can undertake the ever-expanding tasks of foreign cultural exchanges.(http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm)

The current translation work also faces many problems and challenges, including the lack of scientific understanding and due attention to the importance of translation work and its laws, as well as the unclear positioning of the industry, which affects the sustainable development of the industry, and the lack of access system, which causes a number of poorly qualified translation enterprises and practitioners to enter the translation market.

according to the statistics of the Ministry of Human Resources and Social Security, by the end of 2010, there were less than 30,000 professional translators (i.e. those who have obtained professional and technical titles of translation) in state-owned enterprises and institutions; the number of people who have passed the national translation professional qualification (level) examination is more than 27,000; the undergraduate and master's degree education in translation which started not long ago It is estimated that only a few thousand translation graduates have been trained so far, and it is difficult for such a limited professional team to meet the needs of increasingly extensive international exchanges.

Over the past 30 years, with the joint efforts of the Chinese translation industry and people inside and outside the industry, the face of China's translation industry has undergone great changes. Among them, as of November this year, 57 colleges and universities in China have been approved to offer professional degree courses in translation and 159 colleges and universities have been approved to offer professional degree courses in translation. Translation education has developed from being an auxiliary means of foreign language teaching in the past to becoming an independent discipline specialty for training professional translation talents and translation research talents, and has made a major breakthrough in the status of higher education, and the translation discipline system has become more and more perfect; the language service industry with The language service industry with translation as its core has developed into a new industry, with an average annual growth rate of 18.4% between 2003 and 2011; it is expected to grow at an average annual rate of 15% during the 12th Five-Year Plan period, which will be higher than the average speed of China's economic development.

With the increasing international status of China, the density of international conferences is also greater, and the number of professional English interpreters capable of handling larger international conferences in China is only about 10,000. so we should cultivated more interpreting talents and attach great importance to the cultivation of high-quality and specialized translation talents in shortage,establish an industry-university-research combination model linking industry associations, colleges and universities and employers, further improve the translation professional education system, further improve the evaluation and certification system for translation talents and promote it in the whole society to form a consensus in the industry.(http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm)

With the increasing international status of China, the density of international conferences is also greater, and the number of professional English interpreters capable of handling larger international conferences in China is only about 10,000. so we should cultivated more interpreting talents and attach great importance to the cultivation of high-quality and specialized translation talents in shortage,establish an industry-university-research combination model linking industry associations, colleges and universities and employers, further improve the translation professional education system, further improve the evaluation and certification system for translation talents and promote it in the whole society to form a consensus in the industry.

===4.Conclusion===

Interpretation has gone through a long process of development from low to high level, from imperfect to increasingly perfect, and it continues to develop steadily along a long development trajectory of more than two thousand years, and its characteristics will be increasingly enriched and intermingled.

Today, the wheel of history has brought us into a new century. It is the century of comprehensive revitalization of our country, the century of recasting glory, the century of extensive exchanges and common prosperity between Chinese culture and cultures of all ethnic groups in the world, and it is also the golden age of the interpreting profession. Over the years, China has carried out all-round and multi-level exchanges with other countries in the world, allowing us to better understand the world and the world to better understand us. As an indispensable intermediary force in Sino-foreign exchanges, foreign interpreters are shouldering the heavy responsibility of history. Today, more than ever, China needs a large number of qualified full-time or part-time interpreters to build and strengthen the bridge of foreign communication.

===Bibliography===

* Li Nanqiu 黎难秋(2002),中国口译史[The history of interpretation in China],青岛出版社[Qingdao Press]
* Zhao Yonghong, Zhao Hualing, Yao Jiaonv, Huang Lina, Wan Lili 赵永红，赵华玲，姚脚女，黄丽娜，万莉莉(2007),口译的发展史及特点[The history and characteristics of interpretation]
* Xiao Xiaoyan 肖晓燕(2002),西方口译研究：历史与现状[Study of Western Interpretation: History and Current Situation],71-72
* https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.
* http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm
* Chen Bei 陈蓓(2009),中国口译研究：历史和现状分析[Study of Interpretation in China: An Analysis of History and Current Situation]
* https://interpretings.net/2010/09/13/history-of-interpreting/--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 15:28, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi

==The Three Translation Climaxes in the History of Chinese Translation in Relation to the Social and Cultural Development of China 郑华君 Zheng Huajun 202020080669 亚非语言文学（朝鲜韩国文学方向）==
===Abstract===
The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Eastern Han Dynasty, formed the first important period in the history of translation in China. In the following thousands of years, the history of Chinese translation has gone through some important historical periods, and the theory and practice of translation have constantly interacted with each other. When we open the history of translation, we can see that a large number of translators appeared during the translation climaxes in different periods of Chinese history, and both the theory and practice of translation have made great achievements. The several translation climaxes in Chinese history have had an important impact on Chinese literature, culture and society, including the development of Chinese translation itself.

===Key words===
History of Chinese；Translation Climax； Socio-Cultural Development in China

===题目===
中国翻译史上的三次翻译高潮与中国社会文化发展的关系

===摘要===
起始于东汉时期的佛经翻译形成了我国翻译历史上第一个重要时期。在此后的一千多年的时间里, 中国翻译史上又经历了一些重要的历史时期, 翻译理论与实践不断互动。打开翻译史册, 可以看到中国不同时期的翻译高潮都产生了一大批翻译家, 翻译理论和实践都取得了很大成就。中国历史上的几次翻译高潮对中国的文学、文化、社会包括中国翻译事业自身发展产生了重要影响。

===关键词===
中国翻译史翻译高潮中国社会文化发展

===I.Introduction===
Scholars who study translation have different views on the division of historical periods of translation climaxes.
Some think that the translation circles in China has experienced five great climaxes so far, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement, the translation of Eastern and Western literature from the early period of the Founding of the People's Republic to the Cultural Revolution, and the period when translation has blossomed in various fields from the 1970s to the present.

According to some people, "the fourth translation climax in Chinese history is now flourishing on the land of China, and it is a spectacular scenario. There were three translation climaxes in Chinese history: the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, and the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement. But this translation climax is incomparable to the three previous ones in terms of scale, scope, quality and contribution to the development of Chinese society." (Ma Zuyi 1998:46).

And André Lefevere, in his article ''Thinking about Chinese and Western Translation'', mentions that "there were three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures from 2nd to 7th centuries AD, the spread of Western Christian culture in the 16th century, and the introduction of modern Western thoughts from the 19th century onwards. " (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2) :66-71)

We believe that the second viewpoint is similar to the third viewpoint to some extent, therefore, this paper will analyze the relationship between the three translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation and the development of Chinese society and culture by examining the first three translation climaxes that have been completed.

This is because such a division is conducive to analyzing the interactions between translation and society and culture. The four translation climaxes have made translation no longer a "pigtail" or a "matchmaker", and have freed translation from the superficial understanding that it is only a tool of communication. Next, we will focus on the impact of these climaxes on the development and change of society and culture, and the role of each climax on the society and culture of a specific period.

===II.Introduction of the three translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation===

====1.The First Translation Climax-The Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties====

The first high point of translation in China was the translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Han Dynasty, flourished in the Tang Dynasty, declined in the Song Dynasty, and came to an end in the Yuan Dynasty, and its influence on Chinese culture and thought was enormous. Generally speaking, the emergence of any phenomenon in human history has its specific political, economic and cultural background, which provides the soil for the germination and growth of such phenomenon, and translation of Buddhist scriptures is no exception.

During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the translators were mainly some monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. All of them have their own representative translation theories, and the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation are inseparable from their efforts.

At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also had a great influence on Chinese culture, such as influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning, enriching the world of imagination, strengthening storytelling, changing the form of literature, and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; or vice versa, the development of translation cause also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.

====2.The Second Climax of Translation-Technical Translation in the Late Ming and Early Qing Dynasties====
The second climax of translation went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to technological progress and social development. With the development of maritime navigation, the exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not limited to commodities, but also included culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.

In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as the medium for the exchange of Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendar, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc. into China. During this period, many of the most famous translators emerged, such as Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbao, the Germans Tang Ruowang, and the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo.

The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize Chinese cultural deficiencies and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China itself, and to be inspired in their thinking.

====3.The Third Climax of Translation: Translation of Western Studies from the Opium War to the Post-May Fourth Period====
China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the aspect of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and intended to learn from Western countries by various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress.During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, including traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented.

A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists included Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xubai, Chen XiYing, Lin Yutang and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China.

On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on Chinese was also great. Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on using ancient style to translate Western studies; some translators, such as Qu Qubai, insisted on "absolute vernacular"; others, such as Lu Xun, "disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'absolute vernacular'. Other translators, such as Lu Xun, "disagreed with the idea that the so-called 'absolute vernacular' should be advocated for the absolute exclusion of literary and written languages from translation.

In short, this culmination of translation has freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expression of the language, making it very different from before in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors,at the same time, its grammatical functions have also been enhanced.

===The constraints and influence of socio-cultural factors on the three translation climaxes===
"Translation is never produced in a vacuum" (Lefevere 1998:3). Therefore, translation studies need to "objectively examine the dynamics of translation in a particular historical and cultural context, analyze and study the constraints of social, historical and cultural factors on translation strategies and methods, and the impact of translations on the receiving culture". (Liao Qiyi 2002 (2):106-109) Translation usually reflects the position of the subject culture to the foreign culture, and the translation strategy is usually the result of the interaction between the subject culture and the foreign culture, so the choice of translation strategy is never accidental.

====1.The first translation climax====
The first translation climax spanned the Han and Tang Dynasties. There was no lack of translators from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang Dynasty, for example, Xuanzang, a landmark translator in the history of translation, was born in the Tang Dynasty. Long-term political stability and unprecedented socio-economic development built up its national power and created a harmonious cultural atmosphere at that time. All kinds of ideas, cultural and artistic forms blossomed and competed with each other.

The country as a whole showed a healthy and positive cultural mentality, because it was tolerant and unrestrained, and dared to introduce foreign cultures, which led to an unprecedented peak of economic and cultural exchanges between China and other countries. A healthy national cultural mentality undoubtedly provided a wonderful platform for Xuanzang to achieve immortal works in the history of Chinese translation. Before that, many translators had already established translation standards and translation theories worthy of reference, such as "On the Five Failures" and "Three Failures" by Dao An of the Western Jin Dynasty, and "The Eight Preparations" by Yan Bo of the Sui Dynasty, The translation method is already quite thorough.

As a patriarch of his generation, Xuanzang, who was well versed in Sanskrit and Chinese, deeply studied Buddhist texts, and was well excelled in Buddhist doctrine, changed the old practice of relying on foreigners for translations and became the founder of new translations by taking charge of his own translations and punishing the mistakes of previous generations. It is no coincidence that his translations have met the demand of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" from the beginning to the end, i.e., they are both "true" and "popular", and no one has been able to surpass them so far.

The rigorous attitude of Xuanzang in translating the scriptures, the large number of volumes, and the fluency of his translations have surpassed those of the masters before and after him. His translation is prudent and precise in language, so it has reached the "perfection". He does not advocate the style of translation of Hatamurashi, which is "not strict to get the original text, but directly taking the meaning", and opposes the style of direct translation. His translation strives to match the words and meaning of the original text, while the text follows the words, and he does not stick to one case of direct translation.

His aim was not to exoticize the Chinese language, but to create an original style of translation that was "strict and serious", without compromising the original meaning, to make it easy for the reader to understand. Firstly, he understood the original text thoroughly, and then expressed it clearly in appropriate Chinese, and often added a concluding phrase after a section to make the translation exegetical and enriching; sometimes he used another translation name instead of specialized terms to make it easy for readers to understand. His theory of "five non-translations" of sound and meaning became the model for later translations of scriptures.

Liang Qichao, in "Translation of Literature and Buddhist Texts," argued 'If Xuanzang is a translator, then the translation is straightforward, full and harmonious, and the ultimate track of the Way. According to the research of Indian scholar Pak Lok Tin and Chinese scholar Zhang Jianmu, Xuan Zang successfully used translation techniques, such as complementary method, omission method, transposition method, division method, transliteration method and pronouns reduction method in his translation of the scriptures.

After an in-depth study of the Sanskrit and Chinese Buddhist scriptures, Liang considers Xuanzang's translation 'faithful to the original text and not awkward to read, it has reached the pinnacle of excellence'. Although the main culture of Xuanzang's time 'occupied the central position of culture', it 'absorbed heterogeneous cultures' (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2): 66-71).

It has enriched itself, and has been promoted and developed. "Liang Qichao found that, in terms of vocabulary alone, there are about 35,000 words in Chinese that come from translations of Buddhist scriptures, such as 'cause and effect', 'world', 'perfection ', 'enlightenment', 'true meaning', etc. In terms of syntax, the judgment-sentence 'is', the interrogative sentence 'what is ', the dictum 'not also', and the passive sentence 'be done' and so on.The Chinese language has been introduced one after another, and has become familiar to people." (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71)

====2.The second translation climax====
The second translation climax occurred in the middle and late Ming Dynasty. During this period, the feudal rulers adopted a policy of seclusion, which hampered China's progress and its exchanges with the outside world., and only a few translations were published, such as the Northern Song Dynasty, where Emperor Taizong built a translation institute in the Taiping Xingguo Temple in Kaifeng and issued an edict to translate the scriptures. In the Yuan Dynasty, several people, such as Bahesipa and Guanshangba, were ordered to translate the scriptures.

In the Ming Dynasty, the government's control over society was the tightest it had ever been; the eunuchs were poisoned, adding to the misery; the scholars were trapped in the eight examinations and lacked independent thought; and the reopened Great Wall prevented nomadic encroachment and cut off free communication.By the time of the Great Geographic Discoveries and the European Reformation in the sixteenth century, the old religions did no longer exist in the West and had to go to the East to find new horizons with the colonial expansion.

The famous missionary Matteo Ricci created a new way of missionary work, which also led to the climax of translation. He studied Chinese, studied the Confucian classics, put on wear Confucian costume, and integrated himself into the Chinese culture as much as possible; he also interpreted Catholic doctrine with Confucianism, and allowed his followers to worship Heaven, ancestors, and Confucius.

In the "General Catalogue of the Calendar" submitted by Xu Guangqi in the spring of 1631, he put forward not only the opinion that the translation of the Western calendar must be prioritized and progressed step by step, but also his own translation ideas: "In my humble opinion, if we want to surpass, we must understand; before we understand, we must first translate." That is to say, only through translation can we "understand" (learn and master), and only through "understanding" can we "surpass" (win).

It can be seen that the translation and importation of scientific knowledge at that time played a certain role in promoting the socio-economic and cultural development of China, and had an awakening effect on many intellectuals of the Chinese scholarly class. The influence of missionaries in China, through translation, led to the spread of Western learning to the East, far more so in terms of scientific and cultural exchange than in terms of mission itself. As a result, "a period of peak science and technology emerged at the end of the Ming Dynasty, when scientific development took on a new life after a long period of silence". (Da Xiang 2005:61-64)

====3.The third Translation Climax====
The third translation climax was seen in the Qing Dynasty. The three dynasties of Kang Xi, Yong Zheng and Qian Long were the most important ones, which seriously suppressed the wisdom and freedom of the people; the rulers were conservative and arrogant, and they enjoyed themselves in a closed country. The whole country closed its eyes and ears, and inhibited the development of thought, culture, science and technology lagged seriously, which inevitably led to backwardness and defeat. In the nineteenth century, the Western ships and cannons opened the closed-door of China, completely shattering the daydream of a great nation.

Along with the division of spheres of influence by the powers, the Western modern thinking also poured in. However, "when a world-centered culture accepts other cultures, it usually takes the way of behavior of its own culture as 'natural' and only correct, and the foreign cultural components will be 'naturalized' without any doubts and restrictions. '". (Gu Jun, Gu Nong 1999 (9):12-13) The deformed nature of semi-colonial and semi-feudal society made the translators in the late Qing Dynasty eager to introduce advanced Western ideas on the one hand, and to submit to the ideology and values of feudal culture on the other hand.

It is difficult not only to translate but also to read. As a result, the translations were not only difficult to understand, but also unfaithful to the original text, resembling adaptations. At that time, China was facing a crisis of national survival, and the dominant culture was about to break up, "no longer occupying the central position of culture, it had to achieve the purpose of creative transformation and cultural reconstruction through the absorption of heterogeneous cultures". (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71)

Therefore, in order to "seek new voices in foreign countries", "not only will the outside not lag behind the world's trend of thinking, but the inside will still lose its inherent bloodline" (Lu Xun 1992:12-13), translation must (Lu Xun 1992:12-13) Translation must "seek the truth"; in order to "seek the truth", translation must "tolerate as much disorder as possible". (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71)

At the end of Qing Dynasty, Ma Jianzhong proposed the saying of "good translation" in his "Ma's Text": "We must first translate the words of the translator of the two countries, deeply enjoy the words, and compare the words and sentences, in order to examine the source of the breeding of each other's words, and the reason of the similarity and difference. All the actual meanings of the current phase, and the elaborate investigation, to examine the sound of its high and low, analyze the complexity of its words and sentences, and exhaust the perversion of its style, as well as the meaning of the profound and mysterious reasons."

The meaning of this passage is quite rich and comprehensive. It covers style, grammar, rhetoric, and even the field of general cultural studies. Ma Jianzhong's standard of "good translation" is to strive for a translation that does not differ in meaning from the original text, and that enables the reader to read the translation and feel the same as the reader of the original text. This formulation is very close to the modern equivalence translation theory."The May Fourth Literary Revolution" replaced the literary language with the vernacular language, changing the direction of Chinese literature and becoming a watershed event in the history of modern translation.

Lu Xun, who was the most influential translator among the left-wing literaries in the 1930s, opposed the localization of the cultural "other" and advocated that "all translations must take into account both sides, one of course striving for its easy interpretation and the other preserving the richness of the original work". He advocates changing the cultural narcissism of the nation through translation, and proposes the principle of "hard translation" of "preferring to believe rather than obey" in response to Zhao Jingshen's "preferring to obey rather than believe", which gives translation another function: promoting the culture of the subject. It was also given another function: to promote the language reform of the main culture.

The representatives of the three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation have one thing in common, that is, to promote the scientific and technological cultural development of the country and the nation through translation. As an accompanying culture of language, translation is inevitably subject to the constraints and influences of social, historical and cultural factors, which in turn reacts on social and historical culture. Translation strategies and methods cannot presuppose a totally correct premise, but change with the development of the subject culture. Therefore, under certain historical conditions, one cannot simply promote or criticize a certain type of translation method, but should examine whether it can enrich the subject culture or promote the reform of the subject culture.

===III.The Impact of Three Translation Climaxes on Chinese Society and Culture in the History of Chinese Translation===

====1.The first translation climax====
"The first high point of translation in China was the translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Han Dynasty, flourished in the Tang Dynasty, declined in the Song Dynasty, and came to an end in the Yuan Dynasty, and its influence on Chinese culture and thought was enormous. Generally speaking, the emergence of any phenomenon in human history has its specific political, economic and cultural background, which provides the soil for the germination and growth of such phenomenon, and translation of Buddhist scriptures is no exception."(Cai Xinle 2006 (10): 23)

During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the translators were mainly some monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on.

All of them have their own representative translation theories, and their efforts are inseparable from the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation. At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also brought great influence to Chinese culture, such as: influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning, enriching the world of imagination, strengthening storytelling, changing the form of literature, and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; or vice versa, the development of translation cause also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.

====2.The second translation climax====
The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties from the 16th to the 18th century was the second climax of translation after the translation of Buddhist scriptures, and the first climax of scientific and technological translation in the history of China. The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties not only introduced advanced scientific and technological knowledge from abroad and made modern scientific research in China spring up, but also some translation concepts in this climax of scientific and technological translation are still worthy of reference for translation researchers. Therefore, scientific and technological translation had a profound impact on Chinese society.

The second climax of translation went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to technological progress and social development. With the development of maritime navigation, the exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not limited to commodities, but also included culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.

"In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as a medium of exchange between Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendars, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc., into China. (Chen Fukang 2002: 13)

During this period, many of the most famous translators emerged, such as Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbao, the Germans Tang Ruowang, and the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo. The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize Chinese cultural deficiencies and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China itself, and to be inspired in their thinking.

====3.The third Translation Climax====
China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the aspect of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and intended to learn from Western countries by various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress.

"During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, including traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented." (Hu Cui'e 2007: 43)

A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists included Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xubai, Chen XiYing, Lin Yutang and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China.

On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on Chinese was also tremendous. Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on "absolute vernacular"; others, such as Lu Xun, "disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'absolute vernacular'. (Jiang Xiaohua 2003: 12)"

In short, this culmination of translation has freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expression of the language, making it very different from before in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors,at the same time, its grammatical functions have also been enhanced.

===IV.Conclusion===
Translation as an intercultural communication activity has a long history. Xu Jun once said, "Translation activity itself is not static, but constantly enriched and developed in form according to the actual communication needs at different historical stages. And with the continuous enrichment of the concrete practice of translation, people's understanding of translation is bound to change constantly." (Xu Jun 2006: 30).

The representatives of the three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation have one thing in common, that is, to promote the scientific and technological culture of the country and the nation forward through translation. Translation, as an accompanying culture of language, is inevitably conditioned and influenced by social, historical and cultural factors, and in turn, it reacts to social history and culture.

Translation exposes people to new cultures, new ideas and new concepts, broadens their horizons and enriches their languages, thus to a certain extent promoting the development of cultural history, and some people even put forward the saying that "the history of translation in a country is the history of culture". It has been said that the history of translation is the history of culture. In the future, with the further deepening of various exchanges between countries, translation is bound to play an increasingly important role and further promotes the development of world history and culture.

===References===
Ma Zuyi. 马祖毅.(1998).中国翻译简史.[A brief history of Chinese translation]. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Foreign Translation and Publishing Corporation]46-48.

Lefevere Andre.(1998).Introduction:Where Are We in Translation Studies [A] In Susan Bassnett&Andre Lefevere (eds.) .Constructing Cultures: Essays on translation [C] . Clevedon: Multilingual Matters Ltd.3.

Zhang Jinghua.张景华.(2006).从“硬译”透视鲁迅对中国文化转型的探索.[Lu Xun's exploration of Chinese cultural transformation through the lens of "hard translation"].四川外语学院学报.[Journal of Sichuan Institute of Foreign Languages]66-71.

Liao Qiyi.廖七一.(2002).重写神话:女性主义与翻译研究.[Rewriting myths: Feminism and translation studies]. 四川外语学院学报[Journal of Journal of Sichuan International Studies University]106-109.

Da Xiang.达向.(2005).文明探索:明朝.[Exploration of civilization: Ming Dynasty].郑州:大象出版社.[Zhengzhou: Elephant Press]61-64.

Gu Jun,Gu Nong.顾均,顾农.(1999).鲁迅主张“硬译”的文化意义.[The cultural significance of Lu Xun's advocacy of "hard translation"].鲁迅研究月刊.[ Lu Xun Studies Monthly]12-13.

Lu Xun.鲁迅.鲁迅散文 (第3集).Lu Xun's Prose (3rd collection).(1992).北京:中国广播电视出版社.[Beijing: China Radio and Television Press]12-13.

Cai Xinle.蔡新乐.(2006).文化史就是翻译—陈寅恪的历史发现与其翻译观初探[Cultural history is translation: A preliminary investigation of Chen Yinke's historical discovery and his view of translation ].外语与外语教学, [Foreign Languages and Foreign Language Teaching]23.

Chen Fukang.陈福康.(2002).中国译学理论史稿[A draft of the history of Chinese translation theory].上海:上海外语教育出版社 [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press]13.

Hu Cui'e.胡翠娥.(2007).文学翻译与文化参考—晚清小说翻译的文化研究[Literary Translation and Cultural Reference:A Cultural Study of the Translation of Novels in the Late Qing Dynasty].上海:上海外语教育出版社 [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]43.

Jiang Xiaohua.蒋晓华.(2003).意识形态对翻译的影响:阐发与新思考[The Influence of Ideology on Translation: Explanation and New Thinking.中国翻译[Chinese Translation]12.

--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 09:23, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

='''Western Translation Theories'''=

==An Analysis of the Limits of Translatability from the Perspectives of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida's Translation Theories 文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi,202020080650==
<center>文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi</center>
===Abstract===
Since there are no identical languages in the world, languages differ not only in the system of linguistic signs but also in culture. In the process of translation, there might be some limits of translatability. Briefly speaking, the limits of translatability are divided into two types. One is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida both have mentioned their opinions about the limits of translatability in their works. After introducing their translation theories and their definitions of translation, this paper will give a brief introduction to their views of untranslatability. Then, this paper also exemplifies some examples of these two kinds of untranslatability. The aim of this paper is to analyze the reasons which cause the limits of translatability and to find some translation strategies to deal with these limits.

===Key Words===
Untranslatability, J. C. Catford, Eugene A. Nida
===题目===
根据卡特福德和尤金·奈达的翻译理论观点分析翻译的限制

===摘要===
世界上没有两种完全相同的语言，每种语言都有独特的语言结构和文化内涵。翻译中可能会出现一些不可译的现象。一般来说，翻译的限制大致分为语言不可译和文化不可译两种。对于翻译的限制的问题，卡特福德和尤金·奈达都有各自的看法。本文除了介绍他们各自的翻译理论和对翻译的定义以外，还介绍了他们各自对翻译的限制的看法。同时，本文还分别列举了语言不可译和文化不可译的一些实例，希望借此进一步分析造成翻译中语言不可译和文化不可译的原因以及寻找其对应的翻译策略。

===关键词===
不可译；卡特福德；尤金·奈达
===1.Introduction===
Translation is an activity that concerns more than two languages. Narrowly speaking, every language contains its own linguistic structure and cultural connotation so that some aspects of various languages are quite different. These may cause the gap between the source language and the target language in translation. Accordingly, some problems of translation may be certain to arise at the same time such as the dispute over the translatability and untranslatability. Different scholars hold their own opinions.

On the one hand, some scholars are very strict to the definition of translation and the limits of translatability. For example, J. C. Catford states that each language is an isolated linguistic system and the formal and contextual meaning of a language are decided by the formal and contextual relations of the language. It is impossible to translate the linguistic meaning from one language to another. But it can implant the values of the source language into the target language by using the process of transference. And Catford also proposes two kinds of untranslatability which are linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability.

On the other hand, some scholars are positive to the limits of translatability. For example, Eugene A. Nida approves that there are some general principles of all languages so that all languages can produce the same expression effects to satisfy the needs of expressing ideas and communication. He holds that translation should take the readers as its primary objective.

J. C. Catford's and Eugene A. Nida’s views of the limits of translatability are different. To study this question further, it is of necessary to understand and assimilate some opinions of Catford and Nida. And based on both of their translation theories, the aim of this paper is to provide some new ideas about the limits of translatability.

===2.The Limits of Translatability===
====2.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida’s Translation Theories====
2.1.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and His Translation Theory

J. C. Catford is a famous linguist and translation theorist in Britain and his representative work in the field of translation is called ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' which has first published by Oxford University Press in 1965. This book is an important milestone in the field of translation theory and exerts a profound influence to the western translation theory. In this book, Catford holds that translation has to be based on a general linguistic theory and the theory of translation is a branch of comparative linguistics. The reason why is that “translation has to do with language, the analysis and description of translation-processes must take considerable use of categories set up for the description of languages.” And Catford mentions that the general linguistic theories used in this book to a large extent are influenced by the works of M. A. K. Halliday and J. R. Firth.(Catford, 1965,vii)

He also holds that language is a two-directional process while translation is a unidirectional process which is performed from a source language to a target language. Besides, he believes that “translation equivalences may be set up, and translation performed, between any pair of languages or dialects- related or unrelated and with any kind of spatial, temporal, social or other relationship between them.” He also distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. The former refers to that the meanings of target language items are set up by the formal and contextual relations in the target language itself while the later refers to that parts of the target text have values set up in the source language. (Catford, 1965,20)

In this way, Catford proposes his ideas about the conditions of translation equivalence and the types of translation shifts. In the final part of this book, he discusses the limits of translatability and mentions two kinds of untranslatability called linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. And he holds that “cultural untranslatability is ultimately describable in all cases as a variety of linguistic untranslatability.” From this perspective, we can find that Catford emphasizes the values of the linguistic items in its own linguistic system and he pays attention to formal equivalence and conceptual meaning. All in all, Catford provides a scientific and objective way of studying translation theories.(Catford, 1965,103)

2.1.2 A Brief Introduction to Eugene A. Nida and His Translation Theory

Eugene A. Nida is one of the pioneers of modern discipline of translation studies. He is keen on the translation of Bible and he is also one of the main editors of the magazine called ''The Bible Translator''. As the executive secretary of the American Bible Society Translation Department and one of the main members of the United Bible Society Working Committee, Nida undertakes much of the organization of Bible translation. Although Nida doesn’t translate any complete works by himself, he proposes lots of translation principles which influence the practice of Bible translation. He encourages translators to use a common language which refers to a language that could be accepted and understood by most readers.(Nida, 1982,vii)

The development of Nida’s translation theories can be divided into three parts. The first part is the stage of descriptive linguistics whose main focus is the syntactical and lexical phenomenon of languages. He is influenced by the father of the structuralist linguistics in the United States called Leonard Bloomfield and an American anthropologist and linguist called Edward Sapir. The second stage is the communication theory in which Nida’s achievements ensure his status in the field of the western translation theory study. In this period, he publishes his famous works such as ''Toward a Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. （谭载喜，1999,xv）

Nida states that “translation is far more than a science and it is also a skill and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art.” He also proposes the communicative translation theory by adding the information theory into translation. Moreover, he also proposes his famous theory called the dynamic-equivalence theory which refers to translate “thought for though” rather than “word for word”. And in the third stage, Nida mainly focuses on the componential analysis of meaning. His main ideas of this period are that language is a system of signs so that the analysis of translation should be taken from the perspectives of sociolinguistics and semiotics. And Nida replaces dynamic equivalence by functional equivalence. And he also pays attention to the problems of rhetoric in translation, especially the contrastive rhetoric. All in all, Nida has contributed to the biblical translation and translation theories all his life.(Nida, 1982,vii)

====2.2The Definition of Translation according to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida====
2.2.1 The Definition of Translation according to J. C. Catford

The definition of translation is a subject at issue in the field of translation theories. Broadly speaking, every translation theorist clings to the ideas of his own understanding. According to Catford, translation is a process performed from a source language into a target language. He states that “translation is the replacement of textual material in one language (source language) by equivalent textual material in another language (target language).” He explains the implication of “textual material” that there may be some replacements by no-equivalent target language material. The main focus of translation practice is to find target language translation equivalents and the main focus of translation theory is to define the nature and conditions of translation equivalence.(Catford, 1965,20)

Besides, Catford distinguishes textual equivalence and formal correspondence. For him, the former refers to that "any target language form is observed to be the equivalent of a given source language form." The later one refers to that "any target category occupies the same place in the economy of the target language as the given category occupies in the source language." He adds that formal correspondence can be only approximate rather than identical.(Catford, 1965,27)

As for the theory of meaning in translation, Catford holds that it is impossible for the source language texts and the target language ones to have that same meaning. He borrows the definition of meaning proposed by J. R. Firth that “meaning is the total network of relations entered into by any linguistic forms.” There are two relations called formal relations and contextual relations so that there are accordingly two kinds of meanings. One is formal meaning that is constituted by the various formal relations. The other is contextual meaning that is constituted by a range of situational elements.(Catford, 1965,27)

Because of the approximation of the formal correspondence, it is nearly impossible for the formal meanings of source language items to be identical with target language items. Therefore, Catford proposes a process called transference that refers to an operation to set up values of the source language into the target language text. As a result, Catford distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. He states that translation means the substitution of target language meanings for source language meanings while transference contains the implantation of source language meanings into the target language text.(Catford, 1965,35)

The source language and target language items have little similarities of the meaning in the linguistic sense so the aim of the translation is to select target language equivalents with the greatest possible overlap of situational range as the source language items. Catford concludes conditions for translation equivalence that translation equivalence occurs when there are some identical features of substance between the source language and target language. According to his distinction of the total translation and restricted translation, Catford proposes some limits of translatability.(Catford, 1965,35)

2.2.2 The Definition of Translation according to Eugene A. Nida

In the book called ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'', Nida has mentioned that “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” To define translation in this way, Nida emphasizes the importance of reproducing the message rather than remaining the form of the utterance. He also emphasizes the closet natural equivalent which refers to the closet relationship between the meaning of source language and target language. Besides, he deems the priority of meaning and the significance of style. Therefore, he states that the departures from the formal structure are legitimate and desirable. Nida proposes some principles of translation, for example, contextual consistency is prior verbal over consistency and dynamic equivalence is prior over formal correspondence.(Nida, 1982,12)

Nida states two types of equivalence that one is formal equivalence and the other is dynamic equivalence and he also deems that the aim of translation is to find the closet possible equivalent. Formal correspondence refers to a kind of gloss translation that the translator tries to reproduce the form and content of the message in the source language. In such a translation, it is concerned with correspondences as sentence to sentence or concept to concept.It may be determined by the translation standards such as accuracy and correctness.(Nida, 1982,13)

In contrast to formal correspondence, a translation of dynamic equivalence is based on the principle to produce equivalent effects. It pays attention to the dynamic relationship between receptor and message which needs to be similar to the relationship between the original receptors and the message. The aim of dynamic equivalence is the naturalness of expression so that the receptor could understand the message under his own cultural patterns rather than that of the source language context.(Nida, 1982,13)

Nida also mentions the restrictions of the permissible degree of dynamic equivalence in translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. The linguistic restrictions involve the literary forms and the vehicles and the cultural restrictions involve the standard of “faithfulness” and the diversity of dialects in the receptor language.(Nida, 1982,12)

====2.3The Limits of Translatability according to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida====
2.3.1The Limits of Translatability according to J. C. Catford

In ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford distinguishes two kinds of translations which are called total translation and restricted translation according to the levels of language involved in translation. Total translation is defined as “replacement of source language grammar and lexis by equivalent target language grammar and lexis with consequential replacement of source language phonology/graphology by(non-equivalent) target language phonology/graphology.” And restricted translation is defined as “replacement of source language textual material by equivalent target language textual material, at only one level.” This kind of translation is performed only at the phonological or at the graphological level, or at only one of the two levels of grammar and lexis.(Catford,1965, 22)

As for the limits of translatability for restricted translation, Catford generalizes two limits. The first is that translation between media is impossible. In other words, to translate the spoken form of a text to a written form is impossible. The reason is that the phonic and graphic substances are absolutely different. The phonic substance is relevant to the sound produced in the human vocal tract while the graphic substance is relevant to visible marks on papers or stones.Therefore, it is only a universal practice among literates to converse spoken medium to written medium.(Catford,1965, 22)

And the second kind of limit is that translation between either of the medium-levels and the levels of grammar and lexis is impossible. It is the same that phonic and graphic substances are absolutely different from situation- substance. As a result, there is never any translation from the levels of grammar and/or lexis to the levels of phonology or graphology, and vice versa.(Catford,1965, 23)

As for the limits of translatability for total translation, Catford states that “translatability appears to be a cline rather than a clear- cut dichotomy.” In other words, source language texts are not absolutely translatable or untranslatable. As for total translation, both source language and target language texts must be relatable to be functionally relevant features of the situation. And the untranslatability or the limits of translatability will occur if it is impossible to build functionally relevant features of the situation into the contextual meaning of the target language text. (Catford,1965, 23)

Broadly speaking, there are two kinds of untranslatability which are linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability occurs when the target language has no formally corresponding features with the source language text. A best example of linguistic untranslatability is an ambiguity peculiar to the source language text. One source of ambiguity is that two or more distinct grammatical or lexical items are expounded in the same phonological or graphological form. Another source of ambiguity is that polysemy. Polysemy means that one single item has a wide contextual meaning so that it may cover a wide range of specific situational features.(Catford, 1965, 93)

All in all, linguistic untranslatability is leaded by the formal linguistic differences when the formal feature of the source language is itself the functionally relevant feature. And cultural untranslatability occurs when a situational feature is completely absent from the culture of which the target language is a part. It is not so absolutely as linguistic untranslatability. Catford also adds that cultural untranslatability might be a type of linguistic untranslatability in that it refers to the impossibility of finding an equivalent collocation in the target language.(Catford, 1965, 93)

2.3.2 The Limits of Translatability according to Eugene A. Nida

Although there are no identical languages and no absolute correspondences between languages, many languages have the potential and actual equivalence and equivalent idioms. The total impact of a translation may be reasonably close to the original but little identity in detail. It is the fact that each language has its own characteristics and is rich in vocabulary for the area of cultural focus. Each language has its own system of symbolizing meaning. It is also the fact that “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another, unless the form is an essential element of the message.” Nida states that the translator must attempt to reproduce the meaning of a passage. (Nida, 1982,4)

When the form is of its significance in the source language text, there may be a limitation to express this significance from one language to another. Nida holds that “to preserve the content of the massage the form must be changed.” (Nida, 1982,5) It means that translators may be prepared to alter the forms or sacrifice certain formal niceties to preserve the content. And Nida also adds that “the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend on the linguistic and cultural distance between languages.” (Nida, 1982,5)

As regards to the linguistic and cultural distance, there are three different types of relatedness between the codes used to convey the messages. Firstly, a translation may involve comparatively closely related languages and cultures. Secondly, in a translation, the language may not be related, even though the cultures are closely parallel. Thirdly, a translation may involve not only differences of linguistic affiliation but also highly diverse cultures. In Nida’s view, “differences between cultures cause many more severe complications for the translator than do differences in language structure.” (Nida, 1964,161)

In ''Toward a Science of Translation'', Nida mentions the restrictions on the permissible degree of dynamic equivalence in translation. He states that there are certain serious restrictions of a linguistic and a cultural nature when translators undertake the process of translation with a considerable degree of dynamic equivalence. The linguistic restrictions include the literary forms such as poetry and proverbs and the vehicle used to convey the message such as songs. As for literary forms, sound effect is impossible to be reproduced in that languages are different in the types of sounds they use and the values they tend to attach to these uses. (Nida, 1964,161)

In the translation of poetry, it is hard to agree with the poetic superstructure in the target language text. Nida deems that the translators may abandon formal equivalence to strive for dynamic equivalence which means to take the liberty of composing another poem capable of eliciting similar feeling. This is the same to the song translators that the form must be maintained, so some contents might be sacrificed. It demands much greater conformity to the musical vehicles in the translation of a song. (Nida, 1964,163)

Nida also mentions the cultural restrictions which involve attitudes about so-called “faithfulness” in translation, the diversity of dialects in the receptor language and so on. As for pressures from tradition, it concerns that the standards of translation such as “faithfulness”’ “accuracy” and “effect”. The reason is that there are differences of taste in translation at different historical periods. Dialectal differences also cause restrictions upon the form of a translation. (Nida, 1964,162)

Problems of dialectal differences may occur in the phenomenon that how to accommodate these complex linguistic facts or how to deal with the dialectal variations in the text itself. Although there are many restrictions in translation, a good translation is to fulfill the same purpose in a new language as the original does in the language in which it is written.(Nida, 1964,161)

====2.4 Specific Examples to Illustrate the Limits of Translatability====
2.4.1Specific Examples to Illustrate Linguistic Untranslatability

It is obvious that no two languages are identical and each language has its own way to constitute words, phrases and sentences. Each language has its own characteristics especially in vocabulary containing the cultural elements. Some languages may be rich in vocabulary of fishing and hunting while some languages may be rich in the expressions of technology.

Every language has its own ways of classifying the various elements of experiences with the symbols which are quite different from all other languages. The system of language is very complex in that there are lots of ways to symbolize meaning. The way of thinking may be illustrated in the deep layer of language. Different native speakers of different languages may differ in the using of the rhetoric techniques and expressions. There are some examples to illustrate the limits of translatability between Chinese and English.

The first type of these examples is the rhetorical technique called pun. Pun is a clever and amusing use of a word or phrase with more than one meaning or of words with the same or nearly the same sound but different meanings. It just like a game playing with language. There are broadly two kinds of pun which are homophonic pun and homographic pun.

Examples of homophonic pun:

Example 1:
*King: My cousin Hamlet, and my son-how is it that the clouds still hang on you?
*Hamlet: Not so, my lord. I am too much in the sun.(''Hamlet'')

Example 2:
More sun and air for your son and heir.(Hu Yi,1999,8)

Example 3:
东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。(刘禹锡《竹枝词》)

There are many homophonic words in these examples which share the same sound but with different meanings. In English, “sun” and “son” have the same sound as well as “air” and “heir”. In Chinese, “晴” and “情” are identical in pronunciation but containing different meanings. These examples exemplify that it is nearly impossible to translate the form and content of these puns at the same time. The forms of the puns must be changed to convey the meanings.

Examples of homographic pun:

Example 4:
Spoil yourself and not your figure.(Xiang Chengdong,1996,2)

Example 5:
Better late than late.(Hou Weirui,1988)

Example 6:
白团扇，今来此去捐。愿得入郎手，团圆郎眼前。( 张祜《团扇郎》)

There are many homographic words in these expressions. “Spoil oneself” means one gives himself something nice as a treat while “spoil one’s figure” means to get fat. The same is to the word “late” which has two meanings. Late can express the meaning of after the planned, expected or usual time and also can express that someone has died. It is hard to remain the form of the words in the process of translation. It is necessary to scarify the form of the words to express the meanings.

Besides, there is another interesting phenomenon to illustrate the limits of linguistic translatability called palindrome. Palindrome is a word or phrase which is the same when you spell it backwards. It is also a typical character of a language. It is almost impossible to find the formal equivalents of a palindrome in the target language.

Examples of palindrome:

Example 7:
*Madam，I’ m Adam.
*No x in Nixon.
*上海自来水来自海上。

These examples imply the differences between the system of linguistic signs of different languages. Each language has its isolated linguistic system. What translators could do is to find the closet natural equivalent rather than the identical. There are also good examples to translate palindrome in Chinese. A good example to illustrate is to translate “Ma is as selfless as I am” into “妈妈为我, 我为妈妈”.（Zuo Biao,2000） Another example is to translate “Able was I ere I saw Elba” into “不到俄岛我不倒”. Both translations try to maintain the forms and contents of the palindrome of the source text. Although it is not identical expressions, it is better illustrations of the potential and actual equivalence of languages.（Xu Yuanchong,1984）

The limits of linguistic translatability also manifest in the translation of poetry. There is a large focus on formal elements in the translation of poetry. In this kind of translation, sometimes forms are sacrificed for the sake of contents while more often the contents are restricted in the formal molds. Each poetry has its specific emotional intensity and flavor which are hard to be reproduced in another different language. Taking English poetry as examples, there are foots and rhythm which are particular to the expressions of English poetry. There are eight kinds of foot like iambic, trochee and so on. Besides, there are tetrameter, pentameter and so on to express the flowing of words.

Example 8:
Life is the lust of a lamp for the light that is dark till the dawn of the day that we die．(Algernon Charles Swinburne, ''Nephelidia'')

From this examples, it is obvious that the use of rhymes in poetry is various in different languages. It is hard to reproduce these elements with another kind of linguistic signs. The ways of rhymes like alliteration and assonance are impossible to find the formal equivalents in Chinese. One of the reasons may be that the linguistic distance of English and Chinese is so far that there is little linguistic affirmation. The codes used to convey the message are totally different.

2.4.2 Specific Examples to Illustrate Cultural Untranslatability

Culture is integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief and behavior. It consists ideas, customs, taboos and so on. Each human society has its own particular culture which is manifested in folk culture, enterprise culture or food culture. Each language has a system of linguistic signs to express its own cultural substances and values. In fact, the limits of cultural translatability are not so absolute as linguistic untranslatability. It is a kind of relative untranslatability.

Idioms is a product of culture which is also called the linguistic forms of culture. Idiom refers to a group of words that have a special meaning whose meaning can’ t be guessed from each separate word. Idiom is related to some connotative meanings which differs in the cultural background of each national community. As a result, the translation of idioms needs to convey the massage of some cultural elements. Although culture differs from each community, translators need to use different translation strategies to convey the cultural information as more as possible. Usually, there are three methods to translate idioms.

The first method is literal translation which can both convey the literal meaning and rhetorical meaning.

Example 9:
*Pour oil on fire 火上浇油

*Strike while the iron is hot 趁热打铁

*Practice makes perfect 熟能生巧

*Seeing is believing 眼见为实 (Zhang Peiji,1979)

In fact, there are many commonalities between human beings so that there are also some similarities between two languages. This kind of translation is very ideal which expresses both the literal and rhetorical meaning.However, there are still differences between the cultural background of two languages which are mirrored in the translation of idioms.

The second method is literal translation with annotation which is to translate the literal meaning and explain the rhetorical meaning with annotations.

Example 10:
Every family is said to have at least one skeleton in the cupboard.
衣橱藏骷髅，丑事家家有。(Peng Changjiang,2012,277)

The third method is free translation which is to translate the rhetorical meaning only or to translate the rhetorical meaning and parts of the literal meaning.

Example 11:
*Fish where the fish are. 有的放矢

*You can’t catch old birds with chaff. 有经验的人不易上当受骗

*Shrouds have no pockets. 人死带不走钱财

*Revenge is a dish best eaten cold. 君子报仇十年不晚

These examples are just translating the rhetorical meanings. There are other examples including the translation of both the rhetorical meaning and parts of the literal meaning. For example, translating “破釜沉舟” in Chinese to “burn one’s boat” in English is expressing the rhetorical meaning and similar literal meaning of the idiom.

All in all, the differences between culture deserve further consideration in the translation of idioms. Translators are supposed to choose an appropriate approach to convey the message contained in idioms.

===3.Conclusion===
Each language has its own genius so that it has its special way to build word, phrases and sentences. And it also has its special way to symbolize meaning which depends on its native speakers’ understanding and experiences of the world. And each language has its typical expressions which can be manifested in its specific types of poetry, proverbs and dialects.

All these reasons may have an impact on translation in that there are lots of differences between languages. The limits of translatability are briefly divided into linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. Sometime the linguistic untranslatability is absolute for languages differ in the system of linguistic signs. Therefore, there may be a choice between the form and content of the source language. Sometimes the form of the source text might be sacrificed for the sake of the contents. But the cultural untranslatability is not absolute as the linguistic untranslatability. It is relatively untranslatable. Translators can use some translation strategies to convey the cultural message and explain the implication of the cultural information. Although there are lots of limits of translatability, the ultimate aim of translation is to convey the message rather than to find equivalents in the target language.

--[[User:Wen Xiaoyi|Wen Xiaoyi]] ([[User talk:Wen Xiaoyi|talk]]) 03:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

===References===
*Catford, J. C.1965. ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation: An Essay in Applied Linguistics''[M]. London: Oxford University Press.
*Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (1999). 《新编奈达论翻译》.[The New Edition of Nida's Theory on Translation]. 中国对外翻译出版公司 [China Translation and Publishing Corporation].
*Nida, Eugene A. & Charles R. Taber. 1982. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill.
*Nida, Eugene A .1964. ''Towards a Science of Translating''[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill.
*Hu Yi. 胡一. (1999). 广告英语的修辞魅力. [Rhetorical Charm of Advertising English]. ''英语学习''[Journal of English Study] (8).
*Xiang Chengdong.项成东.(1996).试谈广告英语中的复义[On Polysemy in Advertising English].''山东外语教学''[Journal of Foreign Language Teaching in Shandong](2).
*Hou Weirui.候维瑞.(1988).《英语语体》[English Style].上海外国教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Education Press].
*Zuo Biao. 左飙.(2000).论文化的可译性[On Translatability of Culture].扬自俭Yang Zijian.英汉语比较与翻译[Comparison and Translation between English and Chinese].上海教育出版社[Shanghai Education Press].
*Xu Yuanchong.许渊冲. (1984).翻译中的几对矛盾[A Few Pairs of Contradictions in Translation].翻译的艺术[Art of Translation].中国对外翻译出版社[China Foreign Translation Press].
*Zhang Peiji. 张培基. (1979).习语汉译英研究[A Study of Chinese-English Translation of Idioms ].商务印书室[Commercial Press].
*Peng Changjiang. 彭长江. (2012).英汉-汉英翻译教程[English-Chinese-English Translation Course].湖南师范大学出版社[Hunan Normal University Press].

==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 陶冶 Tao Ye==
=== Cultural Differences on English Interpretation and the Coping Strategies ===
< c e n t e r > Tao Ye 202020080644 < / c e n t e r >

===Abstract===
Since the reform and opening up,China’s communication with the world has become more and more frequently. At the same time, with the economic globalization, the world has become a global village,and interpretation has becoming more and more needful to human beings. However,because of the lack of intercultural awareness,the interpretation activities has emerged many problems. This thesis introduced the history of interpretation,and the purpose is to point out the intercultural differences in interpretation and the coping strategies.

=== Key Words ===
Key words:intercultural awareness;intercultural differences;coping strategies

=== 题目 ===
英语口译中的文化差异及解决策略

=== 摘要 ===
改革开放以来，中国与世界的交往愈发频繁。同时，随着经济全球化，世界变成了一个“地球村”。口译也越来越为人们所需要。然而，因为缺少跨文化意识，口译也出现了不少问题。本文介绍了口译的历史，本文的目的是指出中英在口译中的文化差异以及解决策略。

=== 关键词 ===
跨文化意识；文化差异；解决办法

=== Introduction ===
Although the origin of interpretation predates translation, there is little evidence for the existence of interpretation history. Until the beginning of the 20th century, interpreters were still generally composed of non-professional translators. In the West, they were mostly university professors, diplomats and journalists with equivalent language and knowledge. Their working style was rigorous and faithful, but there was no theoretical refinement. Such extensive interpretation did not change in the West until after the first World War.(Bao Gang 1998,2)

At the beginning of the 20th century, there was more and more communication between different countries in the world. During this period,the demand for interpreters throughout the world increased as more and more countries came into contact with each other in wars, agreements and international conferences, and the international community diversified its languages. In just a few decades, there has been a great development in interpreting pairs, continuous interpretation is becoming more and more perfect, and a number of famous part-time interpreters had appeared.

Examples include Pauer Mantoux(historian, professor of University of London), an early interpreter who first used sophisticated interpretation techniques in the Paris Peace Conference; Jean Herbert, founder of the United Nations Translation Service and chief interpreter of international conferences, etc. Since then, interpreters have developed a set of systematic working methods, and interpretation has gradually become a professional bilingual communication work.(Bao Gang 1998,3)

During this period, the interpreters translated after the speaker finishing a paragraph. Because speech and translation are done alternately, it is called "consecutive interpretation" or "continuous interpretation". It was not until the Nuremberg Trial which was after The Second World War that simultaneous interpretation was used for the first time, to make sure that the long trial and the conversations between the judge and the criminals can be done fluently,and to save time. After that, the simultaneous interpretation had becoming popular around the world. The Nuremberg trial after the End of the Second World War is undoubtedly an important turning point in the history of interpretation.(Bao Gang 1998,4)

In 1957, the Sorbonne University of Paris (ESIT-- ECOLE SUPERIEEURE D’INTERPRETES ET TRADUCTEURS) established the first systematic interpretation theory in the world in the 1980s, namely the "interpretive theory" of interpretation. The theory was founded by Danika Selescovic and Mariana Ludere. According to this theory, the essence of interpretation is to release the meaning in the external form of language, and extralinguistic factors such as thinking, knowledge and cognitive process play an important role in its concrete process.(Bao Gang,1998,6)

In contrast, the interpretation work in China started relatively late. In the 1970s, Beijing Translation and Publication Office published a publication translation Communication, which was later renamed China Translation. Most important papers on interpretation in our country are published in this journal. In the 1980s, it published many insightful summaries of interpreting practice by famous Chinese senior interpreters, such as Li Yue Ran and Qi Zong Hua. In the early 1990s, a small number of exploratory papers with the nature of preliminary theoretical sublimation were published, but scientific and systematic research results on interpretation theory have been lacking up to now.(Bao Gang 1998,8)

In 1996, the Translators' Association of China, Nanjing Institute of International Relations, Nanjing Institute of Translators and Interpreters and Beijing Foreign Affairs University jointly hosted the first "National Seminar on Translation Teaching". In the following year, it co-sponsored the International Translation Seminar with Beijing Foreign Studies University, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, etc. .Until now,English interpretation in China has step into a new stage. With more and more Chinese interpreter’s name appeared in the international translation magazines, the interpreters in China has gown a lot of attention,and their theories are becoming important around the world.(Bao Gang,1998,6)

=== 1.Cultural Differences in English Interpretations===
Because of different language system and different cultural background,Chinese and English have their unique expression way and formed different way of thinking and value standard. This character of language makes it hard to learn a foreign language, for one thing has different way of saying in different languages. The following paragraphs will explain this relatively in two aspects:color and animal. According to the two different expressions and definitions of them, that the cultural differences between English and Chinese will make sense.
==== 1.1Color ====
Different color represents different meanings in Chinese and English,the following part will explain it in three colors:red,yellow and green.

===== 1.1.1Red=====

Chinese people is very familiar with red. In major festive festivals such as the Spring Festival and Lantern Festival and important life events such as weddings, red will become the main decorative color to express festival, auspiciousness and passion. The Chinese words that express this meaning include "满堂红", "万紫千红", "大红大紫", etc., which all entrust people's yearning and joy for a better life. During the Spring Festival, the traditional custom is to put a red couplet on the door, “千门万户瞳瞳日，总把新桃换旧符”(Du Tian Yu 2020,187)

In the traditional wedding ceremony, the bride must wear red formal dress. In addition, the "five-star red flag", "red scarf", and "red revolution" embody the solemnity and awe of red in Chinese. However, in English, although red sometimes does contain similar colors of joy and happiness and serious meanings, such as remembrance day and red carpet, etc. The meaning of cruelty, danger, terror and warning is also very common, such as red-cock (fire caused by arson), red flag (danger signal), red revenge (bloody revenge), and even red in English. It also implies low-level tastes of lewdness, such as red light district,a place which full of brothels,discotheques,bars,nightclubs,etc. (Du Tian Yu 2020,187)

In "The Scarlet Letter" , the red letter A which means adultery stands out on the heroine's chest. In economic terms, red means "loss". Such as in the red,which means a lack of money. In addition, we should also pay attention to the non-correspondence of the concept of color expression in Chinese and English expressions. In the English-Chinese corresponding translation, words of different colors may be used to describe the objective phenomenon of the same thing.

===== 1.1.2Yellow=====

Yellow has multiple images in the expression of Chinese. In ancient times, yellow was regarded as the "color of the emperor". It represents royalty and power,such as the emperor's dragon robe. We sometimes use “黄袍加身”"yellow robe plus body" to describe the emperor's accession to the throne. Both of the two things show the important status and power that yellow represents in Chinese culture. But in English, the color that generally represents the supremacy is purple. The reason is that in ancient Greece and Rome, emperors, consuls, and generals were all dressed in purple. (Du Tian Yu 2020,188)

Wearing purple robe means the rise of power and high social status, such as The Chinese "生在帝王之家" corresponds to the English translation of be born in the purple, and "marry with the royal family or nobles" is to marry into the purple. In English culture, yellow is the color worn by the Jewish people who betrayed Jesus in the Bible, so the expression of yellow in English is often associated with traits such as betrayal, cowardice, and helplessness, such as yellow streak (cowardly) , Yellow-low looks (sullen and suspicious look), yellow livered (cowardly). (Du Tian Yu 2020,188)

At the same time, in Chinese, yellow is also used to express low-level interest, corruption, and other meanings, but we cannot literally translate pornographic magazines as yellow magazines. The yellow corresponding to express pornography in Chinese should be blue in English, such as blue joke (indecent joke), blue movie (porn movie). Due to cultural non-correspondence, the same color produces different images in the brains of people of different nationalities. We should pay special attention to the expression of this situation, and use different color words to express the same associative meaning.
Some words with "黄" in Chinese have nothing to do with yellow in English. For example, "黄道吉日" in English translates it into good luck, "黄毛丫头" in English translates it into a silly little girl, and "黄花" in English. It translates into clay lily and so on. Yellow also has an extended meaning, which means "cowardly, mean," and so on, for example: He is too yellow to stand up and fight. (He is too weak to stand up and fight). It is worth mentioning that, unlike Chinese using "yellow" to mean "obscene and pornographic", blue is often used to mean "yellow" in Chinese, which means "indecent and obscene". For example, blue jokes (indecent jokes), blue revolution (sexual liberation), blue films (yellow movies), blue software (yellow software) and so on.（Tian Yan 2014,121）

===== 1.1.3Green=====
In Both Chinese and English, green is basically related to hope and good wish, which is often used in environmental protection, such as green consumerism, green energy, etc. But in ancient Chinese culture, green meant low, because low people wore green clothes,such as “绿林好汉”The color green in English has many extended meanings. Green in English often is used to represent a "jealousy, envy, is said to be jealous, unhappy or disease causes the body's secretion of yellow bile, one of the symptoms is either eyes blue or pale, so in English, there is green with envy (very jealous), green as jealousy, in Shakespeare's famous tragedy" Othello "has the green - eyed monster (pro monster, refers to envy) this phrase. "As green as grass," "a green eye," "a green hand," "As green as grass," "A green eye," （Du Tian Yu,2020,187）

==== 1.2Animal====
Due to different cultural background,though the same word will have different representative meaning in different culture. The following paragraph will explain the different meaning of the same word in different culture.
===== 1.2.1Dog=====
Though Chinese people feed dog as pet nowadays,dog has been seen as inferior and stupid animal in Chinese culture. In China, people raise dog to protect themselves. Because of the serving capability of dog, people in China often look down upon dogs, and there are many idioms and proverbs to describe Chinese people’s discrimination for dogs. For example:
1.狗胆包天—monstrously audacious
2.狗急跳墙—a cornered beast will dosomething desperate
3.狗屁不通—mere trash；unreadable rubbish
4.猪狗不如---that one is too evil to compare as a pig and dog
5.狗头军师—a person who offers bad advice
6.狗尾续貂—a dog’s tail joined to sable

7.狗血喷头—pour out a flood of invective against somebody
8.狗眼看人低—be a bloody snob

9.狗仗人势—like a dog threatening people depending on the strength its master’s power

10.狗嘴里吐不出象牙—no ivory issues from the mouth of a dog(Liu Xiang Ya 2009,154)
On the contrary, the English people regard dog as their best friend. Dog can play with them,eat dinner with them,and even sleep with them. Dog is a kind of family member in English society,and a trustful friend to English people. There are some examples:
Hot dog——A lucky dog——幸运儿
Top dog——胜利者，夺魁者；主要人物
A clever dog——聪明的小孩子；伶俐的小伙子Sea dog——老练的水手，海员
Big dog——要人，大亨，保镖
A gay dog——快活的人，爱开玩笑的人Love me，love dog——爱屋及乌
Work like a dog——拼命工作的人
To help a lame dog over a stile——雪中送炭As a dog with two tails——非常开心
A good dog deserves a good bone——有功者受赏An old dog——经验丰富的人，年事已高的人
An old dog barks not in vain——老将出马一个顶俩
The more I see of men，the more I admire dogs——我愈观察人，我愈爱慕狗(Zhao Le 2013,155)
According to the Bible, everything in the world is created by God, and animals are also created by him. Everyone is equal before God, and the core of the democratic spirit in the doctrine itself is the direct theoretical source of the modern Western thought of "freedom, equality and fraternity". Since then, the concept of equality has become an unshakable idea in the West and a kind of national cultural psychology in the West. "Dog is man's best friend" is not just a verbal expression. Westerners' love for dogs is also reflected in their daily life. In Europe, dog ownership is common in both rural and urban areas. (Zhao Le 2013,155)
English people treat dogs as companions, as friends, as family members. In some European homes, the dog does not have an extra meaning. It can walk and rest in every room of its owner. The host treats, the guest friend is full, it is free, still around the table to eat, the dog's saliva water flows down, the host or the guest will use the napkin to wipe it, even directly with the hand wipe, just like to treat their own children. There is no cultural psychology of "respecting guests before scolding dogs" as Chinese people think, which is also related to the abstract logical thinking mode of Westerners. There is no connection between the "fawning and fawning" image of dogs, but it is just a kind of nature of dogs.(Zhao Le 2013,155)

===== 1.2.2Dragon=====
In Western myths and legends, a dragon is an extremely fierce monster that can breathe fire to destroy buildings and is extremely destructive. Dragon refers to people often contain derogatory sense, for example: Shakespeare writes of Juliet hearing Romeo kill:
O serpent heart, hid with a flowering face!
Did ever dragon keep so fair a cave?
Beautiful tyrant! fiend angelical!
Oh, the heart of a viper in the face of a flower!
Which dragon dwelt in this elegant cave?
Beautiful tyrant! The angelic devil！(Huang Fu Hong 2000,8)

In English, the old dragon means a devil. Westerners believe that Dragon is a symbol of satyr and a monster of cruelty and abuse, which should be destroyed. In some legends about saints and heroes, the deeds of fighting against monsters like dragons often end with the monsters being killed. The letter is probably best known as the Anglo-Saxon narrative poem Beowulf. Regardless of his old age, Beowulf determined to kill the dragon to rescue people. He took the eleven warriors to fight and and devoted his life for the people happiness.(Huang Fu Hong 2000,8)

The word "龙" in Chinese, as we are all familiar with, cannot be translated literally as "Dragons". The reason is that the English people have a terrible impression of the dragon, which is the symbol of crime. Many English-language newspapers cater to the habits of their British and American readers, and their translations have undergone a cultural transformation. Asia's "Four Tigers" is an apt translation.(Huang Fu Hong 2000,8)

Dragon means in the year of the Dragon, from the comparison of dragon culture, we can see the fusion of Chinese and Western culture and national psychological characteristics. This is the problem that we should pay attention to in the study and teaching of Chinese as a foreign language. (huang fuhong, 2000,8)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan

=== 2.Coping Strategies===
Since there a lot of cultural differences between Chinese and English,interpreters should figure out ways to settle them. The following paragraphs introduced some good qualities of interpreters and the ways that interpreters can use to deal with these cultural problems.
==== 2.1Good qualities of interpreters====
===== 2.1.1Clear and accurate speech=====
Interpreter's speech should be clear and accurate, with no fluctuation of volume. Don't make your voice too harsh, or break or shake because of tension. In more formal Settings, interpreters should also control their distance from the microphone and keep the tone at a labor-saving and pleasant height, depending on the situation. At the same time, it accentuates and lengthens certain syllables of affairs or certain vowels of Chinese, thus making the speech chain appear cadence and giving one's voice a certain solemn and specific delivery effect in the hall.(Bao Gang 1998,226)

Do not, however, be so artificial as to incur the general dislike of the audience. The interpreter may have minor speech defects, such as a less severe accent, but in general the interpreter's voice condition should be better than that of ordinary people. In the scene of interpretation, the most taboo words are stagnation of language flow and tension of voice, because this will make the audience have doubts about the translation ability of the interpreter, which will lead to a crisis of confidence in the interpreter.(Bao Gang 1998,226)

Secondly, the speed of the interpreter should be appropriate, not the faster the better. Of course, a qualified interpreter should be able to publish the target language quickly, but the interpreter must be adjusted as appropriate in the specific interpretation environment. In fact, the most important thing is to keep the language flow on the level of fluency and communication.(Bao Gang 1998,226)

At the level of paralanguage information transmission, attention should be paid to convey appropriate paralanguage and other information of the source language to meet the needs of on-site communication. Interpreters should not excessively imitate the intonation, tone and other paralinguistic information of the source speaker, let alone exaggerate the information. In theory, most of the paralinguistic information of the source language is conveyed without an interpreter.

Because these information can be directly and clearly felt by all the listeners on the scene, such as gestures, facial expressions and other body language information. Only intonation and tone are the important paralinguistic information that must be taken into account by the translator in the output of the target language. Translators should not be indifferent to the intonation, tone and other information of the source speaker, but should translate mechanically in a flat tone. Don't dazzle or mime around others to appear dominant.(Bao Gang 1998,227)

===== 2.1.2Intercultural awareness=====
For example, when greeting an American at a Chinese airport, if the Chinese receptionist says, "Are you tired from the trip”? Maybe Americans can accept this, but it's not the best expression. In America, interpreters should better say:”Did you have a nice trip? "Because Americans don't like to be asked too personal questions. Similarly,it is inappropriate to ask English people about their age,salary,weight and so on. Interpreters should keep this in mind when interpreting. Although it is difficult to define the interpreter and the speaker had how much the same cultural background, but the more the interpreter know the speaker's knowledge background, the interpretation will do the more smoothly. That is to say, when interpreting,the interpreter should prepare for the information of the speaker in advance,such as his or her cultural background,speaking habit and so on,which can benefit both the speaker and the interpreter.(Liu Ya Feng 2018,57)

In the communication with the English countries,there are many intercultural problems. The following paragraphs will show what problems that interpreter should pay attention to.
===== 2.1.3 Differences in social systems, values and world views=====
Culture brings different contexts to language. The same expression is sometimes very different in the two cultures, and this difference also represents the difference in values. For example, a Chinese host meets a foreign friend in the morning and asks, “您吃了吗?” Then the interpreter should not interpret it into”Have you eaten yet?” Instead, the interpreter should translate this sentence into:”How are you?” This is because that in Chinese culture,”您吃了吗？”is just a greeting. Another difference is that China is a socialist country, words related to socialism with Chinese characteristics often appear. When interpreting such words, the differences between Chinese and foreign cultures should be taken into account. For example, if the interpretation of "不忘初心" is "Don't forget our first heart”,then the English listeners will feel quite confused. The interpretation should be combined with our social conditions,”不忘初心” can be translated as “Don’t forget our initial determination” or "Don't forget why we started", "Remain true to our original aspiration", "Stay true to our original mission", etc. With the continuous expansion of the Chinese government's external publicity work, foreigners have become more and more understanding of this English expression.
===== 2.1.4 Differences in customs and habits=====
The English people are fond of dogs and often regard them as their companions and lovely animals. They use a dog as a metaphor for a person's life. For example:in Chinese,people say:”他是个幸运儿”. While in English,this sentence should be interpreted into “He is a lucky dog”. (Liu Ya Feng 2018,57)
What’s more,”He is dog-tired.” is to describe that he is terribly tired. It would be a mistake to translate "He works like a dog" into "他像狗一样地工作"since the meaning of this sentence is to say that he is a workaholic. In our country's political life, We often see other figurative uses, for example, "坚定不移地打虎、拍蝇、猎狐" translated into "We have taken firm action to take out tigers, swat flies, and hunt down foxes." In this context, Chinese people compare "tigers", "flies" and "foxes" to officials of different levels of corruption. (Liu Ya Feng 2018,57)
===== 2.1.5 Different usage habits in English and Chinese=====
Compared with English, some words are put in a different order. For example, if "中小企业" is translated into "Medium and small-sized Enterprises"do not fit British and American habits, but instead are translated into "Small and medium-sized Enterprises". “贫富差距” is not “the gap between the poor and the rich” but “the gap between rich and poor”. The translation of "暖心的故事" is not "warming-heart stories", but "heart-warming stories". (Liu Ya Feng 2018,58)

===3.Analysis of interpretation===

Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing answered the question raised by the reporter of China Radio International on China's relations with other developing countries.
　　
Example 1: Integration of key points in oral interpretation

Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing; 我也访问了一个人口很少的国家，叫佛得角。这个国家的领导人对我很热情，又特别客气。不断地说：“ 啊，我们国家很小很小。”我被他们的谦虚态度所感动，但我也诚恳地告诉佛得角朋友：“ 山不在高，有仙则名。国不在大，热爱和平，主持公道就好。”(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)
Interpreter: And I also visited a country with a very small size of population，called Cape Vede. I was received with tremendous warm and kindness there. The people there were very modest.They kept telling me that our country is very small But in spite of their modest attitude，I told them sincerely that as an old saying goes in China： A mountain，no matter how high it is，if it is blessed with a touch of divine，it will be well-known. And a country，no matter how big it is，if it can uphold peace and justness in the world， it w ill be a good country.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)

Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing; What matters with a mountain is not its height. And what matters with a country is not its size.
Comments:In this passage, Foreign Minister Li borrowed the first sentence of Liu Yu-suk's Humble House Inscription, "The mountain is not high, but the immortal name is", and extended it to the analogy of international relations. Due to the time pressure of the scene, the translator did not fully understand the meaning of the sentence and adopted the word-for-word translation.

Although on the surface, the translator translated every word and sentence, but a little careful, it can be seen that the translation does not express the information meaning of the original. Apparently, Li also felt that the interpreter did not accurately convey the meaning he wanted to convey. So, no sooner had the interpreter spoken than Li retranslated it (in bolded English). Li's translation makes it clear that he does not use the corresponding translation of words and phrases, but directly conveys the message meaning of the source language (i.e. the interpretive translation of the ideograms).(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)

Example 2: Cultural considerations in oral interpretation

Foreign Minister Li Zhaoxing answered the question raised by CCTV reporter on overseas travel of Chinese citizens:

Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing; 为以防万一，你最好能了解离你到的地方最近的中国大使馆或者总领事馆的电话，一旦出事，你可以放心，中国驻有关国家或地区的大使馆或者总领事馆，会全力以赴、会依法为你提供帮助。

Interpreter: And what you could do，beside that if you are the unlucky one is you could find the telephone numbers o f embassy and consulate general the closest to you. So whenever there is an incident you could ask for help f rom our embassy and consulate general. Our people will surely go all out to give you lawful protection.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)

Comments:The translator has a thorough understanding of the additional points in the original language and provides a smooth and accurate translation by means of interpretive translation. What is particularly commendable is a translation of "If you are the hype one" for a rainy day. The language form of the clause "you can rest assured" is not given in the target language, but its meaning is incorporated into the subsequent translation. Building protection refers to a direct interpretation of "lawful assistance" as "to give you guidance".

This approach takes into account the differences between Chinese and Western ways of thinking and the differences between Chinese and English ways of expression. This is exactly what the interpretive theory advocates. According to the theory of interpretive interpretation, interpreters must consider the acceptability of both sides in the context of two languages and cultures.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)
　　
Example 3: Emotional communication in oral interpretation

Foreign Minister Li Zhao Xing answered a question on China-Us trade raised by the Reuters news Agency.
Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing：实际上，很难说得清楚什么叫军用，什么叫民用。比如说这杯茶，我和姜恩柱主任委员喝了就是民用，要是当兵的喝了就是军用，说得清楚吗？
Interpreter: Actually it would be very difficult to distinguish from military purposes and civilian purposes. Just take the cup of tea in front of me as an example. If I and Chair man Jiang drink this tea， it w ill be rendered as for civilian use. But if a soldier drinks this tea， then the tea becomes for military use. So it is very difficult to have a clear definition of this term.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)

Comments:In the part that add in the original language is the Chinese commonly used rhetorical question. The form of rhetorical questions in Chinese is equivalent to rhetorical questions in English. But the rhetorical function is not the same. In Chinese, rhetorical questions are usually used for intensification, as in the original "Is it clear? "Is for the purpose of emphasizing" can't say clearly ".

And rhetorical questions in English also have the function of moderating mood. Therefore, translators adopt the way of interpretation to the rhetorical directly translated into statements, both to avoid the ambiguity, and to accurately convey the original meaning of language information (including emotional information), the effect of interpretation as sent interpreting theory emphasizes: the interpreter in interpreting process must consider how to accurately convey the original language discourse information such as the thoughts, images, and emotions.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)

Example 4: Syntactic recombination in oral interpretation

Foreign Minister Li Zhaoxing answered a question on China-Us trade raised by the Reuters news Agency.

Foreign Minister Li Zhao Xing：你的问题富有战略眼光，你问到十年甚至二十年之后的中美关系。

Interpreter： Your question show s that you are a person with a strategic perspective， because you asked about the outlook o f Sino-US relations in ten or twenty years’ time.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)

Comments:Of course, this sentence cannot be translated in the corresponding way of words. "Problems" can't have "strategic vision," it's the person asking the question who has "strategic vision." When the true meaning of the source language is understood, the expression of the target language becomes accurate and clear.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)

Example 5: Semantic interpretation in oral interpretation

Xinhua News Agency reporter asked Premier Wen About education:

Reporter: In your report, education is a highlight, especially compulsory education. You proposed the policy of "two exemptions and one subsidy" starting from this year.

Interpreter：We can see that education figures quite prominently in your government’s report particularly the compulsory education. We know starting from this year， the government is going to exempt the tuition and miscellaneous fees for the rural poor students receiving compulsory education and government is also going to give subsidies to the students attending schools f rom poor families.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)

Comments:This way of using numbers to sum up a policy, an idea, etc., is a feature of The Chinese language. From the "three Antis", "Five Antis", "four Antis", "four Qing dynasties", "Five stresses, four Beauties and three loves" to the present "three Represents", "three agricultrals", "eight honors and eight disgraces" and so on, there are many examples. Therefore, when the "two free and one supplement" appeared in the reporter's question, the country's top interpreters naturally have a good idea. Without any hesitation, the field interpreter directly explained the exact meaning of "two exemption and one supplement", without any word-to-word translation of the phrase itself. The interpretive nature of interpretation is further supported here.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)

Example 6: Logical processing in oral translation and interpretation

Premier Wen Jiabao answered the question on education raised by Xinhua News Agency.

Premier Wen: I'd like to stress the importance of civilian education here, because the vast majority of people in the world are civilians. The quality of common people is related to the quality of the whole people of a country. We have 1.3 billion people, 900 million farmers, a higher proportion of civilians.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)

Interpreter: Here，I would like to give the stress and the importance to the education for the general public. Most of the people in this world are ordinary people and belong to the general public. I think the competence of the general public is a direct reflection of the overall competence of the country. China is a country with a population of 1. 3 billion and 900 million of the Chinese people live in the countryside. So we have even a bigger proportion of our people receiving ordinary education.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)

Comments:There is no conjunctions between clauses, and the logical relation is clear at a glance, which is also the charm of Chinese "meaning meeting". However, English focuses on "speech and communication", and the logical relationship is reflected in the language form. Therefore, the interpreter must thoroughly understand the logical relations between Chinese clauses: they are not parallel relations, "there are 1.3 billion people" and "there are 900 million farmers" are inclusive relations, and the relationship between the first two clauses and the last one is causal.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)

Interpreters interpret on the basis of understanding the true connotation of the source language, which is not the corresponding language translation of words and phrases, but the interpretive interpretation (the italic part of the translation) that conveys the overall message meaning of the source language. This also explains the definition of "meaning" in interpretive theory: the meaning of speech refers to "the overall meaning of discourse" in interpreting activities.

On March 18, 2008 held a press conference, premier Wen Jiabao quote the old saying or answer questions from Chinese and foreign journalists, ancient Chinese poems before and after nine times, and the interpreter is also easy to immediately after the prime minister stated to complete these classical Chinese sentence translation, not only embodies the solid basic language interpreter itself strength and extensive knowledge, also for the interpretation of the study and research provides vivid data, more convenient to our understanding of cross-cultural awareness of the significance of a good interpreter.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)

Through the analysis of the above examples, it can be seen that interpretation is not only a technology, but also an art, which requires translators to have a keen cross-cultural awareness and overcome the obstacles behind language and cultural factors. Through extensive reading, translators should actively expand their knowledge fields, strengthen the accumulation of their own cultural knowledge and the cultivation of cross-cultural dialogue, and strive to avoid mistranslation caused by ignoring language and cultural differences through constant practice and summary, so as to achieve the purpose of external communication.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:41, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan

Interpreters in the interpreting process is not constrained in the primitive form of language, but fully considering the situation and primitive released into their related knowledge, a thorough understanding of primitive information, abandon words corresponding translation methods, focus on search to find the right words within the prescribed time to convey meaning in the context of a specific information.

=== Conclusion ===
With the deep economic globalization and many international issues,interpreters has become more and more important throughout the world. As an interpreter,it’s essential for them to learn more about the cultural differences. As an interpreter,he or she should keep learning to keep up with the fast-changing world.Rich cultural background and relevant professional knowledge will help interpreters improvise. But a solid language foundation is the key. Therefore, we should accumulate relevant professional knowledge in our daily study and strengthen the training of interpretation, so as to be able to do well in on-site interpretation.Due to the cultural differences that lead to the untranslatability between Chinese and English in some occasions, we should admit that translation is not always possible, but only within certain limits and limits. As an interpreter,daily learning and accumulation of cultural knowledge are very important.Only by having a thorough understanding of the similarities and differences between Chinese English and their cultures can translators reduce mistakes in interpreting and effectively serve as a bridge between them.

=== References ===

*Bao Gang鲍刚.(1998).口译理论概述[M].[An Overview of Interpretation Theory].北京:旅游教育出版社Beijing:Travel and Education Press.

*Du Tianyu杜恬雨.(2020).浅析文化差异对汉英颜色词翻译的影响[J].[A Brief Analysis of the Influence of Cultural Differences on the Translations of Chinese-English Color Words].科教文汇The Science Education Article Collects(07):187-188

*Huang Fuhong黄福洪.(2000).汉英龙文化差异浅析[J].[The Influence of Cultural Differences Between Chinese and English].修辞学习The Rhetoric Study(03):8.

*Liu Yafeng刘亚峰.(2018).中英文化的差异对口译的影响[J].[The Influence of Cultural Differences Between Chinese and English on Interpretation].辽宁经济职业技术学院.辽宁经济管理干部学院学报 Liaoning Economic Vocational And Technical College. Journal of Liaoning Economic Management Cadre Institute(06):56-58.

*Liu Xiangya刘相娅.(2009).英汉文化中“dog”“狗”的对比研究[J].新课程学习(学术教育)A Comparative Study of Dogs in English and Chinese Cultures New Curriculum Learning (Academic Education)(12):154-155.

*Zhao Le赵乐.(2013).汉英“狗”族词汇褒贬义对比及成因分析[J].A Comparative Analysis of the Commendatory and Derogatory Meanings of Chinese and English "Dog" Words and their Causes.现代语文(语言研究版) Modern Chinese (Language Research Edition)(02):155-158.

*The Spirit of Interpretation 译之灵.记者招待会现场口译实例评析Comments on interpretation examples at the reception.2012.

*Woesler, Martin. (2020). Responsibility and Ethics in Times of Corona. Woesler, Martin and Hans-Martin Sass eds. Medicine and Ethics in Times of Corona Muenster: LIT
--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 12:13, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye

==On Lefevere's manipulating theory 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan 202020080609 英语语言文学==

<center> 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan, 202020080609</center>

===Abstract===
In 1980s, the research object of translation studies changed from text itself to culture. Cultural factors were brought into translation studies. Andre Lefevere, as the founder of cultural transformation, puts forward the famous manipulation theory and its three elements-poetics, ideology and patron. He believes that translation is not a simple change between languages, and translators' translation activities are influenced and restricted by social factors such as ideology, poetics and patronage. He points out that translation is a form of rewriting the text, and it is "manipulating" the original text to make it compatible with the cultural background of the target text. The main body of the thesis is divided into three parts, which explore the rewriting phenomenon caused by poetics, ideology and sponsors in translation activities by displaying different translation cases.

===Key Words===
Ideology; Poetics; Patronage; Manipulation

===题目===
勒弗菲尔的操纵理论

===摘要===
20世纪80年代，翻译研究的研究对象从文本本身转向文化，将文化因素纳入翻译研究之中。安德烈勒弗菲尔作为文化转换的奠基人提出了著名的操纵理论及其三要素—诗学、意识形态和赞助人。他认为翻译不是一件简单的语言间的转换，译者的翻译活动受到意识形态、诗学和赞助人等社会因素的影响和制约。他指出翻译是改写文本的一种形式，是对原文的“操纵”，使其与目的语文本所在的文化背景相容。论文主体主要分为三部分，分别通过展示不同的译本分析，探究诗学、意识形态和赞助人在翻译活动中造成的改写现象。

===关键词===
意识形态；诗学；赞助人；操纵

===1.Introduction===

Before the 20th century, western translation theories mainly fell into the category of literature and art, which regarded translation as an art and emphasized the translator's creative reproduction of the original text. Until the mid-20th century, translation theorists introduced the theories and achievements of modern linguistics into translation studies, thus producing a linguistic school.Linguistic school regarded translation as a science of mutual transformation at the linguistic level, emphasizing the language equivalence between the original text and the target text.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)

Compared with the literary school, the linguistic school has deepened translation studies and achieved fruitful results, which was beyond doubt. However, it only limited translation studies to the linguistic level, ignoring external linguistic factors such as discourse and context, which led to the fossilization of translation studies.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)

Since the 1980s, under the influence of post-modernism and cross-cultural studies, translation studies have ushered in a "cultural turn", which has gradually transformed translation studies from a linguistic perspective to a cultural perspective, and thus a cultural school of translation has emerged. The cultural school broke through the traditional text comparative study mode of literature and linguistics, and paid attention to many social factors that influenced translation under the broad cultural background, thus broadening the scope of translation studies and injecting new blood into translation studies. Manipulation school was one of the most influential schools of culture.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)

The development of Manipulation School was based on comparative literature research, which mainly studied literary translation. The representative figures were Hermans and Lefevere. Hermans first applied "manipulation" to the study of translation theory, forming the embryonic stage of the manipulation school.In the book "Manipulation of Literature: Studies of Literary Translation", Hermans gave the programmatic view of Manipulation School: Manipulation School thinks that literature is a complex dynamic system. As Hermans said: "From the perspective of the target text, all translations are manipulations of the original text for some purpose." (Hermans 1985, 10-11)

Andre Lefevere, a famous Belgian American comparative writer and translation theorist, pointed out that literary translation always came into being in a certain historical period and a certain cultural context. In this sense, translation was a rewriting of the original text and a form of creating the text. Lefevere further pointed out that literary criticism, biography, literary history, film, drama, reader's guide and so on were all rewriting the text and creating another form of text image.(Zhang xiaojuan 2010, 130)

In other words, translation created the original author, the original text and the literary and cultural images of the original text. All rewritings, regardless of its intention, reflected certain ideology and poetics under the influence of the patronage. He thought that translation was rewriting, and rewriting was manipulation.The rewriting in different historical periods should be controlled by the ideology and main stream poetics, which was finally related to power and became a means to serve them. He believed that translation cannot truly reflect the original appearance, which was mainly manipulated by these three factors: ideology, poetics and patronage.(Zhang xiaojuan 2010, 130)

===2 Three Elements of Lefevere's manipulation Theory===

===2.1 Ideology===

Generally speaking, ideology refers to the concept system that reflects the interests and requirements of specific economic forms, specific classes or social groups, and its basic contents include people's political, legal, moral, philosophical, artistic and religious views, etc. In Lefevere's view, translation practice is a practice related to certain historical reality, a practice of reinterpreting the original text according to the interests of a certain social group in the new historical environment, and it is essentially a practice of culture and politics. Manipulation school is most concerned about not how the translation should be translated, but why it is translated like this.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)

Translations are not made in a vacuum. Translators function in a given culture at a given time. The way they understand themselves and their culture is one of the factors that may influence the way in which they translate. (Andre Lefevere 1992,14)

Translation, as a cross-language and cross-cultural communication activity, is inevitably influenced by ideology. It includes the translator's personal ideology and the ideology imposed on the translator by the authority or sponsor. These personal, social or upper-level ideologies will limit the selection of the theme of translated works and the form of expressing the theme and affect the translator's basic translation strategies and the interpretation of the original language and culture. Therefore, under the control of ideology, the translator will arbitrarily add, delete or change the original text, so that the translated text serves his own political purpose. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 130)

===2.2 Poetics===

Poetics involves two parts: literary technique and translator's view of literary function. Literary technique mainly includes genre, symbol, theme, etc. Translator's view of literary function refers to the role or function of literature in the whole social system. Translators not infrequently use their translations to influence the evolution of the poetics of their time. The compromises translators find between the poetics of the original and the poetics of their culture provide fascinating insights into the process of acculturation and incontrovertible evidence of the extent of the power of a given poetics. (Andre Lefevere 1992,26)

According to Lefevere, the translation method adopted by translators is carried out and developed under a certain system of factors of poetics, and the object of the study of poetics is as small as one word or as large as one sentence and the style of the whole chapter, translation strategies and other aspects of the rewriting of the poetics, which are the important components of the cultural system where the rewriting writers are engaged in their creation. In order to conform to the ideology and poetics which occupied the dominant position in the period where they live and to achieve the goal of making the rewritten works accepted by as many readers as possible, the original works will be adjusted in a fixed degree. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 131)

===2.3 Patronage===

Generally speaking, sponsors refer to individuals and groups that can promote or hinder the production and dissemination of literary works in a certain historical period, and institutions that regulate the dissemination of literature and literary thoughts. Patrons can encourage the publication of translations they consider acceptable and they can also quite effectively prevent the publication of translations they do not consider so. (Andre Lefevere 1992,19)

Lefevere regarded various rewriting forms, such as literary translation, as one of the various systems of the society. This department of philology has double factors of operation and control. One is the internal factor of the department of philology, which is composed of various professionals including critics, teachers and translators. The other is the patron who plays a role in the external department of the department.There are all kinds of powers (people or mechanisms) that promote or stop reading, writing or rewriting , such as religious groups, orders, government departments, publishing agencies, mass media mechanisms, or individual power.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 82)-

Sponsors can encourage works that they think are suitable, and can also effectively curb works that they think are inappropriate. Generally speaking, they play a vital role in the dynamic direction of translation, the development of translated literature, and social status where translators are located. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 131)

===3.Cases Study===

===3.1 Cases Study on Ideology===

Example one: In the dialogue between Wang Lifa and Cui Jiufeng in the second act of Teahouse, Wang Lifa said, "可是住在我这里, 天天念经" Cui Jiufeng replied, "我现在只能修持, 忏悔!" As for "念经" in the sentence, Ying Ruocheng's translation of "chanting Buddhist scriptures" is rich in Christian color; Huo Hua's translation "chanting sutras" abandons the meaning of Buddhism. From this, it can be seen that in order to meet the requirements of mainstream ideology, translators will choose corresponding translation strategies and delete or euphemistically treat some of the original texts in the process of translation. From the perspective of manipulation theory, this is the manipulation of ideology on translation.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 144)

Example two: Facing globalization, the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation must be strongly supported by the prosperity of culture. Under the background of vigorously advocating the use of literature output to improve the soft power of Chinese culture, we should treat the translation of Chinese literature more rationally. China has been a collectivist country since ancient times and advocated unity and unity. For families, there is a saying that "home is harmonious and everything is prosperous"; For the neighborhood, there is the advocacy of "good neighborliness and friendship".(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)

Therefore, when translating the report of the 19th National Congress into English, it is inevitable to be influenced by the feelings of home and country, which can be seen everywhere in the text.Original text: 大会的主题是：不忘初心，牢记使命…… Translation version：The theme of the Congress is: Remain true to our original aspiration and keep our mission firmly in mind... Analysis: There is no human appellation like "we" in the original text of the sentence, but it appears in the translation that “our original aspiration” and “our mission”.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)

Thus, its text translation is manipulated by our country's ideology, which is intended to show the collectivism consciousness of the Chinese nation and show that all ethnic groups in our country are united and love each other dearly.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)

Example three: As an important media of cultural communication, American TV drama not only has an eye-catching story, but also contains a lot of foreign cultural factors, such as authentic American slang and spoken language, strange historical allusions, and novel network neologisms. As a bridge between Chinese and American cultures, subtitle translation of American TV drama is particularly important. First of all, when the social values of the translation and the source text conflict, ideology will manipulate the translator to rewrite the sensitive parts of the text to meet the social ideology requirements of the target language.(Long juan 2020, 64)

In addition, American TV series contains a lot of local cultural factors, which is difficult to find the corresponding symbols in the process of translation and introduction, so the rewriting of culture in subtitles is inevitable.
English version: Hewlett and Packard
Chinese version: 休利特和帕卡德
(比尔·休利特和戴维·帕卡德是惠普(HP)公司创始人，两者均为男性。)
-Quoted from the Big Bang Theory

Many Chinese audiences are familiar with HP brand, but know little about its founders. Therefore, in addition to translating the names of the two founders literally at the bottom of the screen, the subtitle group members also added their identities and remarks "Both are male" at the top of the screen. This not only preserves the characteristics of the source language culture, but also helps the audience enjoy the movie-watching activities smoothly, and also increases the comedy sense of the play.(Long juan 2020, 64)

Example four: In 1930s, the western world knew very little about Chinese culture at that time, and most people thought that China was a savage and backward nation. The Chinese people in Westerners' minds were ignorant, superficial and vulgar. Facing the misunderstanding and discrimination of Westerners towards China, Lin Yutang tried to show the western world the true philosophy of life and attitude of Chinese people by translating “浮生六记” which told the story of a Chinese couple's quiet and simple life. He adopted the translation strategy of combining domestication and foreignization, which made the translated works not only retain the characteristics of Chinese culture, but also be easily understood and accepted by western readers.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 106)

Original text: 彼非作《琵琶行》者耶?
English translation: Isn’t he the one who wrote the poem on The Pi Pa Player?
Here, Lin Yutang translated "琵琶行" into "The Pi Pa Player" rather than "lute" and other forms that were easy for western readers to understand. He adopted the translation strategy of alienation and retained Chinese cultural characteristics according to the idea of himself, with the aim of making Chinese culture go abroad and giving western readers a certain understanding of traditional Chinese culture.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 106)

Example five: In the Chinese translation of Peter Pan, Yang Jingyuan chooses the combination of written language and spoken English in Beijing, and downplays the indecent language in the original text. The choice of this language translation strategy must be determined by his ideology.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)

In the original text, the topic of "mother" appears in many occasions, such as storytelling and character dialogue, and Yang Jingyuan translates it into written language "母亲" in most occasions. "Twins" in the original text is translated by Yang as "孪生子" in written language. Yang Jingyuan tends to use the northern dialect to translate, which is reflected in her translation sequence: when it comes to children's pleasure in never having a hometown, "他们不用上学读那些劳什子的书" "Sweater" is translated as "线衣" and "frock" is translated as "罩褂". "劳什子", "线衣" and "罩褂" are typical northern dialects.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)

In the story, the fairy Ding Keling has a pet phrase "You silly ass", which Yang translated as "你这笨蛋". The severely abusive language in the original text is treated as generally critical language in the translated text. Yang Jingyuan was born into a scholarly family and received higher education. Therefore, when she translated words, she intentionally or unintentionally chose the combination of written language and spoken English in Beijing, and downplayed the indecent language in the original text. Therefore, the translator's ideology really controls her translation process.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)

Example six: Zhu Shenghao translated King Lear in 1942. At that time, China was economically backward and politically turbulent. "Saving the country and the people" and "national liberation in an all-round way" became the mainstream ideology of the society at that time. When it was learned that Japanese translator laughed at the backwardness of Chinese culture, which was a barren place without Shakespeare's complete works, Zhu's patriotic enthusiasm was thoroughly aroused. In order to make the people with low education level understand this western classic better, he paid special attention to the harmony of phonology and the smoothness of the whole article in the process of translation. Meanwhile, he wanted to keep the verve of the original as far as possible. Therefore, he mainly adopts domestication.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)

(Act II, Scene IV)
Lear: No, rather I abjure all roofs, and choose
To wage against the enmity o’the air;
To be a comrade with the wolf and owl,
Necessity’s sharp pinch! (Shakespeare, 1972)
Zhu’s translation: 不, 我宁愿什么屋子也不要住, 过着风餐露宿的生活, 和无情的大自然抗争, 和豺狼鸱鸮做伴侣, 忍受一切饥寒的痛苦!
Zhu Shenghao is inspired by national honor and disgrace. His three parallelism sentences are full of momentum, like flowing water. Words such as "风餐露宿" and "无情的大自然" also pour out his inner anger and patriotic enthusiasm for the domestic status.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)

===3.2 Cases Study on Poetics ===

Example one: There is such a scene in the third act of Teahouse. “美国针、美国线、美国牙膏、美国消炎片。还有口红、雪花膏、玻璃袜子细毛线。”
Ying’s translation: Yankee needles, Yankee thread; Toothpaste white and lipstick red. Patent potions, facial lotions; Nylons sheer, you’ll find here.
Huo’s translation: Yankee needles, Yankee notions, Yankee toothpaste, Yankee potions. Lipsticks red, and cold cream white; Nylon stockings, sheer delight.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 144)

By comparing these two translations, in order to better conform to the rhythm of English poetry and make the whole ditty read fluently, Ying Ruocheng splits the structural meaning of the original text and then reorganizes it. He adopts more alienation translation strategies in order to achieve the same rhythm as the original text. On the other hand, because of his love for Chinese culture and the influence of Chinese traditional literature, Huo Hua is more faithful to the original text in his translation, and translates the whole ditty in the order of the original text. From this, it can be seen that Huo Hua's translation is mostly based on domestication, so as to truly reproduce the cultural level in the source text.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 145)

Example two: The opening report of the 19 th National Congress contains a large number of words with Chinese characteristics, and its English translation is manipulated by the socialist culture with Chinese characteristics. For example：Translate“不忘初心，方得始终”into “Never forget why you started, and you can accomplish your mission” “行百里者半九十”into “As the Chinese saying goes, the last leg of a journey just marks the halfway point”. English translation of such words with Chinese characteristics must be carried out on the basis of fully understanding the connotation of Chinese culture, which also well reflects the translator's own literary accomplishment and mastery of poetic ability.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)

Example three: From the perspective of mainstream poetics, Chinese and Western translation circles tend to combine "domestication" with "foreignization" in translation practice, which can not only solve the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, but also reproduce the characteristics of the source culture in the target language as much as possible.
English version: Look at that, the problem solved itself.
Chinese version: 你瞧!不攻自破了。
English version: Preparation can only take you so far.
Chinese version: 谋事在人，成事在天。
-Quoted from the Big Bang Theory(Long juan 2020, 64)

Influenced by mainstream poetics, translators rewrite the subtitles of American TV series by combining domestication and foreignization. If literal translation is adopted, the over-colloquial expression lacks poetic aesthetic feeling, while subtitle translators use “不攻自破” “谋事在人，成事在天”. These Chinese idioms with profound traditional culture not only accurately convey the meaning of the original sentence, but also cater to the audience's preference of the target language.(Long juan 2020, 64)

Example four: In order to make the target readers better understand and accept and spread the translated version smoothly, Lin Yutang adhered to the translation criteria of "faithfulness, fluency and beauty" and adjusted the original text to a certain extent.
Original text: 桥南有莲心寺。寺中突起喇嘛白塔,金顶缨络,高矗云霄,殿角红墙,松柏掩映,钟磬时闻;此天下园亭所未有者。
English translation: On the south of the bridge there was the Lotus-Seed Temple, with a Tibetan pagoda rising straight up from its midst and its golden dome rising into the clouds, with the terracotta walls and temple roofs nestling under the kind shade of pine-trees and cypresses and the sounds of temple bells and ch’ing [musical stone] coming to the traveler’s ears intermittently——all combining to achieve a unique effect that could not be duplicated in any other pleasure garden of the world.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)

The original text described the beautiful scenery of Lianxin Temple in concise language. Lin Yutang combined the two sentences of the original text into a long sentence, forming a compact and clear structure, which vividly presented the scene of Lianxin Temple to western readers. This beautiful sight of China can bring unique aesthetic feeling to western readers, realize the function of literature, and conform to the mainstream poetics at that time.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)

Example five: Yang Jingyuan definitely affirms Peter Pan's literary value and aesthetic value in the translation sequence. Under the control of this poetics, the translator builds a bridge of fantasy with exquisite and beautiful language in his translation, and poetry is perfectly reflected. The original story happened in Neverland, and Yang Jingyuan translated it as "永无乡". This translation method accurately grasps the spirit of the original work-although this place is good, it is the other side that can never be reached in reality, and the depth of melancholy and helplessness are expressed incisively and vividly. The following examples more fully reflect the manipulation of the original text by the poetics of the target language.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)

Original text: when children died he went part of the way with them.
Translated text: 孩子们死了, 在黄泉
Original text: she used to say afterwards to her husband.
Translated text: 她老是对丈夫说这些事后诸葛亮的话。
The translator deliberately chooses the words "黄泉" and "事后诸葛亮" in a way of additional translation, which are unique in Chinese culture. The manipulation of the target text by the poetics of the target language culture can be seen.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)

Example six: With the rise of the New Culture Movement in China in the 1930s, foreign literature and ideas were constantly introduced by translation. The creation of vernacular Chinese was valued and welcomed. With the principle of letting the general public enjoy Shakespeare's plays, he adopted a more colloquial prose style as the main translation style.
(Act I, Scene I)
Cordelia: But yet, alas! stood I within his grace,
I would prefer him to a better place.
So farewell to you both. (Shakespeare, 1972)
Zhu’s translation: 考狄利娅:可是, 唉!要是我没有失去他的欢心, 我一定不让他依赖你们的照顾。再会了, 两位姊姊。
Zhu Shenghao abandoned the framework of the original text and translated its meaning directly in the form of easy-to-understand prose, reflecting his preference for more colloquial prose translation.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)

===3.3 Cases Study on Patronage===

Example one:In the first act of Teahouse, Grandpa Four often complained to Wang Lifa, "我也得罪了他?我今天出门没挑好日子! " In this sentence, Ying Ruocheng translates "没挑好日子" into "This is not my lucky day!" The big reason is that his translation publishing house is China Foreign Publishing House, and Ying is more suitable for the traditions and habits of foreign readers, so as to facilitate the acceptance of foreign readers.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 145)

On the other hand, Huo Hua translates it as "I should've taken the Almanac's advice and stayed home today." Based on his understanding
Chinese traditional culture, Huo Hua knows that this is what Chinese people usually say orally that going out depends on the lunar calendar, so he translated it as "Take the Almanac's advice and stayed home", which is more faithful to the connotation of Chinese traditional culture. (Huang Mingjuan 2020, 145)

Example two: The report in the opening ceremony of the 19th National Congress belongs to the official documents of the party and government organs, and its sponsors are obviously the Communist Party of China and its leaders. Therefore, the report represents the will of the party and the people, in which every word, phrase and sentence collocation must be carefully screened before being finalized and must conform to the will of the country and represent the interests of the party and the people. This also requires translators to keep a clear head and high political acumen at all times, and to represent and safeguard the national image at all times. (Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)

Example three: In order to obtain social and economic resources and establish their own influence in the target language society, the sponsors will actively encourage the media system to produce as many film and television works as possible and meet the needs of the audience. In order to achieve this goal, they will introduce the mainstream social value orientation in the selection of film and television dramas, and also manipulate subtitle translators to adjust and change the subtitles of American TV dramas to some extent according to the target people's acceptance ability and expectation horizon. (Long juan 2020, 65)

Example four:Sponsors not only have a profound influence on the publication of translated works, but also have an inseparable connection with translators' selection of translation materials. For Lin Yutang's translation of “浮生六记”, the monthly magazine Tianxia and the couple Pearl Buck are influential patrons. (Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)

Example five:Yang Jingyuan was suffering from severe cataract at that time. It was difficult for her to read and write. In order to relieve her distress, her husband helped her translate the book. After reading Peter Pan, Fan Yong especially appreciated it and published it. It can be seen that Peter Pan was originally a spontaneous academic behavior of Yang Jingyuan. The initial sponsor was her lover, and later Fan Yong, general manager of Sanlian Bookstore, so the publishing house was also one of the sponsors. Together, they contributed to the publication of this book. (Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)

Example six: Zhan Wenxu and Zhu Shenghao worked together in the World Publishing House for many years, and Zhan quite appreciated Zhu's literary talent and translation level. Later, Zhan was appointed editor-in-chief of the World Publishing House. He suggested that Zhu Shenghao translate Shakespeare's works, which coincided with Zhu's own ideas. So Zhu signed a contract with the World Publishing House in 1935 and started the process of translating Shakespeare. So Zhan helped Zhu a lot in the road of translation. (Zhou Ya 2014, 178)

===Conclusion===

Lefevere's manipulation theory has a wide influence in the translation field. He holds that translation is a creative process and translators will inevitably be influenced by the culture of the target language, and he emphasizes three major elements: ideology, poetics and patronage. Because of using a different language from the original, facing a completely different readership and operating in different cultural categories, the translator, as the representative of the target culture, would be restricted by various target cultural conditions from the choice of the translation text at the beginning to the selection of translation strategies in the translation process until the acceptance of the final version. Moreover, the translator would have various considerations in translation. Therefore, it is impossible to reproduce the exactly identical translation of the original text.

Lefevere emphasizes the translator's position and role in literary translation, and pointed out that the translator's subjectivity is extremely complex, and its exertion is restricted by subjective and objective factors such as ideology and custom system. Ideology can be divided into mainstream social ideology and translator's personal ideology. Its influence on translation is everywhere, and the translator's thoughts, viewpoints, writing style and even his surroundings will be manipulated by invisible ideology. In the process of translation, the intended readers and clients in the translator's mind come from the target language system, and the translator himself is immersed in the culture of the target language system. Therefore, the mainstream poetic form of the target language system and the popular literary view at that time are largely used in the whole process of translation literature creation. Sponsors have a certain status and can provide remuneration and other help to translators. They can restrict the translation norms and decide the publication of translated works, and even decide the translator's translation goals and strategies and the acceptance of translated works.

===Bibliography===

Theo Hermans.The Manipulation of literature: Studies of literary translation [M]. London and Sydney: Croom Helm, 1985.

Andre Lefevere. Translation, History and Culture [M]. London: Routledge, 1992.

Huang Mingjuan 黄明娟. (2020). 从操纵论看《茶馆》翻译——以英若诚和霍华译本为例. [Translation from the Perspective of Manipulation Theory on Cha Guan--A Case Study of Ruocheng and Huo Hua's versions]. ''青年文学家''Youth Literator (14) 144-145.

Jia Shanshan 贾珊珊. (2018). 翻译操纵理论下的外宣文本英译研究——以十九大开幕式报告为例. [A Study on English Translation of Publicity Texts from the Perspective of Translation Manipulation: A Case Study of the Opening Report of the 19th National Congress]. ''疯狂英语''Crazy English (02) 168-169.

Long Juan, Tang Bo 龙娟,唐博. (2020). 基于操纵理论的美剧字幕翻译研究. [A Study on Subtitle Translation of American TV Series Based on Manipulation Theory]. ''现代英语''Modern English (02) 63-65.

Xie Chengfeng 谢承凤. (2016). 剖析翻译中的操纵论——以译作《彼得·潘》为例. [Analysis of Manipulation in Translation--A case study of the translation of Peter Pan as an example]. ''科教文汇''The Science Education Article Collects (12) 180.

Zhang Baihua, Hu Yajie 张白桦,胡雅洁. (2017). 改写理论三要素对翻译的影响——以林语堂《浮生六记》英译本为例. [The Three Factors of Rewriting Theory's Influence on Translation--A Case Study of Six Chapters of a Floating Life Translated by Lin Yutang]. ''中州大学学报''Journal of Zhongzhou University (01) 105-108.

Zhang Xiaojuan 张晓娟. (2010). 浅谈勒弗菲尔操控理论的三大要素对翻译的影响. [The Three Factors of Manipulation Theory's Influence on Translation]. ''西安社会科学''Xi 'an Social Sciences (04) 130-131.

Zhang Yuanyuan 张园园. (2010). 翻译就是操纵——操纵学派综述. [Translation Is Manipulation--An overview of the Manipulation School]. ''商丘职业技术学院学报''Journal of Shangqiu Vocational and Technical College (03) 81-82.

Zhou Ya 周亚. (2014). 操纵论与《李尔王》译本的对比研究——以梁实秋和朱生豪译本为例. [Comparative Analysis on Two Translations of ''King Lear''from the Perspective of Manipulation Theory]. ''海外英语''Overseas English (23) 176-178.

==Roger T.Bell's Special Outlook on Translation Studies 陈江宁 Chen Jiangning 202020080594 英美文学==

<center>陈江宁 Chen Jiangning,202020080594, </center>

===Abstract===
“What is translation?” It has been discussed over years since the emergence of the translation activities. As we all know, it is difficult to give translation a unified definition as a result of its complicated nature. This paper will mainly discuss British translator Roger T.Bell's Translation Process Theory based on the Systemic Functional Linguistics, cognitive science and cognitive psychology so as to understand how meaning is perceived and transformed and how the combination of the new and old information form a completely new target text. The contribution Bell has made lies in that he tried to use the graphics mode to fully show translation process, which better explains the interdisciplinary trait of translation and how the translator's thinking mode works during this complex activity.

===Key words===
Roger T.Bell; translation process; Systemic Functional linguistics; cognitive psychology

===题目===
罗杰·贝尔的特殊翻译观

===摘要===
自翻译活动开始之际，人们就开始讨论“什么是翻译”这一问题，却始终没有得到一个统一的答案，由此可见翻译活动之复杂。本文主要探讨英国翻译家罗杰·贝尔提出的翻译过程模式，贝尔的创新之处在于他尝试用图形模式来描述翻译的过程，他以系统功能语言模式为理论基础，结合认知科学、认知心理学探讨意义是如何被认知又如何被转换，新信息与旧信息如何组合形成一个全新的目标语译文，从而更好地解释了翻译学科的跨学科性以及译者在翻译活动中的思维运转方式和操作过程。

===关键词===
罗杰·贝尔；翻译过程；系统功能语言学；认知心理学

===1. Introduction===
Barhudalov, former Soviet Union translation theorist, expressing his opinion in his book called ''Language and Translation'' that the word “translation” has two meanings: one refers to the result of a process, which is the target text itself; the other refers to the translation process itself.(1895,19) That is to say, it emphasizes the act of translating. Therefore,here come the questions: What is the main focus of translation? Is the target text more important as a translation product or the process that contains translation act more significant? These questions attract many translation scholars' attention and according to the research results of recent translation, both in eastern and western translation academia, almost all scholars put their focus on the study of product and its standardization; however, translation process is rarely studied.(Wu Yiicheng 1988,54）

What's worse, the way they study the translation process is almost the same, all starting from analyzing the source text and target text, then comparing the two, that is to say, comparing the product of source text and target text to see whether it is the same, we call it a product-to-product comparison. Meanwhile, from the perspective of the purpose of translation study, it seems that we should pay more attention to analyze the complex process of the conversion between two languages, and explains the problems and gives some feasible solutions and operating procedures. There is no doubt that taking translation as a process to study is beneficial to both perfect the translation theory and improve translation level.(Wu Yicheng 1998, 55)

Therefore, this paper will mainly focus on the study of Roger T.Bell's Translation Process Model, which claims that the essence of translation is the process rather than product. It is also worthy of mentioning that he not only studies the process of translation, but also makes a great breakthrough by connecting the translation with Systemic Functional linguistics and cognitive psychology, which exhibits a more comprehensive translation theory for the whole academia. And it is these two elements that make Bell's translation process model a special and valuable one (Wu Yicheng 1998, 55)

===2. The Main Content of Bell's Translation Process Model ===

====2. 1 The Complexity of Translation Process ====
Generally speaking, previous translators have divided translation into two parts: understand and express. First of all, translator needs to understand the meaning of the source text and its author's intention, and what a translator should do next is to translate precisely on the basis of understanding the source text's meaning, its author's writing purpose and the goal of the target text. Even so, it is still hard for us to explain what exactly the translation process is. There are many outstanding translation theorists expressing their principle about what the translation is. For instance, Yan Fu, a brilliant translator once puts forward his brief but powerful view about translation, that is, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. Professor Qian Zhongshu also shows his opinion towards translation and bring forth the principle “Sublimation Theory”.(Zhang Meifang 2005, 42)

As for western translators, there are also some marvellous translators with their unique thoughts, like Eugene Nida's “Functional Equivalence Theory”; James Holmes' “Text-level Translation Process” and Roger T.Bell's “Translation Process Model” and so on. All of them have come up with meaningful ideas about translation. For instance, Holmes has raised some critical questions about translation like how does the translator create a completely new target text which more or less attaches some similarities with the source text during the translation process? How does his “Black Box” operate when he or she is translating an original text? There are a huge amount of obstacles that translators need to come over. However, few scholars have stretched their foot on this area. (Zhang Meifang 2005, 43)

Taking Nida's translation theory as an example, in his opinion, translation process is composed of four stages: analysis, conversion, reconstruction and examination. Nida further elucidates this conception in his ''The Meaning of Translation'' that the analysis stage is the stage where the translator determines the meaning of the original text (lexical, syntactic and rhetorical meaning). The translator should consider content and form at this stage; he believes that the process by which people stop thinking in one language and start thinking in another language is still a mystery. According to some concepts of transformational-generative grammar, the analysis process is mainly the process of determining the inner meaning. The conversion process takes place at this level, because languages are more similar in deep structurethan in surface structure. Once the conversion occurs, the translator must reconstruct the form of the original information to make it suitable for the potential reader, and the detection phase is the phase in which the target text is compared. (Nida 1969, 484)

Although Nida has mentioned a relatively complete translation theory, one of his translation model's deficiencies is that it doesn't reveal the translator's psychological process when he or she is translating. That is to say, he doesn't consider the function of the translator, like how does he or she analyze the source text? How does translator cut the original text into fundamental structure and rebuild them into the target text? All of these questions haven't been answered yet. In a word, Nida's translation model doesn't concern the translator's thinking activity during the translation process. On the contrary, in Roger T.Bell's translation process model, the role of translator is taken into consideration, that's why Bell's translation model is more comprehensive and better interpret the complexity of translation process. (Xiao Hui 2001, 34)

====2.2 Bell's Main Idea about Translation====
Bell in his book ''Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice'' has showed his view towards translation in a different way, considering some factors that may also influence the product of the target text which is never put forward before. He says that one of the goals in this book is to generalize the components that help to constitute all kinds of competences and knowledge of a translator, the other is to establish a translation model on the basis of this generalization. (1991, 18)

In order to figure out what exactly the translation process is, he has put forward some relevant questions: What is translation? What is a translator? What is translation theory? And he tries to answer them by combining translation process with Systemic Functional linguistics and cognitive psychology. What's more, Bell has showed his point of view quite clearly, he stresses that translation must be regarded as a kind of communicative behavior among human beings, which can be guided by linguistics and helped by the fruits of cognitive science and cognitive psychology to build his Translation Process Model. (Bell 1991, 19)

As Liao Qiyi says in the book ''Contemporary Translation Studies in UK'' that Bell has taken great efforts to establish the translation process model, which is placed in the larger field of human communicative behavior, so it inevitably has to resort to psychology and linguistics. On the one hand, we need to be familiar with the mode of memory and information processing of psychology and psycholinguistics. On the other hand, it requires an understanding of the linguistic mode of the broadest sense of meaning, including the meaning of “beyond sentences”. It is for this reason that Bell takes “mode”, “meaning” and “memory” as the focus of his discussion. (Liao Qingyi 2001, 208)

Generally speaking, Bell's translation theory starts from answering such questions like what translation,translator, and translation theory is. Next, he comes to the conclusion that it is the act of translation that truly matters, so he makes the translation process as his major study. In his book ''Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice''， Bell focuses on theoretical exploration, but his focus is also closely related to all aspects involved in specific translation activities. Therefore, as he says in the title of the book, the proposition of combining theory and practice has been found in his research and it has got a comprehensive implementation. Before describing and constructing the Translation Process Model, he defines the concept “translation”first, using this as a starting point, and compares the steps involved in monolingual communication with those in bilingual communication, revealing the commonality of the two points and differences to define the characteristics of the communicative act of translation.(Bell 1991, 44)

At the same time, Bell always put translator in the center position and on the basis of studying the competence of a translator, he comes up with six presumptions towards translation process. According to these materials and assumptions, Bell divides translation process into two stages: analysis and synthesis, which separately means convert a special language text (primitive text) into a non-semantic expression of special language; synthesize this semantic expression into a text in a second special language (the target language text). Each stage also contains three levels of syntax, semantic and pragmatics. We will talk about it in the next part in detail. (Bell 1991, 45)

All in all, in Roger T.Bell's book ''Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice'' we find that the explanation of theory is combined with the display of schema. The nearly 50 schemas in the book contribute to translation activities, translation specific steps, including analysis procedures, synthesis procedures, text reproduction and synthesis procedures, and the relationship among meaning, meaning generation, text information processing, text processing skills. He makes an intuitive display, which fully demonstrates his efforts to direct translation study to present its systematic and scientific nature.

===3. The First Special Outlook on Translation: Systemic Functional Linguistics===

====3.1 Systemic Functional linguistics and translation====
Although translation process is related to many nonverbal problems linked with two languages, including the psychological and thinking process, philosophy aesthetics and cultural tradition loaded by different languages, it is still extremely hard to achieve systematization and theorization without the guidance of linguistic theory. As Bell says that if translation theorists do not use the research results of linguistics, their comments on texts will inevitably be subjective, and it is also inevitable that there will be prescriptive colors.(1991, 15) Thus, one of the special outlooks of Bell's translation process model is attributed to the Systemic Functional linguistics. Therefore, it is quite necessary to know what the Systemic Functional linguistics is first.(Sun Huijun 2000, 53)

Systemic Functional linguistics is one of the most influential linguistic schools in the world today. It has been developed under the anthropological tradition. The difference between Systemic Functional linguistics and other linguistic schools is that they emphasize the social nature of language users and focus on the characteristics of language in practical application and the functionality of language. Although Systemic Functional linguistics is not a specific translation theory, it can be used to study translation theory and improve the development of translation as a result of its universality.(Sun Huijun 2000, 53)

The representative of Systemic Functional linguistics Halliday once wrote an article about linguistics and machine translation and put forward a hypothesis about building translation process model theory. And he further talked about the relationship between translation and comparison in his book ''The Linguistic Sciences and Language Teaching''. In the book, he made his own point of view about the essence of translation, and established a hierarchical selection of translation patterns on the basis of hierarchy and category grammar. According to this model, the translator's process of translation is from the low-level to the high-level, that is, from the morpheme level to the word level, phrase level, clause level, and finally up to the sentence level, which is a step-by-step selection process. The translator must find the equivalent structure for each item and category at each level.(Halliday 1964, 145)

In Halliday's opinion, the essence of translation process is actually a kind of language activity, and the essence of equivalence is not formal, but contextual. Since the meaning system is subject to the linguistic social and cultural context, the search for meaning equivalence is actually the search for the equivalence of two linguistic contexts, that is, the search for the functional equivalence of the texts of the two languages in the same context. For example, when translating application styles such as invitations, notices, regulations and letters, the translator should know how to find a translation that meets the specifications in the target language. In a word, when it comes to translation, what a translator should do is to find the tasks that should be done in the range of language activities, rather than to see whether it is formally equivalent in the level of grammar and vocabulary between source text and target text. (Halliday 1964, 158)

====3.2 Bell's Application with Systemic Functional Linguistics and Translation Process====
It is well known that Systemic Functional linguistics regards the actual use of language as the object of study, and they think that language is the tool for social communication. Meanwhile, it is also acknowledged that translation process is related to two communicative processes. The first is a communication process between the original author and the original reader, and then a communication process between the translator and the target reader. The identification of translator is quite particular, because he or she is an information addressee at the first communicative process, while he or she becomes an information addresser at the second communicative process, and both two processes need to use language to communicate.(Sun Huijun 2000, 54)

Although translation is different from general communication, it involves many issues such as culture, psychology, philosophy and aesthetics. It is essentially constituted by the communicative process of language. From this point of view, it is self-evident that the actual use of language in the communication process is regarded by the Systemic Functional linguistics theory as the research object which will guide the translation process. The translation process model that Bell tries to establish is exactly in the frame of Systemic Functional linguistics. It is built on the basis of systemic theory and cognitive theory, and uses the three meta-functions of language in systemic function theory to discuss the understanding of the meaning of the source text, and the interpretation of textual issues, and the explanation of the text problem is also entirely the text theory of the systemic functional linguistics school. (Sun Huijun 2000, 54)

According to Roger T.Bell's book ''Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice'', he contends that the translation process should cover the following contents: first of all, translation is a special case in the universal phenomenon of human information processing; then, the translation process model should belong to the psychological field of translation information processing; thirdly, the translation process takes place in short-term memory and long-term memory, which requires a text decoding device in the original language and a text encoding device in the target language, and a semantic representation that has nothing to do with language (semantic representation).(Bell 1991, 227)

Next, whether in the analysis of incoming signals or the synthesis of outgoing signals, the translation process is carried out at the language level of clauses. Processing a text in a bottom-up and top-down manner, and combining the two methods through a cascaded operation; analysis or synthesis in one stage must be completed after being activated, corrected and allowed in the next stage; Last but not least, the translation process needs two languages, including visual word-recognition system and writing system; it also needs syntactic processor, which is the choice of dealing with mood system. Furthermore, the translation process must have FLS(frequent lexical store),LSM(a lexical search mechanism) and FSS(a frequent structure store) and a mechanism that is used to analyze sentence grammatically. (Bell 1991, 228)

It requires a semantic processor to handle the choice and use of Transitivity system and exchange information as well. At the same time, the process needs a pragmatic processor to deal with all kinds of choices gained from the Theme system. The last requirement is idea organizer, which the process of tracking and organizing the language behavior of the text (if the translator does not know the type of the text, the organizer of the concept will make inferences based on the existing information) as part of the strategy for the implementation of the goal plan, which is planned and stored in idea organizer. (Bell 1991, 228)

Specifically speaking, in the process of syntactic processing and analysis, clauses are decomposed into many syntactic structures. People can choose clause structure in model system. First, the clauses are used in the form of a series of linear symbols through Common Vocabulary Storage (FLS) and Common Structure Storage (FSS), without having to go through the vocabulary search mechanism or grammatical analysis, and then the vocabulary can directly enter the semantic level during the analysis.

In the synthesis,it directly enters the writing system during the process. The so-called common structure storage refers to the frequently occurring structures developed and stored in memory by the translator (such as subject-predicate structure, subject-predicate complement structure, etc.) The so-called grammatical analysis of sentences refers to the task of analyzing clauses when analysis becomes necessary. The so-called vocabulary search mechanism means that when the translator cannot find a matching term in the common vocabulary storage, the translator must use this mechanism to try to find the term that can “produce meaning”. (Xiao Hui 2001, 35)

In the process of semantic analysis, the task performed by the semantic analysis program is to recover the concept, retrieve the transitive relationship under the clause syntax, and derive content from the syntactic structure through the previous analysis. In the process of pragmatic analysis, the tasks performed by the pragmatic analysis program are off-topic structure and conducting register analysis on topic structure. Translation process cannot be simply regarded as translating clause to clause between two languages, what a translator should do is to disintegrate the clauses of source text into the form of semantic expression, then put this as foundation to rebuild the language of target text.(Xiao Hui 2001, 35)

The so-called concept organizer has three functions: first,perfect analysis content; second, control the collection of information from time to time; third, modify semantic expression. This kind of analysis is finally absorbed by the planner, at which time people can make a decision to continue reading or translate. When the clauses of the original text are transformed into semantic expressions and the reader decides to translate them, we can assume that once the information has been stored in the semantic expressions, the semantic expressions are sufficient to indicate what type of text the clauses are expected to be translated into. In the process of pragmatic synthesis, the target language processing program accepts all the information expressed in semantics and faces three main problems, such as how to deal with the purpose of the original text;how to deal with the subject structure of the original text and how to deal with the style of the original text. (Xiao Hui 2001, 36)

In the process of semantic synthesis, the target language semantic processor accepts the meaning of intra-language behavior, and generates some structure to transfer the theme content, and the generated satisfactory theme content is passed to the next step of the synthesis stage. In the process of syntactic synthesis, the translation syntax processor accepts the input information from the semantic stage, and finds suitable terms through the storage of common vocabulary; checks the common syntactic storage to find out the appropriate clause type that can represent the proposition.

If there is no available clause structure to express special meaning in the vocabulary storage, this proposition must be analyzed grammatically, and finally the writing system is activated. Thus this string of written symbols constitutes the target language text. The last process ends with returning to the original text and the next clause is like a monolingual reader. In conclusion, the translation process is a series of interactive processes, mainly including three stages: synthesis, semantic and pragmatic processing stages, and each of these three stages is related to both analysis and synthesis. Therefore, the translation process is very complicated. (Xiao Hui 2001, 36)

It is very difficult to describe such a complicated process, especially the textual analysis of the entire interactive integrated process that is not completely linear. Roger Bell makes full use of the advantages of schemas and shows us a more intuitive display of the factors involved in the translation process, main activities and activity trends. (Xu Jun 2003, 36)

====3.3 Benefits and Deficiencies of such Combination====
It can be inferred that the study of translation process models will definitely help the theoretical exploration and development of translation machines. It is necessary to point out that with the deepening of the research on the issues involved in the translation process, we will encounter difficulties that are difficult to solve by translation studies itself, such as the study of the process of translation thinking activities and translation mechanisms, and other disciplines, such as neurolinguistics and psycholinguistic development and breakthroughs.(Xu Jun 2003, 37)

There are also some deficiencies existing in Bell's model. First of all, Bell emphasizes that the translation process is a comprehensive and non-linear process. There is no fixed order at each stage, because the translator “is not occasionally but often revises and overturns previous decisions.” (Bell 1991, 49) The terms “sequence” and “linear” showed that Bell's main concern was the time dimension of translation behavior, and the choice is not fully reflected in the model. (Li Li 2019, 18)

===4. The Second Outlook on Translation: Cognitive Psychology===

====4.1 Cognitive Psychology and Translation====
Regarding translation as a process is actually to research the cognitive psychology process during the transformation of bilinguals.Some translators believe that the problem of translation is still nothing but the mentality of the translator and the relationship between the translator and the translated texts, so the problem of translation can be said to be a language and psychological problem.As we all know, translation contains two steps: the understanding of the source text and the output of the target text. The former one means the translator uses visual primitives to construct meaning in the brain, which is a psychological process. As for the output of target text, it refers to the process by which the meaning that the translator has constructed is re-expressed in the form of the target language.(Xiao Hui 2003, 33)

Bilingual conversion is a relatively complex cognitive psychological process; whether it is the understanding of the source language or the output of the target language, it must be restricted by mental representations, that is, cognitive constraints. From the perspective of cognitive science, learning by a person first involves the mechanisms of sensory organs, brain, muscles, etc. Secondly, the stimulation acting on the sensory organs, and thirdly, the known information recovered from the learner's memory. This is a process of interaction between new and old information, which can be called an information processing model. Therefore, cognitive science considers that human being's cognition is a sort of information processing. And the study of the translation process from a cognitive perspective should focus on explaining the cognitive psychological process of the translator when translating bilingualism from the point of human processing information. (Xiao Hui 2003, 33)

Another important point is that the axis of translation activities is the conversion process; this process is not a pure language activity, but a thinking activity. Accordingly, the translator must grasp the laws of thinking activities. Then how does the discourse change? The original work is the source of information, and the translator's brain also stores an information database. The former one stores more or less emotionally specific information processed by the author, while the latter stores mainly conceptual information. Only when the translator is stimulated by the second signal of the original discourse, can he use the existing concepts to reproduce all the information of the original. The translator's information database stores knowledge units, mainly concepts. Most of these units and the words in the information source are corresponding or similar, so we call “similar blocks”.(Dong Junhong 2008, 43)

Information conversion is mainly carried out by “similar blocks”. When translating, the translator compares the received original information with the “similar” information deposited in his own database. The old and new information forms a “similar block” and feeds back to each other. The translator mobilizes all kinds of information related to the new information in his mind, transforms, corrects, supplements, and enriches it. Until the new and old information is similar to each other and reaches the extreme, the translator uses the target language to externalize and change the similar products to the target text. Since bilingual conversion as a kind of thinking process is invisible and intangible, the theoretical goal of its research should be to establish a psychological reality mechanism and thinking pattern that prompts bilingual conversion through an analysis of the translation process. (Dong Junhong 2008, 43)

====4.2 Bell's Application with Cognitive Psychology and Translation====
As we mentioned before, Roger T.Bell tries to use Systemic Functional linguistics to describe translation process and what knowledge and skill the translator should grasp, and he also combines psychology with information theory model to depict the work process in the mind of the translator when he or she is translating. He says in the book ''Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice'' that translators are just like many other communicators living in a world filled with meanings, where they could conceive all kinds of meanings so as to form the conception. And their experience could recall or even gain revive through the memory system. Bell uses“aggregates” “wholes” “system” to depict the process of cognition. (Bell 1991, 15-18)

It is generally accepted that the translator is the communicator between two languages, but first of all he must be the message receiver. And as a message receiver, no matter a listener or a reader, intralingual or interlingual—has to face the same problem: to receive information and carry signals (utterances or texts) and extract them from the source language information and use the target language to construct the best performance model. Bell uses the conception of schema to explain the cognitive process of the translator and the productive process of the target text. In the translator's cognitive process, the recognized objects are “aggregates”, which enter the translator's mind through intuition, and are then perceived and transformed into the “wholes” that carries information, and conceptualized as “system” or “pattern”. (Bell 1991, 15-18)

Bell believes that all communicators have knowledge of semantics, grammar and rhetoric. Semantic knowledge helps him to convert concepts into propositions; grammatical knowledge helps him to mark propositions in a language system that can produce clauses; rhetorical knowledge helps him to organize clauses into propositions which could be used in the surroundings of utterance or discourse. Human being's perceptual experience towards the inner and outer world is expressed through language, and the conception stored in the memory is also expressed by language. People understand the characteristics of things by comparing the similarities between different things, and understand their living world from a new perspective. In Bell's opinion, translator is actually a bilingual communicator in the form of written language. (Zhang Meifang 2005, 43)

To sum up, the translation process is not a linear process which strictly follows one stage, but a comprehensive process, that is, the sequence of each stage must be experienced in the translation process, and it is not fixed. The translator can move from the next stage to the previous stage. Besides, the translator's amendment or cancellation of the previous decision is usually in line with the norms. Bell explaines the thinking process of translators during the bilingual conversion, which is a huge step in the history of translation studies. (Bell 1991, 56)

====4.3 Benefits and Deficiencies of the Combination of Cognitive Psychology and Translation====
As we talked before, Bell has adopted a new research method for translation procedures and ability analysis. And there are some following advantages. In the first place, by exploring translation from the perspective of psychology, people can make assumptions about the content constructed in the translator's mind based on the empirical research and application process of translation ability—analysis. It is necessary for people to elaborate on the psychological process of translation; nevertheless, this psychological process is not yet known or investigated. Secondly, as far as the overall psychological research is concerned, one can expect the fact that empirical research on translation ability will provide an in-depth understanding of language processing, speech acceptance, speech production in psychological processes while language users use psychological strategy. (Xiao Hui 2001, 33)

===5. Conclusion===
In summary, Roger T.Bell has provided us with a relatively comprehensive and elaborated outlook of translation process. Foremost, the author puts the translation process in the systemic model of the language, describes and interprets the translation process from a theoretical and practical perspective, and tries to shape it. Afterwards, he has considered the importance of the translator's thinking activities and applies some knowledge of cognitive psychology to translation process to fully elucidate his translation theory. Finally, he has built a more complete translation theory based on these. His effort is worthy of complete recognition, because it not only adds a lot of scientific elements to translation studies, but also lays a solid foundation for the construction of translation studies. (Wu Yicheng 1998, 56)

===References===
Dong Junhong. 董俊虹. (2008). 基于贝尔模型的翻译过程心理认知探究. [A Probe into Psychological Cognition in Translation Process Based on Bell's Model]. “西北工业大学学报”[Journal of Northwestern Polytechnical University]. 42-46.

Liao Qiyi. 廖七一. (2001). 《当代英国理论》[Contemporary British Theory]. “湖北出版社”[Hubei Education Press]. 208.

Li Li. 李力. (2019). 译者选择的类坐标系模式 [Coordinate-like Mode Chosen by the Translator]. “中国翻译”[China Translation]. 18-19.

Sun Huijun. 孙会军. (2000). 系统功能理论与翻译理论研究 [System Function Theory and Translation Theory Research]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and ForeignLanguage Teaching]. 53-56.

Wu Yicheng. 吴义诚. (1998). 贝尔的翻译与翻译过程：理论与实践评介 [A Review of Bell's Translation and Translation Process: Theory and Practice]. “中国翻译”[China Translation]. 55-56.

Xiao Hui. 肖辉. （2001）. 翻译过程模式论断想 [On the Model of Translation Process]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 33-36.

Xu Jun. 许钧. (2003). 简论翻译过程的实际体验与理论探索 [Briefly on the Practical Experience and Theoretical Exploration of the Translation Process]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 33-38.

Zhang Meifang. 张美芳. (2005). 图示分析隐喻翻译中的认知过程 [Schematic Analysis of the Cognitive Process in Metaphor Translation]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 43-46.

Bell, Roger T. (1991). Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice. London and New York: Longman.

Halliday, M.A.K. (1961). Linguistics and Machine Translation in McIntosh. London: Longman.

Nida, Eugene A. (1964). Toward a Science of Translating—with Special Reference to Principles Involved in Bible Translating. Leiden: E.J.Brill.--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 08:21, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

History of Translation Studies 10

2020-12-21T07:22:53Z

Lei kuangxi: /* A Cultural Critique of Foreignization and Domestication 吴子佳 Wu Zijia 202070080645 MTI 英语口译 */

这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第十部分(Part 10)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。

学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。

*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]
*Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].
='''Functional Equivalence'''=

== On functional equivalence and formal equivalence and their application in translation 陈静静 Chen Jingjing 英语笔译 202070080581==

===Abstract===
Translation plays an indispensable role in modern cross-cultural communication. In this process, translators are supposed to achieve the equivalence between the source text and the target text to the greatest extent. Translation theory is of great importance to steer them towards this. Nida put forward the well-known theory of formal equivalence and functional equivalence which pursues the equivalence in form and content and that in function between the two languages separately. This paper focuses on their introduction and differences as well as their application in translation so as to provide more guidance for translators and promote people’s deeper understanding on functional equivalence and formal equivalence.

===key words===

functional equivalence, formal equivalence, translation

===摘要===
翻译在现代跨文化交际中起着非常重要的作用，而在这一过程中，译者需要尽可能实现源文本和目标文本之间最大的对等。翻译理论在其中则对译者具有非常重要的指导作用。奈达提出了“形式对等”和“功能对等”理论，“形式对等”是以源语为中心，追求原文形式和内容之间的对等，而后者强调实现两种语言之间功能上的对等。该论文主要对形式对等和功能对等进行简单介绍并分析两者之间的差异以及它们在翻译之中的运用，以使译者对它们有更为深入的了解。

===关键字===
功能对等，形式对等，翻译

===Introduction===

As a specific form of cultural activity, translation is characterized by the interactive conversion of original language and target language, but this does not mean that translation is limited to a certain language activity. This phenomenon of bilingual interaction or cultural interaction with language as a mediator, and the resulting variations in phonetics, words, grammar, and style, have not been covered by linguistic theory.

Nida, a American linguist, translator and translation theorist, conducted his academic activities based on the translation of the Bible. During this process, Nida proceeded from actual conditions and developed his own translation theory, which eventually became one of the classics in translation studies. Meanwhile, he believes that translation should play a communicative role due to its essence.

During the translation process, it is necessary to consider factors such as the author, text, background and readers so as to make the recipients understand the translation more easily. It is actually based on this idea, the concept of functional equivalence theory came into being. He pointed out that the theory of functional equivalence includes form equivalence and content equivalence. When the two contradict, he is convinced that the content comes first and the form comes second. This is also the first principle of functional equivalence. The second principle of functional equivalence is that you can’t simply focus on content as Nida believes that content precedes form does not mean that translators need to give up form and devote themselves to content. He suggested that when the translator cannot take into account the two at the same time, he should consider the content first, and at the same time, try to make the style of the translation close to the style of the original text. In order to balance the relationship between the two, Nida also made a series of improvements. The third principle is that Nida requires natural and smooth translation. In order to obtain a true and smooth translation, Nida believes that readers of the source language and cultural context and target language must be considered.

===Functional Equivalence===
In order to set a standard for the transition between the source language and the target language, Nida, based on the essence of translation, put forward the theory of dynamic equivalence but later replaced it with the name of functional equivalence as he was convinced that it will better reflect the communicative function.(尤金·奈达．语言文化与翻译［M］．严久生，译．1998)

Functional equivalence mainly includes lexical equivalence, syntax equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. According to Nida, when translating, one needs to use the most appropriate, natural and equivalent words to express the information of the source text, that is to say, functional equivalence is prior to formal equivalence. Therefore, we need to try to achieve equivalence in form when we pursue the equivalence in content. In the book “Language, Culture, and Translation”, Nida divides functional equivalence into “minimal equivalence” and “maximum equivalence”.

The basic point of “functional equivalence” is to compare the way of readers' understanding and appreciating the original text with those of the target text, and requiring the readers of the target text to be able to perceive the translation. The extent to which readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text is called the minimum functional equivalence.The readers of the target text should basically be able to understand and appreciate the target text in the way that the original reader understands and appreciates the original text,which is called the maximum functional equivalence.

To accurately reproduce the source language culture and eliminate cultural differences, the translator can follow these three steps. First, the translator should strive to make the translation not only conform to the semantics of the original text but also reflect the cultural characteristics of the original text. However, two kinds of languages represent two completely different cultures.Similar elements may exist in the two cultures but they can't be exactly the same. Therefore, it is impossible for a translator to fully display the cultural connotations of the original text. Second, if meaning and culture can’t be taken into account at the same time, the translator has to abandon the formal equivalence and achieve the purpose of reproducing the semantics and culture of the original text by changing the form of the original text in the translation. Third, when changing the form still doesn’t work, the translation technique of “reconstruction” can be used to achieve the equivalence in meaning between the source text and the target text. It means transforming the deep structure of the source text into the surface structure of the target text , that is, the cultural connotations of the source text could be elaborated by words of the target language.

In terms of the the status of source text and the translator, according to this theory, minor adjustment of the source text is allowed when necessary but we are not encouraged to modify it. Consequently, it seems that the source text is in a high position so the translator must give preference to it. From the perspective of translation standard, domestication is preferred in functional equivalence when we consider the cultural factors. What’s more , it is commonly used in literary translation.

Functional equivalence is of great importance for it brings the contest between the literal translation and free translation to an end and provides a new translation standard, but on the other way, it turns the translation into an activity merely concerned with language.

===Formal equivalence===

Formal equivalence, though seeking equivalence as well, focuses mainly on the form and content, attempting to achieve complete consistency of information and structure between the source text and the target text. It includes three parts: (1) Consistency of grammar, that is , grammatical elements of the source text should be consistent with those of the target text. (2) Consistency of expression, which means the words and phrases of the target text should keep the original connotation expressed in the source text. (3) Consistency of the meaning in the source context, signifying that the context created by the source text should be kept in the target text. (UGENEA．NIDA．,2005:167）

Gloss translation can best reflect the features of formal equivalence as explanation will be used to better reappear the meaning and context of the source text, thus enabling people to have a better understanding of the source language and the source text. This is, however, hard to achieve for there are great differences existing between different languages especially between Chinese and English.

From the perspective of linguistics, the biggest difference between them is that Chinese is a parataxis language while English is hypotaxis.That is to say, English is an overt cohesion-prominent language and its clauses are often arranged with connectives while Chinese is a language that connectives are not compulsory and its clauses are often short and its structure is not so complex as that of English. Besides, the former is a more static language in which nouns and adjectives are always used, but the latter a more dynamic one, in which verbs are more active. English has a systematic grammar but Chinese seems freely arranged.

Furthermore, in English, nouns, prepositions and pronouns are always used like personal pronouns “we” “they” “you” and relative pronouns “that” “which” “whose” in long and complicated sentences to make them more explicit and avoid repetition. In Chinese, pronouns are rarely used as the structure of the sentences is relatively loose and short sentences are preferred, so it seems more appropriate to use verbs. From the perspective of voice, it is evident that passive voice is frequently used in English especially in texts concerned with science and technology as western people seem to be more objective when viewing the world and they attempt to employ passive voice to make their description more objective. Chinese, however, are more subjective, so they often use active voice to express opinions.

===Relationship between functional equivalence and formal equivalence===
In the book “Scientific Exploration in Translation”, he proposed and distinguished the concepts of “formal equivalence” and “dynamic equivalence”. “Formal equivalence” means stressing more on information itself, in terms of both form and content. This sort of equivalence, however, is rare, so he lays stress on dynamic equivalence.

For formal equivalence, source text is prior to other elements, so the translator must strictly follow the ideas, sentence structure as well as rhetoric. In this case, the translator is not allowed to add any other information at will and is restricted by many factors. Nevertheless, for functional equivalence, the translator can supplement their own understanding on the basis of the source text to make the translation more lively and vivid, actually a better and more innovative way to reproduce the source text. Take a sentence for example: “ I gave my youth to the sea and I came home and gave my wife my old age.”, this sentence can be translated into different versions. If with a way of formal equivalence, it can be translated into “我把青春给了海洋，我回家时，给妻子的只有迟暮之年。”, which is direct and similar to the original sentence in structure. When translated based on the functional equivalence, it will be like this: “我把青春献给了海洋，等我回家见到妻子的时候，已是白发苍苍。”, which is much more vivid and easy to understand for the target readers.

Functional equivalence and formal equivalence, though stressing equivalence in different aspects, are actually interdependent. Form in translation refers to the rhetorical function and skills as well as the sentence structure. Without formal equivalence, translators are not able to guarantee the accuracy of the translation let alone achieving functional equivalence. Likewise, without functional equivalence, formal equivalence will be meaningless.

Furthermore, functional equivalence and formal equivalence are both regarded to be relative. (余敏军，2009:193）That is to say, this sort of equivalence is impossible to be wholly and fully achieved as a great number of differences exist between Chinese and English. Chinese and English differ in language structure, mode of thinking, cultural background and etc. As a matter of fact, sometimes when we translate Chinese into English or English into Chinese, we can’t even find the corresponding word, which makes it even more difficult to achieve the equivalence in lexis and sentence structure. From the perspective of cultural influence, readers of the source text and the translation will hold different views even towards the same thing due to different cultural backgrounds. For instance, Chinese people will express their feeling by dint of material objects while the Western countries focus more on science and will employ it to account some social phenomena.

Translation is the reproduction of the source language information in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language, including the reproduction from semantics to stylistics. That is to say, in Nida’s view, functional equivalence should take precedence over formal equivalence, but it is not only about content, regardless of form. While achieving equivalence in content and information, it also requires equivalence in form as much as possible. But actually of the two, priority is given to equivalence in content.

===Application of functional equivalence and functional equivalence in translation===

Functional equivalence and formal equivalence are vital translation theory for guiding the translation practice. This theory has lifted the restrictions of traditional ideology and provide a new perspective for translators.

====Lexical equivalence====

Firstly, as I have mentioned above, sometimes it is difficult to find the corresponding word when translating. For instance, in China, “慢走” is frequently used when our friends or guests we are not familiar with are going to leave. People in western countries, however, are unlikely to express in this way. Instead, they simply say “Bye” or “Have a nice trip!”. The latter actually will be used only when friends plan to travel somewhere far away. These two expressions in English bear different meaning compared with the expression in Chinese. Therefore, faced with such situation, translators have to choose words or phrases to express it in a different way based on the context. For example,“Take care. Hope to see you soon.” is polite and emotional way to express our feelin .

Furthermore, there are some words or phrases containing cultural connotations in both Chinese and English. When translating such words or phrases, we must explore the underlying meaning and try to explain it in detail, helping readers to have a correct and good understanding towards it. Take “Achilles’ heel” for instance, it can be translated into “阿格硫斯的脚后跟” in a direct way. However, Chinese people knowing nothing of “Achilles’ heel” will find it difficult to understand. Considering the needs of people under Chinese background , translators have to explain this word and uncover the real meaning this phrase intends to express. Actually, Achilles, the son of Neptune, is a heroic person. It is said that his mother dipped him wholly except his heels in the river Acheron to make him impervious to sword or spear. Thus this phrase is supposed to translated into fatal weakness. Likewise, “Victoria girl” should be translated into “思想保守的女性” as England was relatively conservative in Victoria period so later Victoria, the queen’s name, was used to refer to those conservative women.

It is very common that a word in English may bear several different meanings so in this case, translators have to guess the meaning according to the context. For example, the word “club”, which is very familiar to us, can be used as a verb as well as a noun. At the first thought, “俱乐部” will come to translator's mind but in the following sentence, it doesn’t make sense if we translate “club” into “俱乐部”.
“When civil rights leaders are clubbed, whipped and tramples by white lawmen as feral white onlookers cheer, the youngsters seemed aghast.”
In that sentence, it is obvious that “club” is used as a verb. Considering the meaning of “whip” and the original meaning of “club”, translators can find that “club” here may refers a sort of hitting. Consequently, translators have to consider carefully over and over again and determine the meaning of a word after having grasped the rough meaning of the sentence.

====Syntax equivalence====

Syntax equivalence is far more complicated and difficult to achieve compared with lexical equivalence with great differences existing between Chinese and English. Therefore,proper translation skills are needed to cope with different sentences.In English, people prefer to be direct so the most important part of the sentence is most likely to be presented at first while in Chinese, people are accustomed to organize the sentence in a natural order, that is, from facts to conclusion or from reasons to result. Sometimes translators can translate the sentence from word by word or phrase by phrase but in most cases they will change the order based on the common expression ways of target language to make the sentence more understandable to the target language readers. The example can be seen as follows:
“Additional social stresses may also occur because of the population explosion or problems arising from mass migration movements--themselves made relatively easy nowadays by modern means of transport.”
Translation: 由于人口的猛增或大量人口流动（现代交通工具使这种流动相对容易）造成的种种问题也会对社会造成新的压力。

It is obvious that in the Chinese version, order of the reason and the result is reversed to make the sentence more smooth.
When translating, translators can choose literal translation so as to achieve the formal equivalence or free translation based on functional equivalence. In daily life, Chinese people often greet people with “吃了吗?去哪啊?” as we regard food as something that matters much to our life. As a matter of fact, these words bear no actual meaning but a simple way to greet. Thus the sentence will be translated into “Hi, how are you? What a nice day, isn’t it?”.
There is a special kind of interrogative sentence in English called disjunctive question like the following dialogue:
“You’re not a student,are you?”
“Yes, I am.”
Here, in this dialogue, it can be seen that the answer is positive but if translated into Chinese, it will be like this: “不，我不是学生”, which actually is negative.

====Texual equivalence====

Text, or discourse is a coherent and cohesive unit, achieved through one or more sequences, which are composed of components that are closely related to each other. Pursuing the equivalence in words or sentences can absolutely not satisfy, translators need to pay more heed to textual equivalence. A sentence can be translated in different ways but trasnslators have to choose one based on the context.

“有了什么？”他一时蒙住了。
“这个！”她指了指肚子。“你打主意吧！”
Translation: “Xiangzi,” she came closer. “I am in trouble!”
“What trouble?” He was startled.
“This!” She pointed her belly. “What was you going to do about it?”
According to China’s traditional customs, women would always express their being pregnant in an indirect way like “我有了” in Chinese instead of “我有孩子了”. In this situation, “我有了” here is translated into “I am in trouble!” as she conceives a baby before she marries, which is deemed as a behavior that is in grave breach of the norms of Chinese society.

In addition, translators need to take the situation or background in which the texts took place into account and endeavor to get the inner connotation it bears.
Example: So that when lieutenant Osborne, coming to Russel Square on the day of the Vaux hall party said to the ladies,” Mrs Sedley,ma,ma,I hope you have room, I haveasked Dobbin of ours To come and dine here, and go with us to Vaux hall. He was almost as modest as Joe.
Here “modest” in the last sentence can’t be translated into “谦虚的” as it will confuse the readers and it is far from that. According to the description of Joe above, translators can figure out exactly his characteristics and reasonably infer that it actually means shy.

The last element we should never ignore is cultural context given that there are great cultural differences between English and Chinese. We are supposed to consider the cultural background of the author of the source text as well as certain hidden or ineffable Connotations.
Example: She had thin blond hair and her face was pretty and Petite in a Regency way, oval like a miniature, though she had a harsh way of speaking--perhaps the account of the school, Roedean or Cheltenham Ladies’ College, which she had not long ago left.
We can’t simply translate it into “长着细细的淡黄色头发，脸蛋娇小玲珑，一副摄政时期的模样。” as here the word “Regency” still seems confusing to us. Instead, the translation should be like this: “她长着纤细的淡黄色头发，漂亮的鹅蛋脸小巧玲珑，颇符合摄政时期的风范......” and add the explanation that “ ‘Regency’ refers to the period the son of George the Third reigned, during which those slender women are regarded to be the most gorgeous.” In this way, readers will have a more clear sense of this.

====Stylistic equivalence====

Popovic put forward the stylistic equivalence and define it as the functional equivalence between the source text and the target text. Translators will find different types of texts in the process of translation and must achieve the equivalence in styles according to the functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory. Such equivalence is best reflected in the translation of poetry, which is characteristic of rhyme and cultural connotations.

Example: 清明
杜牧
清明时节雨纷纷，路上行人欲断魂。
借问酒家何处有? 牧童遥指杏花村。
Translation by Wu Juntao:
The Pure Brightness Day
By Du Mu
It drizzles thick and fast on the Pure Brightness Day,
I travel with my heart lost in dismay.
“Is there a public house somewhere, cowboy?”
He points at Apricot Village faraway.

In this translation, “清明节” has been translated into “Pure Brightness Day”, which may seem not completely fit as it simply reflect the features of this day from the surface. In this way, target readers may have little knowledge about this and treat this day as a normal pure and bright day. However, functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory can be vividly reflected in the following content. The translator has achieved equivalence both in content and form as he rhymed and expressed based on the form and content of the source text, trying to make target readers have a good understanding of the source text based on the information expressed in the translation.

Translation by Xu Yuanchong:
The Mourning Day
By Du Mu
A drizzling rain falls like tear on the Mourning Day;
The mourner’s heart is going to break on his way.
Where can a wineshop be found to drown his sad hours?
A cowherd points to a cot ’mid apricot flowers.

In this translation, Xu Yuanchong attempts to give a more detailed and vivid description of the scene and the feeling of the person in this poetry. In addition to simply expressing the content from the surface, he digs the deep connotations the poetry contains, thus making the translation more simply to be understood and the target readers grasp a deeper understanding of the content, theme and emotion.

===Conclusion===

Translation theory has been playing an vital role in the process of translation, as always said, theory guides practice while practice testify to theory. Functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory matters a lot and has guided a great deal of translation practice. Though having gone a lot of years and some limitations having been found, Nida’s theory is still worthy learning whether at present or in the future. Therefore, we should choose to apply functional equivalence or formal equivalence based on specific condition to achieve the most appropriate and fit translation.

Proper application of formal equivalence helps to preserve the spirit and unique features of the source text and to further promote people to have a good grip of foreign culture and customs. However, more often than not, it is difficult to find an English sentence pattern that is completely equivalent to express the same connotation in Chinese. Therefore, the translator needs to convert the deep structure of the source language into the surface structure of the target language, that is, using the corresponding words in the target language to directly explain the connotation of the original text, so that the target readers can more easily accept the translation.

According to Nida’s translation theory, dealing with cultural differences is closely related to the reproduction of the source language in the target language from semantics to stylistics. Only when the translation reproduces the style and spirit of the source language from the language form to the cultural connotation, can the translation be called an excellent work. This method provides a good example for translation studies in every countries. For our country, it reminds us that translation studies should absolutely limited to the field of translation. We must break the boundaries of disciplines and combine other sciences to study translation. In this way, translation theories derived from scientific evidence will be much more scientific and systematic.（张赟娇,张军,2018:114)

===References===

Xia Jun夏珺.(2016).再看奈达翻译对等——形式与功能之博弈与互补[Nida's equivalence theory-combat and complement between formal equivalnce and formal equivalence].黔南民族师范学院学报,Journal of Qiannan Normal University for nationalities,36(06):27-32.

Huang Wei黄蔚.(2020).功能对等理论与目的论的对比分析[Comparative analysis on functional equivalence and skopos theory].英语广场,English space(10):38-40.

Tan Zaixi谭载喜.(1999)．新编奈达论翻译［A new version of Nida's theory on translation］．北京:中国对外翻译出版公司，Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Corporation,1999:XXIII．

Zhang Yunjiao, Zhang Jun张赟娇,张军.(2018).浅谈尤金·奈达功能对等理论的价值与局限[The value and limitations of Nida's functional equivalence].安徽文学(下半月),Anhui Literature,(09):114-115.

Zhong Yuchen钟宇宸.(2019).尤金·奈达及其功能对等理论综述[Summary of UGENEA．NIDA．and his functional equivalence].当代旅游,Contemporary travelling,(08):262.

Zhang Yimei张忆美.(2020).对比“信达雅”与功能对等[Comparison between "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance" and functional equivalence].青年文学家,Youth Literator,(23):180-181.

Zhang Xuefang张雪芳.(2008).从动态对等到功能对等——奈达对等翻译观简述[From dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence-Brief introduction of Nida's equivalence theory].安徽文学(下半月),Anhui Literature,(11):392-393.

Yu Minjun余敏军.(2009).论英汉翻译中形式对等和功能对等[Functional equivalence and formal equivalence in Englsh-Chinese translation].黑龙江科技信息,Heilongjiang Science and Technology Information,(30):193.

Yan Yuehe闫月贺.(2019).浅析奈达功能对等理论[Nida's functional equivalence].北方文学,North Literature,(21):251-252.

Qi Xin齐鑫.(2017).浅谈英汉翻译中奈达“功能对等”与“形式对等”理论的应用[The appliction of Nida's theory of "functional equivalence and formal equivalence in translation].校园英语,Campus English,(27):202-203.

尤金·奈达．语言文化与翻译［Language culture and transation］．严久生，译．呼和浩特:内蒙古大学出版社，Hohhot:Inner Mongolia University Press,1998．

Junye Li,Pinglan Zhang.(2019). Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in Civil Engineering Text Translation[J]. Open Journal of Modern Linguistics,9(4).

UGENEA．NIDA．Towards Science of Translating［M］．上海:上海外语教育出版社，Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2005:167,165，159．--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 03:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

== My understanding of Translation Equivalence Nguyen,Thuy Hien Nguyen, Thuy Hien ==

== Functional Equivalence in the Translation of Ken Liu-A Case Study of Folding Bijing 肖茜 Xiao Xi==
<center>肖茜 Xiao Xi No.202020080654 法语语言文学</center>
===Abstract===

The success of Hao Jingfang's science fiction novel "Folding Beijing", which won the Hugo Award for Best Novelette in 2016, could not have been achieved without the rigorous translation work of Ken Liu. The translation of this novel takes the response of the readers of the translated text as the starting point, preserving the meaning and style of the novel while effectively conveying Chinese culture, which is in line with the requirement of functional equivalence theory that "quality of a translation in which the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptors essentially like that of the original receptors". Nida's functional equivalence theory, one of the earliest translation theories introduced into China, has had a profound influence on the translation studies of various literary genres in China. This paper examines the English translation of "Folding Beijing", analyzes Ken Liu's use of Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory in his translation, and shows the value of functional equivalence theory for the translation of science fiction.

===Key words===
Functional Equivalence; Folding Beijing; meaning; style; culture

===题目===
刘宇昆翻译中的功能对等-以《北京折叠》为例
===摘要===
郝景芳的科幻小说《北京折叠》获得了2016年的雨果奖最佳中篇小说奖，该小说的成功，离不开刘宇昆严谨的翻译工作。该小说的翻译以关注译文读者反应为出发点，既保留了小说的意义与文体风格，又有效传递了中国文化，这与功能对等理论提出的“努力创造出既符合原文语义又体现原文文化特色的译作”的要求相契合。奈达功能对等理论，是最早被引进中国的翻译理论之一，对中国各文学类型的翻译研究影响深远。本文对《北京折叠》的英译本进行研究，分析刘宇昆在翻译时对尤金奈达功能对等理论的运用，展现功能对等理论对科幻小说翻译的价值。

===关键词===
功能对等；《北京折叠》；意义；风格；文化

===Introduction===

In the science fiction novel "Folding Beijing", the future Beijing is overpopulated. To solve this crisis, it is transformed into a hierarchical Folding City. The Folding City is divided into three spaces. They share 48 hours. The first space is occupied by the upper class of society, who have a 24-hour time cycle at their disposal; the second space is occupied by the middle class, who can spend 16 hours; and the third space is occupied by the lower class, who have only eight hours of night. Lao Dao belongs to the third space. He wants to send his daughter to a good school, and in order to earn money, he ventures into the first, second and third spaces to deliver letters to others. Although the novel is a futuristic science fiction, it is also realistic, revealing the class differences in the process of urbanization and modernization.

This science fiction novel has many Chinese characteristics and many Chinese native words. The cultural differences between China and the West due to regional factors and customs are a major challenge for translation. The translator must not only consider the reader's understanding and feelings, but also ensure that the local color in the work is not removed. The theory of functional equivalence suggests that translation should not be confined to form, and the translator can make necessary adjustments to the form and structure of the original text in order to achieve equivalence of content and information.

Nida's functional equivalence theory has had a profound impact on China and has brought translators new and effective methods of translation guidance. We can see that Ken Liu is also trying to achieve balance and harmony between the translation and the original text when he translates science fiction novels. This paper analyzes the English translation of "Folding Beijing" from the perspective of functional equivalence theory and explores how translators achieve the closest equivalence to the original text and whether the ideal equivalence is achieved from the perspectives of meaning, style and culture.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:11）

===1. Eugene A. Nida and His Theory of Functional Equivalence===

Eugene A. Nida, an American scholar and translator, explained dynamic equivalence translation in his influential book,''Toward a Science of Translating''. The aim of dynamic equivalence is the closest and most natural equivalence between the target text and the source text, focusing on the equivalence of the reader's response, not just the equivalence of content and form.（Zhao Dandan,2011:1）

In "The Theory and Practice of Translation", Nida defines dynamic equivalence as follows: Dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language. Nida's dynamic equivalence theory requires that the translated reader's reaction to the translation should be the same as the original reader's reaction.（Nida,2004:24）

Because dynamic equivalence was controversial in some respects, Nida replaced it with a more perfect functional equivalence in 1993. There are a number of related principles that govern the degree of adjustment required to produce a satisfactory equivalent translation. Since a functionally equivalent translation is defined as the closest and most natural equivalent translation of the source language message, the translator's achievement of functional equivalence follows three principles.In his book ''Language, Culture and Translation'', Nida divides functional equivalence into categories on two levels:the minimal level and the maximal level in his work Language, Culture and Translating. The minimal level which is a realistic definition of functional equivalence is defined as "The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers did".(Nida 1993:118)

In order to achieve functional equivalence, the translator must make the translation fit (1) the context of the source-language message, (2) the response of the reader of the recipient language, and(3) the receptor language and culture as a whole. Nida defines the reader's response as the essence of his functional equivalence theory,namely from the form and content of the message to the reader's response. It differs from traditional translation theory, which emphasizes the comparison of verbs between the original text and the target text. Functional equivalence concerns reader's responses. If the target language reader's understanding and appreciation of the target language is essentially the same as that of the readers of the original text, it can be regarded as functional equivalence of the target language. In other words, the functional equivalence of Nida emphasizes the reader’s reaction to the translation.（Zhao Dandan,2011:1）

===2. Three Functional Equivalence in the Chinese Translation of Folding Beijing===

====2.1 Functional Equivalence from Aspect of Meaning====

Nida and Taber point out that "translating consist in reproducing in the receptor language the closet natural equivalence of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning." Meaning will be discussed in this chapter at three levels: words, sentences and passages, in other words, these are the three levels of detailed analysis of lexicon, syntax, and discourse. According to the theory of functional equivalence, translation is not only about word-for-word equivalence, but also about discovering the author's true meaning. The following is a detailed analysis of how to achieve functional equivalence in translation of ''Folding Beijing'' from lexical, syntactic and discourse perspectives.(Nida,2004:12)

=====2.1.1 Lexical level=====

In literary translation, how to correctly interpret the meaning of a word or phrase is always a difficult problem. There are two main difficulties in translating the meaning of a word or phrase. One difficulty is that many English words are polysemous, they have more than one meaning, so it is difficult to choose the right English word without causing ambiguity. Another difficulty is that the same meaning can be translated into several English expressions, but we should carefully consider which English expression is most appropriate. In the English translation of Folding Beijing, there are many examples to illustrate how the translation achieves functional equivalence with the source text in the lexical level as follows:（Din Juan,2011:22）

In literary translation, it is always a challenge to correctly interpret the meaning of a word or phrase. There are two main difficulties in translating the meaning of a word or phrase. One difficulty is that many English words are polysemous, and they have more than one meaning, so it is difficult to choose the right English word without causing ambiguity. Another difficulty is that the same meaning can be translated into several English expressions, but we should carefully consider which English expression is the most appropriate. In the English translation of Beijing Folding, there are many examples of how the translation can achieve functional equivalence with the original at the lexical level, as follows: (Ding Juan, 2011:22)--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Example 1:
“食客围着塑料桌子，埋头在酸辣粉的热气腾腾中，饿虎扑食一般，白色蒸汽遮住了脸。油炸的香味弥漫。货摊上的酸枣和核桃堆成山，腊肉在头顶摇摆。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:1）

"Customers packed the plastic tables at the food hawker stalls, which were immersed in the aroma of frying oil. They are heartily with their faces buried in bowls of hot and sour rice noodles, their heads hidden by clouds of white steam. Other stands featured mountains of jujubes and walnuts, and hunks of cured meat swung overhead." (Ken Liu 2015)

Chinese people can imagine the scene of street stalls when talking about plastic tables, but other people can't understand it. Therefore, the translator uses the word "the plastic tables at the food hawker stalls" for readers to understand. "Sour and spicy powder" is originally a kind of Chinese noodles. The author uses "hot and sour rice noodles" to describe the taste of sour and spicy and the raw material of noodles is rice.

Example 2:
“这时彭蠡出现了。他剔着牙，敞着衬衫的扣子，不紧不慢地踱回来，不时打饱嗝。彭蠡六十多了，变得懒散不修边幅，两颊像沙皮狗一样耷拉着，让嘴角显得总是不满意地撇着。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:3）

"Finally, Peng Li appeared: His shirt unbuttoned, a toothpick dangling between his lips, strolling leisurely and burping from time to time. Now in his sixties, Peng had become lazy and slovenly. His cheeks drooped like the jowls of a Shar-Pei, giving him the appearance of being perpetually grumpy." (Ken Liu 2015)

The translator uses "a toothpick dangling between his lips" to describe the action of picking teeth，it's more detailed and vivid. “懒散不修边幅” is translated into "lazy and slovenly" to describe Peng Li is neglectful of his appearance. “显得总是不满意地” is translated into "the appearance of being perpetually grumpy", in this way, the translation better expresses the author's intention to express the meaning of looking bad-tempered.

The translator uses "a toothpick dangling between his lips" to describe the action of picking teeth，it's more detailed and vivid. “懒散不修边幅” is translated into "lazy and slovenly" to describe Peng Li is neglectful of his appearance. “显得总是不满意地” is translated into "the appearance of being perpetually grumpy", In this way, the translation better expresses the author's intention and conveys what appears to be a bad temper. --[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Example 3:
“霓虹灯亮了，商铺顶端闪烁的小灯打出新疆大枣、东北拉皮、上海烤麸和湖南腊肉。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:9）

"The neon lights came on. Tiny flashing LEDs on top of the shops formed into characters advertising jujubes from Xinjiang, lapi noodles from Northeast China, bran dough from Shanghai, and cured meats from Hunan." (Ken Liu 2015)

The author did not translate directly “闪烁的小灯” into "the little flashing lights ", but "Tiny flashing LEDs". This is also because of the translator's own understanding of the text, he wants the readers of the English translation to understand that the lights are advertising, so that customers can see and understand the selling points of the store. At the same time, “拉皮” is a special noodle in northeast China, and there is no corresponding suitable English word, so the author uses "lapi", which is to show the original meaning.

The author did not literally translate “闪烁的小灯” into "the little flashing lights ", but "Tiny flashing LEDs". This is owing to the translator's own understanding of the text, he hopes readers of the English translation to understand that the lights are advertising, so that customers can see and understand the selling points of the store. At the same time, “拉皮” is a special noodle in northeast China, and there is no corresponding suitable English word, so the author uses "lapi", which is to convey the original meaning.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)
=====2.1.2 Syntactic Level=====

Syntax, usually defined as the study of how to construct sentences correctly with words in a language. In literary translation, the translator should make the syntax easy to be understood by the reader. The translator should take full account of the syntactic differences between English and Chinese. （Din Juan,2011:24）

Syntax, as a rule, refers to the study of how to construct sentences correctly with the words in a language. In literary translation, the translator should make the syntax easy to be understood by the readers. Translators should take full account of the syntactic differences between English and Chinese.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The difference of syntax between English and Chinese are mainly reflected in three aspects. First of all, conjunctions and relationship between words in English use frequency is very high. Secondly, English speakers put attention on object consciousness and used to the order from a small object to a large one, from specific to general; In Chinese texts, there is usually a temporal, spatial or causal sequence of time sequence. Finally, English language usually emphasizes important information at the beginning of a sentence, while the Chinese language tends to process information from the obsolete to the fresh for the purpose of impressing people.（Din Juan,2011:24）

The differences between English and Chinese grammar are mainly reflected in three aspects. First, the use of conjunctions and relational words in English is very frequent. Secondly, English speakers focus on object consciousness and are accustomed to the order from small to large objects and from specific to general; in Chinese texts, there is usually a chronological order of time, space or cause and effect. Finally, English usually emphasizes important information at the beginning of a sentence, while Chinese tends to process information from the stale to the fresh in order to impress (Ding Juan, 2011: 24).--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In order to achieve functional equivalence with the original text, we should not only translate the meaning of words, but also translate the syntactic structure into a proper form. The following are some examples to show that how English translation oh Folding Beijing achieves functional equivalence to the original text in syntactic level: （Din Juan,2011:24）

In order to achieve functional equivalence with the original, we must not only translate the meaning of the words, but also translate the syntactic structure into the appropriate form. The following are examples of how the English translation of Folding Beijing achieves functional equivalence with the original at the syntactic level:（Din Juan,2011:24）--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Example 1:
" 现在政府太混沌了，做事太慢，僵化，体系也改不动。'他说‘等我将来有了机会，我就推快速工作作风改革。干得不行就滚蛋。'他看老刀还是没有说话，又说, ‘选拔也要放开。也向第三空间放开。’" （Jingfang Hao 2016:15）

"‘The current government is too inefficient and ossified,' he added quickly, ‘slow to respond to challenges, and I don' t see much hope for systematic reform. When I get my opportunity, I'll push for rapid reforms: Anyone who's incompetent will be fired.' Since Lao Gao still didn't seem to show much reaction, he added,‘I'll also work to expand the pool of candidates for government service and promotion, including opening up opportunities for candidates from Third Space.'" (Ken Liu 2015)

We can see that in the translation of this paragraph, the translator obviously adjusted the word order, and the words said by the same person before the pause were pushed into the next sentence, in order to conform to the logic of English readers. “选拔也要放开” ,the literal translation of this sentence must be incomprehensible to the readers, so the readers have supplemented and translated this sentence into "I'll also work to expand the pool of candidates for government service and promotion", The translator perfectly explains what "放开" means.

We can see that in the translation of this passage, the translator clearly adjusted the word order, pushing what the same person said before the pause to the next sentence to fit the logic of the English reader." Selection should also be liberalized" ,the literal translation of this sentence must be incomprehensible to the reader, so the reader adds to this sentence and translates it as "I'll also work to expand the pool of candidates for government service and promotion", the translator perfectly explains the meaning of "放开".--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Example 2:
“昏黄的灯光中，老刀想起过去。一个人游荡在垃圾场边缘的所有时光。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:34）

“Lao Dao talked about his lonely childhood. In the dim lamplight, he recalled his childhood spent alone wandering at the edge of the landfill.” (Ken Liu 2015)

In this passage, the text refers to “过去” twice with emphasis. In order to achieve the same emphasis in the English translation, the author chose to adjust the word order, placing "In the dim lamplight" between the two sentences, rather than using a subordinate clause like "…childhood that…".

In this passage, the text emphasizes "the past" twice. To achieve the same emphasis in the English translation, the author chose to adjust the word order by placing "In the dim lamplight" between the two sentences instead of using subordinate clause like"... childhood that...".--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Example 3:
“再回到第三空间，他感觉像是已经走了一个月。城市仍然在缓慢苏醒，城市居民只过了平常的一场睡眠，和前一天连续。不会有人发现老刀的离开。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:34）

"Returning to Third Space, Lao Dao felt as though he had been traveling for a month. The city was waking up slowly. Most of the residents had slept soundly, and now they picked up their lives from where they had left off the previous cycle, No one would notice that Lao Dao had been away." (Ken Liu 2015)

In this passage, we can see clearly that English has many more conjunctions than Chinese, like "as though", "from where" and "that", this is because of the difference in syntax between the two languages.

In this passage, we can see clearly that English has many more conjunctions than Chinese, such as "as if", "from where", "that", etc. This is because the syntax of the two languages is different.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=====2.1.3 Discourse level=====

Nida believes that a close, formal translation may be difficult for readers because of the intricate nature of the discourse structure and the presupposed knowledge about the contents in the original text. Therefore, it is necessary to choose a way of "rewrite" to make the translated text acceptable to readers. In literary translation, the translator should pay attention to both the content and the structure of the discourse. In the process of translation, the translation should be equivalent to the original text in the level of discourse. The following part selects a dialogue and its English translation in Folding Beijing as an example of literary translation to achieve functional equivalence in discourse level.(Din Juan,2011:27）

Nida argues that readers may have difficulty accepting an approximate formal translation due to the intricacies of the discourse structure and the preconceived knowledge of the original content. Therefore, it is necessary to choose a "rewriting" approach to make the translation acceptable to the reader. In literary translation, the translator must pay attention to both the content and the structure of the discourse. In the process of translation, the translation should be comparable to the original text in terms of discourse level. A dialogue from Folding Beijing and its English translation is selected below as an example of literary translation achieving functional equivalence at the discourse level:(Ding Juan,2011:27)--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

“所以” 她给老刀夹了新上来的热菜，“你能不能暂时不告诉他？等我……有机会亲自向他解释可以吗？”

老刀没有动筷子。他很饿，可是他觉得这时不能吃。

“可是这等于我也得撒谎。”

依言回身将小包打开，将钱包取出来，掏出五张一万块的纸币推给老刀。“一点心意，你收下。”(Jingfang Hao 2016:23)

"And so"—she spooned a serving of the new hot dish onto Lao Dao's plate—"can you please not tell him, just temporarily? Please…give me a chance to explain to him myself."

Lao Dao didn't pick up his chopsticks. He was very hungry, but he felt that he could not eat this food.

"Then I'd be lying, too," Lao Dao said.

Yi Yan opened her purse, took out her wallet, and retried five 10,000 yuan bills. She pushed them across the table toward Lao Dao. "Please accept this token of my appreciation." (Ken Liu 2015)

The conversational habits in Chinese are different from those in English, so some adjustments are often made when translating. The form of the dialogue is not completely translated from Chinese, but for the reader, the understanding of the text is the same. For example，“夹了新上来的热菜”translated into "spooned a serving of the new hot dish", the translator changed the action to "spoon", which is more suitable for Yi Yan's identity image, it is more suitable as a girl in the first space to spoon the vegetables to Lao Dao. “推给老刀”translated into "She pushed them across the table toward Lao Dao", this sentence adds some action to make it more pictorial.

Conversational conventions in Chinese are different from those in English, so some adjustments are often made in translation. The form of the dialogue is not exactly translated from Chinese, but the understanding of the text is the same for the readers. For example, "夹了新上来的热菜" is translated as "spooned a serving of the new hot dish", and the translator changes the action to "spoon", which is more in line with Yi Yan's identity image, it is more suitable as the girl in the first space to spoon the dish to the old knife."推给老刀" is translated as "She pushed them across the table toward Lao Dao", which adds some actions to make it more vivid.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.2 Functional Equivalence from Aspect of Style====

Every writer has his own writing style, and no one can imitate it perfectly. That is to say, in translation, it is impossible for the translator to translate the author's writing style exactly the same. Through the application of rhetoric and dialect, the original text shows the language characteristics, and the English translation can also see that the translator tries to achieve the functional equivalence on the stylistic level.（Din Juan,2011:30）

Each writer has his or her own writing style, which no one can imitate perfectly. In other words, in translation, it is impossible for the translator to translate the author's writing style exactly the same. Through the application of rhetoric and dialect, the original text shows linguistic characteristics, and the English translation shows the translator's attempt to achieve functional equivalence at the stylistic level.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=====2.2.1 Rhetoric=====

First of all, rhetoric is an important part of the study of style. Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) believed that style is form and is a counterpart of dialectic. The use of rhetoric can create vivid images, vivid scenes, improve the effect of literature.（Din Juan,2011:30）

Rhetoric is an important part of the study of style. Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) believed that style is form, the counterpart of dialectic. The use of rhetoric can create vivid images, vibrant scenes, and enhance the effectiveness of literature.（Din Juan,2011:30）--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Example 1:
老刀的肚子也感觉到饥饿。他迅速转开眼睛，可是来不及了，那种感觉迅速席卷了他，胃的空虚像是一个深渊，让他身体微微发颤。(Jingfang Hao 2016:2)

"Lao Dao's stomach growled. He quickly averted his eyes, but it was too late. His empty stomach felt like an abyss that made his body tremble." (Ken Liu 2015)

In this passage, the original text compares a hungry stomach to an abyss, and the English translation also uses this metaphor to form a rhetorical functional equivalence.

In this passage, the original text compares a hungry stomach to "深渊", and the English translation also uses this metaphor to form a rhetorical functional equivalent.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Example 2:
不远不近的距离，就像遥望西山或是海上的一座孤岛。(Jingfang Hao 2016:10)
"The distance was perfect for taking in the whole city, like gazing at an island in the sea." (Ken Liu 2015)

In this paragraph, it is a metaphor, and the words "西山" and "孤" in the original text are not translated, only translated into "an island in the sea", this description is enough to show the image of a folded city.

It is a metaphorical sentence and words like "西山" and "孤" in the original text are not translated. They are translated into "an island in the sea", this description is enough to show the image of a folded city.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Example 3:
高楼像最卑微的仆人，弯下腰，让自己低声下气切断身体，头碰着脚，紧紧贴在一起，然后再次断裂弯腰，将头顶手臂扭曲弯折，插入空隙…楼宇由折叠中站立起身，在灰蓝色的天空中像苏醒的兽类。(Jingfang Hao 2016:10)

"The skyscrapers bowed submissively like the humblest servants until their heads touched their feet; then they broke again, folded again, and twisted their necks and arms, stuffing them into the gaps… The buildings unfolded and stood up, awakening like a herd of beasts under the gray–blue sky." (Ken Liu 2015)

It has a personification in this paragraph, "skyscrapers" have "heads, feet, necks and arms", and "like the humblest servants", the use of rhetoric enables people to imagine the folding picture of the city through the human image. By comparing the building to a herd of beasts, it shows its size and the sense of fear and oppression it brings.

This paragraph has a personification that "skyscrapers" have "heads, feet, necks, and arms" and are "like the humblest of servants," and the use of rhetoric allows people to imagine the folding diagram of the city through the image of a person. By comparing the buildings to a herd of beasts, it shows its scale and the sense of fear and oppression it brings.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)
Example 4:
直到建成的日子高楼如活人一般站立而起，他们才像惊呆了一样四处奔逃，仿佛自己生下了一个怪胎。(Jingfang Hao 2016:11)

"Finally, when the completed building stood up before them like a living person, they had scattered in terror, as though they had given birth to a monster."(Ken Liu 2015)

In this sentence, although "怪胎" translate into "monster", the "生"express also the same meaning, so the translator does not struggle.

In this sentence, "怪胎" is translated as "monster" and "born" conveys the same meaning, so the translator did not have any trouble.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=====2.2.2 Dialects=====

Dialect embodies the local characteristics, is the author's own writing style. Sometimes it's a problem in translation. In the following example, we can see how the translator handles this problem.（Din Juan,2011:33）

The dialect reflects the local characteristics and is the author's own writing style. Sometimes this is a problem in translation. In the following example, we can see how the translator deals with this problem. (Dingjuan, 2011:33)--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

For example, "伙计" in English "waiter" ,"铺盖卷" in English "bedrolls" ,"闺女"is translated as "real daughter" ,"她们认死理儿" is translated as "they don't know how to be flexible","只是这么多年过来，人就木了." (Jingfang Hao 2016:33) is translated into“But after so many years, you grow a bit numb." (Ken Liu 2015) We can see that when translators translate dialects with Chinese local characteristics, they pay more attention to the level of semantic understanding rather than the formal equivalence.

In short, whether the use of rhetoric or dialect in literature, can fully reflect the author's writing style. Therefore, in literary translation, the translator should study the differences between the source language and the target language in the ways to express stylistic differences, and find out the best way to make up for these differences. In this way, literary translation can achieve maximum functional equivalence at the stylistic level.

In conclusion, the use of either rhetoric or dialect in literary works fully reflects the author's writing style. Therefore, in literary translation, translators should study the differences between the source language and the target language in the way of expressing stylistic differences and find out the best way to compensate for these differences. In this way, literary translation can achieve the maximum functional equivalence at the stylistic level.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.3 Functional Equivalence from Aspect of Culture====

In the process of translation, the cultural difference between the two languages is also an issue that translators should pay attention to. People who come into contact with different cultures have different ways of thinking, values and social customs and so on. Translators need to understand the two cultures and fully express the cultural elements contained in the original text. At this time, translation plays a role in cross-cultural communication. The translator must present the cultural meaning shown or implied in the original text to the readers so that the translation can achieve the cultural equivalence with the original text. In this chapter, we will analyze the English translation of Folding Beijing from the perspective of food culture, folk culture and culture of idioms, so as to explain how it achieves the functional equivalence with the original text.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:47）

Cultural differences between two languages are also issues that translators should be aware of in the translation process. People who are exposed to different cultures have different ways of thinking, values, social customs, etc. Translators need to understand both cultures and fully express the cultural elements contained in the original text. At this point, translation plays a role in intercultural communication. The translator must present the cultural meaning shown or implied in the original text to the reader so that the translation achieves cultural equivalence with the original text. This chapter will analyze the English translation of Folding Beijing from the perspectives of food culture, folk culture, and idiom culture to show how it achieves functional equivalence with the original text. (Zhou Xingyang,2018:47)--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)
=====2.3.1 Food Culture=====

The city described by Beijing Folding is the political and cultural center of China, and it is a city with profound cultural deposits. There are a lot of contents belonging to traditional Chinese food culture in the novel. This part will analyze how the translator translates these delicacies to achieve functional equivalence.（Din Juan,2011:39）

The city described in Folding Beijing is the political and cultural center of China, a city with deep cultural accumulation. In the novel, there are many elements belonging to traditional Chinese food culture. This part will analyze how the translator managed to translate these cuisines into a successful counterpart.（Din Juan,2011:39）--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)
Example 1:
"…面前摆着一盘炒面或炒粉… "(Jingfang Hao 2016:2)

"Each kid had a plate of chow mein or chow fun…" (Ken Liu 2015)

"炒面"is a well-known traditional snack in China. The translator makes it into "chow mein", rather than "Chinese stir-fried noodles". In the dictionary, "chow mein" means a Chinese-style dish of fried noodles served with small pieces of meat and vegetables. This translation also makes it more intuitive for the reader to know what the food is.

"炒面" is a famous traditional Chinese snack. Translators translate it as "chow mein" instead of "Chinese chow mein". In the dictionary, "chow mein" means Chinese-style fried noodles with small pieces of meat and vegetables. This translation also gives the reader a more intuitive idea of what the dish is.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)
Example 2:
"老葛又拿来半瓶白酒和两个玻璃杯，倒上。"(Jingfang Hao 2016:32)

"…over a half bottle of baijiu…" (Ken Liu 2015)

The foreignizing translation is adopted here, "白酒" is translated into "baijiu" , the translator doesn't use the word like "spirits", it not only retains Chinese cultural characteristics, but also achieves communicative effect.

Here, foreignization method is used, and "白酒" is translated as "baijiu". The translator does not use words like "spirits", which retains Chinese cultural characteristics and achieves a communicative effect at the same time.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)
Example 3:

"哎，你们知道那儿一盘回锅肉多少钱吗？" (Jingfang Hao 2016:2)

"…how much they charge for an order of twice -cooked pork over there?" (Ken Liu 2015)

The special feature of this dish is that it is boiled in water and then stir-fried. The translator captures this feature in translation, trying to make people understand the meaning of "回锅", and this dish is made with pork, he wants readers of the English translation to see an image of the dish in their heads in the same way that Chinese people do.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:53）

The characteristic of this dish is that it is first boiled in water and then stir-fried. The translator has captured this feature in his translation, trying to make people understand the meaning of "回锅", which is made with pork, and he hopes that readers of the English translation will see the image of this dish in their minds, just like the Chinese do.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:53）--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)
=====2.3.2 Folk Culture=====

Chinese people also have their own unique way of life, customs and traditions, behavior patterns and other aspects of vocabulary. The following will analyze the translator's functional equivalence in folk culture.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:52）

Chinese people also have their own unique lifestyles, customs, behavior patterns, etc. in terms of vocabulary. The following will analyze the functional equivalence of translation in folk culture. (Zhou Xingyang,2018:52).--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Example 1:
"…几个人分吃两个菜…" (Jingfang Hao 2016:2)

"…and they shared two dishes family-style." (Ken Liu 2015)

"分吃" is the most common way of eating in traditional Chinese culture, where several dishes are shared among friends and family. The purpose of the passage is to show the poverty of the boys. The translator takes into account the differences between Chinese and Western cultures，Western behavior is different. so he uses the word "shared" and he adds the word "family-style" to make it easier for the reader to understand the behavior.

"分吃" is the most common way of eating in traditional Chinese culture, where friends and relatives share several dishes among themselves. The purpose of the passage is to show the boy's poverty. The translator takes into account the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, where Westerners behave differently, so he uses the word "sharing" and adds the word "family style" to make it easier for the reader to understand this behavior.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)
Example 2:
"咱们也算半个老乡吧。”老葛说，“所以不用太拘束。我还是能管点事儿，不会把你送出去的。"(Jingfang Hao 2016:27)

"We're practically from the same hometown! So, you don't need to be so careful with me. I still have a bit of authority, and I won't give you up." (Ken Liu 2015)

The culture of hometown is a major feature of Chinese culture. Those from the same hometown share similar living habits, growing environment and cultural background, so even strangers can get familiar with each other quickly and even help each other. Since Lao Ge and Lao Dao come from the third space, the translator explains the term "老乡" from a geographical perspective. "管事儿"means to have some authority. The translator also explains this word so that readers can understand it easily.

The culture of hometown is one of the major characteristics of Chinese culture. People from the same hometown share similar living habits, upbringing and cultural background, so even strangers can get acquainted quickly and even help each other. Since Lao Ge and Lao Dao are from the third dimension, the translator explains the term "老乡" from a geographical perspective." 管事儿" means to have some authority. The translator also explains this word to make it easy for readers to understand.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Example 2:
"一点心意，你收下。" (Jingfang Hao 2016:23)

"Please accept this token of my appreciation."(Ken Liu 2015)

In this passage, Yi Yan said that she hoped Lao Dao could help her keep a secret, so she wanted to give Lao Dao with money. "心意" means money, which is an euphemism used in China when it is inconvenient to offer money directly. In translation, the translator also considered an euphemistic way of expression, so he used the word "appreciation".

In this passage, Yi Yan says that she hopes Lao Dao will help her keep her secret, so she wants to use money to give Lao Dao." 心意" means money, which is a Chinese euphemism when it is not convenient to give money directly. In the translation, the translator also considered it a euphemism, so the word "appreciation" was used.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=====2.3.3 Culture of Idioms=====

Idioms are an important part of the extensive and profound Chinese culture. Chinese people always use them in their daily life and in their writing. However, some idioms sometimes have different meanings in different contexts, and the translation should pay attention to the differences between the two cultures.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:51）

Idioms are an important part of the vast and profound Chinese culture. Chinese people use these idioms in their daily life and writing, but some idioms sometimes have different meanings in different contexts. However, some idioms sometimes have different meanings in different contexts, and it is important to pay attention to the differences between the two cultures when translating them.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The author used many idioms in the article, such as "饿虎扑食", the translator translated it into "ate heartily", although the translation is easy to understand, but without the image that people are very hungry to eat, from the perspective of functional equivalence, English readers seem to be unable to reach the same level of understanding and response as Chinese readers.

The author uses many idioms in the article, such as "饿虎扑食", which the translator translates as "to eat in a heartbeat". Although the translation is easy to understand, without the image of a person eating very hungry, it seems that English readers cannot achieve the same understanding and reaction as Chinese readers from the perspective of functional equivalence.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

And "（盘子）一片狼藉"translated into "The dishes were a mess", it is a brief description of the mess. And "成人之美" translated into "in that case I'll have done a good deed by keeping silent", the idiom in the original text was originally used to describe Lao Dao's feeling that he was keeping secrets and that Yi Yan and Qin Tian might get together in the future. The translator abstractly translated the sentence in the English translation.

And "(盘子)一片狼藉" is translated as "the plate is a mess", which is a description of a messy situation on the plate. And "the beauty of adulthood" is translated as "in that case, I am doing a good deed by keeping quiet", the idiom in the original text was originally used to describe how Lao Dao felt that he kept the secret that Yi Yan and Qin Tian might be together in the future. The translator translated the phrase abstractly into the English translation.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Conclusion===

From the analysis of the English translation of Folding Beijing from three aspects: meaning, style and culture with the theory of functional equivalence in this paper, and it is believed that the English translation conforms to the understanding of English readers to the specific information in the text. According to Nida's functional equivalence theory and its translation purposes and strategies, the translator brings a natural and equivalent Chinese translation of Folding Beijing to the English reader.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:56）

The English translation of Folding Beijing is analyzed from three aspects of meaning, style, and culture using this paper's functional equivalence theory, and it is concluded that the English translation meets the English readers' understanding of the specific information in the text. According to Nida's functional equivalence theory and its translation purposes and strategies, the translator brings a natural and reciprocal Chinese translation of Folding Beijing for English readers. (Zhou Xingyang,2018:56)--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Nida's functional equivalence theory emphasizes that the target language readers' understanding and appreciation of the target language is essentially the same as that of the source language readers, so the target language can be regarded as a functional equivalence translation. Analyze from three aspects: meaning, style and culture "Folding Beijing" English version, you can see on the language, while Chinese and English in logic and grammar are greatly different, there exist many differences in the Chinese culture and western cultures, but the translator still tries his best to keep the content of the original text in the translation and find more appropriate words.

Nida's functional equivalence theory emphasizes that the target language readers' understanding and appreciation of the target language is basically the same as that of the source language readers, so the target language can be regarded as a functionally equivalent translation. Analyzing the English version of Folding Beijing from three aspects: meaning, style and culture, we can see that linguistically, although Chinese and English are very different in logic and grammar, and there are many differences between Chinese and Western cultures, the translator still tries to keep the original content and find more suitable words in the translation.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In terms of some specific content, the translator does not translate into exactly the same form, which is also consistent with Nida's functional equivalence theory, because Nida also proposed that translation should not be limited to form, but the translator can make necessary adjustments to the form and structure of the original text, so as to achieve equivalence between content and information. However, in some details, such as idioms, the translator's translation fails to achieve the same effect as the original text, which may be an area for improvement. Nida's theory of functional equivalence does provide a good theoretical model for the translation of science fiction, which is of great value.（Tan Zaixi,1999）

In some specific contents, the translators do not translate into exactly the same form, which is also in line with Nida's theory of functional equivalence, because Nida also suggests that translation should not be limited to form, and the translators can make necessary adjustments to the form and structure of the original text, so as to achieve the equivalence of content and information. However, in some details, such as idioms, the translator's translation fails to achieve the same effect as the original, which may be an area for improvement. Nida's functional equivalence theory does provide a good theoretical model for the translation of science fiction novels, which is of great value.（Tan Zaixi,1999）--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===References===

Hao Jingfang.(2015).Folding Beijing[J]. Ken Liu (trans.). A Magazine of Science Fiction and Fantasy

Hao Jingfang郝景芳.(2016).孤独深处[The Depth of Loneliness].南京：江苏凤凰文艺出版社[Nanjing:Jiangsu phoenix literature and art publishing,LTD]：1-40

Nida,Eugene A.(1993)Language, Culture, and Translating[M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press：118

Nida,Eugene A.(2001)Language and Culture: Context in Translating[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press

Nida,Eugene A. & Taber.(2004) Charles R. The Theory and Practice of Translation[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press：12-24

Tan Zaixi谭载喜.(1999).新编奈达论翻译[A new version of Nida's theory on translation].北京:中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Corporation]

Xu Jun,Mu Lei许钧,穆雷.(2009).翻译学概论[Introduction to translatology].南京：译林出版社[Nanjing: Yilin Press]

Zhao Dandan赵丹丹.(2011).浅论奈达的功能对等理论[Nida's theory of functional equivalence].湖北：文学教育[Hubei:Literature Education]

Zhou Xingyang周兴阳.(2018).从功能对等理论视角看《北京折叠》英译本研究[Chinese Science Fiction Translation in the Perspective of Functional Equivalence-A case Study of Beijing Zhe Die and its English Version-Folding Beijing].新疆大学[Xinjiang University]

Wang Guiyuan王桂圆.(2018)系统功能语言学视角下《北京折叠》英译研究[A Study on The Translation of Folding Beijing from the Perspective of Systemic Functional Linguistics].安徽：海外英语[Anhui：Overseas English]

==A Study on Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese Version of ''The Importance of Being Earnest'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence 余妮 Yu Ni==
<center>余妮 Yu Ni No.202070080620</center>
===Abtract===
''The Importance of Being Earnest'' is a satirical comedy of manners written by Irish playwright Oscar Wilde in the 19th century. Dialogues in this play are sharp, witty, and full of epigrams, which are not easy to translate. Besides, there are many Chinese versions, among which the most popular one is Yu Guangzhong’s version. From the perspective of functional equivalence proposed by Nida, Yu Guangzhong’s translation has its own merits. Guided by the functional equivalence theory, this paper explores the translation strategies of the drama title, characters’ names and dialogues in Yu’s version. It helps to create more excellent translation and promote the development of drama translation.

===Key Words===
Functional Equivalence; ''The Importance of Being Earnest''; Yu Guangzhong
===题目 ===
功能对等理论下余光中译《不可儿戏》分析
===摘要===
The Importance of Being Earnest是19世纪爱尔兰剧作家王尔德所写的一部讽刺风俗喜剧。他的作品妙语逼人，警句诸多，想要译得传神并不简单。在众多译本中，余光中的译本《不可儿戏》最受推崇。从奈达提出的功能对等视角分析，余光中的译本确有其出色之处。本文以功能对等理论为指导，探究余光中译本中剧名、人名及人物对话的翻译策略。从而创造出更优秀的翻译作品，推动戏剧翻译事业的发展。
===关键词===
功能对等；《不可儿戏》；余光中
===Introduction===
“The Importance of Being Earnest is a comedy of manners written by Oscar Wilde in the 19th century, which is also his most successful comedy”(Shi Qiulei,2012). In this play, there are plenty of sharp dialogues, as well as aphorisms. Among its various Chinese versions, Yu Guangzhong’s is the most popular, which not only tells us the fabulous story, but also remains the flavor of the source language when translating. This thesis analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest from the perspective of functional equivalence. We can know more about the language features and translation strategies of Yu Guangzhong’s version.

Nowadays, researchers pay more attention to the study of translation. In order to gain experience from famous translators through their translation, scholars carried out a series of researches towards Chinese versions of this play. Chen Yaoyao (2019) studied Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the perspective of dualistic nature of the drama. Shi Qiulei (2011) analyzed Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the perspective of cultural turn. Liang Wei (2009) and Shen Zhengrong (2007) compared two Chinese versions of The Importance of Being Earnest. Liu Guilan (2015) did the research on the secularization in its Chinese version.

The first Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest was Tongming Quyi (《同名娶异》) co-translated by Kong Xiangwo and Wang Jing in 1921” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). In the 1980s, Yu Guangzhong translated it as “不可儿戏”, while Qian Zhide translated it as “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. As far as I am concerned, Yu’s version is more acceptable for readers. It has been put on the stage in Guangzhou and Hong Kong for many times, while Qian’s version is rarely followed.

American linguist Eugene A. Nida put forward the theory of “functional equivalence”, that is, “the translation and the original context should achieve equivalence in functional aspect, rather than rigid correspondence word by word” (Eugene A. Nida,1969), which coincides with the principles of Yu Guangzhong’s version of The Importance of Being Earnest. Through the study, we are able to gain suggestions of drama translation and produce excellent works. In this way, readers become more interested in foreign works, which is also beneficial to cultural diffusion.

The thesis comprises five chapters. The first chapter mainly introduces the research background, significance and layout of the thesis. Chapter Two gives an introduction of functional equivalence, including others’ views on it and its features. The next chapter focuses on Oscar Wilde and The Importance of Being Earnest, as well as its Chinese versions, especially Yu’s version. Chapter Four is the core of the thesis, which appreciates and analyzes Yu’s version from the perspective of functional equivalence. The appreciation focuses on the translation of the drama title, characters’ names and dialogues. In the last chapter, the author draws the conclusion.

===An Introduction of Functional equivalence===
====The Definition of Functional Equivalence====
In order to set a standard for the conversion between the source language and the target language and reduce the differences, Eugene A. Nida proposed the famous “dynamic equivalence” translation theory, also known as “functional equivalence”, from the perspective of linguistics and according to the nature of translation. In this theory, he pointed out that “translation is to reproduce the information of the source language from semantics to styles in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language” (Eugene A. Nida,1969). Nida’s definition of translation indicates that translation is not only lexical equivalence, but also semantic, stylistic and stylistic equivalence.

The equivalence in “dynamic equivalence” includes four aspects: lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence, and stylistic equivalence. In these four aspects, Nida believes that meaning is the most important, followed by form. Form is likely to hide the cultural meaning of the source language and hinder cultural communication. Therefore, in literary translation, according to Nida’s theory, the translator should take the four aspects of dynamic equivalence as the translation principle and accurately reproduce the cultural connotation of the source language in the target language(Guo Jianzhong, 2000).

====Three Steps of Translation====
Firstly, efforts should be made to create target language that not only conforms to the semantic meaning of the original text but also reflects the cultural characteristics of the original text. “However, the two languages represent two completely different cultures. Cultures may have similar factors, but they cannot be identical. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000)” Therefore, it is impossible to create perfect translation which fully display the cultural connotation of the original text. The translator can only reproduce the source culture to the maximum extent.

Secondly, if meaning and culture cannot be taken into account at the same time, “the translator has to abandon formal equivalence and achieve the purpose of reproducing the meaning and culture of the original text by changing the form of the original text in the translation” (Guo Jianzhong, 2000). For example, the English proverb “white as snow” can be translated into Chinese as “白如雪”. However, there is almost no snow in southern China all year round. In their cultural background knowledge, there is no concept of “雪”. How to understand the connotation of snow?

In the translation, translators can eliminate cultural differences by changing the form of vocabulary. Therefore, this proverb can be translated into “white as mushroom” and “white as egret’s hair”. In the English idiom “spring up like mushroom”, the original meaning of “mushroom” is “蘑菇”. However, when translated into Chinese, it means “雨后春笋” rather than “雨后蘑菇”, because in Chinese culture, people are more familiar with the idiom and understand the image of “雨后春笋”. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000)

Thirdly, if the change of form is still not enough to express the meaning and culture of the original text, “the translation technique of recreate can be used to solve the cultural differences, so that the source language and the target language can achieve the meaning equivalence” (Guo Jianzhong, 2000). “Recreate” refers to the transformation of the deep structure of the source language into the surface structure of the target language, that is to explain the cultural connotation of the source language articles with the words of the target language.

===''The Importance of Being Earnest'' and Its Chinese Versions===
====An Introduction of Oscar Wilde and His Works====
Oscar Wilde was born in Dublin, Ireland. As a “born for art” writer, he was known for his plays, poetry, fairy tales and novels. As a representative of aestheticism, he always deliberately left out the relationship between art and other things. On the surface, Wilde wrote for the pursuit of art, but the essence of his work goes beyond art. He created four comedies in his life: “Lady Windermere’s Fan (1892), A Woman of No Importance (1893), An Ideal Husband (1895) and The Importance of Being Earnest (1895)” (Wu Jie, 2014).

The Importance of Being Earnest is Wilde’s masterpiece, written in the Victorian era. “The Importance of Being Earnest is apt to be a stumbling block both to the detractors and admires of Oscar Wilde as a man of letters” (Richard Foster, 1956). Critics have different opinions on his other works, including poems and novels, but almost unanimously regard this play as a perfect one. It made a great sensation when first put on St. James theatre on February 14, 1895. In the play, the dandy Algernon and Jack made up the characters of “Bunbury” and “Ernest” for their own purposes.

Through some misunderstandings, the play continued to develop and the truth was revealed. It turned out that Jack was actually Algernon’s brother. The play ended with “I’ve now realized for the first time in my life the vital Importance of Being Earnest”. The play revolves around the dual identities of Algernon and Jack, describing the behavior of high-class figures. Wilde pointed out the characters’ absurd views of marriage and deep-rooted hierarchies and revealed the hypocritical ethical concepts in Victorian era.(Wilde, 2009)

Wilde often uses humorous language to express complex thoughts and feelings and explain some meaningful philosophy. The highlights of the play are not the plots but the dialogues. In order to reveal characters’ personalities, he employed a variety of rhetorical devices and aphorisms to produce a humorous effect. Pun is frequently used in the play, including the drama title and characters’ names.(Yu Guangzhong, 1986)

====Chinese Versions of The Importance of Being Earnest====
=====An Overview of Its Chinese Versions =====
The Importance of Being Earnest was premiered in London on February 14, 1895. In 1921, Kong Xiangwo (孔襄我) and Wang Jing (王靖) cooperated to translate this famous play. It was the first Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest, but it did not get much attention of Chinese readers. “After the foundation of People’s Republic of China, the first new translation of Wilde’s play Selected Plays of Oscar Wilde (《王尔德戏剧选》) was translated by Qian Zhide (钱之德) and published by Huangcheng Press in 1983” (Wen Tong, 2010).

Qian Zhide translated it as “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. He just translated it out of his own interest, treating it as a play without orally practicing the translated lines. Compared with previous versions, his version was more personal, as his own reminder of the original texts. In 1986, Yu Guangzhong’s version came out, with the title “不可儿戏”. “It was published by China Friendship Press Corporation. It was popular with people and has been put on stage for many times” (Tong Fangli,2006).

Another version appeared in the 1980s when Zhang Nanfeng (张南峰) published A Collection of Two British Plays(《英国戏剧二种》), in which Zhang rendered the title of the play as “认真的重要”. “Three years later, in Selected Comedies of Oscar Wilde(《王尔德喜剧选》) published by Haixia Literature Press, Zhang changed his title into ‘认真为上’”(Tong Fangli,2006).

From “认真的重要” to “认真为上”, the author thinks that the latter is much more in line with the content.Because of political reasons, studies on Wilde stopped for some time.In 2000, in commemoration of Wilde’s contribution in the literary history, China Literature Press printed a complex six-volume Collection of Wilde’s Works (《王尔德全集》).” So far, only the versions of Yu Guangzhong, Zhang Nanfeng and Qian Zhide have been advocated by readers”(TongFangli,2006).

=====Yu Guangzhong and His Chinese Version=====
Yu Guangzhong was born in Nanjing in 1928. As a writer, Yu Guangzhong is famous for his poetry. “Poetry, prose, translation and critical essay constitute the four dimensions of his writing life” (Li Xin, 2010). He has published 21 poetry collections, 11 prose collections, 5 comment collections and 13 translation collections, Actually, he is also one of the most dedicated translators in the field of translation. “For translators engaged in translation, Yu Guangzhong’s translation thoughts are of great value” (Tong Fangli, 2005). “He thinks that translation is a kind of composition, at least a kind of limited composition” (Wang Chao, 2016).

He holds that translation is closely related to creation, but it is a limited creation and a flexible art. “Yu Guangzhong has translated four comedies in his whole life, which are The Importance of Being Earnest (《不可儿戏》, 1983), Lady Windermere’s Fan (《温夫人的扇子》, 1992), An Ideal Husband (《理想丈夫》, 1995) and A woman of No Importance (《不要紧的女人》, 2008)” (Chen Feifei, 2011). All of these are the works of Wilde.

Yu Guangzhong’s version of The Importance of Being Earnest was early published in 1983. In the postscript, he elaborated his principle of translating. “The dialogue of the novel is for reader to read. If you don’t understand, you can read it again. The dramatic dialogue is for audience to listen to, and if they do not understand, the dialogues passed. There is no second chance. I translated this book not only for Chinese readers, but also for Chinese audiences and actors. Therefore, my translation principle is to make the reader pleased to read, the audience satisfied to watch, and the actor pleasant to perform” (Yu Guangzhong, 2004).

===The Application of Functional Equivalence to Yu Guangzhong’s Version===
====Translation Strategies of Yu Guangzhong’s Version====
=====Translation of the Drama Title=====
So far, there are three famous versions of The Importance of Being Earnest. Yu Guangzhong’s “不可儿戏”, Zhang Nanfeng’s “认真为上” and Qian Zhide’s “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. “Among these three versions, Yu Guangzhong’s is the most popular one, which is also consistent with functional equivalence” (Wen Tong, 2012).

“Functional equivalence emphasizes that translation is to reproduce the information of the source language from semantics to styles in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language” (Eugene A. Nida,1969). Wilde created a character named “Ernest” in the play. As we all know, “Ernest” and “earnest” are homonyms, so the drama title is a pun. It not only expresses “the importance of being earnest”, but also “the importance of naming “Ernest”. After all, “Ernest” is a name favored by two girls in the play.

Qian Zhide’s version expressed the literal meaning, which achieved equivalence in meaning. However, Zhang Nanfeng’s version represented the implied meaning. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he translated the implied meaning and revealed the theme of the play that one should be serious about everything in life. The function of the title is to reveal the theme of the novel. “In Yu’s version, the information was reproduced and it echoed lady Bracknell’s words at the end of the play. So, it was more in line with Chinese readers’ preference” (Wen Tong, 2012).

=====Translation of Characters’ Names=====
“Pun was widely used in this play, especially in characters’ names” (Yang Wenqian, 2014), and Yu Guangzhong translated it almost perfectly. In essence, pun is a deliberate word play. It usually appears when two words are similar or identical in their sound, but different in meaning. The effect of pun can be humorous, rhetorical and even bitter at times. Regardless of the brilliant effect of a pun, it is merely a tool for the author to get him across, not just a decoration.

Yu Guangzhong translated the character “Ernest” created by Jack into “任真”. In English, “Ernest” and “earnest” are homonyms, and “earnest” means to be serious about something. “In Chinese, “任真” and “认真” are homonyms，like the English homonyms” (Yin Lijing, 2012). Yu employed the domestication method to translate it into “任真”, and Zhang Nanfeng employed the foreignization method to translate it into ‘埃纳斯特’. It was translated into “任真” and gave him the Chinese surname “华”, which was from his family name “Worthing” in English.

It not only facilitated the needs of the audience, but also considered the feelings of readers. If “Ernest” was translated into “埃纳斯特”, the audience will be confused and do not understand the humor and irony of the language. In the other hand, “认真” is too direct to let readers experience the beauty of pun by thinking it over themselves. “华任真” retains the ironic effect to the greatest extent, and it does not make the audience feel confused when they hear “埃纳斯特”. (Wang Chao, 2016)

In this way, the form of original works was preserved, from a pun in English to a pun in Chinese. “From the perspective of linguistics, one of the ideal translation methods is pun into pun” (Yin Lijing, 2012). And the irony effect in Wilde’s original works can be kept to the greatest extent, as if it had just been transmigrated from English to Chinese.

Yu Guangzhong translated the character “Bunbury” created by Algernon into “梁勉仁”. The original meaning of “Bunbury” is “sightseeing tour”, which implies an excuse to evade responsibility as well. That’s exactly why Algernon intended to make up the character. “When he didn’t want to show up in some situation, he lied that his intimate named “Bunbury” was ill and he couldn’t keep the appointment because he needs to take care of him” (Yu Guangzhong, 1986). With the guidance of traditional transliteration method, we should consequently translate it into “邦伯里”. But Yu Guangzhong’s version adds beauty to the original text.

In Chinese, “梁勉仁” and “两面人” are homonyms, referring to double-faced people. In Wilde’s original text, “Bunbury” is not a pun. But in Yu Guangzhong’s version, he added a pun in the process of translation. Both of the Chinese name “梁勉仁” and English name “Bunbury” are names which are correct in lexical aspect. Moreover, “they expressed the same meaning that the person who named like that was double-faced” (Wang Chao, 2016), so the function of the original and the target language are the same.

Yu Guangzhong’s version of the tutor Miss Prism is “劳小姐”. The name “Prism” and the word “prim” form a homophonic pun. Wilde aims to allude to his rigid character through this name. In Chinese, “劳” “老” and “牢” are homonyms, aiming at showing Miss Prism’s strict control over her student, Miss Cecily. It seems that her name not only adds the meaning “old lady” and “prison”, but also highlights the original work’s depiction of her rigid personality.

In China, people’s surnames stand behind their last name, and their names are short. “European and American names are different and most of them are long and awkward for Chinese readers” (Wang Chao,2016). This kind of cultural difference often weakens the interest of many readers and audiences in the translated works, especially dramas. But Yu Guangzhong’s version not only translates the meaning of Wilde’s original work, but also has Chinese characteristics. He did not translate the name according to its pronunciation, but created Chinese names which can not only be in accordance of Chinese names, but also express the ironic meaning.

=====Translation of Characters’ Dialogues=====
“There are a lot of allusions and idioms both in Chinese and English. Cultural differences make English allusions and idioms become key points in translation, especially in drama translation which focuses on watching rather than reading” (Liang Wei, 2009). In order not to affect Chinese readers’ understanding of the plots, especially for the audience, Yu Guangzhong boldly adopted the substitution technique in the translation of dialogues, which can better convey the unique charm of Wilde’s language. Following, we will analyze Yu Guangzhong’s version from the perspective of rhetorical sentences, including alliteration, paradox and antithesis.

======Alliteration======
"Many English allusions and idioms are used in Wilde’s plays" (Yang Wenqian, 2014). The author chose two examples of alliteration sentences. Alliteration is the earliest phonetic rhetoric technique with rhythm and beauty in English. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he not only remained the rhetorical form but also preserved the flavor of the original work.

(1)ALGERNON. I hear her hair turned quite gold from grief. (Wilde, 2009)
亚吉能听说她的头发因为伤心变色像黄金。(余光中, 1998)
In this example, Algernon is talking about Lady Bracknell’s friend Lady Harbury, who becomes twenty years younger after her husband’s death. “It is commonly believed that a woman should feel grief after her husband’s death. We guess that her hair may turn grey out of sorrow. While it turned out that she changed it gold just to be younger” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). Wilde did well in employing paradox and irony to satirize the upper class. He is also keen on word game. “Gold from grieve” actually comes from “grey from grief”. Wilde’s alteration not only preserves the alliteration, but also achieves an ironic effect.

In order to reproduce the formal beauty of the source language, Yu Guangzhong changed the alliteration into assonance and rendered it into “伤心变色像黄金”. In Chinese, “金(jin)” and “心(xin)” have the same sound “in”. “He employed rhetorical devices in Chinese to replace alliteration” (Yang Wenqian, 2014).. It not only expressed the same meaning as the source language, but also added the beauty of language in form, with Chinese characteristics. In the meaning level, Yu’s version preserved the original connotation, and in the form level, he employed rhetorical devices in Chinese to replace alliteration, which coincided with “functional equivalence”.

(2)CHASUBLE. I would merely beg you not to be much bowed down by grief. What seem to us bitter trials are often blessings in disguise. (Wilde, 2009)
蔡牧师只劝你不要过分哀伤。有些事看来像大祸临头，往往焉知非福。(余光中, 1986)
In example 2, Jack pretended that he had a wicked brother whose name is Ernest. And Ernest often needed his assistance so that he had an excuse to disappear for several days. Discovering that his ward Cecily was too interested in Ernest, he decided to “kill” his brother by saying that he caught a severe chill. Then Jack told Chasuble that his brother Ernest died in Paris. Chasuble intended to console Jack by saying “What seem to us biter trials are often blessings in disguise”. (Wu Shanshan, 2012) Therefore, from Chasuble’s point of view, his death may be a shake off for Jack.Here, “bitter” and “blessings” employed alliteration devices.

Yu Guangzhong translated it as “塞翁失马，焉知非福”, a Chinese saying. It means that although we have suffered losses for a while, we can benefit from them in the future. “It also tells us that bad things can become good things under certain conditions, and vice versa” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). He translated alliteration in English into a Chinese saying. The meaning the Chinese saying expressed in the Yu Guangzhong’s version was the same as the original, and the ironic effect was achieved by using a more acceptable way for Chinese readers.

An old saying is more persuasive in this situation. We learnt from Yu’s version that if there is a saying in the source language, we can find a saying which expresses the same meaning in the target language, making it achieve “functional equivalence” (Yang Wenqian, 2014).

======Paradox======
(3)LADY BRACKNELL. I'm sorry if we are a little late, Algernon, but I was obliged to call on dear Lady Harbury. I hadn't been there since her poor
husband's death. 1 never saw a woman so altered; she looks quite twenty years younger. (Wilde, 2009)
巴夫人真抱歉我们来晚了一点，阿吉，可是我不能不去探望哈夫人。自从她死了可怜的丈夫，我一直还没有去过她家呢。从没见过一个女人变得这么厉害:看起来她足足年轻了二十岁。(余光中, 1986)
Paradox is a device much favored by satirists. The benefit lies in the fact that even though it seems to be contradictory on the surface, it contains a certain grain of truth. With the use of paradoxes, Wilde showed us a clear picture of characters’ thoughts and the bourgeois society of Victorian era. Lady Harbury lost her husband. As common sense, the readers or audience would think she may become old, while she says “she looks quite twenty years younger”. In this sentence, paradox was employed.Upon hearing that, the readers and audience will feel they are deceived by the speaker and become amused by the paradox (Wu Shanshan, 2012).

After thinking it over, they will realize the beauty of the language. “Yu Guangzhong described the shocking facts in a flat tone to deepen the ironic effect” (Yang Wenqian, 2014). He successfully transferred the paradoxical meaning from the source text to the target language. Actually, he not only translated the original meaning, but also expressed the original meaning with an extremely same tone, an ironic tone.

(4)ALGERNON. Do you really keep a diary? I'd give anything to look at it. May I?
CECILY. Oh no. [Puts her hand over it] You see, it is simply a very young girl’s record of her own thoughts and impressions and consequently meant for
publication. (Wilde, 2009)
亚吉能你真的记日记吗?我真恨不得能看一看，可以吗?
西西丽哦不可以。(手按日记)你知道，里面记录的不过是一个很年轻的女孩子私下的感想和印象，所以呢，是准备出版的。(余光中, 1986)
In this example, since the diary is a record of Cecily’s own thoughts and impressions, she does not allow Algernon to read. "The readers or the audience may think Cecily will keep it as a personal privacy and prevent others from reading. However, Cecily says the diary is meant for publication" (Wu Shanshan, 2012). This contradictory statement is illogical and unreasonable, thus produces a humorous effect.In example 4, what amused the audience was that the conclusion was contrary to the reasons.

Yu Guangzhong added a Chinese conjunction “所以”. With this conjunction, the ironic effect deepened. If the translator transforms the illogical content into a coherent form that sounds reasonable, the paradoxical meaning in the original drama text will disappear, and the reader or audience will not be attracted by this line. This version remained the ironic effect of the source text. (Wu Shanshan, 2012)

======Antithesis======

(5)ALGERNON. You don’t seem to realize, that in married life three is company and two is none. (Wilde, 2009)
亚吉能阁下似乎不明白，婚后的日子，三个人才热闹，两个人太单调。(余光中, 1986)
"Antithesis is a figure of speech in which sharply contrasting ideas are juxtaposed in a paralleled phrase or grammatical structure"(Wu Shanshan, 2012). Wilde employed quite a few antitheses in The Importance of Being Earnest, making it a great challenge for translators.Algernon introduced Bunbury to Jack so that he could still pursue pleasure after marriage. He compared two kinds of states of marriage and expressed his own thoughts. In the sentence “three is company and two is none”, antithesis was employed with rhythmic beauty.Yu Guangzhong noticed this musical beauty of the source language, and rendered it into corresponding paralleled structure.

As a matter of fact, the target language seemed to be better than source language. In Wilde’s language, only antithesis was used. While in Yu Guangzhong’s version, he reserved antithesis and added rhythmic words. “热闹” and “单调” are totally two different kinds of states, forming sharp contrast. Furthermore, “闹(nao)” and “调(diao)” have the same sound “ao”. Yu Guangzhong fully exploited the advantage of the target language and successfully transferred the beauty of the source language. He not only surpassed source language in form, but also preserved the soul (Shen Zhengrong, 2007).

(6)MISS PRISM. You are too much alone, dear Dr. Chasuble. You should get married. A misanthrope I can understand—a womanthrope, never! (Wilde, 2009)
劳你太孤单了，蔡牧师。你应该结婚。一个人恨人类而要独善其身，我可以了解。一个人恨女人而要独抱其身，就完全莫名其妙。(余光中, 1986)
This is the conversation between Miss Prism and Dr. Chasuble. She suggested that he should get married, and she compared the two reasons of not getting married. (Wen Tong, 2012). Wilde employed the rhetorical device of antithesis, and Yu Guangzhong remained it in target language. “Womanthrope” comes from the word “misanthrope”, referring to people who hate women. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he translated two words into two sentences, “恨人类而要独善其身” and “恨女人而要独抱其身”. He explained two kinds of situations to the audience in detail with the same form as original works, making it almost perfect in form and content.

====Suggestions on Translation from Yu Guangzhong’s Version====
Through the analyses of Yu Guangzhong’s version, we have a deeper understanding of “functional equivalence”. “Drama is a type of literature written to be performed” (Shi Tiantian, 2014). So, there are many details to be considered. Even Yu Guangzhong’s version, which is most popular among the audience and readers, has many imperfections. Through the research, we can get some suggestions to help the later translators to create more excellent works.

The first translation strategy of is to keep the form of the target language in line with the original to the greatest extent. The reason why it becomes the most successful play of Wilde is that a variety of rhetorical devices are used. In the process of translation, Yu Guangzhong grasped this point well. In translation of the drama title or characters’ names, he preserved the irony of the original work, turning puns in English into puns in Chinese, and long foreign names into meaningful short Chinese names. It not only preserves the satire of the original, but also inherits the language flavor of the original (Wen Tong, 2012).

The second translation strategy is that the form can be changed properly, but the meaning and satirical effect cannot be reduced. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there are many Western proverbs which are inexplicable to Chinese readers. If they are translated literally, the reader will fail to understand the exact meaning of the proverb. The beauty of the original will be destroyed, as well. But if the proverbs are explained carefully, it will inevitably take up a lot of sentences to explain the literal and metaphorical meaning of the proverbs (Wang Chao, 2016).

For drama translation, it is not advisable to do so. Yu Guangzhong chose Chinese proverbs that can express the same meaning to replace the English ones, without changing the author’s original meaning, and it added a sense of amiability to Chinese readers. In this part, the author analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the prospective of functional equivalence. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, both the form and the content of original work have been preserved. We also gained some enlightenments from his translation, which benefits our further translation practice (Wang Chao, 2016).

===Conclusion===
The thesis, under the guidance of “functional equivalence”, analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest from three aspects, translation of drama title, characters’ names and dialogues. Through this study, we had a clear understanding of functional equivalence. By appreciating the vividness of Yu Guangzhong’s version, we get some enlightenments in translation. From the above discussion, we think that translators can learn from Yu Guangzhong in order to achieve “functional equivalence”.In translation, we should take readers’ thought into consideration first. To make the translated version like the original work, Yu Guangzhong provided us with some strategies (Chen Yaoyao, 2019).

One is to keep the target language in line with the original to the greatest extent. The other is that form can be changed, but the meaning and satirical effect cannot be reduced. With these strategies, we can produce more fantastic translation.Even though we gain experience from this study, it has limitations. “Drama is a type of literature written to be performed” (Shi Tiantian, 2014). So, there are many details to be considered. Although Yu’s version is popular, it has unavoidable shortcomings. This thesis only focused on excellent examples of translation. To sum up, Yu’s version provided us with some successful suggestions to achieve functional equivalence, but only part of it did it.

===References===
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=Applicaton of Translation Theories=
==Study of Application of Interpretive Theory in Interpretation 韩宛真 Han Wanzhen 202020080603==

===Abstract===
With the development of economic globalization, exchanges between countries have become more and more frequent and areas of cooperation have been continued to expand. The increasing demand for interpretation is the quality of interpretation which is particularly important. Interpretive theory plays an important role in translation, especially in interpreting, and also in guiding interpreting practice.Through the reading and analysis of some English-Chinese interpreting materials, this report summarizes some translation strategies and techniques frequently used in interpretation work under the guidance of interpretive theory, and combines translation examples to analyze and summarize.

===Key words===
interpretive theory; interpretation,; translation strategies

===题目===
释意理论指导下的口译

===摘要===
随着经济全球化，各国之间的交往越来越频繁，贸易往来日益频繁，合作领域也不断地拓宽，口译地需求不断增加是口译质量显得尤为重要。释意理论在翻译中，尤其是口译中扮演者重要的作用，对指导口译实践有着极其重要的作用。本报告通过对一些英汉口译翻译材料地阅读和解析，在释意理论地指导之下总结了一些口译工作中经常使用的一些翻译策略和方法技巧，并且结合了翻译实例进行分析和概括。

===关键词===
释意理论；口译；翻译策略

===1.Introduction===
In this part, it mainly talks about some information about the interpretive theory and knowledge about the Interpretation. Both of them are important for the development of translation.

===1.1 Introduction of Interpretive Theory===
The interpretive theory is also called the expressive theory, which was created by the interpretive school. This school explores the principles and teaching of French interpretation and translation of non-literary texts. The main representatives of this school, Danica Seleskovitch and Marianne Lederer, founded this school and made important contributions to the generation and development of interpretive theory. The interpretive school believes that translation is paraphrasing, that is, the translator interprets the source text through language symbols and his own cognitive supplementation during the translation process. This school believes that translators cannot copy the form of the source language to translate the text in the process of translation. What they pursue is not language equivalence but meaning equivalence.

The theory of this school is directly derived from the practice of interpretation and has an unique inspiration for the study of translation.General translation theories believe that there are three different levels of translation: vocabulary translation, sentence translation and text translation. The interpretive school has its own unique insights in this regard. The interpretive school refers to word-by-word translation and sentence-by-sentence translation as language translation (Linguistic Translation, and text-level translation is called text translation or translation. This school believes that successful translation is carried out at the level of the text and interpretives the text. Because the school believes that the sentence is a grammatical unit, and the text is a semantic unit, the interpretive theory studies meaning not grammar, so the school is particularly faithful to the textual interpretive. The equivalence of the original text and the target text is expressed in the overall communicative meaning, at is, the readers of the target text can have the same reaction as the readers of the original text, thus achieving the equivalence considered by the interpretive school.(Kong Shaohui 2019, 127)

The core of interpretive theory is to distinguish linguistic meaning from non-verbal sense. What the translator wants to convey is not the meaning of linguistic signs, but the non-verbal meaning expressed by the speaker in his speech. In other words, the essence of meaning is the "meaning" conveyed by communicators through language symbols, not the meaning of language symbols themselves. The meaning is mainly composed of two components. The first is the implied meaning (implicit), which means that the speaker actually wants to express the meaning: the second is the explicit, which the speaker actually says content.(Kong Shaohui 2009, 127)

Although translation and interpreting have different forms, they are essentially a communicative act, but in translation, the relationship between the translated material and the real world is not as close as in interpreting (for example, an ancient text, the author’s writing Intent-that is, "implied meaning"may become unknowable due to age). Interpretation is different: it is regarded by the interpretive school as the most ideal communication situation, because when interpreting is used, all the interlocutors are present, they share the same time and space environment, and under normal circumstances, they also have a common communication topic. Based on the above understanding, the purpose of translation should be to convey meaning, that is, communicative meaning; what the translator translates should be the content of the information conveyed by the text, which is speech (that is, the use of language), not the language itself.

Interpretation is not based on the memory of the original speaker's language, but based on the translator's grasp of the communicative meaning conveyed by the original speaker and subsequent reorganization of the communicative meaning (that is, the speaker's meaning) in the target language. At this point, we can see that the interpretive theory first separates grammar from semantics and points out that translation is interpretive; then it separates linguistic meaning from non-verbal meaning, and points out that the translator translates meaning. And the meaning is the communicative meaning.

The interpretive school's theory pays much attention to the study of translation process. In a sense, it can even be considered that the focus of the school's attention is the translation process. The interpretive theory believes that in interpreting, the interpreter actually goes through three stages before turning the speaker's words into words that the audience in another language can
understanding:the first stage is the understanding of meaning, through understanding and analyzing language signs to clarify the linguistic phenomenon and thought content to be expressed, this stage is called interpretation of discourse. The part of discourse elaboration is extremely important, because after the discourse has been uttered by the speaker, its oral expression will immediately disappear, but after this part of discourse is elaborated, it will become the translator’s thought. In his mind, what the speaker has already said returns to the original state, that is, the state of pure thought that has not been expressed in language. This "thought that has not been expressed in words"(Seleskovic 1979, 113) can be re-expressed at a normal speed through the interpreter’s language, so the discourse elaboration connects the speaker and the translator, just like a bridge for the people.

The second stage is cognitive supplementation, away from the shell of the source language. At this stage, we need to forget the deconstruction of language signs, and only need to remember the thought content it expresses, that is, the cognitive and emotional meanings produced by language signs. This stage is called "de-verbalization". Adding the process of breaking away from the language shell between understanding and expression is the result of the study of interpretive language and a contribution to the science.

The third stage is the reformulation stage of the original information content. That is to use another language symbol to create new sentences, and these sentences need to express the full content of the original utterance and easy to understand the two requirements.

In general, interpretive theory does not regard translation as a one-way decoding process of transforming a source language into a target language. It is a dynamic process of understanding ideas and then re-expressing them.(Zhang Si 2019, 275-277)

===1.2 Introduction of Interpretation===
Interpretation, also known as interpreting, is a kind of translation activity. As the name implies, it is a way for the translator to convert the input language into the output language in a spoken way. Oral translation is the simultaneous interpretation while the speaker is still speaking, which means the staff will simultaneously translate.
Translation work is the bridge and link of our country's foreign exchanges and international exchanges. The development of translation business is also an inevitable requirement of our country's foreign reforms. It can improve the quality of translators and strengthen the construction of translators. Translation talents play a very important role in our country's economic development and social progress, especially in attracting foreign advanced technical knowledge and strengthening international exchanges and cooperation. The improvement of the political and professional quality of translators plays a key role in strengthening international cooperation in all aspects of our country's politics, economy, science and technology.

There are very strict requirements regarding the selection of simultaneous interpreters. During simultaneous interpretation, the interpreter should continuously interpret the content to the audience without disturbing the speaker. Simultaneous interpretation, as a translation method, is characterized by high efficiency. The average translation interval between the original text and the target text is three to four seconds, with a maximum of ten seconds, so the speaker can speak coherently without affecting or interrupting the speech. The reader’s thinking is conducive to the audience’s understanding of the full text of the speech. Simultaneous interpretation is an extremely difficult inter-language conversion activity that is strictly limited by time. It requires the hospital to quickly complete the prediction of the source language in a very short time with the help of the existing subject knowledge while listening to the source language speech. Comprehension, memorization and conversion, and at the same time monitor, organize, modify and express the target language, and speak the target language translation. At international conferences, simultaneous interpreters need to use "lightning thinking" and superb language skills to successfully overcome the interweaving and interference of multiple tasks, which can easily cause energy shortages or difficulty in distributing attention to the brain. According to the regulations of AIIC (International Conference Interpreters Association), simultaneous interpreters only need to translate 80% of the speaker's speech content as a pass rate (90%-100% "simultaneous interpretation" is almost impossible). (Ouyang Changyi 2010)

Many people usually speak very fast. When giving speeches, they often only take into account their own speech content, even with accents and even dialects from various places. The simultaneous interpreters have to mobilize all their knowledge reserves and experience to go all out. In addition to solid language skills and mature conference experience, entering the simultaneous interpretation industry also requires a strong desire for knowledge. Due to professional needs, translators often have to deal with knowledge in many fields while doing translation, so some people say "simultaneous interpretation is a half-expert in any field.". Mastering the knowledge of broadcasting is the prerequisite for good simultaneous interpretation.(Lou Yue, Lan Jie 2020, 179-180)

===2. Literary Review===
No matter the interpretive theory and the interpretation,many people around the world have done some researches about them.And these researches about them can do great help for us to do further researches about them.

===2.1 The Research on Interpretive Theory===
Regarding the study of interpretive theory, there have been many scholars both at home and abroad who have conducted special research on it, and they have made important contributions to the continuous development of interpretive theory.

The first thing I mentioned is the study of interpretation by domestic scholars. In the early days, Chinese scholars began to study interpretive theory. Xu Jun, a well-known translation expert in our country, conducted research on interpretive theory in 1998. He mentioned in his article that he reviewed and studied the "interpretive" theory created by Professor Celeskovich; In 1997, the well-known translation expert Yuan Xiaoyi published an article on the concept of faithfulness called the interpretive theory, in which she discussed a problem of faithfulness that had been debated for thousands of years, and combining interpretive theory to explore this issue. With the development of the times, Chinese scholars’ enthusiasm for the study of interpretive theory has not diminished. For example, some scholars published an interpretive strategy study called Xi Jinping’s opening speech from the perspective of interpretive theory this year. The author here connects the interpretation theory with the times and integrates with practical activities. Based on the oral translation of President Xi Jinping’s speech, and guided by the theory of interpretation, the five translation strategies that translators commonly use literal translation, free translation, information simplification, antagonism and information supplementation are analyzed and summarized.

At the same time, some scholars are still interested in the rise and development of interpretive theory and continue to study the development process of interpretive theory. In 2020, Su Yuanyuan introduced the concept of interpretive and the rise and development of interpretive theory in her published articles, and discussed the significance and challenges of interpretive theory for the implementation of curriculum policy in our country. Looking at the articles published by domestic scholars on the research of interpretive theory, most of them are studying the role and embodiment of interpretive theory in practice, especially the application in interpretation practice, which has played an important role in the development of my country's translation industry.

Regarding foreign scholars' research on interpretive theory, many scholars have also emerged. Moreover, foreign scholars' research on interpretive theory will be earlier than domestic research. For example, in 1953, foreign scholar Surindar Suri explained the role of interpretive theory in the communication process in his published article, and carried out research and analysis based on practical examples. In 1969, Jackendoff Ray S. published an article called An Interpretive Theory of Negation, which explained the shortcomings of the interpretive theory. In 1969, Dougherty Ray C. conducted an investigation and research on the lexical level of interpretive theory, combined with specific text examples for analysis. Recently, many scholars have conducted research and analysis on interpretive theory. For example, in 2020, Harari and Michael investigated the relationship between interpretive theory and our thinking.

It is precisely because of the investigation and research of these scholars at home and abroad that it provides us with a lot of useful information for understanding and studying interpretive theory. Of course, the interpretive theory itself has also been developed in the process of their research and investigation. The development of theory will of course also promote the development of practice, continue to promote the development of interpretation and translation practice, and make a significant contribution to my country's translation industry.

===2.2 The Research on Interpretation under the Guide of Interpretive Theory===

Investigation and research on the application of interpretive theory in practice, the main direction is interpreting. In the aspect of interpretation, interpretive theory has made important contributions to its development. That is to say, the practical significance of interpretive theory is very large, which can guide people's life practice and assist translators in their work.

With the globalization of the world economy, the exchanges between countries continue to deepen and exchanges become more frequent. Therefore, the industry of translation has become more important, and interpretation plays an important role in the process of communication between countries. Therefore, both domestic and foreign translators have conducted research and investigation on it.

First of all, I have made a summary of some research investigations by domestic scholars. The research of Chinese scholars on interpretive theory in accompanying translation mainly combines various interpretation practices to analyze and research. In 2016, Zhang Yu accompanied the Canadian delegation to the practice report and analyzed the interpretive theory in this interpretation practice. Based on the author’s practice of accompanying interpretation and the understanding of interpretation theory, the scholar discussed and analyzed the problems encountered by the interpreter during the task. Through this translation practice, the translator also summed up the guiding role of the interpretive theory that interpretation should pay attention to the transmission of meaning for interpreters. In 2018, Yang Lijun discussed the application of interpretive theory in escort interpreting from the interpretation practice of the 2017 Asia Media Summit. During the summit, the scholar served as a liaison and accompanying interpreter and successfully completed the task of accompanying interpreter. This year is 2020, Liu Guifang takes China's "One Belt One Road" as the background, the rapid development of the world economy, the increasingly close relations between China and Russia, and the increasingly frequent trade exchanges. Therefore, the increasing demand for escort interpreting makes the quality of interpreting particularly important. Scholars served as an escort translator at the 12th "Black Technology" Exhibition in Dalian. Their personal experience in the process of practice, guided by interpretive theory, summarized some translation strategies and methods in interpreting work.

On the practical research on the theory of interpretation abroad. In 1992, JD Ward and FJ Rink conducted research and investigation on interpretive theory in the formulation of public policy. In 2011, SE Porter and JC Robinson introduced interpretive theory in their monograph. Foreign researchers started their research on interpretive theory earlier, with a wide range of research and in-depth research.
The research on interpretive theory by domestic and foreign scholars has greatly promoted the development of translation, especially the development of interpretation.

===3.Translation Strategies based on Interpretive Theory===
Interpretive theory mainly includes three stages in the application process, namely, meaning understanding, cognitive supplementation, and separation from the source language. These three stages are called the triangle model of interpretation by the famous translator Celeskovich. We can understand from the picture below. There are three line segments in the figure. The realization from the top of the triangle to language A means that the translator captures the meaning and digests and understands it. The line segment from the top to language B represents the translator to express it in another language. These two lines reflect the process of translation: one is from linguistic signs to thinking, and the other is linguistic signs from thinking to target language. Then, the dashed line from language A to language B indicates that direct conversion of language symbols from the original language to the target language is impossible, which may violate the meaning of the original language.

Based on interpretive theory, a variety of translation skills have appeared in translation. Here we mainly discuss some translation skills of interpreting. The concept of interpreting is the object, and various examples are combined for analysis.(Zhang Yang, Li Lingzhe 2018, 334-336)

===3.1 Free Translation===

The interpretive school believes that the pursuit of translation is not the equivalence of language forms, but the equivalence of meaning between the original text and the translated text, which enables it to achieve the purpose of communication in this way. Free translation refers to getting rid of the shackles of the source language form in the translation process and reorganizing the structure of the language to achieve the purpose of conveying meaning. Free translation does not mean changing the connotation of the source text, but after understanding the basic meaning of the source text in the translation process, it is expressed in the language used to the target language to make the language clearer and easier to understand. In leaders’ speeches, some culturally loaded words are often involved, such as idioms, colloquialisms, poems, etc., which are difficult for the target language audience to understand. Therefore, in this case, we adopt the translation strategy of free translation.(Liu Yue, Lan Jie 2020, 179-180)
例1：明年是中国和东盟建立对话关系30周年，双方友好合作即将步入“而立之年”，双方各自的发展也处于承前启后的关键时期。
Translation: Next year will mark the 30th anniversary of China-ASEAN dialogue relations. Our friendship and cooperation, which is fully established, will move toward greater maturity as we both enter an important period of development.
"而立之年" is a Chinese idiom, which means that a person can stand on his own at the age of thirty. The source of this idiom is the Spring and Autumn Period. After Confucius was excluded from the political arena, when talking to his disciples about his own experience, he said that he had been determined since he was 30, and he has not been able to launch a benevolent government until he is almost 70. Here, the translator directly expresses the thirty in the first year, which is beneficial for the listener of the target language to understand.
例2：论坛是中非共同的宝贵财富，我们要与时俱进，擦亮这块“金子招牌”。
Translation: FOCAC is a valuable asset for China and Africa.
"金字招牌" is a Chinese idiom, which means a signboard in which stores used gold foil to show that they had strong funds. And now it is a name or title that can be shown off as a metaphor for being superior. It is also a good analogy of reputation. Here it mainly refers to a precious name, and the translation of asset is very appropriate and easy to understand.

===3.2 Addition of Message===

Information supplementation refers to the method of adding words to make the meaning clearer and more in line with the expression habits of the target language listener. Information supplements can be divided into adding words needed for grammatical structure, supplementing and omitted components, and components contained in the original text. Due to the differences in different cultures, some expressions will also be different in different languages, so the translator adopts appropriate supplementary methods to achieve the goal of meaning equivalence.(Liu Yue, Lan Jie 2020, 179-180)
例1：在涉及彼此的核心利益和重大关切问题上相互坚定支持，始终高举多边主义和公平正义的旗帜，提高发展中国家的国际地位和影响力，维护了发展中国家的整体利益。
Translation: We have firmly supported each other on issues concerning core interests and major concerns. We have stood together in upholding the banner of multilateralism, fairness and justice. Together, we have elevated the international standing and influence of developing countries and safeguarded the overall interests of the developing world.
In this translation, we can clearly see the difference in sentence expression between Chinese and English. Chinese pays more attention to the language of meaning, so it will omit some forms of expression; while English emphasizes the form of language expression, so there has relatively more use of function words in English expression. Through the above translation sentences, we will find that we have added some function words to the sentence structure in the English sentence, and also turned out the personal pronouns omitted from the source text. Through this addition, the logical relationship is clearer and the meaning is easier to understand.
例2：自今年4月举行东盟与中日韩（10+3）抗击新冠肺炎疫情领导人特别会议以来，各方积极落实会议各项成果，有利促进地区疫情防控和经济复苏，彰显了10+3作为东亚合作主渠道的重要作用。
Translation; In April, we had a Special ASEAN Plus Three(APT) Summit on COVIS-19. Since then, all parties have been actively implementing its outcome, which has bolstered both our response against the virus and economic recovery in the region. Such progress has highlighted APT’s important role as the main channel of East Asian cooperation.
From the translation of the above example, we can find that when the source text is translated into the target language, the number of words in the target language is almost half that of the source text. There are a lot of words in the target language that have not appeared in the source text, such as relative pronouns and personal pronouns. But through such additions, the logic of the text is more fluent, and the meaning of the text is clearer.

===3.3 Positive and Negative Translation===

As we mentioned before, different countries have different cultural characteristics, and of course there are huge differences in language expression. Here we take the English-Chinese translation as an example to illustrate this translation feature. English and Chinese are both positive and negative. However, because Chinese speakers and English speakers have different ways of thinking and expression habits, the two languages have their own characteristics of expression. In the practice of translation, it involves the conversion of pros and cons, which means that during translation, the sentence that is being said in the original text must be processed into a negative, and vice versa. Therefore, on the basis of understanding the content of the original text and under the guidance of interpretive theory, adopting such a translation strategy can make the semantics clearer to a certain extent, which is more in line with the language expression habits of the target language readers.(Liu Yue, Lan Jie 2020, 179-180) The following are some typical examples:
例1 如果不加强各方的合作来合力战胜疫情，我们就不能够加强公共卫生，不能增强地区对公共卫生突发事件的处理能力。
Tranlation: We could enhance public health cooperation and strengthen our region’s preparedness for public emergencies through working together on COVID-19.
The sentences in the source text are all expressed by the negative "cannot" in Chinese, and after being translated into English, the translator converts the negation into affirmation, which makes multiple repeated negative words in the source text omitted, so it appears clearer and is easy to understand.
例2 而不是搞知识封锁，制造甚至扩大科技鸿沟。
Translation: The least desirable is for us to stifle the flow of knowledge, or to create or even widen the technology divide among us.
The source text is a negative sentence containing the negative “cannot" when translated into English. The translator is telling the truth, the translation is "at least", the form is affirmative, the meaning is negative. This kind of English expression is more authentic, and it also makes the expression diversified, and the English listeners can also be understood.

===Conclusion===

In order to systematically summarize the achievements in the field of international interpreting research, and to provide useful references and references for future interpreting research, so I chose interpretive theory as the research topic of this thesis, trying to make an attempt to the core composition of its theoretical system. Part of the paper has been systematically investigated and researched, and the whole article has been modified to analyze the interpretive theory and its practice in interpretation. It not only introduces the meaning of interpretation theory, but also analyzes its application in interpretation practice. Based on the creation and development of interpretive theory by the predecessors, the development of interpretive theory provided good translation strategies for later translation, especially interpretation, and made important contributions to the development of translation.

The core of interpretive theory emphasizes the separation of the shell of the source language and the communicative function of the language. From this we can see that in the process of interpreting, the translator cannot be attached to the form of the language, but should pay more attention to the language it carries. Only in this way can the translator deliver the information to the listener in the target language as much as possible in the practice of interpretation. Translators should fully understand the meaning of the text in the language and outside the language, quickly get rid of the shackles of language signs, and try to convey the source language accurately and faithfully. In the process of interpreting, especially when the leader speaks, the language of his speech is plain, multi-purpose and interlocked, good at repetition and use of discourse with Chinese characteristics.

Translators should use translation strategies flexibly.The interpretive school believes that interpreting is a kind of communicative activity whose purpose is to convey meaning, and in order to fully convey the meaning, the translator must analyze, understand and interpret the discourse of the source text during the translation process. In the process of interpretive, the translator needs to supplement the cognition. The supplement of cognition is a process of combining the translator's language knowledge, subject-related knowledge, encyclopedia knowledge and context knowledge.(Xiong Wen 2014, 154-155)

The interpretive theory is the hypothesis of "beyond the shell of the source language". This hypothesis is the core concept of interpretive theory and has a significant impact on the formation and development of interpretive theory. In fact, the interpretive theory was originally proposed based on the assumption that meaning can be separated from the outer shell of language. But in fact, there were certain problems when the theory was put forward by the initiators. The explanation of the relationship between language shell and meaning of this hypothesis was too simple, and in this hypothesis, both meaning and language form were absolutized. Generally speaking, the meaning may not be 100% out of the language shell in the process of interpreting, and the phenomenon of "out of" is unlikely to occur from beginning to end; the natural language may still be a natural language in the process of processing the source language text by the interpreter.(Zhang Yang, Li Lingzhe 2018, 334-336)

The triangular model of interpretation theory explains the psychological process of interpretation to a certain extent, shows bold and innovative spirit, and lays the foundation for the cognitive psychological transformation of interpretation research, which has contributed to the formation of the international interpretation research pattern and future development It has a huge and far-reaching impact, and it also brings profound enlightenment to human machine translation research. However, the interpretive school has always rejected the linguistic approach of interpretation in its research work, which is the marginalization of the object of interpretation; in addition, it only focuses on successful interpretation practice, and does not make a systematic and serious analysis of the reasons for the failure of interpretation, so it will Weaken the practical value of the theory and affected its further dissemination and development.(Lederer 2001, 45-50)

In this era of international interpreting research talents, the brilliance of the interpretive theory has become the past. "As the leader of the past, today we don’t have to expect the interpretation theory of the interpretive school to continue its former glory." But the interpretive theory has not been outdated. Its high attention to meaning is important to today’s interpretation practice Interpretation teaching still has an important guiding role; the psychological process (information processing) model of interpreting it puts forward has been inherited through the efforts of a new generation of scientific research school! It is enriched and developed. With the progress of cognitive science, its "departure from the source language" The connotation of the “language shell” hypothesis may also become more and more clear and clear. The interpretation scope of the interpretation theory of the interpretive school may continue to expand, and the research methods of the interpretive school will continue to build the interpretation theory for a long time in the future. Make your own unique contribution."(Lederer 2001, 45-50)--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 15:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

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*Liu Yue, Lan Jie. 刘玥、兰杰. (2020). 释意理论视域下习近平进博会开幕式讲话的口译策略研究. [ Research on Interpretation Strategies of Xi Jinping's Opening Ceremony Speech from the Perspective of Interpretation Theory]. ''海外英语'' [Overseas English](15):179-211.

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='''Theory and Practise'''=

==The Development of Translation in Chinese Buddhist Scriptures ==
陈佳欣 Chen Jiaxin 202020080593 英语语言文学
===Abstract===
The translation of Buddhist scriptures has lasted for more than a thousand years in China, which is taken as the first Chinese translation climax. The translation of Buddhist scriptures in China can be divided into three historical stages: the first historical period, from the late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty, the pioneering stage; the second historical period, from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, the stage of development; the third historical periods, the Tang Dynasty which reached its peak. The problems of free translation and literal translation run through the whole development of the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The general process is: literal translation is mainly employed at the beginning; literal translation and free translation are competed at the development stage; the two reached harmony at the peak of Buddhist translation. The article will review the development of translation in Chinese Buddhist scripture and analyze literal translation and free translation of each stages through analyzing the famous translators, translation theories and translation characteristics of the three stages. In addition, this article will study the influence of Buddhist scripture translation on Chinese language and literature.

===Keywords ===
Buddhist scriptures, Translation, Literal translation, Free translation

===摘要===
佛经翻译在中国持续了一千多年, 我国的第一个翻译高潮就是佛经翻译。中国的佛经翻译大致分为三个历史阶段：第一个历史时期，从东汉末到西晋，为草创阶段；第二个历史时期，从东晋时期到隋朝，是发展阶段；第三个历史时期，唐代达到全盛阶段。意译和直译的问题贯穿佛经翻译的始终, 大致发展过程为:初期的大略主直译——发展时期的直译意译相争——全盛时期的直译意译达到和谐。文章将通过研究这三个阶段的著名译者，翻译理论和翻译特点来梳理佛经翻译的发展，并分析每个时期佛经翻译中直译意译的发展。

===关键词===
佛经，翻译，直译，意译

===Introduction===
Chinese translation has a long history of three thousand years, and the earliest translation can be traced back to the Shang and Zhou dynasties. But scholars generally take the translation of Buddhist scriptures in the Eastern Han Dynasty as the beginning of the translation history of China. Buddhism, religion and philosophy founded in India by Siddhartha Gautama, was unknown to other countries for a long time, until they entered China along trade routes from Central Asia in the first century AD.

Buddhism is widely developed in China and became one of the most important religions in China for more than two thousands of years with great impacts on Chinese culture and civilization. The translation of Buddhist scriptures is mainly supported by two groups of people: the foreign monks who came to China to preach; the Chinese monks who go west to seek sutras. “The development of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures starts from the end of Eastern Han Dynasty, further developing from the Eastern Jin to Sui Dynasty, and peaking in Tang Dynasty, which stretches for more than one thousand years”(Meng Yue 2017, 305). And it has great influence on Chnese society, culture, language, arts etc. The translation of Buddhist scriptures is the first Chinese translation climax. With it developing, many translators and translation works come to the fore, and lots of translation theories have been put forward and perfected, which lays the foundation for later ones.

During the whole history of the translation of Buddhist scriptures, literal translation and free translation have always been one of the hottest topic. Literal translation of Buddhist scriptures refers to the rendering of text from Sanskrit into Chinese at a time or without conveying the sense of the original Buddhist scriptures. It emphasizes the similarity in form and requires the accordance between the Sanskrit and Chinese in the choices of word, syntax and styles. Free translation of Buddhist means to mainly convey the meaning and spirit of the original Buddhist scriptures, which does not adhere strictly to the form or word order of the original. The problems of free translation and literal translation run through the whole development of the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The general process is: literal translation is mainly employed at the beginning; literal translation and free translation are competed at the development stage; the two reached harmony at the peak of Buddhist translation(Sun Shanshan 2014, 174).

In the present paper, I shall discuss the development of translation in Chinese Buddhist scriptures from three periods. The first period is from the late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty. The representative translators during this period are An Shigao, Zhi Chen and Zhi Qian. Among them An Shigao and Zhi Chen advocate literal translation, while Zhi Qian supports free translation. The second period from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty. The representative translators during this period are Shi Daoan and Kumarajiva. Shi Daoan proposes that translation should be carried out literally and raised the theory of “five losses and three difficulties”. Kumarajiva opposes to precise literal rendering and argued that the translation of Buddhist scriptures should be concise and elegant and meet the language habits of Chinese readers. The third period is the Tang Dynasty, and the representative translator in this age is Xuan Zang. Xuan Zang holds that translation “must be truthful and intelligible to the populace”.

=== The late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty ——Mainly Literal Translation ===
The development of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures starts from the end of Eastern Han Dynasty. With the success of the Silk Road, Buddhism was introduced to China. At the beginning, it was not widely accepted by Chinese society due to language barrier. Therefore, it is of great necessity to translate Buddhist scriptures into Chinese, so that it can be read, comprehended and accepted by Chinese people. The representative translators during this period are An Shigao, Zhi Chen and Zhi Qian. The first two were the masters of the literal translation school.

==== An Shigao ====
An Shigao lived from 148-180 CE. According to legend, he was a prince of Parthia (modern Iran). He gave up being a prince to become a Buddhist missionary monk in China. Soon after he arrived China, he quickly possessed a good knowledge of Chinese and started to translate Buddhist Scriptures into Chinese. He translated 35 Buddhist Scriptures in total, of which main content was the basic doctrines and method of cultivation of Theravada Buddhism. Compared to other contemporaneous translators, “An Shigao’s translation can more accurately convey the original meaning of the text. His translation is clear and appropriate. Generally speaking, he was the earliest representative of literal translator in China. His translation is mainly literal and respects the structure of the original text” ( Fang Yang 2013, 6). However, as An Shigao was the earliest group of Buddhist scripture translators, “there is no precedents to follow, some terms in the translation are not easy to understand, and the structure of some original sentence are different from that of Chinese, therefore there are some repetitions and inversions in his translation” (Yang Chaobiao 2012, 78).

==== Zhi Chen ====
Zhi Chen, entering China at about 167 CE, was the first monk who introduced Mahāyāna Buddhism to China. He was proficient in Chinese and translated a large number of Buddhist scriptures. Most of them are about Mahayana Buddhism. With the translation of An Shigao as reference, Zhi Chen accumulated a certain amount of experience in wording and phrasing, so his translation can be relatively fluent and preserve the original meaning as much as possible. Besides, “Transliteration are often employed in his translation”(Zhang Yuwei 2019, 115). Therefore he was also regarded as one of the representatives of literal translators. However, due to the limitation of the time, Zhi Chen, just as same as An Shigao and other comtemporay translators, his translation about some terms are obscure and unclear.

==== Zhi Qian ====
Zhi Qian, also known as Zhi Yue, was a Buddhist scripture translator during the Three Kingdoms period. He was the author of The Dhammapada Sequence, which is said to be the first essay on translation in China. He opposed to the previous translation which focuses on the literal meaning of the text while ignoring the elegance of translation. He argued that translation should be easy to understand and the language should be smooth. Zhiqian was the first person in ancient China to systematize and theorize translation. “Zhi Qian’s preface is the first work whose purpose is express an opinion about translation practice”(Ma Zhuyi 1988). He broke the routine of literal translation, pursued the elegance of words, and advocated both free translation and Literal translation, which played a very important role in the improvement of the later translation of the Buddhist scriptures.

==== The Characteristics of This Period ====
(1) The translation of Buddhist scriptures were mostly completed by foreign monks. During this period, Buddhism has just been introduced to China, for this reason there are very few native monks who really know Buddhist scriptures. In the other hand, in order to propagate Buddhism, these foreign monks had to take on translating Buddhist scriptures in the early days.

(2)The dominant translation principle was faithfulness at that time. On the one hand, the translators are almost devout religious believers. “Religious scriptures seem to be the sacred “ will of God ”, which is unalterable. Any amplification, deletion or modification in the translation process of religious scriptures can be seen as a blasphemy against God” (Xiong Hui 2013, 67). Therefore, translators mainly adopted the translation method of literal translation, which demonstrates the sincere religious beliefs of translators and preserves the sanctity of religious scriptures.

On the other hand, in the early days of Buddhism, foreign monks were not proficient in Chinese, and Chinese monks were not proficient in Sanskrit. Early translators lack bilingual ability and translation experience, therefore they can only translate word for word. Besides, since there is no previous translation to refer to, some Buddhist terms do not have an authoritative and fixed explanation, and some expressions cannot be found its counterpart in Chinese, therefore they can only be translated literally. Literal translation was highly proposed by An Shigao and Zhi Chen. Until the Three Kingdoms period, Zhi Qian pursued the elegance of words, which broke the routine of literal translation.

(3)Taoist language is often used in translation. “When Buddhism was firstly introduced to China, Taoism, as the native religion of China, was in its prevalence. As a foreign religion, Buddhism have to be attached to Taoism to facilitate the spread the new doctrine in China” (Meng Yue 2017, 306). Therefore, a large number of Buddhist concepts were interpreted by analogy with indigenous ideas, such as Taoist.

=== the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty—Transition from literal translation to free translation ===
The second historical period,from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, is the stage of development. At this period, Buddhism was gradually accepted by Chinese people. Buddhism believer is not limited to the royal family and nobleman, but also includes common people. The representative translators during this period are Shi Daoan and Kumarajiva.

====Shi Daoan ====
Shi Daoan (314-385), who was an eminent monk. In addition to his efforts for developing a disciplinary code for Chinese monastic communities, he was also known for his translation and commentaries on the scriptures. Shi Daoan proposed that translation should be carried out literally without any amplification or omission, advocating “translation according to the original features”. However, Shi didn’t stick to the literal translation that strictly. He raised the theory of “five losses and three difficulties”.

“‘Five Losses of Source Texts’ discusses the problems of word order, work or essence, detail or simplification.As for the word order of the First Loss of Source Texts, Daoan clearly advocates the inversion.As for the Second Loss of Source Texts, Daoan proposes to choose work or essence translation according to readers' level and different styles and advocates taking advantages of two schools in order to translate Chinese Buddhist Scriptures better. As for the simplication or detail of the Third, Fourth and Fifth Loss of Source Texts, Daoan thinks the trivial, repeated eulogy, ode and conclusion words should be deleted generally except for the translation of Buddhist discipline."Three Difficulties in Translation" discusses the factors of times, readers and translators that Buddhist Scripture translation faces.It is these three factors that result in the difficulties of translating Chinese Buddhist Scriptures”(Fang Ruifen 2012, 385). “Five losses” means to allow the translation to be different from the original in grammar, rhetoric and structure, so as to conform to the language habits of Chinese people. “Three difficulties” requires that translators should be able to strike a balance betwen styles, intelligence, and time.

The main contribution of Dao’an to the translation of Buddhist scriptures is the creation and organization of translation workshop. Before Dao’an, the translation were usually finished by private. He set up a translation workshop, ushering in the period of translation on a large scale. And a State Translation School was founded for this purpose. Besides, he invites some translators from India as well. From then on, translation has become an organized activity.

==== Kumarajiva ====
Another representative translator Kumarajiva, who has enjoyed a high reputation in the long history of the Buddhist sutras translation，was well - renowned and was called as " the first class master of translation" by Liang Qichao. He advocated free translation and getting rid of the shortcomings of transliteration. He was one of the four great translators of ancient China, one of the three great translators of Buddhist scriptures, who translated 39 volumes. He was proficient in both Chinese and Sanskrit languages, and advocated that as long as the translation does not violate the original meaning, there is no need to follow the original form.

“Kumarajiva revolutionized Chinese Buddhism, in clarity and overcoming the previous "geyi" (concept-matching) system of translation through use of Daoist and Confucian terms”(Nattier 1992, 186). He argued that “geyi” is the culprit of the deformation of Indian Buddhism after it was introduced into China. “He completely abandoned interpreting Buddhist concept by using Daoist and Confucian terms, and has worked hard to create Buddhist terms, so that the translation is more faithful to the original” (Ma Zhuyi 1982, 25).

Kumarajiva opposed to precise literal rendering, because he held that Sanskrit and Chinese are two quite different language. “In the original there is attention to aesthetics, but the sense of beauty and the literary form (dependent on the particularities of Sanskrit) are lost in translation. It is like chewing up rice and feeding it to people”(Ma Zhuyi 1988). He argued that the translation of Buddhist scriptures should be concise and elegant and meet the language habits of Chinese readers, so that Buddhists can better understand and accept the translated scriptures. He tried to use concise text that conformed to Chinese expression habits, while retaining the exotic taste so that readers could understand and accept easily. Kumarajiva did not stick to the form of the original, and often delete the repetitive content. Therefore, his translation style was distinctive, possessing a flowing smoothness.

Another remarkable achievement is his contribution to the translation workshop. After he arrived at Chang'an, he began to organize translation workshops.With his efforts, the number of translators increased greatly, and the division of labor was detailed.The entire translation process includes interpretation, recording, correcting and proofreading. After group discussion, the quality of translation has been greatly improved. In addition, in order to be responsible for the Buddhist scriptures translated, Kumarajiva was the first translator to propose that the translator should signature over his translation in the Chinese history.

==== The Characteristics of This Period ====
(1)From folk and personal translation to official and collective translation. At the beginning, the translation of Buddhist scriptures was a private activity. Generally a foreign monk recited the Buddhist scriptures and brought it to China. Then the translator interpreted the scriptures into Chinese, and another person recorded it. That’s the whole process of the translation of Buddhist scriptures at the early days. During the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, translation workshop was organized. Famous translators such as Shi Daoan and Kumarajiva both had presided over translation workshop. From then on, individual translation behavior gradually developed into a collective translation activity. During this period, with the support of the government, the number of translators has greatly increased, and the division of labor has become more detailed. Therefore, the quality of translation has also been greatly improved. “In addition, the function of translation workshop is not limited to translate Buddhist scriptures, but also give lectures and hold debates. Many translators who preside over the translation field not only translate, but also give lectures about Buddhism” ( Fang Yang 2013, 14).

(2)From adopting the source text version of the Northern barbarian tribes in ancient China to that of Sanskrit. Before the Eastern Jin Dynasty, the version of Hun (Chinese northern nomads) were usually taken as the original text by translators. Afterwards, the Sanskrit texts were introduced to the China, translators could take them as the original text. The accuracy of the translation was improved greatly. On the other hand, since there were more Sanskrit texts, they had more options of the type of scripture to be translated. Also the systemic nature of the translation has also increased.

(3)Breakthroughs in translation theories and skills. During this period, many famous translators have put forward their opinions on translation theory. Based on his translation practice, Shi Daoan raised the theory of “five losses and three difficulties”. Kumarajiva advocated free translation. He is the first one to raise the question of how to express the stylistic and linguistic interest of the original text, which had a great influence on translation history. From the Eastern Jin Dynasty to the end of the Sui Dynasty, there were many famous translators who put forward different translation theories and opinions, which had a greater impact on the practice of translation.

(4)A tool for class oppression. The rulers from the Eastern Jin Dynasty to the Sui Dynasty took Buddhism as a tool of class oppression. In the South of China, the society is stable, so the noble class of South China was arrogant and lavish, and metaphysics was prevailed among them. Therefore Buddhism and metaphysics were combined, and rulers interpret Buddhist theories from the perspective of metaphysics. The translation of Buddhist scriptures was also influenced by this prevailing ethos. However, the Northern Dynasty advocated Confucianism. Due to frequent wars and limited economic development, the rulers of Northern China turned to Buddhism and took Zen as their guide. Therefore Buddhism naturally combined with Confucianism, and Zen became the mainstream of Buddhism in the Northern Dynasty. The translation of Zen classics meets the needs of the ruling class and Buddhists in the Northern Dynasty. “Buddhism, as a tool for the government to consolidate their reign, has been stained with a strong political color”(Wang Yan 2012, 158).

=== Tang Dynasty ===
The third historical period is the Tang Dynasty. During this period, Buddhism developed vigorously. In order to consolidate their regime, the emperor of Tang Dynasty also valued Buddhism very much, to domesticate his people together with the help of Chinese traditional ritual. Therefore the ruling class attached great importance to the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The Chinese translation of Buddhist scriptures reached its peak. And the representative translator in this age was Xuan Zang. Xuan Zang tried many translation methods and developed his epoch-marking criterion that “translation ‘must be truthful and intelligible to the populace’”（Ma Zhuyi 1980, 18). In a sense, Xuan Zang, with such a formula, was trying to have the best of two worlds—literal translation and free translation.

==== Xuang Zang ====
Xuanzang (600-664), a famous monk in the Tang Dynasty, is commonly known as the " Sanzang Rabbi." On the third year of Zhenguan of Tang Emperor Taizong, he left for Dunhuang from Chang'an, and then arrived in India. He returned to Chang'an in the nineteenth year, and traveled for seventeen years. Through hard work, he brought back more than 650 Sanskrit verses. The number and variety are both unprecedented. He presided over the translation work of seventy-five parts, 1,335 volumes, accounting for more than half of the total number of new Buddhist scriptures in the Tang Dynasty. “Therefore, he was called by the Indian scholar Bai Letian as ‘No.1 translator in the history of translation’”（Ma Zhuyi 1980, 18).

In the process of translating the scriptures, Xuanzang proposed the principle of “Five Untranslatable Situations”: First, with secret. The words with mystery are not translated, as there are many spells in the Buddhist scriptures. For example, if the "Doroni" is translated, it will lose its special meaning, so it will lose its magic. Second, with multiple meaning. The ambiguous Sanskrit will not be translated. For example, the word "bhaga" has six meanings( comfortable, flourishing, dignity, name, lucky, esteemed), so the original text is reserved for transliteration. Third, with no counterpart in China. the concept of things which are not found in the original culture of translation will not be translated. For example, the "jumbu tree" in Buddhism is a tree unique to India, which does not grow in China, therefore using transliteration. Fourth, with the ancients. the customary words should follow the habit of transliteration. If the ancients have translated some Buddhist special words, such as "Aunt Bodhi", although they can be translated, cause confusion. It is best to use the ancient translation rather than a new translation. Fifth, with Good fortune. “The word in the original Sanskrit language can also be found in Chinese with a similar meaning, but they are not strictly same as having many differences in connotation. Such word can not be translated”( He Zizhang 2008, 66). Such as "prajna" respect, "wisdom" is light and shallow. “The word "Untranslatable" here does not mean not translating, but rather "not intended to translate", using transliteration”( Jian Xue 2018, 28).

==== The Characteristics of This Period ====
(1) The translators were mainly domestic monks. With the strong support of the rulers of Tang Dynasty, the Chinese translators had the opportunity to go to India and other countries to learn Sanskrit and Buddhism. Through long-term study, these translators were not only proficient in Sanskrit but also had a deep understanding of Buddhism. “Besides, in order to meet the needs of translation, Yijing wrote the Sanskrit textbook which means that translators have been able to learn Sanskrit in China” ( Fang Yang 2013, 14). The number of Chinese monks who were proficient in Sanskrit has gradually increased, and the translation work did not need to turn to foreign monks.

(2) Fewer excerpts translation yet more complete translations. Due to the attention and support of the rulers, the translators have the access to the pilgrimage to India to find out more about Buddhist scripture. Besides, the improvement of the quality of translators and the perfection of the system of translation workshop also make such large translation.

(3) Further improvement of the translation workshop system. Compared with the translation workshop of the previous stage, that of Tang Dynasty was more all-sided in organization. “According to records, the translation workshop of the Tang Dynasty had as many as 11 departments”( Xiu Wenqiao 2008, 32). Each part was under the charge of different people. The monks worked in the translation workshop are all knowledgeable and skilled in translation, and many of them were rabbis appointed by the court.

(4) The peak of Buddhist scripture translation in Chinese history. Many outstanding translators emerged during this period, such as Xuanzang, Yijing and Bukong etc. The four major translators in the Chinese translation history of Buddhist scripture are Kumarajiva, Zhenti, Xuanzang, and Bukong. Two of them are from the Tang Dynasty.

(5) The translation scripts were more faithful to original texts. Because Xuanzang and other translators traveled long distances to search for the Buddhist scriptures, they brought back many Sanskrit classics, which created better conditions for the monks to learn Sanskrit and the original Buddhist scriptures. Therefore they trained a large number of excellent translators, and greatly improved the quality of the translation. Xuan Zang advocated that that translation should be faithful to the original style. He believed that if the original language is elegant and the translation should also be elegant , but if the original style is simple, the translation should be the same.

=== The Influence of the Translation of Buddhist Scriptures ===
The translation of Buddhist scriptures has been developed in China for more than two thousands of years with great impacts on Chinese language and civilization. At the aspect of language, it has promoted the development of Chinese phonology, expanded the Chinese vocabulary, enriched the way of Chinese word formation, accelerated the process of Chinese diphones, and promoted the colloquialization of Chinese.

The influence of Buddhist scripture translation on Chinese was mainly manifested in phonology. The “Buddhist scriptures were originally written in Sanskrit and Central Asian languages, both of which belong to phonetic alphabet , while Chinese characters developed from hieroglyphs, and there was no such thing as alphabet at first”( Hou Lixiang 2016, 14). After Buddhism was introduced to China, some people began to use Sanskrit to assist in learning Chinese pronunciation. The principles and methods of Sanskrit phoneticization promote the development of Chinese phonology. Therefore, Buddhism can be said to have laid the foundation for the formation of Chinese pinyin.

“In the process of translating Buddhist scriptures, the original Chinese vocabulary could not meet the needs of translation, therefore new Chinese words were created through transliteration and free translation”( Hou Lixiang 2016, 14). In the history of the translation of Buddhist scriptures, Zhi Chen advocated transliteration, and Xuanzang proposed the principle of “Five Untranslatable Situations”, which state five cases to use transliteration. Therefore the loanwords from Buddhism came into China, which greatly enriched Chinese vocabulary. “Through careful analysis, linguists have made a conclusion that about 35,000 words in Chinese come from Buddhist scripture”(Du Aixian 2000, 49). Some are directly related to Buddhism, such as “Buddha”, “monk”, “ Dharma", "Sutra” etc; some are words that we don’t realize, such as "memory", "world", "now", "causality", "attachment", "emptiness", "reality" and so on. In addition, many four-character idioms remaining in modern Chinese have the color of Buddhism, and a large number of four-character idioms appeared after the Wei and Jin Dynasty. Such as “drop one's cleaver and become a Buddha”(放下屠刀, 立地成佛), “While the priest climbs a post, the devil climbs ten” (道高一尺, 魔高一丈 ).

The translation of Buddhist scriptures has been considered the main element which led to the double-syllable tendency of Chinese words, and also made the patterns of word-formation more perfect. “According to the research, words in ancient times are mainly monosyllable, and the process of disyllabic Chinese was very slow before the Wei and Jin Dynasties, but since the translation of Buddhist scriptures became popular at that time, the double-syllable tendency of Chinese words greatly accelerated”(Sun Yan 2015, 120). Therefore, the translation of Buddhist scriptures are supposed to be the main motive.

In order to convey the thoughts of Buddhist scriptures more clearly, many terms need to be translated into colloquial language, which is difficult to express by the original Chinese monosyllabic words. The oralized trends of the translation of the Buddhist scriptures have imposed great impacts on various kinds of colloquial literature styles, and also highly related to the terasyllabic words in the colloquial novels.

=== Conclusion ===
The Chinese translation of Buddhist scriptures has gone through three different historical periods. And different social conditions have also resulted in different strategies of sutra translation. At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, when Buddhism was first introduced to China, Taoism was dominant in the Chinese society and the translator was not proficient in both Sanskrit and Chinese. Therefore, literal translation, and transliteration were mainly employed during this period. During Wei and Jin Dynasties, Buddhism developed to a certain extent. Most translators were proficient in Sanskrit and Chinese, which made free translation possible. And in order to spread Buddhism, Buddhists adopt free translation strategies to make Buddhist scriptures more acceptable. During the Sui and Tang dynasties, in order to consolidate their own regime, government strongly supported the translation of Buddhist scriptures. Literal translation and free translation were in harmony during this period, thus the translation of Buddhist scriptures reached its peak.

The translation of Buddhist scriptures has been exerted great influences on Chinese language. It has promoted the development of Chinese phonology, expanded the Chinese vocabulary, enriched the way of Chinese word formation, accelerated the process of Chinese diphones, and promoted the colloquialization of Chinese.

By reviewing the development process of Buddhist scripture translation, and summarizing the characteristics of each stage, we can have a clear understanding of Buddhism translation from a macro perspective. Through learning the main achievements and growth experience of important translators, we can learn more translation strategies and do better in our own translation practice.

The translation of Buddhist scriptures occupies an important position in the history of Chinese translation and has had a significant impact on Chinese language and culture. Therefore, it is necessary for us to go back to the source, review the development of Translation in Chinese Buddhist Scriptures, learn the main achievements of important translators, and further study the representative theory of Buddhist scripture translation

=== References ===
Nattier, Jan. (1992).The Heart Sutra: A Chinese Apocryphal Text?. Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies (2) 153-223

Meng Yue孟悦. (2017). 中国佛经翻译发展史综述[A Summary of the History of Chinese Sutra Translation].外语教育与翻译发展创新研究 Innovative Research on Foreign Language Education and Translation Development 305-308

Sun Shanshan孙珊珊. (2014).从翻译批评的多重视角看佛经翻译的文质观[On the Wenzhi of Sutra Translation from the Multiple Perspectives of Translation Criticism].青年作家Young Writers (16)173-174.

Fang Yang方阳. (2013). 东汉至唐代的佛经翻译研究[A Study of the Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from Eastern Han Dynasty to Tang Dynasty]. 河北大学 Hebei University

Yang Chaobiao杨超标. (2012). 论安世高的译学思想和翻译方法[Exploration on Ashigao’s Translation Thought and Translation Ways].温州大学学报Journal of Wenzhou University (05) 78-83.

Zhang Yuwei张雨薇. (2019). 汉唐时期佛经汉译及其特点[The Chinese Translation of Buddhist Sutras and their Featuresduring Han to Tang Dynasties].中州学刊 Academic Journal of Zhongzhou (02)114-118.

Xiong Hui熊辉. (2013). 古代中西方宗教典籍翻译策略的相似性分析[On the Similarity of Translation Strategies to Ancient Chinese and Western Religious Scripture].西华大学学报Journal of Xihua University (01) 67-70.

Ma Zhuyi. 马祖毅. (1998). 中国翻译简史[A Brief Introduction to the History of Translation in China].中国对外翻译出版公司 China Foreign Translation Press

Wang Dongping, Fang Ruifen. 汪东萍,方瑞芬. (2012). 释道安“五失本、三不易”翻译思想评析[Comment on Shi Daoan's Translation Thought of "Five Losses of Source Texts and Three Difficulties in Translation"].安徽师范大学学报Journal of Anhui Normal University(03) 385-390.

WangYan.王焱. (2012). 中国古代佛经翻译的政治化[The Politicalization of the Ancient Chinese Sutra Translation].学术交流 Academic Exchange (05)156-159.

Ma Zhuyi.马祖毅. (1982). 佛经翻译家鸠摩罗什[Buddhist Translator Kumarajiva].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (03) 24-25.

Ma Zhuyi.马祖毅. (1980).伟大的佛经翻译家玄奘[The Great Buddhist Translator Xuan Zang].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (02) 18-19.

He Zizhang.何子章. (2008). 玄奘“五不翻”原则的现实意义[On Practicability of “The Transliteration in the Five Cases” Suggested by Xuan Zang].襄樊学院学报Journal of Xiangfan University(10) 65-69.

Xiu Wenqiao修文乔. (2008). 论权力对翻译的影响—从意识形态角度解读唐朝佛经翻译[Analysis of the Impact of Power on Translation—Interpreting Sutra Translation in Tang Dynasty from the Ideological Point of View].广东外语外贸大学学报Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies(01) 30-34+43.

Hou Lixiang.侯丽香. (2016) 从文化传播的视角看佛经翻译对中国语言文化的影响[The Influence of Sutra Translation on Chinese Language and Culture from the Perspective of Cultural Transmission].英语广场English Square (03)13-15.

Du Aixian.杜爱贤. (2000). 谈谈佛经翻译对汉语的影响[On the Influence of Sutra Translation on Chinese].世界宗教文化The World Religious Cultures (02) 48-49.--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 05:11, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==An Analysis of the Books of ''Translation，History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Thoughts'' 成于思 Cheng Yusi ==
<center>成于思 Cheng Yusi No.202020080598 比较文学与跨文化研究</center>

==='''Abstract'''===
André Lefevere’s ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and Liu Miqing’s ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'' are two books concerning translation principles and translation theories from the perspective of culture. This paper consists of three parts. In part one, after a brief introduction of ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', the paper is about to give an analysis of the excerpts about John Dryden’s three types of translation and the comparison of “translator and author to slave and master” and illustrate them with several reasons. Then, the author will present other scholars' appraisals of this book. The second part will briefly introduce Liu Miqing's ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'',then it will make a comparison between the characteristics of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation based on chapter two and chapter three. Finally, it will display some scholars' evaluation of the book. In the third part, the paper will make a comparison of these two books to deepen readers' understanding of them.

===Key words===

André Lefevere; ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook''; Liu Miqing; ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles''; “cultural turn”; John Dryden; translation principles

===题目===
《翻译，历史与文化论集》与《中西翻译思想对比研究》的比较分析

===摘要===
安德烈·勒菲弗尔的《翻译，历史和文化论集》和刘宓庆的《中西翻译思想对比研究》均是关于翻译思想和翻译理论研究的作品。两本书均从文化视角对翻译思想进行研究。本文第一部分将对《翻译，历史和文化论集》进行简要介绍，体现勒菲弗尔“文化转向”的观点，并节选其中摘录的英国诗人约翰·德莱登的片段进行重点论述，分析其翻译方法和”作者-译者主仆论”，并进行原因说明，以体现《翻译，历史和文化论集》一书的主旨，然后对本书进行简要的评价。第二部分将对《中西翻译思想对比研究》进行简述，针对第二章和第三章的内容，对中西方翻译传统的特点进行对比。然后收集相关学者对此书的评价。在第三部分中，笔者将对上述两本书进行内容和形式上的对比，帮助读者更好地理解这两本书。

===关键词===

安德烈·勒菲弗尔;《翻译，历史和文化论集》; 刘宓庆;《中西翻译思想对比研究》;文化转向;约翰·德莱登;翻译原则

===1.Introduction===
This paper presents the author’s understanding of the two books: ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles''. After a brief introduction of these two books, this paper is intended to focus on the analysis of important translation principles and make a comparison of these two books in content and form. This paper will be divided into three parts.

In part one, after a brief introduction of the book ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', it will concentrate on John Dryden’s three types of translation: metaphrase, paraphrase and imitation, and briefly appraise it. Then it will extend Dryden’s views on translator’s position. Dryden's comparison of a translator to a slave exactly reflects the dominant thought about translator in the classical period. Some scholars study the thought of comparing a translator with a slave and discover that besides the representative of literal circles like Dryden, it also prevailed among modern linguistics and the school of translation studies. (Niu Yunping, 2014) Then, the author is about to explain why “comparing a translator to a slave” predominates in the history of western translation to support Lefevere’s “cultural turn”. Finally, the author will present other scholars' evaluation of this book.

In part two, the author will give an introduction to the book ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'' in three sections due to the stout volume of this book. Then it will make a comparison between the characteristics of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation based on chapter two and chapter three. Through these chapters, we can comprehend Liu Miqing’s purpose to publish this book. Also, we can find the uniqueness of Chinese translation theories, thus appealing to Chinese and the world for a deep understanding of Chinese culture. Liu Miqing pointed out that the analysis of the characteristics of Chinese translation theory is by no means to boast or to do publication but to do a self-examination. He hoped that through a full analysis of the “being-in-itself” Chinese theories, we could find out the weak points that hinder them in their way to “being-for-itself”. (Liu Miqing 2005. 72) Finally, the author will show some scholars’ appraisals of this book.

In part three, it intends to give a brief comparison of these two books in contents and forms.

All in all, this paper is written in hope that the readers can understand these two books better and provoke their thought about these two books.

===2. Analysis of ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''===

''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', edited by American translation theorist and the foremost representative of Translation Studies---André Lefevere in 1992, is a collection of seminal statements of thinking about literary translation in Western Europe, spanning twenty centuries from 106 BC to 1931 AD. "Lefevere's later work on translation and culture in many ways represents a bridging point to the 'cultural turn'."(Munday 2016,199) As such, ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' serves as good proof of the "cultural turn" of translation proposed by Translation Studies.

In general editor's preface of this book, Lefevere and Bassnett displayed their intention to edit this book---to reflect the current development of Translation Studies. They redefined translation as "a rewriting of an original text". Here, they explained that "rewritings reflect a certain ideology and a poetics and manipulate literature to function in a given society in a given way. Rewriting is manipulation, undertaken in the service of power, and in its positive aspect can help in the evolution of a literature and a society." (Lefevre 2003, xi) According to these concepts, Lefevere aims to declare the central function of translation as a shaping force.

In the preface of the book, Lefevere looked back to the tradition of translation in western Europe and concluded that the previous discussion of translation was exclusive to language, failing to deal with the complexity of the translation. Therefore, he proposed that the study of translation needs a deep exploration for cultural studies. (Lefevre 2003, xiii)

Such an idea was envisaged at the backdrop of the stagnancy of linguistics in the 1970s and the emergence of Translation Studies in 1976, thus promoting the trend of the "cultural turn". The "cultural turn" was officially termed by Mary Snell-Hornby, meaning the move from translation as text to translation as culture and politics in her paper collected in the book ''Translation, History and Culture'' in 1990, whose publication was valued as the declaration of "cultural turn" of translation studies. (Lefevere and Bassnett 1990, 1-13)

If the book ''Translation, History and Culture'' is regarded as the anticipation and elaboration of Lefevere and Bassnett's thoughts of "cultural turn", ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', with abundant case studies, is proved to be a good illustration of their thoughts.

The collected excerpts are arranged in eight themes, including The Role of Ideology, The Power of Patronage, Poetics, Universe of Discourse, Translation, The Development of Language and Education, The Technique of Translating, Central Texts and Central Cultures and The Longer Statements, which is an extension of the former seven themes. Such an exclusive arrangement is intended to highlight the importance of translation thinking, to effectively illustrate the constraints imposed on translation, to discuss the position of culture, the role translation plays in education, and to give out technique of translating concerning translation practice, thus dwarfing the traditional chronological arrangement. (Lefevre 2003, xiv)

I enjoy reading this book because it brings those aloof and remarkable scholars closer to us. After reading their original words, they seem to appear fresh and narrate their feelings of being translators. Through reading the scholar's letters or their original statements, we can review their thoughts on the basis of our understanding, rather than be crammed with so-called essential yet monotonous principles summarized by others.

I read translators' inferiority in Dryden's words and admire Cicero's courage to assert free translation to defend the privilege of translators. He said that "I decided to take speeches written in Greek by great orators and to translate them freely… I could not only make use of the best expressions in common usage with us, but I could also coin new expressions, analogous to those used in Greek". (Lefevere 2003, 47)

In this part, I will analyze John Dryden's three types of translation and his comparison of "an author and a translator" to "a master and a slave" through the excerpts collected in ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''.(Lefevere 2003, 24;102-105)

Translation deals with authority and power. A translator rewrites or manipulates the original text in service of power. (Lefevere 2003,2) The role a translator plays in translation depends on the power he is submissive to. In this part, the author analyzes Dryden’s comparison of "author and translator" to "master and slave" in hope for an exploration of the reasons of the translator’s inferiority in translation. It is believed that ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' is written to stress the function of translation as a shaping force.(Lefevere 2003, xii) Therefore, the discussion of Dryden's views on translator can reflect part of the intention of the book ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''.

Lefevere extracts two statements by Dryden and relatively places them in Chapter Two---The Power of Patronage, and Chapter Eight---Longer Statements. In chapter eight, Lefevere extracts an excerpt from the preface to Dryden's translation of Ovid's Epistles published in 1680. (Lefevere 2003, 102)

In the preface, Dryden proposes three methods of translation. First, metaphrase, or word-by-word translation. Second, paraphrase, or translation with latitude, where the author is kept in view by the translator, so as never to be lost, but his words are not so strictly followed as his sense; and that too is admitted to be amplified, but not altered. Third, imitation, the translator assumes the liberty, not only to vary from the words and sense but to forsake them both as he sees occasion; and taking only general hints from the original, to run division on the groundwork, as he pleases. (Lefevere 2003, 102)

Dryden argues that when it comes to metaphrase, the translator is encumbered with many difficulties. Not only should he consider the thought of his author, his word, and find out counterpart to each in another language, but he could be confined by the rhyme as well. In Dryden's vivid simile, translating poems in such a way is like "dancing on ropes with fettered legs". The dancer needs to be cautious of falling, so it is hard to expect gracefulness of motion of him. (Lefevere 2003, 103)

Therefore, if a poem is translated word by word, its sense will be harmed, not to mention its elegance. He defined imitation "to be an endeavor of a later poet to write like one who has written before him, on the same subject; that is, not to translate his words, or to be confined to his sense, but only to set him as a pattern, and to write, as he supposes that author would have done, had he lived in our age and in our country".(Lefevere 2003, 103)

As such, the translator needn't care about the author's elaborative use of words or subtle spirit, but to write a poem in the author's style as if he were alive. The translator can add or diminish as he likes to express his own thoughts, however, Dryden argued that through imitation, the work is no longer to be called the author's work, but a new produced one, which does express the translator's talent but spoils the reputation of the dead. Therefore, literal translation and imitation, two extremes, should be avoided. (Lefevere 2003, 103)

Dryden proposes a mean betwixt them --- to paraphrase, or to translate with latitude. "tis time to look into ourselves, to conform our genius to his, to give his thought either the same turn, if our tongue will bear it, or if not, to vary but the dress, not to alter or destroy the substance".(Lefevere 2003, 104)

It is best to convey the thought of the poet. And the words that the translator adapt need to make confession to the thought if they are unable to bear it, except for the original words that appear literally graceful, which is believed to be kept to maintain the delicacy of the poem. Nevertheless, due to the properties of different languages, Dryden supposed that "he may stretch his chain to such a latitude".(Lefevere 2003, 105) In conclusion, a translator can be allowed liberty for the expression, but the sense of an author is to be respected against violation.

Dryden's three types of translation broke the dominance of two types of translation in the tradition of Western translation. Before that, literal translation and free translation were considered to be two methods of translation, thus promoting the history of Western translation. Besides, Dryden pioneered to propose a systematic method of the translation of poetry in the West. Thus, it is widely accepted that his translation principles are enlightening and have exerted influence on translation studies and practice. (Chou Huifang, 2019)

However, in Chapter Two, in "Dedication" to his translation of the Aeneid, Dryden argues that "We are bound to our author's sense, though with the latitudes already mentioned".(Lefevere 2003, 24). He compares a translator to a slave and drudged to express his views on the role of translators. "But slaves we are, and labor in another man's plantation; we dress the vineyard, but the wine is the owner's; if the soil be sometimes barren, then we are not thanked, for the proud reader will only say, the poor drudge had done his duty." (Lefevere 2003, 24)

Dryden's words reflect the translator's inferiority and being belittled at the time of Classicism, which even exerts influence on the later Contemporary Linguistics and Translation Studies. In the history of Western translation theory, many translators and scholars, like Etienne Pasquier, Madame de La Fayette, Sir John Denham, Gaspar de Tende Daniel Huet, Charles Batteux, Mathew Arnold, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, the translators of linguistics and in 20th century and some scholars of Translation Studies, were spontaneously back to regard translators as the slaves and the authors the masters.(Niu Yunping, 2014)

A scholar concludes that under the influence of classicism the English cultural circle also showed their tribute to the "classical writers" of ancient Greek and Rome, and expressed their priority to reason, rules and balance. They believed that the classics were unsurpassable and the works were with the highest form. Therefore, the translators found that the author's overriding authority was beyond questions. (Niu Yunping, 2014)

Susan Basnett explained that both the hardening of nationalistic lines and the growth of pride in a national culture conspired to the situation where the translators no longer saw translation as a prime means of enriching their own culture. The elitist began to devaluate translation and disparaged translators as an instrument. (Basnett, 2004. 72-73)

About the value of this book, ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' is characterized by its abundant contents, which combines translation with history and cultural turn, thus providing referential materials for translation studies. With reference to Lefevere, many texts collected in this book were published in English for the first time, which served as an important supplement to the system of thinking on literary translation. (Lefevere 2003, xiii)

===3. Analysis of ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles''===

In this part, I attempt to analyze the content and the value of the book ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'', which was published in 2005. The book consists of a FAQ passage substituting the preface and fourteen chapters. It must highlight that Liu Miqing explains that "Sixiang" ("thought" in Chinese) refers to "principle" in the West in this book. (Liu Miqing 2005, 2)

In the FAQ passage, the author explained why he wrote this book. "I believe Chinese need to treat translation from the perspective of cultural strategy as our precedents did. This is the most basic and most important Chinese characteristics."(Liu Miqing 2005, i) It is to appeal to the Chinese and the world for a deep understanding of Chinese culture.

Then, it follows the analysis of this book. This book might be divided into three parts: part one, consisting of chapter one to six, discusses the tradition of Chinese translation studies. Part two, consisting of chapter seven to nine, which respectively illustrates the three origins of contemporary Western translation theories, Western contemporary translation principles and schools, and the limitations of contemporary Western translation theories. In part three, Liu illustrates the significance of Wittgenstein's philosophy to translation studies in chapter ten and eleven. And he respectively analyses Benjamin’s view on translation, the originality of translation, and translation is the transcendence of the original text in chapter twelve, thirteen, and fourteen. (Wang Jianguo, 2006)

The first part(from chapter one to six) discusses the tradition of Chinese translation studies. Liu Miqing illustrates the development of Chinese translation studies. With reference to Liu, Chinese translation has gone through three leaps. The first phase was to leap from religious translation to scientific translation. The second phase was marked by the translation activities and theories of Yan Fu and Ma Jianzhong( Liu Miqing 2005. 30) The third phase is from the 1970s to now, which means the breakthrough has yet to succeed. Then, Liu proposes that Chinese translation theory develops with culture as the principal strategy. (Liu Miqing 2005, 33)

He later concludes that there are four features of the tradition of Chinese translation: The cultural strategy; regulation to perfection, translation to perfection; focus on the meaning as well as the aesthetics; increase translators' awareness of subjectivity and stress their insight. It is owing to the integration of the above features that the Chinese translation principles are formed. (Liu Miqing 2005, 43)

The gist of Chinese contemporary translation principles is concluded into four points: to inspire the traditional fighting spirit of Chinese translation, and take rejuvenation of Chinese nation and multicultural development as the cultural strategy of the translation in the new era; to emphasize the meaning determination of discourses(or texts) in interlingual communication; to emphasize the optimization of TL representation of the discourses(or texts) in interlingual communication until it reaches the regulation perfection. (Liu Miqing 2005, 38-39)

Next, Liu makes a division and a comparison of the phases of the development of Chinese and Western translation, and pointed out the characteristics of the development of Chinese translation and the reasons that Chinese translation theory has its own characteristics and system. Based on Guoxue or Chinese classics, the Mohism, Liu emphasizes that it is necessary to explore and reassess Chinese national culture. (Liu Miqing 2005, 150)

Finally, the author summarizes a theoretical framework of the meaning of Chinese translation studies and suggests that we need to improve the old concept of "emphasis on meaning" and establish a new concept of "emphasis on the meaning in communication" (Liu Miqing 2005,179)

The second part is comprised of chapter seven, eight, and nine, which respectively illustrates the three origins of contemporary Western translation theories, Western contemporary translation principles and schools, and the limitations of contemporary Western translation theories. Liu argues that the contemporary Western principles are based on utilitarianism, notably the British and American culture. (Liu Miqing 2005, 288)

However, he also recognizes that the 1960s to 1970s has witnessed great progress in Western translation theory. Liu divides Western contemporary translation theory into several schools: Linguistic School, Functional School, Paraphrase School, Cultural Translation School, Postmodernism and Translation Theory, Psycho-cognitive Psychology School and New Literal Translation Theory. Liu points out that the Western translation focuses on the ends, the forms and the effects of communication, the functions of the translator, and emphasizes the translated text and the suppression of the alien culture reflected in the original work. (Liu Miqing 2005, 288)

Finally, Liu points out that Western translation theory is "technology-oriented", and he gives his reasons: first, the lack of compass of theories which can guide and support the development of the discipline; second, the ignoring of overall studies; third, the marginal position of meaning; fourth, the current superficial, assertive and rational views and remarks on theory; fifth, the lack of clarity and depth of the discourse of theory; sixth, the lack of academical criticism and self-criticism. (Liu Miqing 2005, 292-293)

The third part of this book expounds on the significance of Wittgenstein's philosophy to translation studies. Based on Wittgenstein's view of "translation and language game", Liu puts forward that "translation as an interlingual language game is the basic idea of the translation functionalism”. (Liu Miqing 2005, 402)

Next, I will analyze and compare the tradition of Chinese and western translation. Regarding Liu Miqing, Chinese translation still needs to regard culture as its strategy. (Liu Miqing 2005, i) This is the first and foremost characteristic of the tradition of Chinese translation. Since translation emerged in China, it has a close relation with culture, as evidenced by the translation of Buddhism. Such is the most distinctive feature between the tradition of Chinese and Western translation. (Liu Miqing 2005,44)

Chinese translation originated from religious translation, the translation of Buddhism. In 58 AD, during Emperor Ming's reign, Buddhism began to spread into China and symbolized the power and ideology of the nation, which involved in politics. Compared with Confucianism, Buddhism not only contains the ethics and social norms but also consists of a set of canons that reflect the integration of religion and politics in foreign countries. (Liu Miqing 2005,44) For instance, during the period of Sectarian Buddhism, in ''Pinimujing'', the religious disciplines compiled by Theravada Sect stipulated that the Buddhist doctrines must be submissive to the law. (Fang Litian, 1987)

Also, Buddhism was integrated with Chinese politics when it spread into China, which is exemplified in three aspects. Firstly, Buddhism justified the divinity of the feudal monarchy. Secondly, some eminent monks were invited to give counsel to the sovereign directly. For example, emperor Xiaowudi in the Song dynasty designated the monk Huilin to engage in the court. And later Huilin was called Prime Minister in Black, which generally refers to the remarkable monks who also engage in the court. Thirdly, the disciples of Buddhism, including "all is vanity", "being detached from worldly affairs" and "obedience" actually numbed the people to serve the sovereign, which was conducive to the feudal monarchy. (Fang Litian, 1987)

In the middle of the 19th century, the tradition of Chinese translation began to feature as the awareness of national hardship. Today, we are still struck by Yan Fu, Ma Jianzhong, Lin Shu, and other patriotic translators while learning their translation principles that were imprinted in their mission to save China from its plight. In the middle of the 20th century, the feature of the tradition of Chinese translation changes from the awareness of national hardship to national rejuvenation. (Liu Miqing 2005, 46)

As such, the flourishing of translation is bound to be our Chinese's responsibility. Compared to Chinese translation's cultural strategy, the Western translation boasts of its integrated translation, from the early translation of ancient Greek into Roman to the heyday in the 11th century. This not only promoted contact among different languages in Europe but also cleared the way to economic growth as well. Meanwhile, integrated translation has paved the way for European integration. (Liu Miqing 2005, 101)

The second characteristic of the tradition of Chinese translation is "regulation to perfection". After the disputes between literal translation and free translation in China, the method of translation finally consolidated to regulation to perfection in Xuanzang's translation theory. The following translators have carried on the thought, such as Yan Fu's Xingdaya, Fu Lei's Shensi theory and Qian Zhongshu's Huajing theory. Their translation principles are the regulation of literal translation and free translation, the content and the form, and the end and the effect. (Liu Miqing 2005, 50-51)

The Western translation also stresses meaning, but it pays more attention to the transformation of morphologic languages due to the identity of etymology, morphology, bilingual syntactic structure, the origin of literary and culture in Western languages. (Liu Miqing 2005, 101) Moreover, Western translation principles give priority to "Communicative Translation", which is implicit in Chinese translation principles. (Liu Miqing 2005,104)

The third characteristic is "the focus on meaning as well as aesthesis". Chinese translation balances meaning and aesthesis in binary opposition or tries to express the spirit and the feeling-tone of the original text on the basis of expressing meaning. Lin Yutang proposed that the spirit of the text is compacted in one word. (Liu Miqing 2005, 52)

Wang Guowei pointed out that the word "Nao" in the verse "Hong Xing Zhi Tou Chun Yi Nao" conveys the Jingjie of the whole poem.(Wang Guowei 2017,15) Therefore, if one attempts to translate Chinese poems, he needs to have aesthetic appreciation. Liu Miqing explains that Chinese is a language of sensibility, it expresses beauty through icons and images. That is why the tradition of Chinese translation concentrates on aesthesis. As such, we can see the strong intercourse between Chinese translation and philosophy and aesthetics, however, Western translation has been connected with linguistics, linguistic philosophic study, and hermeneutic studies. (Liu Miqing 2005,104)

Some scholars expressed their views on ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles''. Wang Jianguo claimed that the book was an excellent masterpiece. In this book, Liu compared Chinese and Western translation thoughts from the source. Both Liu's statements and arguments were astonishing. Liu used comparative methods to explore the source of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation studies, thus provoking scholars of Chinese translation studies to think about the value of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation studies. Besides, the book served as an example of innovation in translation studies. (Wang Jianguo, 2006)

Lu Wei and Li Defeng shed light on the topic "translation theories with Chinese characteristics" and argues that Liu Miqing's ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'' provides a methodology to explore the source of driving force for the construction of Chinese translation study. (Lu Wei, 2010)

===4. Comparison between the books of ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Thoughts''===

===4.1 From the aspect of the content===
Both of these two books discuss translation principles from the perspective of culture. They differ in their focus and approach. ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' concentrates on Western translation principles before contemporary translation studies. While ''A Comparative study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'' analyses Chinese as well as Western translation principles from their origins to this era. As to the approach, Lefevere analyzes translation principles through varied themes, while Liu Miqing makes a comparison of Chinese and Western translation principles.

Meanwhile, they boast their distinctive writing style. In ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', Lefevere almost leaves no personal remarks or views on these excepts apart from his justification of his classification in the introduction and the beginning of each chapter, thus making this book objective. Also, Liu extracts other translators’ essays, but he illustrates them in a detailed way, and even comments on a certain word, for example, he discusses the “latitude” proposed by John Dryden and questions “in which aspect can translators be given the latitude? How much could they get the latitude?” and so on. (Liu Miqing 2005, 8)

===4.2 From the aspect of the arrangement===

Both of these two books are arranged in theme rather than in a chronological way. Lefevere illustrates his classification of this book clearly and extracts abundant statements to rich his idea. He first divides the excerpts on size, and classifies the shorter into seven chapters, which are concerned with the constraints imposed on translation, the position of culture, the role translation played in education, and the technique of translating. As to the longer essays, they are collected in the last chapter.

Liu arranges his book differently. Due to the ample scope of ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'', which includs the characteristics, origins, schools and limitations of Chinese and Western translation, Liu not only quotes other’s statement, he also applies many tables to demonstrate his thoughts, which helps readers understanding translation principles.

===Conclusion===

In conclusion, the paper intends to help readers to have better understanding of the two books. After a brief introduction of these two books, there follows the analysis of John Dryden’s three types of translation and his comparison of a translator to a slave. Then, it figures out the reasons of the prevailing statement. Therefore, it helps the readers to grasp the core of this book. Meanwhile, this paper makes a short comparison of the characteristics of Chinese and Western translation in the hope of mutual learning. Also, it concludes the values of these two books. In the end, this paper hopes to provoke readers to think about the cultural influence on translation. Therefore, if one dreams to be a qualified translator, he needs to not only master translation skills and learn translation theories, he should but also immerse himself in the culture behind the source and target languages. As such, he can convey the feeling tone or the essence of the original text.--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 12:08, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

===References===
André Lefevere. (2003). ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''. Taylor & Francis e-library.

André Lefevere & Susan Bassnett. (1990). ''Translation, History and Culture''. London &New York: Pinter Publishers.

Chou Huifang仇芳慧. (2019). 从德莱顿“翻译三分法”谈诗译者的素质 [On Poetry Translators’ Qualification from the Perspective of Dryden’s Three Types of Translation].''北方文学'' Northern Literature (24):254-255.

Fang Litian方立天.(1987).佛教与中国政治 [Buddhism and Chinese Politics].''社会科学战线'' Social Science Front (02):113-122.

Jeremy Munday. (2016). ''Introducing Translation Studies'', Theories and Applications, Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group.

Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究''. [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.

Lu Wei, Li Defeng鲁伟,李德凤.(2010).中国特色的翻译学:误区还是必然?——兼评《中西翻译思想比较研究》[Translation Studies with Chinese Characteristics: A Misunderstanding or Inevitability? ——A Comment on A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. ''中国科技翻译'' Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal 23(02):11-14+29.

Niu Yunping, Yang XiuMing牛云平,杨秀敏.(2014). 西方译论中的作者—译者主仆. [Relationship of Author and Translator as Master and Servant in Western Translation Histories].''河北师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版)'' Journal of Hebei Normal University(Philosophy and Social Science) 37(05):92-97.

Wang Jianguo王建国.(2006). 简评《中西翻译思想比较研究》——兼谈译学学术创新 [A Short Comment on A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles——On the Academic Innovation of Translation Studies]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal 27(03):36-38.

Wang Guowei 王国维.(2017). ''人间词话''[Notes on Ci Poems in the World]. Beijing: The Chinese Overseas Publishing House 中国华侨出版社.

Suan Bassnett. (2004). ''Translation studies''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.

==The development and future trend of translation Theory 张慧 Zhang Hui 202070080622 英语笔译==

===Abstract===
This article briefly analyzes Chinese and Western translation theories, expounds the Chinese and Western translation theories in different periods and their historical origins, representatives and translation thoughts, and reveals their development characteristics and trends. Through the many phenomena presented by Chinese and Western translation theories, combined with the current specific economic and social situation and people’s needs, the translation theory is placed in a specific cultural context, looking forward to the development direction of contemporary Chinese and Western translation theories, and making reasonable prospects for it.
===Key Words===
Chinese and Western, translation theory, development, trend
===摘要===
本文对中西方翻译理论进行了简要的分析，阐述了不同时期的中西方翻译理论及其历史渊源，代表人物和译学思想，揭示了其发展特点和走向。通过中西方翻译理论呈现的诸多现象，结合当前具体经济社会形势和人们的需求，把翻译理论放到具体的文化语境中，展望当代中西方译论发展方向，对其做出合理的展望。
===关键词===
中西方，翻译理论，发展，趋势
===Introuction===
Translation theory occupies an important position in translation research, and the development of translation theory in China roughly corresponds to the history of translation. The history of translation is mainly divided into the following periods: the first is the ancient period from the translation of Buddhist scriptures to the translation of technology and religion in the Ming and Qing dynasties. The second is the translation theory in the late Qing Dynasty and early Republican period. The third is the Republican period.

Fourth is the period after the founding of the People’s Republic of China. Western translation theory has always been the focus of many scholars’ research, and the achievements and contributions made by China’s translation industry in recent decades in researching translation theory cannot be separated from the study and reference of Western translation theory. In this paper, we will introduce in detail the specific development and schools of Chinese and Western translation theories, and make a reasonable outlook on the development trend of translation theories, aiming to understand the history and look forward to the future.(Gentzler, Edwin.1993.)
===The Four Periods of Development of Chinese Translation Theory===

Ancient Translation Period

The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which lasted for thousands of years, left valuable theories for ancient translations. The Preface to the Dharma Sutra, written by Zhiqian during the Three Kingdoms period, pointed out that: "It is not advisable to pass on the different names and objects; nowadays it is easy to know, so do not lose the ease. He first mentioned that translation was not easy, which also reflected the views of the early qualitative school of translation. During the Eastern Jin Dynasty, Taoan put forward the idea of “five losses of originality and three difficulties,” pointing out that there were five situations in which translating Buddhist scriptures would lose its original features, and three situations determined the difficulty of translation.（Chen Fukang.2015.）

Kumarajiva, a monk from the Later Qin Dynasty, was the first to raise the question of how to express the style and interest of the original text. By the Tang Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures reached its peak. A large number of famous translators, represented by Xuanzhuang, emerged. He insisted on the principles of "seeking the truth" and "using the vulgar" in the translation process. He also established the principle of "five not to turn," which means: the secret reason, the reason containing many meanings, the reason without this reason, the reason to follow the ancient reason and the reason for the birth of good.（Chen Fukang.2015.）（quotation missing）--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 14:10, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

Translation of the Late Qing Dynasty and Early Republic of China

A group of European missionaries came to China one after another to conduct translation activities, mainly for missionary purposes, but also introduced Western academics. The most important achievement of this translation climax is the translation of some natural science works such as astronomy, mathematics, and machinery. Representatives of this stage are mainly Chinese scientist Xu Guangqi and Italian Ricci. The two of them worked together to translate the first six volumes of the famous Geometry Original. In addition, it is worth mentioning “Ma Shi Wen Tong” by linguist Ma Jianzhong, which is the first Chinese grammar book in Chinese history.（Chen Fukang.2015.）

Ma Jianzhong puts forward the “good translation theory”, which puts forward the essence, process and requirements of translation, emphasizing the completion of a book and repeated management. The translation must make the reader read the meaning that the translator must be proficient in the original text and the translated text, comparing the similarities and differences, The laws of the two languages are no different from viewing the original text. Besides,the representative figure of social science translation is Yan Fu, who has translated works such as Evolution and Ethics and Yuan Fu. These are the most important enlightenment translations in China in the 20th century.（Chen Fukang.2015.）

Yan Fu first proposed the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance” in “The Great Evolution · Translation Examples”. The “faith” he advocates is “the meaning is not back the text”, and “da” is not limited to the form of the original text, and does the best of the translation language to make the original meaning obvious. But Yan Fu’s interpretation of the word “ya” seems to be inadequate today.（Chen Fukang.2015.）

His so-called “elegance” can only be considered elegant if the translation itself adopts the “pre-Chinese character syntax”, in fact, the so-called superior classical Chinese. Due to different times, Yan Fu’s interpretation of the “faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance” translation standards has certain limitations, but for many years, these three characters have not been abolished by the translation industry in my country.（Chen Fukang.2015.）（paragraph too long）--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 14:10, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

In addition, the representative figure of literary translation is Lin Shu. He has translated more than 200 works by 98 writers from 11 countries, such as Dumas of France’s La Traviata.

Through comparison, we can see that the translation of Buddhist scriptures is different from the translation of Ming and Qing Dynasties in the following five aspects:

(1) Translator. The former translators are mainly monks, and the latter are students and missionaries. (2) The identity of the translator. The former is the poor and the latter is the upper class. (3) Type of translation. The former is mainly Buddhist scriptures, and the latter is mostly social sciences. (4) Translation method. The former is a literal translation. The latter is a hero translation and a modified translation. (5) The cultural status of translation. The former is based on Chinese culture, and translation makes the mainstream culture stronger. The latter reflects the greater cultural impact of Western culture on Chinese culture.

Translation Theory in the Republic of China

Most of the translators in the Republic of China were writers, and they contributed to the maturity of translation thinking in just a few decades. Zheng Zhenduo introduced and commented on “On the Principles of Translation” by the British translator Tytler for the first time, and discussed issues such as retranslation. Contradiction proposed "shenyun translation", Zhu Ziqing comprehensively summarized the methods of name translation, namely, phonetic and meaning translation, simultaneous phonetic and meaning translation, translation, transliteration, and free translation.（Chen Fukang.2015.）

Mao Dun creatively put forward “Charming Translation”, emphasizing that the charm of the original text cannot be lost from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Lu Xun’s contribution to translation studies is related to his “hard translation” idea of enriching the native language with unsatisfactory language. Zhu Shenghao’s translation of “The Complete Works of Shakespeare” is good at maintaining the charm of the original work, conveying the style of Shakespeare, and beautifying the Chinese art gallery with many images and dramatic melodies of Shakespeare.（Chen Fukang.2015.）

After the Founding of the People’s Republic of China

The two translators who had the greatest influence on the translation industry during this period were Fu Lei and Qian Zhongshu. Fu Lei put forward the idea of translation spirit and aesthetics. He believed that translation should not be literally translated, but should preserve the spiritual outlook and aesthetic characteristics of the original work, and proposed a translation view that emphasizes the spirit and the aesthetics.（Chen Fukang.2015.）

Qian Zhongshu used temptation, corruption, and transformation to express his views on translation. Enticement refers to the role that translation plays in the exchange of different cultures, enticing readers to love different literature. Corruption refers to the distance between the original text and the translated text. The translation is inevitably distorted and does not fit the original text. Transformation refers to the highest ideal state of literary translation, which can not show the traces of blunt and far-fetched translation, and can completely preserve the style of the original.（Chen Fukang.2015.）
===Prospects for the Development of Contemporary Chinese Translation Theory===

Emphasis on the study of basic translation theory

Contemporary Chinese scholars have further studied the basic theory of translation based on the research of ancient and modern scholars. From the aspect of translation standards, Gu Zhengkun proposes the concept of multiple and complementary, that is, translation standards are a standard system composed of absolute standards, supreme standards and specific standards, breaking the single standard view. In his Treatise on Translation, Xu Jun gives an all-round explanation of the basic problems of translation in terms of the essence, process, meaning, factors, contradiction, subject, value and criticism of translation.(Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. )

Contemporary translation theorists have gradually realized that translation research should transcend its own closed research system and draw nourishment from Eastern, Western and Latin American translation theories. The development line of Chinese translation theory requires the mutual appreciation of the East and the West, the ancient and the modern, and the diversified fusion, so as to refine the most characteristic and valuable theories among Chinese traditional translation theories, combine them with modern translation theories, highlight the characteristics of clarity and the spirit of the times, and let the traditional translation theories to flourish with new vitality in the modern context. (Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. )

“Only by listening to the voice of the times, responding to the call of the times, and seriously studying and solving important and urgent issues can we truly grasp the historical context, find the law of development, and promote theoretical innovation”. Therefore, the development of Chinese translation theory needs to expand various resources such as foreign translation theory, traditional Chinese translation theory, and translation history. Chinese scholars such as Chen Fukang, Wang Hongyin, and Zhang Peiyao have absorbed traditional translation theories, reinterpreted the original theories with modern theoretical discourse, and tried to find a point of convergence to combine tradition and modernity to explain new translation phenomena (Lan Hongjun, 2018).

In addition, in the basic research of translation history, there is still a need for clear and detailed research on the existence of translation, translation forms, translation subjects, and the laws of change of translation thought over time, as well as the essential problems reflected by these laws. Therefore, the study of Chinese translation theory should continue to learn from the ideas of Western translation theory and make full use of Chinese traditional translation theory as a resource.(Lan Hongjun, 2018).

Innovation of ontology

Translation studies is an open and comprehensive discipline that needs to be developed and improved by the academic nutrients of related disciplines, and the rapid development of language, thinking, and other literary disciplines has brought many new ideas, concepts, and terminology to translation studies. The combination of translation studies and other disciplines has injected fresh vitality into translation theory, for example. Xie Tianzhen’s translation studies is the intersection and fusion of translation studies and comparative literature, and is an important result of interdisciplinary translation studies. Translation studies is not concerned with the problem of language level, but with the problems of information loss, deformation, addition, and extension in the process of transformation of two languages.(Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. )

Hu Genshen conducts a comprehensive and holistic study on translation from the perspective of ecology. Ecological Translation believes that in the process of translation, translators try to adapt to the ecological environment of translation in order to make the best adaptation and optimization for the peace and balance between the original text and the translation, the translator and the author, the translator and the reader, the translation and the translation culture, and the translator himself, so that the translator’s body and mind are integrated in the ecological environment of translation. (Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. )

According to Fang Mengzhi, the development of translation studies has formed the pattern and characteristics of “one body and three rings”. The body is the ontology of translation, which is the unshakable foundation for the development of translation science over the centuries. The first ring is the inner ring, which is built up by linguistics and its subdisciplines, and the second ring is the middle ring, which is outside the inner ring. The second ring is the middle ring outside the inner ring, which is developed by philosophy, thinking science, psychology, information theory, and semiotics, and makes the transition of translation studies to a comprehensive discipline. (Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. )

The third ring refers to the cultural study of translation, which integrates translation with politics, economy, society, ideology and so on, and makes translation study a multidisciplinary, multi-level and all-round comprehensive study. We can sort out the relevant problems of traditional Chinese translation theories, for example, we can take “the five lost books, the three not easy” as the theoretical sources or ontological problems, “faithfulness and elegance” as translation standards, and refer to the framework of modern Western translation studies for propositional transformation and theory. It respects the pluralistic development of the discipline as well as the ontological development of the discipline, so that the theory of translation can be extended in many dimensions and developed in many ways.(Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. )

===The Historical Development of Western Translation Theory and Its Classification===

Western translation, like Chinese translation, has an early and long history of more than 2000 years. The first well-documented translation is the Septuagint Greek Bible from Hebrew into Greek in the third century B.C. Cicero, the father of Western translation theory, was the first to comment on the translation process and formed his own view of translation. Cicero, the father of Western translation theory, was the first to comment on the translation process and formed his own concept of translation. Horace further argued that “paraphrase” opposes “literal translation,” can create new words or introduce foreign words to enrich the national language, and distinguishes between interpretation and translation.

The second major model is Jerome’s “dualistic” view of translation, which divides translation into two cases, literal and paraphrase, depending on the text. The third one is Schleiermacher, who believes that language determines thinking, and advocates discussing translation from the perspective of linguistics and literature. The first one is the translation of the Chinese text into Chinese, and the second one is the translation of the English text into Chinese. Jacobson, Newmark, and Naida also hold different opinions on the division of Western translation activities, which is difficult to unify, and these different opinions also reflect the different perspectives, emphasis, and direct and indirect influences of other disciplines on the scholars’ study of translation.(Nida, E. A.1964)

The School of Thought and the Main Characteristics of Western Translation Theory

Most Chinese and Western scholars nowadays adopt Genzler’s classification method, dividing Western translation theory into three stages: classical translation theory, modern translation theory, and modern translation theory period. Three of the four masterpieces in the history of Western translation appeared in the classical translation period, and translation mostly revolves around religion. Cicero, the father of Western translation, believed that translation cannot be word-for-word, but must be done according to the linguistic habits of the readers of the translated language, and that it must convey the meaning and spirit of the original text, not the linguistic form of the original text.

Cicero, Horace, and Jerome provided new insights for later translation studies by breaking through the constraints. Historians see the seventeenth century as the beginning of modern history. In France, the principles and methods of translation were hotly debated. As the first Western translation theorist, Drayton divided translation into three categories: verbatim translation, paraphrase translation and paraphrase translation; the second one was Tertullian. The three principles of faithfulness of thought and consistency of style proposed by Tertullian had a positive influence on the later translation theories.

The controversy between Arnold and Newman over the principles of translation stimulated a lively academic atmosphere and a great debate on translation theory. Goethe further added that poetry is untranslatable, continuing the academic debate between Arnold and Neumann. Schleiermacher and Humboldt argued that translation theory explores linguistic and literary perspectives, and that understanding a text should be a positive act. Historians usually divide contemporary translation theory into two phases: before the Second World War and from the post-World War period to the present.

These two phases are distinguished not only by the watershed of the war, but also by the fact that the war was not over until after the Second World War. These two stages of translation theory development present different scenarios. The American School of Translation Training has brought translation to the forefront, with some advances and breakthroughs in translation theory, but it is still limited to discussions of aesthetic experience and certain prescriptive rules. The scientific school of translation has found a scientific basis for translation.

Based on linguistics, Naida started a new research on translation theory. After that, Germany started to study Naida’s translation theory and formed German Functionalism. In the early stage, the translation research school advocated to keep the literary character through the research of the co-temporal and historical perspectives of words in order to achieve the goal of faithfulness to the original text, and the translator should adopt the culture and language familiar to the readers and introduce extra-literary elements, and deconstructionism is a kind of subversion of structuralism.

Deconstruction is a reversal of structuralism. It gives translators more initiative and provides opportunities for translation creation. During the period of classical translation theory, translation was concentrated in the field of religion, and there were also interdisciplinary studies, and most translations were in the form of rewriting. Most of the translation theories were based on the intuitive experience of the translators, with no theoretical guidance. It was only at the level of literal translation and paraphrase translation, and the research on translation theory was not thorough enough.

The modern translation theory period has made great progress in translation theory compared to the classical translation theory period, and the first translation theorist and the first translation theory work appeared in Western history, progressing from the “dichotomy” of the classical translation theory period to the “trichotomy” of the classical translation theory period. It raises the issue of translatability and non-translatability, and improves the accuracy of translation studies.(Bassnett. 1980.)

The Response of Western Translation Theory in China’s Translation Industry

As for the study of Western translation, there are two opposing viewpoints in China. The first view is that China’s western translation theory research is less theoretical and critical, focusing on intuitive thinking; while western translation theory focuses on reasoning and argumentation, pursuing the integrity of the system, therefore, it is always called Nadda, advocating copying and transplanting the western translation theory to direct application.

Another viewpoint is that foreign theorists not only do not have a deeper understanding of translation than Chinese translators, but also have not formed a theoretical system, and they believe that there is no single theoretical work or doctrine in the foreign translation industry that is recognized by most theorists as authoritative and stable, so there is no way to start from the West. Regardless of the viewpoint, as Mr. Cong Zhihang said, the importance of translation theory has become more and more prominent, and it plays an irreplaceable role in translation teaching together with translation practice, and will eventually play a cornerstone for the establishment of translation discipline.(Cao Ruiming. 2006（1）：45-47.)

===Analysis of Theoretical Research Status===

Descriptive Analysis of Translation Theory Research

First, the distribution of disciplines. This is mainly in the uneven distribution of disciplines. Looking at the current published translation theoretical research works, the proportion of foreign language and literature research is the largest, followed by the research on Chinese language and literature, literary theory, Chinese literature and other disciplines, which fully shows that domestic scholars pay more attention to foreign language discipline research, and also shows the influence of language discipline on translation research, but also shows that the depth and breadth of most scholars’ research still need to be improved. Further increase.(Nida, E. A. 1964.)

Second, the research hierarchy. From the existing research results, we can see that the research level is not high. Basic research (social science) has the largest proportion (mainly the application of Western translation theories in various translation practices), followed by industry guidance, basic and secondary vocational education, higher education, engineering technology, etc. However, research results in the fields of economic information research and popular science are not yet abundant.
Third, researchers and institutions.

The current problem is a single researcher and a small number of research institutions. Researchers of translation theory mainly come from universities or research departments engaged in foreign language work, which shows that universities and research institutes have outstanding advantages in talents and resources and have become the main force of translation research, which also reflects that the main body of translation research is too single and other social institutions lack professional foreign language staff, thus the results of translation research are few.(Gentzler, Edwin.1993.)
Systematic Analysis of Translation Theory Research

First, the nature of the research. The current researches are mostly basic researches, mostly analyzing the ontological elements of translation, such as the nature, function, process, and quality evaluation of translation. The number of such researches has been increasing in recent years, but the nature of the researches has not changed much. On the other hand, the research on applied practice mainly focuses on the study of translation operation specifications and practice, such as translation teaching, translation practice and strategies. These researches are mainly the summaries of the experiences of university teachers in the teaching process, while there are not many researches on the academic aspects of other professions.

Second, the research level. From the structural level of the current translation research object, it mainly concentrates on two levels: micro research and macro research. Micro research is basic research, that is, when studying general things, the whole is decomposed into parts or the higher level is decomposed into lower level, mainly focusing on key words such as ontological features of translated language and operation norms, which is the main body of current translation research. Macro research, on the other hand, focuses on the whole and the law, grasps the relationship between a certain thing and the environment, and mainly focuses on the cultural significance of translation in terms of social and cultural attributes, ideology, and social development, which does not take up a large proportion.

Third, overall distribution.From the academic education of translation, to the practical teaching of translation, to the theory of translation, through practical research as well as modern research on translation teaching method and translation teaching materials, all of them reflect the down-to-earth research spirit of researchers, and many of them have excellent achievements with both theoretical and practical reference value. With the development of domestic foreign exchanges, especially the “One Belt, One Road” initiative, the frequency and opportunities of China's foreign exchanges have greatly increased. The development of China’s translation education and the cultural strategy of going abroad have made the study of translation strategies a hotspot in China, but due to the lack of objective depiction of translation constraints and conditions for strategy use, ontology research and theoretical discussion need to be strengthened.

Fourth, the distribution of hot words. Based on the frequency of occurrence of theme words in periodicals, it is found that the distribution of “hot words” in translation theory research has the following characteristics: First, “functional translation theory” has the highest frequency of occurrence. The “functional translation theory” appeared in the 1960s and 1970s, marked by the publication of Rice’s book The Possibilities and Limitations of Translation Criticism.

Its representative figure is Christine Nord, who takes the theory of purpose as the core of research, that is, translators should regard translation as some activities carried out to achieve a specific purpose or to satisfy the requirements of the target language readers, mainly emphasizing the translation process, the translator’s thoughts and the specific context in which the translation takes place, and the translator should be responsible for all the parties in the translation process (the principle of fidelity) and adopt different approaches for different translation purposes.

This has inspired many western scholars to express their own views on the translation method, thus also inspiring domestic scholars to look at the translation problem from multiple perspectives, to learn from the strengths and make up for the weaknesses, and to advance with the times.

Secondly, the term “feminism” has attracted much attention. Since the 1970s, the West has combined feminism with translation theory and translation practice. When the gender of the work, the author, the reader, and the translator are considered from the perspective of feminism, it also brings new insights to the study of translation. Feminism (feminism) has attracted much attention from Chinese scholars in the post-modern and diversified translation context, especially in the 21st century, which also provides room for translators to reconstruct works.Thirdly, the “subjectivity of the translator” begins to occupy a place(Wang Dongfeng,2014).

The translator is the executor of translation work and a subjective individual, whose essence is manifested in such characteristics as subjective initiative, passivity, and egoism, and therefore constitutes the subjectivity of the translator based on these characteristics. Translators are also important participants in the construction and composition of the culture of a region or country. Some domestic translators do not highlight their cultural construction role in the multi-language system of the Chinese language, thus the phenomenon of marginalization of the translator’s cultural status and confusion for traditional translation research has arisen.

The primitive self-discipline of translators can no longer adapt to the new situation of today’s technological development, and the temporal and spatial changes of translation practice have highlighted the influence on the ethical behavior of translators. The standardization of language, politics, technology, and business makes the ethical behavior of translation more complicated and diversified.

===Trends in Translation Theory Research===

Interdisciplinary cooperation and integration

Today’s world is moving in the direction of diversity. Cultural exchange and integration is the current direction of development. The study of translation theory is no longer an independent discipline, but must be related to other disciplines or even multiple disciplines, transcending and transforming through interaction and cooperation. The term “interdisciplinarity” was first coined in the United States in the 1920s. It was not until the mid-1980s that it became known to scholars in China. It was not until the 1990s that scholars began to use the term “interdisciplinary” instead of “cross-cutting science”.

In order to achieve greater research progress and research results, it is necessary to break through disciplinary limitations and concentrate on interdisciplinary research on a larger scale. No matter what kind of research is carried out, as long as it is related to translation theory and draws on the theories of other disciplines, it can be considered as interdisciplinary research. This is not only reflected in the translation theory, but also in the translation research methods and the disciplinary background of the researchers, which will greatly promote the development of translation theory research and make it more systematic, rigorous and rich.（Su Yue. 2009（6）:121-122.）

Return to culture development

The study of translation language and translation culture contributes to the practice and development of translation theory. Since translation language and translation culture are both objective existences, the standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance is a matter of degree, and the over or under expression of cultural meaning must be viewed dialectically. Translation research cannot be separated from language as a carrier, and translation should come from language, then go to language, arise from culture, and finally return to culture.

Seeking Common Ground while Surviving Differences in Cultural Translation

Any translation that involves cultural factors can be called cultural translation, which, like foreign affairs, is based on the same principle of seeking common ground while reserving differences. However, under the influence of traditional culture, if the translated language and culture are not taken into account, the effect will be affected and may even convey the wrong message, so it is necessary to seek common ground while preserving differences. What scholars who study translation seek is to keep the “difference” of the source language and culture to the greatest extent possible on the basis of the readers’ understanding, which is the best integration of Chinese and Western translation.（Su Yue. 2009（6）:121-122.）

===Conclusion===

From the theory and practice of ancient translation theory to the update and development of contemporary translation theory, scholars have continued and developed China's unique translation theory according to the requirements of the times and the basis of practice. The development of the country in the new era puts forward higher demands on translation,the cultivation of translation talents and discipline construction. In short, the development of translation discipline in the new era should emphasize disciplinary functions, expand theoretical resources, innovate ontological concepts, and strengthen school consciousness, so as to make new contributions to the knowledge innovation of translation discipline.

===References===

[1] Bassnett. S Translation Studies[ M] .London and New York: Methuen , 1980.

[2] Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary Translation Theories［M］. London: Routledge, 1993.

[3] Newmark, Peter. Approaches to Translation [ M]. Oxford and London: Pergamon Press, 1981.Reprint in 1998, New York: Prentice Hall International.

[4] Nida, E. A.. Toward a Science of Translating［M］. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.

[5] 曹瑞明. 跨文化交际翻译中的差异与融合［J］.西安外国语学院学报, 2006（1）：45-47.

[6] 陈福康. 中国译学史［M］.上海:上海外语教育出版社，2015.

[7] 蓝红军. 从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究 (1987-2017）［J］.中国翻译，2018（01）:14.

[8] 苏粤. 国内关联翻译理论研究发展的回顾与思考［J］.湖北经济学院学报: 人文社会科学版, 2009（6）:121-122.

[9] 田雨. 走向跨学科的翻译学［J］.中国翻译，2004（2）：31-35.

[10] 王东风. 中国翻译研究的过去、现在与未来［J］.上海外国语大学学报, 2014（4）:7-8.

[11] 郑振铎.译学书三个问题[ J] .小说月报, 1921, 12 (3):1-25.

==A Cultural Critique of Foreignization and Domestication 吴子佳 Wu Zijia 202070080645 MTI 英语口译==

==='''Abstract'''===
Domestication and foreignization ，as two important translation methods, play an important role in many areas, the language is the carrier of culture, the differences between different cultures is the important obstacle of cross-cultural communication.And each of the two translation strategies has its own advantages and disadvantages. During translation, an interpreter is required not only to have good command of translation, but also need to grasp a foreign cultural psychological and ideological values, cultural knowledge reserve purpose countries and consider the national psychological acceptance, while standing in the source language, on the basis of national culture, realize the cultural exchanges between the two countries. This paper intends to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of domestication and foreignization in the translation of different cultures (such as tourism culture, food culture, literary works, etc.), and to select the essence and discard the dross in order to find better translation methods and achieve better cultural promotion and cross-cultural communication.

==='''Key words'''===

Domestication foreignization cultural-overloaded words cross-cultural communication.

==='''摘要'''===

归化和异化作为两个重要的翻译方法，在许多方面发挥着重要作用，语言是文化的载体，不同文化之间的差异是跨文化交流的重要阻碍，归化异化各有优势，又各有缺点，在翻译时,要求译员不仅要有良好的翻译功底,更需要把握外国文化心理和思想价值观，储备目的国家的文化知识并考虑民族心理接受程度,同时站在保留源语国家文化特色的基础上,实现两国文化的交流。本论文拟讨论归化和异化在不同文化（如旅游文化，美食文化，外交文化、文学作品等）中的应用，在应用中探究分析文化差异，取其精华，去其糟粕，找到更好的翻译方法，实现更好的文化传播与跨文化交流。

==='''关键词'''===

归化，异化，文化负载词，跨文化交流

===''' Introduction of Domestication and Foreignization '''===

Domestication and foreignization are two terms coined by Lawrence Venuti based on his investigation of western translation history and theories.They are strategies in translation, regarding the degree to which translators make a text conform to the target culture. Domestication is the strategy of making text closely conform to the culture of the language being translated to, which may involve the loss of information from the source text. Foreignization is the strategy of retaining information from the source text, and involves deliberately breaking the conventions of the target language to preserve its meaning. These strategies have been debated for hundreds of years, but the first person to formulate them in their modern sense was Lawrence Venuti, who introduced them to the field of translation studies in 1995 with his book The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation. Venuti's innovation to the field was his view that the dichotomy between domestication and foreignization was an ideological one; he views foreignization as the ethical choice for translators to make. （Venuti，1995）

On the basis of Venuti's theory:A term used by Venuti(1995)to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent,fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TLreaders...it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual,unreceptive to the foreign,and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with[target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other. Foreignizing translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original.（Venuti，1995）

Domestication takes the local culture as the starting point, takes the information receiver as the core, and emphasizes the authenticity and vividness of the translated text. Therefore, the foreign cultural color and language style characteristics in the original text are often modified to confine them within the framework of the local culture.（Venuti，1995）

For example:Lead a dog’s life ( 过着牛马一样的生活);Cry up wine and sell vinegar(挂羊头，卖狗肉);Put back the clock (开倒车)Talk house (吹牛Kill the goose that lays the golden eggs(杀鸡取卵); High buildings and large mansions are springing up like mushrooms in Beijing.(在北京，高楼大厦犹如雨后春笋般地涌现。)（Wenku）
Venuti(1995: 20) considers the foreignizing method to be ‘an ethnodeviant pressure on target language cultural values to register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad’. It is ‘highly desirable’, he says, in an effort ‘to restrain the ethnocentric violence of translation’. In other words, the foreignizing method can restrain the ‘violently’ domesticating cultural values of the English-language world.Examples of foreignization:A.used at the phonetic level:ballet—芭蕾舞” cigar—雪茄,laser—镭射,jacket—夹克.B. being used at the word level: crocodile tears-鳄鱼的眼泪，an olive branch—橄榄枝，sour grapes—酸葡萄，the cold war—冷战.C.being used at sentence level: Hamlet《哈姆雷特》“You speak like a green girl．Unsifted in such perilous circumstance．（你讲的话完全像是一个不曾经历过这种危险的不懂事的女孩子。）（Wenku）[you can put the examples in the later paragraph--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 07:22, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi]

==='''Analysis on Culture Differences in Translation'''===

Before we talk about the cultural critique of foreignization and domestication,we should find out the reason why we need the two methods to help with our translation,so the differences between different countries should be mentioned. I think the most difficult part in translation is to give a correct explantion of the sourse culture to the target one in a way that your target reader can accept.But as we all know,sometimes there is not an excat equivalence in sense of both the languages,and I must mention cultural-loaded words when it comes to cultural differences,as words are the most direct form to show a culture,and whether your translation make sense or not depends on how you deal with the cultural-loaded words.（Zhang le 2017，37）

Take Chinese and English for example,the word “落汤鸡”can not be translated as “soup chicken”,in literal,as Chinese people live on farming ,”落汤鸡”describes a kind of awkward position of chicken being drenched in the rain,but in England ,a country with developed industry,people no longer raise animals ,so it may be hard for them to understand as they have not seen it before,instead ,the familiar thing they can image is the drowned mouse,as the country has lots of drainers ,which provides perfect conditions for mouse to live ,but those drains can easily get blocked when it rains heavily,after the rain,many drowned mice can be found on the street .Is it the same akward as the”落汤鸡” ？（Zhang le 2017，37）

[Take Chinese and English for example ,the word “落汤鸡”can not be translated as “soup chicken”,in literal, as Chinese people live on farming ,”落汤鸡”describes a kind of awkward position of chicken being drenched in the rain, but in England ,a country with developed industry, people are no longer farming ,so it may be hard for them to understand as they have not seen it before, instead ,the familiar thing they can image is the drowned mouse ,as the country has lots of drainers ,which provides perfect conditions for mouse to live ,but those drains can easily get blocked when it rains heavily, after the rain ,many drowned mice can be found on the street .Is it the same akward as the”落汤鸡” ？（Zhang le 2017，37）--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 07:22, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi]

So differen society can give birth to different cultures.What’s more ,the geographic situation can also reflect the cultural differences.For example,England is located in a island,and is sourrded by lots of water,so the words “sea”,”fish”are always used in English idioms,such as“all at sea”,“miss the boat”,“take the helm”,“between the devil and sea” ,while China boasts many mountains and land ,so the Chinese people may wonder why the English people describe the idiom” 挥土如金”as” spend money like water”if they do not learn about the cultural differences before.In addition ,the use of metaphor can also reflect cultural differences,and metaphor is frequently used in for example,in Chinese culture the image of "dog" is mostly unpleasant, so the metaphor of "dog" has a negative meaning, such as”狗胆包天、狼心狗肺、狐朋狗友、狗仗人势、狗急跳墙、狗头军师、狗血喷头、狗改不了吃屎、狗嘴里吐不出象牙、走狗、哈巴狗等“.（Zhang le 2017，37）

On the contrary, the British and American peoples regard dogs as loyal companions and even as family members. Therefore, the English word "dog" as a metaphor has a positive meaning, such as top dog (胜利者) 、lucky dog (幸运儿) 、gay dog (快乐的人) 、old dog (老手) 、Every dog has his day. (凡人皆有得意日),(Qin Zhen 2001,19)and due to regional, climatic, religious and other factors, different work and life styles have gradually formed in different living groups, which also leads to different social customs and living habits.（Zhang le 2017，38）

Different living habits can therefore lead to different metaphor,for example, In China, rice is the main source of nutrition supply, and there are about 68 characters with "rice" as the side of the character. However, in English words, the expression of rice is not so precise and varied. In English, by contrast, people live on bread and potatoes. There are many expressions related to bread and potatoes in English, such as "bread and butter," "big potato",”hot potato” and "couch potato." so while doing our translation,we should learn about the cultural difference under the surface of metaphors and taboos of different nations ,otherwise people may feel that they are offended.（Zhang le 2017，38）

===''' Comparisons of Practice of Foreignization and Domestication in Different Perspectives of Culture '''===

1. Practice of foreignization and domestication in tourism culture

The difference of cultural background is an important factor for tourism , and experiencing foreign culture is the focus of foreign tourists. Therefore, in the process of translation, the cultural information of the original text should be retained to the greatest extent within the range of readers' acceptance. Much of China's tourism brochures depict imagery, stimulates the imagination of visitors, and fill them with longing, so the words are abstract. Therefore, it is important that the translation of tourism materials should take Chinese culture as the orientation, with an emphasis on translation, foreignization is in the dominant position,while domestication acts like a supplementary in this case, and usually we will redesign appropriate increase or decrease in cultural points to make the readers to understand the content, choosing to delete, or increase the explanatory translation, or rewrite, highlight the guiding and practical.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,65)

Example 1

路左有一巨石, 石上原有苏东坡手书“云外流春”四个大字

To its left is another rock formerly engraved with four big Chinese characters Yun Wai Liu Chun (Beyond clouds and flows spring) written by Su Dongpo (1037—1101) , the most versatile poet of the Northern Song Dynasty (960—1127) . (Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua2011(02))
Here we add some introduction of Su Dongpo and explanation of the Chinese words”云外流春”（Yun Wai Liu Chun）to help foreigner better understand the cultural value of the artwork of the poet. Proper addition of background knowledge is necessary for understanding the content of the original text, such as: the time of historical events, the age of celebrities' birth and death, their identities and contributions , the specific location of scenic spots and so on, all of which will help foreign tourists better understand the profound connotation of Chinese traditional culture.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,66)

Example 2

云冈石窟——位于大同西北武周山 (又名云冈) 。创建于公元453 年 (北魏文成帝兴安二年) 。以后献文、孝文诸帝都在这里续建, 历百余年而成。这里有大小洞窟五十多个, 各窟佛像共约五万一千余尊。大者高十七米, 小者短到数寸。雕饰奇伟, 冠于一世。在中国历史、宗教上, 以及东方艺术上, 都具有巨大价值。

Located in Datong , Shanxi Province , the Yungang Grottos are a complex of over 50 Buddhist grottos enshrining over 51 , 000 Buddhist statues as large as 17 meters tall or as short as a few inches. Built for over a hundred years, they are of great historic and artistic value.Here we delete some details about the architecter and the exact location of the grotto,as they are not the main idea that we want to introduce,instead,we leave the data that can show the artistic value of the grotto,in doing so ,we can make our readers more comfortable to real our materials and make our translation more readable.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,66)

Example 3

花港观鱼:Hua Gang Guan Yu (Viewing Fish at Flower Harbor)
孤山: Gushan (Solitary Hill)
湖南省(位于长江中下游南部, 东经108度至114度, 北纬24至30度。因地处洞庭湖之南, 所以叫做湖南)。
Hunan Province lies just in the south of the middle reaches of the Changjiang (Yangtze) River between108’ and 114’ E longitude and 24’ and 30’ N latitude. As it is also situated south of Lake Dongting, the Province has the name Huan, which means “south of the lake”
Here we add some explanation to the name of the scenic spots on our literal translation,as sometimes let the reader know why the the spot is called in this way can help them better know about our culture,and in the end enhance mutural understanding of each other.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,67)

Example 4

Analogy is a method used in tourism translation ,when we are making an analogy,we are actually making a combination of foreignization and domestication,for we are just finding something equivalent in another culture,for example:Suzhou(a beautiful city in Zhejiang province ,China),when it comes to how to describe how beautiful it is,we usually make an analogy to Venice，Italy,then the reader may soon understand; Yinchuan(a city in the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region)can be compared by Mekka,and I think it is a kind of exoticism.By using an expression that the target readers are familiar with,we can become more close so that we can promote mutual understanding of both sides.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,67)[please highlight the example--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 07:22, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Lei Kaungxi]

Example 5

她 (黄河) 奔腾不息, 勇往直前, 忽而惊涛裂岸, 势不可挡, 使群山动容;忽而安如处子, 风平浪静, 波光潋滟, 气象万千。
It tears and boils along turbulently through the mountains and at some places, flows on quietly with a sedate appearance and glistening ripples.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,68)

The use of antithesis rhetoric and the arrangement of four-character word groups in Chinese shows the magnificent momentum of the Yellow River. The English translation has rewritten the original text, removing those words with subjective emotions, so that it can be intuitive and concise, vivid, and has the same effect as the original text .(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,68)

Example 6

四合院——中国传统的院落式住宅之一种。其布局特点是围绕院子, 四边布置堂屋、住房和厨房等。以北京四合院为典型, 通常分前内两院, 两段之间设“垂花门”。
Quadrangle, one type of Chinese traditional residential housing, has been common: mostly in northernChina. A typical quadrangle features a divided com-pound with square yards surrounded by halls.
By summarizing, deleting and adding, the translator introduces the siheyuan, a building with the characteristics of northern folk dwellings, which not only achieves the purpose of advertising, but also conforms to the language characteristics of the readers. It should be said that the cultural information of the original text has been appropriately adjusted.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,68)

2. Practice of Foreignization and Domestication in Food Culture

With the development of globalization,Chinese food is gaining huge popularity among foreign people,in order to better promote Chinese food ,we have to make good expression to the origin and the connotation of the food ,so ,both foreignization and domestication are needed.We have to mention food culture if we want to introduce those food with Chinese characteristics.According to the characteristics of the dishes, Chinese cuisine is divided into eight major cuisines, and they are: Cantonese cuisine, Hunan cuisine, Shandong cuisine, Fujian cuisine, Zhejiang cuisine, Sichuan cuisine, Anhui cuisine and Jiangsu cuisine. Each cuisine has its own unique flavor .Since China covers a wide range of land,different regions have different eating habbits and cooking methods according to the diversity of geographic locations. There are 36 kinds of cooking methods include frying, frying, cooking, frying, braising and so on.（Liu Xiaocen 2018，99）

For example,people living in Sichuan province like to eat spicy food and to add some condiment such as pepper,gordic because they live in a basin and in doing so ,they can clear damp and stay dry.People live in Guangzhou,however,prefer seafood and they usually cook their meals by stewing ,which can retain the nutrition of food as much as possible. Suzhou cuisine is fresh, strong but not greasy; Zhejiang cuisine is delicious, tender and smooth, crisp , soft and refreshing.Based on the food culture above,domestication and foreignization have been use in different ways.（Liu Xiaocen 2018，99）

Example 7

番茄牛腩(tomato and beef brisket)
This translation consists of main ingredient and ingredient.
砂锅面(casserole noodles)
This translation consists of utensils and ingredients.
淮南牛肉汤, 东坡肉(Huainan beef soup, Dongpo pork)
This translation consists of the name of people and place as well as the main ingredient,and sometimes we need to give a more detailed introduction of the people or place to make our translation more readable.
炒酸菜, 手抓饼(sauerkraut, shredded cake)
This translation consists of the cooking method or eating method and ingredients.
Above are basic translations as they do not involve much culture ,so we always use literal translation with some explanations .（Liu Xiaocen 2018，100）

Example 8

蚂蚁上树 (肉末粉条): Ants on a tree (minced pork)
This translation shows the characteristics of the food as minced pork just the ant on the tree,and it gives a vivid introduction of Chinese food and can leave a deep impression to foreigner.
霸王别姬 (甲鱼炖鸡) :Farewell my Concubine (turtle stewed chicken)
This translation is named after historical allusions.
驴打滚 (打糕) :Donkey roll (beating cake)
This translation is named according to the production process metaphor.
佛跳墙 (福寿全) : Buddha jumps over the wall (Fu, Shou, Quan(get both luck and longevity)).
This translation is named after the meaning of good.if we do not give a explanation to the name ,people may wonder what dose the Buddha mean here and if that really means a man jump over the wall,so in order not cause the misunderstanding ,we need to make right expression of the name of the dish.（Liu Xiaocen 2018，100）

Above are some translations that contain many cultural elements,and when doing the translation ,we should use a combination of foreignization and domestication,that requires us know what is the food really made of,and the meaning of the food behind the name.

Example 9

“叫花鸡jiaohuaji” or“jiaohua chicken”is a famous dish in Jiangsu province of China. If translated as' chicken cooked by a beggar ', westerners must not understand its meaning. That's why the naturalized translation of jiaohua Chicken is called "Baked Chicken", which makes it plain. The following ways of translating The names of Chinese dishes make good use of the naturalized translation method. The dishes that begin with the raw materials used in cooking are divided into one category. In English translation, prepositions or conjunctions should be added between the dishes. For example,蛋黄凉瓜 is translated as "Bitter Melon with Egg yolk”.(Liu Xiaocen 2018，105)

If we translate the dish “红烧狮子头”译为“Fried Lion’s Head” (炸狮子的头) , the foreigners may feel scared when they see the menu!so here we use foreignization to translate it as “Braise Pork Ball in Brown Sauce”.Translation of the Chinese dish name into English adjectives indicating the taste and flavor of the food, such as crispy, tender, spiced, food that begins with an adjective indicating the shape or state of the food is divided into one category. The most prominent feature of these dishes is often the taste or the shape of the food, for example,“珊瑚笋尖”is translated as“Sweet and Sour Bamboo Shoots”;“爽口西芹”is translated as “Crispy Celery” at the same time “土豆泥”is translated as “Mashed Potato”. These are some examples of domestication.(Liu Xiaocen 2018，105)

Example 10

Some foods are usually translated in the form of "Hanyu Pinyin + English notes" in order to retain certain characteristics.
For example:“油条”in this way can be translated into “Youtiao, Deep-Fried Dough Sticks”;“豆汁儿”can be translated as“Douzhir, Fermented Bean Drink”. 饺子:Dumpling、汤圆:Dumpling in Soup、烧卖:Steamed Dumpling with the Though Gathered at the Top;小圆面包:Bun、馒头:Steamed Bun、包子:Steamed Stuffed BunThere are also some food translations with pure Chinese characteristics that have been collected in major foreign English dictionaries.Most of these dishes are transliterated into English based on cantonese pronunciation, with strong regional characteristics. （Liu Xiaocen 2018，105）

For example, "豆腐" translates as "Toufu"; "馄饨" translates as "Wonton". The translation of四一丸子:"Four Happy Meatballs" aims to make foreign friends feel the happy and festive atmosphere expressed in the dish name，so we can take the method of literal translation with explanation and the result will be like “Four—Joy Meat Balls, Meat balls braised with brown sauce”,which is more accecptable for the foreigner.These are some examples of foreignization.（Liu Xiaocen 2018，105）

3. Practice of Foreignization and Domestication in Diplomacy

Since the 18th national people’s congress,the global situation has changed a lot ,in order to improve the influence and right of speak,the diplomatic skills and contains should change accordingly,the new philosophy and ideas put up by our secretary-general Xi provide strong support for our diplomatic speaking,which shows the attitude of Chinese characteristic(Fan Wuqiu 2020),and when the spokesmen are talking about some issues about China and other countries,they usually use some Chinese classics which can not only show our complaint politely but also promote the Chinese culture.So we should pay more attention to the translation of these words,especially in diplomacy,as the spokesman represents the whole country,any mistake may raise as a direct cause of diplomatic accident,and foreignization and domestication are quite important in this case.（Fan Wuqiu 2020）

Example 11

我们反对的是个别国家政客出于国内政治原因对中国进行有罪推定式的“调查”，反对利用疫情搞政治操弄。
What we oppose is the so-called investigation chanted by politicians in a few countries out of domestic political calculations based on the presumption of guilt.What we oppse if political maneuvers of the pandemic,which run counter the original mission of scientific research and disrupt international response.
In this translation ,we use two sentences with same form to show our standpoint,and the word “so-called”,”enchanted”are like a kind of foreignization,which illustrate what we want to say precisely.（Fan Wuqiu 2020）

Example 12

“投我以木桃，报之以琼瑶”，这是中华民族传统美德。（Geng Shuang's speech 2020）
To quote a line from the Book of Songs,”You throw a peach to me,and I give you a white jade for friendship.It is china’traditional virtue to repay goodwill with greater kindness.
This is a line from the Chinese classic the Book of Songs,and it is used by our spokesman to show our gratitude for countries that help us to fight against covid-19,as “琼瑶 qiongyao”is a word with Chinese characteristic, and it means white jade,so when we are translating,instead of “qiongyao”we should explain its real material,otherwise people may misunderstand it as the famous novelist in china who has the same name.（Fan Wuqiu 2020）

Example 13

耿爽表示：“当前中加关系遭遇了严重困难，责任完全在加方。加方很清楚当前中加关系的症结。有理不在声高，公道自在人心。（Geng Shuang's speech 2020）
"Lately China-Canada relations have encountered serious difficulties. The responsibility lies completely with the Canadian side. Canada knows the root cause clearly. Loudness is not necessarily persuasive and people can tell right from wrong.
This is a kind of free translation,and if we just translate it word for word,it won’t make sense.（Fan Wuqiu 2020）

Example 14

“滴水之恩当以涌泉相报”是中华民族的优良传统。我们将铭记这份友情和帮助，继续落实好共建“一带一路”和中非合作论坛北京峰会成果，向那些卫生系统较弱国家提供力所能及的支持，帮助他们增强疫情防控能力，维护地区和全球的公共卫生安全。（Zhao Lijian's speech 2020）

"Receiving drips of water when in need, and I shall return the kindness with a spring." Reciprocating an act of kindness is our nation's fine tradition. We will remember the friendship and assistance we received, continue to implement the FOCAC Beijing Summit outcomes and act on the vision of building a community with a shared future, support those countries with weaker health systems as much we can to help them defeat the virus, and safeguard regional and global public health security.
This translation we find the exact equivalence of both Chinese and English,so people in both side can understand each other so that we can have a better communication and forge a closer friendship. （Fan Wuqiu 2020）

Example 15

我也希望包括BBC在内的媒体，以后说到人权问题时，不应只把摄像头对准中国“鸡蛋里挑骨头”，而应该把视野放宽一点，对在一些西方国家发生的侵犯人权行为也加大报道力度，而不是熟视无睹、视而不见、保持沉默或有选择性地失声。（Hua Chunying's speech 2020）

If the BBC is not biased, it should also condemn the brutal crimes committed by some Australian soldiers in Afghanistan. This is what a truly just, objective, conscientious and socially responsible media outlet should do. I also hope that the media, including BBC, should not only zoom in their lenses on human rights issues in China to find quarrel in a straw, but also broaden their horizons to human rights violations committed in some western countries, instead of turning a blind eye to them or keeping silent on some of the violations, if not all of them.In this speaking,“鸡蛋里挑骨头”was translated as“find quarrel in a straw”.straw,in Chinese,refers to"稻草、吸管"，and something worthless.”Find quarrel in a straw”means bothering to find something in something worthless.which is equivalent with the Chinese meaning of “鸡蛋里挑骨头”.（Hua Chunying's speech 2020）

===''' Conclusion '''===

Domestication and foreignization have their own advantages and disadvantages. Therefore, in translation practice, we should combine the advantages of the two strategies and avoid the disadvantages, so that there is room for the common development of the two strategies. Mastering the culture of two sides may be the precondition of right use of domestication and foreignization, and while doing translation we should choose the proper methods according to our purpose and the characteristic of the culture ,all of which can lead to better cross-cultural communication.Therefore, in the actual translation process, domestication and foreignization should complement each other and have complementary ,dialectical unity and relationship.
===''' References '''===

* Zhang Le. 张乐.(2017). 浅谈文化负载词的隐喻意义.[On the Metaphorical Meaning of Culture-loaded Words].” 科教导刊(中旬刊)” [Journal of Science and Education Guide (Mid-ten-day issue)] (06):37-38.
* Qin Zhen. 秦蓁.(2001). 浅谈汉英语义的文化差异.[On the Cultural Differences between Chinese and English Semantics].” 唐山师范学院学报” [Journal of Tangshan Normal University] (06):19-21.
* Xiao Luan, Feng Xuehua. 肖鸾,冯学华.(2011). 浅析归化和异化及其在旅游资料翻译中的实践.[ A Brief Analysis of Domestication and foreignization and their practice in the translation of tourism Materials ]” 郧阳师范高等专科学校学报”[Journal of Yunyang Normal College] (02):65-68.
* Liu Xiaocen. 刘晓岑.(2018). 归化和异化在中国菜名英译中的应用分析.[Application Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names]” 海外英语” [Overseas English] (04):99-100+105.
* Fan Wuqiu. 范武邱.(2020).十八大”以来我国外交部发言人话语新风格及翻译策略探析. [An Analysis on the New Style and Translation Strategies of Chinese Foreign Ministry Spokesmen's Discourse since the 18th National Congress of the CPC]. “翻译协会年会报告”Annual Report of the Translation Society.
* Geng Shuang.耿爽.(2020.2.21).外交部新闻发言稿."Foreign Ministry Press Statement" .https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/web/wjdt_674879/fyrbt_674889/t1747973.shtml.
* Zhao Lijian.赵立坚(2020.2.25).外交部新闻发言稿."Foreign Ministry Press Statement" .https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/web/wjdt_674879/fyrbt_674889/t1749280.shtml.
* Hua Chunying.华春莹(2020.11.30).外交部新闻发言稿."Foreign Ministry Press Statement" .https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/web/wjdt_674879/fyrbt_674889/t1836636.shtml.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 15:28, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia

='''Contemporary Translation Studies'''=

==A Study On the Influence of Linguistics on the Construction of Translatology 孔祥慧 Kong Xianghui 202020080608==
<center>孔祥慧 Kong Xianghui </center>
==='''Abstract'''===
Translatology is an interdisciplinary study of translation. And as one of the disciplines most closely related to translation studies, linguistics is the main discipline that exerts a profound influence on the construction of translatology.This paper mainly discusses the influence of linguistics on the construction of translation studies from three aspects, including the contributions of early linguists to translation, the influence of linguistic theories on translation studies after the independence of translatology, and the referential value of the construction experience of linguistics to translation studies. It is found that linguistics has made a great contribution to the construction and theoretical development of translatology, but translation researchers should take a critical view of linguistics and correctly use linguistic theories instead of copying them completely .

==='''Key words'''===
Translatology;Linguistic;Discipline Construction

===摘要===
翻译学是一门研究翻译的科学，有着明显跨学科研究的特点。语言学作为与翻译学联系最为紧密的学科之一，是翻译理论发展历程中所依赖和借鉴的主要学科。本文主要从三个方面研究语言学对于翻译学构建的影响，包括早期语言学家对于翻译问题的贡献，翻译学独立之后语言学理论对于翻译研究的影响，以及语言学学科构建经验对于翻译学的借鉴意义。研究发现，语言学为翻译学构建和理论发展作出了巨大的贡献，但是翻译学研究者要带着批判性眼光看待语言学，进行翻译研究时要正确借鉴语言学理论而不是全盘照搬。

===关键词===
翻译学；语言学；学科构建

==='''1.Introduction'''===
Linguistic is a study of language, while translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text. Therefore, there are numerous links between linguistics and translation, and the development of linguistic theory will inevitably affect translation. Translatology is an academic interdiscipline dealing with the systematic study of the theory, description and application of translation, interpreting, and localization. As an interdiscipline, translatology borrows much from the various fields of study that support translation including comparative literature, computer science, history, linguistics, philology, philosophy, semiotics, and terminology. （Wikipedia）

For a long time, translatology was a branch of linguistics before it became an independent discipline, because translation was regarded as a linguistic phenomena before. But later, with the development of the translation theory, it began to emerge on the academic stage as an independent subject, and more and more scholars began to devote themselves to the construction of translation theory. In the course of the construction of translation studies, many linguists and linguistic theories have made indelible contributions to the development of translatology. Although translation studies cannot be replaced by general linguistic studies, there is a close relationship between them. Language science, especially linguistics, can promote the development of translation science. This paper will analyze the influence of linguistics on the construction of translatology from multiple perspectives and explore the significance of linguistic research on the construction of translatology.（O Aiping，2012）

This thesis will be carried out in five parts. The first chapter is the introduction to the background, significance, and the outline of the thesis. The second chapter presents a brief literature review of the studies on the construction of translatology in abroad and China. The third chapter elaborates the differences between translation and translatology, and demonstrates three development stages of translation studies in general. The fourth chapter is the main focus in which the author analyzes the influences of linguistic on translatology in three aspects . In chapter five, the author will make a conclusion on the research and propose some suggestions of this study.

==='''2.Literature review '''===
This chapter will briefly review the research of the construction of Translatology at home and abroad. According to the development history, the author will briefly introduce the main theories and representative figures of Translatology.

'''2.1Studies on the construction of translatology aboard'''

In the book ''On Linguistic Aspects of Translation'' published in 1959, Norman Jacobson, from the perspective of semiotics, interpreted translation as a process of recording two equivalent information in two different linguistic symbols and divided translation into three types: Intralingual Translation, Interlingual Translation and Intersemiotic Translation. (Norman Jacobson, 1959)

Eugene Nida（1947）advocated studying translation from the perspective of linguistics, which received positive responses from a large number of scholars. In his book ''Toward the Science of Translating'', which was published in 1964, Nida summarized the history of Western translation and proposed the principle of translation equivalence. He supported the application of modern linguistic methods to the scientific analysis of translation and proposed that translation was a science.(Eugene Nida, 1947)

J.C. Catford in his book A Linguistic Theory of Translation (1965), defined translation as the process of replacing textual material in another language with textual material of one equivalent language, and regarded seeking equivalent elements in the language as the central issue of translation. He also discussed the translation principles based on the differences between the source language and the target language in terms of language structure. (J.A Catford , 1965)

Holmes published The Name and Nature of Translation Studies at The Third International Conference on Applied Linguistics in 1972, which was "widely regarded as the founding declaration of the discipline of translation studies". He proposed the name of the discipline of translation, set the research scope of translation studies, and described the structure of the discipline. Holmes advocated that translation should be divided into three branches: descriptive translation , theoretical translation and applied translation, which directly promoted the construction of translation studies. ( James Holmes,1975)

In 1982, Wolfram Wilss published the Science of Translation: Problems and Methods, clearly stating that translation is a science. Wilss studied translation from several aspects, focusing on the process of translation, and discussed the relationship between translation and linguistics. Wilss used the theory and method of modern linguistics to establish a relatively systematic translation system by summarizing the translation practice. (Wolfram Wilss, 1982)

Hatim & Mason, whose representative work is Discourse and the Translator (1990), which is the first book to study translation with pragmatics abroad. The main idea is that translation is a dynamic communication process, with translators standing in the center of the process, acting as mediators between authors and readers. (Hatim & Mason,1990 )

Christiane Nord, a leading figure in the German school of Functional Translation, applied the theory of functional linguistics to translation studies (1997). Nord emphasized the need for interdisciplinary studies between translation and linguistics, philosophy, sociology, and computing. She believed that the interdisciplinary study of translation is the inevitable trend of translation studies. (Christiane Nord, 1997)

Mona Baker used sociolinguistic theories to study translation in her research. She believed that many social problems are caused by language, so it is necessary to use modern linguistic theories to construct an analytical model for translation studies. In 2006, she published Translation and Conflict: A Narrative Account, which focused on translation and conflict, and used narrative theory to translate and interpret. She also emphasized the importance of corpus-based translation studies. (Mona Baker, 2006)

'''2.2 Studies on the construction of translatology at home'''

In the middle of the 20th century, the voice of constructing translation studies began to appear in China. In the following decades, the construction of translatology in China made great progress. （Tan Zaixi，1989）

In 1951, Dong Qius, a famous Chinese translator, published his article On the Construction of Translation Theory. He put forward three suggestions on the construction of translation theory that were using correct scientific method, extensive investigation and in-depth study when conducting translation study. Dong also proposed the two major books would be written in later decades in China: The History of Chinese Translation and The Study of Chinese Translation. The publication of this article initiated the construction of translation studies in China and inspired a large number of later scholars. At the same time, his theoretical framework for the subject of translation is not later than that of Europe. (Dong Qiusi, 1951)

In 1987, Tan Zaixi clearly put forward the viewpoint that "translation studies are an independent subject" and stressed that we must establish translation studies and correctly understand the relationship between translation studies and other subjects, especially linguistics. (Tan Zaixi, 1987)

In the same year, Tan Zaixi and Eugene A.Nida, a famous foreign translation theorist, jointly published On Approaches to Translation Studies. In this paper, Tan mainly distinguished two concepts of "translation" and "translatology". At the same time, five basic approaches to translation studies were proposed. With the help of different research approaches, the main goal of translation studies was to establish a theoretical model with wide application scope and high efficiency. Tan's series of papers published in the 1980s had a great impact on the discipline construction of Chinese translation studies. They arouse translators' the awareness of the subject of translation studies. (Tan Zaixi, 1987)

In the thesis An Overview of Western Translation Theory (1989), Liu Miqing briefly described his theoretical system of translation studies on the basis of his comments on Western translation theories. Liu believed that western translation studies could be divided into four periods. At the same time, he proposed that the framework of translation studies, as an open and comprehensive discipline, translatology could be divided into two structural systems: internal system and external system. (Liu Miqing, 1989)

In another article, Liu put forward the basic model of Chinese translation theory (1989). Chinese translation theory must emphasize description, meaning and function. To establish a semantic-functional model of description, his idea was inspired by linguistics. His most significant contribution to the discipline of translation studies was his book Modern Translation Theories（1990）, which brought the study of translation studies in China to a peak.(Liu Miqing, 1989)

In 1995, Liu Zhongde published ''Views on the Establishment of Translation Studies'', in which he put forward a concrete idea based on the existing translation studies. The idea is that China should publish a series of translation studies with Chinese characteristics before the year 2000. The central book is ''Chinese Translation Studies'', including ''The History of Translation in China''. This set of translation studies could guide the compilation of college translation textbooks and the study of translation theories and skills.(Liu Zhongde, 1995)

At the beginning of the 21st century, more and more Chinese scholars began to study the construction of translation studies from the perspective of linguistic. Zhang Meifang and Huang Guowen are the leading figures in this field. Zhang Meifang conducted translation studies from the perspective of language function in 2005, while Huang Guowen explored the English translation of ancient poems from the perspective of systemic-functional linguistics in 2006. They affirmed the significance of discourse linguistics for translation studies and explored the translation analysis methods of discourse linguistics. ( Zhang Meifang, 2005) (Huang Guowen, 2006)

Lv Jun first discussed the philosophical basis of translation studies from three aspects in his article. Starting from the philosophical basis of critical philology, structuralist linguistic translation and deconstruction translation, he pointed out that translation studies should be based on general pragmatics (2002). （Lv Jun，2002）

Subsequently, Lv published Constructing The Linguistic Basis of Translation Studies (2004), in which he pointed out that neither structuralist linguistics nor meta-linguistics were suitable for the linguistic basis of translation studies, and only taking speech act theory as the linguistic basis could reflect the essence of translation and show the characteristics of translation activities. This series of studies by Lv Jun have provided a new perspective for the study of the construction of translation studies and promoted the transformation from structuralist linguistics to pragmatics. (Lv Jun, 2004)

Li Zhenguo (2017) made a comparison between traditional linguistic methods and discourse linguistic methods, and drew similarities and differences between them, as well as their impact on translation studies.(Li Zhenguo ,2017)

Yi Jing published his doctoral thesis On The Construction of Translation Studies (2009), which systematically and objectively sorted out the development of translation studies. Kong Xiangli's thesis On The Construction of Translation Studies in China in 2009 gave a comprehensive overview of the construction of translation studies in China. These doctoral thesis are of great reference value for translation studies. (Yi Jing, 2009)

Linguistics and translatology are the most closely related disciplines, and the relationship between them has always been the focus of discussion. In ''A Study on Linguistic Translation'' (2008), Zhang Boran affirmed the contribution of modern linguistics to the development of theoretical research on translation. Yi Jing (2012) also believed that the study of translation theories can be systematized, scientific and objectified, largely due to the development of linguistics. (Zhang Boran,2008) (Yi Jing,2012)

Zhao Wenting summarized the theoretical research on translation of Western linguistic schools in 2016. Zhang concluded that linguistic research on translation has gone through three main stages, all of which have made outstanding contributions to the development of translation studies. (Zhao Wenting,2016)

Zou Bing and Mu Lei (2020) focused on the relationship between linguistics and translation studies, analyzing the contributions of early and contemporary linguistic approaches to translation studies. And they also emphasized on the multiple approaches of contemporary linguistic approaches. They believed that translators should pay close attention to the new development of linguistic research methods and try to apply them to the study of translation. (Zou Bing and Mu Lei, 2020)

In recent years, translation studies have developed rapidly. With the rising of cognitive linguistics and corpus linguistics, the research of translatology also has appeared the trend of multimodal development. Wang Yin in Translation View in Cognitive Linguistics proposed that reality precedes cognition and cognition precedes language. Language is the product of reality and cognition, so is translation. Experience and cognition precedes translation, and translation is also the result of experience and cognition. (Wang Yin,2017)

Later, many scholars have studied the relationship between cognitive linguistics and translation. Fan Xiangtao and Lu Bixiao (2019) have combed through Chinese and Western translation studies and found that western cognitive translation studies have been constantly innovating in terms of concepts and methods. In contrast, domestic research on cognitive translation is relatively backward west, and there is still a great space for future research on cognitive translation. (Fan Xiangtao and Lu Bixiao , 2019)

Liao Qiyi proposed in ''Corpus and Translation Studies'' (2000) that the development of corpus linguistics has exerted great influence on language studies and translation studies closely related to language studies. He discussed the significance of the corpus related to translation teaching and translation theory. (Liao Qiyi, 2000)

Li Yan (2020) reviewed the corpus-based translation studies in China from 1999 to 2018 and summarized the development characteristics and deficiencies of the researches. She proposed that we should not only learn from the research results of foreign corpus, but also develop corpus translation research with Chinese characteristics. (Li Yan ,2020)

From the above literature review, it can be seen that since the last century, from the emergence of the awareness of translation studies construction to the realization of the independence of translation studies, translation studies have developed rapidly under the joint efforts of numerous linguists and translators. In recent years, translation studies have shown a trend of interdisciplinary and diversified development, and the construction of translation studies has become a focus of current research.

==='''3.The Construction of Translatology '''===

In this chapter, the author firstly makes a distinction between translation and translation studies, then introduces the research objects, main contents and characteristics of translation studies, and finally summarizes the three development stages of translation studies.

'''3.1Translation and Translatology'''

"Translation" and "translatology" are two distinct but often be confused. The most familiar concept is translation, but there is no exact definition of translation.“Translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text.”（Wikipedia）And Eugene A. Nida defined that “Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language, the closest nature equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning, and secondly in terms of style.” As can be seen from the definitions of translation, translation is a cross-cultural activity involving the conversion of two languages.(Tan Zaixi 1987)

In a different aspect,“Translation studies is an academic interdiscipline dealing with the systematic study of the theory, description and application of translation, interpreting, and localization.” In English, "translatology" is also used to refer to translation studies." (Wikipedia) Liu Zhongde also set the definition that translatology is a comprehensive and systematic study of the rules of bilingual transformation in translation, and a basic science of the law and method of translation thinking".（Liu Zhongde，1995）

Translatology is a human science that studies translation. The study of translation has its own unique object of study -- bilingual transformation. Around this center, translation studies also carry out researches on translation history, translation theory, translation criticism, translation teaching and so on.Translation Studies borrows much from the various fields of study that support translation，such as linguistic, literature, philosophy etc. ( Kong Xiangli,2009)

'''3.2 Three Stages of Translatology'''

Throughout the development history of translation in China and the West, the development of translation studies has gone through three similar processes, from early translation practice to the awakening of the need to establish an independent discipline and to the rapid development of translation studies. (Liu Zhongde,1989)

'''3.2.1 Early translation practice'''

Translation practice has a long history in both China and the West. Because of the needs of daily communication and cultural exchange, translation has become an important part of social life. China has a long history of translation, which can be traced back to the Han and Tang Dynasties. In the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, translation flourished for the second time. Then a large number of translator appeared in the late Qing Dynasty and early Republic of China. They translated a large number of texts for the purpose of saving the country, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu. There were more translation practices in modern China, such as Lu Xun, Lin Xianyi, Fu Lei etc. (Yi Jing,2009)

The early Western translation went through the Latin translation stage and the Bible translation period. By the Renaissance, there were a large number of translators and translated texts. From the 17th century to the 19th century, the western translation of classical works reached a climax, during which A·F·Tytler and Schleiermacher explored the early translation theory. It can be said that translation theory originates from translation practice, which has laid a good foundation for theoretical exploration for centuries. Theory and practice are combined to promote each other.（Yi Jing,2008)

'''3.2.2 The awareness of an independent discipline'''

Since translation is an activity involving language, linguistics is a science specialized in the study of language. For a long time, translatology has been included in the field of linguistic study. But in the early 20th century, with the emergence of a group of highly competent and independent-minded translation theorists, they called for "translation must become an independent discipline". People gradually realized that translation practice without the guidance of scientific theories is blind, and it is necessary to establish a discipline specializing in translation activities. James S. Holmes asked for the consolidation of an independent discipline and proposed a classification of the research field. Nida and Willss also argued that translation is a science, not a merely a technical activity. (Tan Zaixi, 1987 )

Such a group of people also appeared the independence of translation in modern China. Lin Yutang used the word "translation studies" many times in the 1930s. Dong Qiusi put forward in 1951 the idea of building a scientific and systematic translation theory system. After Dong, many famous translators such as Tan Zaixi and Liu Miqing also indicated that translation studies must be established.With so much effort devoted to translation theorists, the study of translation developed into an independent discipline in the 1980s.（Wang Qinghua，2017）

'''3.2.3 The rapid development stage of translation studies'''

Translation studies, as a young discipline, has developed rapidly since it established its independent status, just as linguistics did at the beginning. Translation studies have shown a trend of multiple approaches, and there are many schools of translation, such as the school of language and the school of literature and art. Many scholars specialized in translation studies and have published a series of articles and works trying to build a comprehensive and systematic discipline. Up to now, translatology has become an important humanities subject in language studies.(Tan Zaixi 2018)

Translatology has developed alongside the growth in translation schools and courses at university level. In 1995, a study of 60 countries revealed there were 250 bodies at university level offering courses in translation or interpreting. In 2013, the same database listed 501 translator-training institutions. Accordingly, there has been a growth in conferences on translation, translation journals and translation-related publications. The visibility acquired by translation has also led to the development of national and international associations of translation studies. It has shown a tendency to broaden its research field, and this trend may be expected to continue.（Wikipedia）

==='''4.The Influence of Linguistics on the Construction of Translatology'''===

For the formation of translatology, one of the most conspicuous factors is the application of cross-disciplinary research, which not only expands the search field of translation studies, but also promotes people to study translation from different perspectives to explore its essence. From the discussion of translatology in the previous chapter, it can be seen that among the many related disciplines, linguistics is the most closely related discipline. This chapter mainly discusses the influence of linguistics on translation studies from three aspects: first, the exploration of translation by early linguists; second, the influence of linguistic theories on translation studies, and finally, the reference significance of the construction experience of linguistics for translation studies. (Zou Bin, Mu Lei, 2020 )

4.1 Contributions of early linguists to translation

As one of the important ways of constructing translation studies, linguistics has made an important contribution to the development of translation studies. With the development of modern linguistics, many linguists began to explore translation from the perspective of linguistics. So many people who have made great contributions to translatology were linguists or those who have received systematic education in linguistics. Even early academic conferences on translation were included in the category of linguistic conferences. (Yi Jing, 2009 )

Humboldt was a German linguist and politician. He had a deep understanding of many languages and was the first to demonstrate the translatability and untranslatability. Jacobson, one of the representatives of the Prague school, first borrowed concepts of "signifier" and "signified" that proposed by Saussure to study the differences between the linguistic form and content of translated texts. He divided translation into three types: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. He defined the research object of translation and studied translation theories from the perspective of linguistics. (Yi Jing, 2009 )

Catford is a representative of the London School of Linguistics. He adopts Halliday 's theory of systemic-functional grammar to study the nature, category, equivalence, transformation and limitation of translation. Georges Mounin, a French linguist, used the theory of structuralist linguistics to analyze the linguistic barriers in translation, expounded the relationship between translation and philology, context and syntax, and systematically studies the problem of translatability.（Yang Zijian 1987）

These early linguists' contributions to translation are reflected in two aspects. On the one hand, they studied translation from the perspective of language and further revealed the essence of translation, which made translation get rid of the early empiricism and mysticism and directly promoted the development of translation theory. On the other hand, their researches inspired later scholars to continue to explore the value of translation. However, their contributions to translation still have some limitations, because they only take translation as a part of linguistics to study, so the scope and depth of their research are not enough. (Lv Jun, 2004 )

4.2 Translation studies based on linguistic theory

In the 1950s and 1960s, a relatively systematic theory of linguistic translation was formed in the West. Later, some translation scholars began to use the structural theory, transformational generation grammar theory, systematic-functional theory, and discourse analysis theory of modern linguistics to study translation. With the development of linguistics, many new achievements of linguistics have been applied to translation studies, such as sociolinguistics, discourse linguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. The development of contemporary linguistics provides a new perspective for the construction of translation studies and gives new vitality to traditional translation studies. (Zou Bin, Mu Lei,2020 )

4.2.1 The influence of Structuralist linguistics

Structuralist linguistics began with Saussure 's masterpiece A Course in General Linguistics, which is regarded as the beginning of modern linguistics. Many linguists took Saussure's theory as the theoretical foundation and regarded linguistic units as the research object to analyze "pure linguistic forms". After the emergence of structuralist linguistics, it developed rapidly. By the early 1930s, it occupied the dominant position in Europe and The United States. With the promotion of structural linguistics, translators begin to conduct translation studies with the assistance of structural linguistics.(Lvjun，2004)

Nida put forward the translation theory under the influence of Bloomfield and Chomsky. He referred to Chomsky 's theory of transformational generative grammar, summarized a set of rules for systematic language translation and proposed the core concepts of "the science of translation" and "dynamic equivalence/Functional equivalence". Nida 's translation theory has had a great influence in the West and China. ( Yi Jing, 2009)

Nida put forward the translation theory under the influence of Bloomfield and Chomsky. He referred to Chomsky 's theory of transformational generative grammar, summarized a set of rules for systematic language translation and proposed the core concepts that are "the science of translation" and "dynamic equivalence/Functional equivalence". Nida 's translation theory has exerted a great influence in the West and China. ( Yi Jing, 2009)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Wilss, a German translation theorist, further elaborated Nida 's theory and insisted that translation is a science. Using the theory of general linguistics, Russian translation theorist Barkhudalov divided the language hierarchical system into six levels: phoneme, morpheme, word, phrase, sentence and discourse. According to the language level of the translation unit, six corresponding translation equivalents can be divided accordingly, which is also known as the "six-level equivalence theory" .(Yi Jing,2012)

Structural linguistics advocates to focus on analyzing the linguistic form, syntactic structure and linguistic unit of the source language, and adopts syntactic component analysis. But this way of analysis overemphasizes the formal structure of language and neglects the social and cultural context of language.（Zou Bin,Mu Lei,2020)

4.2.2 The influence of discourse linguistics

For a long time, the theory of structural linguistics has been the focus of translation studies, but with the development of translation studies, the shortcomings of structural linguistics have gradually appeared. Some scholars try to get rid out of the pure language research and study translation in a broader scope. Many translators apply discourse linguistics to the study of translation, because discourse linguistics is not confined to the study of language itself, but expands its vision to the context and communicative functions of language.（Zhang Meifang，Huang Guowen，2002） --[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Hatim and Mason are the earliest foreign scholars who study translation by using pragmatics theory. They studied speech act from the perspective of pragmatic translation of context. Christiane Nord is a leading figure in the German school of Functional Translation. She used the theory of functional linguistics for research and analysis, emphasizing the need for interdisciplinary research between translation and linguistics, philosophy, sociology and computer science. In China, Zhang Meifang studied translation from the perspective of language function, while Huang Guowen explored the translation of ancient poems from the perspective of systemic-functional linguistics. They affirm the significance of discourse linguistics in the study of translation and actively explore the translation analysis methods of discourse linguistics. (Yi Jing, 2009

The focus of discourse linguistics is on the whole text, meaning is reflected through linguistic structure, and translation equivalence is established at the level of text and communication. Its object of study is not only the language system, but also the interlingual factors. Discourse linguistics also studies how to achieve equivalence on the communicative level of discourse by analyzing the characteristics, genre and situational context of discourse, which has many implications for the theory and practice of translation.（Zhang Meifang，Huang Guowen，2002）

4.2.3 The influence of contemporary linguistics

As a school of contemporary linguistics, cognitive linguistics was formed from the late 1980s to the 1990s, which takes experiential philosophy as its background, anti-transformational generative grammar as its theoretical basis and is related to various disciplines such as artificial intelligence and psychology. Translation is also a psychological activity. The process of translation is a cognitive system, which includes language cognition, context cognition, discourse cognition, and sociocultural cognition. Therefore, cognitive linguistics can be used to analyze translation so as to better understand the author's intention and the unique mode of expression. Therefore, cognitive linguistics not only provides a new perspective for translation studies, but also guides the development of translation theory and practice.（Wang Yin,2017）

Corpus linguistics is a branch of linguistics that studies language on the basis of corpus. Since the 1990s, corpus linguistics has provided a large number of analytical methods and materials for translation studies. At present, parallel corpus, multilingual corpus and comparable corpus are widely used. The parallel corpus collects original texts in one language and their corresponding translations into another. Multilingual corpus is a complex corpus composed of two or more monolingual corpus texts of different languages. The comparable corpus collects original texts in a language, such as English, as well as texts translated from other languages. The translation corpus provides a new tool and new research perspectives for translation studies and provides great convenience for translation studies. ( Liao Qiyi，2000)

4.3 The experience of the construction of linguistics

In the 19th century, linguistics began to acquire discipline autonomy. The publication of Saussure 's Course In General Linguistics in 1916 became the beginning of modern linguistics, and the independent discipline of linguistics has been firmly established. At present, a relatively mature linguistic system has been formed. For translation studies, a young discipline, the development course, structure and trend of linguistics are of great inspiration and reference value. (Kong Xiangli，2009 )

4.4.1 Discipline development

Linguistics achieved independence earlier than translatology, but the development course of linguistics and translatology is quite similar. From the perspective of the development of linguistics, linguistics was first attached to other disciplines. After the efforts of many linguists, it has become a truly independent discipline. Second, there were branches of grammar before there was the core branch of general linguistics. Finally, many schools and different theories have emerged with the development of linguistics, and many new theories have been proposed based on the deficiencies of the original theories. (Zou Bin, Mu Lei,2020)

The course of the development of linguistics can enlighten translation studies. First, in the process of its development, translation studies must insist on the independent status of the subject and grasp the autonomy of the subject. Second, translation studies need to develop their own core branches, publishing cross-generational works; Finally, the diversification of disciplines should be encouraged and different ideas and theories should be allowed to emerge. (Kong Xiangli，2009 )

4.4.2 Discipline structure

Because linguistics has been independent for a longer time, its disciplinary structure is more systematic and mature than that of translation studies. At present, many scholars are trying to build a disciplinary framework of translatology, and the disciplinary structure of linguistics is a good example. (Yang Zijian,1993)

From the perspective of disciplinary structure, linguistics has many branches and a huge system, which can be divided into two categories: general linguistics and applied linguistics. The former includes phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics and pragmatics. The latter includes sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, discourse analysis, computational linguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. Each branch has its own field of study. Referring to the disciplinary structure of linguistics, translation studies can also try to build a similar framework according to their own disciplinary characteristics, such as general translation studies and applied translation studies.（Yi Jing，2009）

4.4.3 Development Trend of discipline

Both linguistics and translatology are interdisciplinary subjects that can be learned from other related disciplines. Translation studies and linguistics can also learn from each other and develop together. In the process of development, linguistics has absorbed the experience of many other disciplines, such as sociology, psychology, logic, information theory, neurophysiology, computer science, etc., formed many marginal disciplines or cross disciplines, such as sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. Translatology, as a new discipline, must not be confined to the study of translated texts, but should view the development of other disciplines from an open perspective, and learn and summarize experience.（Kong Xiangli，2009）

==='''5.Conclusion'''===

Linguistics has gone through several stages of development, and it has formed different schools of theory and research methods, which have also brought important theoretical and methodological enlightenment to translation studies. The influence of linguistics on the construction of translation studies is mainly reflected in three aspects: first, the exploration of translation problems by early linguists led translation studies to the approach of scientific research; Secondly, modern linguistic theories provide new perspectives for translation studies, such as structural linguistics, discourse linguistics, cognitive linguistics and corpus linguistics. Thirdly, the development of linguistics provided experience for the construction of translation studies. ( Zou Bin, Mu Lei,2020)

Linguistics and translatology are the most closely related disciplines, and the relationship between them has always been the focus of discussion. Now, it has basically reached a consensus that linguistics is closely related to translation studies, and linguistics can provide a scientific theoretical basis for translation studies and translation activities. However, as Liu Miqing said, "Translators should only take other disciplines for reference, not grafting." Based on the development of translatology, translation studies should reasonably use the research results of linguistics for reference, instead of copying them completely. ( (Liu Miqing, 1989))

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==Reflection on the Learning of Translation Studies in China-许晶Xu Jing,202020080658,外国语言学及应用语言学==

许晶 Xu Jing 202020080658 外国语言学及应用语言学

==='''Abstract'''===

With the continuous advancement of reform and opening-up, foreign trade and international exchanges have become more and more frequent, there is an increasing demand for translation talents, and the team engaged in translation studies has become more and more powerful. The development of Translation Studies as a discipline is getting better and better. By reviewing the development of the Translation Studies in China, as well as reading and refining of translation literature in recent years, this article analyzes the current problems of the learning of Translation Studies and puts forward relevant suggestions from the perspective of translation education and the perspective of students.

==='''Key words'''===

Translation Studies, translation education, translation talents

==='''题目'''===

对中国翻译学学习的反思

==='''摘要'''===

随着我国改革与开放政策的不断推进，对外贸易和国际之间的交往变得越来越频繁，对于翻译人才的需求越来越多，从事翻译研究的队伍也越来越壮阔，翻译学的学科发展也越来越好。本文通过回顾翻译学科在中国的发展历程，以及对近年翻译学文献的阅读和提炼，从翻译教育视角和学生视角出发，分析翻译学科学习目前存在的问题，并提出相应的建议。

==='''关键词'''===

翻译学，翻译教育，翻译人才

==='''1. Introduction'''===

1.1. The Connotation of Translation Studies

Translation Studies used to refer to the researches of translation. It was not until the 20th century that translation studies became a formal academic discipline. The landmark paper published by James S Holmes in 1972, titled "The Name and Nature of Translation Studies", is a basic statement of translation studies，which calls for the establishment of a unique discipline with its own classification system.(James S Holmes 1972)

Basically, at present, Translation Studies is a research field that studies the theory, description and application of translation. Because it treats translation not only as a transfer between languages, but also as an exchange between cultures, it can also be described as an interdisciplinary involving other fields of knowledge, such as comparative literature, cultural studies, gender studies, computer science, history, linguistics, philosophy, rhetoric and semiotics.(wikipedia)

Now Translation Studies as an academic discipline, it requires a systematic study of translation, which is not only an applied practice, but also a means to understand the movement and transfer between multiple languages and cultures. Translation Studies involves the translator's practical experience; it also explores the history and philosophy of translation and current trends in the field from the perspective of theory and methodology. Translation studies can examine the practices and context of translating texts that are specialist (law, business, medicine, etc.); it may also explore the art of translation as a creative act in literary translation and international marketing. Translation studies can also explore how issues such as culture, power, gender, and moral media affect translation behavior.

Learning these knowledge enables students to apply their understanding of theories to the methods, techniques and choices used in daily translation practice. In addition, Translation Studies usually includes the analysis of key texts to enable students to develop an awareness of understanding and interpretation issues. It also involves the development of analysis, practice, evaluation, aesthetics and descriptive skills that are necessary elements solve translation problems. Finally, it includes the development of research skills, practical translation skills, and the ability to develop strategies for managing complex language and cultural transactions.

1.2. The Significance of Translation Studies

With the introduction of university schools and courses, related conferences, translation journals and other translation-related publications, the discipline of translation studies has also been developed. With the requirement of effective, efficient and understanding communication between languages and cultures in today's multicultural and multilingual society, translation skills have become more and more important and desirable.

As a science, Translation Studies always has its own laws that cannot be ignored, and its systematic theories are different from other disciplines. The so-called translation theory is a thorough and systematic description of these laws, which make the skills and techniques that can only be understood in mind in translation into a knowable object and a theoretical system.

Translation theory can provide translators with a series of macro descriptions of the objective laws of translation, as well as in-depth analysis of the internal relations and mechanisms of these laws. By learning translation theory, translators can have a good understanding about the essence of translation behaviors and the fundamental standards of translation better. At the same time, knowing the laws of translation science and translation art, translators who are with the guidance of translation theory and scientific argumentation and methodology will selectively implement the reference means provided by translation theory in practice, and work effectively; When dealing with the difficulties of translation, translator can use a variety of methods. In this way, the translation process can be both scientific and flexible, and the translator can consciously exert their initiative, so that the translation practice becomes a high-level language communication. It is necessary for translators to learn Translation Studies.(Chu Xizhi 2009)

==='''2. The Development Process of Translation Studies in China'''===

Translation activities appeared in China very early, but translation as a discipline appeared relatively late. With the advancement of the People's Republic of China and the promotion of foreign exchanges, China's translation industry has flourished since the establishment of the People's Republic of China. After reading a large number of documents and reviewing the ups and downs of the translation discipline and the translation major in the past 71 years, the author has made a comprehensive analysis and believes that the development process of Translation Studies in China can be divided into the following three stages: the exploration period of Translation Studies, the development period of Translation Studies, and the flourishing period of Translation Studies.

2.1. The Exploration Period of Translation Studies

In the initial stage of the Translation Studies, the famous translator Dong Qiusi in 1950 pointed out that “although there are thousands of hundreds of years of translation experience, there are also 10,000 people engaged in translation, but those who study translation theory, almost no. What we have are some translation regulations and fragments of experience for temporary reference." He clearly called for the establishment of "a complete translation theory system" (Dong Qiusi 1950 ). It is a pity that Dong Qiusi's appeal did not attract much attention.

The translation industry in China is still satisfied with the translator’s experiences, and even mistakes their experiences as theory. In the early days of New China, due to the needs of national construction and foreign exchanges, translation activities were initially highly valued and supported by the party and governments at all levels. Translations of various translation groups, journals, papers, conferences and political documents appeared on the scene.

However, affected by political factors at home and abroad, the development of translation disciplines has almost stagnated, the number of translations has been greatly reduced, and the types of works have been single. During this period, the people engaged in translation discipline construction were front-line foreign affairs translators and literary translators. They were mainly responsible for political and literary translation practice, as well as translation criticism, translation publishing, and translation management, etc.

At that time, because a large number of people who master foreign languages were needed for national construction, language learning was the main task of academic industry, and translation teaching was regarded as a means to improve foreign language ability. Later, with the advancement of reform and opening up, a group of teachers and students who were concerned about translation teaching in the foreign language community joined the group of developing Translation Studies. The number of publications on scientific translation, teaching studies, textbook research, and introduction to Western translation theories has gradually increased. But Translation Studies at this stage is still attached to the third level research direction under Foreign Language and Literature, but the distinction between translation teaching and language teaching has gradually become clear.(Xu Jun;Mu Lei 2009)

2.2. The Development Period of Translation Studies

At the beginning of this period, translation studies explored whether the Translation Studies can become an independent discipline, whether there is a difference between the training of translation professionals and the training of traditional foreign language talents, and what are the differences.

At this stage, some masters and doctors in translation studies joined the team to construct translation discipline. Researchers' disciplinary awareness and interdisciplinary awareness have increased, methodological awareness has sprouted, and the number of micro-level translation teaching research has increased. In the teaching of translation majors, more attention has been paid to theoretical explanations, textual comparisons between English and Chinese, and extra-linguistic factors in translation activities. In 2003 and 2005, Shanghai International Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies established Graduate Institute of Interpretation and Translation in succession. The first degree in Translation Studies was established by the Ministry of Education in Shanghai in 2004, which can be regarded as a sign that Translation Studies have been recognized by the system as a secondary discipline. To this end, a group of special articles in the third issue of “China Translator" in 2004 come to congratulate.(Luo Feng 2011)

Since the establishment of Translation Studies, its disciplinary connotation has been explored, the system has been gradually improved, the framework has become increasingly substantial, and its social contribution has been unique and huge. Translation research ideas, methods, field and resources are further expanded, translation teaching methods, tools and resources are enriched, the number of applied texts in translation teaching increases, and the professional orientation is much clear.(Huang Zhongqian, Zhang Xiao 2020)

2.3. The Flourishing Period of Translation Studies

In 2011, the Ministry of Education adjusted the discipline catalog and listed "Translation Studies" as a second-level subject under the first-level discipline of "Foreign Languages and Literature" officially. As a result, the status of Translation Studies was formally established, facing the world, serving demand, and standardizing construction.(Huang Zhongqian, Zhang Xiao 2020)

In the flourishing period, the construction of translation disciplines and the development of translation majors in China have shown a new look. Translation studies have jumped to new levels, which is reflected in the new breakthroughs in the main construction force. A large number of language service industry practitioners, technical experts and translation scholars have collaborated to provide suggestions for the construction of translation disciplines and talent training.

There are many publications on translation teaching research, translation technology research, translation market and language service industry research, and the construction of the discourse system of translation theory with Chinese characteristics. New changes have taken place in the focus and form of translation teaching. Translation teachers should help students to acquire the industry knowledge, technology, skills and accomplishments that required by the language service market. Teachers can invite industry instructors into classrooms to share their ideas, and through other methods such as project cooperation, field learning, and simulation.

==='''3. Challenges of Learning Translation Studies in China'''===

The development of Translation Studies as a discipline in China did not happen overnight. It also experienced ups and downs along the way. Translation discipline in China has entered a new stage now, and the team of Translation Studies has become larger and larger. More and more colleges and universities set up MTI and MA in Translation. More students and scholars began to engage in Translation Studies. However, due to various reasons, in the process of learning Translation Studies, we also face many problems and challenges. This chapter will introduce the problems of learning Translation Studies in China from the perspectives of translation education and students' personal factors.

3.1. Translation Education

With the establishment of the autonomy of China’s Translation Studies, translation education grows up. And with the historical process of reform and opening for more than 40 years, translation education has made brilliant achievement and has promoted the cultivation of translation professionals, and also will further make important contributions to national economic and social development. It is obvious that translation education plays an important role in the learning process of Translation Studies. A good translation education plays a positive role in the development of translation disciplines, and can also help students learn Translation Studies better.（Huang Youyi 2018）

However, China's translation education started and developed after the reform and opening up, so it is relatively late. Under the background of the new era, it still faces many challenges and urgently needs to be addressed. In addition, the construction history of Translation Studies is not long, and the construction of a complete translation teaching system is still on the way of continuous development, so systematic researches on translation teaching still needs efforts. The author mainly analyzes this problem from four aspects: the orientation of the cultivation of translation talents, the faculty resources, the teaching mode and translation teaching research.

3.1.1. Orientation of the Cultivation of Translation Talents

At present, the orientation of the cultivation of translation talents is not particularly clear. In the actual teaching practice, some colleges and universities do not separate translation major students and English major students clearly due to bluring and confusing educational goal of translation major. There are few differences in teaching model between translation major and the traditional English major. In addition, different colleges and universities still have not unified the concepts, principles, methods and other macro ideas of translation major teaching, and they are independent in the specific classroom teaching operations, and the curriculum settings are out of touch with the market.(Zhong Weihe; Zhao Tianyuan 2020)

In addition, due to the inconsistency between the talent cultivation model in some universities and the development of translation industry, a considerable number of translation graduates do not have good professional ethics, wide encyclopedia knowledge, and professional skills and learning ability. In addition, most of them are lack of organizational management ability, innovation ability as well as collaborate ability. Those reasons have seriously affected the quality and quantity of cultivating translation professionals.(Zhong Weihe 2019)

3.1.2. Faculty Resources

The quality of teachers is closely related to the effect of English translation teaching. English translation has higher requirements for teachers' teaching guidance ability, response ability and language organization ability.

The problem of translation teachers has always been a bottleneck that needs to be broken through. The teachers here include both full-time teachers and part-time teachers. Recent evaluation data shows that although the number of the teacher in translation major is sufficient and the structure is reasonable, the number of professional translators is lacking, and the teachers' scientific research and practical ability are seriously lacking. Statistics for part-time teachers show that the number of part-time teachers can be guaranteed, but only 27% are from the language service industry, and the rest are from the government and universities, which is inconsistent with the requirements of the "''National Standard of Part-time Teacher in MTI Education'' ". (Zhong Weihe 2019)

In addition, many English teachers in colleges and universities have been in a professional teaching environment for a long time and rarely have the opportunity to participate in practice. This has caused translation teaching to derail from the actual situation to some extent, resulting in poor training of professional translators and affecting the overall development of students.(Chen Cheng 2020)

3.1.3. Teaching method

Relatively speaking, the teaching mode of translation teaching in China is still based on traditional English major teaching, and the teaching mode is relatively single. The most commonly used form is to explain the theory and skills, then explain and appreciate the analysis through the example sentences and example texts on the professional textbooks, and finally arrange homework based on the content of this class. (Wang Baigula 2018)

This kinds of teaching method that is entirely a teacher-centered teaching model ignore student autonomy, which will pay too much emphasis on teachers and teaching materials to a large extent, restricting teachers’ ability to innovate and explore. In addition, this kind of translation mode will restrain students' interpreting practice ability to a certain extent and ignore life culture and skills. This will cause translation majors to limit their learning content to test papers instead of translation researches and the process of translation practice.

3.1.4 Translation Teaching Research

The current achievements of translation teaching research in China are mainly expressed in impressionistic and scattered personal experiences, lacking systematic research and strong theoretical support. In other words, it lacks systematic theoretical guidance, clear methodology guidance and effective research method. And the research methods are still based on reflection and experience, and importantly, the empirical research is inconsiderable.（Ou Yonghua 2019）

Besides, the number of interdisciplinary researches is relatively small, and there is also a lack of sufficient number of experiments and opportunities in actual application fields. Translation discipline has a big difference comparing to other disciplines, mainly because of its high interactivity, which requires the participation of many disciplines. Only in this way can the value of the translation discipline be brought into play. However, according to the actual situation of translation learning and translation education in colleges and universities, it can be seen that China has not paid enough attention to this aspect, so that many interdisciplinary content is only on the surface, but do not deep into the actual situation.(Bo Zhenjie, Li Heqing 2011)

3.2. Students

The above mentioned the impact of translation education on translation studies, and the following part will analyze the difficulties faced by students when learning translation studies. In China, English courses are offered from the elementary school, so it is a long journey to learn English. It stands to reason that after a long period of study, students can master English proficiently, and be proficient in oral and writing. But this is not true. The reasons for this situation are as follows.

3.2.1. Low level of commitment to translation learning

Although Chinese students begin to learn English very early and study for a long time, the effective efforts for English learning is not enough.

Translation is not only a simple language conversion, its process is complex and tortuous, especially when the process of translation encountered strange and difficult to understand the content, it requires the translator to be patient, as far as possible to invest their time and energy to search and verify the related knowledge. Most of the time, the unqualified translation results from the fact that the translator does not invest enough time and energy, and only has a superficial understanding of background knowledge, professional terms or corpus search. At the same time, it is difficult for students to have the amount of extra-curricular English reading and accumulate a rich vocabulary. (Wang Na 2020)

As a result, students' basic English translation skills are not solid. If students do not know more than half of the words and phrases in an article, it is impossible for them to translation the whole passage. At the same time, there are many differences between word order of English and Chinese. Due to the insufficient amount of English reading, it is difficult for students to get familiar with the English reading mode and grasp the main points of English translation, so it may lead the final translation to fail to convey the true meaning.

3.2.2. Insufficient background knowledge

Under the influence of exam-oriented education, many Chinese students hope to get a good grade in exam and ignore that learning English is also for communication. They are only satisfied with finishing the English translation exercises assigned by teachers and seldom use English for daily communication or reading English works. And in this way, students do not gain sufficient background information.

With the advent of the era of network, traditional translation objects, such as religious texts and the classics of social sciences, are out of the core status of translation activities and are gradually marginalized. Especially from the quantity of the objects, there are more and more literature references, business documents, documents of national governments and international organizations, which have increasingly become the mainstream of contemporary translation object. Various types of translation objects become big challenges for students’ knowledge. On the other hand, students pay much attention to language transfer and translation skills, but neglect the supplement of professional background knowledge.(Xie Zhentian, 2015)

3.2.3. Neglect of theoretical knowledge

At present, when MA students are learning theoretical knowledge, most of them do not have a correct understanding of Translation Studies. They think that translation theory is useless to some extent or that previous translation theories is very perfect, so they cannot make any innovations in Translation Studies. However, learning Translation Studies is not to create a translation theory. The purpose is to improve students' theoretical awareness so as to establish their translation literacy. The academic master of Translation should focus more on verifying the validity of theories through the practice of translation.(Jiang Feifei 2019）

==='''4. Suggestions for the Learning of Translation Studies'''===

In order to promote the development of Translation Studies, the training of translation talents is extremely important. Translation Studies as a discipline needs to be improved over time. The following will show the efforts we need to make from the perspectives of translation education and the students themselves, in order to better learn Translation Studies and promote Translation Studies in China.

4.1. Translation Education

Translation education plays an important role in cultivating translation talents, and a good translation education system will provide a good environment for students to learn Translation Studies, so it is necessary to improve translation education system.

4.1.1. Improve Teaching Mode

The teaching model is an important guarantee for cultivating interdisciplinary English translators. At present, colleges and universities should focus on the current social needs. Teachers should effectively integrate the curriculum with social reality in the teaching process, which can be based on the current social situation. (Wang Baigula 2018)

Similarly, the translation model has a very important impact on teaching arrangement. The rapid enrichment of theoretical horizons has put forward many new requirements for translation teaching. Therefore, translation teaching should also combine these needs to innovate. For example, many translation learning in China have begun to shift to the perspective of students' autonomous learning, rather than relying solely on teachers’ guidance or leading. This is a very good practice, and it also meets the new requirements of the times. (Ou Yonghua 2019)

The objective teaching method is a teaching mode that can be introduced in translation teaching,which attaches great importance to the construction of learning environment and the value of teachers' guidance to students. It is very important for translation learning. While diffusing students' interest in learning, it will also increase students' creative ability and thought diffusion. And through the current teaching equipment and teaching software to enrich the teaching content in the teaching process so as to improve the students’ learning efficiency.(Ou Yonghua 2019)

4.1.2. Strengthen Faculty Force

Teachers occupies a very important position in the training of talents, and at the same time, improving the quality and ability of the teaching team is also the most important thing when training talents.

Therefore, in view of the current low professional quality and ability of teachers in ordinary colleges and universities in China, first of all, colleges and translation teachers need to clarify the requirements for professional ability development, and strive to improve the professional quality of teachers (professional ethics and norms, lifelong learning), professional knowledge (linguistic culture and discipline knowledge, education theory) and professional ability (teaching design and implementation, teaching strategy, modern technology application, teaching reflection, scientific research, practice, testing and evaluation, digital scientific research and learning, data analysis);（Zhong Hewei 2019）

Secondly, at the beginning of the training of talents, it is possible to engage outstanding professional teams outside the school to communicate, so as to enhance the echelon construction of the school's teaching team, improve the teacher structure in the school, and devote to the comprehensive training of professional translators suitable for social development and needs. The cultivation of talents and the construction of teachers. (Wang Baigula 2018)

4.1.3. Broaden the academic vision of translation

Translation research is a booster for the development of the education of translation majors in the new era. In the future, Chinese translation research can still make breakthroughs in the following aspects. The first is to strengthen the research of translation theory, focusing not only on the grand theory of structural analysis and classification, but also on the micro-theories of specific phenomena and answering practical questions, and to reserve the prerequisite theoretical knowledge that needs to be solved for the establishment and development of the discipline, which carry out the provision of landmark for a comprehensive academic research of the discipline. (Lan Hongjun, 2018)

The second is to innovate research methods and carry out disciplinary cooperation. At present, in the research of translation education, humanistic research is dominant, and empirical research is gradually increasing. Translation education involves many subjects such as pedagogy, psychology, and testing. With the continuous emergence of new research technologies and methods, and the increasingly obvious interdisciplinary, translation education research should be able to learn from interdisciplinary research methods, carry out interdisciplinary cooperation, and be good at using new technology and innovative research methods.(Mu Lei, Li Xixi 2019)

4.2. Students

Translation talents play a very important role in the development of translation studies. Those who will be engaged in the field of translation should also work hard to improve themselves, expand their knowledge, earnestly study theoretical knowledge, and practice more.

4.2.1. Expanding knowledge

Translation Studies is originally an interdisciplinary subject. Whether you are engaged in translation research or translation practice in the future, you need to expand your knowledge. For students studying translation studies, when they are learning translation theory, they also need to master the knowledge of linguistics, psychology, pedagogy, philosophy, etc., so as to integrate them with translation studies. For students who are going to be engaged in translation practice in the future.Not only should they have a solid foundation in language ability, but also they should take the initiative to continuously learn new knowledge with a broad perspective. They should not only focus on their major field, but also should grasp the knowledge of politics, economics, science and technology, history, geography, customs, etc. to strengthen their comprehensive language skills.(Xu Jun;Mu Lei 2009)

A very good way to expand their knowledge is to improve their search ability. Search ability refers to how translators use dictionaries, encyclopedias, search engines, corpora, grammar books, etc. to solve practical problems in translation. With economic globalization and various changes in the language service industry, the demand for non-literary translation has skyrocketed. Translators need to be exposed to translations in various forms (audio, video, website, etc.) and fields (mechanical, chemical, electrical, etc.), MTI students are urgent to learn certain professional background knowledge and increase the depth and scope of search to deal with more complex and difficult translation tasks. (Wang Na 2020)

4.2.2. Emphasize theory and practice more

Knowledge comes from practice. Current translation theories provide many conveniences for this activity. In the process of translation practice, students can also verify the validity of these theories. However, students should not only understand the knowledge of linguistics and the skills and theories of translation，but also practice more. Theories that are out of practice cannot keep up with the development of the times.

Students must spend enough time in practicing. They can take part in many social activities to experience different aspects of social life, and keep close contact with the masses in order to continuously broaden their horizons and know the society better. And then it is possible for them to analyze practical experience and conclude it into theory.(Lin lin 2016)

==='''5.Conclusion'''===

This chapter analyzes the current situation of Translation Studies as a discipline by reviewing the development process of Translation Studies in China. There are many factors that affect the learning of Translation Studies. Among them, from the perspective of translation teaching, in China, the objection of talent training is unclear, the faculty resource is insufficient, and the teaching structure is relatively simple. Therefore, translation education need to clarify the orientation of cultivating translation talents. At the same time, teachers should also improve their personal qualities, including their teaching ability and professional knowledge. In addition, research on translation education should also be emphasized, and exchanges and cooperation between the disciplines should be strengthened to conduct more effective translation learning and translation research.

From the students’ point of view, those who major in translation must learn translation studies hard to contribute to the development of Translation Studies. However, many students did not work hard to learn their major, their basic skills are not wonderful, and their knowledge scope is relatively narrow. Some students do not have a correct understanding of translation studies. To become an excellent translator, students also need to spend time and energy to expand their knowledge range. At the same time, students also need to take translation theories seriously and learn it carefully, and then apply those theories to practice. In this way, they can also gain a lot of practical experience.

President Xi Jinping, asked” the majority of philosophy and social science workers to bravely stand on the forefront of the times, communicate the changes of the past and the present, and give the first signs of thought” (Xi Jinpin 2016). Looking back on the past decades, the achievements and independent status of Translation Studies are still not achieved overnight. They have condensed the unremitting exploration and hard work of many scholars, showing a development axis of independence, self-consciousness, self-reliance and self-confidence. Looking forward to the future, we hope that the successors of Translation Studies and translation majors can inherit the spirit of their predecessors in the grand vision of the development of Chinese language service industry in the new era, and keep the discipline mission in mind. (Zhong Weihe, Zhao Tianyuan 2020)

Based on China's social development practice and serving the national strategy, we can have dialogue with the international translation community, learn from the latest foreign translation theories, and combine the history and current situation of Chinese translation to further improve the translation discipline system, academic system and discourse system construction. And it also can promote the cultivation of translation talents. The author sincerely hopes that the Chinese characteristics and Chinese style of Translation Studies can make contributions to the development of international translation studies.--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 15:23, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

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==The influence of translator's cultural identity on translation 周玉娟 Zhou Yujuan==
<center>周玉娟 Zhou Yujuan 202020080674 亚非语言文学波斯语方向 .</center>

<center>The influence of translator's cultural identity on translation.</center>

===Abstract===
Liang Shiqiu and Zhu Shenghao are both outstanding representatives of Shakespeare's plays translated in 20th century Chinese literature. Zhu Shenghao lived in a time of war and turmoil , and lived a hard and poor life , so his translations were both imbued with deep patriotism, and his translations were based on naturalization strategies. As a scholar who returned from overseas studies, Liang Shiqiu believed that literature was created by genius. Therefore, he adopted the strategy of alienation in the translation process with the purpose of spreading the culture of foreign countries.

===Keywords===
translation; translator; cultural identity; Shakespeare's plays

===题目===
译者文化身份对翻译的影响

===摘要===
梁实秋和朱生豪都是20世纪中国文学界翻译莎士比亚戏剧的杰出代表人物。朱生豪生活在战火纷飞，动荡不安的年代，生活过得很艰苦和贫困，所以他的翻译中都蕴含了深深的爱国主义情怀，翻译以归化策略为主。梁实秋作为海外学成归来的学者，认为文学是天才创作的。所以他以传播异国的文化为目的，在翻译过程中采取了异化策略。

===关键词===
翻译；译者；文化身份；莎士比亚剧

===Introduction===

Translating a work that is a re-recognition and re-expression of what the translator knows and transmits. On the one hand, the translator transmits the content of the original author, and on the other hand, the translator also incorporates his or her own interpretation and understanding into it. In traditional translation studies, whether the translation is faithful to the original work is the key criterion to measure the goodness of a translated work, and it is also an important criterion to judge a translator's qualification or otherwise. (Many. 2018: 85) Therefore, the translator plays an important role in both translating and interpreting, and the translator is the first person who is in direct contact with the original text.

Benjamin, the famous German literary critic, once said : "In any discussion of translation, the traditional concept always revolves around fidelity and freedom: that is, the freedom to reproduce the original faithfully and the fidelity to the original in the reproduction." (Benjamin. 1968/2004: 20) However, in the process of translation, besides being faithful to the direct expression of the original, translators also have their own translation characteristics and strategies. The issue of "cultural identity" has also received more and more attention. (Fu, Wenhui. 2011: 16)

There have been many Chinese translations of Shakespeare's plays in China, among which Zhu Shenghao and Liang Shiqiu are both classic representatives of Shakespeare's plays in translation. However, they differ in many aspects such as the purpose of their respective translations, translation styles, and translation contents. The reason for this is that the influence of their cultural identities on their translations cannot be ignored. This paper will try to explore the influence of their respective cultural identities on the translation purposes and translation contents by comparing their cultural identities and the social and cultural backgrounds in which they lived, so as to provide guiding inspirations and suggestions for translation practice activities.

=== Introduction to the identity of the translator===
Translators are also readers, however, they act as readers in a special sense; the ultimate goal of a translator is not to read and understand the original text, but to convey the original text he reads by interpreting it in another linguistic symbol (Wu Delu. 2016:211). Both Liang Shiqiu (1903-1987) and Zhu Shenghao (1912-1944) were famous translators of Shakespeare in China in the twentieth century, and their translations have stood the test of time. The contributions that Liang Shiqiu and Zhu Shenghao made to the Chinese literary world are well known.

Cultural identity, or cultural identity, (Wang Ning. 1999:45) mainly includes a nation, group or individual's sense of identity with its own culture and perception of self-image,( Wang Zhenping. 2017:68) which is characterized by the fact that cultural identity carries the self-identified and recognized cultural characteristics of a certain group, and the manifestation of these characteristics in group members varies in strength and weakness depending on the objective environment. Cultural identity is expressed through the way people communicate, interpersonal relationships, and behavioral norms (Liu Shuang. 2000:90), and it is stable and fluid.

"Although Liang Shiqiu and Zhu Shenghao are both known in contemporary times, they are different in terms of translation purpose, style, technique, and even phrasing, forming two different schools of Shakespeare translation in China." (Xi Yongji. 2007:245)

====Zhu Shenghao's Cultural Identity====
Zhu Shenghao is a famous translator. He was born on February 2, 1912, in Jiaxing, Zhejiang Province, to a family of small, declining merchants. Zhu Shenghao began to translate Shakespeare in 1935, but the translation process was difficult and the conditions were tough (the Japanese attacked Shanghai in 1937 and the city was in flames. Zhu Shenghao's house was burned down by the Japanese, and he escaped with the Oxford edition of the complete works of Shakespeare and some of his translations. (Most of his translations were burned by the Japanese.) However, he persisted in his translation career and devoted himself to it, eventually leaving us forever in 1944 due to lung disease from overwork.

In less than ten years, he translated a total of thirty-one and a half Shakespeare plays with amazing perseverance and talent. Later, his wife, Song Qingyu, compiled all his translations and passed them on to the World Book Bureau in Shanghai, which published The Complete Works of Shakespeare in the fall of 1947. Many Shakespeare researchers could not believe that the Chinese could write such a high quality translation. It is easy to see that his remarkable talent was recognized both at home and abroad.

Throughout the above, Zhu Shenghao lived in a time of war and turmoil, experienced the May Fourth Movement and other tides, and his translations were imbued with a deep sense of patriotism, so his translation of Shakespeare's plays was based on domestication strategies. (Yan Xiaojiang. 2010: 95) As a patriotic young man, he longed for China to be understood and to transmit and promote Chinese culture. The so-called naturalization means that the language and culture are the main focus, which ensures the fluency of the translation, reduces the strangeness of the original text, and allows the target language readers to better understand the original text.

====Liang Shiqiu's Cultural Identity====
Liang Shiqiu, whose original name was Zhihua, was born in Beijing. He was a famous Chinese modern and contemporary essayist, scholar, literary critic, translator, and the first authority on Shakespeare in China. He studied at the English Department of the University of Colorado, Harvard University and Columbia University Graduate School.

However, it is worth mentioning that Liang believes that literature is a creation of genius. Liang repeatedly said, "All civilization is the original creation of a very few geniuses", "literature and art are the original creation of a few geniuses", "there is no literature and art for the majority, and literature and art are not for the majority ". (Liang Shiqiu: R.O.C. 23) "The highest art can only be understood by a few ...... Art has its own many grades, so the appreciation of art also has many grades."

However, it is worth mentioning that Liang believed that literature is a creation of genius. Liang repeatedly said, "All civilization is the original creation of a very few geniuses", "The highest art can only be understood by a few", "Art has its own many grades, so the appreciation of art also has many grades. ". (Liang Shiqiu: R.O.C. 23)

As for the satisfaction of the literary and artistic requirements of the general public, Liang Shiqiu arranged for them the arts such as story-telling and popular literary works, because their knowledge could only understand such works and they were only interested in such arts, as for the great works of art, like Shakespeare's plays, that naturally only the great artists could appreciate and appreciate them. Liang Shiqiu's mistake was to exaggerate the role of heroic figures such as geniuses and completely ignore the role of the general public in the creation and reception of art. (Wang Qili. 2004: 12)

We can see that Liang Shiqiu was a scholar who returned from overseas, but he advocated "genius literature" and ignored the role of the people in art and culture. Liang Shiqiu began his translation of Shakespeare in 1930, and it took him nearly 40 long years to complete the translation of this masterpiece, which had a profound impact on the Chinese translation. (Zhou Li. 2016:30) At the same time, his literary thought was largely influenced by Western classicism and neo-humanism, so when translating, he mostly adopted the strategy of alienation.

====Foreignization and domestication Strategies====

According to Venuti, domestication is "bringing the original author into the desired language and culture of the translation", while dissimilation is "accepting the linguistic and cultural differences of the foreign work and bringing the reader into the foreign situation" (Venuti, 1995:20). (Venuti, 1995:20)

Domestication means to localize the original language, to take the target language or the readers of the translation as the home, and to adopt the expressions that the target language readers are accustomed to in order to convey the content of the original. The translator is required to get closer to the readers of the target language, and the translation must become an authentic national language. This method helps readers understand the translation better and enhances the readability and appreciation of the translation.

The method of Foreignization is: "the translator does not disturb the author as much as possible, so that the reader moves closer to the author". In translation, it means absorbing the expressions of foreign languages, requiring the translator to draw closer to the author and adopt the expressions corresponding to the source language used by the author to convey the content of the original text, that is, to take the language and culture of the original text as the home. Centering on the language and culture of the original language, the cultural characteristics and exoticism of the original language are preserved as much as possible; (Yan Xiaojiang. 2010: 95) Using the strategy of Foreignization helps readers better appreciate the differences in national culture, national characteristics and exotic elements such as language style features.

===The cultural identity of translators in translation===
First, the translator is the second pair of eyes of the reader. "For most readers who do not understand the original work, (the translator's interpretation) is the only way to enter the world of the original work" (Xu Jun 2014: 220). Therefore, the translator's performance in translation is directly related to the reader's acceptance. Moreover, under the translator's subjective role, "the flower of life of the original work gains a continuous, up-to-date and most flourishing opening in the translation" (Ben-jamin 1968/2004: 20). The translator is, in turn, the bearer and transmitter of the author's work. A translator's contribution is unquestionable if his or her translation is recognized by the public or the academic community.

Liang Shiqiu's and Zhu Shenghao's translations have their own strengths, Liang's for scholars to study, Zhu's for the popularization of Shakespeare's works, and both translations interpret classic literary works from different perspectives. (Yan Xiaojiang. 2010:98) But both have made great contributions to world literature.

====In terms of the original intention of translation====
The reasons for Zhu Shenghao's translation of Shakespeare have also been explored, and all of them agree that personal interest, patriotic thought, dedication and financial embarrassment were the main motivations for his translation of Shakespeare. Here, we prefer to consider "interest" as the primary motivation. (Qiu Yunchen. 2010:591) Zhu Shenghao said, "I love Shakespeare's plays so much so that I have tried to read the whole text at least ten times from the beginning to the end. ......" Zhu's preference for Shakespeare is so obvious that "He was so passionate about Shakespeare that he would not stop reading and studying Shakespeare assiduously

In addition, because Zhu Shenghao was born in an ordinary family and his parents died at an early age, his life was difficult, and he mentioned in his translations that he had to pay for translating Shakespeare's plays. Economic reasons also drove his perseverance in translating, and furthermore, Zhu Shenghao lived in a time of war and experienced the May Fourth Movement and other fashions, and his translations contained deep patriotism, a desire for China to be understood and to transmit Chinese culture. This patriotic sentiment also inspired his determination to translate Shakespeare's plays.

Liang Shiqiu believed that there is a distinction between elegant and vulgar literature, genius always appreciate literature, the general public usually read popular literature. In Liang Shiqiu's view, not only the subject of creation can only be a very small number of geniuses, that is, the appreciation of literature is also the patent of a very small number of talented people, "only a few people can understand the highest art ......, literature and art is not for the majority." (Liang Shiqiu. 1988:117). According to Liang Shiqiu, "literature is created by genius".

When he studied at Harvard University, he took the course "Literary Criticism after the Sixteenth Century" by the American neoclassicist Irving Babbitt, and was greatly influenced by Western humanist thought in literary thought and the Western cultural environment, so he set out to translate Shakespeare's plays with the aim of spreading the idea of foreign culture. Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare aimed to "preserve the most authentic things" and to convey the author's meaning visually. Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare was very faithful to the original text, and his opposition to "hard translations" and "bent translations" shows that he advocated faithfulness and fluency in translation. (Xiao Li. Li Xiaoying. 2012:95)

====In terms of the content of the translation (taking the translation of Shakespeare as an example)====
Zhu Shenghao stated at the beginning of his translation: "In translating this book, my aim is to maintain the charm of the original work as much as possible, and then to consider the second point if it is not feasible, that is, to convey the meaning and feelings faithfully of the original text in simple and easy-to-understand sentences; but I dare not agree with the rigid translation of word-by-word comparison.... I would like to be a reader and check the translation for any ambiguities. I must also pretend to be an actor on the stage, and examine whether the tone of speech is smooth and whether the syllables are in tune. It often takes days to think hard about a word or phrase that is not agreeable." (Zhu Shenghao. (2010:36) This shows that Zhu Shenghao paid more attention to the performance function of drama in translation of Shakespeare’s plays.

For example: ( the translation of Zhu Shenghao)

EGEUS: Stand forth，Demetrius． My noble lord，

伊吉斯:走上前来，狄米特律斯。殿下，这个人，

This man hath my consent to marry her．

是我答应把我女儿嫁给他的

Stand forth，Lysander．

走上前来，拉山德。

And，my gracious Duke， This man hath bewitched the bosom of my child．（莎士比亚.2011：22）

殿下，这个人引诱坏了我的孩子（朱生豪. 2013：9）

In addition, influenced by traditional Chinese moral and ethical thinking, when obscene words and indecent phrases appeared in the original text, Zhu Shenghao basically "purified" or arbitrarily rewrote them, or simply deleted them without translation. Perhaps it is also the fact that his translations conform to the requirements of Chinese moral culture that makes his works so well-received. The advertisement published by World Bookstore clearly states two sentences: "The original text is brilliant, a treasure of world literature ornaments; the translation is beautiful and fluent, keeping the charm of the original work.
For example, his translation.
LYSANDEＲ: Hang off，thou cat，thou burr! Vile thing，let loose，Or I will shake thee from me like a serpent． (Ⅲ．ⅱ) (莎士比亚.2011:110)

拉山德:放开手，你这猫! 你这牛蒡子! 贱东西，放开手!

否则我要像摔掉身上一条蛇那样摔掉你了(莎士比亚．2013:117 )。

Liang Shiqiu believed that translation should be faithful to the original text, so his translation content can be summarized as "faithfulness and fidelity". The style of "faith" and "faithfulness" has been developed. (Li Jiawei/Hui Lijun. 2017:75) Because of this faithfulness, Liang Shiqiu believed that any arbitrary rewriting or deletion of the original work would be unfaithful to the work, and that the vulgar language in Shakespeare's plays has its specific role in portraying characters and increasing the stage effect. Therefore, he kept the obscene words in the original text intact in the translation process.

First: Stay true to the original text and try not to delete or subtract from it.For example:

LYSANDEＲ: Hang off，thou cat，thou burr! Vile thing，let loose，Or I will shake thee from me like a serpent.(Ⅲ.ⅱ)(莎士比亚.2001:110)

Translation of Liang Shiqiu:

赖,走开，你这个猫，你这个缠人的东西! 下流的东西，松手，

否则我要把你像是毒蛇一般的甩开(莎士比亚.梁实秋译2001:110)。

HELENA She was a vixen when she went toschool:

And though she be but little，she is fierce．(Ⅲ． ⅱ) (莎士比亚.梁实秋译2001:116)

海上学时她就是个狐狸精。

她虽然身材小，她很凶(莎士比亚.梁实秋译2001: 117) 。

Second, Liang Shiqiu's translations retain the punctuation of the original texts (Li Jiawei/Hui Lijun. 2017:75) Liang believes that retaining punctuation makes the translations more "Shakespearean". "The punctuation used by Shakespeare may seem less formal, but in fact it is a self-contained system, designed to point out the effect of intonation when the actors recite their lines. Based on this clarification, I then decided to preserve as much of Shakespeare's original punctuation as possible in a text, with the result that where there is an original sentence, there is a translation". (Liang Shiqiu. 1966)

Therefore, Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare pays more attention to the literary function of drama and more attention to the stage function of literature.

For example, a fragment of Liang Shiqiu's translation of Hamlet.

Queen. There is a willow grows aslant a brook,
That shows his hoar leaves in the glassy stream;
There with fantastic garlands did she come,
Of crow-flowers, nettles, daisies, and long purples,
That liberal shepherds give a grosser name.
But our cold maids do dead man’s fingers call them:
There, on the pendent boughs her coronet weeds
Clambering to hang ,an envious sliver broke,
When down her weedy trophies and herself
Fell in the weeping brook. Her clothes spread wide;
And, mermaid-like, awhile they bore her up;
Which time she chanted snatches of old tunes; As one
incapable of her own distress,
Or like a creature native and indu’d
Unto that element: but long it could not be
Till that her garments ,heavy with her drink,
Pull’d the poor wretch from her melodious lay
To muddy death.
（shakespeare, hamlet, act Ⅳ, scenceⅦ）

Liang’s version :

河边有一株斜长着的杨柳，白叶倒映在玻璃似的流水里；他就来到那个地方，拿着些奇异的花圈，扎的是毛莨、荨麻、延命菊，以及粗野牧人呼之不雅之名而纯洁女郎都呼为“死人指”的紫兰。就在那里，她爬上树枝想去挂她的花圈，无情的枝子断了；她的花圈和她自身于是坠入呜咽的河流。她的衣服展开，像是鲛人似的，把她浮上来一会儿，这时节她唱了几句古歌，好像不知自身痛苦似的，又好像是水下生长的动物似的；但是这情形没有多久，她的衣服湿透就变重了，于是把这可怜的人儿于曼声高唱中扯到污泥的死所去了。

===Conclusion===
The translator's cultural identity is impressed by various factors such as the different backgrounds of the translator's life and the different cultural ideas he or she has received, and this identity is present in the translator's translation works almost all his or her life. In other words, the translator's cultural identity has a great and lasting influence on the choice of his or her translation strategy, and it can also be said that readers can learn the translator's cultural identity through his or her translation works.

For example, Zhu Shenghao, who lived in the era of constant war, had a deep patriotic feeling. So he wanted China to be understood by the world or more countries, to be able to transmit and carry forward Chinese culture. In addition, he was influenced by the deep-rooted moral and ethical thoughts of traditional Chinese culture, so he adopted a naturalization strategy in the translation process. However, looking at the translator Liang Shiqiu again, as a scholar who returned from studying in the West, he received the idea of Western humanism, and in addition, he believed that literature was created by genius. Therefore, he adopted the strategy of alienation in the process of translation with the aim of spreading foreign culture, and translated the original text word by word, sentence by sentence, and presented it to the readers without evasion.

By briefly exploring the cultural identities and translation ideas of the two translators, we can see that both of them have their own merits, but also their own disadvantages. Throughout the contemporary era, the phenomenon of cultural globalization is also increasing, and most of the excellent works have been translated into multiple languages and spread, but for the translators, we should learn from the advantages of the previous translators, but that is, we should combine the East and the West, and master the translation skills to maintain the content of the original text to the greatest extent and ensure the accuracy of the text.

===References===

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Yan Xiaojiang严晓江．梁实秋与朱生豪莎剧译文特点之比较[A Comparison of the Characteristics of Liang Shiqiu's and Zhu Shenghao's Translations of Shakespeare]南通大学学报(社会科学版)[Journal of Nantong University (Social Science Edition)，2010，26(4)

Liang Shiqiu.梁实秋. 翻译莎士比亚[M]//梁实秋. 莎士比亚诞辰四百周年纪念集. [Translation of Shakespeare by Liang Shiqiu. Shakespeare's 400th anniversary]. 台湾: 中华书局[Taiwan:Zhong-Hua Book Bureau].1966.

Qiu Yuchen.邱蕴琛. 小议朱生豪译莎动因[A small discussion on the motivation of Zhu Shenghao's translation of Sha].科技信息[Science and Technology Information].2010,(07):448-591.

Zhou Wen周文. 朱生豪翻译观探微 [An exploration of Zhu Shenghao's concept of translation].科技信息(科学教研) [Science and Technology Information (Science Education and Research)].,2007,(22):127-128..

Xi Yongji奚永吉 . 莎士比亚翻译比较美学 [Comparative aesthetics of Shakespeare translation ] 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].2007.

Wu Delu.吴得禄.译者文化身份对翻译的影响[The influence of translators' cultural identity on translation].读书文摘[Reading Digest].2016(08):211.

Wang Ning王宁．文学研究中的文化身份问题[Cultural Identity in Literary Studies] 外国文学[Foreign Literature].1999(4):48—51．

Liu Shuang刘双．文化身份与跨文化传播[Cultural identity and cross-cultural communication]外语学刊[Journal of Foreign Languages]，2000(1):87—91．

Wang Qili王岐立．梁实秋文学思想浅析：[An analysis of Liang Shiqiu's literary thought]:中山大学研究生学刊 [Graduate Journal of Sun Yat-sen University].2004

Zhu Shenghao 朱生豪.译者自序[Translator's Preface].文学界(专辑版)[Literature (album edition)].2010(09):36.

Shakespeare.莎士比亚四大喜剧梁实秋译[The Four Great Comedies translated by Liang Shiqiu].北京:中国广播电视出版社.[Beijing: China Radio and Television Press].2001

Shakespeare.莎士比亚．仲夏夜之梦朱生豪译．[A Midsummer Night's Dream translated by Zhu Shenghao].上海:上海世界图书出版公司 [Shanghai: Shanghai World Book Publishing Company],2013．

Liang Shiqiu.梁实秋文学与革命.偏见集[Literature and Revolution. The collection of prejudices].南京:正中书局[Nanjing: Zhengzhong Shuji].中华民国二十三年七月.

==Descriptive translation studies 曹润鑫 Cao Runxin==

===Abstract===
The study of descriptive translation has greatly enriched the concept of translation, broadened the horizon of translation research, raised the status of translation research, and promoted the discipline of translation research, and as an important supplement to theoretical translation, descriptive translation has received more and more attention. In this paper, I will take Toury's ''Descriptive Translation'' and Hermanns's ''Translation in Systems'' as two examples to briefly introduce the descriptive translation.

===Key words===
Descriptive translation studies; Translation studies

===摘要===
描述翻译研究将翻译置于译入语社会文化背景下进行考察, 极大地丰富了翻译的概念, 开阔了翻译研究的视野, 提高了翻译研究的地位, 促进了翻译研究的学科化, 作为理论翻译学的重要补充, 描述翻译学受到了越来越多的重视。本文将以以图里的《描述翻译学》和赫曼斯的《系统中的翻译》两本著作为例, 对描述翻译学进行简单的介绍

===关键字===
描述翻译学；翻译研究

===Introduction===
Traditional translation theory research focuses on the original work and the translator. The translator adopts the standards of "faithfulness" and "equivalence" as the criteria for translation, adopts the appropriate translation method, and finds the equivalence of the original language in the target language through linguistic analysis and comparison. This theory of translation is only confined to the micro-linguistic level, with the ultimate goal of faithfully conveying the meaning of the original work and without the constraints of macro-factors such as politics, history and culture outside the language. Guided by this theory, translation critics often take the faithfulness of the translation to the original text as the only criterion for evaluating the quality of the translation based on their own knowledge and experience, which is subjective and biased, and not conducive to the healthy development of translation criticism.

Traditional translation theory research focuses on the original work and the translator. The translator adopts the standards of "faithfulness" and "equivalence" as the criteria for translation, adopts the appropriate translation method, and finds the equivalence of the original language in the target language through linguistic analysis and comparison. This theory of translation is only confined to the micro-linguistic level, with the ultimate goal of faithfully conveying the meaning of the original work and without the constraints of macro-factors such as politics, history and culture outside the language. Guided by this theory, translation critics often take the faithfulness of the translation to the original text as the only criterion for evaluating the quality of the translation based on their own knowledge and experience, which is subjective and biased, and not conducive to the healthy development of translation criticism.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Since the 1960s, there has been a surge of cultural studies, and translation studies have also drawn nourishment from cultural studies and applied it to translation, injecting new vitality into translation studies. In particular, the "cultural shift" since the 1970s has a more trans-generational significance. Free from the constraints of the traditional "faithful" and "reciprocal" translation concepts, cultural translation research adopts a descriptive approach to analyze the history and cultural background of translations and their cultural influence on the translator's language objectively from the macro cultural context, This reveals the distortion, deformation and fusion of different cultures in the process of communication and collision. "Translation researchers no longer dwell on prescriptive instructions, but focus their research on a descriptive method. Translation is no longer regarded as a transformation between texts, but a unique political, cultural and literary behavior in the target language society. Describing the translation research method broadens the horizon of translation research, facilitates the objective and clear understanding of translation phenomenon, and has a great role in promoting the construction of the translation discipline as a whole.

Since the 1960s, there has been a surge of cultural studies, and translation studies have also drawn nourishment from cultural studies and applied it to translation, injecting new vitality into translation studies. In particular, the "cultural shift" since the 1970s has a more trans-generational significance. Free from the constraints of the traditional "faithful" and "reciprocal" translation concepts, cultural translation research adopts a descriptive approach to analyze the history and cultural background of translations and their cultural influence on the translator's language objectively from the macro cultural context, This reveals the distortion, deformation and fusion of different cultures in the process of communication and collision. "Translation researchers no longer dwell on prescriptive instructions, but focus their research on a descriptive method. Translation is no longer regarded as a transformation between texts, but a unique political, cultural and literary behavior in the target language society. Describing the translation research method broadens the horizon of translation research, facilitates the objective and clear understanding of translation phenomenon, and has a great role in promoting the construction of the translation discipline as a whole.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In the 1970s, the introduction of the system concept accelerated the revolution of translation research. As a kind of descriptive translation studies, it broke away from the discussion of "how translation should be" that governed translation studies, and encouraged researchers to explore the role of translation in specific cultural contexts.

In the 1970s, the introduction of the system concept accelerated the revolution of translation research. As a kind of descriptive translation studies, it broke away from the discussion of "how translation should be" that governed translation studies, and encouraged researchers to explore the role of translation in specific cultural contexts.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Toury and ''Descriptive translation''===
The concept of "descriptive translation" was originally proposed by the Dutch scholar James Holmes, who published the paper "The Name and Reality of Translation Studies" in the Third International Symposium on Applied Linguistics held in Copenhagen in 1972. In the paper, he made a scientific division of translation studies, "He advocated that translation studies should be divided into two branches, 'pure translation' and 'applied translation', and 'pure translation' and 'applied translation' should be divided into two branches, 'pure translation' and 'applied translation'. It can be divided into 'descriptive translation study' and 'theoretical translation study'". [1] Descriptive translation research also includes: first, product-oriented research; second, process-oriented research; and third, function-oriented research. [2] These three studies are interdependent and inseparable. The expected position or function of the translator in the receiving culture should be regarded as the deciding factor governing the translation, while the standard translation mode in the target system dictates the translation strategy adopted by the translator to maintain the relationship between the source text and the translated text and achieve a balance between them. In addition, Toury also suggests that theoretical translation and descriptive translation are also interdependent and mutually transformed. Theoretical translation can guide the research of descriptive translation, and the research results of descriptive translation include a series of coherent laws that can clarify their interconnections, which can be summarized and distilled into a theory guiding translation research.

The concept of "descriptive translation" was originally proposed by the Dutch scholar James Holmes, who published the paper "The Name and Reality of Translation Studies" in the Third International Symposium on Applied Linguistics held in Copenhagen in 1972. In the paper, he made a scientific division of translation studies, "He advocated that translation studies should be divided into two branches, 'pure translation' and 'applied translation', and 'pure translation' and 'applied translation' should be divided into two branches, 'pure translation' and 'applied translation'. It can be divided into 'descriptive translation study' and 'theoretical translation study'". [1] Descriptive translation research also includes: first, product-oriented research; second, process-oriented research; and third, function-oriented research. [2] These three studies are interdependent and inseparable. The expected position or function of the translator in the receiving culture should be regarded as the deciding factor governing the translation, while the standard translation mode in the target system dictates the translation strategy adopted by the translator to maintain the relationship between the source text and the translated text and achieve a balance between them. In addition, Tuli also suggests that theoretical translation and descriptive translation are also interdependent and mutually transformed. Theoretical translation can guide the research of descriptive translation, and the research results of descriptive translation include a series of coherent laws that can clarify their interconnections, which can be summarized and distilled into a theory guiding translation research.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Based on Evan Zohar's multisystem theory and guided by the translations, Toury proposes a translation study that constructs a framework adapted to the linguistic system of translation, and places translation within the social and literary system of the culture in which it is translated. Descriptive translation studies shifts the focus of translation research from translations to the translators' translation process, focusing on the reasons for the translators' choices in a specific historical and cultural context, which can avoid the one-sided and unreasonable evaluation of the translated text by traditional translation studies and explain the translation phenomenon more reasonably.

Based on Evan Zohar's multisystem theory and guided by the translations, Tuli proposes a translation study that constructs a framework adapted to the linguistic system of translation, and places translation within the social and literary system of the culture in which it is translated. Descriptive translation studies shifts the focus of translation research from translations to the translators' translation process, focusing on the reasons for the translators' choices in a specific historical and cultural context, which can avoid the one-sided and unreasonable evaluation of the translated text by traditional translation studies and explain the translation phenomenon more reasonably.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In Descriptive Translation and Beyond, Toury describes the method of conducting research on descriptive translation, arguing that the initial stage of research is the stage of comparison. He says, "Since many parallel translations have been produced in different historical periods, comparisons between them have become more common, and comparisons between them are of course possible, but it is a much more complicated task than one might have imagined". [3]

In Descriptive Translation and Beyond, Tuli describes the method of conducting research on descriptive translation, arguing that the initial stage of research is the stage of comparison. He says, "Since many parallel translations have been produced in different historical periods, comparisons between them have become more common, and comparisons between them are of course possible, but it is a much more complicated task than one might have imagined". [3]--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

According to Toury, the act of translation is an activity governed by norms, which refer to sociocultural constraints on translation behavior. At one end of the spectrum in terms of binding, sociocultural constraints are what might be called universally binding, more absolute rules, and at the other end are purely idiosyncratic preferences. Norms are distributed in a gradient between rules and idiosyncrasies, with binding force in between. From the normative point of view, rules and idiosyncrasies are "(more) objective" norms, while the latter are "(more) subjective" i.e. "less objective". The concept of the This concept is very important in its theoretical system.

According to Tuli, the act of translation is an activity governed by norms, which refer to sociocultural constraints on translation behavior. At one end of the spectrum in terms of binding, sociocultural constraints are what might be called universally binding, more absolute rules, and at the other end are purely idiosyncratic preferences. Norms are distributed in a gradient between rules and idiosyncrasies, with binding force in between. From the normative point of view, rules and idiosyncrasies are "(more) objective" norms, while the latter are "(more) subjective" i.e. "less objective". The concept of the This concept is very important in its theoretical system.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

He also identifies three types of translation norms embodied in the process: initial norms, preliminary norms, and optional norms. Initial norms refer to the basic choice a translator must first make between the norms of the source language text and the cultural norms of the translated language. The preparatory norms, which come into play before the translation process even begins, involve two aspects: translation policy, which takes into account the choice of the work to be translated, and translation immediacy, which refers to the tolerance for translation from the source language into other languages. Operational norms govern the decisions made in the translation process and can be divided into structural norms and linguistic norms. Among the three norms, the initial norm has an overarching role over the other two norms; the operational norm has a metaphysical character, which is the clarification of the initial norm in the translation process. [3]

He also identifies three types of translation norms embodied in the process: initial norms, preliminary norms, and optional norms. Initial norms refer to the basic choice a translator must first make between the norms of the source language text and the cultural norms of the translated language. The preparatory norms, which come into play before the translation process even begins, involve two aspects: translation policy, which takes into account the choice of the work to be translated, and translation immediacy, which refers to the tolerance for translation from the source language into other languages. Operational norms govern the decisions made in the translation process and can be divided into structural norms and linguistic norms. Among the three norms, the initial norm has an overarching role over the other two norms; the operational norm has a metaphysical character, which is the clarification of the initial norm in the translation process. [3]--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

According to Toury, "a translation is any passage of text which, in a system of purposes, is represented as a translation or is considered as a translation, regardless of the grounds on which it is based". [4] Toury's definition of translation broadens the scope of translation research, and many adaptations, retranslations, rewritings, imitations, translations, pseudo-translations, etc., which are excluded from traditional translation, are included in the scope of describing translation research.

According to Tuli, "a translation is any passage of text which, in a system of purposes, is represented as a translation or is considered as a translation, regardless of the grounds on which it is based". [4] Tuli's definition of translation broadens the scope of translation research, and many adaptations, retranslations, rewritings, imitations, translations, pseudo-translations, etc., which are excluded from traditional translation, are included in the scope of describing translation research.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Generally speaking, pseudo-translations are marginalized objects in translation studies, because the so-called "translations" may not have corresponding source texts, but are only a means for some writers to make their works more prominent. "Exoticism" to attract the public's attention. But we should also be clear that its position in the cultural system makes pseudo-translations closely related to real translations. Admittedly, everything exists for a reason, and pseudo-translations are no exception. In my opinion, pseudo-translations can be divided into three kinds, one is real pseudo-translation, that is, translations fabricated by writers in the target culture under the guise of translation to gain the status of the translated works in the literary system; the other is possible pseudo-translation, that is, the translated text is handed down in the world but the corresponding source text is unverifiable, where unverifiability does not mean that the source text does not exist, but it may be lost or The other one is that the source text exists objectively, but due to socio-cultural differences with the translated language, the translator has to take naturalization measures, replacing some cultural characteristics of the source culture with the cultural specific items belonging to the culture of the translated language, so that the translation is no longer a complete translation of the source text. One of the major characteristics of pseudo-translation is the "translation tone" in the text. Due to the real existence of "translation cavity" in many translated texts, pseudo-translations are able to deceive many readers through this mask. Of course, since the "translation cavity" is the inevitable effect of the translator's alienation strategy in the translation process, we do not intend to criticize it here.

Generally speaking, pseudo-translations are marginalized objects in translation studies, because the so-called "translations" may not have corresponding source texts, but are only a means for some writers to make their works more prominent. "Exoticism" to attract the public's attention. But we should also be clear that its position in the cultural system makes pseudo-translations closely related to real translations. Admittedly, everything exists for a reason, and pseudo-translations are no exception. In my opinion, pseudo-translations can be divided into three kinds, one is real pseudo-translation, that is, translations fabricated by writers in the target culture under the guise of translation to gain the status of the translated works in the literary system; the other is possible pseudo-translation, that is, the translated text is handed down in the world but the corresponding source text is unverifiable, where unverifiability does not mean that the source text does not exist, but it may be lost or The other one is that the source text exists objectively, but due to socio-cultural differences with the translated language, the translator has to take naturalization measures, replacing some cultural characteristics of the source culture with the cultural specific items belonging to the culture of the translated language, so that the translation is no longer a complete translation of the source text. One of the major characteristics of pseudo-translation is the "translation tone" in the text. Due to the real existence of "translation cavity" in many translated texts, pseudo-translations are able to deceive many readers through this mask. Of course, since the "translation cavity" is the inevitable effect of the translator's alienation strategy in the translation process, we do not intend to criticize it here.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Figure 3 provides a model for descriptive studies of conjoint phrases as a means of translation. A conjoint phrase consists of two or more synonyms in the same language, which together form a single functional unit that expresses the same meaning or performs the same function. Near-synonyms are often found in Hebrew literature or in Hebrew translations. Many of these phrases, especially those that appeared in classicized texts, gradually evolved into fixed expressions. By the late 18th century, under the influence of the Renaissance, Hebrew culture struggled to adapt to the new modes of literary writing promoted by the surrounding European cultures. It was during this period that the Hebrew lexicon was reborn, and another spring was ushered in. The Hebrew writer or translator had to create a new type of text or a new mode of writing (the mode of the new European literature) using the old forms of the language (in this case, the use of synonyms) in order to produce a "credible" Hebrew text. This is equivalent to writing exotic forms of literature in the language of one's own people. However, the synonymy was suppressed for a long time before it was really reborn, and was of secondary importance in the whole Hebrew literature system. This is evidenced by their common use in children's literature and in translations. In translations, the near-synonyms of the source text are often transferred to the target language, and the differences between the two cultures and traditions make such transfers difficult. In Hebrew translations, synonyms are often used instead of the corresponding individual words in the source text to capture the characteristics of the native literature. There are also rare translations in which the near-synonyms appear as mere additions due to the complete absence of a corresponding item in the source text. As Figure mentions, very often the use of synonyms is not only for the function of their counterparts in the source text, but is an attempt to bring back the tradition of Hebrew translation in one's own research and that of others. [3]112

Figure 3 provides a model for descriptive studies of conjoint phrases as a means of translation. A conjoint phrase consists of two or more synonyms in the same language, which together form a single functional unit that expresses the same meaning or performs the same function. Near-synonyms are often found in Hebrew literature or in Hebrew translations. Many of these phrases, especially those that appeared in classicized texts, gradually evolved into fixed expressions. By the late 18th century, under the influence of the Renaissance, Hebrew culture struggled to adapt to the new modes of literary writing promoted by the surrounding European cultures. It was during this period that the Hebrew lexicon was reborn, and another spring was ushered in. The Hebrew writer or translator had to create a new type of text or a new mode of writing (the mode of the new European literature) using the old forms of the language (in this case, the use of synonyms) in order to produce a "credible" Hebrew text. This is equivalent to writing exotic forms of literature in the language of one's own people. However, the synonymy was suppressed for a long time before it was really reborn, and was of secondary importance in the whole Hebrew literature system. This is evidenced by their common use in children's literature and in translations. In translations, the near-synonyms of the source text are often transferred to the target language, and the differences between the two cultures and traditions make such transfers difficult. In Hebrew translations, synonyms are often used instead of the corresponding individual words in the source text to capture the characteristics of the native literature. There are also rare translations in which the near-synonyms appear as mere additions due to the complete absence of a corresponding item in the source text. As Figure mentions, very often the use of synonyms is not only for the function of their counterparts in the source text, but is an attempt to bring back the tradition of Hebrew translation in one's own research and that of others. [3]112--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

According to Toury, the original intent of translation is to meet the needs of one culture. Translation uses a different language to introduce a text that already exists in one culture into another culture. In the process, there is both preservation of the source text and adaptation to the requirements of the target system. After a series of studies, Toury concludes that literary translations are affected by system ambiguity, pointing to two different kinds of translated texts: one in which the source text is already considered as a literary work in the source culture, and the other in which the translation of the source text is accepted as a literary work in the target culture. An example of a Bible translation is shown to illustrate the difference. The translation of the Hebrew Bible has become a classic religious text, but obviously there are differences between Jewish religious texts and non-Jewish religious texts. Of course, literary translations in both senses of the word are also consistent under certain conditions: when the two cultures share similar literary traditions in the act of translation, or when the literary system of the imported language is at a disadvantage compared to the literary system of the source language and tries to enrich the system with the advantages of the latter. Or when the translator occupies such a significant position in the culture that he or she can change the position of the translated text from the periphery to the center. Toury believes that literature is first and foremost a manifestation of culture, so he proposes three types of translation: language-oriented translation, text-oriented translation, and literary translation. In the process of translation, submission to the target literary models and norms will inevitably lead to the loss of the characteristics of the source text, but Toury is concerned with what actually happens in the process of translation and the purpose of translation itself, not the acceptance of translation but the acceptability of the translated text. The real manipulation of literary translation is not the fact whether the product is accepted by the target culture, but the probability that the structure or composition of a text will be accepted following a definite pattern. In fact, Toury has put forward his own viewpoint on translation research, that is, translation research oriented to the target language.

According to Tuli, the original intent of translation is to meet the needs of one culture. Translation uses a different language to introduce a text that already exists in one culture into another culture. In the process, there is both preservation of the source text and adaptation to the requirements of the target system. After a series of studies, Tully concludes that literary translations are affected by system ambiguity, pointing to two different kinds of translated texts: one in which the source text is already considered as a literary work in the source culture, and the other in which the translation of the source text is accepted as a literary work in the target culture. An example of a Bible translation is shown to illustrate the difference. The translation of the Hebrew Bible has become a classic religious text, but obviously there are differences between Jewish religious texts and non-Jewish religious texts. Of course, literary translations in both senses of the word are also consistent under certain conditions: when the two cultures share similar literary traditions in the act of translation, or when the literary system of the imported language is at a disadvantage compared to the literary system of the source language and tries to enrich the system with the advantages of the latter. Or when the translator occupies such a significant position in the culture that he or she can change the position of the translated text from the periphery to the center. Turi believes that literature is first and foremost a manifestation of culture, so he proposes three types of translation: language-oriented translation, text-oriented translation, and literary translation. In the process of translation, submission to the target literary models and norms will inevitably lead to the loss of the characteristics of the source text, but Tuli is concerned with what actually happens in the process of translation and the purpose of translation itself, not the acceptance of translation but the acceptability of the translated text. The real manipulation of literary translation is not the fact whether the product is accepted by the target culture, but the probability that the structure or composition of a text will be accepted following a definite pattern. In fact, Tuli has put forward his own viewpoint on translation research, that is, translation research oriented to the target language.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Translation-Specific lexical items, which are words translated from the source language, originate in the target language but do not belong to it. Of course, such terms are also subject to certain social and temporal backgrounds. The existence of translation-specific terms saves translators a lot of trouble in translation, and has become an effective method to be adopted in the translation process.

Translation-Specific lexical items, which are words translated from the source language, originate in the target language but do not belong to it. Of course, such terms are also subject to certain social and temporal backgrounds. The existence of translation-specific terms saves translators a lot of trouble in translation, and has become an effective method to be adopted in the translation process.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In his study of descriptive translation, Toury emphasized the objective neutrality of the researcher and avoided value judgments too much. He clearly believes that it is possible to be neutral in the study of culture and history. He tries to appear objective by using a lot of scientific jargon. This claim has been challenged by many scholars, including some close to descriptive translation studies. Hans J. Vermeer, for example, argues that Toury's early approach was in some sense "meta-prescriptive" in the sense that it set preconditions for the analysis of translation. [5]49 Venuti, on the other hand, argues that "translation studies can never be merely descriptive". He points out that the mere fact of taking translation as a subject of cultural history or cultural criticism is a rebellion against the marginal position of translation in the current cultural hierarchy, and that the choice of a subject in a particular historical period is always related to the current cultural needs. [6] 312 Snell-Hornby has also politely criticized Toury's insistence on neutrality and objectivity, arguing that value judgment is inevitable in translation studies. [7]25 The criticisms of these scholars are undoubtedly extremely insightful. Since the advocates of translation studies firmly believe that translation is the process and product of multiple factors, and that translators are manipulated by various forces and cannot be independent of their social and cultural environment, why should they think that researchers can be independent of all influences and be completely objective and neutral? In the end, this position is an ideal that is not feasible in actual research.

In his study of descriptive translation, Tuli emphasized the objective neutrality of the researcher and avoided value judgments too much. He clearly believes that it is possible to be neutral in the study of culture and history. He tries to appear objective by using a lot of scientific jargon. This claim has been challenged by many scholars, including some close to descriptive translation studies. Hans J. Vermeer, for example, argues that Tuli's early approach was in some sense "meta-prescriptive" in the sense that it set preconditions for the analysis of translation. [5]49 Venuti, on the other hand, argues that "translation studies can never be merely descriptive". He points out that the mere fact of taking translation as a subject of cultural history or cultural criticism is a rebellion against the marginal position of translation in the current cultural hierarchy, and that the choice of a subject in a particular historical period is always related to the current cultural needs. [6] 312 Snell-Hornby has also politely criticized Tuli's insistence on neutrality and objectivity, arguing that value judgment is inevitable in translation studies. [7]25 The criticisms of these scholars are undoubtedly extremely insightful. Since the advocates of translation studies firmly believe that translation is the process and product of multiple factors, and that translators are manipulated by various forces and cannot be independent of their social and cultural environment, why should they think that researchers can be independent of all influences and be completely objective and neutral? In the end, this position is an ideal that is not feasible in actual research.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=== Hermanns and ''Translation in Systems''===
The study of descriptive translation was formed in the late 1970s, developed in the 1980s, consolidated, expanded and revised in the 1990s, and is still flourishing today. Summarizing the development history of descriptive translation in the past 30 years, and pointing out the future development direction, it is undoubtedly helpful to the further development and improvement of this research method. However, it is not easy to make an objective and impartial summary and evaluation of the development of translation studies in these 30-odd years.

The study of descriptive translation was formed in the late 1970s, developed in the 1980s, consolidated, expanded and revised in the 1990s, and is still flourishing today. Summarizing the development history of descriptive translation in the past 30 years, and pointing out the future development direction, it is undoubtedly helpful to the further development and improvement of this research method. However, it is not easy to make an objective and impartial summary and evaluation of the development of translation studies in these 30-odd years.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Although there is a relatively stable group of research scholars and their own basic theories in descriptive translation, in general, their theories are not mature and stable enough, even the representatives of descriptive translation, such as Zuoha's theories are still in the stage of continuous verification and revision. In addition, although scholars belonging to the same field of descriptive translation share the same general direction of research, it does not mean that their views are identical. There is a big difference between "norm" and Chesterman's "norm". This requires the summarizer to have a clear understanding of the history, development history and the latest development of each school of theory of descriptive translation. Secondly, in addition to a deep and detailed grasp of descriptive translation, the summarizer should also have the ability to grasp the macro and prospect. In other words, he should stand at a high position in the research of descriptive translation, draw the future development prospect of descriptive translation on the basis of summary, and point out the way forward. In other words, he has to take a higher position in the research of descriptive translation, map out the future development prospect of descriptive translation on the basis of summary, and point out the way forward.

Although there is a relatively stable group of research scholars and their own basic theories in descriptive translation, in general, their theories are not mature and stable enough, even the representatives of descriptive translation, such as Zuoha's theories are still in the stage of continuous verification and revision. In addition, although scholars belonging to the same field of descriptive translation share the same general direction of research, it does not mean that their views are identical. There is a big difference between "norm" and Chesterman's "norm". This requires the summarizer to have a clear understanding of the history, development history and the latest development of each school of theory of descriptive translation. Secondly, in addition to a deep and detailed grasp of descriptive translation, the summarizer should also have the ability to grasp the macro and prospect. In other words, he should stand at a high position in the research of descriptive translation, draw the future development prospect of descriptive translation on the basis of summary, and point out the way forward. In other words, he has to take a higher position in the research of descriptive translation, map out the future development prospect of descriptive translation on the basis of summary, and point out the way forward.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The book can be summarized into four parts. The first part mainly consists of the first four chapters, from analyzing the conditions and process of the formation of a new theory, to introducing the early germ of description and system theory and its eventual formation into a new theory in the 1970s, and describing the origin of descriptive translation and its guiding principles. The contents of this part make a good preparation for the following parts, because from the gradual maturation of various relevant factors before the formation of the description and system theory to the final establishment of a complete theory of its own, it reveals the inevitability of its emergence and its broad prospect of development. Chapter 4 introduces Tuli's theory, analyzes the concept of "reciprocity" from different aspects, and then questions the definition of translation, which arouses the reader's sympathy. The second part, chapters five to seven, begins with descriptive translation and introduces different scholars' researches on how to describe the relationship between the original text and the translated text from different angles. The author then introduces the concept of "norm" and introduces the "norm" proposed by Tully and the "norm" proposed by Chesterman respectively. It is a proposal for the study of translation norms. The author then goes on to describe how translation studies began to develop in two different directions after the introduction of the concept of norms, namely, trying to find possible universal rules for translation and going into history, exploring the identity of translation and culture, why we have defined translation accordingly, and how to trace the origins of these ideas. Part III consists of chapters 8-10, which mainly introduce systems theory. Chapter 8 introduces multivariate systems theory, which is the most important and widely-attended theory in systems theory. This chapter introduces the sources, functions and limitations of multivariate systems theory, and points out the deficiencies of this theory, providing a new perspective for future researchers. The following chapters introduce more systems theories. Some of these theories attempt to develop a better systems theory from the limitations of the multiple systems theory, while others use concepts and ideas from other branches of the humanities to develop a completely different theoretical perspective. In particular, Pierre Bourdieu and Niklas Luhmann's theories are described in detail. In the fourth and last two chapters, the author makes a comprehensive criticism of the description and system theory, points out that it needs to be further improved, and then envisages the possible directions of its development: one is to study the history of translation, the other is to provide suitable tools for the study of translation in the current environment, and the third is to deepen the study of translation theory. Compared to the analysis of the previous sections, the last two chapters are somewhat simpler. Of course, it is not easy for any scholar to analyze translation studies so thoroughly.

The book can be summarized into four parts. The first part mainly consists of the first four chapters, from analyzing the conditions and process of the formation of a new theory, to introducing the early germ of description and system theory and its eventual formation into a new theory in the 1970s, and describing the origin of descriptive translation and its guiding principles. The contents of this part make a good preparation for the following parts, because from the gradual maturation of various relevant factors before the formation of the description and system theory to the final establishment of a complete theory of its own, it reveals the inevitability of its emergence and its broad prospect of development. Chapter 4 introduces Tuli's theory, analyzes the concept of "reciprocity" from different aspects, and then questions the definition of translation, which arouses the reader's sympathy. The second part, chapters five to seven, begins with descriptive translation and introduces different scholars' researches on how to describe the relationship between the original text and the translated text from different angles. The author then introduces the concept of "norm" and introduces the "norm" proposed by Tully and the "norm" proposed by Chesterman respectively. It is a proposal for the study of translation norms. The author then goes on to describe how translation studies began to develop in two different directions after the introduction of the concept of norms, namely, trying to find possible universal rules for translation and going into history, exploring the identity of translation and culture, why we have defined translation accordingly, and how to trace the origins of these ideas. Part III consists of chapters 8-10, which mainly introduce systems theory. Chapter 8 introduces multivariate systems theory, which is the most important and widely-attended theory in systems theory. This chapter introduces the sources, functions and limitations of multivariate systems theory, and points out the deficiencies of this theory, providing a new perspective for future researchers. The following chapters introduce more systems theories. Some of these theories attempt to develop a better systems theory from the limitations of the multiple systems theory, while others use concepts and ideas from other branches of the humanities to develop a completely different theoretical perspective. In particular, Pierre Bourdieu and Niklas Luhmann's theories are described in detail. In the fourth and last two chapters, the author makes a comprehensive criticism of the description and system theory, points out that it needs to be further improved, and then envisages the possible directions of its development: one is to study the history of translation, the other is to provide suitable tools for the study of translation in the current environment, and the third is to deepen the study of translation theory. Compared to the analysis of the previous sections, the last two chapters are somewhat simpler. Of course, it is not easy for any scholar to analyze translation studies so thoroughly.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Scholars who study descriptive translation have proposed that literature should be regarded as "a complex and dynamic system", and that literary translation studies should "adopt a descriptive, target-language-based, functional and systematic research approach". [8]10-11 This viewpoint breaks the traditional research method of many scholars for a long time, that is, from source text to translation, and emphasizes the influence of the ideology, literary concepts and other factors on the translation from the socio-cultural background of the target language, and then describes and studies the translation on the basis of this, in order to find out the various norms that restrict the formation and acceptance of the translation. This is undoubtedly a major reversal of tradition, and also covers a broader scope of research, as more factors in translation will directly affect the formation of the translation, and at the same time, placing the translation in a larger system is also a more severe test for the translator.

Scholars who study descriptive translation have proposed that literature should be regarded as "a complex and dynamic system", and that literary translation studies should "adopt a descriptive, target-language-based, functional and systematic research approach". [8]10-11 This viewpoint breaks the traditional research method of many scholars for a long time, that is, from source text to translation, and emphasizes the influence of the ideology, literary concepts and other factors on the translation from the socio-cultural background of the target language, and then describes and studies the translation on the basis of this, in order to find out the various norms that restrict the formation and acceptance of the translation. This is undoubtedly a major reversal of tradition, and also covers a broader scope of research, as more factors in translation will directly affect the formation of the translation, and at the same time, placing the translation in a larger system is also a more severe test for the translator.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Conclusion===
Descriptive translation studies focuses on the description of translated works, which makes up for the deficiency of traditional translation research, opens up a new perspective in translation research, and contributes to the healthy development of translation discipline. The results of description should help to reveal the essence of translation and deepen the understanding of the translation discipline. Otherwise, it is obviously not very meaningful to do translation research just for the sake of description and be satisfied with a few sentences which are subjective to the described phenomenon without systematic research explanation. We should not only look at translation from a micro perspective, but also establish a macro awareness and grasp the cultural background factors of translation research as a whole. The traditional normative translation research method and descriptive translation research are not mutually exclusive but complementary, and we should take the advantages of each other and combine the two, so that this kind of translation research is a comprehensive translation research.

Descriptive translation studies focuses on the description of translated works, which makes up for the deficiency of traditional translation research, opens up a new perspective in translation research, and contributes to the healthy development of translation discipline. The results of description should help to reveal the essence of translation and deepen the understanding of the translation discipline. Otherwise, it is obviously not very meaningful to do translation research just for the sake of description and be satisfied with a few sentences which are subjective to the described phenomenon without systematic research explanation. We should not only look at translation from a micro perspective, but also establish a macro awareness and grasp the cultural background factors of translation research as a whole. The traditional normative translation research method and descriptive translation research are not mutually exclusive but complementary, and we should take the advantages of each other and combine the two, so that this kind of translation research is a comprehensive translation research.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===References===
Li Hongman 李红满. (2002). 论当代西方翻译研究范式的转变[J]. [On the Paradigm Shift in Contemporary Western Translation Studies]. 外语与翻译. [Foreign Languages and Translations].

Zhang Meifang 张美芳. (2000). 翻译学的目标与结构——霍姆斯的译学构想介评[J]. [The Objectives and Structure of Translation Studies - A Review of Holmes' Vision of Translation Studies]. 中国翻译. [China Traslation].

Toury Gideon. (2001). ''Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond''[M]. Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

Lin Kenan 林克难. (2001). 翻译研究:从规范走向描写[J]. [Translation Studies: From Specification to Description]. 中国翻译. [China Traslation].

Vermeer Hans J. (1996). A Skopos Theory of Translation[M]. Heidellburg:TEXT-con.

Venuti Lawrence. (1995). The Translator’s Invisibility[M]. A History of Transla-tion.London&New York:Routledge.

Snell-Homby Mary. (1995). Translation Studies.AnIntegrated Approach[M]. Re-vised ed.Amsterdam:John Benjamins.

Hemans Theo (1985). ed.The manipulation of Literature[M]. London&Sydney:Croom Helm.

Han Ziman, Liu Fang 韩子满, 刘芳. （2005）. 描述翻译研究的成就与不足[J]. [Describe the achievements and shortcomings of translation studies]. 外语学刊. [Journal of Foreign Languages].

Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2003). 翻译研究新视野[M]. [New Horizons in Translation Studies]. 青岛:青岛出版社. [Qingdao:Qingdao Publishing House].

==An overview of descriptive translation studies and its relationship with normative translation studies 肖伊宁 Xiao Yining==

<center>肖伊宁 Xiao Yining 202020080655 亚非语言文学</center>

===Abstract:===
This paper introduces the influence and contribution of James Holmes, Gideon Toury and others on the development of descriptive translation studies. It also discusses the positive significance of descriptive translation research paradigm in the field of translation studies and its limitations. The purpose of this paper is to make readers understand the necessity of descriptive translation study by summarizing its development process and advantages. Meanwhile, by analyzing the relationship between descriptive translation studies and normative translation studies, this paper refutes the views that descriptive translation studies and normative translation studies are mutually exclusive, and helps the readers to understand deeply the status of descriptive translation studies.

===摘要：===
本文介绍了詹姆斯·霍姆斯（James Holmes）、图里（Gideon Toury）等人对于描写性翻译研究产生与发展的影响和贡献.同时论述了描写性翻译研究范式对于翻译学研究领域的积极意义和它的局限性。意在通过概述其发展历程和优点让读者了解描写性翻译研究的必要性，同时又通过剖析描写性翻译研究和规范性翻译研究的关系，反驳那些把描写性翻译研究和规范性翻译研究互斥的观点，使读者深刻理解描写性翻译研究的地位。

===Key words:===
descriptive translation studies; normative translation studies; limitation; necessity; relationship.

===关键词：===描写性翻译研究；规范性翻译研究；局限性；必要性；关系.

===Chapter 1 Introduction===

Translation has a history of more than 2000 years. In the long-term and varied translation activities, People have more and more ideas about translation and produced many specific translation theories. For the sustainable development of theories, scholars of different schools in different periods have conducted their own studies on translation from different perspectives. The accumulated research experience from different research perspectives has led to the formation of diverse translation research methods.（Liao Qiyi 2002，5）

Before the appearance of descriptive translation studies, translation theories tended to be normative both in China and abroad. At the beginning, most of them are inductive summaries of the experience in translation practice. Taking early Translation theories in China as examples, they sumer up the practical experience of translation into famous sayings, which can be used to guide the translation activities of later generations. Such as Yan Fu's "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", Lu Xun's "rahter to be faithful than smooth" and Lin Yutang's "faithfulness smoothness elegance". （Liao Qiyi 2002，6）

In the second half of the 20th century, with the development of linguistics and applied linguistics, the study of translation has become more systematic. Some researchers regard translation as a branch of linguistics. For example, Catford defined translation as replacing textual materials in another language with equivalent materials in one language. Therefore, translation researchers began to use some basic principles of linguistics to describe the translation process and evaluate the translated works. For example, Newmark summarized seven methods of translating metaphors from some specific language structures and phenomena in the source language. (Catford 1965，20)

However, these translation studies are actually "normative". They all stipulated some norms that all translators should follow in their translation practice regardless of the era, the working objects and the cognitive environment of translators and readers. If you do not follow these norms, you will be considered "misleading readers" or "unfaithful to the original work". Before the 1950s, normative translation theories were highly praised, which were basically unshakable guidelines in the field of translation. However, with the increasing frequency of cross-cultural international communication and the increasing number of translation activities, the requirements for translation theories are becoming more and more diverse. Translation practice needs new theories. People gradually realized that normative translation theories can not solve the various problems encountered in translation. Therefore, translation researchers began to pursue the study of translation in the era, and descriptive translation studies came into being.(Lin Kenan 2001, 44)

===Chapter 2 The emergence and development of descriptive translation studies===

In the 1990s, descriptive translation studies began to rise in foreign countries, but this research method was not formed suddenly. Before that, many scholars pointed out the necessity of descriptive translation studies and the specific assumptions of descriptive translation studies. These assumptions are the solid foundation for the establishment of descriptive translation research method and also the reason for the rapid development of descriptive translation studies.

====2.1 John MacFarlane====

In 1953, John MacFarlane published his paper ''Mode of Translation'' in the ''Durhram University Journal''. In the thesis, MacFarlan believes that it is a wrong criticism and comment to deny the role of translation and deprive some translation methods of the right to call themselves translation just because the translation does not realize the equivalence with the original in all aspects. Macfarlane also cites I.A. Richards' view in ''The Principles of Literary Criticism'' that even reading the same work at the same time often has different reading methods.From this we can infer that we must not believe that there is a unique translation. Since the original text has different meanings, it is inevitable that different translations will emerge from it . All translated works can be called translation, but none of them is "ideal" or "real" translation.(Lin Kenan 2001, 44)

Macfarlane believes that since translation is so complex and elusive, it is impossible for us to draw an absolute standard for accurate translation. But he also called on translation researchers to find a new way to study translation. This new approach should accept the existing translation rather than the one we idealize. It should draw inspiration from the study of the nature of translation, rather than let translation do something it can't do. This is obviously a call for another kind of translation study. Although it does not clearly point out the new way of translation study, it points out that the existing translation research is incomplete and idealistic.Unfortunately, MacFarlane's views did not attract the attention of the field of translation at that time.(Lin Kenan 2001, 44)

====2.2 Firth====

Since the 1970s, the traditional research on the semantic relationship between the original text and the target text began to decline. For a long time, it has been widely believed that translation should first be the transformation of meaning, and the traditional distinction between literal translation and free translation is the product of this concept. Researchers have begun to challenge this concept and propose to study translation from the perspective of context. Firth is one of the early researchers who pointed out that the structure and system of language should be combined with the structure and system in context.Baker believes that the change from meaning to usage or from concept to environment has promoted the development of descriptive translation studies in general, especially the corpus studies of descriptive translation studies.(Baker 1995, 236-240)

====2.3 James Holmes====

With regard to research methods, scholars have been dissatisfied with the traditional introspective approach to translation studies since the 1970s. James Holmes points out that the weakness and naivety of most contemporary translation theories are caused by introspective research methods. Researchers should investigate functional authentic texts. As the founder of the school of Translation Studies, Holmes pointed out the scope and structural mode involved in the new field of translation studies in his book ''The Name and Nature of Translation Studies''(1972). He believed that the research object of translation studies was the translation that appeared in a certain culture, and the research method was practicing on the basis of experience.(Holmes 1988, 101）

"He divides translation studies into three categories:
(1) Description: to describe the special phenomenon of translation in real life;
(2) Theory: establishing the principle of explaining translation phenomena;
(3) Application: the information obtained from the former two is used in translation practice and translator training."（Liao Qiyi 2002，54）

He discusses the dialectical relationship between descriptive translation studies, theoretical translation studies and applied translation studies, and believes that the theoretical branch is subordinate to the descriptive branch, and that only when the description of the translation process reaches a certain level and the collection of practical data reaches a certain amount can the theory have a practical development. Therefore, under the circumstances of frequent translation activities at that time, various translation theories based on experience emerged in an endless stream, but they were mutually exclusive.

For the sustainable development of translation theory, Holmes proposed the next goal of translation research, that is, to establish a description system of translation, to describe the corresponding symbol system, rules and classification between the original text and the translated text Based on this, a more extensive comparative study was carried out.After the formation of this description system, the goal of translation studies is to establish a comprehensive theory. But this development process is not one-way, but dialectical, each of the three branches must serve the other two branches. "Translation description provides basic data on which translation theories are built. One branch provides materials for the other two branches, and then uses the findings provided by the other two. For example, it is impossible to establish a translation theory without describing the detailed and specific data provided by descriptive research and applied research; however, on the other hand, You have to have at least one intuitive theoretical hypothesis to start studying the other two fields."（Liao Qiyi 2002，55）

Holmes further subdivided each branch. For example, the description branch includes three different descriptions based on translation, function and process. Taking translation work as the starting point requires the description of the actual translation centered on the work. taking the function as the starting point, it is necessary to show the influence of cultural factors on the reader's receptivity of the target text. Taking the process as the starting point, it pays attention to the translator's thinking process in the translation.（Liao Qiyi 2002，55）

Compared with traditional translation theories, Holmes' method of describing the translation process shows another change. That is, he tries to better translate a certain symbol type by describing various translation methods in different periods and their usage in history. Holmes’s article is highly influential in that descriptive translation studies has given rise to " a considerable widening of the horizon, since any and all phenomena relating to translation, in the broadest sense, become objects of study." (Hermans 1985, 14).

However, it is a pity that descriptive translation studies received little attention in the academic circle at that time, until the Israeli scholar Gideon Toury has made a systematic and comprehensive study of descriptive translation studies on the basis of Holmes. However, the framework of descriptive translation proposed by Holmes still provides a correct direction for the development of translation studies and makes translation studies pay more attention to descriptive translation studies.

====2.4 Polysystem Theory====

In the early 1970s, Zohar first put forward the polysystem theory, shaking the traditional translation view that the original text is Paramount and the translation can only be derived text. "The polysystem(多元体系派) is not satisfied with the achievements made by the translation studies(翻译研究派). It uses the theoretical system and research methods of Russian formalism for reference, and introduces the concept of "polysystem", which breaks through the boundaries between traditional linguistics and literature. Combined with the theory of translation studies, it makes a thorough study of the factors influencing the translation process and the multiple criteria of translation Research ."（Liao Qiyi 2002, 59）

According to Polysystem, literature, politics, religion, economy and other systems are all part of a larger, multi-level and dynamically changing polysystem. In this polysystem, each system is interdependent and interacts with each other. Most of the traditional translation studies are based on the original text to judge the quality of the target text. In fact, the original text is not the only factor determining the target text, and the quality of the target text is not the only problem worth discussing in translation studies. From the choice of translation materials and strategies to the status and function of the target culture, they are influenced by a series of social factors inside and outside the target culture.（Liao Qiyi 2002, 59）

Polysystem theory expands the scope of research, opens up new research approaches, promotes the cultural turn of translation studies, makes us have a more comprehensive understanding of translation phenomena, makes translation studies get rid of the application orientation, and improves the theoretical and academic nature of translation studies.（Zhang Nanfeng 2002, 19）

====2.5 Gideon Toury

Toury's translation theory and translation research theory are deeply influenced by Zohar and Holmes. Since 1975, in order to verify Zohar's translation theory, Toury has carried out field research in Tel Aviv University. He wants to find out the systematic rules that restrict translation by collecting the actual choices made in the process of translation. According to his research results, He found that the choice of most translation works is subject to ideology rather than linguistics or aesthetics, and the translations that are inconsistent with the existing translation theories can also be recognized by readers. (Liao Qiyi 2002, 68）

This makes him realize that existing source system centered translation theories are not comprehensive, that makes him start to seek a new translation theory, that is, a comprehensive translation theory based on field research Tuli published his book ''exploration of translation theory''. After the publication of this work, the focus of translation studies shifted from theory to description.From 1980 to 1995, Toury supplemented and revised the descriptive translation theory on the basis of Holmes. His book ''Descriptive Translation Studies–and beyond'' is the practice and application of Holmes' descriptive translation theory. The book has also become the most comprehensive and systematic work on translation studies. He proposed that the descriptive nature of translation and the status and function of the target language are determined by the culture of the target language. (Liao Qiyi 2002, 69）

Translation is restricted by a series of norms, which are culturally relevant within the cultural framework of the target language on which the translator relies. According to Toury, descriptive translation studies are based on norms and guided by rules. The purpose of descriptive translation studies is to analyze the general rules of translation by comparing the source text with the target text. He proposes that the production of translation involves the literary background in the target culture. The concept of "one to one correspondence" in translation and the translation requirements of literary and linguistic equivalence are abandoned. It shakes the idea that the original information is invariable. It also puts forward the idea that the original text and the translation should be integrated in the cultural system.(Liao Qiyi 2002, 69）

In 1989, JoséLambert and Toury founded an international journal target, which is subtitled "International Journal of translation studies" and covers academic works on descriptive translation studies. This is another impetus to expand descriptive translation studies internationally.

Gideon Toury also analyzes the reasons for the stagnant development of descriptive translation studies in his works："One of the main reasons for the prevailing underdevelopment of a descriptive branch within Translation Studies has no doubt been an overriding orientation towards practical applications,which has marked-and marred-scholarly work at least since the nineteen sixties.Thus, whereas for most empirical sciences, including even Linguistics, such applications-important as they may be-are presented merely as extensions into the world, the immediate needs of particular applications of Translation Studies have often been taken as a major constraint on the formation of the theory itself, or even as the very reason for its existence. Small wonder that a scholarly framework geared almost exclusively towards applicability in practice should show preference for prescriptivism at the expense of description, explanation and prediction. " (Toury 2012. xii)

He criticizes this phenomenon and thinks that most descriptive research is conducted in other disciplines other than translation studies, such as contrastive linguistics, contrastive textualism, comparative literature and stylistic comparison, which is a kind of behavior that the translation circle is avoiding the research within its own scope of competence.

====2.6 Snell-Hornby

In the 1990s, more linguists began to question the traditional concept of equivalence and the status of the original text. Snell - Homb said :“Equivalence is unsuitable as a basic concept in translation theory : the term equivalence, apart from being imprecise and ill-defined..presents an illusion of symmetry between languages which hardly exists beyond the level of vague approximations and which distorts the basic problems of translation." (Mary Snell-Hornby 1988，22) She is critical of the traditional literary translation theory and the translation theory of the linguistic school in the 1960s (especially the manipulation school). She agrees with the opinion of the translation studies that translation study should not be subordinate to comparative literature, linguistics or other disciplines, but should be an independent discipline, and should adopt a holistic and integrated approach to the study of translation.

Other scholars tried to further develop the concept of equivalence and classify it. They pointed out that in addition to exploring the source text, it is also very important to study the target language and its specific text types.Therefore, translation studies should investigate the real texts in the original and target languages. This research demand has made the descriptive translation studies develop rapidly and gradually take the place of normative translation studies and occupy the central position in translation studies. "Description" has become a new trend in translation studies. And Mary Snell Hornby's ''Translation Studies:An Integrated Approach'' is regarded as a major force in translation studies. (Wang Peng 2008, 96)

===Chapter 3 The relationship between normative translation studies and descriptive translation studies===

====3.1 The value of descriptive translation studies and the limitations of normative translation studies====

In fact, the traditional western translation research paradigm is normative translation research, that is, normative translation research approach, or a kind of translation research that sets standards to specify how to translate well in a specific culture. Traditional normative translation studies focus on the comparison of texts, trying to explore the law of language conversion, judge the quality of the translation, and then provide specific guidance for translation practice.

Generally speaking, normative translation studies have the following characteristics：the establishment of eternal principles or standards for translation is usually based on the translator's personal experience in solving specific translation problems for others to follow, regardless of the number of readers and socio-cultural background changes. It is often taken for granted that any betrayal of these rules at the linguistic level should be labeled as disloyal, structurally heavy or misleading, regardless of the historical background and context of translation. The academic interest in seeking code conversion mechanism and setting translation principles or standards can be understood as efforts to make up for the lack of understanding and expression ability at the language level. （Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，98)

Maria Tymoczko believes that："As a language art, translation has often been considered from the viewpoint of timeless linguistic rules(which has led to a normative tendency in the theory.)" (Maria Tymoczko 1999, 25) Because in the early days, people only regarded translation as a kind of language art, and didn't pay much attention to the cultural environment. Even when it came to culture, they finally focused on the specific translation skills. Because they paid too much attention to the study of translation skills, normative translation research was always inseparable from the debate between literal translation and free translation.

Is there an absolute norm to follow in translation? Translation is a social and cultural activity involving two cultures, so it is bound to be restricted by two different cultural norms. Translation is by no means merely a language transformation in the sense, and the recognition and acceptance of a certain translation strategy cannot be determined by the translator's personal ability. It is restricted by many factors such as history, society, culture, politics, aesthetic taste and readers' expectation. In this sense, there is no absolute norm. （Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，97)

Normative translation theories pay too much attention to the transcendental statement of translation and set standards or principles to ensure the quality of translation. This undoubtedly limits translation studies and makes translation scholars feel suffocated. Because of these limitations in normative translation studies, the further development of translation studies has been hindered, so the necessity of descriptive studies have been reversed. In order to have a more comprehensive understanding of translation, descriptive translation studies have gradually developed and given full play to their value：

(1) First of all, descriptive translation studies have made great contributions to the development of translation studies. Translation phenomenon, which has always been on the edge, has entered the field of vision of translation researchers. Before the advent of descriptive translation studies, it was generally believed that only the translated works which are fully equivalent to the original text can be regarded as translation. Therefore, at that time, people criticized the translation works that did not achieve complete equivalence, and even did not include them in translation studies. Translation studies have always been limited to the study of equivalence between texts.

However, descriptive translation researchers believe that as long as they appear in the target culture in the face of translation or the target language readers think that they are translations, all texts can be called "translation" In this way, the scope of translation studies has been expanded. Some extreme but factual translation phenomena, such as conversion(translating through an intermediary language) and pseudo-translation (translating without the original text), have been brought into the scope of translation studies.(Toury 2012, 32)

(2)Secondly, descriptive translation studies no longer focus on the static text system as the previous normative translation studies, but pay more attention to the dynamic relationship between translation practice and the ever-changing social and cultural environment of the target language. This chagemakes people realize that in order to study translation more systematically and comprehensively,the method of contextlization should be adopted. Only by putting the translated works back into the historical environment and socio-cultural context of their creation can the translation phenomenon be described more accurately. For example, Piao (gone with the wind) translated by Fu Donghua is the object of criticism by many scholars who advocate foreignization translation. Some scholars claim that domestication is "the wrong way of translation". (Liu Yingkai 1987, 22)

The example they cited is Fu's ''Piao(Gone with the Wind)''However, in the analysis, they have not made in-depth discussion on the reasons for Fu's choice of domestication, and have not noticed that there are many examples of extreme Foreignization in his early translation works. Therefore, it seems unfair to criticize Fu. It is only in early 21st century that this problem has gradually attracted the attention of scholars. Some scholars compare Fu's ''Piao(Gone with the Wind)''with Li Yeguang and others’ translations ,and compare several macro cultural factors influencing Fu Donghua's ''Piao(Gone with the Wind)''. They came to the conclusion that "the gain and loss of a work should be measured from the perspective of history"(冯庆华、王昱1998 :56)This example illustrates the value of descriptive translation studies, that is, to make a diachronic study of translation phenomena, rather than merely confined to synchronic studies.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，98)

====3.2 The limitations of descriptive translation studies and the value of normative translation studies====

First of all, descriptive translation studies are not perfect at present. Toury believes that the fundamental purpose of descriptive translation studies is to establish these potential norms and their influence on translators' choice of translation strategies. However, he seems to go to another extreme, regarding the target language and its culture as everything, completely ignoring the role of the source language and the translator in the process of translation. Moreover, he has not discussed in detail how these factors restrict the translator, how the translator makes the choice and why he makes such a choice. Therefore, although his theory is undoubtedly meaningful and instructive, it is not perfect.(Liu Zongyan 2008, 201)

Moreover, descriptive translation studies emphasize the objectivity and neutrality of the researchers and avoid value judgment too much. Descriptive translation studies advocate that researchers should be objective, neutral and detached from the research objects. Toury clearly believes that the study of culture and history can be neutral. In his works, he tried to show an objective appearance by using a lot of scientific terms. Dirk Delabastita and Lieven D'hulst, in their collection European Shakespeares, repeatedly stressed that translation researchers should maintain a "detached and purely descriptive attitude." ( Hermans 1999 , 36)

This requirement has been questioned by many scholars, including some closely related to descriptive translation studies. For example, Hans J. Vermeer thinks that Toury's early research methods are in fact "meta - prescriptive" in a sense, because he sets the preconditions for the analysis of translation.(Vermeer 1996 :49) Lawrence Venuti proposed that "translation studies can never be merely descriptive". He pointed out that merely taking translation as a research topic of cultural history or cultural criticism is already a resistance to the marginal position of translation in the current cultural hierarchy, and the choice of topics in a specific historical period is always related to the current cultural needs.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，99)

On the other hand, descriptive translation studies are not helpful to people's understanding of the merits and demerits of specific translation works. Excessive promotion of descriptive translation studies will not be conducive to the improvement of translation quality, and even have a negative impact on translation practice.

Normative translation studies have been overemphasized and become rigid dogma. It is only an incomplete research method, and it is not wrong. Moreover, for some texts, descriptive translation theory can not meet their requirements. For example, legal texts and dictionary texts are very formal texts. The use of words and syntactic structure have strict requirements, and the translation of such texts has a high requirement for faithfulness. At this time, the value of normative translation research is reflected.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005, 99)

====3.3 The relationship between prescriptive translation studies and descriptive translation studies====

In linguistics, norms and descriptions are a pair of relative theoretical principles and two relative methodological categories. The traditional translation principles only focus on principles, standards, methods and techniques, which are normative studies. Nowadays, translation studies focus on description, which is composed of linguistics, literary criticism theory, psychology, philosophy, sociology, culture, etc. According to the above analysis, the two are complementary. The value of descriptive translation studies lies in its ability to make up for the limitations of normative translation studies. Normative translation studies also play an irreplaceable role in the translation of some special texts. Therefore, we can't think about the relationship between the two from the perspective of binary opposition. Although they are two opposite concepts, they are not incompatible.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005, 100. )

The view of binary opposition can not deal with complex translation studies. The application of the two research methods should be flexible. We should choose the appropriate method according to different research objects. We need to have multiple coexistence Thinking. As for the debate about which is better or worse, in the author's opinion, it is unnecessary. Nida has also stressed that "translation theory should be inclusive, and various means should be used to solve various problems in translation."(Liao Qiyi 2002, 6)In fact, the development of descriptive translation studies is not to overthrow the traditional normative translation theories, but to criticize the lack of normative translation theories and supplement the normative research.

===Chapter 4 Conclusion===

Translation was officially recognized as an independent discipline more than 30 years, is a very young discipline, but in fact, the history of translation activities is not short，There are a lot of translation theories in both China and the West. However, due to the lag of descriptive translation studies, there is still a lot of space for research. Both Chinese and Western scholars believe that the ultimate goal of translation studies is to establish translation norms and principles, which are not the summary of previous personal experience, but the basis of a large number of descriptive translation studies On the basis of the standard.

Descriptive and normative are the dual attributes of any discipline. Descriptiveness is the basis, premise and condition of normalization. Normalization is the development, result and purpose of descriptive. Translation studies are both descriptive and normative. It is the unity of opposites between descriptive and normative. In other words, descriptive translation studies and normative translation studies are like the positive and negative sides of a coin, It cannot be separated . It is one-sided and wrong to emphasize only the standardization of translation or the description of translation.

Descriptive translation studies are intended to explain the process and phenomenon of translation. Compared with the micro analysis of normative translation studies, it studies translation from a macro perspective. Although there are still some deficiencies in descriptive translation theory, descriptive translatology provides a new perspective and analysis approach for translation studies, which deserves our attention and development.

===Chapter 5 Reference===

Baker. (1995). Corpora Linguistics and Translation Studies: an Overview and Some Suggestions for Future Reseearch. Target.

J.C.Catford. (1965). A Linguistic Theory Of Translation. Oxford:Oxford University Press, 20.

Hermans,Theo. (1985). The Manipulation of Literature: Studies in Literary Translation. Beckenham: Croom Helm.

Hermans,Theo. (1999) . Translation in Systems . Manchester: St Jerome Publishing.

Holmes,J.S. (1988). Translated Papers on Literary Translation and Translation Studies. Amsterdam: Rodopi.

Meria Tymoczko. (1999). Translation in a Postcolonial Context - Early Irish Literature in English Translation. St.Jerome Publishing.

Snell-Hornby. (1988). Translation Studies: An Integrated Approach. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins.

Han Ziman 韩子满, Liu Fang 刘芳. (2005). 描述翻译研究的成就与不足[Achievements and Shortcomings of Descriptive Translation Studies]. 外语学刊[Foreign Language Research](03).

Liao Qiyi 廖七一. (2002). 当代西方翻译理论探索[Exploration of contemporary Western translation theories]

Lin Kenan 林克难. (2001). 翻译研究：从规范走向描写[Translation Studies: From the Prescriptive to the Descriptive Approach]. 中国翻译[Chinese Translation Journal](06).

Liu Zongya 刘宗衍. (2008). 浅谈翻译理论的“规范”性[On the "Normative" Nature of Translation Theory]. 科技资讯[Science & Technology Information]

Wang Peng 王鹏. (2008). 描写翻译研究及其方法[Descriptive Translation Studies and its methodology]. 四川外语学院学报[Journal of Sichuan International Studies University](04).

Zhang Nanfeng 张南峰. (2002). 多元体系理论[Polysystem Theory]. 中国翻译[Chinese Translation Journal](02).

==Translation Strategies Sagara Seydou, Student No :201911080004, Major:Translation Studies==

Translation Strategies

===Abstract ===

Much work has been done in recent years on translation strategies. However, the definition offered by each author or theorist represents his/her own point of view and their views differ from each other. Most theorists agree that strategies are used by translators when they encounter a problem and literal translation does not work. Therefore, different researchers have investigated and described various translation strategies from their own perspectives. Some best-known theories of this field are described and compared to each other in this paper. The purpose of this study is to show the different theories in the field of translation strategies and to offer a general literature review to facilitate the study of translation strategies in future studies.

Key words: translation strategies and translational problems.

This study includes four main sections: 1. Introduction; 2. Content; 3. Conclusions; 4. References;

===Introduction===

The term “strategy” in “translation strategies” is often used synonymously with such terms as “procedure,” “technique,” “method,” “tactic,” “approach,” and so forth. Their meanings overlap, and translation researchers deﬁne them in various ways. Despite the terminological confusion, discussions of translation strategies can be traced back to Cicero’s advocacy of sense-for-sense translation in 46 BC, and are widely covered in translation textbooks for their pedagogical signiﬁcance. This topic also relates to broad theoretical issues in translation studies. (Wikipedia n.d)

===Content===

Researchers have attempted to distinguish translation strategy from its synonyms, and to develop their own classiﬁcations from different perspectives. For example, Lörscher’s (1991) classiﬁcation is based on a cognitive approach, while Chesterman’s (1997) differentiation uses a textual approach. Yet, the conceptual confusion has not been dispelled. This entry tries to distinguish translation strategies, techniques, and procedures, and to consolidate existing classiﬁcations. It seems that clear-cut deﬁnitions of these terms might not work as well as prototype deﬁnitions. Most researchers would agree that the two prototype translation strategies are literal translation and free translation. Chesterman’s (1997)

The former focuses on the level of words, while the latter goes beyond the word level and emphasizes the creation of a target text that sounds natural in the target language. These two strategies are described in a variety of oppositions: word-for-word translation versus sense-for-sense translation; source-oriented translation versus target-oriented translation; direct translation versus oblique translation (by Vinay and Darbelnet); adequacy versus acceptability; formal equivalence versus dynamic equivalence (by Eugene Nida); semantic translation versus communicative translation (by Peter Newmark);overt translation versus covert translation (by Juliane House); documentary versus instrumental translation (by Christiane Nord); foreignization versus domestication (by LawrenceVenuti), and so on. While these binary oppositions have much in common, they reﬂect different perspectives and emphasize different translation aims and effects. For instance, word-for-word translation and sense-for-sense translation are text-level or segment-level strategies. Nida’s (1964) formal equivalence versus dynamic equivalence is mainly from a linguistic perspective and involves reader response. The domesticating translation versus foreignizing translation pair, proposed by Venuti (1995), reﬂects a cultural interventionist perspective. The two strategies affect the choice of text for translation as well as the translation process. Venuti advocates the foreignizing strategy in order to “register the linguistic and cultural differences of the foreign text” (1995, p. 81)

The “literal versus free” debate has been one of the central issues in translation theory and criticism throughout the ages. However, it is now generally believed that this dichotomous debate is relatively sterile, as the two strategies are part of a continuum, and the selection of a strategy is a function of the theoretical assumption of “what is a translation” text type (e.g., serious literature, children’s literature, technical texts, print advertisements), domain (e.g., IT, legal), function (e.g., for publication, information, or light entertainment), prestige of the source text (e.g., the Bible, pulp ﬁction), motivation(e.g., payment), and other factors (or constraints). (Hatim & Munday,2004, p. 230)

Having discussed the two prototype strategies, let us turn to the deﬁnitional question: what is a translation strategy? Lörscher (1991), Chesterman (1997), and other researchers agree on a few deﬁning characteristics of a translation strategy: (a) it is goal-oriented,(b) it is problem-centered, (c) it requires making coordinated decisions, (d) it is potentially conscious, and (e) it involves text manipulation. The aforementioned two prototype translation strategies have these characteristics. Since a translation strategy involves problem solving, a categorization of translation problems would correspond to a categorization of translation strategies. The difﬁculty with this, however, is that there are a number of ways in which problems can be categorized. For instance, the categorization criterion can be the prior knowledge required to solve them, the nature of the goal involved, and the complexity of the problems involved (Robertson, 2001, p. 6).
Problems, according to their scale, can be divided into global (or general) problems and local (or speciﬁc) problems. Jääskeläinen (1993, p. 116) makes a corresponding distinction between global strategies (i.e., “the translator’s general principles and preferred modes of action”) and local strategies (i.e., “speciﬁc activities in relation to the translator’s problem-solving and decision-making”). Global strategies might be dictated by or with the commissioner while local strategies are up to the translator. In addition, local strategies are designed to handle speciﬁc problems and need to be consistent with the chosen global strategy. Jääskeläinen found that global strategies are much more frequently and consistently used by professional translators than by nonprofessionals. From Jääskeläinen’s perspective, literal and free translation strategies are global strategies since the translator has to think about the goal of the translation and how the target text should affect the readers. The global strategy chosen will affect the translation process. Since local strategies are immediately followed by speciﬁc techniques, which affect the translation result and the micro-units of the text, and are classiﬁed by comparison with the source text (Molina & Hurtado Albir, 2002, p. 509).

As translators grow in competence, some former translation problems will no longer present an obstacle to them; some of their local strategies become semiconscious or unconscious, and the use of certain techniques to cope with certain problems is automatized. Vinay and Darbelnet’s (2000) taxonomy of translation techniques (which they call “procedures”) has a wide impact. They did a comparative stylistic analysis of French and English, and divided the seven procedures they discovered into two general strategies: direct/literal translation and oblique translation. The former includes: (a) borrowing (i.e., borrowing a word or expression from the source language, such as the Chinese word“kung Fu” in modern English); (b) calque (which is a kind of borrowing whereby the structure of the original word or phrase is maintained but its morphemes are replaced by those of the target language; for example, the Chinese word “motian dalou,” literally “sky-scraping big building,” is a calque of skyscraper); (c) Literal translation. Oblique translation includes: (d)transposition (i.e., changing the word class or grammatical structure without changing the meaning of the message, as in rendering a noun in the source text into a verb in the target text); (e)modulation (i.e., changing the point of view or cognitive category in relation to the source text, as in rendering a negative construction into a positive one: “not complicated” becomes “easy”); (f)equivalence (e.g., translating “to kill two birds with one stone” into Chinese as “to kill two eagles with one arrow”); (g) adaptation (i.e., a shift in cultural reference when the type of situation being referred to by the source text is unknown in the target culture, such as using the word “seal” for sheep when translating the Bible into Inuktitut).Among local translation strategies, Chesterman (1997) distinguishes between comprehension strategies (for understanding and analyzing the source text) and production strategies(for the production of the target text). From a linguistic perspective, he divides productions strategies into mainly syntactic/grammatical, mainly semantic, and mainly pragmatic, with each category containing 10 techniques. Syntactic strategies involve purely syntactic changes, manipulate form, and include such techniques as calque, transposition, and sentence structure change. Semantic strategies mainly pertain to changes concerning lexical semantics. They manipulate meaning and contain techniques such as synonymy, emphasis change, and paraphrase. Pragmatic strategies have to do with the selection of information in the target text, and often involve syntactic or semantic changes as well. Pragmatic strategies include cultural ﬁltering, explicitness change, information change, trans editing, and so forth. Some of these techniques are obligatory during translation in a given language pair, while most are optional .Many researchers (e.g., Lörscher, 1991) believe that a translation strategy is a procedure or a sequence of actions.(Molina & Hurtado Albir, 2002, p. 509).

However, this is not consonant with the dictionary deﬁnitions of strategy. According to the Oxford English dictionary, strategy refers to “a plan for successful action based on the rationality and interdependence of the moves of the opposing participants,” while procedure is deﬁned as “[t]he fact or manner of proceeding with any action, or in any circumstance or situation; a system of proceeding; proceeding, in reference to its mode or method; conduct, behavior.” Krings (1986, p. 268) deﬁnes translation strategies as “potentially conscious plans for solving a translation problem.” Strategies involve adopting procedures to solve problems, and the chosen procedure will inﬂuence the result .Now let us turn our attention to translation procedures (referred to as “translation strategies” by some researchers) and procedural steps. Gerloff (1986) identiﬁed the following text processing strategies: (a) problem identiﬁcation, (b) linguistic analysis, (c) storage and retrieval, (d) general search and selection, (e) in ferencing and reasoning strategies,(f) text contextualization, (g) editing, and (h) task monitoring. In his empirical studies, Lörscher (1991) recognized 22 elements constituting translation strategies (or procedural steps), including nine original ones and 13 potential ones, such as realizing a translational problem, preliminary solution to a translational problem, and the mental organization of source-language text segments. During the translation process, these elements are combined by translators into basic structures. He found that professional and nonprofessional translators differ in the distribution and frequency of the strategies employed, but do not differ qualitatively; that is, their mental processes do not reveal signiﬁcant differences. He concluded that it is impossible to ascertain “[w]hen faced with problem X, [translators] employ strategy Y,” but we can ﬁnd out “[w]hen several [translators] are faced with a problem X, many or most of them employ similar or the same types of strategy” (p. 280) ==

Darwish (2008) identiﬁes four distinct translation procedures employed in translating: recursive strategy (i.e., a circular and revisional process), waterfall strategy (i.e., a sequential unit-by-unit process), stop-and-go strategy (i.e., a block-by-block process), and mixed strategies (i.e., a combination of the previous three strategies).In some translation textbooks (e.g., Thinking German Translation: A Course in Translation Method by Hervey, Loughridge, & Higgins, 2006), “translation method” is often used as a cover term for “translation strategy,” “translation technique,” and even “translation procedure.” For instance, there are literal and free translation methods. Compared with translation strategies, which are highly individualistic, translation methods are supra-individual and well tested (Lörscher, 1991, p. 70

However, “translation method” in English is often associated with such modes as machine translation and computer-aided translation. The term “translation approach” is often used in a vague sense, while “translation tactic” is rarely used. Discussions of translation strategies before the 1980s were primarily prescriptive, and researchers tended to argue for one translation strategy against another. Since the 1980s, empirical research into translation strategies, techniques, and procedures has become increasingly common. There are two major empirical approaches in this regard: product oriented and process-oriented. The former approach mainly refers to corpus-based contrastive analysis: a parallel corpus consisting of source texts and translations is built for analyzing the frequency of shifts (i.e., textual differences between source text and target text) and the various translation strategies and techniques employed. The factors to be considered can include text type, domain, synchronic and diachronic variation in language features and translation norms, idiosyncrasy, certain language features (e.g., metaphors, allusions), among others. In a process-oriented approach, translators are usually asked to translate a passage while thinking aloud, and the process will be recorded and then analyzed. The factors that might inﬂuence the frequency and distribution of translation strategies and procedures may include translation competence (e.g., novice translators versus professional translators), language direction (i.e., from or into the mother tongue), text type domain, translation brief, translation difﬁculty level of the test passage, time pressure, and so forth. These factors need to be manipulated or kept constant in an experiment in order to make meaningful comparisons.(Lörscher, 1991, p. 70).

===Conclusion===

In this study, translational problems and mainly translation strategies were described, and different theories of translation strategies were mentioned. It was shown that different theorists suggest various definitions of translation strategies according to their different perspectives. Moreover, it was mentioned that Baker (1992) lists the most applicable set of strategies. She does not just name the strategies, but she also shows the application of each.

===References===

Translation: An advanced resource book . London, England: Routledge.Hervey, S., Loughridge, M., & Higgins, I. (2006).Thinking German translation: A course in trans-lation method, German to English (2nd ed.). London, England: Routledge. Jääskeläinen, R. (1993). Investigating translation strategies. In S. Tirkkonen-Condit & J. Lafﬂing(Eds.), Recent trends in empirical translation research (pp. 99–120). Joensuu, Finland: Universityof Joensuu.Krings, H. P. (1986). Translation problems and translation strategies of advanced German learnersof French (L2). In J. House & S. Blum-Kulka (Eds.), Interlingual and intercultural communication (pp. 263–76). Tübingen, Germany: Narr.Lörscher, W. (1991). 5. Jiraphatralikhit, J., Klinpoon, S., & Kaewjan, S. (2005). An analysis of strategies in translation of the movie subtitle: Behind the painting.Research Gate, 1, 54-71.

== The Comparison of Machine Translation and Human Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory---A Case Study of E-C Translation of ''A Tale of Two Cities'' as an example - 欧阳静兰 OuYang Jinglan 202020080630==

<center>欧阳静兰 OuYang Jinglan </center>
===Abstract===
With the rapid development of globalization and the Internet, international communication is expanding, and a lot of information needs to be translated. Due to the low efficiency of human translation, machine translation is indispensable today. However, due to the limitations of machine translation, the quality of machine translation is still worrying. Therefore, from the perspective of Skopos theory, this paper takes the E-C translation of ''A Tale of Two Cities'' as an example to analyze the machine translation of Google translation and Baidu translation, and compare it with the translation of Song Zhaolin, so as to explore the characteristics of machine translation and human translation, try to discuss the irreplaceable nature of human translation, and discuss how to combine machine translation with human translation to improve the quality and efficiency of translation. This paper is divided into five parts: the first part introduces the background of the current translation environment; the second part introduces Skopos Theory and discusses the feasibility of Skopos Theory in analyzing machine translation and human translation; the third part introduces the advantages and disadvantages of machine translation and human translation, and discusses the relationship between them; the fourth part is a case study to see machine translation from the perspective of Skopos theory Compared with manual translation, it is concluded that machine translation and manual translation must be combined to improve the efficiency and quality of translation. The fifth part is a summary of this paper.

===Key words===
Skopos Theory, machine translation, human translation

===题目===
目的论视角下机器翻译和人工翻译的对比---以《双城记》的英汉翻译为例

===摘要===
随着全球化和互联网的迅速发展，国际的交流日益扩大，大量信息需要翻译。由于人工翻译效率低下，在越来越强调效率和质量的今天，机器翻译必不可少。然而，由于机器翻译的局限性，机器翻译的质量仍然堪忧。因此,本文以目的论视角, 以《双城记》的英汉翻译为例，分析谷歌翻译和百度翻译的机器译文, 与宋兆霖版本的中文译本对比，由此探析机器翻译与人工翻译的特点,尝试论述人工翻译的不可替代性, 并讨论如何将机器翻译与人工翻译结合提高翻译的质量和效率。本文分为五个部分，第一部分对当前翻译环境背景的介绍；第二部分对目的论进行简介，并讨论目的论用于分析机器翻译和人工翻译的可行性；第三部分介绍机器翻译和人工翻译的优缺点，并讨论他们之间的关系；第四部分进行案例分析，从目的论视角下看机器翻译与人工翻译的对比，得出提高翻译效率与质量必须将机器翻译与人工翻译相结合。第五部分对全文进行总结。

===关键词===
目的论机器翻译人工翻译

===1. Introduction ===
With the development of globalization, the growth of Internet and artificial intelligence, machine translation becomes an indispensable choice in today’s society. Compared with human translation, machine translation has the advantages of efficiency. As the traditional translation method, human translation can guarantee the accuracy of the text. In this information era, many people are thinking whether human translation will be replaced by machine translation. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)

In September 2016, Google released the neural network translation system, which greatly improved the quality of machine translation. In November, Baidu CEO Robin Li stated at the Wuzhen Summit of the 3rd World Internet Conference that Baidu's artificial intelligence product "automatic translation" will enter a practical state. Therefore, this paper will put the original text of Tale of Two Cities in two representative public machine translation engines at home and abroad, "Google" and "Baidu", to obtain the machine translation. Selecting texts from the famous classical novel ''A Tale of Two Cities'', and comparing machine translations and human translations based on this novel from the perspective of Skopos theory, this paper aims to investigate the relationship between human translation and machine translation and their developments in the future. (Hu Kaibao 2016, 10)

=== 2. Overview of Skopos Theory ===
In the 1970s, some eminent German translation theory scholars first proposed functional translation theory. Translation theorist Katharina Reiss divides text into three types: informative, expressive and operational. She suggested that according to different text types, different translation methods should be used for analysis, and different translation criticism standards should be adopted, that is, text types, language functions and translation strategies should be combined. In the translation process, it’s essential to focus on the functional characteristics of the target text. Her text type theory and translation criticism mode can be regarded as the beginning of functionalist Skopos theory. (Reiss, K, & Vermeer 1984)

Hans Vermeer is Reiss's student. He further developed Reiss's theory and proposed Skopos theory. He believed that Skopos theory is based on the source text, and then may produce a series of purposeful and effective behaviors. The core of this theory is that "the purpose of translation determines translation strategies and method to achieve the expected purpose of translation" (Reiss & Vermeer 1984), and German scholars Justa Holz Manttari and Christian Nord further developed this theory which based on the theory of communication and behavior, and they proposed that translation theory is not a simple translation between words and sentences, but a kind of conscious behavior for the purpose of cultural communication. (Reiss, K, & Vermeer 1984)

====2.1 Three Rules of Skopos Theory====
The word “Skopos” is originated from the Greek language and means "purpose". Skopos theory refers to the process of translation is determined by the purpose of the translation, so the purpose rule is the highest one of translation. Generally speaking, skopos theory includes three principles: Skopos rule, coherence rule (intra-textual coherence) and fidelity rule (also known as "inter-textual coherence"). (Nord 2001, 20)

Skopos theory believes that the important principle to be followed is the "purpose" rule, it is the core rule of Skopos Theory: the process of translation should be based on the realization of the communicative function in the target language culture, and the goal to be achieved determines the entire process of translation, that is, the method determines the result. Vermeer differentiated the purpose of translation. He believes that the purpose of translation should include three levels: the purpose of the translator; the purpose of communication; the purpose of specific translation strategies. In most cases, a translator has a certain purpose before translation, such as being entrusted by a translation company, market demand or the need to introduce a technology. In most cases, "purpose" refers to the communicative purpose of translation. Under the guidance of the purpose of communication, the translator can have more space to interpret and adjust the original text. (Nord 2001, 78)

To achieve the communicative and interative function between the target text and the target receptor, the target text needs to conform to the linguistic coherence, and be understood and accepted by the readers in the context of the target language and culture. The principle of coherence means that the target text must conform to the intra-textual coherence, that is, the translation must be understood by the target reader and be meaningful in the culture of the target language and the communication environment in which the translation is used. “The principle of coherence requires that the information generated by the translator (target text) must be interpreted in a manner consistent with the context of the target reader.” (Shuttleworth 2004: 75) This means the translator should maximize the translation Semantic coherence and makes the translation understandable and acceptable to the target readers. The target text can help target readers understand and successfully exchange information.

The fidelity rule refers to the inter-textual coherence between the original text and the target text, which requires "consistency between the target text and the original text" (Munday, 2010: 79). Therefore, in the translation process, the translator should not only be faithful to the original text, but also transfer the writing style and cultural factors existed in the source text. This principle requires translator to follow the purpose of translation.

In the process of translation, translators should follow three principles according to Skopos Theory: the Skopos rule, the coherence rule and the fidelity rule. Among these three rules in Skopos Theory, the skopos rule is the primary principle translators should adopt in the process of translation, and the coherence rule and the fidelity rule must follow the skopos rule. So in the case of translation practice, fidelity rule is subordinate to coherence rule, and both are subordinate to the Skopos rule. In a word, Skopos rule plays a decisive role in translation process, and it should be considered first in translation. (Fang Mengzhi 2011, 20)

====2.3 Application of Skopos Theory====
Skopos Theory is different from traditional theories which overemphasize the features of language rules. With regard to Skopos Theory, it requires that translators should not only consider the language but also take account of factors beyond texts and language like the purpose of translation. As for ''A Tale of Two Cities'', the purpose is to make the target reader feel the same as the source target reader. Since this is a literary text, the cultural factors and rhetorical methods used in the source texts should be reflected in the target text. In addition, the feeling of the target text reader should be taken into consideration in the process of translation. Therefore, the translation should conform to habits of the target language. But guided by Skopos Theory, the advantages and disadvantages of machine translation can be easily analyzed, so that a better solution can be founded between human translation and machine translation.

===3. Machine Translation and Human Translation===
Translation activities have a long history. As far as China is concerned, translation has a history of more than two thousand years. However, the translation tools have rarely changed, and the translations are always been done by "translators". With the development of science and technology and the acceleration of globalization, there is an increasing need for translation. Therefore， "machine" translation has emerged. High efficiency and low cost of machine translation make people think about whether machine translation will replace human translation. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)

====3.1 Advantages and disadvantages of human translation====
Human translation has both advantages and disadvantages. For example, human translation has the characteristics of flexibility, accuracy, high readability and humanization of language. At the same time, however, compared with machine translation, human translation is less efficient and easy to be influenced by translator's own cultural background and translation capacity so it is difficult to achieve rapid development. Before the advent of machine translation, all translation activities were done by human. Compared with machine, translators, as a bridge of cross-cultural communication, are more flexible. Translation itself is a complex activity. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)

Professional translators who have certain cultural background knowledge can choose different translation methods and strategies according to the similarities and differences between the two languages and cultures, so it is more flexible and accurate. The flexibility of human language enables the translator to express the meaning of the original text in a more abundant language, and accurately handle the rhetorical devices in the original text. Therefore, the target text of human translation must be more readable than that of machine translation. Human translation has a long history, and people's research on translation has never stopped. Many excellent translators have emerged in the world and put forward various translation ideas and strategies. Translation has established a relatively mature and complete theory. With the rapid development of China's economy and the increasing number of foreign exchanges, the demand for translation is on the rise. At the same time, the time spent on translation needs to be shortened. Therefore, manual translation alone cannot meet the needs of the translation market. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)

====3.2 Advantages and disadvantages of machine translation====
Machine translation refers to thefact that a language can be transferred into another language automatically with the help of machine. The idea of machine translation was firstly put forward by Weaver in his book Translation in 1949. Since the end of the 20th century, the development of the Internet and computer technology has provided more optional software and engines for machine translation. At the same time, the corpus has become richer and more complete, greatly improving the efficiency and quality of machine translation. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)

The current machine translation is based on the "Neural Machine Translation" (NMT) model of artificial intelligence. Currently, the popular web page machine translations include Youdao Translation, Baidu Translation, Google Translation and so on. Google is currently in a leading position in both voice translation and text translation. Google Translation is a service provided by Google to translate texts and web pages, providing instant translation between more than 100 languages. It can provide translations of words, sentences and web pages between any two languages it supports. The more human translation documents that can be analyzed for a particular language are, the higher the quality of the translation is. In addition, Google's web page translation is fast, especially free to use, so it has a considerable number of users in translation activities, especially students. Therefore, this paper will take Google Translation and Baidu Translation as an example to analyze the translation quality, which is representative in the market. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)

Generally speaking, machine translation has the characteristics of high efficiency, low cost, accuracy of terminology translation, and great development potential. Machine translation is fast and efficient, for which human translation cannot match. Secondly, the price of machine translation is low, even free, which greatly reduces the economic cost and time cost for those who do not require high translation quality. In addition, compared to human translation, the huge corpus established by machine translation makes the translation of some terms, especially the latest scientific and technological terms, faster and more accurate. The accurate translation of these terms requires continuous learning by the translator, and learning requires a process, which has a certain test of the translator's learning ability and learning speed. At this point, human translation has uncertainty and lag. Finally, although the history of machine translation is short, it has achieved rapid development. With the advancement of science and technology and the development of society, the functions of machine translation will be more perfect and the quality of translation will be better. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)

First of all, from a microscopic point of view, machine translation often has problems in the choice of word meaning, especially when there is one word with different meanings. It needs the translator to select the meaning based on the context, while machine translation cannot accurately choose the meaning of a word in combination with the context. What’s more, the word order of the translated sentence often does not conform to the word order and expression habits of the target language. From the aspect of tense, it is more accurate when translating English into Chinese, because words in English can directly change tense. However, there are sometimes problems such as no corresponding tenses when translating Chinese into English. From a macro point of view, machine translation does not have cultural sensitivity and is not accurate enough for the translation of some idioms and proverbs with strong cultural color. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)

====3.3 Relationship between machine translation and human translation====
Machine translation is based on human translation, and the establishment of corpus that machine translation relies on needs human participation. When translating technical terms, machine translation corpus and parallel text can greatly reduce the time when find and determine proper equivalent terms. However, the establishment of these corpora needs well-translated materials. The accuracy and usability of corpus are also affected by the quality of human translation. Therefore, they restrict and influence each other. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)

There are more or less defects in the micro and macro aspects of machine translation. At the micro level, it mainly includes vocabulary, syntax, tense, and so on. However, at the macro level, it mainly includes text cohesion and cultural background. Therefore, human translation is essential. In addition, all machine translation inspection, modification, sorting and other work must also be carried out manually, so as to make the translation quality better and meet the requirements of communication. It can be seen that machine translation alone cannot meet the requirements of high quality translation. Translation activities cannot be separated from human participation. Therefore, with the development of machine translation, translation should be completed by both machine and human. The two are related, influenced with each other. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)

===4. Case Study from the Perspective of Skopos Theory===
A Tale of Two Cities is a long historical novel by British writer Charles Dickens, first published in 1859. The story is set in the French Revolution and has a touching plot. It is one of the world's literary classics. The twin cities refer to Paris and London. The story connects these two cities and tells the story of the Parisian doctor Manette. He was persecuted by the brothers of the Marquis St. Evremonde due to injustice and was detained in the Bastille prison for 18 years. After being released from prison, Mannette's daughter Lucie fell in love with the enemy's son Darney. Thus, in the whirlpool of the French Revolution, scenes of family grievances and hatred were staged grandly. Life and death, good and evil were blended in conflict and changed in an instant. On the guillotine, Carton calmly sacrificed his life for love. （Dickens 2016）

A Tale of Two Cities has a rigorous structure and condensed language. Dickens's profound thinking on revolution and humanity and his breathtaking writing talent are fully demonstrated. This paper selects the most representative classic sentences in the text for comparative analysis of translation, studies whether neural network machine translation software can accurately translate classic literary works, and explores whether neural network machine translation will replace manual translation in the context of artificial intelligence. The human translation was by Zhaolin Song. Among the many translation versions in China, Song’s translation was regarded as the version which closes to the source text most. (Feng Baoyin 2018, 232)

====4.1 Case Study from the perspective of Skopos Rule====
In Vermeer’ opinion, the dominant rule for any translation should be the skopos rule, which means that a translation action is determined by its purposes. That is to say, the translation action should be in accordance with the target context and culture. The purposes of target text determine the translation strategies and methods used in translation process. A good translation should conform to the target culture and meet target audiences’ expectations. According to Nord, “Skopos of a particular translation task may require a ‘free’ or a ‘faithful’ translation, or anything between these two extremes, depending on the purpose for which the translation is needed”. Once the intended purposes are achieved, the translation will be considered as reasonable and proper. It is unnecessary for the translation to be equivalent to the source text. (Nord 1997, 102)

Example 1: We were all going direct to heaven, we were all going direct the other way--in short, the period was so far like the present period, that some of its noisiest authorities insisted on its being received, for good or for evil, in the superlative degree of comparison only. （Dickens 2016, 15）

Google translation: 我们都直接去天堂，我们都直接去天堂- -简而言之，这一时期与目前的时期如此遥远，以至于它的一些最吵闹的当局坚持以最高的比较程度来接受它是好是坏。

Baidu translation: 我们是所有的人都直接去天堂，我们都朝着另一个方向去——简而言之，这个时期和现在的时代非常相似，以至于一些最吵闹的权威坚持要接受它，不管是好是坏，只是在最高级的比较中。

Human translation（Zhaolin Song）: 我们大家都在直升天堂，我们大家都在直下地狱——简而言之，那个时代和当今这个时代是如此相似，因而一些吵嚷不休的权威们也坚持认为，不管它是好是坏，都只能用“ 最……”来评价它。(Song Zhaolin 2005, 20)

Analysis:
Since this is selected from a novel, the purpose of translation should be express the meaning and beauty of the source text. As for the Google translation, there was a mistake in translating "We were all going directly the other way". The translated meaning is totally different from the original. As to Baidu translation, it expressed the meaning of the original text, but the way it expressed the original meaning may confuse the target text reader. In regards to human translation, the translator of this edition adopts the combination of literal translation and free translation. In this way, the translation not only clearly expresses the original meaning, but also takes into account the literariness of the work, so that readers can feel the characteristics of the times more vividly

====4.2 Case study from the perspective of coherence rule====
Coherence rule is also called “intra-textual coherence”, which means that the translation should be acceptable and understandable for the target audiences and be meaningful in the communicative situation and culture in which it is received. In other words, the target text should conform to the target receivers’ situation, including their given knowledge, background culture and specific circumstances. (Nord 1997, 120)

Example 2: Questions, questions, questions! (Charles Dickens 2016, 56)

Google Translation: 问题，问题，问题！

Baidu Translation: 问题，问题，问题！

Human translation（Zhaolin Song）: 问题一个接一个地提出来！(Song Zhaolin 2005, 68)

Analysis: In this sentence, the original text uses three "questions" in a row to enhance the tone. However, Google and Baidu Translation directly translated it into "问题，问题，问题！", which sounds too blunt to read. The target text translated by Google and Baidu cannot reflect the meaning of the original text. What's more, it makes it hard for target readers to get the meaning of the text. While the translator chose the free translation method to make the translation more natural and smooth. The translated text followed the coherence rule in the process of translation.

Example 3: But just because he had a powerful enemy---an enemy with the power to send him to prison and to keep him there, hidden and forgotten, for eighteen years. (Charles Dickens 2016, 102)

Google translation: 但是仅仅因为他有一个强大的敌人-一个有能力将他送进监狱并将其隐藏和遗忘在监狱里长达十八年的敌人。

Baidu translation:只是因为他有一个强大的敌人，一个有能力把他送进监狱，把他关在那里，隐藏起来，被遗忘18年。

Human translation(Song Zhaolin): 而只是因为他有一个强大的敌人-这个敌人拥有权势将他投进监狱，而且把他在那里与世隔绝、被人遗忘地关了18年。(Song Zhaolin 2005, 130)

Analysis: In terms of grammar, English uses long sentences, which are connected by functional words, such as conjunctions, prepositions and relative words. Its syntactic structure is relatively complex and it is a hypotactic language. Chinese is a paratactic language. In the process of E-C translation, we often use disassembly syntax to translate a long and complex English sentence into several short and simple Chinese short sentences. From Google Translation, it directly translated the structure of the original text. The target text created by Google translation doesn't conform to target language structure. While the translation of Baidu almost in accordance with the target language structure. As to the human translation, not only was the structure, but also the meaning was perfectly expressed.

====4.3 Case study from the perspective of fidelity rule====
Fidelity rule is also named by Vermeer as “intertextual coherence”, which puts emphasis on the relationship between the source text and target text. Based on Skopos theory, fidelity rule requires that the target text should be in accordance with the source text, which means the information contained in the source text should be exactly conveyed by the target text under the translators’ efforts. (Nord 1997, 140)

Example 1: It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of light, it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair, we had everything before us, we had nothing before us. （Dickens 2016, 15）

Google Translation: 那是最美好的时光，那是最糟糕的时光，那是智慧的时代，那是愚昧的时代，那是信仰的时代，那是轻信的时代，那是光明的季节，是黑暗的季节，是希望的春天，是绝望的冬天，我们眼前的一切，眼前的一切。

Baidu Translation: 那是最好的时代，最坏的时代，智慧的时代，愚昧的时代，信仰的时代，不信的时代，光明的季节，黑暗的季节，希望的春天，绝望的冬天，我们面前什么都有，面前什么都没有。

Human Translation (Zhaolin Song): : 那是最美好的时代，那是最糟糕的时代；那是个睿智的年月，那是个蒙昧的年月；那是信心百倍的时期，那是疑虑重重的时期；那是阳光普照的季节，那是黑暗笼罩的季节；那是充满希望的春天，那是让人绝望的冬天；我们面前无所不有，我们面前一无所有。（Song Zhaolin 2005, 20）

Analysis: This is the classic opening paragraph in "A Tale of Two Cities", and it can be said to be very popular. On the whole, because of the simple structure of this paragraph, the two machine-translated translations all accurately express the content of the original text, but one shortcoming is that it is difficult for machine translation to express the unique beauty of rhythm of the original text.

Through the analysis of the translation of commonly used machine translation software and human translation from the perspective of Skopos Theory, we can conclude that for the translation of literary works, machine translation can accurately express the meaning of the original text, even equal to manual translation if there are only some simple expressions in the source texts. However, the quality of machine translation needs to be improved some sentences with complex sentence patterns and difficult grammatical structures. Therefore, the translation of literary works by machines still have a long way to go.

===5. Conclusion===
The main purpose of this paper is to find a better solution between machine translation and human translation under the guidance of the Skopos Theory for optimizing weaknesses of machine translation platforms, which not only generates solutions to errors, but also improves the quality of machine translation.

Theoretically, this paper applies Skopos Theory to guide human translation and machine translation of literary texts. Machine translation can be regarded as a basis of human translation, while those errors caused by machine translation can be improved manually after the completion of machine translation. Meanwhile, by employing appropriate translation methods and techniques, such as semantic conversion, amplification, omission and so on, human translation based on machine translation enormously solves errors in machine translation which further optimizes weaknesses of machine translation. Human translation process also becomes more efficient with the help of machine

As for machine translation, firstly, machine translation platforms can’t replace translators on account of its incomplete corpus and limitations in transferring the cultural meaning. Secondly, errors at lexical level caused by defects of machine translation are much more than that at syntactical level. Lastly, machine translation platforms are restricted by contexts of language, situation and culture which lead to incorrect target text.

In regard with human translation, from the perspective of Skopos theory, human translation is more understandable and readable to target readers than that of machine translation. It’s essential for the translator to know typical errors in machine translation, features of machine translation platforms and characteristics of the source text, which could fascinate the efficiency of translation. All in all, machine translation platforms enhance the efficiency of translating large amount of material and human translation provides a solution for machine translation of poor quality. Machine translation and human translation are complement to each other.

===References===
* Charles Dickens. (2016). A Tale of Two Cities. Macmillian.

* Fang Mengzhi 方梦之. (2011). 中国译学大辞典 [A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China] 上海外语教育出版社(leave a blank space)Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

* Feng Baoyin(leave a blank space)冯宝茵 (2018). 从读者反应论对比两个《双城记》译本 [A comparative study of two versions of a tale of two cities from the perspective of reader response theory]. 北方文学, Northern Literature (36):232.

* Hu Kaibao & Li Yi胡开宝 & 李翼. (2016). 机器翻译特征及其与人工翻译关系的研究. [Research on the characteristics of machine translation and its relationship with human translation] 中国翻译 Chinese Translation (05),10-14.

* Jin Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. 智库时代 Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.

* Mark Shuttleworth (2004). Dictionary of Translation Studies. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press. 75.

* Munday, J. (2001). Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Application. London: Routeledge. 78.

* Reiss, K & Vermeer, H. J. (1984). Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation. Tubingen: Niemeyer.

* Song Zhaolin(leave a blank space)宋兆霖 (2005). 双城记 A Tale of Two Cities 中国戏剧出版社, China Drama Press.

20201215 cultexam 2

2020-12-21T07:00:57Z

Lei kuangxi: /* Literature, Novels - Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪学号missing 英语口译 */

*Link to return to [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Chinese_Languages_and_Cultures Course Homepage].
*Link to the other Final Exam paper pages: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_1 1 Alsied, Saffana - Jiang Qiwei]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_2 2 Kang Haoyu - Sagara Seydou]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_3 3 Shi Haiyao - You Yuting]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_4 4 Yu Ni - Zubareva, Ekaterina]. This page has become too large. Do not write on this page any more, but on one of the smaller pages.

'''Final Exam Paper. Please write now and improve until grading on 2020 12 15'''
*You can use the texts in the coursebook as an example (like Unit 1, Text A). You only need to write Text A (like "Longevity Noodles") or Text B ("Mooncakes"), not a whole Unit. But please try to find fellow students who topics fit under the same Unit title ("Festival Meals") and arrange it accordingly.
*In the topic, please write the category, then the topic - your name and student no.
*For the text, please indicate ALL SOURCES with bibliographical references. That means: At least for every paragraph, sometimes for single sentences, you have to indicate at the end, where you have found this information. E.g. (Liu Miqing 2010, 17). This means you have found it in the book or paper written by Ms Liu on page 17.
*Add a section at the end called "References". There you write the full version of the reference: Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学. Similarly, you do it for papers: Jin Wenlu`靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.
*Please also add a list "Terms and Expressions".
*Please add a "Questions" section.
*Please add a "Answers" section.

==Chinese Red Culture - Kang Haoyu 康浩宇, 202070080638 English Interpreting==

<center>康浩宇 Kang Haoyu</center>

===Chinese Red Culture===
Chinese red culture is unique in the world. As a very important cultural resource, it has both tangible and intangible culture. Red culture in China refers to the advance(advanced)--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 05:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC) culture with Chinese characteristics created by party and people in revolutionary years.(Zhu Guilian, Li Jin 2010, 87)

====1. Development====

China has brilliant history and splendid civilization in ancient times. However, with the Opium War of 1840, China was plunged into the darkness of domestic turmoil and foreign aggression. Despite of all efforts that countless dedicated patriots had made, they still failed to change the plight. The October Revolution in Russia brought Marxism-Leninism. With Communism as the the highest ideal and ultimate goal, the Communist Party of China shouldered the historic(historical)--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 05:18, 18 December 2020 (UTC) mission of national rejuvenation. With the firm leadership of the party, Chinese people embraced national independence, people's liberation, national reunification and social stability, and stepped into a new era of prosperity and happiness.(Xi Jinpin 2017)

Red culture is condensed by the Communist Party of China in the great struggle of leading the Chinese revolution. It is an advanced Marxism culture that was inherited and developed in the new period of socialist construction. It's a collectivism culture of bravery, sacrifice and devotion that seeks happiness for the Chinese people and(the)--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 05:18, 18 December 2020 (UTC) rejuvenation for the Chinese nation.Red culture is embodied in the aspects of ideal belief, value pursuit and spiritual outlook, and is integrated into material remains, mechanism behaviors and cultural and artistic forms.(Luo Liling, Pu Qingpin 2018, 45)

First of all, red culture is a revolutionary culture, which was formed by the Chinese Communist Party in the great struggle of leading the Chinese revolution. After the founding of(the)--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 05:18, 18 December 2020 (UTC) People's Republic of China, the Communist Party of China led the Chinese people to inherit and carry forward the revolutionary culture. In the new period of socialist construction and reform and opening up, a vigorous and advanced socialist culture was formed, which enriched and developed the connotation of red culture. Revolutionary culture and advanced socialist culture are two major components of red culture, and are the core value and spiritual subject of contemporary Chinese culture. As for Chinese red culture, Among them, Marxism is the soul, the common ideal of socialism with Chinese characteristics is the theme, the national spirit and the spirit of the times are the essence, and the socialist concept of honor and disgrace is the foundation. These four aspects influence, infiltrate and interact with each other, revealing the essential characteristics of red culture scientifically and completely.(Zhu Guilian, Li Jin 2010, 87)

====2. Symbols====

The word “red” in “red culture” has many symbols. Chinese people have “red” complex since ancient time. Red represents authority. For, example, official documents are also called red heading documents. Red represents courage. Red is the color of Chinese national flag. Chinese military strategists and generals have a deep understanding of the role of red in war, so they use red flags to unite their morale, inspire their fighting and their courage, and summon the spirit of going forward bravely and not fearing sacrifice. Red represents honor and auspiciousness. For instance, the places are always adorned with red for conference and ceremony. People are awarded with red flower and red certificates. Red represents revolution. When Marx was asked about "favorite color" in his early years, he clearly answered "red". In 1864, First International was founded, and its logo was red. The first army of (the)--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 05:18, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Communist Party of China was named Red Army, and Ruijin, the first revolutionary base area, was called Red Capital. There were also red boats in South Lake and red flags in Jinggangshan.(Chen dongwang, Huang Weiliang 2006, 19)

====3. Values====

Red culture has many values. Red culture has the value of history. It witnesses the early development history of the Communist Party of China. It shows the inevitability of the socialist road in China. And it is an important weapon to guide the success of Chinese revolution. Besides, red culture has the value of civilization. Carrying forward the red culture is an urgent need to cultivate a new national spirit. Red culture is important for the construction of socialism culture and ideology. Moreover, red culture has the value of economy. Red culture is a powerful driving force for the development of (the)--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 05:18, 18 December 2020 (UTC)socialist market economy. It is an important medium of economic development under the new historical conditions. The red cultural industry has become a new economic growth point.(Wang Yidi 2007, 149)

====4. Red Culture in Nanchang====

Nanchang is the capital city of Jiangxi Province and it is where August 1st uprising took place. Nanchang is renowned as the cradle of Chinese revolution and the place where the military flag rose. Because in August 1st uprising, (the)--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 05:18, 18 December 2020 (UTC)communist party of china formed its first army in Nanchang. There are lots of red culture resources in Nanchang.

Bayi Square is at the center of Nanchang city. It was built to memorize August 1st uprising. Bayi Square highlights the theme of "Bayi History and Culture" in all directions. The memorial area, cultural area, reminiscence area and leisure area of Bayi Square show Bayi Uprising in different forms. The landmark in the square is Bayi Nanchang Uprising Memorial Tower. Besides, Nangchang August 1st Memorial Hall is a special memorial hall established to commemorate(the)--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 05:18, 18 December 2020 (UTC) Nanchang Uprising.（Peng Bo, Zhang Li, Li Jiangyuan 2006, 58）

===References===

[1] 程东旺, 黄伟良. “红色文化”的价值形态与德育功能探析[J]. 现代教育科学, 2006: 19-21.

[2] 罗丽琳,蒲清平. 红色文化的思想政治教育基因及其时代价值[J].新疆师范大学学报, 2018: 45-52

[3] 彭波, 张丽, 李江源. 整合红色资源,提升江西文化力[J]. 江西崛起策论, 2006:58-60.

[4] 王以第. “红色文化”的价值内涵[J]. 文化论苑, 2007:149-150.

[5] 习近平, 决胜全面建成小康社会夺取新时代中国特色社会主义伟大胜利——在中国共产党第十九次全国代表大会上的报告,人民日报,2017.

[6] 朱桂莲,李晶. 德育视角下的中国红色文化研究综述[J]. 研究综述, 2010:87-89.

===Terms and Expressions===

red culture 红色文化

Opium War 鸦片战争

red heading documents 红头文件

red army 红军

August 1st uprising 八一起义

===Questions===

1. What is the historical background of the birth of red culture?

2. What are two major components of red culture?

3. How many symbols dose the word "red" in red culture has? What are they?

4. How many values dose red culture has? What are they?

5. What is the landmark in Bayi Square?

===Answers===

1. In modern China, Communist Party of China led the Chinese revolution and led people to fight against suppression.

2. Revolutionary culture and advanced socialist culture are two major components of red culture

3. Four. Authority, courage, honor and revolution.

4. Three. History value, civilization value and economic value.

5. Bayi Nanchang Uprising Memorial Tower

==The Ancient Tea Horse Road - Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆, 202070080593 MTI==

===The Ancient Tea Horse Road===

====Introduction====
The Ancient Tea Horse Road is a folk international trade route that exists in southwest China and is a corridor for ethnic economic and cultural exchanges with horses as the main means of transportation. It originated from the ancient southwest frontier of the tea horse mutual market, flourished in the Tang and Song dynasties and in the Ming and Qing dynasties, and prospered in the middle and late World War II. The Tea Horse Road was listed by the State Council as the seventh batch of national key cultural relics conservation units on March 5, 2013. (Zou Jingyi , Zhang Yimei 2018,131) --[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 13:46, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

====Historical Routes====
China’s ancient tea horse road is divided into:

1. Shanxi-Gansu tea horse road is the main route for tea to travel westward in mainland China and exchange for horses. It is one of the main routes of the ancient Silk Road.
2. Shanxi - Tibet tea horse road (wade ancient road) began in the Han Dynasty, formed by the Shanxi merchants and the ancient southwest border tea and horse each other.During the Ming and Qing dynasties, the government controlled tea trafficking, and the tea trafficking sub-regional, including the most prosperous tea horse trading market in Kangding, known as the wade ancient road. (Kang Yuming, Li Jinfeng2020,281)

3. The ancient Yunnan-Tibet Tea Horse Road was formed in the late sixth century AD. It is in the south of Yunnan's main tea producing areas. It is an important trade channel between ancient China and South Asia.
4. Sichuan-Tibet Tea Horse Road is a part of the Shan-Kang-Tibet Tea Horse Road. It is an essential bridge and link between ancient Tibet and the interior. It is in the east of Yazhou edge, west to Lhasa, Tibet, and finally through to Bhutan, Nepal and India, a total length of nearly four thousand kilometers. (Kang Yuming, Li Jinfeng2020,282)

There are three main routes of the ancient tea-horse road: The Qinghai-Tibet line (the ancient Tang and Tibetan road), the Yunnan-Tibet line and the Sichuan-Tibet line. Among the three ancient tea-horse roads, the Qinghai-Tibet line was established in the Tang Dynasty and developed earlier, while the Sichuan-Tibet line was the most influential and well-known later. These three routes are closely related to Chengdu, and among them, the Yunnan-Tibet route and the Sichuan-Tibet route pass through Chengdu, and their development is closely related to the tea-horse trade. (Kang Yuming,Li Jinfeng2020,283) --[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 14:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

===Historical Values===
1. The Golden Road of Tourism
The ancient tea-horse road tour has unique scenery, profound cultural connotation, exclusive resources and is unparalleled in the world.

2. Ancient Roads for the Propagation of Civilization
The ancient Tea Horse Road was not only an important migration corridor for the ancient ancestors between Wei-Tibet and present Sichuan and Yunnan, but also an important aperture for the spread and exchange of ancient civilizations between present Sichuan, Yunnan and Tibet. (Ji Jing2016,354)

3. Migration Corridor of National Cultures
On this ancient road, which stretches for more than 10,000 miles, Chinese, Tibetan, Yi, Naxi, Lisu, Hani, Kino, Qiang, Pumi, Bai, Nu, Jingpo, Achang and other ethnic groups have flourished here for thousands of years, highlighting the diversity and original form of ethnic culture in southwest China.

4. The Path of National Spirituality
You can't talk about the ancient tea-horse road without mentioning the horse gangs. The horse gangs have formed a unique cultural carrier in the course of thousands of years. Their spirit is attached to this ancient road, and become part of the Chinese national spirit. (Ji Jing2016,355)

5. The Road of National Unity and Integration
The ancient tea-horse road is like a huge net in southwest China, through which people of all nationalities strengthen their ties and communication, promote political, economic and cultural interaction, development and integration among all nationalities, and enhance the emotional ties between them.

6. The Road of Securing the Borders
The expansion of the ancient tea-horse road and the flourishing of the tea-horse trade contributed to the stability and consolidation of China's southwest frontier.

7. The road to economic development
The Thousand-Year Tea Horse Trail contributed to the formation of many towns in the region through the tea and horse trade, which greatly contributed to the economic development of the region. (Ji Jing2016,355)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 14:10, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

===Terms and Expressions===

1.The Ancient Tea Horse Road(茶马古道)

2.Sichuan-Tibet Line（川藏线）

3.Yunnan-Tibet line（滇藏线）

4.wade ancient road（蹚古道）

===Questions===

1.What is the ancient tea horse road ?

2.How many main routes does the ancient tea-horse road conclude?

3.What is the historical value?--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 14:11, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

===Answers===

1.The Ancient Tea Horse Road is a folk international trade route that exists in southwest China and is a corridor for ethnic economic and cultural exchanges with horses as the main means of transportation.

2.There are three main routes, including the Qinghai-Tibet line (the ancient Tang and Tibetan road), the Yunnan-Tibet line and the Sichuan-Tibet line.

3.The ancient Tea Horse Road, a passage that once played an important role in the birth and development of the Chinese nation just like the Silk Road, has been gradually buried in the dust of history with the washing away of modern civilization.

===References===

Zou Jingyi, Zhang Yiqing邹怡情,张依玫. (2018). 作为文化线路的茶马古道遗产保护研究[ A Study on Heritage Conservation of Ancient Tea Horse Road as a Cultural Route].
''北京规划建设'' BeiJing Planning Review (04)131-140.

Kang Yuming, Li Jinfeng康昱明,李金峰.(2020).甘肃茶马古道文化线路遗产探究[ A Study on Cultural Route Heritage of Ancient Tea Horse Road in Gansu Province].''农村经济与科技''Rural Economy and Science (11)281-283.

Li Gang, Li Wei李刚,李薇. (2011). 论历史上三条茶马古道的联系及历史地位[ On the Connection and Historical Status of Three Ancient Tea Horse Roads in History]. ''西北大学学报''Journal of Northwestern University (04):113-117.

Ji Ji纪静. (2016). 茶马古道的兴起及其价值研究 [ A Study on the Rise and Value of Ancient Tea Horse Road ]. ''福建茶叶'' Tea In Fujian (07):354-355.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 14:14, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Literature, Novels - Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪学号202070080639 MTI 英语口译==

===Four satirical novels in ancient China===

At the end of the Qing Dynasty, literary scholars with reformist ideas criticized current affairs through novels and proposed to save the country, which were called novels of condemnation. The novels Li Baojia's The Records of Officialdom Exposure, Wu Wa-ren's The Strange Situation of Seeing in twenty years, Liu E's the Travels of an Old Man and Zeng Pu's Nai Hai Hua represent the highest achievement of such novels, and are known as "the four great condemnation novels of the late Qing Dynasty". They attacked corruption and made straightforward decisions about current problems, forming a strong literary trend of criticizing reality in modern times.

The Four Great Condemnation Novels of the late Qing dynasty mainly exposed the dark side of society and its various shortcomings, and dealt with various aspects of social life at that time. In spite of the shortcomings pointed out by Lu Xun, "the rhetoric is revealing, the pen has no hidden edges, and the rhetoric is even too much", they have unprecedented breadth in reflecting social reality, and their sharp and incisive strokes caused strong repercussions at that time.(https://baike.baidu.com/item/晚清四大谴责小说/702907?fromtitle=四大谴责小说&fromid=10570148&fr=aladdin)

====Introduction====

At the end of the Qing Dynasty, literary scholars with reformist ideas criticized current affairs through novels and proposed to save the country, which were called novels of condemnation. The novels Li Baojia's The Records of Officialdom Exposure, Wu Wa-ren's The Strange Situation of Seeing in twenty years, Liu E's the Travels of an Old Man and Zeng Pu's Nai Hai Hua represent the highest achievement of such novels, and are known as "the four great condemnation novels of the late Qing Dynasty". They attacked corruption and made straightforward decisions about current problems, forming a strong literary trend of criticizing reality in modern times.

The Four Great Condemnation Novels of the late Qing dynasty mainly exposed the dark side of society and its various shortcomings, and dealt with various aspects of social life at that time. In spite of the shortcomings pointed out by Lu Xun, "the rhetoric is revealing, the pen has no hidden edges, and the rhetoric is even too much", they have unprecedented breadth in reflecting social reality, and their sharp and incisive strokes caused strong repercussions at that time.(wenku)

==== Nie Hai Hua====

Nie Hai Hua was written by Zen Pu (1872-1935).A total of 35 chapters.it is a novel of condemnation, historical fiction and political fiction. In the novel, Jin yun (wen qing) is the main character.After won the scholarship, he took a famous courtesan, Fu Caiyun, as his concubine in Suzhou.He was then ordered to travel to Russia, Germany, Austria, and the Netherlands. After returning to China, Jin Wenqing died of illness in Beijing, and Fu Caiyun left the Jin family to resume her old profession in Shanghai, changing her name to Cao Menglan then went to Tianjin to work as a prostitute, calling herself Sai Jinhua.

The novel takes the story of Jin Wenqing and Fu Caiyun as the main line, vividly describes the historical and cultural changes as well as political and social changes from Tongzhi to Guangxu more than 30 years, exposing the decay and decline of the rulers, criticizing the feudal system of imperial examination, satirizing the officials, truly reflecting their spiritual life and cultural mentality. at the same time also enthusiastically glorifies Feng Zicai, Liu Yongfu and other war heroes and Sun Yat-sen and so on. The revolutionary activities of the Democratic Revolutionaries express the author's patriotic thoughts against the feudal dictatorship and advocate national democratic revolution. In specific writing, the author adopts the modern popular block novel structure combined with the traditional mesh novel structure to unfold the plot, with ups and downs, twists and turns, touching and orderly, always around the main line.

As a historical novel, Nie Hai Hua draws on the spirit of the ancient "good history" of China to portray its characters. At the same time, it draws on the satirical approach of "The History of Confucianism" in which "the fair-minded accuse the evils of the times", commenting on events and weighing characters in a realistic manner. In terms of art, Nie Hai Hua also has many shortcomings.However, it is a skillful structure and outstanding novel at that time.(wenku)

==== the Travels of an Old Man====

The Travels of an Old Man was written by Liu E (1857-1909) and a total of 20 chapters. Liu E was an entrepreneur and scholar, not a professional writer, but his reputation as a literary figure was far greater than that of an entrepreneur and scholar. This novel is an unfinished work of his that was written in his later years with an autobiographical nature.
The novel takes a bell-ringing mountebank, Lao can (Tie Ying), as its main character, and narrates his experiences and activities during his travels in northern China, exposing the decadence and darkness of the Qing government, the brutality and lethargy of the officials, and the poverty and oppression of the people, especially attacking the abusive behavior of those "Qing officials" who are actually cruel officials, and expressing the author's strong views on the perilous reality of society and the country.

The artistic achievement of the novel is very high. The first is the superb descriptive skills, whether it is a description, a landscape, or a narrative, can be vividly depicted, such as the scenery of Thousand Buddha Mountain, Daming Lake etc., which makes people have a sense of being in the real world. Secondly, its psychological description and psychological analysis, with appropriate language, can brilliantly show the inner world of the characters. Thirdly, the exquisite structural art. The novel is in the form of a Travel Journal, with travel as a clue,and organic combined of what he see, hear, think and do along the way forms a unique structural feature of the novel.(wenku)

==== The Records of Officialdom Exposure====

The Records of Officialdom Exposure by Li Baojia (1867-1906), five editions and a total of 60 chapters. This is the first long chapter novel in China's modern era that was published serially in newspapers and magazines and achieved a social sensation, creating a culture of critical reality in modern fiction.

The novel consists of more than 30 relatively independent bureaucratic stories linked together, involving the Qing government from the emperor, down to the minor officials and so on,and these various bureaucrats of all kinds of evil behavior were exposed:They embezzled public funds, corrupt and pervert the law or the named "expedition bandits", but is harmful to the people. The work is like a scroll of the officialdom at the end of the feudal society, touching on the main contradictions of that time.

The novel's writing method is modelled on "The Scholars" and has been developed, making full use of exaggeration, comic style and satirical techniques. only a few strokes will outline the character's voice and physical appearance. And the author also good at describing the details, so that the characters are vivid and evocative, with a strong artistic impact. Therefore, the subsequent imitation of the work is quite a lot, it become a great view.(wenku)

==== 20 years witness strange present situation====

The Strange Situation Witnessed in Twenty Years was written by Wu Woyao(1866-1910), A total of 60 chapters. This is a long novel with autobiographical flavor.it through nearly 200 short stories that the protagonist hears and witnesses from the death of his father to his failure in business. it outlines the strange realities of late Qing society during the 20 years from the Sino-French War to the beginning of the 20th century.

The scope of social life is much broader than The Records of Officialdom Exposure. In addition to describing the officialdom, there are also involving the shopping malls, foreign markets, science fields, medical and astrological practices. It exposes the political situation, moral outlook, social customs, and human conditions of the increasingly colonized Chinese feudal society, and is of high cognitive value in helping readers to see the irreparable historical destiny of the late Qing society and feudal system.

The novel adopts the first-person narrative story, structured in a way that makes the reader feel intimate and trustworthy, setting a precedent in the history of Chinese fiction. The structure is also very clever: "nine deaths and a lifetime" is not only the narrator of the book story, but also the backbone of the structure of the book, and at the same time uses flashbacks, interpolations and other methods, combining it organically together, making the whole book complex and simple appropriate, muddle together.(wenku)

==== Conclution====

As a result of the bourgeois reformists and democratic revolutionaries strongly advocated, the novel creation in the late Qing Dynasty got unprecedented development, and a large number of influential novels emerged, forming a prosperous situation of the novel creation in the late Qing Dynasty.The emergence of the "Four satirical novels" in the late Qing Dynasty is an important sign that The creation of Chinese novels has entered another prosperous period.

===Reference===

*[1]https://baike.baidu.com/item/晚清四大谴责小说/702907?fromtitle=四大谴责小说&fromid=10570148&fr=aladdin
*[2]二十年目睹之怪现状[M]. 北方文艺出版社 , (清) 吴趼人, 2012
*[3]老残游记[M]. 北方文艺出版社 , (清) 刘鹗, 2012
*[4]官场现形记[M]. 北方文艺出版社 , (清) 李宝嘉, 2012
*[5]孽海花[M]. 北方文艺出版社 , (清) 曾朴, 2012
*[6]四大谴责小说政治批判手法研究[J].李辉东,2017

===Terms and Expressions===
The Records of Officialdom Exposure 《官场现形记》

The Strange Situation of Seeing in twenty years 《二十年之目睹怪现象》

the Travels of an Old Man 《老残游记》

Nai Hai Hua 《孽海花》

The Four Great Condemnation Novels of the late Qing dynasty 晚清四大谴责小说

===Questions===
1、what are The Four Great Condemnation Novels of the late Qing dynasty ?

2、which novel is modeled the "The Scholars"?

3、what’s the common characteristic of these four novels?

4、what other satirical novels do you know?

===Answers===
1、They are Li Baojia's The Records of Officialdom Exposure, Wu Wa-ren's The Strange Situation of Seeing in twenty years, Liu E's the Travels of an Old Man and Zeng Pu's Nai Hai Hua.

2、The Records of Officialdom Exposure

3、The Four Great Condemnation Novels of the late Qing dynasty mainly exposed the dark side of society and its various shortcomings, and dealt with various aspects of social life at that time.

4、E.g.The Scholars

==Shadow Play - Li Lili 李丽丽 No.202070080594 MTI ==

====The Origin of Shadow Play====
Shadow play has a long history according to the written records. Legend has it that Empress Xiaowu, the wife of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty, died of illness. Emperor Wu missed her so strongly that he was in a trance and ignored the government's affairs all day. One day, Minister Li Shaoweng went out and came across a child playing with a doll in his hand. The shadow of the doll was so vivid that he came up with an idea to cut the Mrs. Li's image out of cotton and silk, painted it, and installed wooden poles on its hands and feet. When Emperor Wu looked at it, it was like a treasure that he was glued to it. This love story is considered to be the earliest origin of shadow play. (Wei Liqun 2018,13)

There are also some views that shadow play originated in Xi'an of Tang Dynasty, however, it is worth discussing that although there were a variety of operas in the Tang Dynasty, yet there were no any records of shadow play mentioned in the Tang Dynasty. Up to now, the earliest shadow play was recorded in Song Dynasty. Its rise and development were closely related to Bianjing’s (the capital of Northern Song Dynasty) superior geographical environment, the development of commodity trade and good commercial transportation at that time. (Wei Liqun 2018,14-15)

====Introduction====

[[File:shadow play.jpg|300px|thumb|right|]]

In Chinese ancient society, Chinese began to give performances using puppets against an illuminated screen. This is “shadow puppets”, also known as “lamp and shadow play”. It is considered as “precursor of movie” because it was the earliest moving part of form dubbed with human voice in the world. During a play, puppeteers hide behind the white screen and move puppets, while narrating the story, usually through singing. Performances are accompanied by musicians playing percussion and stringed instruments. A shadow puppet can perform actions such as “serving drinks”, “waving a sword and a spear,” or even “smoking” by puppeteer holding and moving manipulating rods on its body. (Wang Yexia 2012,1-2)

Typically, a shadow puppet has three rods and some may have five or seven rods. It can create rich designs such as shadow puppets, animals and stage props, for example, buildings, imperial palaces, chariots, tables and chairs as well as weapons. It is so rich that it includes almost everything under the sun. It combines traditional Chinese plastic art and performing art as well as the arts of painting, paper cutting, local opera, and ventriloquism. Besides, it has absorbed the best parts of local operas, folk songs and emerged into many schools. The well-known ones include Tangshan Shadow Play in Hebei Province, Beijing Shadow Play as well as Shaanxi, Shanxi and Hunan Shadow Play. etc. (Wang Yexia 2012,2-3)

So how to make a puppet? First, draw pictures of the various parts of the shadow puppets; second, finish carving with a knife and a hard board underneath the design; third, color the puppet with watercolor pens; fourth, paint the body parts with a brush dipped in oil. This can make the puppet transparent and better reflect colors under the light.; fifth, connect joint sections with the cotton thread; sixth, make the manipulating rods; finally, attach the manipulating rods to the shadow puppet with cotton thread. Thanks to different manipulating rods moves, the shadow puppet has a life, and can show happiness, anger, sorrow and gladness. (Wang Yexia 2012,29-35)

The eyes and the eyebrows of a shadow puppet’s five facial features represent different personalities. The good and positive people are typical of a benevolent and kind countenance, with nice-looking eyebrows and eyes, while the villain or the general are ferocious look, with sharp eyebrows and almond-shaped eyes. And the former are often concealed teeth and the latter are revealed teeth. The middle-aged people have short beard, but the elderly men have long beard. (Wang Yexia 2012,10-11)

The decorative designs on the shadow puppets are so important that they must match the character’s social status. In a shadow play, female characters are usually decorated with patters such as flowers, grass, clouds and phoenix, while male characters are often decorated with dragons, tigers, water and clouds. Shadows puppets look colorful under the light. To achieve a better visual effect, the translucent puppets need to be painted on both sides. The different colors of heads can also represent different characters’ personalities. The red is a symbol of a heroic and upstanding character and the representative is Guan Yu. The black is a sign of a just, honest and selfless personality and the representative is Zhang Fei. The yellow shows a brave and irascible character and is often used in fantasy plays to represent people with magic power. (Wang Yexia 2012,13-16)

====The Present Situation of Contemporary Shadow Play====
Since the founding of the People's Republic of China, shadow play, as an art form, has undergone a series of reforms under the guidance of the Party's principles, including the organization of theatrical troupes, the compilation and creation of plays, the drawing and performing forms of shadow play. With the advent of the "Cultural Revolution", the prosperity of shadow play came to an abrupt end. The troupe was disbanded, the repertoire was banned, and the artists were transferred to other fields. A large number of precious shadow puppet props and documents were damaged. This situation, except for some places, lasted until 1976. (Zhu Hengfu 2020,36）

After the end of the "Cultural Revolution", shadow puppet art rapidly revived, However, with the economic development being put in the first place of social activities and the popularity of television and the richness of artistic forms, shadow play is declining day by day with an irresistible trend, because shadow play arts are unable to keep pace with the times and get the appreciation from the audience. As a result, the prospect of shadow play art is becoming increasingly bleak. （Zhu Hengfu 2020,36）

In order to inherit Chinese excellent culture and protect the ancient art forms such as shadow play. On May 20, 2006, it was approved by the State Council to be included in the first batch of national intangible cultural heritage list. On November 27, 2011, UNESCO included Chinese shadow play in the "Representative List of Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity".（Zhu Hengfu 2020,36）

===References===
*Wang Yexia 王业霞.(2012). 《皮影戏》 [Shadow Play] 北京：高等教育出版社 Beijing: [Higher Education Publishing House]
*Wei Liqun 魏力群.(2018). 《小书大传承-皮影》["Small Book, Big Heritage - Shadow Play"] 重庆：重庆出版社 Chongqing: [Chongqing Publishing House]
*Zhu Hengfu 朱恒夫.(2020) 中国皮影戏的历史，现状与剧目特征[The History, Current Situation and Repertoire Characteristics of Chinese Shadow Theatre] 浙江艺术职业学院学报 [Journal of Zhejiang Arts Vocational College]

===Words and Expressions===
*shadow puppet皮影戏
*paper cutting 剪纸
*ventriloquism 口技
*manipulating rod 操纵杆
*five facial features 五官
*sharp eyebrows and almond-shaped eyes 尖眉杏眼
*Cultural Revolution 文化大革命
*intangible cultural heritage 非物质文化遗产

===Questions===
*1.When is the earliest shadow puppet’s record?
*2.What art of forms do shadow play use?
*3.What does a red head stand for in a play?
*4.When is shadow play put in the "Representative List of Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity".

===Answers===
*1.Song dynasty.
*2.It combines traditional Chinese plastic art and performing art as well as the arts of painting, paper cutting, local opera, and ventriloquism. Besides, it has absorbed the best parts of local operas, folk songs and emerged into many schools.
*3.The red is a symbol of a heroic and upstanding character.
*4.On November 27, 2011.--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 12:32, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Confucian Culture - Li Liqin 李丽琴 Student No.202070080595 MTI ==

===Introduction ===

Confucian school is an academic school founded by Confucius, developed by Mencius, and composed by Xunzi. Today, it still retains a certain vitality. Confucian school takes Confucianism as its guiding ideology whose central ideas are forgiveness, loyalty, filial piety, brotherhood, courage, benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom and faith. (Li Xiaoyu 2010, 31)

Confucian school was on an equal footing with the other hundred schools in the pre-Qin period. After the First Emperor of Qin, also called Qin Shihuang, burned books and buried scholars alive, the development of the Confucian school suffered a serious defeat. Then, in order to maintain the feudal autocratic rule, Emperor Wudi of the Han Dynasty followed Dong Zhongshu's advice of "banishing other schools of thought and worshiping Confucianism only" and imposed restrictions on thought, which led to the revival of Confucian school. (Zhang Qizhi 1990, 20) The concepts of "Confucian school", "Confucianism", and "Confucian Religion" should be distinguished since Confucian school is a school of theory, Confucianism a social stratification, and Confucian religion belief. (Chen Zhibin, Du Aihong 2017, 60-61)

Laozi founded Chinese Taoist school; Confucius started Chinese Confucian school; Sun Tzu initiated Chinese military strategist school; Mozi was the founder of Mohism in the early Warring States. Confucianism contributes to guiding the code of conduct and constructing social order; Taoism focuses on fostering the view of nature and the orientation of spiritual development; Legalism serves the system construction of national political management; the concepts of Universal Love and utilitarianism are two cornerstones for the Mohism. The General Unity idea of Confucianism has played an important role in the unification of a nation, the enhancement of national cohesion and the integration of cultural values. (Tan Su 2012, 68)

After more than two thousand years of development and evolution, Confucian culture has built up a complete ideological system, involving politics, education, morality, ethics, code of conduct, life skills and other aspects. It has cultivated the wisdom and soul of the Chinese people throughout the history, and formed deep-rooted set patterns of thinking, psychology and survival. (Xiang Chunling 2008, 42-43)

=== Analysis of Confucian Culture ===

==== Intelligence Development ====

Confucius is a great educator, as well as a pioneer and practitioner of mass education. After Confucianism was established as a dominant culture, both the rulers and the public respected the teachings of the sage and attached great importance to education. In this context, a basic requirement is to stay highly cultured and steeped in propriety. After the Emperor Wen initiated the imperial examination system in the Sui Dynasty, those who are good scholars could make an official, which inspired students of poor families to change their lives by studying hard and diligent. (Zhang Qizhi 1990, 19)

For generations, the Chinese people have attached great importance to the education of their children, which is conducive to the improvement of the thinking ability of the whole nation. However, the corrupt of bureaucracy and the darkness of officialdom in metaphase and anaphase made many literati feel despairing about official career and discredit about the concept. In addition, the Four Books and Five Classics were the main learning content of Confucianism. Apart from government-run schools, private schools and self-study can hardly meet the requirements of the Six Classical Arts. (Zhang Qizhi 1990, 21) Therefore, the Four Books and Five Classics were the focus of students, while the Six Classical Arts were not highly valued.

====Spiritual Guidance ====

In terms of spirit, Confucianism contends that "As heaven maintains vigor through movements, a gentleman should constantly strive for self-perfection; The terrain is vast, a gentleman carries goods with great virtue." (Zhang Qizhi 1990, 86) Benevolent people love each other, which reflects the essence of “Unity of Man and Nature” and also the most brilliant connotation of Confucianism. This philosophy calls for people’s active contributions to the society. It is still alive in modern times, and is the fundamental requirement of people's spiritual orientation in the future. (Li Xiaoyu 2010, 32)

====Order Construction ====

In the age of barbarism and backwardness, a common feature was that a small number of people used power and force to suppress and enslave the majority, thus resulting in labor division and unfair distribution of wealth and generating corresponding social hierarchy and concepts. Given the fact that Confucianism developed in the transitional period of feudal society, the thoughts of Confucius and Mencius were rooted in the idealist view of destiny and did not break the shackles of social hierarchy. In addition, they even advocated the distinguish between the noble and the humble and highlighted the importance of hierarchy division. (Li Fangping 2013, 56)

In this context, the benevolence they advocated had great limitations in political management. The public could not be treated equally in terms of political status. Instead, the so-called benevolence calls for improvement of the living conditions of the public and more benefits from the ruling class. However, its purpose was to maintain social order and reconcile social contradictions. This is also the root cause of feudal rulers’ favoring of Confucianism. In essence, Confucianism did not promote social equality, instead, it worked to maintain the unequal feudal hierarchy that aggravated servitude. In fact, after a long history of feudal rule, the sense of hierarchy would be part of the national psyche. With the progress of times and civilization, the view of destiny and the thought of social order have become psychological shackles of the Chinese people. (Li Fangping 2013, 56)

After eliminating the ideology of feudal hierarchy and formalism, some philosophies of Confucianism still generate positive effects on modern society. Specifically, the spirit of benevolence and universal love is conducive to cultivate people’s spirits; the concept of “the country belongs to the public” reflects a sense of social responsibility to make contributions for society, which can be expanded into a sharing social and political philosophy for different countries. (Li Xiaoyu 2010, 33)

Filial piety and brotherhood increase the harmony and stability of family; Loyalty, faithfulness, propriety and forgiveness are conducive to the relationship between different countries, societies and people. "Loyalty" means that people should stay loyal to the country and people; "Friendliness" and "forgiveness" play an important role in resolving various contradictions and animosities; when it comes to "filial piety" and "propriety", many redundant forms inherited from feudal society should be eradicated and be more practical. (Xiang Chunling 2008, 39-41)

===The Contemporary Value of Confucian Culture ===

Today, Confucian culture is still of great significance. We must explore the value of Confucian culture on the basis of the excellent tradition of the Chinese nation and by combining the characteristics of the times with and the actual situation. The Confucian culture has affected Chinese more than two thousand years and gone deep into each aspect of Chinese society. (Xiang Chunling 2008, 39)

====Ideological and Political Education ====

Confucian culture calls for “the people-oriented” philosophy, and it places a high priority on human value and dignity. (Zhang Qizhi 1990, 51-57) Over the years, the Chinese nation has been influenced by this excellent philosophy. On this occasion, its behavioral pattern and psychological structure are endowed with uniqueness, which is mainly manifested in two aspects. One is to respect yourself, learn how to love and care yourself. Moreover, gain dignity and achieve the development of human value through the continuous improvement of moral cultivation. Second, respect others and show respect for others' personality by respecting, understanding and caring for others. (Xiang Chunling 2008, 39-40)

==== Modern Economic Construction====

Under today’s circumstance, some ideological contents are still alive and produce positive effects on promoting the economic construction of modernization and fostering modern patriotism emotion of the Chinese people. (Li Chengzong 2002, 65)

First of all, Confucian culture emphasizes the thought of "benevolence" and group consciousness. It is conducive to the cultivation of collectivism and provides a spiritual pillar for China's modern economy. (Li Chengzong 2002, 65)

Since Confucian culture reflects a collectivist view on life, individuals are full of sense of duty and responsibility towards others and groups. In this context, their self-cultivation targets at regulating the family, country and the world. Thus, the value of individual is closely linked with the rise and fall of the country, so they have a strong sense of responsibility. "Everyone being responsible for the fate of his country" has been a common belief for thousands of years. Such a social responsibility will give rise to a huge driving force for the development of the country and society. (Tan Su 2012, 68)

Second, the consciousness of "self-improvement" and the proposition of "seeking truth" in the Confucian culture strengthen the national spirit and provide a source power for China’s economic modernization. (Li Chengzong 2002, 66)

Yi Zhuan put forward: "As heaven maintains vigor through movements, a gentleman should constantly strive for self-perfection." It means that continuous development is the law of nature and that a gentleman should pursue progress and be strong, unyielding resilient and positive. For thousands of years, the Chinese nation has formed a fine tradition of working hard and striving for strength under the influence of these thoughts. Today, we carry forward the spirits of “self-improvement” and "seeking truth" in ways that further enhance national spirits and provide a strong driving force for the socialist modernization. (Li Chengzong 2002, 67)

Third, the "reform and innovation" concept in Confucian culture is conducive to the expansion of the reform and opening up and the acceleration of China's socialist modernization. On the basis of admitting the fact that the continuous development is the universal law of nature, Confucian culture puts forward the "innovation idea". The Book of Rites said, "If you can in one day renovate yourself; do so from day to day and let there be daily renovation." The Book of Changes said, "Reform refers to destroy the old, while innovation means to establish the new.” (Li Chengzong 2002, 67)

The concept not only serves as the theoretical basis for reform and innovation throughout the history, but also provides valuable lessons for the reform in socialist economic and political systems today. Domestically, promoting the innovative spirits can greatly enhance the reform consciousness of the Chinese people. Externally, it is conducive to advancing the opening up by leveraging the global influence of Confucian culture. (Li Chengzong 2002, 67)

==== Legal Construction ====

Confucian culture places a high priority on personal cultivation, while a highly civilized society under the rule of law must be composed of highly educated citizens. Confucian school, a school with thousands of years of history in China, has become an integral part of the Chinese culture. (Li Xiaoyu 2010, 32-33)

Nowadays, since China has called for the policy of combining the rule of virtue with the rule of law, it is the time for Confucian culture to find its historical position and fully play its role. Exploring the influence of Confucian culture on the construction of contemporary Chinese rule by law, not only can we help us more deeply understand the traditional culture, but also can promote the process of building the rule of law in contemporary China. (Li Xiaoyu 2010, 32-33)

The rule by virtue thought is an important part of Confucian culture and it emphasizes the importance of moral education. It is a national strategy pursued by ancient Chinese rulers and a method of national governance embodying reference significance in today’s China. (Wei Na 2014, 1-2)

In terms of national governance, Confucianism emphasizes the importance of morality, believing that national governance should not mainly rely on harsh punishment, instead, moral education should be applied to reform people. Confucius said, "By governing with virtue, rulers will be loved by the public, just like stars surround the North Star." By comparing rulers to the North Star and people to the stars, Confucius emphasized the importance of moral governance. (Wang Jie 2004, 77)

How to rule by virtue? First of all, rulers should pay attention to their personal cultivation and develop good moral characters, so that they can set a good example for the public. Only when officials and common people obey the ruler sincerely, can a good social atmosphere be formed. Secondly, since Confucianism takes "benevolence" as its core and calls for the rule of virtue, many people subconsciously believe that Confucianism denies the role of criminal law and that Confucian culture does not call for the rule of law. (Wang Jie 2004, 82-83)

In fact, this is not the case. While Confucianism advocates the rule of virtue, it also emphasizes the supplementary role of rule of law. Confucius said, "Sages believe that national governance must combine the rule of virtue and law." That is to say, if people are governed by systems and laws, they seek for impunity but lack of conscience; however, if they are guided by morality and etiquette, they will have a sense of right and wrong and will impose strict requirements on themselves. (Wang Jie 2004, 83)

In a word, we should clearly realize that, although Confucian culture is an excellent traditional culture in China, it was generated from the feudal society and its original intention was to maintain the feudal autocratic monarchy. Therefore, it inevitably has some drawbacks and limitations. Under this circumstance, we must analyse Confucian culture dialectically and explore the value of Confucian culture. At the same time, we should discard the bad habits and unfavorable factors left by it, so as to better carry forward our traditional culture and accelerate the construction of the rule of law in contemporary China. (Wang Jie 2004, 83)

===The Confucius Institute ===

With the improvement of China's international status and the increasingly extensive international exchanges, Chinese culture has won wider foreign attention and the world is more eager to learn and understand the Chinese culture. The Confucius Institute project, founded in 2004, emerges in response to the call of the times. Today, Confucius Institutes have spread throughout Asia, Africa, The Americas, Europe and Oceania. (Wang Ying, Ti Wenjing 2009, 30)

Fundamentally speaking, its is conducive to the "going out" of Chinese culture since language is an important carrier of Chinese culture. It is of positive significance to the construction of China's national image, the promotion of China's international influence, the realization of wider international communication. (Wang Ying, Ti Wenjing 2009, 30)

The rapid development of Confucius Institutes has fully demonstrated the needs and aspirations of people around the world to learn Chinese and learn more about China, but there are still some problems in this process. Today, countries are committed to spreading their own language and culture, so there is a fierce competition in international cultural promotion. In addition, the Confucius Institutes is struggling to achieve sustainable development. Internally, its development has been restricted by many factors, including the shortage of teachers and textbooks, the low quality and the lack of pertinence. (Wu Ying, Ti Wenjing 2009, 31)

At present, Confucius Institutes are prevalent all over the world, but the promotion strategy seeking for quantity and speed results in a serious shortage of teachers capable of teaching Chinese as a foreign language. According to statistics, there is a global shortage of at least five million TCSL teachers. (Wu Ying, Ti Wenjing 2009, 31)

Secondly, the lack of high-quality and localized teaching materials for Chinese has also become a bottleneck for the development of Confucius Institutes. The shortage of Chinese textbooks affects the depth of cultural communication of Confucius Institutes directly. Thirdly, Confucius Institutes are not capable of spreading the ideological depth of the Chinese culture. Although the textbooks are rich in content, they mainly focus on promoting folk culture by introducing Chinese food, tea and wine, traditional Chinese medicine and martial arts. Meanwhile, they rarely involve the ideological essence of traditional Chinese culture and the modern value of Chinese culture. (Wu Ying, Ti Wenjing 2009, 32)

The Confucius Institutes should fully explore the modern significance of Confucianism and cast the quintessence of Chinese culture, and strengthen the spread of the core idea of Chinese culture and its modern cultural value. The connotation of Chinese culture is very rich. What Confucius Institutes should spread is not all the contents of Chinese culture, but the contents with universal value that are different from other countries and represent the essence of Chinese culture. (Xiang Chunling 2008, 42)

===Terms and Expressions ===

儒家 Confucian school

儒学 Confucianism

儒教 Confucian religion

兼爱 Universal love

恕、忠、孝、悌、勇 forgiveness, loyalty, filial piety, brotherhood, courage

仁、义、礼、智、信 benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom and faith

学而优则仕 A good scholar will make an official

四书五经 the Four Books and Five Classics

天行健，君子当自强不息；地势坤，君子以厚德载物。As heaven maintains vigor through movements, a gentleman should constantly strive for self-perfection; The terrain is vast, a gentleman carries goods with great virtue.

天下兴亡，匹夫有责 Everyone being responsible for the fate of his country

===Questions ===

1. What’s the central ideas of Confucian culture?

2. What’s the difference among Confucian school, Confucianism and Confucian religion?

3. What do you think of the relationship between Confucian school, Taoist school, Mohist school, Legalist school?

4. What’s the Six Classical Arts?

5. What you think of the ancient influence of Confucianism?

6. Do you think Confucian culture still has its contemporary values in China? And why?

7. What do you think of the current situation of the development of the Confucian institute?

===Answers===

1. The central ideas of Confucian culture are forgiveness, loyalty, filial piety, brotherhood, courage, benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom and faith.

2. Confucian school is a school of theory, Confucianism is a social stratification, and Confucian is a religion belief.

3. Confucian school emphasizes the code of conduct and the social order construction; Taoist school focuses on fostering the view of nature and the orientation of spiritual development; Legalist school serves the system construction of national political management; Mohist school emphasizes Universal Love and utilitarianism. Although Confucian school, Taoist school, Mohist school and Legalist school are different schools with different theories, they are not completely antagonistic.

4. The Six Classical Arts refers to propriety(礼), music（乐）, archery（射）, riding（御）, writing（书） and arithematic（数）.

5. The ancient influence of Confucianism should be analysed from a historical perspective. It was generated from the feudal society and its original intention was to maintain the feudal autocratic monarchy. Therefore, it inevitably has some drawbacks and limitations. While contributing to intelligence development, spiritual guidance and order construction to some extent, it has also led to some negative effects in the long run. For example, it called for rigid feudal hierarchy and resulted in spiritual constraints.

6. Yes. Although Confucian culture has a history of thousands of years, it still has contemporary values in today's society. For instance, Confucian culture calls for “the people-oriented” philosophy and places a high priority on human value and dignity, which is still of profound significance; Confucian culture emphasizes the thought of "benevolence" and group consciousness. It is conducive to the cultivation of collectivism and provides a spiritual pillar for China's modern economy.

7. The rapid development of Confucius Institutes has fully demonstrated the needs and aspirations of people around the world to learn Chinese and learn more about China, but there are still some problems in this process. Nowadays, the Confucius Institutes is struggling to achieve sustainable development. Internally, its development has been restricted by many factors, including the shortage of teachers and textbooks, the low quality and the lack of pertinence. Joint efforts of all social sectors should be made to achieve the sustainable development of it.

===References===

Chen Zhibin, Du Aihong 陈智斌, 杜艾红. (2017). 儒学、儒家、儒教之异同 [The Differences and Similarities of Confucian School, Confucianism and Confucian Religion]. ''审计月刊'' Audit Monthly (03) 60-62.

Li Chenzong 李承宗. (2002). 论儒家文化对培养现代爱国主义情感的积极作用 [On the Positive Effects of Confucian Culture on Cultivating Patriotism]. ''廊坊师范学院学报'' Journal of Langfang Teachers College (02) 65-70.

Li Fangping 李芳萍. (2013). 儒家思想对中国文化的影响研究 [A Study on the Influence of Confucianism on Chinese Culture]. ''前沿'' Forward Position (10) 55-56.

Li Xiaoyu 李晓愚. (2010). 儒家仁爱思想的当代诠释 [Contemporary Interpretation of Benevolence]. ''郑州大学学报(哲学社会科学版)'' Journal of Zhengzhou University (05) 31-33.

Tan Su 谭苏. (2012). 论春秋战国时期的百家争鸣 [On the Competition of Ideas in the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period]. ''兰台世界'' Lantai World (10) 67-68.

Wang Jie 王杰. (2004). 为政以德: 孔子的德治主义治国模式 [Rule of Virtue: Confucian’s Model of Governance]. ''中共中央党校学报'' Journal of the Party School of the Central Committee of the C．P．C. (02) 77-83.

Wu Ying, Ti Wenjing 吴瑛, 提文静. (2009). 孔子学院的发展现状与问题分析 [The Development Status and Problems of Confucius Institute]. ''云南师范大学学报 (对外汉语教学与研究版)'' Journal of Yunnan Normal University (05) 28-33.

Xiang Chunling 向春玲. (2008). 儒家文化的现代意义 [On Modern Significance of Confucian Culture]. ''中共中央党校学报'' Journal of the Party School of the Central Committee of the C．P．C. (06) 39-43.

Zhang Qizhi 张岂之. (1990). ''中国儒学思想史'' [The History of Chinese Confucianism]. 陕西：陕西人民出版社 Shaanxi: Shaanxi People’s Publishing House. --[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 14:04, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ch'ien Chung-shu - Liu Liu刘柳， 202070080596 MTI==

====Ch'ien Chung-shu====

Ch'ien Chung-shu (1910-1998), a well-known scholar, writer, translator and literary researcher, was born into an education family in Wuxi, Jiangsu Province. In Chinese academic circles, Qian was ranked with Rao Zongyi, a master in academic circles, and both were called "South Rao and North Qian". He was admitted to Tsinghua University in 1929 and got to know Yang Jiang in 1932. Qian became famous soon after the enrolment, not only for the 15 mark of his mathematics, but for his excellent Chinese and English, especially full marks in English.(360 Encyclopedia)

Qian had an engagement with Yang the year after their acquaintance and went to study at Oxford University in England along with her. In 1937, he obtained the bachelor's degree from Oxford with the treatise ''China in the English Literature of the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries'', and his daughter Qian Yuan was born the same year. He wrote a great many profound literary works in his lifetime. When it comes to Ch'ien Chung-shu, people would think of his representative work ''Fortress Besieged'', which was published in 1947.(360 Encyclopedia)

As a realistic satirical novel, ''Fortress Besieged'' is known as "The New Scholars" in the 1940s. The novel is centralized on Fang Hongjian,who returned from studying abroad at the beginning of the War of Resistance against Japanese Aggression. It depicts the struggles in love, marriage,career and life of a group of intellectuals who were far away from the times and the people during the War of Resistance against Japanese Agression. It reveals their inner poverty, emptiness and lowliness, criticizes the dark reality of the Kuomintang-controlled areas, and reveals the crisis of modern civilization and the dilemma of modern life.(Qian Zhongshu 1947)

In the preface of the book, Qian said that, "In this book I intended to write about a certain segment of society and a certain kind of people in modern China. In writing about these people, I didn’t forget they are human beings, still human beings with the basic nature of hairless, two-legged animals. "The novel is like an X-ray mirror that reveals the deformed characters and ugly souls of those "hairless and two-legged animals" and analyzes the cultural matrix which is responsible for the deformed characters and ugly souls of these "latest style" literati.(Qian Zhongshu 1947)

Yang Jiang said, "The main connotation of ''Fortress Besieged'' is that those who are besieged by the city want to escape, while those outside want to rush in. This is what most people wish for in life, whether in marriage or career. "The meaning of "fortress besieged" is also stated several times in the novel. It tells people that life is a besieged city everywhere, people have marriage and divorce, divorce and marriage in endless succession,with everlasting confusion and dilemma. The questions that Qian raised in the novel refer to a question of universal significance, which is the crisis of modern civilization and the dilemma of modern life as a whole. In December 1990, the television series ''Fortress Besieged'' was broadcast on China Central Television(CCTV) and enjoyed great popularity.quotation is missing--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 08:20, 14 December 2020 (UTC)

Ch'ien Chung-shu has made significant achievements in literary research and literary creation. In particular, it is of great significance to carry forward and deny traditional Chinese culture scientifically and learn from foreign culture selectively. He has wrote the collection of essays ''Written in the Margins of Life'' (1941), the collection of short stories ''Humans·Beasts·Ghosts'' (1946), and the novel ''Fortress Besieged'' (1947).

Both his essays and novels are wise and meaningful. Qian has read Chinese history, philosophy and literary classics in depth and has studied western old and new literature, philosophy and psychology. Many of his works, such as ''Limited Views:Essays on Ideaas and Letters'' and ''Patchwork:Essays on Art and Literature'', have enjoyed high reputation in academic circles both at home and abroad.

Ch'ien Chung-shu viewd China and the world with a cultural criticism spirit. Based on his profound knowledge of Chinese and world culture, Qian has always shown a clear mind and a deep insight when observing Chinese and Western culture. He didn't reject any theories or doctrines, nor did he blindly follow any authorities. He devoted his life to promoting Chinese literature and art to the world.

To this end, he not only explicated the profound meaning and unique value of Chinese culture in depth, but also pointed out its historical and regional limitations. He not only criticized the Chinese for their arrogance towards the local culture due to certain illusions, but also mercilessly eliminated the Westerners' prejudice centered on European and American culture due to ignorance. It is Ch'ien Chung-shu who has promoted cultural communication between China and other countries.

November 21st,2020 is the 110th anniversary of the birth of Ch'ien Chung-shu. People often call him a well-informed scholar, but he is more of a down-to-earth writer and scholar. He was indifferent to fame and wealth and alaways took a rigorous and serious attitude towards academic research. We feel ourselves in an entirely new world when we read the subtle metaphors in ''Fortress Besieged'', while we read ''Limited Views:Essays on Ideas and Letters'' and ''Patchwork:Essays on Art and Literature'', we are amazed at Qian's erudition. People all over the world admire his talent, but in fact,it is his meticulous and diligent reading spirit that makes him a well-informed scholar.(Wang Shuizhao 2020)

Many of his life experiences and the question of whether his scholarship was systematic or not have attracted much attention. Wang Shuizhao, professor of Chinese Department of Fudan University, who has studied and worked with Ch'ien Chung-shu for a long time, has recently published his new book ''Academic Life of Qian Zhongshu'', in which he writes about Qian's life experiences and academic achievements based on the first-hand historical data, his personal experiences and his own understanding of academia, and gives answers to the questions discueesed widely, such as Qian's experience of being falsely accused, whether there exists system in his scholarship and the collision of viewpoints between Qian and Chen Yinke.(Wang Shuizhao 2020)

====Terms and Expressions====

''China in the English Literature of the Seventeenth and Eighteenth centuries'' 《十七十八世纪英国文学中的中国》

''Fortress Besieged'' 《围城》

Kuomintang-controlled areas 国统区

''Written in the Margins of Life'' 《写在人生边上》

''Humans·Beasts·Ghosts'' 《人·兽·鬼》

''Limited Views:Essays on Ideas and Letters'' 《管锥编》

''Patchwork:Essays on Art and Literature'' 《谈艺录》

the 110th anniversary of the birth of Ch'ien Chung-shu 钱钟书诞辰110周年纪念日

''Academic Life of Qian Zhongshu '' 《钱锺书的学术人生》

====Questions====

1.What is Ch'ien Chung-shu's representative work? When was it published?

2.When was the TV series ''Fortress Besieged'' broadcast?

3.Do you know other works about Ch'ien Chung-shu? Can you list some of them?

4.Which book did Wang Shuizhao publish in commemoration of the 110 anniversary of the birth of Ch'ien Chung-shu? What does he talk about in this book?

5.Which sentence is your favoriate in ''Fortress Besieged''?

===Answers===

1.Ch'ien Chung-shu's representive work is ''Fortress Besieged''. It was published in 1947.

2.It was broadcast in December 1990.

3.''Patchwork:Seven Essays on Art and Literature''（《七缀集》） and ''Poetic Remains of an Ephemeral Life''（《槐聚诗存》）.

4.Wang Shuizhao published his new book ''Academic Life of Qian Zhongshu'' in commemoration of the 110 anniversary of the birth of Ch'ien Chung-shu, in which he writes about Qian's life experiences and academic achievements.

5."I want to be able to occupy the whole life of the man I love. Before meeting me, he would have had no past and would be waiting for me with a clean slate."

===References===

Qian Zhongshu.钱钟书.(1947).''围城''.[Fortress Besieged].上海晨光出版公司[Shanghai Chenguang Publishing Corporation].

Wang Shuizhao.王水照.(2020).''钱锺书的学术人生''.[Academic Life of Qian Zhongshu].中华书局[Zhonghua Book Company,Ltd.].

--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 08:20, 14 December 2020 (UTC)

== ''' Crosstalk''' Liu Ou 刘欧， 202070080597，MTI==
大标题+小标题+名字拼音+汉字+学号+专业--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 05:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC)
<center>刘欧 Liu Ou </center>

===The Development of Crosstalk===

Crosstalk, in the ancient time was known as onomatopoeia, originally refers to imitate others’ voices. It was evolved and further developed from the folk opera in North China, and integrated with imitating oral skills and other folk art forms. It is generally believed to be formed during the Emperor Xianfeng (1850—1861) and Emperor Tongzhi (1861—1874) period in Qing dynasty. It’s a folk vocal art that uses jokes or funny questioning and answering to make the audience laugh. In the early years of the Republic of China (1912-1949), crosstalk gradually developed from one-person ventriloquism to one person stand-up talk, and the name changed to cross talk. Later, it developed into stand-up crosstalk, dual crosstalk, and group crosstalk. And become a veritable form of art. After years of development, dual crosstalk has finally become the most popular form of crosstalk among audiences.In the late Qing Dynasty, crosstalk formed its modern features and styles. The language uses in crosstalk is mainly Beijing dialect, however, there are also “dialect crosstalk” in other regions of China. (360 Encyclopedia)

Crosstalk, in the ancient time known as onomatopoeia, originally refers to imitate others’ voices. It was evolved and further developed from the folk opera in North China, and integrated with imitating oral skills and other folk art forms. It is generally believed to be formed during the Emperor Xianfeng (1850—1861) and Emperor Tongzhi (1861—1874) period in Qing dynasty. It’s a folk vocal art that uses jokes or funny questioning and answering to make the audience laugh. In the early years of the Republic of China (1912-1949), crosstalk gradually developed from one-person ventriloquism to one person stand-up talk, and the name changed to cross talk. Later, it developed into stand-up crosstalk, dual crosstalk, and group crosstalk. And it becomes a veritable form of art. After years of development, dual crosstalk has finally become the most popular form of crosstalk among audiences. In the late Qing Dynasty, crosstalk formed its modern features and styles. The language uses in crosstalk is mainly Beijing dialect, however, there are also “dialect crosstalk” in other regions of China. (360 Encyclopedia)夹注应在句号前。--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 05:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Crosstalk is a original folk art in China, with a long historical tradition, deeply loved by the majority of the people. The once-dead crosstalk art has been reborn and developed very rapidly especially since the founding of the People’s Republic of China. It is no longer confined to several cities in the north, nor spread only within the citizens, but also spread from the north to the whole country, from the city to the countryside, and from the citizens to all strata. (Hou Baolin, 1982:01)

Crosstalk is a original folk art in China, with a long historical tradition, deeply loved by the majority of the people 这句话语法错误--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 05:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC) . The once-dead crosstalk art has been reborn and developed very rapidly especially since the founding of the People’s Republic of China. It is no longer confined to several cities in the north, nor spread only within the citizens, but also spread from the north to the whole country, from the city to the countryside, and from the citizens to all strata 这句话关联词不完整， spread主谓注意一致，注意逗号的使用以及夹注在句号前。--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 05:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC). (Hou Baolin, 1982:01)

===Four Basic Skills in Crosstalk===

Speaking, imitating, teasing and singing are the four basic artistic skills of crosstalk. “Speaking” means to tell jokes, stories, lantern riddles, drinking games, etc; “imitating” is to imitate all kinds of birds and animals, hawking, singing and the sound of different languages, etc; “teasing” is to gag and tease; “sing” means to sing Taiping lyrics (most of which contain the meaning of peace and prosperity, so they are called Taiping) (1982:194), opera lyrics and songs. Crosstalk artists regard “speaking, imitating, teasing and singing” as their “four compulsory lessons”. For example, by saying “tongue twisters” or “reciting classical repertoires” to grasp the rhythm in language and correct the pronunciation. By learning all kinds of sounds to gain the ability to imitate. To practice singing skills by singing “Taiping lyrics” , opera lyrics and songs. (Hou Baolin, 1982:11)

Speaking, imitating, teasing and singing are the four basic artistic skills of crosstalk. “Speaking” means to tell jokes, stories, lantern riddles, drinking games, etc; “imitating” is to imitate all kinds of birds and animals, hawking, singing and the sound of different languages, etc; “teasing” is to gag and tease; “sing” means to sing Taiping lyrics (most of which contain the meaning of peace and prosperity, so they are called Taiping) (1982:194)作者？--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 05:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC), opera lyrics and songs. Crosstalk artists regard “speaking, imitating, teasing and singing” as their “four compulsory lessons”. For example, by saying “tongue twisters” or “reciting classical repertoires” to grasp the rhythm in language and correct the pronunciation 不是一个完整的句子。--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 05:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC). By learning all kinds of sounds to gain the ability to imitate不是一个完整的句子。--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 05:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC). To practice singing skills by singing “Taiping lyrics” , opera lyrics and songs不是一个完整的句子。--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 05:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC). (Hou Baolin, 1982:11)

===Characteristics of Crosstalk===

First of all, crosstalk is the art of “speaking”, which belongs to the art of “performing with words”, it is different from drama that “performing with body movements” 出现了两个句子，无连接词。--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 05:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC). This kind of performance has a close relationship between the actors and the audience and shortened the distance between the stage and the audience. The actors directly communicate with the audience and perform with the audience's cooperation and tacit understanding to obtain artistic effect. In this sense, crosstalk is a collective performance of actors and audiences. From the perspective of the audience, they are not standing on the opposite side of the actors and appreciating the stage performance passively and objectively, but creating artistic images with the actors. (Hou Baolin. 1982:02)

First of all, crosstalk is the art of “speaking”, which belongs to the art of “performing with words”, it is different from drama that “performing with body movements” 出现了两个句子，无连接词。--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 05:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC). This kind of performance has a close relationship between the actors and the audience and shortened the distance between the stage and the audience. The actors directly communicate with the audience and perform with the audience's cooperation and tacit understanding to obtain artistic effect. In this sense, crosstalk is a collective performance of actors and audiences. From the perspective of the audience, they are not standing on the opposite side of the actors and appreciating the stage performance passively and objectively, but creating artistic images with the actors. (Hou Baolin. 1982:02)参考格式(Liu Miqing 2010, 17) --[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 05:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Secondly, crosstalk is the art of laughter. Crosstalk uses laughter as a weapon to expose contradictions, shape characters and evaluate life. Without laughter, it can constitute any other arts, but not crosstalk and comedy. In other words, crosstalk has the characteristics of humor and satire. It reflects that life is not flat, but exaggerated and even deformed. China has a long tradition of satirizing emperors or high rank officials, its written record could be traced back to the Zhou (1046BC-256BC) and Qin (221BC-207BC) Dynasties. Satire is the product of class oppression. China has been in a feudalistic society for a long time, without political democracy and freedom of speech, the people often take circuitous methods to fight against the ruling class. Satirical art is like a weed under a boulder. Only through deformation and roundabout can this kind of art maintain to exist. (Hou Baolin. 1982:03)

Secondly, crosstalk is the art of laughter. Crosstalk uses laughter as a weapon to expose contradictions, shape characters and evaluate life. Without laughter, it can constitute any other arts, but not crosstalk and comedy. In other words, crosstalk has the characteristics of humor and satire. It reflects that life is not flat, but exaggerated and even deformed. China has a long tradition of satirizing emperors or high rank officials, its written record could be traced back to the Zhou (1046BC-256BC) and Qin (221BC-207BC) Dynasties 没有连接词--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 05:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC). Satire is the product of class oppression. China has been in a feudalistic society for a long time, without political democracy and freedom of speech, the people often take circuitous methods to fight against the ruling class没有连接词--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 05:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC). Satirical art is like a weed under a boulder. Only through deformation and roundabout can this kind of art maintain to exist. (Hou Baolin. 1982:03)

“Speaking” and “laughing” constitute the basic outline of cross talk art, which is a language performance art with comedy style. “Speaking”, as a kind of rap art, establishes the mode of crosstalk art, which is distinguished from drama art. “Laughing” is the artistic characteristics of crosstalk, which distinguishes it from other rap art forms. These two characteristics are interdependent and complementary. (Hou Baolin. 1982:04)

Crosstalk belongs to the art of drama, but it is different from comedy. In comedy, the laughter of audience mainly comes from plot and comic characters, while in crosstalk it mainly comes from “baofu” (jokes). Sometimes it relies on the plot, sometimes it is not needed, but win the applaud of audience by the charm of language. “Baofu” must be expressed in the way of “dialogue” and “chatting” between the actors . (Hou Baolin. 1982:04)

===Famous Artists of CrossTalk===

In Emperor Tongzhi (1861—1874) and Emperor Guangxu (1875—1908) periods, Zhu Shaowen (stage name “Qiong Bupa, which means not afraid of poverty”) was regarded as the “ancestor”of crosstalk art. Other famous crosstalk artists including Hou Baolin(1917-1993), a pioneering master of crosstalk. In his 60 years of art career, he has devoted himself to the research and development of crosstalk art and brought laughter to the audience. Under his leadership and promotion, crosstalk art has really entered thousands of households and reached a remarkable artistic peak. His crosstalk works including Drama Talks, Drunkenness and etc. Ma Sanli (1914-2003) is the son of the crosstalk actor Ma Delu. Ma Sanli devoted himself to the exploration of long-term artistic practice, and created the unique “Ma’s Style of Crosstalk”. He was the oldest, most experienced and most accomplished crosstalk leader in the cross-talk circle at that time. So was deeply loved and respected by all walks of life and the audience. Ma's cross talk enjoys wide popularity among the people. In Tianjin, it was a saying that “no branches of crosstalk did not learn from Ma”. His representative works including “Eating Yuanxiao(dumpling)”, “Selling Tickets” and “the Yellow Crane Tower” . Other famous crosstalk artists include Zhang Yongxi, Liu Baorui, Hou Yaowen, Jiang Kun, Feng Gong, Niu Qun and Guo Degang. (Baijiahao, 2018 )

===Terms and Expressions===

speaking, imitating, teasing and singing 说学逗唱

Taiping lyrics 太平歌词

Baofu 包袱

Drama Talks 《戏剧杂谈》

Drunkenness 《醉酒》

Selling Tickets 《卖挂票》

===Questions===

1.When did crosstalk form its format?

2.What is Taiping lyrics?

3.Who was regarded as the “ancestor”of crosstalk art ?

4.What are the four basic skills of crosstalk?

===Answers===

1.It is generally believed to be formed during the Emperor Xianfeng (1850—1861) and Emperor Tongzhi (1861—1874) period in Qing dynasty.

2.Taiping lyrics (most of which contain the meaning of peace and prosperity) is the content to be sang in the crosstalk.

3.Zhu Shaowen.

4.They are speaking, imitating, teasing and singing.

===References===

1.Hou Baolin,Xue Baokun,侯宝林,薛宝坤.(1982)，《相声溯源》，People's Education Press

2.https://cul.sohu.com/20090619/n264630449.shtml

3.https://baike.so.com/doc/1925383-2037001.html

4.https://baijiahao.baidu.com/s?id=1590742532351773378

注意参考文献格式：
Jin Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. 智库时代 Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 05:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Yi 刘艺==
Go 围棋--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 08:04, 9 November 2020 (UTC)
===GO - Liu Yi 刘艺 202070080640 MTI===
Go is an adversarial game with the objective of surrounding a larger total area of the board with one's stones than the opponent[1]. As the game progresses, the players position stones on the board to map out formations and potential territories. Contests between opposing formations are often extremely complex and may result in the expansion, reduction, or wholesale capture and loss of formation stones.[2]

Go is an adversarial game with the objective of surrounding a larger total area of the board with one's stones than the opponent[1]. As the game progresses, the players position stones on the board to map out formations and potential territories. Contests between opposing formations are often extremely complex and may result in the expansion, reduction, or wholesale capture and loss of formation stones.[2](NRICH Team, Going First, 2007)--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 13:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

A basic principle of Go is that a group of stones must have at least one open point bordering the group, known as a liberty, to remain on the board. One or more liberties enclosed within a group is called an eye, and a group with two or more eyes cannot be captured, even if surrounded.[3] Such groups are said to be unconditionally alive.

A basic principle of Go is that a group of stones must have at least one open point bordering the group, known as a liberty, to remain on the board. One or more liberties enclosed within a group is called an eye, and a group with two or more eyes cannot be captured, even if surrounded.[3] (Iwamoto, Kaoru,1977)Such groups are said to be unconditionally alive.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 13:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The general strategy is to expand one's territory, attack the opponent's weak groups (groups that can be killed), and always stay mindful of the "life status" of one's own groups. The liberties of groups are countable. Situations where mutually opposing groups must capture each other or die are called capturing races, or semeai. In a capturing race, the group with more liberties (and/or better "shape") will ultimately be able to capture the opponent's stones. Capturing races and the elements of life or death are the primary challenges of Go.

Players may pass rather than place a stone if they think there are no further opportunities for profitable play. The game ends when both players pass or when one player resigns. In general, to score the game, each player counts the number of unoccupied points surrounded by their stones and then subtracts the number of stones that were captured by the opponent. The player with the greater score (after adjusting for komi) wins the game.

In the opening stages of the game, players typically establish positions (or "bases") in the corners and around the sides of the board. These bases help to quickly develop strong shapes which have many options for life (self-viability for a group of stones that prevents capture) and establish formations for potential territory. Players usually start in the corners because establishing territory is easier with the aid of two edges of the board. Established corner opening sequences are called "joseki" and are often studied independently.

"Dame" are points that lie in between the boundary walls of black and white, and as such are considered to be of no value to either side. "Seki" are mutually alive pairs of white and black groups where neither has two eyes. A "ko" (Chinese and Japanese: 劫) is a repeated-position shape that may be contested by making forcing moves elsewhere. After the forcing move is played, the ko may be "taken back" and returned to its original position. Some "ko fights" may be important and decide the life of a large group, while others may be worth just one or two points. Some ko fights are referred to as "picnic kos" when only one side has a lot to lose. The Japanese call it a hanami (flower-viewing) ko.

Playing with others usually requires a knowledge of each player's strength, indicated by the player's rank (increasing from 30 kyu to 1 kyu, then 1 dan to 7 dan, then 1 dan pro to 9 dan pro). A difference in rank may be compensated by a handicap—Black is allowed to place two or more stones on the board to compensate for White's greater strength. There are different rule-sets (Korean, Japanese, Chinese, AGA, etc.), which are almost entirely equivalent, except for certain special-case positions.

Aside from the order of play (alternating moves, Black moves first or takes a handicap) and scoring rules, there are essentially only two rules in Go:
• Rule 1 (the rule of liberty) states that every stone remaining on the board must have at least one open "point" (an intersection, called a "liberty") directly orthogonally adjacent (up, down, left, or right), or must be part of a connected group that has at least one such open point ("liberty") next to it. Stones or groups of stones which lose their last liberty are removed from the board.
• Rule 2 (the "ko rule") states that the stones on the board must never repeat a previous position of stones. Moves which would do so are forbidden, and thus only moves elsewhere on the board are permitted that turn.
Almost all other information about how the game is played is a heuristic, meaning it is learned information about how the game is played, rather than a rule. Other rules are specialized, as they come about through different rule-sets, but the above two rules cover almost all of any played game.[4]

Almost all other information about how the game is played is a heuristic, meaning it is learned information about how the game is played, rather than a rule. Other rules are specialized, as they come about through different rule-sets, but the above two rules cover almost all of any played game.[4](British Go Association,2007)--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 13:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Although there are some minor differences between rule-sets used in different countries, most notably in Chinese and Japanese scoring rules, these differences do not greatly affect the tactics and strategy of the game.

Except where noted, the basic rules presented here are valid independent of the scoring rules used. The scoring rules are explained separately. Go terms for which there is no ready English equivalent are commonly called by their Japanese names.

The two players, Black and White, take turns placing stones of their colour on the intersections of the board, one stone at a time. The usual board size is a 19×19 grid but for beginners, or for playing quick games, the smaller board sizes of 13×13 and 9×9 are also popular.[5] The board is empty to begin with. Black plays first, unless black is given a handicap of two stones or more (in which case, white plays first). The players may choose any unoccupied intersection to play on, except for those forbidden by the ko and suicide rules (see below). Once played, a stone can never be moved and can be taken off the board only if it is captured. A player may also pass, declining to place a stone, though this is usually only done at the end of the game when both players believe nothing more can be accomplished with further play. When both players pass consecutively, the game ends and is then scored.

===Terms and Expressions===
Go 围棋 heuristic 启发式的
adversarial game 对抗性游戏 intersection 交叉点
board 棋盘 black 黑棋
formation 阵型 white 白棋
move 走棋 scoring rule 计分规则
liberty 自由度 player 棋手

===Questions===
1, What’s the basic principle of Go?

2,Aside from the order of play (alternating moves, Black moves first or takes a handicap) and scoring rules, What are other two essential rules in Go？

3, What countries have the most notable scoring rules differences?--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 08:36, 9 December 2020 (UTC)

===Answers===
1, A basic principle of Go is that a group of stones must have at least one open point bordering the group, known as a liberty, to remain on the board.

2,The rule of liberty and the "ko rule".

3, Most notably in Chinese and Japanese scoring rules--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 08:35, 9 December 2020 (UTC)

===References===
[1]Matthews, Charles (2004). Teach Yourself Go. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-142977-1.

[2]NRICH Team, Going First, University of Cambridge, retrieved 2007-06-16

[3]Iwamoto, Kaoru (1977). Go for Beginners. New York: Pantheon. ISBN 978-0-394-73331-9.

[4]British Go Association, Comparison of some go rules, retrieved 2007-12-20

[5]Kim, Janice; Jeong, Soo-hyun (1997). Learn to Play Go. Five volumes (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Good Move Press. ISBN 978-0-9644796-1-6.

==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜,202070080598 MTI 标题 is missing--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 08:21, 14 December 2020 (UTC)==

===The Four Most Handsome men in Ancient China===
It is said that there were four most beautiful women in ancient times, and corresponding to that, it is worth mentioning that there were four most attractive men at that time.Despite that we consider these four men as attractive, this refers to more than just their appearance. They have a common feature: it proves that while their appearance is marvelous, they are also outstanding in literature. Namely, as a Chinese saying goes, they are endowed with both beauty and talent.

These four men are Pan An, King Lanling, Ji Kang, and Wei Jie.（Wang Zhenbo 2008,59-60）

The allusion of “throwing fruit to fill a carriage” originates from Pan An, which resembles movie fans nowadays to see their idols. There is a comment on Pan An’s appearance: "No more and no less." The history books also describe Pan An with three words “good-looking, well-mannered, and graceful”. Although these did not describe Pan An’s appearance in details, such as eyebrows and eyes or lips, from these side descriptions, we can know that Pan An’s appearance is far above ordinary people, and even his styles draw imitation from others.

At the same time, Pan An is known as “the flower of a county in Heyang”, and he is also one of the few men who are compared with flowers to be praised for excellent appearance. The beauty of exterior only fails to last long in this world. Pan An's talent and temperament and the devotion to his wife are also often eulogized. Pan Yue showed his unusual talent since he was a child, and he was called a child prodigy by the villagers. In his early years, he was appreciated by an official and recommended as a scholar.

Later, served as the magistrate of Heyang (now Meng County, Henan), he was diligent in political affairs, and advocated the people to plant more fruits and trees. The county was full of trees and peaches and plums everywhere, known as “Flower County”. During his administration, his political achievements were remarkable. Besides, Pan An holds a special place in the history of literature.

He was good at composing verse and orders, expatiation, and skilled in the choice of words and building of sentences, which fully reflects the characteristics of Taikang literature that pays attention to the beauty of form. He was expert in composing Ci lyric of sorrow and admonishment, and his current works such as Widow's Fu, Mourning Poem and other famous works are all known for their narration and empathy. Pan An can be described as both internally and externally blessed.（Liu Xixue 2003,63-64）

Gao Changgong (541-573), known as King Lanling, the grandson of Gao Huan, Emperor Shenwu, and the fourth son of Wen Xiang, Emperor Gaocheng. There is a very popular legend about King Lanling. It's believed that King Lanling was a brave and supremely skilled general. However, because he looked very sweet and it seemed hard to frighten the enemy, he often wore a half-mask when fighting, which sounds very fairytale.

Nevertheless, the beauty of King Lanling is beyond doubt and otherworldly. Book of Northern Qi Dynasty described that he was friendly looking and mentally strong, with beautiful voice and appearance.King Lanling spent half his life in military affairs, and made great achievements. While this gave him glory, it also brought bad luck. There is an old Chinese saying that the glow of a inferior from massive achievements will overshadow his superior.

Although the King Lanling did not have the idea of usurping the throne, but the incumbent felt threatened because of his existence itself. In the end, a glass of poisonous wine ended the life of the Lanling King.（Wang Zhenbo 2008,59-60）

Song Yu (about 322 BC-298 BC), as it is widely rumored, a student of Qu Yuan, was born in the capital city of Song Dynasty during the Warring States Period (now Shangqiu, Henan). Song Yu was a writer of Ci lyric of State Chu in the late Warring States period, adept in Ci lyric and even acclaimed as a great poet after Qu Yuan' reputation. Later generations often referred to them as “Qu Song”. Rumors circulate that there are many Ci lyrics from him, and Book of Han records about 16 works, but many of them are lost today.

His works embrace Nine Discriminations, The Fu poetry of Wind and so on. He was the first to write about sadness from Autumn and to write about women. His description of women's nature exerts a great influence on later generations such as Cao Zhi. The goddess in Song Yu's The Fu poetry of Goddess embodies the essence of pre-Qin female beauty, recounting the beauty of the goddess of Wushan Mountain in details so much so that later generations have coveted for it for thousands of years.

16 works survived, among which Nine Discriminations is believed to be truly composed by him. It is equivalent to Qu Yuan's Li Sao or A lament in the history of Chinese literature. Both poets can be called the two shining pearls in Ci lyric at their times.（Wang Zhenbo 2008,59-60）

Wei Jie (286-June 20, 312), a metaphysician and an official of the Jin Dynasty. Wei Jie was a noted talker and metaphysicist during the Wei and Jin Dynasties. He was appointed as an assistant of the prince in the matter of politics. In the fourth year of the reign of Emperor Yongjia(AD310), Wei Jie died at the age of 27. Both ancient books and ancients commented on Wei Jie's appearance. Wang Ji reckoned that, “A jade is on my side, and I feel like I am nobody”; “Wandering with Jiu is like sauntering with a pearl on the side, with him shining brightly.”

History Retold as a Mirror for rulers authored by Sima Guang goes into detail: "Wei is blessed with attractive appearance and has his own understanding when talking and sharing; Often he reckons people can be forgiven if they are inferior..." Wei Jie not only have a mere marvelous exterior, but also he can discern metaphysics from his perspective. Wei Jie’s views always amaze the concerned parties.

It is said that even three sons of the Wang family, are not as good as the first son of the Wei family, and the three sons of the Wang family were all well-known scholars at that time, and the Wei Jie could be regarded as unmatchable compared with the three in family background, appearance, and talents.（Wang Zhenbo 2008,59-60）

===Terms and Expressions===
Pan An 潘安

King Lanling 兰陵王

Ji Kang 嵇康

Wei Jie 卫玠

throwing fruit to fill a carriage 掷果盈车

scholar 秀才

expatiation 铺陈

Book of Northern Qi Dynasty 《北齐书》

the Warring States Period 战国时期

Book of Han 《汉书》

Nine Discriminations 《九辨》

The Fu poetry of Wind 《风赋》

The Fu poetry of Goddess 《神女赋》

the goddess of Wushan Mountain 巫山神女

metaphysician 玄学家

a noted talker 清谈名士

History Retold as a Mirror for rulers 《资治通鉴》

Widow's Fu 《寡妇赋》

Mourning Poem 《悼亡诗》

英文书名要用斜体--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 13:43, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Questions===
1.Who are the four most handsome men at ancient time in China?

2.Who is Gao Changgong?

3.How did Lanlin King die?

4.What works did Song Yu compose?

5.Who are the two shining pearls in Ci lyric according to the passage?

6.What History Retold as a Mirror for rulers comment on Wei Jie?

===Answers===
1.These four men are Pan An, King Lanling, Ji Kang, and Wei Jie.

2.Gao Changgong (541-573), known as King Lanling, the grandson of Gao Huan, Emperor Shenwu, and the fourth son of Wen Xiang, Emperor Gaocheng.

3.In the end, a glass of poisonous wine ended the life of the Lanling King.

4.His works embrace Nine Discriminations, The Fu poetry of Wind and so on.

5.Qu Yuan and Song Yu

6."Wei is blessed with attractive appearance and has his own understanding when talking and sharing; Often he reckons people can be forgiven if they are inferior..."

===References===
[1]刘细学.古代四大美男[J].文史天地,2003(06):63-64.

[2]王真波.四大美男都是怎么死的[J].青年文学家,2008(11):59-60.

参考文献格式错误--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 13:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Lo, Minh Thao==

===Answers===
===References===
==Mogao Grottoes--Lou Cancan 娄灿灿 student no.202070080599 英语笔译==

===Mogao Grottoes===

===Introduction===

The Mogao Grottoes, known as the Thousand Buddhas Caves, were built on the eastern cliff of Mingsha Mountain, 25 kilometers to the southeast of Dunhuang city. There are 492 caves (well preserved) today, containing over 2,400 painted clay statues and 45,000 square meters of murals and 5 timber structures on the cliff of the southern district. There are also more than 300 caves used as both living room and burying place for monks and painters on the cliff of the northern district. Near the Mogao Grottoes, there are some other cave temples: West Caves of Thousand Buddhas (22 caves), Yulin Caves (42 caves), East Caves of Thousand Buddhas (23 caves, 8 caves with murals and statues among them), Five Cave Temples( 5 caves). (Fan Jinshi 2010，170)

Their built-dates, contents and artistic styles are very similar to Mogao Grottoes,so they are often referred to as Dunhuang Grottoes. From the 4th until the 14th century, caves were constructed by monks to serve as shrines with funds from donors. The major caves were sponsored by patrons such as important asclergies, local ruling elites, foreign dignitaries, as well as Chinese emperors. Other caves may have been funded by merchants and other local people such as women's groups. (Sha Wutian 2020, 122)

====[[File:Iconic Building of Mogao Grottoes.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Iconic Building of Mogao Grottoes]]====

===History===

Mogao Grottoes were not built in one day. According to relevant records in Tang Dynasty, in 366 AD, a monk named Yuezun（乐僔）was roaming about Dunhuang. One day, he caught a sight of the Buddhas over the Sanwei Mountain opposite the cliff of the Mingsha Mountain, so the devout believer set to build the first cave on the cliff. Later, monk Faliang（法良）came here and joined him cultivating in caves. Since then more and more caves have been excavated over a thousand year. (Whitfield 1990, 8)

Mogao Grottoes were not built in one day. According to relevant records in the Tang Dynasty, in 366 AD, a monk named Yuezun（乐僔）was roaming about Dunhuang. One day, he caught a sight of the Buddhas over the Sanwei Mountain opposite the cliff of the Mingsha Mountain, so the devout believer set to build the first cave on the cliff. Later, monk Faliang（法良）came here and joined him cultivating in caves. Since then more and more caves have been excavated over a thousand year. (Whitfield 1990, 8) --[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 16:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

By the time of Northern Liang, small community of monks had formed at this site. The caves initially served only as a place of meditation for hermit monks. Later, they were developed to serve the monasteries that sprang up nearby. Members of the ruling families of Northern Wei and Northern Zhou constructed many caves here, and it flourished in the short-lived Sui Dynasty. By the Sui and Tang Dynasties, Mogao Caves had become a place of worship and pilgrimage for the public. In the Sui Dynasty, Hexi Corridor was controlled by central authority. The emperors were pious followers of Buddhism and they ordered to build stupas across the country. Therefore, more than 100 caves were excavated in Mogao Grottoes within 37 years. (Fan Jinshi 2010，175-178)

By the Tang Dynasty, the number of caves had reached over a thousand. During this period, Dunhuang became the main hub of commerce of the Silk Road and a major religious center. A large number of the caves were constructed during this era, including the two large statues of Buddha at the site, the largest one constructed in 695 following an edict a year earlier by Tang Empress Wu Zitian to build giant statues across the country. The site escaped the persecution of Buddhists ordered by Emperor Wuzong in 845 as it was then under Tibetan control. As a frontier town, Dunhuang had been occupied at various times by other non-Han Chinese people. After the Tang Dynasty, the site went into a gradual decline, and construction of new caves ceased entirely after the Yuan Dynasty. In the Five Dynasties and Ten States period and the Northern Song Dynasty, Mogao Grottoes were preserved and kept by Cao Yijin（曹议金). (MA Shichang 2010, 303) After that, his later generations governed Dunhuang Prefecture and constructed multiple family caves such as Cave 55. (Gao Xiujun 2016, 9)

During the Ming Dynasty, the Silk Road was finally abandoned and Dunhuang slowly became depolulated and was forgotten by the outside world. Most of the Mogao caves were abandoned. The site, however, went back to a place of pilgrimage and worship by local people at the beginning of the twentieth century. On June 22th,1900, while Taoist priest Wang Yuanlu（王圆箓）was removing sand from Cave 161, he found a treasure-house on the wall of the corridor containing a great number of scrolls of Buddhist writings, old administrative papers, embroidered work and paintings. Since then, Dunhuang has become well known throughout the world. Both Chinese and foreign scholars have made extensive studies on the findings.(Stein 1912, volume 2)

====[[File:Taoist Wang Yuanlu.jpg|100px|thumb|left|Taoist Wang Yuanlu]]====

===Art===

The art of Mogao Grottoes mainly consists of three aspects: architectural structure, mural and sculpture and they vary from dynasty to dynasty. There are mainly three types of structural forms of Mogao Grottoes: Vihara, Chaitya and Hall with inverted funnel shaped ceiling. A Chaitya with a central pillar is the main form of the caves in the early period of the Sixteen States, with Northern Wei, Western Wei and Northern Zhou Dynasties included. The murals may be divided into seven sorts:Buddhist figures, Sutra illustration, Buddhist stories, Buddhist historical pictures, Chinese mythologies, donors and decorative designs. Buddhist stories in the murals can be divided into three types: Jataka（佛本生), Buddha’s life and fate story. A Jataka is a narrative which tells of the good deeds performed by Sakyamuni during his perious existence such as prince Sudanda giving up his body to feed the hungry tigers. As to sculptures, they were constructed on a wooden frame, padded with reed, then modelled in clay stucco and finished with paint.（Duan Wenjie 1994, 163)

====[[File:A Chaitya with a Central Pillar.jpg|200px|thumb|left|A Chaitya with a Central Pillar]]====

====[[File:A Prince is Feeding Hungry Tigers with His Body.jpg|200px|thumb|left|A Prince is Feeding Hungry Tigers with His Body]]====

The artistic styles in the Sixteen States, which gradually turned away from being primitive and simple to an easy and graceful styles in the Northern Wei, manifested in figures with well-chiseled builds and emaciated looks. In Northern Zhou, the styles of figures show that Chinese art combining the influence of foreign and native styles gradually became more nationalized. ( Fan Jinshi 2010, 174)

The artistic styles in the Sixteen States, which gradually turned away from being primitive and simple to an easy and graceful styles in the Northern Wei, manifested in figures with well-chiseled builds and emaciated looks. In the Northern Zhou, the styles of figures show that Chinese art combining the influence of foreign and native styles gradually became more nationalized. ( Fan Jinshi 2010, 174) --[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 16:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The characteristics of the statues in Sui Dynasty are robust body, large head, square face and short legs. The caves become spacious and more suited for large paintings, such as the Sutra illustrations and huge pictures of Buddha expounding sermons. Bold and vigorous, brush work was painted with intricate and flowing lines. For example, Lotus Sutra on the ceiling of Cave 420 displays a lot of episodes of mountains, forests, rivers, buildings and so on in a limitated space. The theme and art in the Sui Dynasty show an important devdelopment in traditional art and indicate a comimg glorious new era. （Duan Wenjie 1994, 164)

The characteristics of the statues in the Sui Dynasty are robust body, large head, square face and short legs. The caves become spacious and more suited for large paintings, such as the Sutra illustrations and huge pictures of Buddha expounding sermons. Bold and vigorous, brush work was painted with intricate and flowing lines. For example, Lotus Sutra on the ceiling of Cave 420 displays a lot of episodes of mountains, forests, rivers, buildings and so on in a limitated space. The theme and art in the Sui Dynasty show an important devdelopment in traditional art and indicate a comimg glorious new era. （Duan Wenjie 1994, 164)--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 16:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

In Tang Dynasty, the caves are large with an inverted funnel shaped ceiling. The murals consist mostly of huge paintings of stories from Buddhist Sutras with well-regulated scenes and well-balanced composition. The figures at that time have round and plump faces and curved eyebrows which expresses the aesthetical taste of the people living in Tang. The mural in Cave 220 contains vivid portraits of the Emperor and his ministers listening to a sermon. The ministers attending to Emperor are each bestowed with differrent appearances and expressions. Some are natural and graceful and some cautious. The well-proportioned painted statues were made with more consummate care and attention to the detail, showing us the solemn Buddha. ( Fan Jinshi 2010, 174)

In the Tang Dynasty, the caves are large with an inverted funnel shaped ceiling. The murals consist mostly of huge paintings of stories from Buddhist Sutras with well-regulated scenes and well-balanced composition. The figures at that time have round and plump faces and curved eyebrows which expresses the aesthetical taste of the people living in Tang. The mural in Cave 220 contains vivid portraits of the Emperor and his ministers listening to a sermon. The ministers attending to Emperor are each bestowed with differrent appearances and expressions. Some are natural and graceful and some cautious. The well-proportioned painted statues were made with more consummate care and attention to the detail, showing us the solemn Buddha. ( Fan Jinshi 2010, 174) --[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 16:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

In addition, very tall and colossal statues of Buddha began to be made. The outstanding one is an early Tang Dynasty statue 34 metres high in Cave 96. In 781-848A.D, Hexi region fell into the Tibetan. Hence, there was an interesting changes: the king of the Tibetan took the place of central-plain emperors in the wall-painting.( Fan Jinshi 2010, 175)

In addition, very tall and colossal statues of Buddha began to be made. The outstanding one is an early Tang Dynasty statue 34 metres high in Cave 96. In 781-848A.D, Hexi region fell into the Tibetan. Hence, there was an interesting change: the king of the Tibetan took the place of central-plain emperors in the wall-painting.( Fan Jinshi 2010, 175) --[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 16:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====[[File:Cave 251 in Northern Wei.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Cave 251 in Northern Wei]]====

====[[File:Cave 68 in Tang Dynasty.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Cave 68 in Tang Dynasty]]====

By the time of the Five Dynasties and Ten States period and the Northern Song Dynasty, the grottoes carved in this period are very large and different in form and layout. The subject and style of the statues and murals remain the influence from Tang Dynasty, but the use of colours and the drawing techniques show a simple folk style. From the 9th century to 12th, the Uygur had been in Dunhuang. The artistic styles bear the imprint of both Han and Uygur. The Uygur murals are generally characterized by the simplicity of the subject, the looseness of the arrangement, the direct and rough brush strokes. (Rong Xinjiang 1999, 248)

The human figures have features of certain minority groups. In the Western Xia Dynasty(1036-1227), most of caves were repaired and renovated, and only 10 caves were built because of the limited cliffs. Compared to the Yulin Grottoes at the same time, painting of Dunhuang display the Pure-land Sutra, containing simpler content. Only 27 caves are extant in Yuan times(1227-1372). The murals in Cave 3, however, still remain the Tang and Song techniques, namely using different types of drawing to depict different parts of human figures such as iron-wire lines, orchid-leaf strokes and broken-reef strokes, etc. Since the 15th century, the Mogao Grottoes had gradually fallen into neglect in the Ming and Qing Dynasties. (Rong Xinjiang 1999, 248)

====[[File:Cave 3 in Yuan Dynasty.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Cave 3 in Yuan Dynasty]]====

===Terms and Expressions===

hermit 隐士

stupas 舍利塔

Emperor Wuzong ofTang Dynasty 唐武宗

Vihara 精舍

Chaitya 支提窟

stucco 灰泥

Sakyamuni 释迦牟尼

Sutras 佛经

===Questions===

1.What do Dunhuang Grottoes refer to?

2.Who built the first cave and when?

3.In 1900, who found the treasure-house in Mogao Grottoes and what were stored in it?

4.How many aspects does the art of Mogao Grottoes mainly consists of and what are they respectively?

5.What are the characteristics of the statues in Sui Dynasty?

===Answers===

1.Near the Mogao Grottoes, there are some other cave temples: West Caves of Thousand Buddhas (22 caves), Yulin Caves (42 caves), East Caves of Thousand Buddhas (23 caves, 8 caves with murals and statues among them), Five Cave Temples( 5 caves). Their built-dates, contents and artistic styles are very similar to Mogao Grottoes, so they are often referred to as Dunhuang Grottoes.

2.According to relevant records in Tang Dynasty, in 366 AD, a monk named Yuezun（乐僔）was roaming about Dunhuang. One day, he caught a sight of the Buddhas over the Sanwei Mountain opposite the cliff of the Mingsha Mountain, so the devout believer set to build the first cave on the cliff.

3.On June 22th,1900, while Taoist priest Wang Yuanlu（王圆箓）was removing sand from Cave 161, he found a treasure-house on the wall of the corridor containing a great number of scrolls of Buddhist writings, old administrative papers, embroidered work and paintings.

4.The art of Mogao Grottoes mainly consists of three aspects: architectural structure, mural and sculpture.

5.The characteristics of the statues in Sui Dynasty are robust body, large head, square face and short legs.

===References===

Fan Jinshi 樊锦诗.(2010). ''敦煌石窟'' [The Caves of Dunhuang]. Gansu: The Dunhuang Academy 敦煌研究院.

Gao Xiujun 高秀军.(2016). ''敦煌莫高窟第55窟研究'' [Research on the 55th Grotto of Mogao Grottoes in Dunhuang].Lanzhou University 兰州大学.

MA Shichang.(2010). Buddhist Cave-temples and the Cao Family at Mogao Ku, Dunhuang. MA Shichang,27(2),303-317.

Rong Xinjiang 荣新江. (2010).'' 敦煌藏经洞的性质及其封闭原因'' [The Nature of the Dunhuang Library Cave and the Reasons for Its Sealing]. Shanghai: Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House 上海古籍出版社.

Sha Wutian 沙武田. (2020). 佛教供养与政治宣传——敦煌莫高窟第156窟供养人画像研究 [Buddhist offerings and Political Propaganda -- A Study on the Portrait of the Patron of the 156th Grottoes in Dunhuang].''中原文物'' Cultural Relics in Central Plain, No.215,118-128.

Stein, M. Aurel. Ruins of Desert Cathay.(1912). Personal Narrative of Explorations in Central Asia and Westernmost China, volume 2. London: Macmillan.

Suemori Kaoru. (2020)."Thousand-Buddha images in Dunhuang Mogao Grottoes: Religious spaces created by polychromatic patterns". Kyoto: Hozokan.

DuanWenjie. (1994). Dunhuang Art: Through the Eyes of Duan Wenjie. Abhinav Publications. p. 163.

Whitfield, Roderick and Farrer, Anne, Caves of the Thousand Buddhas. (1990). Chinese Art from the Silk Route, British Museum Publications. P . 5-20.

https://books.google.ru/books?hl=zh-CN&lr=&id=vYPNqlAMZWAC&oi=fnd&pg=PP7&dq=info:9v6pr21oST8J:scholar.google.com/&ots=s-uXhnyDBp&sig=u3H7MAh_OpGRS6Iwxoqx0rC5_fo&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mogao_Caves

https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=zh-CN&as_sdt=0%2C5&q=mogao+grottoes&oq=

==Four State-level Cultural Relics Luo Weijia 罗维嘉 Student No.202070080600 MTI ==

===Four State-level Cultural Relics===

China, home to one of the world’s most ancient civilizations, abounds in cultural relics, from ancient tombs, architecture, instruments to handicrafts, historical books and so on. They embody rich information about history and culture and vividly display the process of Chinese cultural development. The astounding artistic and technological levels shown in those relics continue to impress people today.

China, home to one of the world’s most ancient civilizations, abounds in cultural relics, from ancient tombs, architecture, instruments to handicrafts, historical books and so on. They embody rich information about history and culture and vividly display the process of Chinese cultural development. The astounding artistic and technological levels shown in those relics continue to impress people today.'''Quotation missing. E.g. (Gui Ninghuo 2009, 12)'''--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 16:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====Simuwu Ding====

[[File:Simuwu Ding.png|200px|thumb|left|Simuwu Ding]]

In ancient China, ding was a symbol of imperial power. Therefore, ding is often used in phrases and expressions in the Chinese language to imply authority (Anna, 2015). For instance, wending, literally “enquiring about ding”, means plotting to usurp political power, yiyan juiding, literally “One word of promise is equal to nine dings”, means a decisive comment(Lv Shuxiang, 2016).

Simuwu Ding was a very precious cultural relic, found in 1937 in Anyang of Henan Province. It was produced in the late Shang Dynasty more than 3000 years ago. This square-shaped ding is the largest existing bronzeware in the ancient world. It is now housed in the National Museum of China in Beijing (Li Weiming, 2015).

Ding was a cooking vessel probably used to boil or cook food in the primitive society. At that time, dings were made of clay. During the Shang and Zhou (11th century-771 BC) dynasties, bronze cast technology reached a very high level in China. Therefore, people used bronze to cast ding. However, dings were no longer cooking utensils in ordinary people’s life but an object for important ceremonies to offer sacrifices (Anna, 2015).

Ding was a cooking vessel probably used to boil or cook food in the primitive society. At that time, dings were made of clay. During the Shang and Zhou (11th century-771 BC)'''Is this time correct? 11th century? ''' dynasties, bronze cast technology reached a very high level in China. Therefore, people used bronze to cast ding. However, dings were no longer cooking utensils in ordinary people’s life but an object for important ceremonies to offer sacrifices (Anna, 2015).--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 16:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Simuwu Ding was cast by Emperor Wuding of the Shang Dynasty as a ritual object for a ceremony to offer sacrifices to his mother. The three characters simuwu form an inscription on the inside of the sidewall. According to archeologists, si means sacrificial ceremony and muwu is the name of the emperor’s mother. Later on, Simuwu became the name of this huge ding (Li Weiming, 2015).

Simuwu Ding is 1.33m high, 1.10m long and 0.78m wide, weighing 832.84kg. At that time, it needed 1000kg of metal and two to three hundred workers to produce it. This ding is solid in build, magnificent in appearance and was made with fine craftsmanship. The four pillar legs are thick and powerful. Each side has a blank space in the middle, surrounded by a band of decoration featuring taotie (animal faced creatures) and kuilong (one-legged dragons), symbolic of harvest and auspiciousness. Simuwu Ding represents the highest level of bronze cast technology in the Shang and Zhou dynasties (Li Weiming, 2015).

Simuwu Ding is 1.33m high, 1.10m long and 0.78m wide, weighing 832.84kg. At that time, it needed 1000kg of metal and two to three hundred workers to produce it. This ding is solid in build, magnificent in appearance and was made with fine craftsmanship. The four pillar legs are thick and powerful. Each side has a blank space in the middle, surrounded by a band of decoration featuring taotie'''(animal faced creatures) 饕餮：其状如羊面人身，眼在腋下，虎齿人手，最大特点是能吃。 ''' and kuilong (one-legged dragons), symbolic of harvest and auspiciousness. Simuwu Ding represents the highest level of bronze cast technology in the Shang and Zhou dynasties (Li Weiming, 2015).

==== The Chime Bells of Marquis Yi ====

[[File:The Chime Bells of Marquis Yi.png|200px|thumb|left|The Chime Bells of Marquis Yi]]

The chime bells, or bianzhong, are a kind of percussion musical instrument made of bronze. China is the earliest country to manufacture and use such instrument. Chime bells were divided into groups according to their size, temperament, pitch and were hang on a rack. A small hammer or wooden club is used to hit the bell to make a resonant and agreeable sound (Hubei Museum, 2015).

The Chime Bells of Marquis Yi are the largest and the most complete ancient chimes existing today in China. They were unearthed from the tomb of Yi, the Marquis of Zeng, a small state of the Warring States Period (475 BC- 221 BC), in 1978. When they were found, all bells were still hanging on their rack. They are now preserved in Hubei Museum (Hubei Museum, 2015).

There are altogether 65 bells hung in eight groups on wooden or bronze bars. The rack, 10.79m long, 2.67m high, is made of three bars, namely, the upper, middle and lower bars, held up by six bronze warriors and a few round, wooden posts. The 65 bells weigh over 2500kg. The largest bell is 1.52m in height and weighs more than 203.6kg. The smallest bell is about 20cm in height and weighs 2.4kg. It is extremely rare to see a set with so many bells of such weight and size (Wan Quanwen, 2020).

The Chime Bells of Marquis Yi are exquisitely cast and look very elegant. To help artists to perform music, there are instructions on each bell with 3700 characters in all (Wan Quanwen, 2020). There are also words about the hanging indication and musical temperament that are called the “valuable music theory work”. The Chime Bells of Marquis Yi show that, as early as the Warring States Period, China already had a very rich musical culture. The chime bells still could produce a pure and accurate note after unearthed. The tone is excellent and the timbre is pure.

After excavation of the chime, Chinese musicians created a melody entitled Bianzhong Yuewu (music and dance accompanied by chime bells), to once again demonstrate the charm of ancient Chinese music (Zhou Yi, 2016).

==== Jade Suit with Gold Thread ====

[[File:Jade Suit with Gold Thread.png|200px|thumb|left|Jade Suit with Gold Thread]]

Ordinarily, the texture of clothes is cotton, flax or silk. However, there were suits made of gold and jade, that is “Jade Suit with Gold Thread”(Wang Jing, 2008).

The emperors of the Han Dynasty believed that jade could prevent their corpses from decaying, and they regarded jade as full of dignity and nobility. Therefore, they used jade suits as their grave clothes. Gold thread, silver thread or copper thread was used to link pieces of four-square jade separately that are called Jade Suit Sewn with Gold Thread, Jade Suit Sewn with Silver Thread and Jade Suit Sewn with Copper Thread (Wang Jing, 2008).

The two sets of jade suits of the Han Dynasty tomb unearthed in Mancheng of Hebei Province in 1968 revealed to the world the real features of such grave clothes (Li Yawen,2019). Their owners were Liu Sheng, Prince Jing of Zhongshan, and his wife, Dou Wan, of the Western Han Dynasty(206 BC-25 AD).

In appearance, a jade suit follows the shape of a human body. It consists of five parts, i.e., head mask, coat, trousers, gloves and shoes. Each part is made of pieces of jade. The size and shape of each jade piece was designed according to its position. Most jade pieces are shaped in square or rectangular form, but there are a few in trapezoid, triangle or multi sided shapes. Each jade piece is perforated at its corners, through which a gold thread goes through to sew the pieces together. Liu Sheng’s jade suit is rather large, 1.88m long and made up of 2498 pieces. The gold thread used for this suit is about 700g in weight (Li Yawen, 2019).

Such refined suits made some 2000 years ago in the Han Dynasty indicate the high design level and excellent craftsmanship of that time. In fact, of course, the rulers’ dream of preventing their corpses from decaying could never be realized. The practice of wearing jade suits was banned during the Three Kingdoms Period (220-280) (Wang Jing, 2008).

==== Bronze Galloping Horse ====

[[File: Bronze Galloping Horse.png|200px|thumb|left| Bronze Galloping Horse]]

In 1969, a galloping horse in bronze was unearthed in an Eastern Han Dynasty (206 BC-220 AD) tomb in Wuwei, Gansu Province in western China. The bronze statue is a famous representative sculpture of the Han Dynasty. Wuwei County leapt to fame with the discovery of this national treasure (Li Xiaohu & Zhao Jing, 2019).

The 34.5 cm-high bronze horse, covered with spots of verdigris, has a full and robust body. The prancing legs, flying tail, slightly dilated nostrils portray a galloping horse. What is ingenious about it is that one of its hind feet is stepping on a flying swallow. That means the galloping horse is faster than a flying swallow (Wang Qian, 2020). The positioning of its four legs strictly conforms to that of a living horse and is highly praised by many local and foreign archeologists and artists.

In this work, Chinese ancient artists combined realism and romanticism, and ingeniously integrated galloping horse and flying swallow through rich imagination, original conception and skillful craftsmanship (Wang Qian:10-11). The swift flying swallow sets off the amazingly fast speed of the galloping horse. According to analysis of its mechanics, Bronze Galloping Horse finds a center of gravity in the swallow to give the statue its stability. The romantic image of the swallow sets off the power and strength of the horse, providing a rich imaginative experience for viewers (Li Xiaohu & Zhao Jing, 2019).

Bronze Galloping Horse is believed to be a portrayal of the "heavenly steed" of Chinese legend. It is of high craftsmanship, fully expressive of the horse-breeding culture of China's western regions. It has become a symbol of Chinese tourism and a representative work that brings forth the time-honored cultural tradition of the Chinese nation and the oriental aesthetics to the world. The cultural relic is now preserved in the Gansu Provincial Museum(Wang Qian, 2020).

===Terms and Expressions===

Simuwu Ding 司母戊鼎

Emperor Wuding of the Shang Dynasty 商王武丁

taotie 饕餮

National Museum of China 中国国家博物馆

chime bells/bian zhong 编钟

Marquis Yi 曾侯乙

The Chime Bells of Marquis Yi 曾侯乙编钟

Bianzhong Yuewu 《编钟乐舞》

Hubei Museum 湖北省博物馆

Jade Suit with Gold Thread 金缕玉衣

Jade Suit Sewn with Silver Thread 银缕玉衣

Jade Suit Sewn with Copper Thread 铜缕玉衣

Bronze Galloping Horse 铜奔马/ 马踏飞燕

Gansu Provincial Museum 甘肃省博物馆

===Questions===

1. What does ding symbolize?

2. When was Houmuwu Ding produced?

3.How many bells do the chime bells of Marquis Yi contain?

4.What is the size of the largest bell?

5.What kind of thread was used to link pieces of four-square jade?

6.When did the Jade Suit with Gold Thread unearth?

7.What is ingenious about the Galloping Horse?

8.Where is Bronze Galloping Horse preserved now?

===Answers===

1.Ding was a symbol of imperial power.

2.It was produced in the late Shang Dynasty more than 3000 years ago.

3.They contain 65 bells.

4.The largest bell exceeds 1.5m in height and weighs more than 200kg.

5.Gold thread, silver thread or copper thread was used to link pieces of four-square jade.

6.It unearthed in 1968.

7.It is that one of its hind feet is stepping on a flying swallow.

8.It is now preserved in the Gansu Provincial Museum.

===References===

Anna 安娜.(2015).中国人的鼎文化. 科学大观园(15),72-73.

Hubei Museum 湖北省博物馆.(2015).曾侯乙编钟. 中华文化论坛(11),2.

Li Xiaohu & Zhao Jing 李小虎 & 赵静.(2019).青铜雕塑“马踏飞燕”的艺术解读. 艺术教育(09),170-171.

Li Weiming李维明.(2015-06-19).司母戊鼎研究历程初览(上).中国文物报,006.

Li Weiming李维明.(2015-07-03).司母戊鼎研究历程初览(中).中国文物报,006.

Li Weiming李维明.(2015-07-31).司母戊鼎研究历程初览(下).中国文物报,006.

Li Yawen 李雅雯.(2019)浅说满城汉墓中的金缕玉衣 .文物鉴定与鉴赏 (03):38-39.

Lv Shuxiang 吕叔湘.(2016)现代汉语词典 (第七版)[M]. 北京:商务印书馆.

Wang Jing 王静.(2008).汉代玉衣研究(硕士学位论文,河北师范大学).

Wang Qian 王倩.(2020).青铜雕塑“马踏飞燕”的研究.艺术品鉴, (26):10-11.

Wan Quanwen 万全文.(2020).曾侯乙编钟.文史知识 (11):1-2.

Zhou Yi 周仪.(2016).“八音合鸣乐舞齐容”——大型乐舞作品《编钟乐舞》述评. 戏剧之家(19),66-67+79.

== Architecture and Gardens, The Forbidden City Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴 Student No.202070080601 英语笔译 ==

===The Forbidden City===--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 08:30, 2 November 2020 (UTC)

====I.Introduction====

The Forbidden City (Chinese: 紫禁城; pinyin: Zǐjìnchéng) is a palace complex in Dongcheng District, Beijing, China, and with a total area of 720,000 square meters (180 acres). It lies in the center of Beijing's central axis. Today, the Forbidden City houses the Palace Museum, and was the former Chinese imperial palace and residence of the Emperor of China from the Ming dynasty (since the Yong Le Emperor) to the end of the Qing dynasty, between 1420 and 1924. The Forbidden City served as the home of Chinese emperors and their households and was the ceremonial and political center of the Chinese government.(Barmé, Geremie R 2018,26)

The Forbidden City is a national AAAAA tourist attraction and was listed as the first batch of key cultural relics under national protection in 1961. What’s more, it was declared a world cultural heritage in 1987, and listed by UNESCO as the largest collection of preserved ancient wooden structures in the world.(UNESCO,2007)

====[[File:A Panorama view of the Forbidden City.jpg|300px|thumb|left|A Panorama view of the Forbidden City]]====

====II.The Name of the Forbidden City====

The common English name "Forbidden City" is the translation of the Chinese name Zijin Cheng (Chinese: 紫禁城; pinyin: Zǐjìnchéng; English: Purple Forbidden City). The name Zijin Cheng first formally appeared in the period of Jia Jing. In ancient China, the planning concept of "harmony between man and nature" was emphasized. The stars in the sky were used to correspond with the capital planning to highlight the legitimacy of the regime and the supremacy of imperial power. (Li Xieping1997, (04)29-31)

“ Zi ”, or "Purple", refers to the North Star, which was called the Ziwei Star in ancient China. The emperor of heaven lived in Ziwei palace, while the human emperor claimed to be the "son of heaven" who was ordered by heaven. His residence should be a symbol of Ziwei palace to correspond to the heaven emperor. “Jin” means that this splendid palace symbolizes supreme power and status of the royal family. In that case, this palace was forbidden, and no one could enter and leave the palace without the emperor’s permission. Cheng means city. (Li Xieping1997, (04)29-31)

Today, the site is most commonly known in Chinese as Gùgōng (故宫), which means the "Former Palace". The museum which is based in these buildings is known as the "Palace Museum" (Chinese: 故宫博物院; pinyin: Gùgōng Bówùyùan).

====III.The History of the Forbidden City====

When Hongwu’s son Zhu Di became the Yong Le Emperor, he moved the capital from Nanjing to Beijing, and construction began in 1406 on what would become the Forbidden City. Construction lasted 14 years and cost more than a million workers. From 1420 to 1644, the Forbidden City was the seat of the Ming dynasty. (Yu Zhuoyun1984,18)

In April 1644, it was captured by rebel forces led by Li Zicheng. He set fire to parts of the Forbidden City in the process of retreating to Shannxi. By October, the Manchus had achieved supremacy in northern China, and a ceremony was held at the Forbidden City to proclaim the Emperor Shunzhi as ruler of all China under the Qing dynasty. (Guo Moruo 1944,3.14)

In the 22nd year of Kangxi's reign (1683), the reconstruction of the rest of the destroyed buildings of the Forbidden City was started, and it was basically completed in 1695. After being the home of 24 emperors – 14 of the Ming dynasty and 10 of the Qing dynasty – the Forbidden City ceased being the political centre of China in 1912 with the abdication of Puyi, the last emperor of China. (Yu Zhuoyun1984,30)

In 1933, the Japanese invasion of China forced the evacuation of the national treasures in the Forbidden City. Part of the collection was returned at the end of World War II, but the other part was evacuated to Taiwan in 1948 under orders of Chiang Kai-shek. After the establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949, some damage was done to the Forbidden City as the country was swept up in revolutionary zeal. During the Cultural Revolution, however, further destruction was prevented when Premier Zhou Enlai sent an army battalion to guard the city.( Xie Mengyin & Qu Wanlin 2006, 11.7)

====IV.The Structure of the Forbidden City====

Firstly, the Forbidden City is a rectangle and symmetric in its layout. Its palaces are arranged along a north-south axis, on which the three main halls, the rear three palaces and the imperial garden are all located. This central axis not only runs through the Forbidden City even the whole city, but also reaches Yongding Gate in the south, Drum Tower and bell tower in the north.(Xie Li 2005,(03)100-102)

Secondly, the Forbidden City is divided into two parts, the Outer Court and Inner Court. The Outer Court is the place where the emperor deals with political affairs. There are mainly three halls: the Hall of Supreme Harmony, the Hall of Central Harmony, and the Hall of Preserving Harmony. The Inner Court or Back Palace includes the northern sections, and was the residence of the Emperor and his family, and was used for day-to-day affairs of state. The inner court takes
Palace of Heavenly Purity, Hall of Union and Palace of Earthly Tranquility as its center with six palaces in the east and six palaces in the west.(Xie Li 2005,(03)100-102)

====[[File:The layout of the Forbidden City.jpg|200px|thumb|left|The layout of the Forbidden City]]====

====VI The Collections of the Forbidden City====

The Palace Museum was then established in the Forbidden City in 1925, whose extensive collection of artwork and artifacts were built upon the imperial collections of the Ming and Qing dynasties. Part of the museum's former collection is now in the National Palace Museum in Taipei. Both museums were descended from the same institution but split after the Chinese Civil War.(Li Wei & Wang Shuo 2005,6-22)

The collections of the Palace Museum are based on the Qing imperial collections, including paintings, ceramics, seals, steles, sculptures, inscribed wares, bronze wares, enamel objects, etc. According to latest audit, it has 1,863,404 pieces of art. They are numbered by "Gu", "Xin" and "Shu". Except for the ancient books and documents, all the other collections are labeled with "Gu" and "Xin". The number of ordinary cultural relics begins with the word "Zi", and the ceramic specimens begin with the word "Biao". The general catalogue is divided into 25 categories, and the numbers in each category are sorted from small to large. (Website:The Collection of the Palace Museum )

Many collections once lost and was brought back to the Palace Museum later, for example, Han Banquet map. And there are some exquisite collections like Painted Pottery Figurine of a Female Dancer, Mirror with the Twelve Astrological Emblems and Snuff Bottle with Painted Enamel Design of Western Women.(Website:The Collection of the Palace Museum )In addition, The Palace Museum has one of the largest collections of mechanical timepieces of the 18th and 19th centuries in the world, with more than 1,000 pieces. (Meng Fuxia 2012, (21) 73-74)

====[[File:Han Banquet map.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Han Banquet map]]====
====[[File:Painted Pottery Figurine of a Female Dance.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Painted Pottery Figurine of a Female Dance]]====
====[[File:Mirror with the Twelve Astrological Emblems.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Mirror with the Twelve Astrological Emblems]]====
====[[File:Snuff Bottle with Painted Enamel Design of Western Women.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Snuff Bottle with Painted Enamel Design of Western Women]]====

====Terms and Expressions====
palace complex 宫殿群

central axis 中心轴

the Palace Museum故宫博物院

the Yong Le Emperor 永乐皇帝

key cultural relics under national protection 国家重点文物保护单位

world cultural heritage 世界文化遗产

harmony between man and nature 天人合一

the imperial garden 御花园

the Hall of Supreme Harmony 太和殿

the Hall of Central Harmony 中和殿

the Hall of Preserving Harmony 保和殿

Palace of Heavenly Purity (乾清宮)

Hall of Union 交泰宫

Palace of Earthly Tranquility 坤宁宫

Han Banquet map 韩熙载夜宴图

Painted Pottery Figurine of a Female Dancer陶彩绘女舞俑

Mirror with the Twelve Astrological Emblems十二生肖镜

Snuff Bottle with Painted Enamel Design of Western Women画珐琅西洋人物鼻烟壶

====Questions====
1. What’ s the meaning of “Zi” in the Chinese name Zijin Cheng?

2. When was the Forbidden City listed by UNESCO as the largest collection of preserved ancient wooden structures in the world.

3.How many emperors have been lived in the Forbidden City?

4.How long did it take to build the Forbidden City?

5.Why some parts of national treasures are in the National Palace Museum in Taipei now.

6. What two parts can the Forbidden City be divided into?

7.When was the Palace Museum established?

===Answers===
1.“Zi” refers to the North Star, which in ancient China was called the Ziwei Star

2.In 1897.

3.24 emperors.

4.14 years.

5.Because both museums descend from the same institution but were split after the Chinese Civil War.

6.They are the Outer Court and Inner Court.

7.The Palace Museum was then established in the Forbidden City in 1925

===References===

Barmé, Geremie R(2008). The Forbidden City. Harvard University Press.26.

UNESCO(2007). "UNESCO World Heritage List: Imperial Palaces of the Ming and Qing Dynasties in Beijing and Shenyang".

Li Xieping 李燮平. (1997) "紫禁城"名称始于何时[When did the name of the Forbidden City come into being?]. 紫禁城Forbidden City, (04) 29-31.

Yu Zhuoyun(1984), Palaces of the Forbidden City, New York: Viking Press,p18.

Guo Moruo 郭沫若.(1994) 甲申三百年祭[Commemorating 300th Anniversary of the Jia-Sheng Year]. 新华日报 New China Daily, 3.19.

Xie Li 谢丽.(2005) 北京中轴线上的十七座门[Seventeen doors on the central axis of Beijing].紫禁城 Forbidden City, (03)100-102.

Meng Fuxia 孟福霞. (2012)北京故宫空间布局构思探源——论中国古代宫殿建筑的美学精神[On the Origin of the Space Layout of the Palace Museum in Beijing--On the Aesthetic Spirit of Ancient Chinese Palace Architecture]大众文艺Popular Literature and Art, (21) 73-74.

Li Wei&Wang Shuo 刘薇,王硕.2005故宫文物南迁路线图揭秘[Unveiling the Route Map of the Cultural Relics of the Imperial Palace to the South] 华夏经纬网Jinwei Network, 6.22 http://www.huaxia.com/wh/gjzt/2005/00333230.html

The Collection of the Palace Museum 故宫博物院馆藏https://www. dpm.org.cn /Home.html

Xie Mengyin & Qu Wanlin 谢荫明,瞿宛林. (2006) “文化大革命” 中谁保护了故宫 [Who protected the Forbidden City in the Cultural Revolution? ].人民网People’s Daily Online,11,7. http://history.people.com.cn/n/2014/0811/c372327-25441615.html

==Chinese Marriage Customs Mo Ling 莫玲 202070080602 MTI 英语笔译==
<center> 莫玲 Mo Ling </center>

===Chinese Marriage Customs===

China is an ancient country of rites. When it comes to the most important thing in one’s life---marriage, Chinese people have developed a set of unique and grand ceremonies. Generally speaking, weddings in ancient China needed to be approved by parents and arranged by parents.(Zhou Dandi,Yue Shufa 2012,12)

====Six Procedures====

There are six etiquettes in the process from the negotiation to the completion of marriage, namely Na Cai, Wen Ming, Na Ji, Na Zheng, Qing Qi and the last step Qin Ying.(Gao Xiaoqian 2017,235)

Na Cai is the begining of all the marriage procedures. It refers to a practice that if a boy intends to marry a girl, firstly his family must invite a matchmaker to the girl's home to propose marriage. After obtaining the consent of the girl's family , the boy's family should entrust the matchmaker to make a proposal formally with some gifts. Usually, the most common gift is wild goose, which represents fidelity. Besides, mandarin ducks and sheep are also frequently-used gifts.(Gao Xiaoqian 2017,235)

Wen Ming means that the boy's family asks the matchmaker to fetch the girl's name and date of birth. There are two purposes of this step: the one is to prevent the marriage of close relatives with the same surname; the other is to assure the compatibility of the prospective bride and bridegroom through their “eight characters” of the birth moment.(Gao Xiaoqian 2017,235)

Naji happens after the matchmaker takes back the woman's name and eight characters. If divining an auspicious omen, the boy's family will inform the girl’s parents and decide to engage the marriage.(Gao Xiaoqian 2017,235)

What is more, Na Zheng is an important step when the boy sends betrothal presents to the girl and for courtesy the girl will send back part of the presents such as food and some clothes.(Gao Xiaoqian 2017,235)

Qing Qi means that the boy's family choose an auspicious day to hold the wedding ceremony and then dispatch the matchmaker to tell the girl’s family.(Gao Xiaoqian 2017,235)

Qin Ying is the last procedure of the six etiquettes, that is, the groom goes to the bride's home to take the bride to his home.(Gao Xiaoqian 2017,235)

====Customs====

In addition to the six steps mentioned above, there are many other customs in the traditional Chinese wedding ceremony. Generally speaking, ancient marriage was ordered by parents and matchmaker and many young people could not master their own marriage. Before wedding ceremony, men and women were not allowed to meet each other in that ancient people were very conservative and most girls were kept in boudoirs. If they met in private before marriage, it would be regarded as a kind of female infidelity and parents would also think it quite unlucky. Under this circumstance, newlyweds could only see each other until the day of marriage.(Zhang Yueyong 2013, 47-48)

On the wedding day, the boy’s family will hold a big banquet at home. Before setting out to pick up bride, the bridegroom should first worship his ancestors for the sake of safety and auspice during the process of picking up the bride. (Gao Xiaoqian 2017,235)

After that, the following step is the most grand one among the whole ceremony --- at the dusk moment, the groom and the bride, his parents as well as all the guests will gather together at the central room to witness the kneeling etiquettes of the couple, which consists of 4 steps: (Gao Xiaoqian 2017,235)

The first kowtow is for heaven and earth, which shows ancient people’ reverence and appreciation towards the gods and nature for creating a favarable living environment for them. The second kowtow orients parents to express gratitude to parents for their fostering and sincere hope that parents can keep in good health. And then the new couple will kowtow towards each other, which carries the couple’s expectation of living together until old age. The last procedure is Going to the bridal chamber : the bride will be sent into the bridal chamber and the groom will drink with guests until night.(Gao Xiaoqian 2017,235)

After wedding ceremony, the couple must return to the girl’s home together at the third day, which is called “Huimen” or “Guiling”. This etiquette is indispensable. The groom should take some gifts for respect and change the way that he addresses the bride’s parents, and the latter will also prepare a good meal for the couple’s coming.(Gao Xiaoqian 2017,235)

====Development====

As time goes by, there are many reforms about marriage nowadays. Adults own the freedom to choose their spouse and they can meet each other every day if possible. Parents can’t master their “life event” any more.(Zhang Yueyong 2013, 47) In addition, many couples skip the cumbersome rites in the wedding ceremony. Some of them choose to hold the ceremony in the church with some close relatives and friends and some even finish it through travel.(Zhou Dandi,Yue Shufa 2012,15)

Nevertheless, most young people still adopt the main procedures of the traditional Chinese customs, some of which are handed down until the present day. There still exist betrothal gifts and dowries, and many couples choose to wear red costumes. The bridegroom should go to the bride’s home to escort her to the wedding and so on. Thus it can be seen that most traditional Chinese marriage customs are deeply rooted in the hearts of Chinese people and show a unique Chinese characteristics.(Zhou Dandi,Yue Shufa 2012,15)--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling

====References====

Gao Xiaoqian. 高筱倩.(2017) 中国传统婚嫁习俗研究［The Research on Traditional Chinese Marriage Customs］戏剧之家[Drama House] 235.

Zhang Yueyong. 张月莹.(2013) 中国近代婚嫁礼俗及婚姻观念转变的探索[A Study on the Change of Marriage customs and Marriage Concepts in Modern China] 松州学刊［Songzhou Academic Journal］ 47-48.

Zhou Dandi, Yue Shufa. 周丹迪, 岳书法.(2012) 浅析近代以来中国婚嫁民俗的演变[On the evolution of Chinese marriage customs since modern times] 文化学刊[Cultural Academic Journal] 15.

====Terms and Expressions====

Na Cai 纳彩

Wen Ming 问名

Na Ji 纳吉

Na Zheng 纳征

Qing Qi 纳征

Qin Ying 亲迎

Huimen 回门

Guiling 归宁

betrothal presents 彩礼

the central room 堂屋

bridal chamber 婚房

“eight characters” of the birth moment 生辰八字

====Questions====

1.How many procedures are needed from the negotiation to the completion of marriage?

2.Did the ancient young people have the rights to decide their own marriage or not and why?

3.What is the kneeling etiquettes?

4.When the couple have to return to the girl’s home?

5.What changes have been made nowadays?

6.Please list some new wedding customs.

====Answers====

1.There are six etiquettes in the process from the negotiation to the completion of marriage, namely Na Cai, Wen Ming, Na Ji, Na Zheng, Qing Qi and the last step Qin Ying.

2.No, they didn’t have the right to decide their own marriage because ancient marriage was ordered by parents and matchmaker.

3.It consists of 4 steps: the first kowtow is for heaven and earth, which shows ancient people’ reverence and appreciation towards the gods and nature for creating a favarable living environment for them. The second kowtow orients parents to express gratitude to parents for their fostering and sincere hope that parents can keep in good health. And then the new couple will kowtow towards each other, which carries the couple’s expectation of living together until old age. The last procedure is Going to the bridal chamber.

4.At the third day of the wedding ceremony.

5.Adults can choose their spouse by themselves and they can meet each other whenever they want; Some couples choose to hold the ceremony in the church some even finish it through travel, etc.

6.Examples:couple can choose to live in the either part of the two families; wedding ceremony can be hold in hotel; the bride can wear white wedding dress rather than the single red in the ancient time.

==Ngo, Thi Minh Huong==

====Topic: Chinese cinema (dramas and movies) and its popularity and affection in Vietnam====

==Twelve Animals of the Chinese Zodiac - Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲 202070080603 MTI英语笔译==
<center> Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲 </center>
===Twelve Animals of the Chinese Zodiac===

[[File:oyltacz.jpg|300px|thumb|left]]2020 is the year of rat according to the Chinese zodiac which consists of twelve animals used by people to name years. The traditional Chinese zodiac has been passed down for more than 2000 years since its origin(The Editorial Board, 2010: 2). The twelve zodiac signs are Rat, Ox, Tiger, Rabbit, Dragon, Snake, Horse, Goat, Monkey, Rooster, Dog and Pig, which are assigned in a repeating 12-year cycle(The Editorial Board, 2010: 2). This traditional Chinese scheme was originated from China and then has enjoyed a popularity in many other Asian countries(The Editorial Board, 2010: 12-13). With its cultural connotation and time-honored impact, the Chinese zodiac has been engraved in every Chinese people.

====Origin====

Regarding the origin of the Chinese zodiac, there are various opinions but many of them are presented without sufficient evidence. There are many myths explaining these animal signs and their arrangement. Among them the most time-honored one is the Great Race. In this story, the Jade Emperor, Ruler of the Heavens, wanted to devise a way to measure time, so he organized a race. At the end, the first twelve animals who made it across the river were the winners and so they earned themselves a spot on the zodiac calender in the order they arrived(The Editorial Board, 2010: 6).

Besides this folk story, some scholars claim the zodiac scheme was indeed derived from the Twelve Earthly Branches but did not occur at the same time while the Earthly Branches appeared. Since the Han Dynasty, the Earthly Branches have been used to record the time of day. Therefore some hold until that time, the 12 zodiac came into being as a supplementary to refer to the 12 periods of 24 hours. Since the original meaning of the Earthly Branches at that time was obliterated due to the passage of time, the ancient Chinese attached the Earthly Branches and the Ten Heavenly Stems to the zodiac(The Editorial Board, 2010: 5-7).

There also stands an opinion that the zodiac signs were originated from the totem worship in the primitive society. According to some researches on the origin of Chinese zodiac, there were only twelve earliest surnames in ancient China, which were derived from the names of the twelve animals in the Chinese zodiac scheme. Here the twelve animals refer to the totems at ancient times and different surname tribes use different animals as their totems. Therefore, the twelve animals of Chinese zodiac was developed from the totems of ancient tribes(The Editorial Board, 2010: 4-5).

====Folk Culture and Belief ====

The zodiac sign can not only reveal one’s age, but also represent his or her personality, career prospects and way of life according to Chinese superstition(The Editorial Board, 2010: 40).

The Chinese seem to believe that they have some affinity with the animals of the years in which they were born and that their personal traits and fortunes come under their mysterious influence. According to superstitious belief in China, Zodiac animals are combined with the Five Elements that consist of Metal, Wood, Water, Fire and Earth, to tell one's destiny. Since people have their zodiac sign's fixed elment, there are many folk beliefs based on this. For example, people born in the years of Metal Rat are believed to have a promising future; people born in the years of Fire Rat are deemed to be clever and intelligent and Wood Rat independent and self-respected(The Editorial Board, 2010: 40).

Besides, since the zodiac is determined by the year of birth, there are many implications of one’s birth year. For example, some zodiacal preferences prevail in Chinese population. Chinese have always had a strong affection for the Dragon, so married couples prefer to give births in the year of Dragon. Since dragon is regarded as the auspicious and divine creature, the children born in these years of dragon are believed to have fortune. These cultural preferences and folk beliefs have influenced prospective parents’ reproductive behavior in the Chinese society(Yip et al., 2002: 1804)

Moreover, Chinese people believe certain animals get on better than the others, so the zodiac has had a great impact on marriage as well. Specifically, people who is born in the Year of Tiger would have perfect romance with Pigs, Rabbit with Dogs and Dragon with Roosters. On the contrary, some zodiac signs are believed to have misfortune if they are married with people of certain zodiac. As the Chinese idiom goes, if a dragon and a tiger fight against each other, there will be one injured. This old says reflects that dragon and tiger are natural enemies according to the belief(The Editorial Board, 2010: 34-35).

And this is the reason why men and women would like to evaluate their Bazi, the Eight Characters, before they get married. However, in reality, personality is related to one’s experience through the life journey rather than the pre-written zodiac signs. People born in the same year would have very distinctive personalities. Similarly, the destiny is also a result of people’s character and most decisions they’ll be making along the way. Of course the marriage is a more complex thing that cannot be deemed to have a pre-given outcome brought by the zodiac(The Editorial Board, 2010: 34-35).

====Conclusion====

Chinese zodiac is a complex scheme which combines the traditional Chinese astrology in it. Based on the Five Elements theory, Yin and Yang system and Heavenly Stems and Earthly Branches system, the traditional scheme has developed a profound connotation and implications through generations. Over thousands of years, this popular culture has affected people’s major decisions in naming, marriage, giving birth and attitude towards each other. But people have to consider zodiac in a rational and scientific way. Perhaps the zodiac may help us to understand what we’re given, but it cannot determine our destiny. We should treat it as the precious cultural heritage and explore the profound culture and historical traces embodied in it(The Editorial Board, 2010: 1-2).

===References===
《大中国上下五千年》丛书编委会(2010) The Editorial Board of the ''Five Thousand Years of Great China''（''Dazhongguo Shangxia Wuqiannian''） ''Series'',《中国生肖文化》''The Culture of Chinese Zodiac'', 北京：外文出版社 Beijing: Foreign Languages Press.

Yip, Paul S.F.伊普, Lee, Joseph 李 and Cheung, Y.B.张 (2002).The Influence of the Chinese Zodiac on Fertility in Hong Kong SAR 论生肖对香港生育率的影响. ''Social Science & Medicine''《社会科学与医学》, Volume 55, Issue 10 第55卷第10期, 1803-1812.

===Terms and Expressions===

Jade Emperor 玉皇大帝

Ten Heavenly Stems 十天干

Twelve Earthly Branches 十二地支

Five Elements 五行

Metal, Wood, Water, Fire and Earth 金木水火土

Eight Characters 八字

===Questions===

1.How long is the history of Chinese zodiac?

2.What are the twelve zodiac signs in order?

3.From what time the Earthly Branches was used to record time?

4.According to Chinese folk belief, what kind of characteristics do people born in year of rat have?

5.Which zodiac animal is mostly praised in China?

6.Can you name some pairs of zodiac animal that get along well with each other according to Chinese folk culture?

7.Which pair of animals that are natural enemies according to Chinese folk culture?

===Answers===

1.More than 2200 years.

2.Rat, Ox, Tiger, Rabbit, Dragon, Snake, Horse, Goat, Monkey, Rooster, Dog and Pig.

3.Han Dynasty.

4.They are smart, adaptable, and have the will to fight, but, on the other hand, they are so over-ambitious and easy to fail.

5.Dragon.

6.Tiger and pig, rabbit and dog and dragon and rooster.

7.Dragon and tiger.

--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 14:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Lisu People and Daogan Festival of Lisu Ethnic Minority Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏 202070080641 英语口译==

====Introduction of Lisu people and Daogan festival====

The Lisu ethnic group are the Tibeto-Burman ethnic group living in mountainous areas such as Burma, southwest China, Thailand, and Arunachal Pradesh in India.

[[File:Example1.left.jpg|300px|thumb|left]]

There are about 730,000 Lisu people living in Lijiang, Baoshan, Nujiang, Diqing, Dehong and other counties in Yunnan province and Sichuan province in China. The Lisu nationality is one of the 56 official nationalities recognized by China. In Myanmar, the Lisu ethnic group is recognized as one of the 135 ethnic groups with an estimated population of 600,000. Approximately 55,000 Lisu people live in Thailand, where they are one of the six main hill tribes. They mainly inhabit remote mountainous areas. (Ernst, Gabriel 2019)

The Lisu tribe consists of more than 58 different clans. Each clan has its own name or surname. The most famous family clans in the tribal clans are Laemae pha, Bya pha, Thorne pha, Ngwa Pha (Ngwazah), Naw pha, Seu pha, Khaw pha. Most of the surnames come from their own hunter work in primitive times. But later, they adopted many Chinese surnames. Their culture has the same characteristics as the Yi nationality or Nuosu (Lolo) culture. (Ernst, Gabriel 2019)

Daogan Festival (刀杆节) is a traditional festival of Lisu ethnic groups living in Lushui County(泸水县), Nujiang Lisu Autonomous Prefecture(怒江傈僳族自治州).Due to the death of the old artists, they were once lost in Nujiang Prefecture and recovered in recent years. They are mainly distributed in Luzhang Village(鲁掌镇), Luzu Village(鲁祖村) and Loma Village(洛玛村) of Lushui County(泸水县).(Ernst, Gabriel 2019)

[[File:Example2.left.jpg|300px|thumb|left]]

====Legend====

During the Ming Dynasty, when people of different clans of feudal China invaded the borders of Yunnan, the emperor sent Wang Ji (王骥), the war department of the Chinese feudal ministry, to resist the enemy with troops. Wang Ji united with the local people of Li clan and soon expelled the invaders. But later, Wang Ji was killed by traitors. To commemorate Wang Ji's great achievement and to pray for the brave soldiers who died bravely in defending the border, the Li tribe held the "Going up to the mountain of swords and going down to the sea of fire" event. (上刀山，下火海), and designated the 15th day of the first month of the lunar calendar every year as the Knife Gan Festival.(Li Zhihuan,2010)

====Meaning====

Going up to the knife mountain and going down to the sea of fire are the main custom performances of the Taozhen Festival, which reproduce the life experience of people living in mountainous areas as they climb the mountains and the hard spirit and skills of climbing.(Li Zhihuan,2010)

====Performing====

Pine trees were used as tool poles, iron knives as tool ladders, crinkled paper as flowers, and bamboo as flower sticks. When we go up the rice mountain and down the fire, we play cowhide drum, gong , hairpin , na (唢呐) and other musical instruments under the knife pole. There are strict procedures and rituals from pointing flowers, pointing knives, playing knives, tying knives, tying flowers, welcoming flowers, and altars. Setting , knife pole , vertical pole , sacrificial dragon , knife stand and dismantling knife (in the sea of fire). Knife poles are usually called gold pillar, silver pillar or male pillar and female pillar respectively, representing the dead and the living. Thirty-six long sharp knives representing 365 days a year are tied to the sides of the ladder with paper flowers made of five-color paper. After the knife poles are tied, Heung Tong/Heung Tong (巫师) recites the words in his mouth and performs the knife dance with drum music. After the knife dance, to the sound of Suo na, gongs and drums, the knife bearer grasps the blade with both hands, steps on the blade with bare feet and then climbs up. When the knife-bearer reaches the top through the three scissors, the knife-bearer opens the lock of heaven, takes out the grains and flowers, spreads them out into the boiling crowd, and then places the red ribbon on the colored door, over which he sings the old prayer song, and then he comes down from the pole of the knife again. After that, he stepped barefoot into the burning charcoal fire, licking the burning plow with his tongue and biting the burning chains with his teeth, which showed the national spirit of the Li people and their superb performance skills.(Li Zhihuan,2010)

====Development====

According to legend, it commemorates an ancient Han Chinese hero who showed great kindness to the Lisu people. The Lisu people made the anniversary of the hero's death a traditional holiday for their own people, and used symbolic rituals such as going to the Mountain of Swords and the Sea of Fire to express their feelings of willingness to go through fire in return. On the day of the Knife Festival, several able-bodied men first perform the "firewalking" ceremony. They jump into the red-hot coals with bare feet and perform various stunts. On the second day, they sharpen 36 long knives and tie them to two 20-meter-high wooden racks with rattan strips, forming a knife ladder. With bare hands and feet, the performers climb to the top from the edge of the knives and perform various difficult moves at the top of the pole. Today, this thrilling traditional sacrificial ritual has evolved into a sporting event for the good people of the Lisu people to perform their stunts.(Li Zhihuan,2010)

====Terms and Expressions====

1.Lisu people 傈僳族

2."Up and down the mountain" event 上刀山，下火海

2.going to the Mountain of Swords and the Sea of Fire上刀山，下火海--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 05:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

3.The Lisu tribe 傈僳族

4.clan 氏族

5.primitive times 原始时期

====Questions====

1.How many Lisu people live in Yunnan and Sichuan？

2.How many clans make up the Lisu people？

3.Who united with the local people of Li clan and soon expelled the invaders？

4.Which day is the Daogan Festival？

5.What musical instruments do they play under the knife pole?

====Answers====

1.About 730,000 Lisu people.

2.The Lisu tribe consists of more than 58 different clans.

3.Wang Ji.

4.15th day of the first month of the lunar calendar every year.

5.They play cowhide drum, gong , hairpin , na (唢呐) and other musical instruments.

====References====

*Ernst, Gabriel (21 October 2019). "'We try to not be Thai': the everyday resistance of ethnic minorities"
*"Yunnan Province of China Government Web". Eng.yn.gov.cn.
*李智环．Li Zhihuan. 傈僳族人口分布及形成原因分析 [Analysis of the Distribution and Causes of the Formation of the Lisu People] 《保山学院学报》， 2010 [Journal of Baoshan College], 2010

==Phyo, Su Kyi==
Culture==Topic-Chinese Clothing== Phyo, Su Kyi, Student No-20191108000,Major: Comparative Literature and Cross-cultural Studies.

Introduction

Chinese Clothing has many ethnic groups with a long history while Han people dominate most periods in history. For thousands of years, generations of clothing designers have devoted themselves to building the Kingdom of Clothes, making the garments that cover the human body into an important component of Chinese culture. The progress of nation can be seen through its changes in clothing styles.Clothing manufacture in China dates back to prehistoric times, at least 7,000years ago. Archaeological findings of 18,000 years-old artifacts such as bone sewing needles and stone beads and shells with holes bored in them attest to the existence of ornamentation and of sewing extremely early in Chinese civilization. (www.topchinatravel. com, 2004)

Chinese clothing has undergone continuous transformations throughout history,providing a reflection of the culture in place at any given time. A wealth of archaeological findings coupled with ancient mythology, poetry, and songs enable us to see the development of distinctive Chinese fashions through the ages. This illustrated introductory survey takes the reader through traditional Chinese clothing,ornamentation,and ceremonial wear, and discusses the importance of silk and the diverse costumes of China's ethnic groups before considering modern trends and China's place in the fashion world today.(Mei Hua-2010-page-1)

1-Chinese traditional clothing

Chinese traditional clothing contains rich cultural connotations.Today, after the reform and opening up, the clothing industry has developed vigorously. People gradually start to pay attention to the local clothing culture, and pursue cultural connotation contained in clothing. For modern designers, the traditional clothing and its cultural background are their creation inspirations during creation phases,and they are also one of the expressive elements preferred by designers at home and abroad. Inheriting traditional clothing culture not only means that it needs us to turn the traditional clothing elements into a symbol, but also needs us to further understand the background and connotations of traditional clothing culture. The work of design without culture is like a gorgeous shell that can't stand the test of history. Only by grasping the inner spirit of traditional clothing culture, abandoning simple piled up work and patch-up work without connotation and learning the modern expressive methods of traditional clothing elements, one can design out the works which can touch people's heartstrings. (Jiangsu,2016,page-2)

Chinese traditional clothing contains rich cultural connotations.Today, after the reform and opening up, the clothing industry has developed vigorously. People gradually start paying or to pay attention to the local clothing culture, and pursue cultural connotation contained in clothing. For modern designers, the traditional clothing and its cultural background are their creation inspirations during creation phases,and they are also one of the expressive elements preferred by designers at home and abroad. Inheriting traditional clothing culture not only means that it needs us to turn the traditional clothing elements into a symbol, but also needs us to further understand the background and connotations of traditional clothing culture. The work of design without culture is like a gorgeous shell that can't stand the test of history. Only by grasping the inner spirit of traditional clothing culture, abandoning simple piled up work and patch-up work without connotation and learning the modern expressive methods of traditional clothing elements, one can design out the works which can touch people's heartstrings. (Jiangsu,2016,page-2).

Traditional clothing is the clothing which can reflect the traditional clothing culture with Chinese characteristics. Traditional clothing mutually integrates its unique style, comfortable fabric, bright colors,rich designs and exquisite craft elements to bring people impulsive feelings with visual communication. Traditional clothing culture with Chinese characteristics enjoys its unique artistic features in the style, color,fabrics,decoration and craft, ect. They are profoundly influenced by Chinese traditional culture ideas in the process of their formation and development and finally condensed into the national culture bearing Chinese culture features. These elements are the source of our inspiration in contemporary clothing design, and the use of these Chinese elements can help people to design out the clothing Chinese style.(Jiangsu, 2016,page-2)

Chinese traditional culture is an indispensable source of inspiration in fashion design. Putting the traditional elements into fashion design not only helps the native culture to extend itself, but also greatly promotes the culture exchanges in nationalities. Therefore, we should advocate the national advanced culture,make the Chinese traditional culture achieve the development in the clothing design, use the common language to express Chinese traditional culture essence, and integrate Chinese traditional element symbol into the spiritual elements of fashion design to make the national culture spirit and the language of the world integrate into the mainstream of modern clothing design.(Jiangsu,2016, page -3)

1:1.Traditional Han Chinese Clothing (Han Fu)

It refers to the attire worn byvthe Han people from the enthronement of the Yellow Emperor(about 2698BC) till the late Ming Dynasty (1368-1644AD).It became known as the Han Fu(fu means 'clothes" in Chinese)because the fashion was improved and popularized during the Han Dynasty. It is usually in the from of long gown,cross collar, wrapping the right lapel over the left, loose wide sleeves and no buttons but a sash. Although simple in design, it gives different feelings to different wearers.(www.topchinatravel.com, 2019-Aug-2)

1:2.Chinese Suit(Tang Zhuang)

It is a combination of the Manchu male jacket ofvthe Qing Dynasty and the western style suit. It is usually straight collared,with coiled buttons down the front. Its color and design are in traditional Chinese style but tailoring is western.(www.topchinatravel. com, 2019,Aug-2.)

1:3.Cheongsam(Qi Pao)

Originated from the Manchu female clothes, it evolved by merging with western patterns that show off the beauty of a female body. Its features are straight collar, strain on the waist,coiled buttons and slits on both sides ofvthe dress. Materials used are usually silk, cotton and linen.Cheongsam is the most popular Chinese attire in the world today.(www.topchinatravel.com, 2019,Aug-2.)

1:4.Chinese Tunic Suit(Zhongshan Zhuang)

Also called the Yat-sen Suit , it is designed by Dr.Sun Yat-sen by combining the western-style suit and Chinese attire. It has a turn-down collar and four pockets with flaps. As Chairman Mao Zedong worn it quite frequently, it is also called the Mao Suit by westerners. It is the main attire from the founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949 till 1980,s. The country's leaders still wear it today when attending important occasions, such as military parades.(www.topchinatravel. com,2016,Auge-2.)

2.Chinese Traditional Clothing Elements

There are many old stories in ancient Chinese civilization, and Chinese traditional elements come up with the tenacity of the Chinese nations long history. Different times has their unique cultural connotations and form elements,which include Chinese architecture, costumes, traditional Chinese painting and folk art etc., and those cultural connotations and form elements are precious heritage that the ancestors leave to their off-springs. The change of dynasties in the history of our country lead to changes of cultural centers, which finally lead to the appearance Chinese traditional elements with different representative features in each historical periods, nations and regions. These elements include: Chinese silk ,cloth of brocade, hemp,blue printed fabric; chirpaur, Chinese -style chest covering, Chinese tunic suit, collar,surplice, mandarin and split etc.; colorful ethnic colors: such as bright red,green,yellow and blueetc.;Neolithic patterns, bronze patterns in Shang and Chou dynasties, ancient lacquer were pattern in Qin and Han dynasties, Buddhism patterns in Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern dynasties and traditional decorative patterns in Tang,Sing and Qing dynasties. The essence of Chinese traditional culture which bear the role of inheriting national culture, and is the unique and external characteristic of Chinese nation.(Jiangsu,2016, page-3)

2:1.The Aesthetic Performance of Design

Chinese traditional clothing of each dynasty has its own unique clothing style and design, but no matter how the style changes,the mainstream concept of traditional Chinese clothing always emphasizes symmetry and balance, and the clothing symmetry can be seen in sleeve, placket, hem,pattern ect.Chinese traditional clothing design is particular about proportion,such as the ancient Chinese woman dresses, short jacket unlined uper garment (named Ru)marching long dress , and it emphasizes the perfect proportion which hold that"the upper part should be short, the below part should be long"; in Song and Ming dynasties people the collocation of long BeiZi(a kind of dress that girls dress in ancient times) and short skirt, the "long upper part,short below part"ratio perfectly reflects the proportions beauty of the clothing.(Jiangsu,2016, page-5.)

2:2.The Aesthetic Performance of colors

Green, white, yellow, red, black ,the five colors, form the Chinese traditional color system. They have obvious implied meaning and identification.Black stands for that the dark heaven, and yellow stands for the earth at dusj, and black and yellow stand for the heaven and the earth ,and they are mostly used in the Kings' clothing, About the colorific choice of Chinese traditional clothing the yellow and red which the historical role is prominent perform particularly well. In the late period of the Warring States as a royal color yellow appeared and became the supreme ruler's senior clothing color .People advocate yellow but don't prohibit yellow.(Jiangsu, 2016,page-6)

In Chinese traditional clothing colors red has evoluted from the original noble characteristic tovthe civilians characteristic. It evolution has experienced a certain period of time. The original red uses magenta, red ,cinnabar to represent. It is the noble officials' clothing color.
Many designers combine Chinese red and modern clothing design to embody the application of Chinese traditional clothing elements in modern clothing design.(Jaingsu,2016-page-7)
In Chinese traditional clothing colors, the red color has evoluted from the original noble characteristic tovthe civilians characteristic. It evolution has experienced a certain period of time. The original red uses magenta, red ,cinnabar to represent. It is the noble officials' clothing color.
Many designers combine Chinese red and modern clothing design to embody the application of Chinese traditional clothing elements in modern clothing design.(Jaingsu,2016-page-7)--[[User:Phyo Su Kyi 1|Phyo Su Kyi 1]] ([[User talk:Phyo Su Kyi 1|talk]]) 08:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)su kyi

==Conclusion==
Chinese traditional culture is an indispensable source of inspiration in fashion design.Therefore, we should advocate the national advanced culture, make the Chinese traditional culture achieve the development in the clothing design.

Trems and Expressions

历史-history,

期-period,

世代-generations,

服装-clothing,

设计师-designers ,

装饰-ornamentation

中国服饰- Chinese clothing

服饰-Costumes

传统服装-Traditional clothing

服装设计-Clothing design

时尚设计-Fashion design

几代服装设计师-Generations of clothing designers

中国西装-Chinese Suit

旗袍-Cheongsam

中山装-Chinese Tunic Suit

中国传统元素-Chinese traditional elements

===Questions ===

1-What’s archaeological findings in Chinese fashions through the ages?

2-What's Traditional Clothing?

3-What's Traditional culture indispensable?

4-How is means Han Fu?

5-What's the popular Chinese attire?

6-How called was Chinese Tunic Suit?

7-What'are include Chinese traditional elements?
--[[User:Phyo Su Kyi 1|Phyo Su Kyi 1]] ([[User talk:Phyo Su Kyi 1|talk]]) 04:33, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Su Kyi

==Answers===
1- A wealth of archaeological findings coupled with ancient mythology, poetry,
and songs enable us to see the development of distinctive chinese fanshions through the ages.

2-Traditional clothingis the clothing which can reflect the traditional clothing
culture with Chinese characteristics.

3-Chineset traditional culture is an indispensablevsource of inspirationin fashion
design.

4-Han Fu is fu means clothes in Chinese.

5-Cheongsam is the most popular Chinese attire inthe world today.

6-It is also called the Yat-sen Suit,it is designed byDr.SunYat-sen by combining the western-style suit and Chinese attire.

7-Chinese traditional elements include: Chinese silk,cloth of brocade, hemp, blue printed fabric.

--[[User:Phyo Su Kyi 1|Phyo Su Kyi 1]] ([[User talk:Phyo Su Kyi 1|talk]]) 11:56, 9 December 2020 (UTC)Phyo Su Kyi

===References===

1.Jiangsu.,(2016), “Influences of Chinese Traditional Clothing Elements on Modern Clothing Design”,

Nanjing University of Finance and Economics,Soochow University,Published by Atlantic Press.

2.Mei Hua,(2010), `Chinese Clothing´, Cambridge University Press The Edinburgh Building,Cambridge CB28RU,UK Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press,NewYork
www.cambridge.orgInformation on this title:www.cambridge.org/9780521186896
Originally published byChina Intercontinental Press as Cinese Clothing(9787508516615)in2010©ChinaIntercontinentalPress.

3.https://www.topchinatravel.com/china-guide/history-of-chinese-clothing.htm

4.https://www.travelchinaguide.com/intro/clothing/--[[User:Phyo Su Kyi 1|Phyo Su Kyi 1]] ([[User talk:Phyo Su Kyi 1|talk]]) 10:26, 9 December 2020 (UTC)Phyo Su Kyi

==Pingki, Tanchangya==

===Chinese traditional dance===
Culture=Topic Chinese Traditional Dance=Pingki Tanchangya, Student No:201921080004
,Major: Comparative Literature and cross culture studies.

1. Introduction

There is a long recorded history in China for various kinds of dances. China is highly took position for art consisting for many modern and traditional dance genres. The dance covers a world a worldwide range, like folk dances, ballet, rituals and weeding ceremonies. We also know about that, there are also 56 officially recognized ethnic groups have their own folk dances and style of forms. The best known Chinese are the Dragon dance and Lion dances both dances were known in earlier dynasties in various forms. " Lianxiang " is a Chinese traditional dance , people usually plays it for entertainment and body building.The author presents the view that the dance can relax tendons and activate collaterals by striking shoulders, chest, waist, abdomen, buttocks, feet and acupuncture points of the four limbs, and slightly swaying knees together with shoulder, the set of movement can also exercise bones, muscles.--[[User:PINGKI TANCHANGYA 4|PINGKI TANCHANGYA 4]] ([[User talk:PINGKI TANCHANGYA 4|talk]]) 05:14, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

2. Characteristics of the Dance

Characteristics of the movements

There have 3 characteristic of the movements are: thrashing, quivering and lowering. The performer holds bamboo pole to play various dance movements by striking shoulders, chest, waist, abdomen, buttocks, feet and acupuncture points of the four limbs, and slightly swaying knees together with shoulder vibration. The traditional movements are modified and developed which is called single- thrashing and double-thrashing. Single-thrashing movements including crouch thrashing, jump thrashing, rolling thrashing and mixed thrashing with one bamboo pole. --[[User:PINGKI TANCHANGYA 4|PINGKI TANCHANGYA 4]] ([[User talk:PINGKI TANCHANGYA 4|talk]]) 06:04, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

3. The Dragon Dance

The Dragon dance is a form of traditional dance and performance in Chinese culture. Like the lion dance it is most often seen in festive celebrations. Many Chinese people often use the term "Descendants of the Dragon" as a sign of ethnic identity, as part of a trend started in the 1970s. Chinese people who taught them agriculture, law and medicine, the foundations of civilization.
Dragons are believed to bring good luck to Chinese people, which are reflected in their qualities that include great power, dignity, fertility and wisdom. The appearance of a dragon is both frightening and bold.The Dragon Dance originated during the Han Dynasty and was started by the Chinese who had shown great belief and respect towards the dragon. It is believed to have begun as part of the farming and harvest culture, also with origins as a method of healing and preventing sickness. It was also a popular event during the Song Dynasty and become a folk activity and like the lion dance, was most often seen in festive celebrations.
As the dragon gives people a feeling of great respect, it is often called the Sacred Dragon. The emperors of ancient China considered themselves as the dragon. The Dragon is also the emblem of Imperial Authority. It symbolizes supernatural power, goodness, fertility, vigilance and dignity.

4. The lion Dance

The lion dance is a traditional Chinese dance performed on big occasions, such as the Spring Festival (Chinese New Year) for good luck, as it is believed that the lion is an auspicious animal.
In Chinese culture, the lion symbolizes power, wisdom, and superiority. People perform lion dances at Chinese festivals or big occasions to bring good fortune and chase away evil spirits.The lion dance is one of the most important traditions during Chinese New Year. It is performed to bring prosperity and good luck for the upcoming year. The lion dance is also a way to create a festive atmosphere and bring happiness. Performed in a lion costume, accompanied by the music of beating drums, clashing cymbals, and resounding gongs, lion dances imitate a lion's various movements or demonstrate martial arts, depending on the style. Though lion dances all use similar costumes, during its long development, the lion dance has divided into two styles: southern and northern.

4.1 The Southern Lion Dance

The southern lion dance originated in Guangdong, and it is the style popular in Hong Kong, Macau, and the hometowns of overseas Chinese. The southern lion dance is a performance based on the study of a lion's behavior, with an emphasis on actions like scratching and shaking of the body. Performances are vivid and entertaining, even comical. There are also skillful performances, such as playing with a ball, which includes swallowing it.

4.2 The Northern Lion Dance

The northern lion dance has close relations to kungfu Chinese martial arts. A young lion is performed by a single person and an adult lion is performed by a duo. Costumes are more robust, and less decorative, to allow for more movement. In the adult lion dance, the performer in front holding the lion's head is often lifted by the other to make the lion stand up. Northern lion dances are more gymnastic, involving rolling, wrestling, leaping, jumping, climbing, or kowtowing. The best places to see northern Chinese lion dances are China's martial arts theaters, like the Red Theater in Beijing, or even at the Shaolin Temple.--[[User:PINGKI TANCHANGYA 4|PINGKI TANCHANGYA 4]] ([[User talk:PINGKI TANCHANGYA 4|talk]]) 14:19, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

5. Conclusion

"Lianxiang” is a remark traditional dance that popularized in lots of regions and nations. It’s a folk dance that combines entertainment and body-building. Dragons are believed to bring good luck to Chinese people, which are reflected in their qualities that include great power, dignity, fertility and wisdom.The lion dance is an excellent example of Chinese folk culture, which has spread across the world with Chinese immigration. Overseas Chinese in Europe, America, etc. have established many lion dance clubs, performing on Chinese festivals or big occasions, particularly Chinese New Year.

===Terms and Expressions===
1.Han Dynasty 汉朝。

2.Traditional dance history 传统舞蹈史。

3.The lion Dance 舞狮。

4.The Dragon Dance 龙舞。

5.Lianxing 联兴。

6.Chinese Dance 中国舞。

7.Festivals 节庆。

6. Questions:

1. What is lianxing?
2. What is the Dragon Dance? Have you seen it before? And Where?
3. The dragon Dance originated from where?
4. what Lion Dances Symbolized?
5. How many Chinese Traditional Dance names you know?

Answers:

1."Lianxiang" is generally a traditional dance that is quite popular in lots of regions.
2. The Dragon dance is a form of traditional dance and performance in Chinese culture. Yes, I have seen it before in China.
3. The Dragon Dance originated from the Han Dynasty. It was started by the Chinese people those had shown great belief and respect towards the dragon.
4 The lion dance performed at Chinese festivals and
“Lion” symbolizes power, wisdom, and superiority.
5.
1.The folk dance.
2 The Duhuang Dance.
3.The Lion Dance.
4.The Dragon Dance.

Reference:

1. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Chinese_dance.

2. http://en.cnki.com.cn/Article_en/CJFDTotal-JFYS201701031.htm.

3. http://en.cnki.com.cn/Article_en/CJFDTotal-TIRE200403012.htm.

4. https://www.atlantis-press.com/proceedings/etmhs-16/25849367.

5. Origin of lianxiang.http://www.google.cn.

6. Classification of Lian Xiang. http://www.google.cn.--[[User:PINGKI TANCHANGYA 4|PINGKI TANCHANGYA 4]] ([[User talk:PINGKI TANCHANGYA 4|talk]]) 15:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==The Liquor Culture of China 瞿淼 Student No.202070080604 ==
==The Liquor Culture of China 瞿淼 Student No.202070080604 英语笔译 ==--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)
--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 08:20, 2 November 2020 (UTC)

====1.The Origin of liquor in China====

With a long history of liquor-making, China boasts a variety of vintage liquor, which is renowned at home and abroad. Penetrating in China’s entire history of civilization, the liquor culture plays a significant role in many aspects, such as cuisine, literature, and health care, of Chinese people’s daily life.（后面好像缺了文献的引用，参考文献中的没有在正文体现）--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)
As to the origin of Chinese liquor, opinions vary and no unanimous conclusion can be drawn, and the most widely accepted version is that Du Kang is the person who invented liquor. There are divergent views on Du Kang’s identity, so far, documents have been found which recorded his deeds in the Yellow Emperor era and Xia-Shang-Zhou dynasties. And even his address is disputable. Some people think he lived in Baishui, Shaanxi province and was buried here, while others hold the opinion that he lived in Ruyang, Henan province. However, Du Kang is generally believed to be the Chinese Dionysus. According to the legend, one day it rained suddenly while Du Kang was herding the sheep. Hastily driving the sheep back to the sheepfold, he forgot some husked sorghum rice in a hollowed trunk by accident, and when he came back after a few days, the rice he left there became so fragrant that he couldn’t help tasting some. Surprisingly, it was palatable. This unexpected finding made Du Kang start to develop the liquor-brewing technique. Nowadays, Du kang has become the synonym of liquor in many places. Moreover, ancestral halls of Du Kang have been built in Baishui in Shaanxi province and Ruyang in Henan province to enshrine him. And the liquor produced in these places are called “Du Kang Liquor.”(Huang yixi, 2008, 12)

With a long history of liquor-making, China boasts a variety of vintage liquor, which is renowned at home and abroad. Penetrating in China’s entire history of civilization, the liquor culture plays a significant role in many aspects, such as cuisine, literature, and health care, of Chinese people’s daily life.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

As to the origin of Chinese liquor, opinions vary and no unanimous conclusion can be drawn, and the most widely accepted version is that Du Kang invented liquor. There are divergent views on Du Kang’s identity, so far, documents have been found which recorded his deeds in the Yellow Emperor era and Xia-Shang-Zhou dynasties. And even his address is disputable. Some people think he lived in Baishui, Shaanxi province and was buried here, while others hold the opinion that he lived in Ruyang, Henan province. However, Du Kang is generally believed to be the Chinese Dionysus. According to the legend, one day it rained suddenly while Du Kang was herding the sheep. Hastily driving the sheep back to the sheepfold, he forgot some husked sorghum rice in a hollowed trunk by accident, and when he came back after a few days, the rice he left there became so fragrant that he couldn’t help tasting it. Surprisingly, it was palatable. This unexpected finding made Du Kang start to develop the liquor-brewing technique. Nowadays, Du kang has become the synonym of liquor in many places. Moreover, ancestral halls of Du Kang have been built in Baishui in Shaanxi province and Ruyang in Henan province to enshrine him. And the liquor produced in these places are called “Du Kang Liquor.”(Huang yixi, 2008, 12)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.The Types of liquor in Ancient China====
With constant reform and innovation of the techniques of brewing liquor, thousands types of vintage liquor have been created in China. According to the different production techniques, Chinese liquor can be divided into fermented wine and distilled liquor.

With constant reform and innovation of the techniques of brewing liquor, thousands of types of vintage liquor have been created in China. According to the different production techniques, Chinese liquor can be divided into fermented wine and distilled liquor.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Yellow rice wine is the oldest fermented wine around the world. Shaoxing Wine, a famous specialty of Shaoxing, Zhejiang province, is the representative of yellow rice wine. It has a very long history, and the wine industry in Shaoxing was prosperous early in the Warring States period. Shaoxing wine looks yellow and clear, hence sugar is added in its raw material. The most prominent of Shaoxing Wine is that it’s fragrance improves with age. In addition to Shaoxing Wine, there are other famous yellow rice wine like Jiujiang Old Seal Wine, Mellow Wine and Dongwu Rice Wine and so on. where is the source is coming from please?

Yellow rice wine is the oldest fermented wine around the world. Shaoxing Wine, a famous specialty of Shaoxing, Zhejiang province, is the representative of yellow rice wine. It has a very long history, and the wine industry in Shaoxing was prosperous early in the Warring States Period. Shaoxing wine looks yellow and clear, because sugar is added in its raw material. (这句话的因果关系不知道是什么，改错了就删掉我的就好）The most prominent characteristic of Shaoxing Wine is that it’s fragrance improves with age. In addition to Shaoxing Wine, there are other famous yellow rice wine like Jiujiang Old Seal Wine, Mellow Wine and Dongwu Rice Wine and so on.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Liquor and Spirits(Baijiu), a kind of distilled liquor, is divided into the following flavor types: sauce-flavor type, light flavor type, strong flavor type and other flavour types. Kweichow Moutai is a traditional Chinese specialty liquor. It is one of the world's three major distilled liquors on par with Scotch whiskey and French cognac. It is also the originator of Daqu sauce-flavored liquor with a history of more than 800 years. The style and quality of Kweichow Moutai is characterized by "prominent sauce, elegant and delicate flavour, full-bodied, long aftertaste, and lasting fragrance in an empty cup". Its special style comes from the unique traditional brewing techniques formed over the years and the brewing methods are combined with the agricultural production in the Chishui River Basin, which is affected by the environment and seasonal production, retaining some of the original traces of local life. In 1996, Moutai's craftsmanship was identified as a state secret to be protected. In 2001, the traditional craft of Moutai was included in the first batch of national material cultural heritage. In 2006, the State Council approved the inclusion of the "Moutai traditional brewing process" in the first batch of national intangible cultural heritage lists, and declared the world intangible cultural heritage. where is source coming?

Liquor and Spirits(Baijiu), a kind of distilled liquor, is divided into the following flavor types: sauce-flavor type, light flavor type, strong flavor type and other flavour types. Kweichow Moutai is a traditional Chinese specialty liquor. It is one of the world's three major distilled liquors on par with Scotch whiskey and French cognac. It is also the origin of Daqu sauce-flavored liquor with a history of more than 800 years. The style and quality of Kweichow Moutai is characterized by prominent sauce, elegant and delicate flavour, full-bodied, long aftertaste, and lasting fragrance in an empty cup". Its special style comes from the unique traditional brewing techniques formed over the years and the brewing methods are combined with the agricultural production in the Chishui River Basin, which is affected by the environment and seasonal production, retaining some of the original traces of local life. In 1996, Moutai's craftsmanship was identified as a state secret to be protected. In 2001, the traditional craft of Moutai was included in the first batch of national material cultural heritage. In 2006, the State Council included "Moutai traditional brewing process" in the first batch of national intangible cultural heritage lists, and declared it as the world intangible cultural heritage.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====3.The Types of Drinking Vessel in Ancient China====
Chinese people always pay attention to the beauty and delicacy of tableware, and we stress the exquisiteness and suitability of wine vessels when drinking. Therefore,as part of the liquor culture, drinking vessels also have a long history and varied appearances.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)(sorry,又忘记复制粘贴，直接改动了）

In different historical periods, due to the continuous development of society and economy, the production technology, materials, and appearance of wine vessels will naturally undergo corresponding changes; therefore, a wide variety of wine vessels have been produced. As early as the Neolithic culture period, pottery with shapes similar to later wine-ware, such as the pottery of the Peiligang culture period, appeared. The development of the liquor industry and the noble identity of the drinker have made it possible for liquor utensils to be differentiated from ordinary eating utensils. The quality of wine-ware often becomes one of the symbols of the status of drinkers. Bronze ware originated in Xia Dynasty, and the earliest bronze wine ware that has been discovered is from the Xia Erlitou culture period. Bronze ware reached its heyday in the Shang and Zhou Dynasties and declined in the Spring and Autumn Period. The purpose of the Shang and Zhou drinking vessels was basically specific.
In the Shang Dynasty, due to the development of the liquor industry and the improvement of bronze production technology, China's wine ware reached unprecedented prosperity. The bronze wine vessels of Shang and Zhou Dynasties were divided into liquor boiling vessels, liquor serving vessels, drinking vessels and liquor storaging vessels according to their purposes. Each vessel has many styles, some are in common styles, and some take animal shapes. Take Zun as an example, there are Elephant Zun, Rhino Zun, Niu Zun, Yang Zun, Tiger Zun, etc.

In different historical periods, due to the continuous development of society and economy, the production technology, materials, and appearance of wine vessels naturally has undergone corresponding changes; therefore, a wide variety of wine vessels have been produced. As early as the Neolithic culture period, pottery with shapes similar to later wine-ware, such as the pottery of the Peiligang culture period, appeared. The development of the liquor industry and the noble identity of the drinker have made it possible for liquor utensils to be differentiated from ordinary eating utensils. The quality of wine-ware often becomes one of the symbols of the status of drinkers. Bronze ware originated in Xia Dynasty, and the earliest bronze wine ware that has been discovered is from the Xia Erlitou culture period. Bronze ware reached its heyday in the Shang and Zhou Dynasties and declined in the Spring and Autumn Period. The purpose of the Shang and Zhou drinking vessels is basically specific.
In the Shang Dynasty, due to the development of the liquor industry and the improvement of bronze production technology, China's wine ware reached unprecedented prosperity. The bronze wine vessels of Shang and Zhou Dynasties were divided into liquor boiling vessels, liquor serving vessels, drinking vessels and liquor storaging vessels according to their purposes. Each vessel has many styles, some are in common styles, and some take animal shapes. Take Zun as an example, there are Elephant Zun, Rhino Zun, Niu Zun, Yang Zun, Tiger Zun, etc. --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

[[File:zun.left.jpg|300px|thumb|left]]
During the Qin and Han Dynasties, lacquered wine utensils became popular in southern China. It became the main type in the Han Dynasty, Wei and Jin Dynasties, and its shape basically inherited the shape of bronze liquor vessels. Porcelain roughly appeared around the Eastern Han Dynasty. Compared with pottery, the performance of porcelain surpassed that of pottery. The shape of liquor glasses in the Tang Dynasty was much smaller than in the past, so some people think that distilled spirits appeared in the Tang Dynasty. The Song Dynasty was the heyday of ceramic production, and there were many exquisite wine vessels. People in Song Dynasty like to warm rice wine and drink it. So the matching combination of injection vessel and bowl were invented. People placed the injection vessel with wine in the bowl, and poured hot water into the bowl to warm the wine. The representative porcelain wine-ware of the Ming and Qing Dynasty is the blue-and-white porcelain wine-ware.

During the Qin and Han Dynasties, lacquered wine utensils became popular in Southern China. It became the main type in the Han Dynasty and Wei and Jin Dynasties, and its shape basically inherited the shape of bronze liquor vessels. Porcelain roughly appeared around the Eastern Han Dynasty. Compared with pottery, the performance of porcelain surpassed that of pottery. The shape of liquor glasses in the Tang Dynasty was much smaller than it in the past, so some people think that distilled spirits appeared in the Tang Dynasty. The Song Dynasty was the heyday of ceramic production, and there were many exquisite wine vessels. People in Song Dynasty like to warm rice wine and drink it. So the matching combination of injection vessel and bowl were invented. People placed the injection vessel with wine in the bowl, and poured hot water into the bowl to warm the wine. The representative porcelain wine-ware of the Ming and Qing Dynasty is the blue-and-white porcelain wine-ware.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

[[File:Example3.left.jpg|300px|thumb|left]]
====4.Drinking Order====
As early as the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, drinking orders appeared at banquets in the Yellow River Basin. There are many ways to make wine orders. The way the literati and the ordinary people make drinking orders are naturally very different. Literati often use poems or couplets, guessing characters or guessing puzzles, etc., while ordinary people use simple ways to act without any preparation. It requires a quick, witty, artistic and talented person to do liquor orders. The drinking order is of great significance to the transformation, enrichment and development of drinking rituals. It is not only an important means to add wine to the fun and to invigorate the banquet, but also to make Chinese culture enter the wine and become the Liquor Culture".

As early as the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, drinking games appeared at banquets in the Yellow River Basin. There are many ways to make wine games. The way the literati and the ordinary people make drinking games are naturally different. Literati often use poems or couplets, guessing characters or guessing puzzles, etc., while ordinary people use simple ways to act without any preparation. It requires a quick, witty, artistic and talented person to do liquor orders. The drinking games is of great significance to the transformation, enrichment and development of drinking rituals. It is not only an important means to add wine to the fun and to invigorate the banquet, but also to make Chinese culture enter the wine and become the Liquor Culture".--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====Terms and Expressions====
1.Du Kang 杜康

2.Chinese Dionysus 中国酒神

3.husked sorghum rice 秫米饭

4.Baishui 白水县（陕西渭南市辖县）

5.Ruyang 汝阳县（河南省洛阳市下辖县）

6.fermented wine 发酵酒

7.Distilled liquor 蒸馏酒

8.Yellow rice wine 黄酒

9.Shaoxing Wine 绍兴酒

10.Jiujiang Old Seal Wine 九江成年封缸酒

11.Mellow Wine 醇香酒

12.Dongwu Rice Wine 东吴老酒

13.Liquor and Spirits 白酒

14.Kweichow Moutai 贵州茅台

15.sauce-flavor type 酱香型

16.light flavor type 清香型

17.strong flavor type 浓香型

18.Daqu sauce-flavored liquor 大曲酱香型白酒

19.the Peiligang culture period裴李岗文化时期

20.the Xia Erlitou culture period 夏二里头文化时期

21.Zun 樽

22.injection vessel and bowl 注子和注碗

23.drinking order 行酒令

23.drinking games 行酒令--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====Questions==== （问题好像还要再加一两个忘记标准了）--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

1.Who is generally believed to invent liquor in China?

2.What is the most prominent of Shaoxing Wine?
2.What is the most prominent characteristic of Shaoxing Wine?--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

3.How to use the matching combination of injection vessel and bowl in the Song dynasty?

4.How do literati often make drinking orders in China?

====Answers====

1.Du Kang

2.It’s fragrance improves with age.

3.Place the injection vessel with wine in the bowl, and pour hot water into the bowl to warm the wine.

4.Literati often use poems or couplets, guessing characters or guessing puzzles, etc.

====Bibliography====
*Huang Yixi 黄亦锡. (2008) 酒、酒器与传统文化[Wine, Wineset and Traditional Culture: the Study of Wine Culture of Ancient China]. 厦门大学Xiamen University.

*Li Fangzhou 李方舟. (1998) 酒令——酒文化的珍品[Liquor-a treasure of wine culture]. 质量天地Production Room.

*Du Jinpeng 杜金鹏. (1995) 中国古代酒具[Ancient Chinese Wine Set]. 上海文化出版社 Shanghai Culture Publishing House.

*Yang Li 杨利. (2005) 酒文化及酒的精神文化价值探微[A Probe into Wine Culture and Spiritual Cultural Value of Wine]. 邵阳学院学报Academic Journal of Shaoyang University, 2005(02):82-83.

*Xu Shaohua 徐少华. (1999) 中国酒文化研究50年[Research on 50 years of Chinese wine culture]. 酿酒科技Brewing Technology, 1999(06):15-18.

*Zhao Fengqi 赵凤琦. (2014) 我国白酒产业可持续发展研究[Research on Sustainable Development of Chinese Liquor Industry]. 中国社会科学院研究生院CASS Graduate School.

*Wng Jianguo&Xu Liang 汪建国,徐亮.(2005)我国黄酒的特征及展望[Characteristics and Prospects of Chinese Rice Wine] 江苏调味副食品Journal of Jiangsu Seasoning Food, 2005(06):8-12.

*Ding Jihua 丁季华. (1991) 中国酒文化的结构与功能[The structure and function of Chinese wine culture]. 历史教学问题History Research and Teaching, 1991(2).

== China Railway High-Speed (CRH) - Rajabov, Anushervon student NO. 201921080005 Major: Comparative literature and cross culture ==

===China Railway High-Speed (CRH)===

Introduction

High-speed railway (HSR) in China is the longest network of high-speed railways in the world and is used most widely. The network of UNCC includes the recently built railway at the estimated speed of 200-350 km / h (120-220 miles per hour). The Chinese VSM accounts for two thirds of world high-speed railways. Almost all trains, the path and services of the HSR belong to the Chinese railway corporation under the CHINA Railway High Speed brand (CRH). The high-speed railway has developed rapidly in China over the past 15 years. CRH was put into operation in April 2007, the Intercity Line Beijing-Tianjin, which opened in August 2008, became the first HSR allocated passenger line. HSR applies to all administrative provincial levels, except Macau and Tibet. The total length of the HSR network reached 36,000 km (22,000 miles) in August 2020. The HSR construction boom continues, and the HSR network should reach 70,000 km (43,000 miles) in 2035. China's first high-speed trains were imported or built in accordance with the Technology Transfer Agreement with foreign trains manufacturers, including Alstom, Siemens, Bombardier and Kawasaki Heavy Industry Since the initial technical support, Chinese engineers have overpower the internal components of the train and built local trains produced by the CRRC State Corporation. The appearance of a rapidly accelerated railway in China has decreased in the way and changed Chinese society and the economy. The World Bank study has shown that "a wide range of travelers with different income levels chooses HSR for its comfort, convenience, safety and punctuality."[http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/451551468241176543/pdf/932270BRI0Box30ffic020140final000EN.pdf]

Definition and terminology

High-speed trains in China are usually belonging to passenger trades of classes G, D and C. in class G trains (高铁; Gāotiě; "High-speed rail") are commonly used trains E In class D trains (动车; Dòngchē; "Electrical multiple unit") are presented by EMU trains operating at lower speeds, whether in high-speed or low-speed ways. The actual movement speed of class D trains can vary greatly. D211 Creament train from Guyang-east to Guangzhou-South along the High Speed Railway Guang-Guangzhou, a line with an estimated speed of 250 km / h, on average, 207 km / h per trip. The sleeping train D312 EMU between South Beijing and Shanghai at a low speed Beijing - Shanghai on average passing 121 km / h. Class C (c héngjì; “intercity”) trains that run on high-speed tracks at speeds above 250 km / h are also considered high-speed trains.[https://ru.qaz.wiki/wiki/China_Railway_High-speed]

Influence on airlines

The proliferation of high-speed rail has forced China's domestic airlines to cut airfares and cancel regional flights. The effect of high-speed railway on airfare is most acute when traveling for less than 500 km (310 miles). By the spring of 2011, commercial airlines were fully stopped at previously popular routes such as Wuhan Nanjing, Wuhan Nanchang, Xi'an-Zhengzhou and Chengdu Chongqing. Flights along the routes with a length of more than 1500 km (930 miles) usually do not suffer. As of October 2013, half a speed of passengers were transported monthly on high-speed rail than in the country's airlines. where the source a
Technologies
Chinese High Speed Railway Controls Various Electric Forms of Trains, Hexie HAO Title (Simplified Chinese: 和谐号; Traditional Chinese: 和諧號; Pinyin: Héxié Hào; Harmony) is for designs which are imported from other nations and designated CRH-1 to CRH-5 and CRH380A (L), CRH380B (L) and CRH380C (L). CRH compositions are designed for fast and convenient movement between cities. The weakness of intellectual property Hexie HAO creates obstacles to China in the export of its products related to high-speed railways, which leads to the development of a fully recycled railway franchise called Fuxing Hao (Rejuvenation) that based on local technologies.[https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine ]

4 + 4 HSR network

The network consists of eight high-speed rail corridors, four of which run from north to south and four from east to west, for a total length of 12,000 km. Most of the lines follow existing routes and are for passenger traffic only. These are known as Passenger Lines (PDL). Several sections of the national network, especially along the southeastern coastal corridor, have been built to connect cities that previously had no rail links. These sections will carry both passenger and cargo. High-speed trains on HSR corridors can usually reach speeds of 300-350 km / h (190-220 mph). On mixed HSR lines, passenger trains can reach a maximum speed of 200–250 km / h (120–160 mph). This ambitious national grid project was slated to be built by 2020, but government incentives have significantly shortened the construction timeframe for many lines.[http://www.railjournal.com/A/xfeature2.html]

Advantages

HSR provides a fast, reliable and convenient means of transporting large numbers of travelers across a densely populated country over long distances that: Increases economic productivity and long-term competitiveness by increasing rail capacity and unifying labor markets. Moving passengers onto high-speed lines frees up older railways to carry more cargo, which is more beneficial for railways than for passengers whose fares are subsidized. Boosts the economy in the short term as high-speed rail construction creates jobs and stimulates demand in the construction, steel and cement industries during the economic downturn. 110,000 workers were mobilized for the construction of the Beijing-Shanghai high-speed railway. Facilitates economic integration between cities and promotes the growth of second-tier cities. The introduction of high-speed rail provides a 59% increase in the market potential of minor cities connected by bullet trains. [https://ru.qaz.wiki/wiki/China_Railway_High-speed]

Wenzhou accident

On July 23, 2011, two high-speed trains collided on the Ningbo-Taizhou-Wenzhou railway in the Lucheng district of Wenzhou city, Zhejiang province. The accident occurred when a train passing near Wenzhou was struck by lightning, lost power and stopped. Signals failed, causing another train to stop a stopped train. Several carriages derailed. State Chinese media confirmed 40 deaths and at least 192 people were hospitalized, including 12 seriously injured. The train accident in Wenzhou and the lack of accountability by rail officials have generated public outcry and heightened concerns about the safety and management of China's high-speed rail system. Concerns about quality and safety have also influenced plans to export cheaper high-speed train technology to other countries. In the aftermath of the deadly disaster, the Chinese government has suspended approval of new rail projects and began security checks on existing equipment.[https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/jul/23/china-train-crash-kills-32]

Terms and expressions

高铁 - High-speed rail
动车 - Electrical multiple unit
和諧號 – Harmony
復興號 - Rejuvenation

Questions

1. What does the World Bank research say?
2. What forced China's domestic airlines to cut airfares and cancel regional flights?
3. How many high speed rail corridors are there in the 4 + 4 HSR network? What is their total length?
4. What caused the accident?
5. What are the benefits of HSR?

Answers

1. The World Bank study has shown that "a wide range of travelers with different income levels chooses HSR for its comfort, convenience, safety and punctuality."
2. The proliferation of high-speed rail has forced China's domestic airlines to cut airfares and cancel regional flights.
3. The 4 + 4 HSR network consists of eight high-speed rail corridors, four of which run from north to south and four from east to west, for a total length of 12,000 km.
4. The accident occurred when a train passing near Wenzhou was struck by lightning, lost power and stopped.
5. HSR provides a fast, reliable and convenient means of transporting large numbers of travelers across a densely populated country over long distances. The introduction of high-speed rail provides a 59% increase in the market potential of minor cities connected by bullet trains.

References

http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/451551468241176543/pdf/932270BRI0Box30ffic020140final000EN.pdf
https://ru.qaz.wiki/wiki/China_Railway_High-speed
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine
http://www.railjournal.com/A/xfeature2.html
https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/jul/23/china-train-crash-kills-32.

==Language, The Chinese Language - Seydou, Sagara, Student No:201911080004,Major:Translation Studies===
===Introduction===
China is a very big country with a large population, multi-ethnic,and multi-lingual. Each etthnic groups may have its own lingo, or dialects. There are great differences between the dialects because of pronunciation. For example, if people in different places use their dialects to talk, they may not be able to understand each other, and the situation may lead to embarrassment and understanding. Therefore, the Chinese people communicate with each other in a common language, Putonghua, also known as Mandarin in Western countries. Cheng Aimin (2019,

==Putonghua and Dialects==

Putonghua is the national language of China, and Chinese is the most widely spoken language in the world. More than one billion of the world's populations are Chinese speakers. The Chinese population is already one fifth of the population of the world and is rapidly expanding its presence everywhere and influence many people around the world. Cheng Aimin (2019, 25)
It is the modern standard Chinese language with the Beijing pronunciation as its standard pronunciation, the northern dialect (also known as Mandarin, the official language in the past) as its basic dialect, and the modern vernacular as its grammatical norm. Therefore, the northern dialect sounds more like Putonghua than other dialects. Putonghua is a standardized language, which is legally used all over the country. In 2000, the law of the People’s Republic of China on common languages and characters established the legal status of Putonghua and standardized Chinese Characters as the national language and writing system. Putonghua is also one of the six working language of the United Nation and an important means of communication between China and foreign countries. According to statistics from ethnologist, in 2015, 70 percent of China’s population had the ability to speak Putonghua, but there were still about 400 million people who spoke dialects or minority languages. Article 19 of the constitution of the People’s Republic of China stipulates that ‘’ Putonghua is widely used by the state ‘’, and the third week of September is the national Putonghua Publicity week. We often hear some sayings like this: ‘’ Learn Putonghua well and you will have friend all over the world.’’ Chinese dialects are usually divided into seven groups: northern dialect Wu dialect, Hunan dialect, Jiangxi dialect, Hakka dialect, and Cantonese dialect and Fujian dialect. Most northern are close to Putonghua and easy to understand a non-native speaker. Cheng Aimin (2019, 126)

The dialects in China differ greatly. Speaking Putonghua allows the Chinese people to communicate better with each other and promote the development of economy and culture everywhere. However, the promotion of Putonghua cannot be achieved in a short time. The Chinese government plans to enable more than 80% of Chinese people to speak Putonghua by 2020. (C.Gov art 10. 2017)
Only by learning Putonghua can you communicate with people from all parts of China and event with Chinese –speaking people all over the world. While striving to promote Putonghua among the people of the whole country, China also pays special attention to the protection of dialects, which should not be lost after learning Putonghua. . Cheng Aimin (2019, 126)

==Ancient Chinese and Modern Chinese ==
Over the past three thousand years, Chinese has undergone a long period of development and changes, and has been constantly interacting with the languages of other nations. Ancient Chinese and written Chinese characters are not exactly the same as they are now. When we visit Chinese historical sites, we often see couplets, poems, and inscriptions. Most of them are written in classical Chinese and traditional Chinese characters. Classical Chinese is a written language formed on the basis of the spoken language in the pre-Qin period. Cheng Aimin (2019, 127)

By the time of the Tang Dynasty and the Five Dynasties (the 7th century to the 10th century), the spoken Chinese had changed greatly and had significant differences with the classical style of written Chinese. The pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar had changed greatly. But all the time, some people still insisted on writing in classical Chinese, while others wrote in the commonly used vernacular (spoken Chinese). The Four Classical Novels created in the Ming and Qing dynasties, The Dreams of the red Chambers, The Romance of the Three Kingdoms, The Outlaws of the Marsh and the journey to the west, are all representative works of the ancient vernacular. After the May 4th movement in 1919, China launched a vernacular movement advocating ‘’my hand writes my speech’’. Since then, the vernacular has gradually been more widely used in the whole society, and modern Chinese has gradually developed and formed. Compared with ancient Chinese, modern Chinese absorbs a lot Western grammar and has added many disyllabic words. Cheng Aimin (2019 ,128)

==Idiomatic Phrases- Idioms, Proverbs, Common Sayings, and Allegorical Sayings.==
Many phrases with fixed meanings in Chinese have been handed down from the ancient times. Mastering these phrases will make your language more authentic and vivid. For example, ‘’Lofty mountains and flowing rivers ‘’. Playing the lute to the cow’’ ‘’prescribing medicine according to symptoms’’, and ‘’ pleading guilty by carrying a rod on one’s back’ ’these phrases, often contain four Chinese characters each, are called idioms. They are quite formal and often originate from ancient historical stories, fables, myths and legends, or literary works. Sometimes we cannot guess the meaning of an idiom simply according to the meaning of the words. For example, 崇山峻岭，流淌的河流 ‘’lofty mountains and flowing rivers’’ means meeting someone who can really understand and appreciate them, while吹牛的长笛 ‘’ Playing the lute to the cow’’ means the casting pearls before swine. Wendy Abraham: (2018 ,115)
There are also proverbs, common sayings, and allegorical sayings created and passed down by the common people in spoken language, which are quite colloquial and emotional, reflecting the unique culture of China.
Proverbs are common and easy -to understand fixed phrases used orally, often explaining a truth. For example, ‘’ if you are not in charge of a home, you don’t know how expensive the firewood and rice, if you don’t have children, you don’t know kinds your parents are.’’ ‘’Seeing is better than hearing 100 times, and doing is better than seeing 100 times’’ Cheng Aimin (2019, 129)
Common sayings mostly come in a three –character format, but there are also other formats. In addition to the literal meaning, there are deep metaphorical extensions. For example, 吹牛皮 ‘’blow cow skin’’ (meaning bragging or boating) ‘给某人. 穿紧身鞋 ‘’give SB . Tight shoes to wear ‘’ ( meaning making things hard for SB), ‘为外国人工作时的消磨时间‘’kill time when working for foreigners ‘’ ( loafing on the job) , 提一个黑锅 ‘’ carry a black pot’’ ( taking the blame for the fault of others ) , 钉在眼睛里 ‘’ nail in the eyes’’ ( thorn in the flesh ), 狗腿 ‘’ dog leg’’ ( hired thug) , 不管3x7 = 21 ‘’regardless of 3x7= 21’’( regardless of consequences, in the spite of anything ), 打不了八极 ‘’ can’t hit with eight poles’’ ( extremely distant or unrelated ). (Contemporary Chinese Dictionary Chinese -English Edition 2002,232)
An allegorical saying is divided into two parts. It is like a riddle: The first part is a metaphor, and the second part is an explanation. There are two types of allegorical sayings: homophonic and figurative. Example of the homophonic type ‘’ the nephew carries a lantern – to light up the uncle’’ (pronounced the same ‘’ as before ‘’ in Chinese); ‘’the monk opens an umbrella – no hair and no sky ‘’ (‘’ no hair ‘’ is pronounced similar to ‘’ lawless ‘’ in Chinese). Examples of the figurative type: ‘’ A mute person takes a dose of bitter medicine- they can’t say it is bitter ‘’; ‘’ Mice go to the street – everybody shouts and beats them.’’ Cheng Aimin (2019.130)

==Language policy==
While vigorously promoting Putonghua, the Chinese government has also promulgated many policies to protect dialect and minority languages. In order to promote Putonghua, China promulgated the Chinese Pinyin Program in 1958. Pinyin (the standard Chinese sound- spelling system) is widely used in Putonghua promotion, international Chinese teaching, foreign exchange and other fields. It has become an important tool for reading Chinese characters, learning Putonghua, training and improving reading and writing ability. With the popularization of modern information technology, pinyin is widely used to input the Chinese characters on computers and mobile phones. Pinyin affects all aspects of social life. In translation, Chinese names of people, places, food, and even some cultural concept with Chinese characteristics (Such as Beijing, pingpang, Shaoling, Gongful) are directly spelled with Pinyin, which is therefore an important standard for translation and a bridge for international exchange. Minglang Zhou: (pp.71-95).

==Conclusion.==
Today, an increasing number of people from other countries now want to learn Chinese language and culture and also many universities from different countries throughout the world offer Chinese language courses because Putonghua is also an open door to a huge job market in all of the countries where Putonghua is the language of commerce like Mainland China, Taiwan and Singapore. Learning Chinese can help to make a better future for everyone. Abundant opportunities for governments and business careers as well as scientific and cultural exchanges await the student of Chinese. The China market is blossoming after decades of global isolation. As China is rapidly becoming a world economic power as it opens its doors to foreign investment expands its infrastructure, those who know Chinese will be valuable to business.

==References==

Cheng Aimin.(2019), ''中国概况'' [Understanding China]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.
Minglang Zhou: Language Policy in the People’s Republic of China (p.71-95), Wendy Abraham: let’s talk Mandarin Chinese: 1,001 real-life phrases and Idioms. Law of the People's Republic of China on the Standard Spoken and Written Chinese Language (Order of the President No.37) Article 10 Putonghua and the standardized Chinese characters shall be used as the basic language in education and teaching in schools and other institutions of education, except where otherwise provided for in laws.
The Contemporary Chinese Dictionary Chinese -English Edition 2002)
===Terms and expressions===

Lingo: 林戈

Lingo: 行话，语言

Putonghua: 普通话

Await student:等待学生

Pinyin: 等待学生

Pinyin: 拼音

Lofty: 崇高

Vernacular: 白话

Swine: 猪

===Questions===
1. Why Putonghua is spoken in United Nations Organization?
2. How many people speak Putonghua in China and around the world?
3 .Why Chinese government is promoted Putonghua among many others languages?
===Answers===
1. Because it is an important means of communication between China and foreign countries.
2. According to ethnologist 70 percent of China’s population had the ability to speak Putonghua, and according to the10 most spoken languages in the world Chinese (and all of its varieties such as Mandarin) is by far the most spoken language across the world with 1.31 billion speakers.
3. Because Putonghua is become an international language and it also facilitate understanding between different ethnic groups in China.

History of Translation Studies 3

2020-12-21T03:32:24Z

Lei kuangxi: /* A Study on the History of Interpretation and the Prospect of Interpretation in China 雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi 202070080639 英语口译 */

这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第三部分(Part 3)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。

学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。

*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]
*Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].

=Skopos and Functional Equivalence=
==A Comparative Study between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory and My thoughts on the Two Theories==

==Abstract==
This paper first makes a brief introduction of the two very important translation theories, which are Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory, put forward by Eugene Nida and Hans Vermeer respectively. Then the paper analyzes the similarities and differences between the two theories from many different perspectives. Through the analysis of the two theories, the author finally puts forwards its own thoughts on the two translation theories.

==Key words==
Functional Equivalence Theory; Skopos theory; Eugene Nida; Hans Vermeer

==摘要==
本文首先对翻译研究中两种极为重要的翻译理论，即尤金·奈达提出的功能对等翻译理论和汉斯·弗米尔进行了简要介绍，之后从多个不同的方面对这两种理论的相似点和不同之处进行分析。最后，在对两种理论进行分析后，作者提出自己对这两种理论的看法和认识。

==关键词==
功能对等理论；翻译目的论；尤金·奈达；汉斯·弗米尔

==(1)Introduction==

===1.1. Functional Equivalence Theory===

In 1964, Eugene Nida, the famous American linguist and ''Bible'' Translator, first put forward the notion of “dynamic equivalence” in his book ''Toward a Science of Translating''. According to Nida, “dynamic equivalence” refers to “ the closest natural equivalence to the source language message(Tan Zaixi, 1984: 10)”. In saying this, Nida means to appeal translators to put emphasis on expressing to the target readers both the messages conveyed in the source language and the forms and styles of the original text. Later, he realizes the name “dynamic equivalence” may confuse some translation learners and they may think he only focuses on translating the content and meaning of the source text and ignores its form and style, he then changes the name of “dynamic equivalence” into “functional equivalence”. Nida thinks that the response made by the target language receptor to the target text should generally be equivalent to the response made by the source language receptor to the source text, so when the translator cannot retain both the form and the content of the original text, he or she should give priority to the content of the original text and change the form of the source text. And in response to questions like how and to what degree the translator can change the form of the original text, Nida then points out that in translation, there are four aspects in dynamic equivalence, namely, lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence respectively. If a translator can convey the language form, the content and the style of the source text in natural target language, and make the target readers give the same response to the target text as the source language made to the original text, then his translation can be said to have achieved the maximal equivalence. On the other hand, if a translation only transmit the content of the original text generally, then the translation can be said to have achieved the minimal equivalence.

===1.2. Skopos Theory===

Skopos theory was first put forward by Hans Vermeer in his book ''Framework for a General Translation Theory'' in 1978. According to Skopos theory, translation means to “'''produce a text at target setting for a target purpose and target addressee in target circumstances'''”(Liu Junping, 2009: 377). Based on this definition, Vermeer Hans concludes the three rules of Skopos theory, which are skopos rule, coherence rule and loyalty rule.

Firstly, skopos rule, or purpose principle, is the primary principle to be followed in translation. It holds that the purpose to be achieved of the target text determines the whole process of translation, including the choice of the translator in translation skills and strategies, and that all translation activities are determined by its purpose. Generally speaking, the skopos rule has under its umbrella three types of purposes: the first one is the basic purpose of the translator; the second is the communicative purpose of the translation; and the third is the purpose of specific translation strategies or means. But at most of times, “purpose” refers to the communicative purpose of the translation.

Secondly, coherence rule, also called intra-textual coherence, means that the translation must be understandable and readable to the receptors, and meaningful in the communicative environment of the target culture and the target text.

Thirdly, fidelity rule, which means that there should be inter-textual coherence between the source text and the target text. Inter-textual coherence is similar to what is usually called “信” or “be faithful to the original text”. In the traditional translation theory, “faithfulness” is always regarded as the basic translation standard to obey, but in Skopos theory, to what degree the form and style of the target text should be faithful to the original text totally depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator’s understanding of the source text.

Under Vermeer’ s Skopos theory, the skopos rule is the most important rule among the three rules, the coherence rule the second important, and the fidelity rule the least important. This indicates that in Skopos theory, the end justifies the means(Liu Junping, 2009: 377-378)

==II.Similarities and Differences==

===2.1. The Similarities between the Two Theories===

'''2.1.1. Both Attach Great Importance to the Target Receptor’s Status'''

Functional Equivalence Theory is a receptor-oriented theory. As revealed by Nida’s definition of translation, that “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes that the primary aim of translation is such that the target text should bring the target receptors the similar or same response as the response made by receptors in the source language. Besides, to bring to the readers a similar or same response, Nida even put forward that, if it is necessary, different target texts should be made according to the needs of different receptors. All of the two points reflects that in Functional Equivalence Theory, the target receptor’s status is very important.

While the Skopos theory, too, put the reader’s needs on a high status. Of the three rules in Skopos theory, the most important one is skopos rule, which includes three purposes, the basic purpose of the translator, the communicative purpose of the translation, and the purpose of specific translation strategies or means. However, to take all the three purposes into consideration, a translator must first know what and who the target text serves, so he or she can immediately know the purpose of the translation task and do a corresponding and qualified translation. This, on the other hand, also means that in Skopos theory, the target reader’s needs indirectly determine the purpose of the translation, so it is also given priority to by the translator.

'''2.1.2. Both Emphasize the Communicative Function of Translation'''

Under the Functional Equivalence Theory, the translation should achieve a functional equivalence, bringing the target readers the roughly same experience and making them give the responses as the receptors in the source language culture. In doing this, the translator is in fact trying to achieve the communicative function of the original text by shortening the distance of the source text receptors and the target text receptors, which, on the other hand, means that the process of translation is a communicative process between the original language culture and the culture of the target language.

In Skopos theory, of the three purposes under the skopos rule, the communicative purpose is regarded as the most important purpose of a target text. Skopos theory holds that translation is a communicative activity with a purpose, and the process of translation is determined by the intended function or purpose of the target text.

'''2.2 The Differences between the Two Theories'''

'''2.2.1. Different Status of the Source Language and the Target Language'''

From the perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory, a good translation achieving the goal of translation not only needs to provide another message similar to the original message conveyed in the source text, but also needs to clearly reflect the meaning and intention of the original text, bringing to the target readers similar or even same effects and making them give a same response. From this point, one can easily see that Functional Equivalence Theory is centered on the original text, which, to some degree, reflects that Functional Equivalence still put the source language on a high status. The status of the target language is secondary to the source language as the choice of the words, sentence structures of the target text still heavily depend on the source text.

Skopos theory, on the other hand, gets rid of the point of view of the traditional text-centered translation theory, and focuses on the function and purpose of the target text. From the perspective of Skopos theory, a successful translation is not one that places the original text in a sacred and unattainable position. Vermeer further put forward the view of “subverting the source language” in Skopos theory. He stated that “the linguistic and stylistic features of the original text are no longer the only criteria to measure the translation”. All of these reflect that the source text enjoys a relatively low status in Skopos theory compared with its status in Functional Equivalence Theory. Besides, from the three rules of Skopos theory, one can easily know that, the most important one is the skopos rule, then the coherence of the target text, namely the intra-textual coherence and finally the fidelity of the target text to the source text, namely the inter-textual coherence. Therefore, we can see that the status of the source language actually lower than the target language in Skopos theory, which is different from the case in Functional Equivalence Theory.

'''2.2.2. Different Translation Principles'''

Nida believes that equivalence is the goal of translation. His translation standard is that the target text should be faithful to the original text in terms of content and style while also being expressive in the eyes of the target readers. As put forward by Nida that, “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, the translation standard of Functional Equivalence Theory include “equivalence”, which is the equivalence of meaning and style, namely be faithful to the meaning and style of the source text. Besides, in front of “equivalence”, there is also a word “natural”, which means the target text should be fluent and be in conformity with the habits of the target culture, namely “expressiveness” in traditional translation theory.

In Skopos theory, however, “faithfulness” is no longer regarded as the primary translation criteria. As Skopos theory judges the success of a translation by its intended purpose, which reflects the requirements of the target readers. However, as the requirements of the readers are different, Skopos theory advocates the diversification of translation standards. Only when the communicative purpose of the translation requires the translation to have the same communicative function as the original text, equivalence becomes the standard of the translation process. Otherwise, the translation may be very different from the original text in its style and form.

'''2.2.3. Different Translation Skills and Translation Strategies Used in the Translation Process'''

In Functional Equivalence Theory, as determined by its definition for translation, the translation skills and strategies used in the translation process are all for one common goal, which is to bring the target readers the roughly same or same response. In order to achieve the aim, some translation skills are frequently used under the Functional Equivalence Theory, including literal translation, liberal translation, domestication and borrowing translation. And among all these translation skills, domestication and borrowing translation are two translation strategies most favorably advocated by Functional Equivalence Theory. Here, I will list the translation of a phrase to briefly explain the reason why the two translation skills are often used in translation process. We all know that to grow like mushrooms is an English phrase which means to rapidly grow or increase in number. It vividly describes the scene that after the incessant rain in London, the explosive growth of the mushrooms. While in China, there is also a similar phrase “雨后春笋”, to describe the scene that after a spring rain, the bamboo shoots sprout overnight in the forest. Therefore, when doing a E-C translation, the translator often uses domestication and translate “to grow like mushrooms” into “雨后春笋”, so as to enable the Chinese readers give a same response as English readers did.

However, Skopos theory is different. In Skopos theory, the end justifies the means, which means all the translation skills and strategies are determined by the purpose and use of the target text as well as the reader it serves. Therefore, it usually adopts different translation strategies to meet different translation purposes. Translators can freely choose the translation skills he wants to use, whether it is literal translation or liberal translation, domestication or foreignization, transliteration or borrowing translation, even simplifying translation and reduction translation, in consideration of the author's writing intention, the theme of the original text, the translator’s purpose and the needs of the readers.

Here, I want to firstly compare the difference between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory in dealing with content with cultural characteristics. As I wrote before, the Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes the same response between the original readers and the target readers and the presence of a natural text to the target readers, so it prefers to use the existed words, phrases, and cultural images in the target language to replace the expressions in the original text, which explains why domestication and borrowing translation are often use under the theory -- that is because by using the two ways, functional equivalence can be achieved. However, in Skopos theory, the translator enjoys a higher degree of freedom. He can select translation skills flexibly according to the skopos of the text. For example, when it comes to cultural translation, the translator should carefully consider the cultural differences between the two languages and have full understanding of the purpose and usage of the original text. If the purpose of a translated text is to diffuse the language characteristics of the original author, the author’s writing intention, or the language characteristics of the source language culture, then the translator can adopt the strategy of foreignization or the strategy of literal translation with some annotations in the target text to help the target readers better understand a foreign concept. For example, in order to maintain the cultural characteristics of Chinese, the Chinese proverb “谋事在人，成事在天” should be translated as “man proposals, heaven disposes." instead of “man proposals, God disposes”. This is because the translator wants foreign people to know our beliefs -- we Chinese believe in Heaven rather than God. At the same time, sometimes, to meet the needs of some special readers, simplifying translation and reduction translation are also used in the translation process. For example, there are some publishers in China which publish the simplified version of those foreign classics to meet the the children’s needs in reading.

'''2.2.4. Different Status of the Translator'''

In what Nida thinks of, the translator is only a cultural envoy, transmitting the idea of a culture to people in another culture. Nida believes that as the second source of information, the translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. Therefore, the translator must understand what the original author thinks. The translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. In addition, the translator should not introduce any personal ideas into the translation of the original text, no matter whether the original point of view is consistent with his own. “The translator should not intervene in, edit or rewrite the original text even if it has shortcomings and errors, nor should he improve the original text even if he has the ability”(Tan Zaixi, 1984). Of course, we can critically accept Nida’s words. When there are obvious mistakes in the original text (such as the original text not conforming to the facts), we should correct them in the translation.

Skopos theory improves the position of translator. The translator is the receptor of the original text and transmits the information of the original text to the reader. Skopos theory allows the translator to determine the faithfulness of the translation to the source text and determine the proportion of the faithfulness of the target text to the original text. It adopts the translation strategies such as “modification, abridgement and reduction”, and denies that there is only one “correct or best” translation of the source language. Therefore, the translator has more freedom in the process of translation, and can transfer the original text according to the needs, expectations and knowledge background of the readers, so as to achieve the purpose of a translation task.

'''2.2.5. Different translation processes'''

In order to achieve functional equivalence, Nida proposed the famous back translation theory by referring to the concepts of core sentence, non-core sentence and transformation. In Functional Equivalence Theory, translation is a complicated process, which includes four stages: analysis, transfer, reconstruction and test (Tan Zaixi, 1984, 144). Specifically speaking, as far as Nida is concerned, when doing a translation task, the translator needs to transform the original text from the surface structure to the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure on the basis of grammatical and semantic analysis, and then translate the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally from the deep structure of the target text to the surface structure of the target text. After the translation is done, the translator needs to re-examine and test the translation.(Peng Changjiang, 2017: 09)
Skopos theory, however, unlike the Functional Equivalence Theory, it does not put forward specific translation procedures. The Skopos theory does not give detailed guidelines for the translation of words, phrases, paragraphs and texts, but it do gives some guidance to the translator from the macro perspective, giving the translator more autonomy to do translation and enabling them freely translate a text.

'''III.My Thoughts on the Two Theories'''

'''3.1. My thought on Functional Equivalence Theory'''

'''3.1.1. Strengths and Contributions of Functional Equivalence Theory'''

Firstly, the Functional Equivalence Theory brings modern linguistics, communication studies, information theory, semiotics and aesthetics into the field of translation. From the macro perspective, it breaks through the limitations of the traditional thoughts on translation and provides a new perspective for translation research. It studies translation in a more detailed way from multiple perspectives, applies new thoughts, concepts and methods to translation studies, and provides many new methods for translation research. Besides, it also lays a solid foundation for modern translation studies.

Secondly, it must be emphasized that, Functional Equivalence Theory has given many constructive suggestions to translators. From a micro perspective, Functional Equivalence Theory has solved the long-standing dispute between literal translation and liberal translation. It requires the translator use the target language to reproduce the meaning of the source language as fully as possible in different language structures, thus both breaking the restrictions of traditional word-for-word translation and limiting the free and random play of the translator. To some extent, Functional Equivalence Theory has greatly promoted the translation of some types of literary works, such as the translation of prose, help avoiding the creation of many pseudo--translation and translationese cases. At the same time, it eases the argument of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of language and culture, and seeks the balance point of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of multiple disciplines.

Thirdly, Functional Equivalence Theory provides with the target readers a chance to know other country’s culture in their own language. Traditionally, translation is to transform the original language that are different from ours into the familiar language that we use. It can let the people who have not learned a foreign language also understand and appreciate the message under some phrases written in a foreign language. For example, if one has no common sense in English, he will regard “a piece of cake” as “一块蛋糕”. This example reflects the culture gap between the people of two countries. Good translation is one that overcomes these culture gaps and turn them into what the target readers is familiar with. So, it is better for the translator use the Functional Equivalence Theory to translate “a piece of cake” with the well-known Chinese proverb “小菜一碟” .

'''3.1.2. Deficiency of Functional Equivalence Theory'''

Although Functional Equivalence Theory has made many contributions to the translation studies, it is not without its deficiencies. Here I list three disadvantages of it.

First, Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory is concluded from the translation of the ''Bible''. It is, in fact, cannot be a guideline for all kinds of translation. For example, some texts, including some articles with profound historic significance and cultural characteristics, some scientific articles, some lyrical articles, movie subtitles, government reports, actually need different translation standards. Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate fields, but it is not universal or omnipotent rule. Though, in fact, there is nothing omnipotent and flawless in the world. Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate area. If it is used in the right place, it can help the translator present a more brilliant translation.
Second, the Functional Equivalence Theory requires the target text to be written in a “common language”, which should be understood by the less educated readers and accepted by the readers with high literacy, but this turns out to be very difficult to achieve in practice. It can be said that the requirements of this theory are way too demanding. Although this is a goal worth pursuing, it is nearly impossible to achieve, as even in the same country, different knowledge levels, different regional cultures and even different life experiences will lead to different understanding abilities.

In addition, Nida also ignores an important thing, that is, culture is very complex. The generation, evolution and creation of each nation and its culture are different from each other. Some cultural images in foreign works may be something the other country’s readers have never seen and cannot understand. In translation process, it is certainly ideal if the translator can find a corresponding cultural object in the target culture. But at most of times, it is in fact very difficult for the translator to find such a substitute. This makes the so called “functional equivalence” very difficult to achieve, and even show its loopholes -- which is also a difficulty in translation process -- it is usually difficult for translators to translate and explain certain words with special cultural meanings. In fact, the differences between different cultures are absolute and inevitable, while the similarities are rare and precious. For example, in order to avoid the danger and inauspicious emotions of the word “red” in western culture, some British translators translate the original title of the book 《红楼梦》 into “''The Story of the Stone''”. This kind of translation, however, fails to transmit the message of a rich, luxurious, dreamy life hidden in the original book name, let alone bring the western readers the same response.

'''3.1.3. My Point of View towards Functional Equivalence Theory'''

The great influence of Functional Equivalence Theory on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not a universal theory. The advantages and disadvantages of the theory of functional equivalence should be treated in a dialectical way. Functional Equivalence Theory is the product of a particular historical period, and it may have some inconsistencies with contemporary translation theories. Therefore, we should take a comprehensive view of Nida’s translation theory. On the whole, Nida’s translation thought can be regarded as a bright gem in the treasure house of western translation studies.

'''3.2. My thoughts on Skopos Theory'''

'''3.2.1. Strengths and Contributions of Skopos Theory'''

Skopos theory has many advantages. First of all, as a major breakthrough in the study of contemporary western translation theory, Skopos theory breaks the limitations of Functional Equivalence Theory at the linguistic level and puts forward a translation standard dominated by skopos principle. Skopos theory provides the translator with another perspective in translation practice, which is more conducive to the choice of translation strategies.

Secondly, Skopos theory focuses on the requirements of the translation client, points out the influence of the client on the translation process, and breaks the limitation of traditional translation theory, which only takes the original author, the translator and the target reader into consideration. From this perspective, Skopos theory can be called a real breakthrough in the history of translation studies.

Thirdly, Skopos theory emphasizes the initiative and participation of the translator, and holds that the original text mainly plays the role of providing information. Therefore, it shifts the focus of translation from faithful reproducing the source text to the creation of the translation. It overthrows the central position of the original text and establishes the central position of the target text and the translator, which gives all translation learners and researchers a new insight towards translation studies.

Finally, Skopos theory further studies the development of translation from the perspective of culture. From the perspective of Skopos theory, translation is a kind of cultural comparison and a kind of cross-cultural communication in a certain cultural context, which benefits the target readers a lot.

'''3.2.2. Deficiency of Skopos Theory'''

However, all thing is not perfect, Skopos theory is no exception, of course.

Firstly, Skopos theory allows the translator to rewrite the original text to a certain extent, but it does not indicate the extent to which the translator can rewrite the original text. It gives the translator too much freedom, which may let the translator easily translate the source text out of its context. Besides, the original meaning and usage of the source text may be distorted if the translator unscrupulously use every means in order to achieve the so-called “purpose of translation”. Accordingly, the translator will fall into the whirlpool of random translation, which may violate the intention of the original text.

Secondly, the Skopos theory overemphasizes the purpose of translation, the purpose of the translator and the purpose of the target language, so that the translator may easily change or omit many stylistic features of the original text in the target text. This makes it not suitable for some styles of text, such as poems. Because if a translator translates a poem into a prose or a descriptive passages out of the purpose of the translation client, he or she may be better said to rewrite or recreate something than translate. After all, translation is based on the original text, otherwise it cannot be called translation.

Last but not least, there are tens of thousands of readers. To meet the needs of different people, a translation must adopt multiple standards. When there are contradictions among various standards, the translator will be at a loss and the multiple standards will be equal to no standards. For example, if a translator receives the mission of the translation client that he should translate a song faithfully but also retain the beauty of the original text for both the children and adults to appreciate it, then the translator may feel hard to do the translation task with the three contradictory translation requirements.

'''3.2.3. My Point of View towards Skopos Theory'''

There are more or less deficiencies in every translation theory, and Skopos theory is no exception. To some extent, the shortcomings of Skopos theory mentioned above are also a major feature of it. It is this distinctive theoretical feature that can make it stand out in many translation theories and attract the attention of many scholars and translation enthusiasts. The author believes that the contribution of Skopos theory to the development of translation theory and its guiding significance in translation practice is far greater than its shortcomings and deficiencies. People should treat it with a more objective and rational attitude and let it play its due role in the field of translation. Generally speaking, the Skopos theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is regarded as a major theoretical breakthrough in the study of western translation theory, and it also plays an important role in guiding the successful translation practice.

'''IV.Conclusion'''

Through the above comparison, we find that both Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory have their own advantages and disadvantages, and their differences are greater than their similarities. Functional equivalence pays attention to the equivalence between the form and content of the translation and the original text as well as the reader’s response. Skopos theory can solve some problems that can not be solved by Functional Equivalence Theory and widen the research perspective of translation theory, which is to some extent the inheritance and development of Functional Equivalence Theory. The scope of application of the two is different, but both of them have their own unique excellencies.

Reference books: 《奈达论翻译》by谭载喜&《西方翻译理论通史》by刘军平

Bibliography：

[1] Eugene A. Nida. ''Toward a Science of Translating'' [M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.

[2] Eugene A. Nida, Charles Taber. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' [M]. Leiden: the Netherlands, E. J. Brill, 1969.

[3] Hans Vermeer. ''Framework for a General Translation Theory'' [M] ,1978.

[4]谭载喜.奈达论翻译 [M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司,1984.

[5]刘军平.西方翻译理论通史 [M].武汉：武汉大学出版社,2009.9.

[6]百度百科：功能对等理论

[7]百度百科：翻译目的论

[8]百度百科：目的论的优点与不足

[9]百度百科：功能对等理论的贡献与局限性

[10]彭长江.英汉--汉英翻译教程[M].长沙：湖南师范大学出版社，2017.8.

[11]百度百科：功能对等理论与目的论的比较

=='''Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory'''==

'''摘要'''

近几十年来，翻译理论层出不穷，翻译理论也带有多元化倾向。奈达从语言学的角度出发，根据翻译的本质，提出了功能对等理论，在这一理论中，他指出“翻译是用最恰当、自然和对等的语言从语义到文体再现源语的信息”。功能主义目的论的代表人物弗米尔认为翻译是一项有目的的活动，并且以实现译文的预期功能和效果为首要原则。
这两种理论都是具有较大影响力的西方翻译理论。它们在不同的时期由不同流派提出，本文着重分析两大理论在理论基础、翻译标准、文化观等层面上的差异性，并分析其相似性。通过对这两种理论的共性和差异进行比较，旨在加深我们对这两种貌似神离的翻译理论的认识与了解，让我们在不同的领域中能恰当地使用这两种翻译理论,更好地发挥各自的指导作用。

'''关键词'''

功能对等；目的论；差异性；相似性

'''Abstract'''

In recent decades, translation theories have emerged in an endless stream, and translation theories have a tendency to diversify. From the perspective of linguistics, Eugene Nida puts forward the theory of functional equivalence according to the nature of translation. In this theory, he points out that "Translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style". While one of the representatives of functionalist skopos theory, Hans J. Vermeer, considers that translation is a purposeful activity, taking the realization of the target text’s intended function as its first principle.
These two theories have great influence in western translation theories. They are proposed by different schools in different periods. This paper will focus on the differences between these two theories in terms of theoretical basis, translation standards, and cultural direction, and then analyze their similarities. By comparing the differences and similarities between the two theories, it will deepen our understanding of these two translation theories so that we can properly use them in different fields, thus better playing their respective guiding roles.

'''Key words'''
Functional Equivalence; Skopos Theory; comparison

'''Introduction'''

'''Research background'''

Contemporary western translation theories are flourishing, providing a new perspective for translation studies. In the 1960s, Eugene A. Nida proposed a translation theory based on reader response, namely "functional equivalence theory". With the development of the times, people have further understanding of the complex phenomenon of translation. The theory of equivalence sets the translation within the scope of the language level. However, the essence of translation is not only the conversion of pure language, but also the communication between different cultures based on language form. In the 1970s, translation studies oriented to the target language culture appeared in the West, breaking the traditional translation theory of textual centralism, which made the translator pay more attention to the translation and the target language receivers, the social and communicative functions of the translation. The German functionalist translation theory got rid of the shackles of the equivalence theory that prevailed at that time, broadened the field of translation theory research.

'''Significance of the study'''

By comparing the differences and similarities of these two translation theory, it can deepen our understanding of them. Therefore, when we do translation, we can choose the most appropriate translation theory to guide us to translate according to the specific situation. So it is very necessary to make a comparison between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.

'''Layout of this chapter'''

This thesis will be divided into three chapters. In the first chapter, a brief introduction of functional equivalence will be presented, such as the definition of functional equivalence, and its four criteria: conveying information; conveying the spirit and style of the original work; fluent language; and similar reader response. The second chapter involves three parts, that is, the development of skopos theory; the definition of skopos theory and the three rules of skopos theory. The final chapter falls into two part: the differences and similarities between these two theories.

'''1. A brief introduction of Functional equivalence theory'''

'''1.1 The definition of functional equivalence theory'''

Functional equivalence theory is the core of the famous American translator Eugene Nida’s translation theory. It attaches great importance to the response of the target language receivers, that is, the target language receiver and the source language receiver produce the same viewing response. He holds that translation should not only ensure the correctness of information exchange and achieve information equivalence in lexical sense, but also take into account the cultural background and behavioral patterns of the target language receiver and achieve information equivalence in style, semantics and other aspects in the process of translation, that is, to achieve functional equivalence of language. In the process of translation, we should not only consider the formal factors such as vocabulary and grammar, but also pay attention to the linguistic factors such as context, culture and social background, which are very important to translation. Nida’s definition of translation indicates that translation is not only equivalence in lexical sense, but also equivalence in semantics, text and style. The information conveyed by translation includes both surface lexical information and deep cultural information. This kind of “dynamic equivalence” includes four aspects: 1. lexical equivalence；2. syntactic equivalence；3. textual equivalence；4. stylistic equivalence. Among these four aspects, Nida believes that “meaning is the most important and form is the second”(张春柏，1998：50).

'''1.2 The criteria of functional equivalence theory'''

Nida’s functional equivalence translation theory has four criteria (Nida, 2001:117):

'''1.2.1 Conveying information'''

The “information” includes all kinds of information conveyed by the original language: semantics, style, literary image, scene and psychological effect. In the theory of functional equivalence, the criterion of “conveying information” means that the target language information conveyed by the translator to the target language receiver should be basically the same as the original text information conveyed by the original author to the target language receiver.

Example: “presidential historian...”

“总统的史学家......”

It is not clear that the message conveyed by “presidential historian” to Chinese readers is not the same as that conveyed by “presidential historian” to English readers. However, according to Nida’s functional equivalence theory, the translator translates it into “研究总统的历史学家” by adding words, so that Chinese readers can correctly understand the true meaning of “presidential historian” in the original text.

'''1.2.2 Conveying the spirit and style of the original work'''

From Nida’s point of view, translation is to reproduce the original text in the most natural way in the target language, first of all, meaning, then spiritual style, so that the receivers of the translated text can produce basically the same psychological response as the receivers of the original text.

Example:“来吧，朋友!”

It is a column broadcast by CCTV. If translated into “come on, friends!”, it seems to be close to the original in form, as a column is not solemn enough. And “solemnity” is the style of “来吧，朋友！”in the original Chinese text, which should be reproduced in the translation. Therefore, “A time to make friends” is quite different from the original Chinese in form, but it accurately conveys the spiritual style of the original to the target readers.

'''1.2.3 Fluent language: fully in line with the norms and conventions of the target language'''

This criterion means that, on the premise of conveying the information and spiritual style of the original text, the process of translation should not be constrained by the linguistic form and structure of the original text, and should grasp the connotation and spirit of the original text.

Example：“车来了！”

“Here comes the car / truck / bus / minibus / lorry / taxi!”
In Chinese, the category word “car” is used to replace any form of vehicle. But this method is not found in English. On the contrary, English is accustomed to using specific vocabulary. Therefore, when translating similar Chinese into English, it is necessary to make clear the means of transportation and to translate the specific means of transportation according to the habits of English expression. If you cross the street, remind your peers to say “车来了！”You should translate it into “Be careful!” according to English expression habits, so that English readers can really understand the meaning of the original text.

'''1.2.4 Similar reader responses'''

The first two standards focus on the transmission of linguistic information, content and style, while the latter two focus on the acceptability of the translation to the audience：The relationship between the target reader and the target text should be basically the same as that between the original reader and the target text, so as to achieve the spiritual fit between the translator and the original author, thus enabling the target reader to get the same feelings as the original reader.
Example: “as white as snow.”

It can sometimes be translated into “very white” because people in the translated culture may not know what snow is. We can also translate “to grow like mushroom” into “如雨后春笋般地成长起来”, because “mushroom” means exactly the same in English as“春笋”in Chinese.

'''Ⅱ. A brief introduction of Skopos theory'''

Skopos theory is the core concept of German functionalist theory, which is put forward by Hans. J. Vermeer. Skopos theory holds that the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies that are to be employed. Vermeer thinks that translators should follow three basic rules in the process of their translation, which are respectively skopos theory, coherence theory and fidelity theory.

'''2.1 The development of Skopos theory'''

Before the 1970s, the focus of translation studies was equivalence. In fact, this kind of equivalence was hard to achieve because the differences between cultures are hard to eliminate. In order to solve this problem, translation theorists put forward new theories, using functional and communicative methods to study translation. In this context, functionalist skopos theory continues to develop, and boldly shakes off the bondage of equivalence, taking the skopos as the general principle. So translation is examined in the framework of behavioral theory and intercultural communication, which opens a new path for the world translation theories, including the Chinese translation (Li Changshuan, 2009:11). The development of skopos theory has experienced the following four stages:

The first stage: Katharina Reiss firstly introduced the concept of equivalence into translation criticism, proposing the prototype of functionalist theory. On the one hand, Reiss still insisted on the equivalence theory with the original text as the center, and pointed out that the ideal translation should be equivalent to the original text from the conceptual content, language form and communicative function. She believed that the ideal translation should be comprehensive communicative translation. On the other hand, Reiss also realized that some equivalence is impossible. For example, the translation and the original text have different functions. In this case, Reiss believes that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the translation rather than the equivalence principle (Zhang Jinglan, 2004:1). Reiss's research laid the foundation for skopos theory.

The second stage: Reiss’s student Hans J. Vermeer proposed skopos theory, taking the skopos of the translation as the paramount principle during the process of translation. Vermeer believed that translation is a kind of human behavior, and any kind of human behavior is purposeful, so the purpose of translation should be determined before the translation begins. Vermeer thinks that translation should be based on the original text, and translation is a purposeful behavior that must be completed by negotiation. In addition, translation must follow three basic rules, of which the skopos rule is the most important. After these three rules are put forward, the criteria for judging the good or bad translation are no longer “equivalence”, but whether the translation fully achieves the expected goal of translation or not.

The third stage: Based on communication theory and action theory, Holz-Manttari proposed translational action. Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer (Jeremy Munday, 2001:77). Translation is a communicative process involving a series of roles and players Manttari regards text as a pure tool for achieving communicative function, and believes that its inherent value is completely subordinate to its purpose. The translator only needs to be responsible for the purpose environment, and the target text can be completely independent of the original text, thus further developing the functionalist translation theory.

The fourth stage: Christane Nord comprehensively summarized and perfected the functionalist theory. Nord proposed the principle of "function plus loyalty", which systematically elucidates the internal and external factors that need to be considered in text analysis of translation, and how to formulate a translation strategy that is consistent with the purpose of translation based on the original text.

'''2.2 The definition of skopos'''

Skopos theory was originally put forward by the German scholar Han J. Vermeer in 1978. “Skopos is a Greek word for 'aim' or 'purpose' and was introduced into translation theory by Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and of the action of translating”(Munday, 2001: 78). Translation actions have many purposes, but Vermeer divides them into three categories: translator’s basic purpose, such as make a living; the target text’s communicative purpose, like enlightening the readers; and the purpose realized by selecting some special translation strategies or steps, for example, translating one language word by word aims to show the structure feature of this language. Generally speaking, the skopos theory refers to the communicative purpose of the source text.

'''2.3 Three basic rules of skopos theory'''

In this part, a detailed analysis of these rules will be presented with examples.

'''2.3.1 The skopos rule'''

In the three rules of Skopos theory, Skopos theory is the prime principle to be followed in any translation. Vermeer explains this rule as follows:

''Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.''(Vermeer, 1988:20)

Therefore, skopos theory believes that any translation action is determined by the purpose of the translation. That is to say, “The ends justify the means” (Reiss &Vermeer, 1984:101) the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies.

Example: I wear nothing but a few drops of Channel No.5

无限芬芳的超脱，点滴即可创造。

If using the literal translation, this sentence can be translated as “我什么都不穿，除了滴几滴香奈儿五号”. However, this kind of translation extremely lacks of beauty and there is no more elegance. Considering that the ultimate goal of advertisement is to induce consumers to buy the products and services it promotes. This advertisement adopts free translation and combines with Chinese traditional culture, which makes it like a ancient poem with quaint charm. It not only expresses the meaning of the advertisement, but also injects the characteristics of art, thus letting Channel No.s full of magic. It satisfies some people's pursuit high quality of life, and also makes consumers deeply impressed. So it can be called a successful translation.

'''2.3.2 The coherence rule'''

Coherence rule is also called intratextual coherence rule. It holds that the translated text must be coherent, readable and acceptable. In other words, the TT receivers can understand the TT according to their cultural and intellectual background. Any text is a provider of information and functions, but the information and functions are not always obvious from a linguistic point of view. The translator selects aspects and components that serve the purpose according to the skopos rule, and then translates the source text through language processing to make the translated text become a new information provider. In the language processing process, translators must be concerned that translation is readable and understandable in the translated language. Only the translation is meaningful in the communicative context of the TL receivers can the culture and information of the source text be effectively transmitted to the target language readers.

Example: Enchanting medieval house with five acres of delightful gardens.

这里是迷人的中世纪住宅，外有五英亩的美丽花园。

This is a part of the travel propaganda. In order to ensure that translation is smooth and coherent, the original prepositional phrase is changed into a complete sentence with a subject-predicate structure, which doesn’t make the relationship among sentences appear loose.

'''2.3.3 The fidelity rule'''

Fidelity rule is also called inter-textual coherence and states that there must be coherence between the ST and the TT. It is similar to the “faithfulness” of Yan Fu’s theory. Fidelity rule maintains the status of the original text and constrains translation actions of different translation purpose. However, the concept of Fidelity rule is relative. The form and degree of faithfulness is determined by the purpose of translation and the translators’ understanding of the original text.

Example: Free entry into farm, Dogs on lead.

OPEN DAILY: 1 March--30 November 10:00 am--5:00 pm

农场免费进入，宠物狗请带好狗绳。

开放时间：3月1日--11月30日上午10点--下午五点

The time, place and various precautions in the travel text are very important, because the error of this kind of information will bring unnecessary trouble to the tourists. Therefore, the translation, according to the fidelity rule, faithfully and effectively conveys the original information to the reader for the purpose of facilitating the tourists.

There exists a hierarchical order of these rules. The skopos rule is the most important one and other two rules are subordinate to it. At the same time, the fidelity rule is also subordinate to the coherence rule.

'''Ⅲ. Comparative study on Nida's functional equivalence theory and functionalist skopos theory'''

This chapter will mainly discuss the differences and similarities between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.

'''3.1 The differences'''

'''3.1.1 Different theoretical basis'''

The early equivalence theory was directly influenced by American structuralist linguistics and human linguistics. Later, Nida combined translation studies with the syntactic structure analysis method, semantic component analysis method and Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar that were popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, took structural analysis of language expressions and translation procedures, and injected fresh blood into translation studies (Chen Gang, 2011: 145). Using communication theory and cross-cultural content as the starting point, Nida revised Chomsky's deep transfermation grammar, paid attention to the psychology of information receivers, and stimulated the potential of information receivers as .much as possible.

German skopos theory is an emerging school in the late 1970s. It criticizes that the translation theory based on linguistic school pays much attention to form, and is developed on the basis of communication theory, information theory, behavior theory, discourse linguistics, and text theory. Based on the behavior theory, Skopos theory proposes the concept of translation action, which extends translation to a new field. That is to say, translation is a kind of purposeful and conscious intercultural communication action of human. As the name suggests, Skopos theory regards translation activities as a kind of "action", and any action has its goals or skopos. One of the representatives of the skopos theory, Hans J. Vermeer, summarizes the essence of skopos theory in a concise language: the ends justify the means, that is, the purpose of translation determines the translation process.

'''3.1.2 Different translation principles and standards'''

Nida's functional equivalence refers to “the closest natural equivalence to the source language information”. “Natural” here means that the translation must conform to the language and culture of the target language, in line with the context and the requirements of the target receivers. "Equivalence" here, he clearly stated that it is not "equivalence" in mathematics, but "approximation", that is, the approximation of functional equivalence from varying degrees. From the above Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory, the translator must conform to four criteria in order to achieve "close and natural equivalence": (1) conveying meaning; (2) conveying the spirit and style of the original work; (3) fluent; (4) similar reader responses. In order to achieve these four standards, there will be contradictions between content and form from time to time. It is either the content giving way to form, or the form giving way to content. The two form a unified whole.

Skopos theory advocates that translation should follow three rules: the skopos rule, the coherence rule and the fidelity rule, of which the skopos rule is the highest principle. The main purpose is to make the translation achieve the expected function of the target language receivers in the target language environment. In addition to the highest principle, the translation must follow the coherence rule and the fidelity rule. The former requires the translation to be "coherent within the text," that is, the translation needs to meet the communication context and cultural background of the target language so that the target reader can understand. The latter requires the translation to be coherent between the ST and the TT. That is, the translation should try to imitate the original text, whether it is formal imitation or content imitation is permissible, which depends on the purpose of the translation. The latter two rules are subordinate to the highest rule-- the skopos rule.

But this also makes the translation theorists produce questions. Is the translator free to do anything for the purpose? Then Nord put forward the theory of “function plus loyalty”. Nord believes that "there is no translation without the original text", and free rewriting does not belong to translation; "Translators should be responsible for both the original text and the translation environment, and be responsible for both the sender of the original information and the recipient of the translation." This responsibility of the translator is "loyalty"(Zhang Meifang, 2005:60-65). The principle of "function plus loyalty" avoids the skopos theory to go to extremes, and complements skopos theory, highlighting the responsibility of translators, and limiting the translator's freedom. Because the skopos theory believes that the success of the translation is judged by whether the expected purpose of the source text is realized or not, and the expectation also reflects the requirements of the target language reader. Since the target language readers reflect differently, so the translation standard of the skopos theory is also diversified.

'''3.1.3 Different cultural directions'''

Nida tried to overcome the cultural difference and eliminate the cultural atmosphere in the source text. His theory is mainly oriented to the original text. That is, the source language culture, emphasizing the consistency of cultural environment between the source language and the target language. At the same time, Nida is a support of language commonality. His theory reflects the translation thought of structuralist linguistics, that is, the "mirror reflection" of the objective world and the universality of language expression. The translators’ full imitation and the independence of express the value of their culture, especially the cultural consistency of the target language culture and the source language culture.

Vermeer regards translation as a purposeful action, firstly in its outcome, that is, the target text. The target text is oriented towards the target culture, and the target culture determines the suitability of the target text. Therefore, Skopos theory believes that Translation is an irreversible transmission of information to the source language culture or language in the target culture. There is no intermediate position, it is intercultural communication action, and it is communicative and cultural. In addition, Skopos theory is oriented to the context of macro-postmodern culture, especially the habits, traditions and norms of the target language culture (Fan Derui, 2019:67).

'''3.2 The Similarities'''

'''3.2.1 Both are a combination of translation and language function'''

The skopos theory represented by Hans J. Vermeer and Christane Nord, and the functional equivalence theory of Nida are put forward by different schools in different periods, but there are still many internal connections and intercommunity. There is no doubt that both have their rationality of existence and show progress in their translation activities of their respective periods. Whether it is "skopos theory" or "functional equivalence theory", both their ultimate goals are to achieve smooth communication between different languages and reduce misunderstandings and conflicts arising from information exchange. In particular, both combine translation with language functions, focusing on the role of language functions in translation. Skopos theorists believe that translation is a purposeful communicative activity, and the translation process is determined by the expected function or purpose of the translation. This purpose is to a great extent influenced by the target receivers and the context and cultural background of the target receivers. Therefore, the translator should decide the choice of the original text information, the use of the translation strategy and the expression of the translation according to the requirements of the clients, combined with the purpose of the translation and the specific situation of the target receivers

Nida also put forward the translation principle of functional equivalence from the perspective of language function, and also combines translation with language functions. He pointed out that due to the differences in language and culture, it is impossible for translation to obtain the formal equivalence between the source text and the target text, but only functional equivalence. Although the expressions of various languages are different, they have the same expressive power and have the same or similar language functions, that is, expressive, cognitive, interpersonal, informative, imperative, empathetic, sympathetic, empathy and aesthetic function. If the translation of these aspects is basically the same, then the functional equivalence of translation is achieved. According to this, he put forward that "the preservation of the original content must change the form, the degree of change, and must depend on different languages in the distance between language and cultural." In order to produce efficacy, the adjustment of the translation from form to content is the specific application of functional ideas. However, Nida did not develop further in the direction of functionalism, but still focused on the concept of equivalence. Therefore, his theory is fundamentally different from the views of the German functional translation school.

'''3.2.2 Both emphasize the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.'''

Vermeer believes that the recipients of the translation, that is, the readers, as an important part of the translation requirements, is one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of translation; the target language receivers is the recipient or listener of the translated text with the knowledge, expectation and communication needs of his own specific culture world. Translation is the text in the environment of the target language produced for the purpose of the target language and the reader of the target language in the context of the target language. In addition, the coherence rule of skopos theory emphasizes that the translation must meet the criteria of "coherence within the text" that is, only the text is fully understood by the recipient can they make sense. It can be seen that the skopos theory emphasizes the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.

Nida's functional equivalence theory is also readers-oriented. Nida believes that the research object of translation is the reader; the recipient is not a passive target of language communication, but an active participant in communicative activities. The reader's response is the only criterion for judging the quality of the translation. Therefore, the translation must be fluent and understandable. In order to achieve the intelligibility of the translation, it is even possible to delete parts that the reader cannot understand, such as metaphors.

'''Conclusion'''

By comparatively analyzing Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory and the German functionalist skopos theory, skopos theory critically inherited the rational factors of Nida's functional equivalence theory, and abandoned its irrational part. Skopos theory gets rid of the shackles of equivalence theory, breaking the traditional perspective of single translation studies, turning attention to the study of other relevant factors in translation activities other than language. Skopos theory broke through the framework of equivalence translation theory, and proposed a theoretical system of diversification of translation standards led by the skopos rule. The diversification of translation standards makes the function closer to reality. This is clearly more scientific, more operative and more versatile than Nida's theory that takes functional equivalence as the sole criterion. Moreover, compared with the traditional language translation theory that emphasizes the internal study of translation, Skopos theory denies that translation is a simple language conversion, and pays more attention to the external of translation. Compared with Nida, Skopos theory are more concerned with the humanity and sociality of translation activities. In addition, the Skopos theory shifts the focus of translation from the reproduction of the original text to the more challenging creation of target text, which enhances the active participation of the translator as the main body of the translation, overturning the center status of the original text, and establishing the central status of the target text and the translator. The functionalist skopos theory puts translation in a dynamic cultural context, emphasizing the translator's active intervention. Therefore, it solves some problems that the functional equivalence theory fails to solve, broadens the research perspective of traditional translation theory, is a major breakthrough and important supplement to the functional equivalence theory, and erects a distinctive flag in modern translation theory.

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Reiss, Katharina & Hans J. Vermeer. ''Groundwork For a General Theory of Translation''[M]. Tubingen: Niemeyet, 1984:101.

Vermeer, Hans J. ''Didacitics of Translation''[A]. ''Routeledge Encycolopedia of Translation''[C]. London & New York: Rutledge, 1998:20.

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=='''On the Comparison between "Sublimation" an "Functional Equivalence" Theories'''==

'''Abstract''': Qian Zhongshu and Eugene Nida are outstanding and renowned translators in the history of Chinese and Western translation respectively. It is believed that Mr.Qian’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” theories have a broad and profound impact on Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will recognize the theoretical value of these two theories from the dialectical point of view by comparing the similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”. It aims to better apply translation theory to translation practice, and advocate us to view Chinese and Western translation theories from a historical and contradictory perspective, and thus making Translation Studies become more systematic and scientific.

'''Key words''': sublimation; functional equivalence; Qian Zhongshu; Eugene Nida

'''Introduction''':
As a famous master of literature, translation and academy, Qian Zhongshu is considered as “the Kunlun Mountain of culture” by many scholars on account of his remarkable achievements and a wide range of knowledge. His literary masterpieces include “Pipe-awl Chapters” , “Discourses on Art”, “Seven Patches”, “Selected Essays of Qian Zhongshu”, “Fortress Besieged” and so on. What’s more, he proposed “Sublimation” theory in translation field, which does great contribution to traditional Chinese translation theory and make Translation Studies more systematic. As Chinese scholar Chen Fukang said: “He (Qian) has made a great many outstanding achievements in some important fields like literature and academic research. Although the discussion on translation is only a carved railing in his academic palace, it can have a huge impact in the field of translation studies.” (Chen Fukang 2000: 417).

Eugene Nida is a famous American contemporary linguist and translation theorist. He has been devoted to the translation of the Bible and has summarized a set of translation theories from his own translation practice. The core point of his translation theory is “Functional Equivalence” (initially called “Dynamic Equivalence”). From his point of view, “Functional Equivalence” is to refer to the type of equivalent reflected in a TT which seeks to adapt the function of the original to suit the specific context in and for which it was produced” (Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004: 64). It requires that the translation should focus on the meaning and spirit of the original text, instead of being constrained by formal correspondence. According to this theory, he deems that the translation must have four criteria: (1) conveying meaning; (2) expressing spirit; (3) natural and smooth wording; (4) similar receptor response. In his book “From one language to another”, he replaced “Dynamic Equivalence” with “Functional Equivalence” and put forward two levels of meaning, say, referential meaning and associative meaning.

'''1.The theoretical origin of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''

'''1.1 The theoretical origin of “Sublimation”'''

The idea of Qian Zhongshu’s translation theory of “Sublimation” comes from his book “Lin Shu's Translation” written in 1963 and “The Pipe-awl Chapters” published by Zhonghua Book Company in 1979. He proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. Then he pointed out: “The highest ideal of literary translation is ‘sublimation’. When you translate the literary works from one language to another, you can not only avoid the trace of stiffness and awkward expressions resulting from the different habits of language use, but also completely preserve the flavor of the original. Then we can say, that's the realization of ‘Sublimation’ ” (Qian Zhongshu, 2002: 77). According to his explanation, it can be easily seen that the core of his translation theory is “Sublimation”. What’s more, we can extract 3 levels of “Hua” (Sublimation) from his theory, the first is to transform the source text to target text, and then use the domesticating method to make the source language be naturally and smoothly expressed in target language without any transparent feeling of translation caused by the differences of culture and language. Finally, it is the ultimate goal of “Sublimation” that is to say, “the transmigration of souls”, replacing the external shell and retaining the inner spirit and style without the slightest deviation. In other words, a translation should cleave to the original with such fidelity that it would not read like a translation, for a literature work in its own language will never read as though it were through a process of translation (Kao, 1975: 8-9).

'''1.2 The theoretical origin of “Functional Equivalence”'''
Nida first proposed the concept of dynamic equivalence in the 1964 book “Toward s Science of Translating”. He believed that there were two kinds of equivalence in translation, namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Specifically, formal equivalence is the “quality of a translation in which the features of the form of the source text have been mechanically reproduced in the receptor language”. On the contrary, dynamic equivalence is the quality which characterizes a translation in which “the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors” (Nida & Taber, 1982: 200-201). Nida’s translation theory has its origin from his own translation practice of the Bible, in which he emphasized the communicative function of translation from the perspective of semantics and information theory. What's more, he regarded translation as interlingual translation, and he stressed the importance of paying attention to the receptors' response, in order to pursue the standard that target readers could have the same response as the original readers. In his book “From one language to another”, he changed the term “Dynamic Equivalence” to “Functional Equivalence” and he emphasized that we should try to achieve formal equivalence on the basis of the accordant information conveyed from the source text to the target language. In addition, he divided the translation process into three steps, say, “analysis, transfer, restructuring and check”. Through these four steps, the original information can be accurately conveyed, the response of the target receptors is also concerned, and the purpose of communication will be well achieved.

'''2.Similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''

'''2.1 Similarities between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''

(1) The same concern for the translation processes: As we mentioned above, Mr. Qian Zhongshu proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. To put them specifically, “enticement” refers to the role that plays in cultural exchanges by means of translation. In this sense, translation can be regarded as a guide that will lead target readers to understand the original language and culture and to better understand foreign excellent works. This process is of great significance because If the readers have little interest in the source language culture and foreign literature; then the translation works will lose its value. So we can say that translation is not only a conversion of two languages, but also a collision between different cultures and thoughts. The so-called term “Misinformation” refers to the distortion and wrong expression of the translation. Since “Misinformation” is the inevitable shortcoming of translation, no matter how excellent a translator is and no matter how smooth his translations are, he can not avoid making mistakes of one sort or another in one way or another, but he can exhaust every means to reduce misinformation to its minimum (Yu Chengfa,2003: 43). This is due to the gap between different languages, the gap between the translator's understanding, the style of writing and the form of original content, and even the gap between the translator's comprehension and his ability of expression. The final step is called “Hua Jing”; here “Hua” means “Sublimation”,which is the highest ideal of literary translation and also the ultimate goal of translation processes. A translator should try to figure out what the original writer means and ponder over what he imagines so so to immerge oneself with the writer(Luo Xinzhang, 1984: 511). Qian Zhongshu's explanation of the process of translation is the essential condition for the realization of “Sublimation” (Hua). Therefore, when doing translation practice, the translator has to make each step be well prepared, which requires a high standard of the translator's ability and quality.

Similarly, based on the theory of “functional equivalence”, Nida proposed a “four-step model” of the translation process from the perspective of linguistics, namely, “Analysis, Transfer, Restructuring and Check”. Nida and Taber claim that all languages have between six and a dozen basic kernel structures and “agree far more on the level of kernels than on the level of more elaborate structures” such as word order. First of all, “Analysis” denotes that we have to analyze the surface structure of the source text and then to master the grammatical meaning of the sentence, in other words, the referential meaning and connotative meaning of the source text. In order to convey the original information correctly, the translator must analyze the text from surface structure to the deep structure. Then, “Transfer”, it means that the translator renders the analyzed source text to the target text. This step contains the conversion of two different language symbols and language forms, and it is also an exchange of different thinking modes. Next, “Restructuring” is the re-processing and re-creation of the original text, in which the translator will translate the original text into the target one that conforms to the expression of the target language, getting rid of the constraints of the surface structure of the original text, thus further excavating the meaning of the deep structure. Restructuring is thus defined as forward translation, or in other words the process which is the reverse of back-transformation (Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004: 145). Last but not least, "Check" refers to the process of comparing the text of the original language with the target language so as to avoid semantic errors in the translation works, and pursue the maximum equivalence between the content of the target text and the content of the original text. Nida and Taber’s own description of the process (1969: 63–9) emphasizes the ‘scientific and practical’ advantages of this method compared to any attempt to draw up a fully comprehensive list of equivalences between specific pairs of SL and TL systems (Jeremy Munday, 2016: 63).

(2)The same concern for the response of the target readers: Since ancient times, the domestic and foreign translators have different opinions on the criteria of excellent translation. Yan Fu proposed his famous three-character guideline, namely, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” in his translation work “Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays”. Similarly, western translator Alexander Fraser Tytler put forward the “Three principles of translation”. To put it simply, that the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; that the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; that the translation should have all the ease of the original composition. From the analysis of Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s description of translation criteria, we can see the fact that the study of the principles and standards of translation is precisely the translator’s emphasis on the target readers, and also reflects the translator’s sense of responsibility for the target culture. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory stressed that translators should guide our readers to read foreign literary works or let our readers be attracted by the foreign culture and introduce foreign writers to them. “Sublimation” is not only a standard for translation, but also a reflection of translators’ care for the target readers. Mr. Qian said: “The translation should be faithful to the original work, so that it does not read like a translation work, because the original work will never be read like a translation in the situation of source culture.” A good translation can stimulate the reader's curiosity about the original work and also give the reader the enjoyment of beauty. What’s more, Mr. Qian also commented the three principles proposed by Yan Fu:

“Faithfulness in translation should include expressiveness and elegance. Expressiveness gives full scope to faithfulness, and elegance is not just to adore expressiveness. To convey the original in the same style---that is faithfulness. ...Many have come to understand that a translation is not supposed to beautify or polish to attain elegance. Yet few have realized that a translation has to give up the words for the spirit. A translation can be intelligible without being faithful to the original, yet can be faithful to the original without being intelligible to the reader.”(Qian Zhongshu, 1986: 1101)

In the meanwhile, Nida deemed that the accuracy of the translation depends on the extent to which the ordinary readers correctly understand the original text, that is, whether the target reader can obtain similar or identical feelings when reading the translation works. The purpose of “functional equivalence” is to satisfy the communication needs of the readers. In order to achieve this goal, we have to change the form of the original text if it is necessary and consider the reader's acceptance of the translation work. Nida's “Functional Equivalence” requires not only the faithfulness to the original text, but also the accountability to the target readers and the original readers. Nida describes various “scientific approaches to meaning” related to work that had been carried out by theorists in semantics and pragmatics. Central to Nida's work is the move away from the old idea that a word has a fixed meaning and towards a functional definition of meaning in which a word acquires meaning through its context and can produce varying responses according to culture.

From what we has discussed above, we can see that both Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” and Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” must take the reader’s reaction into consideration. Therefore, as a standard for translation, these theories avoid mechanical textual equivalence and bilingual conversion, which promotes the development of translation practice.

(3)The Domesticating tendency of the two theories: As we mentioned in the very beginning, Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation”(化) theory has three meanings, namely “Transfer”(转化), “Domesticating”(归化) and “Sublimation”(化境). It can be seen easily that “Domesticating” is a bridge connecting the transformation of source text and the realization of Sublimation in target language. In the book “Seven Patches”, he wrote: “whether the target version is ‘European-oriented’ or ‘Chinese-oriented’, the translation is always based on the language system from the original country to the language system of the target country(2002: 78). Although he did not explicitly state whether the translation should be “domestication-oriented” or “foreignization-oriented”, he compared the translation to the “reincarnation” of the original and regarded that the translation was an “out form” of the original. In addition, he appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, and comments that he would rather read Lin Shu’s translation than read Haggard’s original text. In this way, Mr. Qian Zhongshu seems to prefer the text of “Chinese-oriented” style, which demonstrates the tendency of “Domestication”. In the theory of “Functional Equivalence”, Nida advocates the use of the expression habits of the target language to transform the original text. He believes that language is the means of communication, and communication is the ultimate goal and an important role of translation, so he pays more attention to the receptors' response to the target text. In order to allow the target readers to accept the translation, it is necessary to make the translation correspond to the cultural traditions and language habits of the target language. At the same time, the translator has to make the translation natural and smooth under the premise of ensuring loyalty. Nida's “Domesticating” translation tendency can be seen from the above view. Please look at the following example:

S: “white as snow”

T: “白如木棉花” or “白如鹭毛” or “白如蘑菇”

From the point of view of traditional translation standards, the above example runs counter to the original information. However, for those who have never seen snow will never know what snow is alike, and therefore he can't understand what "white as snow" means. Through the strategy of “Domestication”, the target readers can have a similar response to the original readers, so as to better achieve the purpose of communication.

'''2.2 Differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''

(1) Different theoretical basis: Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory is based on Yan Fu’s criteria of translation “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, which is the development of Chinese traditional translation theory. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory has pushed the study of translation to the extreme of art from the category of aesthetics. Eventually, the “Sublimation” theory was included in the course of the development of Chinese translation thought, say, “Case - Seeking faithfulness - Spiritual likeness - the Sublimation”. These four concepts, are independent, but also interconnected. They developed gradually to constitute a whole translation system and this whole system works as an important part of our traditional translation theory (Luo Xinzhang, 2009: 20).

Nida’s “functional equivalence” was established on the basis of his Bible translation practice. Under the guidance of Chomsky’s transform-generating grammar, Nida’s functional equivalence requires that the translator analyze the given text from the surface structure to the deep structure; then transform it from the deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally adjust the target language structure to obtain the surface structure of the translated version. From a series of steps, we can see that the hierarchical and theoretical property of translation studies, so Nida put forward his opinion that translation could be considered as a science. Qian Zhongshu thought that the translated works could surpass the original works and sometimes even should be much better than the original; while Nida did not choose the advantageous version between the original and the target text- his more emphasis goes to the equivalence between the two languages and the response of the target receptors thus more priorities were given to the communicative function.

(2)Different scopes of their application: “Huajing” (Sublimation) was proposed by Mr. Qian Zhongshu for literary translation standards; hence it may be more appropriate for the translation of literary genre. He considered that translator should “break through” the barriers of cultural differences and make the translation “surpass” the original work. However, it seems unreasonable for the translations of applied styles which relates to politics, economics, law, trade, etc. In addition, some scholars believe that Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation” has over-emphasized the mystery of art and has become a vague standard that could be hard to reach (Gao Huali, 2009: 154). The “highest ideal” of the literary translation he described will inevitably produce the problems of “Misinformation”, which would limit the scope of application of “Sublimation”. Despite the fact that scholars and experts of one generation after another have made their fruitful efforts to shed light on “Sublimation” from various aspects, it remains theoretical unexplainable and practical unattainable, like “an attic, in the air” to many people in the translation circle (Yu Chengfa, 2003: 8)

On the contrary, Nida’s translation of Bible carries religious culture with integrity and solemnity. He preached to people from all walks of life in order to spread the will of God; therefore, his translation must not only meet the needs of the aristocracy, but also the needs of ordinary people who lack knowledge of religious culture. The target readers of the “functional equivalence” theory is the masses from all walks of life in the society, and its range of application is more practical. Nida’s equivalence of translation is derived from the translation practice of the Bible. As we know, western languages have a lot in common in culture and words of expression, so Nida’s “equivalence” is relatively easy to achieve between two European languages. In English-Chinese translation, it may be more difficult to achieve complete “equivalence”, because Chinese and English belong to different language systems, and their cultures are rather divergent. Nida strictly divides the translation steps into four, which can be used as a practical translation method to guide the translation of some scientific and technical articles, announcements, and application articles. For literary genres, such as the translation of poetry and prose, the translator's creativity may be more important. It is difficult to convey the literary nature of the original text by mechanical methods and steps.

'''3.A Critical Understanding of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''

'''3.1 Is “Sublimation” faithful ?'''

According to traditional translation theory, the translator is always regarded as the "servant" of both the original and the translated text. He must be faithful to the original author while concerning the target readers. Xu Jun (2003: 321) wrote in his book “On Translation”: “Three points are often emphasized in traditional translation theory: first of all, translators should not incorporate their own subjective thoughts in translation; then they should not express their individuality in translation; in the end, translators should render the text on the basis of original message, and loyally follow the thoughts of the original writer. From the analysis of Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory, it is clear to see that he is more inclined to the translation strategy of “Domestication”, which emphasizes that the target version can surpass the source text. He, himself appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, because of their common advocacy and similar historical background. From the point of view of historical materialism, “social existence determines social consciousness, and social consciousness has an adverse effect on social existence.” For example, Lin Shu was living in a closed country and at that time , Qing Dynasty was extremely arrogant or even ignorant. His style and characteristics of the translation were naturally influenced by this national sentiment. Therefore, his translation had tendency to “Domestication” or even an unfaithful translation. Qian Zhongshu lived in a period of prosperity in literature and art since the establishment of People's Republic of China and at that time Chairman Mao proposed the policy of “All flowers blossoming and hundreds of schools contending (百花齐放，百家争鸣). So our Chinese people were overflowing high spirit and proud emotion; some translators’ translation works are more inclined to take the advantages of “Domestication” and make the translation work more excellent than the original one. Such a translation strategy will be somewhat “disloyal” to the original text, and will not “sincerely imitate” the original text as Lu Xun advocates from his “Foreignization” method. It is difficult to concretely implement “Sublimation” theory, because it has become an “unattainable” goal. Whether the translation should be “Chinese-oriented” or “European-oriented”; be “faithful” or “creative”, and whether the translator should be “visible” or “invisible” in translation are all difficult standards to measure since these factors are inevitably affected by the subjective and historical objectivity of the translator. Is “Sublimation” really a faithful translation to the original text? Perhaps just as Mr. Qian himself said: “The translator’s ability to use his native language is more flexible and smooth than the original author’s ‘source language’ and that is what always happens in the history of translation.” We can consider that such “disloyal” is “faithful” in a certain sense.

'''3.2 Problems of Nida’s “Functional Equivalence”'''

The questions of meaning, equivalence and translatability became a constant theme of translation studies in the 1960s and were tackled by a new ‘scientific’ approach followed by one of the most important figures in translation studies, the American Eugene Nida. Eugene Nida’s theory of translation developed from his own practical work from the 1940s onwards when he was translating and organizing the translation of the Bible, training often inexperienced translators who worked in the field.
As for Nida's “functional equivalence” theory, praise and opposition to his theory are always existing in the translation circle. Some people think that the theory is a representative of the science of translation science and has a good guiding role in translation practice. However, there are also some scholars who disagree with this theory and for example Peter Newmark is one of its critics. He believed that Nida’s equivalence theory takes the reader too seriously, but sometimes sacrifices the actually original thoughts of the writer. It is also doubtful whether “functional equivalence” can be applied to the original texts of various subjects. If the translator partially pursue “functional equivalence”, which will makes it difficult for the target readers to fully understand the original cultural information and it is not conducive to the mutual communication between different countries and cultures. For the above example: if we render “White as snow” as “白如鹭毛”, target readers may understand the meaning of the original author, but they still have no idea of what the word “snow” actually means. This has become a situation where we cannot get two things at the same time, or in Chinese “鱼和熊掌不可兼得”. However, If the original text is literally translated as “white as snow”, then the translator continues to explain what substance a “snow” is and what characteristics it may have and why we say its color is as white as egret’s feathers. In this way, not only can the readers of the translation work have the same response as the readers of the original, but also it is conducive for them to learn to understand new things and new concepts, which will gradually promote the communication of different cultures and the mutual interests of different countries.

'''4.Conclusion'''

Mr. Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” respectively represent huge progress in Chinese and Western translation studies, and they played an important role for the reference of translation studies and practice. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration. Furthermore, we must learn their theories with a critical view, so as to strive for innovation and establishment of a new era for translation studies.

'''References'''

[1]Chen Fukang. A History of Chinese Translation Theories in China [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.2000.

[2]Gao Huali. A Short History of Translation And Interpretation in China And Other Countries [M].Hangzhou：Zhejiang University Press.2009.

[3]Kao, Gorge. (trans.) Lin CH'in-nan Revisited [A]. By Qian Zhongshu. Renditions [J], autumn, 1975: 8-21

[4]Luo Xinzhang.On Translation [M].Beijing：The Commercial Press.1984.

[5]Mark, Shuttleworth, Moira Cowie. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 2004.

[6]Munday, Jeremy. Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications. Routledge, 2013.

[7]Nida, Eugene A. & Charles R.Taber (1969/1982) The Theory and Practice of Translation, Leiden: E. J. Brill.

[8]Qian Zhongshu.Pipe-awl Chapters [M].Beijing：Zhonghua Book Company.1986.

[9]Qian Zhongshu.Seven Patches [M].Beijing：SDX Joint Publishing Company.2002.

[10]Xu Jun.On Translation[M].Wuhan：Hubei Education Press.2003.

[11]Yu Chengfa. Interpreting Sublimation [D].Central China Normal University,2003.

=Theory and Practise=
=='''Translators' Views on Translation Influence Their Translation Behavior'''==

'''Abstract:''' A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.

'''Key words:''' translator’s view; translation behavior; translation principles; responsibility

'''译者翻译观对其翻译行为的影响'''

'''摘要：'''译者在翻译中处于核心位置。译者的翻译观指译者本身对于翻译的理解，其中包含了译者的翻译策略和价值取向。不同的译者受其社会与文化及个人经历和意识形态的影响，会有不同的翻译观。翻译观作为译者意识形态的一种，对翻译行为有着很大的影响。对于译者来说，翻译从来不是个人行为，而是一种对原作者、原作、读者及译入语文化的责任。

'''关键词：'''译者；翻译观；翻译行为；翻译原则；责任

A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. And “translation behavior”, in a broad sense, includes the translators’ linguistic translation behavior and the social transcend-translation behavior. In a narrow sense, it only means the translators’ translation as a “pure” translator (Zhou 18). The “translator behavior” in this thesis is a broad one, that is, translators’ translation behavior can be influenced by their social and cultural context, their motivations for translation, their views on translation and the linguistic translatability of the SL and their translation competence (Xu Jun 199-254). Specifically, the translation behavior we will discuss is “what to translate (what works they translated)” and “how to translate (their translation principles)”. According to A. Lefevere, ideology and poetics together dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems (39). The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior.

So how is translation behavior associated with translator’s views?

From the very beginning the research of translation was limited in a certain extent, and then there were some scholars starting to study on the relationship between translation and other systems, including Even-Zohar, Bassett, Lefevere and Venuti.

'''I.Some Previous Studies'''

A.Even-Zohar’s Polysystem

According to ''Introducing Translation Studies'':

“Polysysten theory was developed in the 1970s by the Israeli scholar Itamar Even-Zohar borrowing ideas from the Russian Formalists of the 1920s and the Czech structuralists of the 1930s and 1940s . . . For the Formalists, a literary work was not studied in isolation but as part of a literary system . . . Literature is thus part of the social, cultural, literary and historical framework . . .” (Munday 165).

In 1978, Even-Zohar in his “The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem”, first gives a new term, the polysystem (Even-Zohar 22), emphasizing the translated literature operates as a system in itself:

(1)in the way the TL culture selects works for translation;

(2)in the way translation norms, behavior and policies are influenced by other co-systems (Even-Zohar 22).

Thus, translation is not isolated, but associated with other systems, for instance, the TL culture. And the ST that chosen by a culture correspond to the organized system rather than arbitrary decisions made by individuals. Also translation works occupies different position in different cultures and has something to do with the position of the national literature.

B.Bassett and Lefevere

Later, “Bassett and Lefevere go beyond language and focus on the interaction between translation and culture, on the way in which culture impacts and constrains translation and on ‘the larger issues of context, history and convention (11)’ ” (Munday 192).

C.Lefevere: Rewriting and Manipulation

Furthermore, “Lefevere focuses particularly on the examination of ‘very concrete factors’ that systemically govern the reception, acceptance or rejection of literary texts; that is, ‘issues such as power, ideology, institution and manipulation (2)’ . The people involved in such power positions are the ones Lefevere sees as ‘rewriting’ literature and governing its consumption by the general public. The motivation for such rewriting can be ideological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant ideology) or poetological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant/preferred poetics)” (Munday 194). And translation is the most obviously recognizable type of rewriting (Lefevere 9).

Translator’s view on translation, for example, reflecting the translators’ ideology, can conform to or rebel against the social dominant ideology.
For Lefevere, the literary system in which translation functions is controlled by two main factors, which are: (1) professionals within the literary system, who partly determine the dominant poetics; and (2) patronage outside the literary system, which partly determines the ideology.
The “professionals within the literary system” include translators themselves, who decide on the poetics and at times influence the ideology of the translated text (Munday 194).

Thus, the role of translator is essential and the translator’s ideology have an great influence on the translation text and the text reader.
“For Lefevere, the most important consideration is the ideological one. In this case, it refers to the translator’s ideology or the ideology imposed upon the translator by patronage. The poetological consideration refers to the dominant poetics in the TL culture. Together, ideology and poetics dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems” (Munday 197).

D.Venuti

Then Venuti insists that the scope of translation studies needs to be broadened to take account of the value-driven nature of the sociocultural framework.

“Norms may be in the first instance linguistic or literary, but they will also include a diverse range of domestic values, beliefs, and social representations which carry ideological force in serving the interests of specific groups. And they are always housed in the social institutions where translations are produced and enlisted in cultural and political agendas” (29).

Munday suggests, the groups and social institutions to which Venuti refers would include the various players in the publishing industry as a whole . . . Each of these players has a particular position and role within the dominant cultural and political agendas of their time and place. The translators themselves are part of that culture, which they can either accept or rebel against (217).

Therefore, being part of the culture, translators are influenced by the social and patronage ideology, and the poetics. Nevertheless, translators more or less enjoys some autonomy. For example, translators’ views on translation, i.e. the understanding of translation, can be conformed to or rebellious against the culture. And then their views on translation, influence their specific translation behavior such as the works they choose to translate and their translation principles. Next are three examples for us to discuss how the translators’ views on translation immediately influence their translation behaviors.

To narrow the differences of the social ideology down, three translators in modern period of China (after 1949) will be discussed in this thesis. However, because they are born in different climate and stage of the society, no doubt that they have distinctive world outlook from each other, resulting in their distinctive views on translation. But focus will still be on the influence exerted by their views on their translation behavior.

II.Three Examples in Modern Period of China

A.Xu Yuanchong (1921-): Translation is translators’ responsibility.

For Xu Yuanchong, Chinese translators have a responsibility to translate the foreign masterpieces into Chinese and Chinese excellent works of literature into foreign languages, in order to introduce the advanced ideas to China and also bring the foreigners the splendid culture of China, during which the world will be more culturally rich and diversely civilized.

In this case, Xu Yuanchong further puts forward that the histories and evolution of the two cultures are very different from each other, with distinct advantages and disadvantages If they can learn the strong points from each other to offset their weakness, they can both be improved. In this respect, translation can be considered as a rivalry between two different cultures. The translation can even surpass the original work. If we make full use of the advantages of one culture to perfect another , the culture of all the humanity will be developed. This is the ultimate goal of the translator (“Surpass” 47). Based on this view, Xu Yuanchong proposed the Rivalry Theory and the Theory of Advantage.

Therefore, in order to exchange the advantages between cultures, the foreign works Xu Yuanchong had translated are some western masterpieces includes: ''Madame Bovary'', ''Le Rouge et le Noir'', ''Jean Christophe'', etc. And also some Chinese classical works especially the classical Chinese poetry: ''150 Tang Poems'', ''100 Tang and Song Poems'', ''300 Poems Chinois Classiques'', ''Selected Poems of Mao Zedong'', ''The Romance of Western Bower'', ''Earth-shaking Songs'' (the selected poems written by Chinese modern revolutionists), etc. By translating the essence of one culture and ideology into another languages, he demonstrates our advantages and at the same time offers Chinese people the opportunities to enjoy the classics of another culture.

Xu Yuanchong’s view on translation also influences his translation principles. Take the first sentence of ''Jean Christophe'' as an example:

Le grondement du fleuve monte derrére la maison. (Jean Christophe)

From behind the house rises the murmuring of the river. (English)

江声浩荡，自屋后上升。(Fu Lei)

江流滚滚，声震屋后。(Xu Yuanchong)

The french word “grondement” means “roaring” or “murmuring” in English. The English translation seems to be coherent in the paragraph and the following content. However, as to the whole work, Xu Yuanchong considers that “浩荡” in Fu Lei’s translation is more powerful and symbolic of the spectacular river cutting through Europe, and some readers even take Fu Lei’s translation as “the classical opening sentence” of the work, which proves it a translation that surpasses the original one.

And then Xu Yuanchong also translated this sentence (as above), replacing “浩荡” with “滚滚” for its more similar sound to “grondement”. And “声震屋后” is also a symbol of the impact of the great achievement of the musician in the work (Yang et.al 35-38). Here appears another translation principle of Xu Yuanchong: “literary translation is art (''Art 20'')” and “beauty in three aspects”, namely, “beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form”, having developed Lu Xun as well as Lin Yutang’s theory of beauty. This is the reason why Xu Yuanchong emphasizes the similar sound of “滚滚” to “grondement”. Another example is still a sentence in ''Jean Christophe'':

Il marchait sur le monde. (''Jean Christophe'')

他踏着全世界直立着。（鲁迅）

他顶天立地的在世界上走着。（傅雷）

(qtd. “Re-creation” 222)

Which translation corresponds to the original best? Lu Xun’s translation is similar in from while Fu Lei’s is in style. In this case, Xu Yuanchong considers there is one solution, that is to change the question as “Which translation is more beautiful and delightful for readers?” He also quotes “Qu’ importe celui qui crée? Il’y a de réel que ce qu’on crée” said by Romain Rolland to indicate that the translator ought to make the translation more of art to give readers an enjoyment of beauty rather than to captiously keep the author’s style. So he is in favor of Fu Lei’s translation.

The last example goes to the translation of the last sentence of ''Uprising Songs'' (《起义歌》) written by Sun Zhongshan, collected in ''Earth-shaking Songs'':

顶天立地奇男子，要把乾坤扭转过来。(''Uprising Songs'')

Heroes of indomitable spirit, arise!

Let us transform the old world and reverse the tide! (previous translation)

Heroes who would move heaven and earth, arise! (Xu Yuanchong)

Xu Yuanchong suggests that in the previous translation, translating “顶天立地” only into “indomitable spirit” is in want of the image of “天” and “地”. Also, as it were, the readers cannot enjoy the beauty of the SL, which is thus a failure in the rivalry of two cultures. So he translated the sentence as above, keeping the impression of “天地” to have the readers appreciate the beauty of the original work, in other words, to win the rivalry between the ST and TT (“Re-creation” 221-222).

For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized. The translation not only should be faithful to the original, but also be powerful and infectious to readers, even giving an much more profound impression than the original work.

B.Liu Zhongde (1914-): Translation is a way to make foreign masterpieces to serve China.

In order to make the western masterpieces more popular in China, Liu Zhongde decided to devote himself to a career in translation. By translating the western works into Chinese, as far as he concerns, the advanced thoughts can serve Chinese intellectuals and further improve the whole country. He was the first person who introduced Jane Austin’s ''Emma'' to China. But he were not satisfied with his first translation of ''Emma'' and at last in 1990s he re-translated it and corrected the errors he had made, which reflected his spirit of improving himself constantly and his rigorous scholarship (Ten 178 ).

Thus, most works Liu Zhongde translated were the western classics such as ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'', ''Confessions of an English Opium-Eater'', ''Emma'', ''Darwin'', etc. He seldom translated Chinese works into English.

In order to convey to the Chinese readers the exact ideas and original style and content of the ST, Liu Zhongde puts much emphasis on the “closeness” of the translation. He says the translator should always remember what he is working at is a literacy work written by somebody else and try his utmost to turn his translation into a work of art which is in conformity with the thought, feeling and style of the original. Thus, the translation will be as moving and vivid as the original work and the reader may be aesthetically entertained as well (''Ten'' 122-123).

Therefore he developed from Yan Fu’s three principles－“信达雅 (faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance)” into “信达切 (faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness)” as a set of principles for translation reference: “The style of your translation must correspond, or at least, be close, to that of the original you are working at . . . the ideological content, linguistic expression and stylistic characteristics of a literary work constitute a unified entity, and the translator should reproduce the three elements as a whole” (''Ten'' 122).

Being different from Xuyuanchong, Liu Zhongde holds that “literary translation has a double nature. That’s to say, on the one hand, it is a science with its own laws and methods and on the other, it is an art” (''Ten'' 2).

So how exactly does Liu Zhongde’s views on translation influence his translation principles? There are two examples as follows.

Here is a translation of “回乡偶书” by Liu Zhongde:

回乡偶书
少小离家老大回，乡音无改鬓毛衰。
儿童相见不相识，笑问客从何处来。
(the original poem)

Homecoming
I left home quite young, and I come back very old.
My accent remains the same, but my hair turns gray.
Kids don’t know me when one another we behold.
“Where do you come from?” with a smile to me they say.
(Liu Zhongde’s translation)

This translation adapts so well the style and features of TT to the ST that it seems to be an original work written by Liu Zhongde himself. We can appreciate the same meaning and emotion the original work expresses. The TT keeps the the same number of lines just as the ST: each of the sentence has 12 syllables. The rhyme pattern of ST is also kept: the first line rhymes with the third, and the second with the forth. The TT is exactly an expression of sound, form and sense of the ST (Jiang 196-197).

The next two examples are from Liu Zhongde’s re-translation of ''Emma'':

(1)The truth is, Harriet, that my playing is Just good enough to be praised, but Jane Fairfax’s is much beyond it.

事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却是神乎其技了。(Previous translation)

事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却大大超过我的弹奏。(Liu Zhongde)

“神乎其技” in the previous translation does not correspond to the plain style of “much beyond it” in ST. It is true that a Chinese four-character-word can embody a complex meaning, but the style it can be applied to is supposed to be formal and academic. In this sentence, the style of “神乎其技” is not appropriate at all, while a simpler word should be used. Thus Liu Zhongde replaced “神乎其技” with “大大超过我的弹奏”.

(2)“Just as they always do-very vulgar.”

还不是像他们平常那样——俗不可耐。(Previous translation)

还不是像他们平常那样——很庸俗。(Liu Zhongde)

(Jiang 278-279)

The four-character-word “俗不可耐” in the previous translation does not conform to the plain or colloquial style of ST, either, just like “神乎其技” mentioned above. Liu Zhongde changed it into “庸俗” to be in line with the original style.

For Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected by him and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original.

C.Li Jihong (1980-): Translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings.

As to Li Jihong, translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings. In an article called “The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace with the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay” against the view of another translator, Shi Kangqiang, he says that the pay of translation in the new period is different from that of the old times, mainly because of the translation tools which belonging to the production tools, have already been developed today into computers, digital data, Internet, etc. As a result, the translation speed is supposed to be improved. Therefore, a professional translator nowadays can definitely earn a decent life by translating 1000 words each hour, 8 hours a day. And for every 1000 words they can earn 60 ''yuan''.

The article aims to oppose to Shi Kangqiang’s opinion that the appalling pay translators receive influence the quality of the translation, but it also reveals Li Lihong’s view on translation from his borrowing lots of economic theories and activities, numbers, calculation of the pay to support his opinion, his favors to the publishers’ increasing reward on the sales of the translation work and his announcement that he have translated ''The Kite Runner'' (written by Khaled Hosseini), 195190 words, for only 10 days, 15 hours a day.

In this article he also says: “Any responsible translators will not translate for the personal income,” but he adds next, “ In fact, the support for his translation is the letters from readers, in addition to the high income.” Although the total contradiction in his saying is confusing, it still can be inferred that money is an important motivation for his translation, if not the most important one.

The works Li Jihong translated are foreign classics such as ''Le Petit Prince'', ''The Old Man and the Sea'', ''Animal Farm'', ''The Great Gatsby'', ''Walden'', ''The Moon and Sixpence'', ''Pride and Prejudice'' and ''The Sound and Fury''. However, all those works and the values of them have already been well received in China, with several translations in market.

To begin with the work that he have translated “for only 10 days, 15 hours a day” as he says, ''The Kite Runner'' written by Khaled Hosseini:

(1)We left the old man on the steps of that building. I meant to take him up on his offer, come back and see if he’d unearthed any more stories about my mother. But I never saw him again (Hosseini 251).

我们离开了坐在那座房子台阶上的老人。我原想带他到他的办公室去，看看他能否想起更多关于我妈妈的事情。但我再也没有见到他 (Li 243)。

In this text, “take somebody. up on something” means “to accept an offer, an invitation that somebody has made 接受（提议或邀请）” in ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary'' (438). Also according to the whole context, the old man, a beggar, had been a colleague of “my” mother who I had never met. He told me a story about “my” mother and promised me more details about her: “ The old man smiled. ‘I’ll try to remember and that’s a promise. Come back and find me ’ (Hosseini 250).” It can be inferred that the old man offered the narrator a chance to know more about his mother. Thus, the “offer” means “邀请” instead of “办公室 (office)”. What’s more, It seems like the word “offer” is misread as “office” by the translator. Perhaps the translator is too busy translating as fast as possible to check his translation carefully.

(2)“Your job today is to pass gas. You do that and we can start feeding you liquids. No fart, no food.” He laughed again (Hosseini 297).

“你今天的工作是排便。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不见粪便，不给食物。”他又哈哈大笑 (Li 287)。

The speaker was a staff in hospital, and he was asking the patient who had just come to himself from a surgery “to pass gas”. The relevant meaning of “gas” in ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary'' is “[物理]气体、瓦斯” (726), of “pass” is “通过” (1338). And “fart” as a noun means “放屁 (emit wind from the anus)” (632). In conclusion, “排便” does not correspond to the original meaning of the ST. So the translation can be righted as “你今天的工作是排气。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不放屁，不给食物。” This is also a very small and simple mistake. The translator should be more cautious about translating.
This summer holiday I have read another book translated by Li Jihong: The Moon and Sixpence written by William Somerset Maugham, and also find some odd translation and neglect. Here are two examples:

(1)“Do you think it’s likely that a man will do any good when he starts at your age? Most men begin painting at eighteen.”

“I can learn quicker than I could when I was eighteen (Mauguam 48).”

你认为一个人从你这个年纪开始学画能学得好吗？大多数人从十八岁就开始画了。”

“如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些 (Li 54)。”

The second sentence, a very simple one, means that even if “I” am old now, I can learn even quicker than I could when I was at eighteen. In Chinese it can be translated as, for instance, “我能比我十八岁的时候学得还快.” But Li’s translation “如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些” means “I can learn quicker if I were eighteen,” which has a totally different meaning from the ST.

(2)...for they felt themselves freemen of a country whose frontiers include them all, the great country of Cockaigne (Mauguam 169).

因为他们觉得大家都是自由民，同属于想象中的天堂之国 (Li 203)。

According to Encyclopedia Britannica, “Cockaigne, also spelled Cockayne, imaginary land of extreme luxury and ease where physical comforts and pleasures are always immediately at hand. References to Cockaigne are especially prominent in medieval European lore. These accounts describe rivers of wine, houses built of cake and barley sugar, streets paved with pastry, and shops that gratuitously give goods to everyone. Roast geese wander about inviting people to eat them, and buttered larks fall from the skies like manna.” Being ignorant of the rich meaning of this word, Li Jihong translated it to “天堂之国” without any explanation. In fact, in this book, Li Jihong adds 206 explanatory notes for the words like “Shakespeare (莎士比亚)”, “Balzac (巴尔扎克)” and “Footnote (生丁)”, however, “Cockaigne” is not included.

Li Jihong’s translation is popular for his elaborate introduction of the work and explanatory notes, which as he says, can help readers to understand the work easier. And some famous people also recommend his translations for his translation is more understandable than others. However, as far as I am concerned, being understandable is not the essence of a translation.

From Xu Yuanchong and Liu Zhongde we know there are various translation principles, for instance the former’s “beauty in three aspects: sense, sound and form” and the latter’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness”, nevertheless, the “faithfulness” to the original is emphasized.

III.Conclusion

This is how the views of translation influence the translators’ behavior, specifically the translation work choosing and their translation principles demonstrated by the translation examples of the three translators.

For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized; while for Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. In fact, for both of them translation should be a responsibility that should be treated serious by translators, while as for Li Jihong, translation is just a production activity, a tool to make money or to gain the population, fame and the sense of superiority. Therefore, the economic effect and the speed is highlighted, the minor mistakes were made, and the translator’s personality was manifested so much that it even overshadowed the style and meaning of the original work.

For those responsible translators, their translations, imprinted all their individual ideology, experience and reflection, almost like an original work, are supposed to be a special thing. As Thomas C. Foster puts at the end of his How to Read Literature Like a Professor, “My favorite was the apology to the poem itself: ‘Well, little book, you’re not that much but you’re the best I could make you. Now you’ll just have to make your way in the world as best you can. Fare thee well.’” (129), a lot of care and attachment will be taken to the work you made, whatever it is, a poem, a fiction or a translation work. Only if you devote yourself to the translation with painstaking effort, can the translation be respected and appreciated by your readers.

Fu Lei had ever said, “translation should be based on the knowledge of art: without a sensitive soul, earnest sympathy, appropriate appreciation, relative social experience or sufficient common sense (i.e. broad knowledge), a translator neither will understand the original work thoroughly nor grasp the essence of it” (qtd. Xu Jun 253). Because that translators’ views on translation have a great influence on his translation, he should first be earnest to “translation”, and then be diligent, especially when the translation work is carrying the weight of the original work. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.

'''Work Cited'''

胡塞尼· 卡勒德. (Hosseini, Khaled). 《追风筝的人》 (''The Kite Runner''). 李继宏译 (Tran. Li Jihong). 上海: 上海人民出版社, 2008.

蒋坚松 (Jiang Jiansong) 彭利元 (Peng Liyuan), ed. 《刘重德翻译思想及其他》(''Liu Zhongde’s Tanslation Theories and Others''). 长沙(Changsha): 湖南师范大学出版社 (Hunan Normal University Press), 2003. Print.

李继宏 (Li Jihong), 《文学翻译也需与时俱进：谈谈翻译速度和稿酬问题》 (“The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace With the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay”). 豆瓣网 (douban). 13 Jan. 2013 <https://site.douban.com/179084/widget/articles/10191245/article/23864139/?dt_dapp=1>

刘重德 (Liu Zhongde), ed.《文学翻译十讲》(''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation''). 北京(Beijing): 中国对外翻译出版社 (China Duiwai Translation Press), 2000. Print.

毛姆·威廉. (Maugham, William). 《月亮和六便士》 (''The Moon an Sixpence'').李继宏译 (Trans. Li Jihong). 天津 (Tianjin): 天津人民出版社 (Tianjin Renmin Press), 2018. Print.

许钧. (Xu Jun).《翻译论》(''Translation Theory''). 武汉 (Wuhan)：湖北教育出版社 (Hubei Education Press), 2003. Print.

许渊冲. (Xu Yuanchong). 《译文能否胜过原文》(“Can the Translation Surpass the Original”). 《教学研究》(''Teaching Method Research''), no. 2 (1982): 39-47.
---. ed.《再创作与翻译风格》(“Re-creation and Translation Style”). 《文学与翻译》 (''Literature and Translation''). 北京 (Beijing)：北京大学出版社 (Beijing University Press), 2016. 221-229. Print.

---.《翻译的艺术》(''The Art of Translation''). 北京 (Beijing): 五洲传播出版社 (Wuzhou Chuanbo Press), 2006. Print.

杨绛(Yang Jiang), 李文俊 (Li Wenjun, et al.) 等. 《一本书和一个世界》(''A Book and A World''). 北京 (Beijing): 昆仑出版社 (Kun Lun Press), 2005: 35-38. Print.
周领顺. (Zhou Lingshun). 《译者行为批评：理论框架》(''A Theoretical Framework for Translator Behavior Criticism''). 北京 (Beijing)：商务印书馆 (The Commercial Press), 2014. Print.

Bassnett, S. and A. Lefevere. ''Translation History and Culture''. London and New York: Pinter, 1990. Print.

Cockaigne. ''Encyclopedia Britannica''. 27 Jun. 2013. Web. 17 Nov. 2019 <https://www.britannica.com/topic/Cockaigne >

Even-Zohar, Itamar. The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem. ''Papers in Historical Poetics''. Tel Aviv: The Porter Institute, 1978. 21-7. Print.

Fart. ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary''. Beijing: Renmin University of China, 2004. Print.

Foster. C. Thomas. ''How to Read Literature Like a Professor''. New York: HarperCollins Publishers Inc. 2003. Print.

Hosseini, Khaled. The Kite Runner. New York: The Berkley Publishing Group, 2003. Print.

Lefevere, A. ''Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulation of Literary Fame''. London and New York: Routledge, 1992a. Print.

Maugham, William. ''The Moon an Sixpence''. London: Pan Books Ltd, 1974. Print.

Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies''. New York: Routledge, 2012. Print.

Take sb. up on sth.” ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary''. 2013. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Publishing Co., Ltd, 2017. Print.

Venuti. L. The Scandals of Translation: ''Towards an Ethics of Difference''. London and New York: Routledge, 1998. Print.

=Contemporary Translation Studies=
=='''An Analysis of the Book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'''''==

'''摘要：'''爱德温·根茨勒的《当代翻译理论》和杰米里·芒迪的《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》被视为翻译史上不可多得的巨作。本文通过对两本巨著的介绍之后，节选了其中有名的翻译理论即尤金·奈达的形式对等理论和功能对等理论以及亚历山大弗雷泽·泰特勒和严复的翻译原则进行比较，来阐述了翻译的基本准则。通过对比尤金·奈达的形式对等和功能对等理论，找出其优缺点并结合适当的例子，有利于读者把握奈达的翻译思想来更好地指导其翻译实践。同时，通过分析亚历山大弗雷泽·泰特勒的翻译原则的优缺点再将其与严复的翻译理论做比较，有利于读者理解中西方翻译的差异，来更好地理解在跨文化的语境中如何做好翻译。

'''关键词：'''爱德温·根茨勒、《当代翻译理论》、杰米里·芒迪、《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》、尤金·奈达、形式对等、功能对等、亚历山大·弗雷泽·泰特勒、严复、翻译原则

'''Abstract:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler’s ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and Jeremy Munday’s ''Introducing Translation studies: Theories and Applications'' are both regarded as the masterpieces in the discipline of translation. After giving a brief introduction of these two great works, this paper tends to select the famous translation theories from the book namely Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and functional equivalence and the translation principles of Alexander Fraser Tytler and Yan Fu to define the basic principles of translation. After analyzing the Nida’s theories of formal equivalence and functional equivalence, it is better for the readers to understand the Nida’s translation ideas to better guide him in the translation practice by combining the concrete examples to illustrate its advantages and disadvantages. In the meantime, by analyzing the advantages and disadvantages of Tytler’s translation principles and the comparison between the translation principles of Tytler and Yan Fu, it’s better for the readers to understand the influence of difference in the eastern and western cultures on translation. In such a way, it’s better for the translators to do the translation practice in the cross-cultural situation.

'''Key words:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler; ''Contemporary Translation Theories''; Jeremy Munday; ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''; Eugene Nida; Formal Equivalence; Functional Equivalence; Alexander Fraser Tytler; Yan Fu; Translation Principles

'''Introduction:'''

In this essay, it presents the author’s understanding of the two books: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''. After a brief introduction of these two books, this paper tends to concentrate on the discussion of four important translation theories. This paper will be divided into three parts. Firstly, after a brief introduction of the great book: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', and then it will focus on the analyzing of the Eugne Nida’s two famous translation theories namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. By giving out its definition, it’s easier to find the advantage and disadvantage of these two concepts. Then, this paper will go on introducing briefly the Chomsky’s translation studies. And then it will find some commonness and distinction in Nida’s and Chomsky’s opinions in translation. Secondly, it will give a short introduction of the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' and it will fix its attention on the translation principles of Tytler and then make a comparison of Yan Fu’s translation principle “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. By deeper analyzing these two similar translation theories, we can find some commonness and difference in these two translation theories by taking the culture and thinking modes into consideration. At last, this paper intend to give a brief comparison between these two great books by taking the consideration of writing style and content arrangement. All in all, this paper intends to give the readers a better understanding of these two great books and provoke their reflection about these two books.

'''I Analysis of the book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'''''

Recently, it is a great pleasure to read a very famous book called ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' whose author is called Edwin Gentzler. The second edition of this book has received great success. The publication of this book is significant to the global translation study academia. “Since the mid-19th century, translation theory has maderapid progress, Edwin Gentzler finds out what is useful and rejects what is useless on the translation of today's theories in this book”(Li 2014:111). He also makes a Detailed description in detail several major schools of translation:The North American Translation Workshop, the “Science” of Translation, Early Translation Studies, the Polysystem Translation and Deconstruction. In this book, it presents what is happening in different parts within the discipline. “Gentzler uses his provoke thinking viewpoint to trace the development of literary translation studies from the American translation workshop program, through the polysystems research to deconstruction and postcolonial translation theory and beyond”(Xu and Wang 2000:42). This book not only provides us with a deep way of theorizing the translation but also is effectively a translation practice . At the end of this book, he also points out the future of translation and sends his positive attitude about the translation’s future. The author turns a whole number of the complex theoretical material into accessible language, so that everyone who doesn’t read any books about translation can read this book freely. Apart from that, each chapter in this book is separated so you can read each chapter alone without relying on your understanding of the other chapters. By this way, it is more convenient for us to find the topic of translation that we are interested in to read and find valuable informationfor us. Gentzler’s book provides us with a precise analysis about what the translation school achieved so far and gives his insight into the future of translation.

“This book stands as a continuing translation textbook with some of the most important theories in the field such as “the same aesthetic experience, dynamic equivalence, corresponding literary function, or the deconstruction theory of Derrida”(Li 2014:112). Despite distinct focus, each theory is completed by a conceptual framework that thinks original existence and an understanding of it in the target society. At present, “all translation theories have kept rigid distinction between original texts and their translations text”(Xu and Wang 2000:43).

In the chapter 2, this book introduces the American translation workshop. In this chapter, it mainly introduces the A. Richard’s new criticism and translation, Ezra Pound’s theory of luminous details, Frederic Will’s the paradox of translation and Lawrence Venuti’s rethinking translation. In it workshop, “it emphasizes that translation is a marginal activity, not considered as a proper field of study”(Gentzler 2001:5). However, as time goes by, the process of growth and acceptance of translation boost when many translation courses and workshops were being offered at many universities. There appears many works about this translation workshop but it does not have many books about the translation theories. “In this workshop, the personal opinions may offer some help, but it still lacks the consistent theory to support translation”(Gentzler 2001:44). Therefore, it needs urgently a classified theory for the translation and it yields the coming of the “science” of translation. In this book, it mainly introduces Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and Noam Chomsky’s syntactic structure and generative-transformation grammar. Here, it will illustrate my understanding of these two concepts about formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Edwin Gentzler illustrated the concept of dynamic equivalence in his book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', ''Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. The relationship between the target language receptor and the target text should generally be equivalent to that between the source language receptor and the source text''(2001:48).

In the dynamic equivalence, Nida focus on the correspondence of the feeling between the target language and the receptor and the source language and the learner. By his understanding, these two feeling should be the similar. More specifically, “dynamic equivalence considers more about the relationship between the reader and the information, which means that the target reader's response to the target text should be the same as that of the source reader's response to the source text”(Liu 2012:242). “Any foreignness and translationese should be avoided in the target text”(Ju 2000:203). Now, it will
list the advantages of dynamic equivalence.

“On the one hand, the dynamic equivalence is “somewhat like the free translationwhich emphasizes the translation should achieve the same effect instead of being limitedin the content and form” (Li 2014:112). “It concentrates on the correct way of translating the content of the original text”(Shakernia 2013:2). On the other hand, “it focuses on readers' reaction and analyzes the translation process from the viewpoint of target readers”(Nida 1995:225). In this way, translation is not a single activity, but more social elements are added to make the translation concrete and specific. Moreover, in the dynamic equivalence, due to its classified translation principle it is more suitable to the translation of technology and science essays. The dynamic equivalence provides us a
detailed rule of translation during our process of translation so when we translate, we can find the reasonable principles to rely on. These essays should be more formal and official.

However, although the dynamic equivalence has gained a lot of praises it still deserves some limitations. Firstly, “it is just a language conversion and ignores the cultural information taken by the language, resulting in cultural domestication”(Liu 2012: 245). In fact, cultural differences are objective and can not be inevitable, and no one can avoid them. If you have to maintain a dynamic equivalent translation, it will definitely have a negative impact on cultural communication. For example, “‘dongfeng’ is a positive image in Chinese culture while in western society it thinks the west wind is goodmorality”( Shakerni 2013:2) Therefore, it is strange that Shelley's singing of the west wind is translated into "ode to the east wind", because it will hinder the Chinese readers' understanding of the western world. What's more, to judge whether the target readers have similar effects is uncertain and unpractical because they are different in gender, age,educational background and life experience, etc. Strictly speaking, the reader's response is a variable that cannot be regarded as equivalent to the standard effect. Finally, dynamicequivalence information in the text does well, just like the Bible, but it is difficult to realize literary translation, text language is different from general language. Dynamic equivalence, as a concept, puts an .an overly narrow focus on the response of the active hearers, perhaps sometimes at the expense of other factors which are also crucial to adequate translation, such as the accuracy of the message, the uniqueness of the original historical setting.

Next, it will list the definition of formal equivalence. “Formal equivalence is simple and source-oriented. It is like a word for word literal translation”(Shakernia 2013:2). Formal equivalence concentrates on the message itself, in both form and content. “One is concerned that the message in the receptor language should match asclosely as possible the different elements in the source language”(Shakernia 2013:3).The use of formal equivalents might at times have serious implications in the target text since the translation will not be easily understood by the target readership. For example, “in the translation of the sentence of greet others with a holy kiss, these two different equivalence can have distinctly different translation”(Shakernia 2013:3). In the formal equivalence translation, we need to translate it into the translation of saying hello to others with a holly kiss. But it seems strange to others because what’s the meaning of holy kiss. Then, we need to add one explanation of holy kiss which is in the ''old testament'' the holly kiss is usually treated as a usual way to greet others. However, in the dynamic equivalence, we need not to take the correspondence of the structure into consideration. We only need to pay attention to the reaction of receptorsof language. We can translate it into the translation of shaking hands with others enthusiastically. From the above example, it’s clear to find the focus of these two equivalences is very different therefore the translation can be different.

Here, it will try to figure out the advantages and disadvantages of formal equivalence. One of the most distinguished advantage of the formal equivalence is that in this translation, “the formal equivalence is keenly oriented towards the source language structure, which exerts strong language influence in determining accuracy and Correctness”(Nida 1995:223). Because the formal equivalence emphasizes the completetranscript of the original text’s content and form so it will have the consistent structure of the original text.Another advantage of formal equivalence is that it put much focus on the accuracy.Because in such translation theory, the target language will try to find a equivalent in the source language. For example, in the sentence of “Please fetch me a glass of water” when translating it into Chinese, we will try to find each word equivalent in Chinese. We will try to find each word such as “please”“fetch”“me” and so on. Then we can find the equivalent in Chinese which can be transliterated into Chinese as “Qing gei wo yi bei shui”. Apart from that, let’s move on to the disadvantages of formal equivalence. One of the obvious disadvantage of the formal equivalence is that sometimes it will neglect the intent of the original text. Because the formal equivalence isreferred as to the literal translation and in such way it may overlook the author’s intent. For example, we often hear Chinese people say:“Ni chi le ma?” In fact, it’s a way to greetpeople in Chinese custom while we cannot translate it into English as “Have you eat your dinner or lunch?”. Instead we should translate it into English as “Hello!”or “Hi!”

Among these two theories, Nida puts the dynamic equivalence in the first place. It has been viewed as his core contribution to the modern translation filed. “Nida pays attention to readers' response and advocates replacing the expression of foreign culture in the original text with the expression habit of the receiving language, namely, domestication”(Nida 1995:224). By far, “Nida has achieved a lot in translation study. He simplifies Chomsky’s theory and adopts only the later two part of the model in order to validate his science”(Gentzler 2001:52). “He is aware of the nature of a practice-oriented approach, attempts to scientifically validate his methodology and apply it to translation as a whole” (Panou 2013: 1) . In this chapter, it also talks about Noam Chomsky’s contribution to the linguistic and translation. In Chomsky’s opinion, the linguistic is a study of science and we can apply many linguistic principles to translation, therefore, the translation can also be said a study of science. Among the Noam Chomsky’s contribution is his transformational-generative grammar. “It is a theory that talks about why people can talk and how people can learn new sentences. It is a theory about language ability. Chomsky holds his opinion that basics and transformation form grammar” (Zhou 2019:5). The basics form deep structure and deep structure transforms to surface structure. Word’s meaning belongs to deep structure . Besides, “he thinks thatlanguage is a unique human natural constitution. Language ability should be more focused on not rather language behavior”(Zhou 2019:6). “The TG Grammar tries to reveal the unity of particular grammars and universal grammars, to explore the universal rules with the hope of revealing the human cognitive system and the essential nature of human being”(Zhu 2018:241).

Both Chomsky and Nida believe that deep, coherent and unified entity exists behind whatever manifestation language takes. However, there exists some difference
between their opinions. “Chomsky would not jump to conclusions based on correlations between just two languages, nor assume that a grammar to a particular to one language would work systematically for another” (Li 2011:395). While Nida holds the belief that deep structure and transformatio-nal rules which is divorced from all the problems of translation are similar across languages. All in all, these two great persons all make a big contribution to translation and their theories are still widely used today.

'''II Analysis of ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'''''

As for the second book: ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , it is a very populary book which has undergone through the fourth edition. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' remains the definitive guide to the theories and concepts that make up the field of translation studies. This fourth edition has been fully revised and continues to provide a balanced and detailed guide to the theoretical landscape. “Each theory is applied to a wide range of languages, including Bengali, Chinese, English, French, German, Italian, Punjabi, Portuguese and Spanish”(Liu and Deng 2010:54). It starts with the definition of translation and then presents us the translation theory before the twentieth century to the modern translation theory. It focus on many important translation theories such as systematic translation theory, polysystem theory translation, functional theories of translation, and so on. There are three reasons why I like this book very much. Firstly, this book is full of content which is arranged carefully and skillfully for the readers to read. It contain an introductory table clearly presenting key terms and ideas, the main text, describing in detail the models and issues under discussion, an illustrative case study, which applies and evaluates the main model of the chapter, suggestions for further reading, a brief evaluative summary of the chapter and a series of discussion and research points to stimulate further thought and research. I am extremely fond of the case study in this book which is also a unique feature of this book. In the case study, it will list a related case about the translation issue in this chapter for readers to think and then this book provide us with a discussion of case studies for us to reflect our thinking. I think it’s a good way for us to relate the knowledge of book into reality which it’s more helpful and useful for us to remember the knowledge in the book. And by applying our knowledge to the real problem in reality, it’s more helpful for us truly understand the essence of translation studies.

Secondly, there are a large number of charts are cited, and the names of the charts are listed on a special page after the table of contents at the front of the book for easy reference. In this way, it is easier for readers to absorb much information contained in the charts. In the meantime, it is clear for the readers to relate the knowledge with the information in the charts. It is also a good way to sort out the large number of information in an ordered way for the readers to have a quick way to absorb the information.

Thirdly, the book includes an appendix to the web sites relevant to translation studies before the final notes and index. These include two web sites that publish information about conferences, recent publications and research, six web sites for international translation journals and four web sites for translation organizations that often contain useful links. In this way, it becomes much easier for the readers to search the information on the websites for further reading and studying.

Now, let’s move on to talk about the content of this book. In the second chapter, this book lists the debate about the word-for-word and sense-for-sense translation which is debate that dominated much of translation theory. “Faithful translation” is an attempt to reach a compromise between the two. Many great translators object to word-for-word translation and they advocate the sense-for-sense translation”(Munday 2013:18). For example, Cicero oppose the word-for-word translation strongly by saying “that I did not hold it necessary to render word for word, but I preserved the general style and force of the language”(Munday 2013:19). “The issues of free and literal translation were for over a thousand years with the translation of the Bible and other religious and philosophical texts”(Munday 2013:22). As for the translation of Bible, there must mention the Martin Luther whose major influence is made by his translation of the ''New Testament'' and later the ''Old Testament''. Martin Luther advocates the revolutionary nature of translation. “At that time, the Bible was only available in Europe in a Latin translation. This meant that the majority of the people had no access to the Bible in their native languages”(Stolt 2014:373). He is concerned with the German readers. “Here, he supports the idea of using of “pure, clear German and the building of new languages in translation. Therefore, he used a non-literal translation in his translation of Bible”(Stolt 2014:373). Also, his use of a regional yet socially broad dialect went a long way to reinforcing that form of the German language as standard. “His aim is to keep communication with readers and listeners, but the audience for his new translation of the scriptures was composed not of scholars but plain speakers of vernacular German”(Stolt 2014:374). And thanks to Martin Luther’s efforts of translating Bible, the Germany people now could read Bible freely. Later, the book talks about the translation principle of Dryden, Dolet and Tytler. Here it will put emphasize on the Tytler’s translation principles. As for Dolet has five translation principles while Tytler proposes his three translation rules. “They are the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work. Secondly, the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original. Thirdly, the translation should have all the ease of the original composition.” (Munday 2013:26) Here, we can see that Tytler pursues the balance between the source language and target language. The translator must have the capacity of employing the exact manner and skill in translating his target language. For example, “there are two sentences which express the same meaning but they are different in their writing style”(Xi 2009:41). One is on Monday morning, the park is usually crowded with too many people. The other is on Monday morning, the park attracts many people. It’s obvious that the first sentence is in a negative mood while the second sentence is in a positive mood. These two sentences all convey the same meaning but they differs each other in the mood and style. To be a good translator, you need to be skillful in bringing the same style of the source language to the target language.

The advantages of his translation principle are as follows. First of all, “he abandons the traditional translation idea of dichotomies and he tries not to use these controversial term such as literal translation, free translation to give his translation rules a better and clear way to present”(Bie and Huang 2007:164). Here, in his translation principles, we cannot see the mentioning of the literal translation and free translation which can cause misunderstanding in the translation studies. Secondly, “he clarifies and extends people’s understanding of the metaphor that translators are painters. In his opinion, he advocates that the job of a translator is distinct different from the painter” (Bie and Huang 2007: 166). Although the translator does not use the same color as the original, he must give his "picture" the same power and effect. The translator cannot copy the original style, but must use his own style to translate the perfect script. The more he studies a imitation, the less his copy will reflect the ease and spirit of the original.

Now, let’s move on to talk about the disadvantages of his translation principles. Tytler’s translation thoughts are mainly on the base of his exact experience and subjective observation. “Some people even say that the book just looks like a textbook addressing the translation arts. In the meantime, from his translation theories, we can know that he imitates other translator’s theory, especially Dryden”(Firdaus 2012:285). For example, his first principle “That the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work, which is almost same as the Campbell’s accurately reproduce the original meaning”(Firdaus 2012:286). Tytler, “points out that the three principles are in a necessary order. The order arrangement is appropriate, natural and is arranged according to their importance to the translation which cannot change casually”(Firdaus 2012:287). In this way, we can concluded that his idea that if in a case of need to sacrifice a certain principle, the translator should notice the importance of order of translation principle. The translator cannot try to get a beautiful and fluent translation at the expense of the faithful translation of the script. Tytler’s translation has exerted great influence on the later translation studies and left a big influence on the later translators such as our Chinese great translator-Yan Fu. Here, it will list the Yan Fu’s translation theories and then we can have a brief comparison between Yan Fu’s translation principles and Tytler’s translation principles. “Yan Fu is our Chinese great scholar and translator, most famous for introducing western ideas, including Darwin’s natural selection to China in the late 19th century”(Wang 2008:70). Just as Shi Chunrang and Zhao Wei proposed their opinions in their essay ''Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation'' that Yan Fu proposed three difficulties in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethnic''.

“Faithfulness” means the full and complete conveying or transmission of the original content or thought. It emphasizes the right way of expressing content of the original source. “Expressiveness” demands that the version must be clear and follow without any grammatical mistakes or confused logic and sense. The translation should convey freely the content of the original source. “Elegance” means that the target translation should be similar to the source text in style(2005:96).

It means that the mood of the target translation should be almost same as the source language. By analyzing carefully, it’s clear to find there are many things in common between these two translation theories.

Firstly, “the first principle and second principle of Tytler are the same as the saying that translation should be faithful to the source language’s content and mood which is similar to the first principle of Yan Fu that emphasizes on the full and complete conveying of the original content”(Shi and Zhao 2005:97). Secondly, these two translation theories all focus on stressing the conveying the thought and content of the source language. And the translation should be available for people to read. “These two theories all emphasize on the conveying the complete transcript of the source text”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98).

It’s clear to see many differences between these two translation theories. Firstly, “they are different in thinking mode. Yan Fu does not make a clear and detailed explanation of his translation theory. Instead it relies on others’ explanation of his translation theory”(Xi 2009:41). Just as a saying, “Everything is clear without saying a word”. To better understand Yan Fu’s translation theory, we need to have the associated “relation and reflection about the great thought of our great ancestors. As we all know, “traditional Chinese mode of thinking is perceptual which tends to make the theory obscure and received. However, westerners attach great importance to rational thinking which makes the theory more concrete”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). The thinking mode of western is putting emphasize on the rational thinking and it emphasizes one’s rational understanding of the objects and people. Also, “it concentrates on the formal explanation of the objects and people”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). Therefore, the Tytler’s three translation principles all give respect to the object to the original text. And it repeatedly emphasizes on the importance of the original text and treat the original text as it start point. Apart from that, it also gives the literal explanation in a detailed way. In this way, after analyzing the different thinking between the western and eastern, we can say that Yan Fu do not give a literal explanation of his translation principle. Thus, we can say that his translation principle understands tacitly.

Secondly,“they are distinctly different in the importance. Since the three principles of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are presented, the importance of them has not been clearly classified”(Shi and Zhao 2005:99). One of the most important features of Yan Fu’s translation standard is its ambiguous semantic meaning. But in fact, “Yan Fu put emphasizes on the free translation and he proposed the principle of expressiveness to support the principle of faithfulness”(Xi 2009:41). “Since during the process of translation, except adhering to the expressiveness of the original text, the principle of faithfulness is the most difficult task to finish as to the conveying the original text’s mode and style”(Xi 2009:42). Therefore, we can draw a conclusion that principle of expressiveness is vital in his three principles and then is the expressiveness and the last is elegance. We should stick to the general principle of “original meaning”, only then can we have a reasonable logic to give an order on the importance of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “While Tytler thinks the order of his three principles is suitable, natural and could not be changed”(Wang 2008:71). Tytler proposes that we can make the conveying the faithful translation of the content at the expense to pursue the beautiful and fluent translation of the original text. “If we must give up one of principles he proposes, he advises that we can give up the least important principle namely the third principle”(Wang 2008:71). In other words, it is the first sacrifice of the original “style and effectiveness”. What's more, the style and mood of the original painting must be conveyed in order to convey a faithful picture of the sense.

Thirdly, “these two translation theories are different in the aspect of value orientation. The reason of this difference is due to the difference in the academic tradition of the emphasizing on the practice and theory level of the east and west”(Wang 2008:73). As is known to all, traditional Chinese translation paid more attention to practice rather than theory. The idea of translation should guide translation practice and should be of reference value. Yan Fu's “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was originally used to describe the difficulty of translation, not as a translation standard. He summed it up from his own practice and was concerned with practice rather than theory. However, western translator put practice and theory at the same level. Tytler's three principles are three levels of difficulties in detail, from the content loyal to distinct style. The reflected logical form is clear and obvious, which is significantly different from the implicit three translation principles of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “Western translation theories focus on detailed analysis, rational abstraction and theoretical deduction, and pay attention to logical organization, hierarchy and clarity of content in language expression”(Wang 2008:73). Influenced by traditional philosophy, western translation theories have a strong sense of subject and object throughout the whole process. Taking “expressiveness” as an example, Yan Fu's “expressiveness” and Tytler's third principle “translation should have all the ease of the original composition” have roughly the same meaning, but it’s obvious that they are different in thinking mode. “The Chinese adopt a thought pattern of intuition and understanding while the Englishmen follow a thought pattern of logic and reason, which makes a profound impact on each language”(Chen 2012:126). To this extent, the difference between understanding and rational thinking, as well as the degree of respect for the original text can be best reflected. At last, “these two translation theories are distinct in their motivation. Yan Fu’s criterion is purposeful which aims to attract the elite’s attention”(Wang 2008:73). The literature works that Yan Fu translated from the western world are mainly the great and famous work in the period of western capitalism. “He fully understand this mode of thinking is difficult for the Chinese intellectuals at that time so in this way, he need to make the translation principles easier for the Chinese intellectuals to absorb”(Chen 2012:127). In this regard, he chose this way of spreading his translation ideas which makes his translation principles purposeful. While Tylter just wants to make the whole translation system more systematic and cover content, form and text these three aspects. “His aim in his translation principle is simply trying to make his translation principle known by people and suggest a reasonable translation principle for translators to follow”(Xi 2009:42).

'''III Comparison between the book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'''''

'''1.From the aspect of arrangement of the content'''

Both of these two books all take the line of main translation workshops as its main chapter and then list its contribution to illustrate the content. “In the ''contemporary translation studies'', the author compare the translation group’s advantages and weakness and then give out his own understanding of the study of the translation group” (Li :2014 111).” In the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , the author lists the introduction of each translation workshop’s contribution and achievement to translation” (Liu and Deng 2010:54). While these two books’ difference in arrangement is that in the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' adds a case study to extend the readers’ inflection about the translation study listed in the book. Apart from that, this book also adds the discussion of case study, summary, further reading and discussion and research points into the book which are lack in the ''Contemporary Translation Studies''. These added parts to the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' helps extend the readers’ personal study and help the readers relate the theoretical knowledge with the translation practices.

'''2.From the content of the material'''

Both of the books all list the major contribution of each translation workshop but they differ in their focus and approach. In the ''contemporary Translation Theories'', the author will “analyze the advantage and weakness of the each translation workshop and then study the interrelationship between these translation workshops and at last describe the importance of each translation theory to the world and then pose its questions to the presupposition of each translation theory”(Li 2014:111). While in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'', the author firstly gives a brief introduction of the chapter content and then illustrates the introduction of each translation workshop in a detailed way. To make the book in a more precise way, the author also lists the summary, case study, discussion of study, further reading and discussion and research points in his book to make the readers to have a more comprehensive way of the book.

Apart from that, these two books all take a method of incorporating the theories and practices into the whole. In these two books, each book all include the material of theories and practices as its contents. For some important parts, the authors all give out their questions in the book. For example, in the ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', the author poses his question about Pound’s translation idea“ Was he talking about intuition, guessing the author’s original intention, or something else?(Gentzler 2001:20) After this question, the author gives out his opinions about Pound’s translation idea emphasizing the translator should both inside a tradition and outside any institutionalized logic. While this point of asking question in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' is more obvious. At the end of each chapter, the author will give several questions in his part of discussion and research points. Some of these questions can find the answers in the textbook while some will require the readers to do some additional researches.

'''Conclusion:'''

All in all, after this paper’s careful introduction of these two books and detailed analyzing of the translation theories, it hopes to help the readers to have better understanding of these two books. After the deep analysis of the two theories of Nida’s translation theories and the comparison between Tytler’s three translation principles and Yan Fu’s translation rules, it’s better for the readers to understand the basic rule of translation. And also after analyzing the two big translation theories, it’s clear to draw a conclusion that to be able to be a good translator, the translator should not only be skillful in adapting to two kinds of different language and also he needs to have the solid translation practice experiences. He needs to have the complete transcript of the original text by conveying the content of the original text, but also he should imitate the style and mood of the original text.

'''Works Cited'''

Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary Translation Theories. Vol. 21. Multilingual Matters, 2001.

Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications. Routledge, 2013.

Li Jiangchun. “The comment of the second edition of the Contemporary translation theories.” Foreign Language Education. 35.1(Jan. 2014): 111-114. CNKI. Web. 1 Nov. 2019

Xu Dongping and Wang Dongfeng. “Giving comment about the Edwin’s Contemporary Translation theories.” Foreign Language and Their teaching.12(2000):42-44. CNKI. Web. 1 Nov. 2019

Nida, Eugene A. “Dynamic equivalence in translating.” An Encyclopaedia of Translation: Chinese-English English-Chinese [C/Z]. Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press (1995): 223-30.

Shakernia, Shabnam. “Study of Nida’s (formal and dynamic equivalence) and Newmark’s (semantic and communicative translation) translating theories on two short stories.” Merit Research Journal of Education and Review 2.1 (2013): 001-007.

Liu Dayan. “Dynamic equivalence and formal correspondence in translation between Chinese and English.” International Journal of Humanities and Social Science 2.12 (2012): 242-247.

Panou, Despoina. “Equivalence in translation theories: A critical evaluation.” Theory and Practice in Language Studies 3.1 (2013): 1.

Miao, Ju. “The limitations of ‘equivalent effect.” Perspectives: Studies in Translatology 8.3 (2000): 197-205. CNKI. Web. 3 Nov. 2019

Zhou Wenmei. “Interpreting the linguistic idea in Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammar construction.”Yinshan Academic Journal. 32.3(Jun 2019):5-10. CNKI. Web. 4 Nov. 2019

Zhu Enlue. “A brief analysis of Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammar.” Overseas English. (2018):241-242. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019

Li Zhiwang. “An analysis of Chomsky’s generative transformational grammar and Nida’s ideas about translation.” Journal of Inner Mongolia Agricultural University. 3(2011):394-396. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019

Liu Fang and Deng Jie. “The comment of the new edition of Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications.” Contemporary Foreign Languages Studies. 4.(Apr 2010):54-58. CNKI. Web. 6 Nov. 2019

Stolt Birgit “Luther’s Translation of the Bible.” Lutheran Quarterly 28.4 (2014): 373-74.

Shi Chunrang, Zhao Wei. “Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation.” Foreign Language Research 5 (2005):96-100. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019

Xi Yan. “ Faithfulness-Expressiveness-Elegance, Tytler's three principles and Dynamic Equivalence——New Analyses on the Differences and Similarities of the Standard of Translation and the Causes.” Journal of Cangzhou Teachers' College 3 (2009): 40-42. CNKI. Web. 8 Nov. 2019
Bie Fangfang, and Huang Qin. “Dolet’s Translation Principles and Tytler’s Translation Principles: A Comparison.” Foreign Language Education 2007.0 (2007): 30. CNKI. Web. 9 Nov. 2019

Firdaus, Sonia. “Evolution of translation theories and practice.” The Dialogue (2012):272-294

Wang Chenjie. “A Systematic Comparison between Yan Fu's Theory of Faithfulness, Fluency, and Expressiveness and Tytler's Three General Rules of Translation.” Journal of Ningbo Institute of Education 1 (2008):70-73. CNKI. Web. 10 Nov. 2019

Chen Wen,. “On Yan Fu and the Influence of the “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance.” Journal of Chongqing University of Arts and Sciences (Social Sciences Edition) 6 (2012): 125-129. CNKI. Web. 11 Nov. 2019

='''The Emergence of Translation and Interpretation'''=

==On The Influences of Eugene Nida’s Translation Theory on Chinese Translation Studies 蒋凤仪 Jiang Fengyi 202070080636 英语口译==
<center>蒋凤仪 Jiang Fengyi 202070080636</center>

===Abstract===

Dr. Eugene Nida is an outstanding western translation theorist, and as one of the representatives of linguistic translation theorist, his translation theory involves various aspects of translation, including the definition, principles, and process of translation, exerting profound influences on western countries and Asian countries, especially China. Since the 1980s, Nida’s translation theory entered China and has received profound attention from a wide range of Chinese translation scholars. This chapter, taking ''Chinese Translators Journal'' as the object, aims to analyze the influences of his translation theory on the Chinese translation studies by investigating the number and content of papers related to Nida from the 1980s to the present.

===Keywords===

Nida; Translation theory; Influence; Chinese translation studies

===摘要===

尤金·奈达博士是一位西方杰出的翻译理论家，作为语言学翻译理论派的代表人物之一，其翻译理论涉及翻译的各个方面，包括翻译的定义、原则和过程等，对西方国家及亚洲国家，尤其是中国影响深远。自20世纪80年代奈达翻译思想进入中国，得到了中国翻译学者的广泛关注和研究，本文以权威杂志《中国翻译》为调查目标，对其从20世纪80年代至今的奈达相关论文的数量和内容进行解读，并分析其翻译理论对于中国翻译研究领域所带来的影响。

===关键词===

奈达；翻译理论；影响；中国翻译研究

===Introduction===

Eugene Nida (1914-2011) is one of the most famous translation theorists in modern times. Based on biblical translation researches, he has created his own unique translation theory and published many well-known books such as ''The Scientific Exploration of Translation'', ''Translation Theory and Practice'', ''Language, Culture and Translating'', etc. Based on his researches, he has proposed far-reaching translation theories like “dynamic equivalence” and “reader’s response theory”, which have been popular and influential in the world till now. (Tan 1999: X)

Unlike western translators, Chinese translators have devoted themselves to translation practices but neglected to compile systematic and comprehensive theories. “Although there are dedicated translators who have produced many excellent translation works, the influential theories and researches lag behind.” (Tu & Xiao 2000: 3) After the proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance”, Yan Fu’s translation theory has dominated Chinese translation theories for more than one hundred years, which deprived the diversity of translation studies in China. (Tu & Xiao 2000: 3)

In the 1980s, Nida’s theory was introduced to China and has soon been widely studied and discussed by Chinese scholars. Among them Tan Zaixi and Lao Long are the representatives, who compiled and translated Nida’s works into Chinese and introduced his translation theory to China. The name Nida is deeply engraved on the history of Chinese translation, and Chinese scholar Chen Hongwei even defined it as “Nida Phenomenon". (Chen 2001: 46)

Founded in 1980, ''Chinese Translators Journal'', is an academic journal supported by China Foreign Languages Publishing Administration. Under the guidance of the Translators Association of China, it not only serves as the conference journal of the association but also a window for translation workers to exchange their views on translation and share the fruits of their translation studies. (Chen 2001: 46)

As a national-level core academic journal, it represents the authority in the Chinese translation field. Through publishing papers on this journal, Chinese scholars share the latest and hottest issues around translation, and the journal sets up columns such as ''Translation Research'', ''Translation Theory and Strategy'' for scholars to discuss and study translation theories at home and abroad, which make it an excellent object to have a glimpse at the trend and development of Chinese translation studies. (Chen 2001: 46)

This chapter takes the ''Chinese Translators Journal'' as the object of investigation, going through all the Nida-related papers published in the journal from 1980s to the present, and divides the time period into four stages, each taking for 10 years. By analyzing the number and content of the papers in each stage, it aims to figure out the acceptance and application of Nida’s theory by Chinese scholars and have a clear picture of the influence of Nida’s translation theory on the development of Chinese translation studies.

===1. Nida and His Translation Theory===

The name Eugene Nida is well known in the history of world translation and even in the world linguistic circles. During his life, he has conducted research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, communication tools, etc. He worked on the translation of The Bible, published piles of papers, and wrote numerous books to share his views on translation, left the world with precious translation theory treasure. (Tan 1999: X)

Nida was born in November 1914 in Oklahoma, United States, and moved to California with his parents when he was five years old. He was raised as a Christian and aspired to be a missionary. After graduating summa cum laude in Latin, German, and French, Nida went on to the University of Michigan, where he earned a master’s degree in 1939 and a doctorate in linguistics in 1943. In the same year, he worked for the American Bible Society, and after 1946 he became executive secretary of The Bible Translation Department. It was Nida’s serving this base for a long time that made his translation ideas deeply connected with ''The Bible'' and established his own banner in the western translation theory. (Tan 1999: XI-XII)

According to Tan Zaixi's book, Nida’s translation theory has mainly gone through three different stages: (1) the stage of descriptive language, (2) the stage of communication theory, and (3) the stage of social symbols. (Tan 1999: XV)

Devoted himself to the translation of ''The Bible'', he has summarized his experience and theories in some major works like ''The Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating'' (1959), ''Toward a Science of Translating'' (1964), and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''(1969), which are all of great significance for the world translation study. His major translation theory could be summarized as the followings: (Tan 1999: XV)

1) Nida believed that “translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is an art”. (Nida & Taber 1969: Preface) By science, Nida meant to treat the problems of translating with a scientific orientation to linguistic structures, semantics analysis, and information theory. As there were different types of studies at that time, he tempted to provide an essentially descriptive approach to the translation process, and “the fundamental thrust is linguistics, as it must be in any descriptive analysis of the relationship between the corresponding message in different languages.”(Nida 1964: 8) This point of view has a significant influence on the western world though in his later years Nida has transformed this idea. (Tan 1999: XV)

2) Nida considered the study of translation as a study of communication by applying the theory of communication and information. Like communication, there are source, message and receptor in translation, and if the receptor could not understand the message, the communication is not accessible, so if the readers could not understand the meaning of the translated text, the translation could not be regarded as a success. (Nida 1964: chapter 6)

One should consider the amount of the message and the decoder channel to make sure that the message could be transferred by the decoder channel. A really successful translation, judged in terms of the response of the audience for which it is designed, must provide a challenge as well as information. In the process of translating, the translator should make a full analysis of the source language text from various aspects, such as the author, the message, the receptor and so on. (Nida 1964: chapter 6)

3) One of the well-known theories created by Nida is the “dynamic equivalence”, which was renamed “functional equivalence” later on. He claimed that there were fundamentally two types of equivalence: one of which may be called formal and another which is primarily dynamic. “One way of defining a dynamic translation is to describe it as the closest naturally equivalent to the source language message.“ (Nida 1964: 163)

Under this theory, a translator should not only seek to produce something relatively equivalent in the source language but also produce in the ultimate readers a response similar to that of the original language. A good translation should meet the following requirements: (1) making sense, (2) conveying the spirit and manner of the original, (3) having a natural and easy form of expression, and (4) producing a similar response. (Nida 1964: 164)

4) Nida has also put forward a four-step procedure in the translation process: analysis, transfer, restructuring, and testing. The most complicated and fundamental part is analysis, especially the analysis of meaning. He focused on the study of grammatical meaning, which concerned the relationship with the words and the kernel sentence, referential meaning, and connotative meaning. He also mentioned that the translators need not to follow this order strictly as some procedures could happen at the same time. (Tan 1999: XIX)

In addition to these theories, Nida also focuses on semantic analysis and rhetorical research in his later time. Although Nida’s theory has created new perspectives on language and culture and has profound influences in the world, it does not mean that his theory is perfect as Tan Zaixi points out that “his theories focus too much on solving the problem of communicativeness and intelligibility of translations, thus limiting their scope of application.”（Tan 1999: XXIV）

Besides, Nida once proposed in his book that translation is a science, but later he changed this claim, and Nida’s early view of translation is very different from his later view of translation, he even questioned whether translation needs to be guided by translation theory in his reply to Zhang Jinghao’s letter. (Zhang 2000: 5)

Throughout his life, Nida has a tremendous contribution to the biblical translation, yielding fruitful achievements in translation theory, and has opened up new perspectives for the field of translation such as linguistics and social semiotics. Even though his translation theory could not be considered perfect, it remains a shining jewel in the western translation theory despite of its limitations.

===2. The Studies of Nida’s Theory in China===

As soon as the introduction of Nida’s theory began in the 1980s, his new perspectives and valuable guidance for translating practice quickly captured the eyes of the Chinese scholars and has hit the Chinese translation field on a large scale, which could be reflected from the translation studies of Chinese scholars. Compared with other materials, journals have a shorter issuance cycle so as to be more time-sensitive and could quickly respond to the latest developments in the academic world. (Tu 2000: 15 )

As the authoritative magazine in the field of Chinese translation, Chinese Translators Journal records the research dynamics of Chinese translators and scholars, and profoundly demonstrates the understanding, research, and application of Nida’s translation theory by Chinese scholars. By examining the number and content of relevant papers on Chinese Translators Journal from the 1980s to the present, this chapter aims to analyze the papers around Nida and his theory in 10-year periods to figure out the overall picture of the studies of Nida in China.

====2.1 The First Stage: Beginning Stage====

The first 10-year was from 1980 to 1989: The number of papers focusing on Nida and his theory during this time was 13. During this time, the contents of most papers limited to the introductions of Nida and his theory. In 1982, Professor Tan Xizai published his paper Translation is a Science----Review on Nida’s ''Toward a Science of Translating'', which introduced Nida’s book—T''oward a Science of Translating'' and some of his major theories like basic principles of translation, the function of translation, and the analysis of meaning, marked as the beginning of the studies of Nida’s translation in China. (Tan 1982: 4-11)

Some scholars joined him to have more introductions on Nida and his theories. Lao Long introduced the book ''On Translation'' written by Nida and Chinese translator Jin Di, which is a practice combing Nida’s theories with the Chinese translation practice (Lao 1987: 56-57), and Shi Heping made introductions on the book ''From one Language to Another'' (Shi 1987:42-44). Moreover, several scholars also attempted to apply Nida’s theory to solve other translation problems of free translation and literal translation, such as Lao Long. He believed that the equivalence of form and function raised by Nida is the key point to the free translation and literal translation, and the translators must cover the two aspects: form and function to achieve the closest natural equivalent. (Lao 1989: 3-6)

Among all those papers, there were also voices of criticism, but was very few in number. Although Mr. Lao was among the first to introduce Nida’s theory, he published a paper to share his views after reading what Tan Xizai translated and edited from Nida’s ''Toward a Science of Translating''. He spoke highly of Tan’s work, meanwhile, he reminded the translators in China that some of the western theories might not be applicable in China, especially the idea of kernel sentence. (Lao 1987: 56-57) Qian Linsheng also indicated in his paper that it might not be appropriate to set the reader’s response as the standard of the translation. He argued that the reader's response would be subjective and idealistic to some extent if it separates from the analysis of the original work, which could be used as a reference but could never be the standard. (Qian 1988: 43)

====2.2 The Second Stage: Surging Stage====

The second 10-year went from 1990 to 1999. The number of papers related to Nida and his theory during that period reached its peak to 22. This period could be regarded as a booming stage of the entering of Nida’s theory, not only owing to the mounting number of papers but also the diversity of the studies.

1) The scholars continued to have a further introduction of Nida’s theory, and at the same time, they compared Nida’s theory with other scholars in a large amount. As Nida has always devoted himself to the compiling of his works, the scholars in China have also spared no effort to follow his theories. Sun Yu has made a full introduction of the book ''Language, Culture and Translating'' and considered the views in this book of great reference meaning to Chinese translators. (Sun 1994: 47-49)

Moreover, more scholars tried to make comparisons between Nida and other western translators. Liao Qiyi studied the concept of "equivalence" between Nida’ “closest natural” and “dynamic equivalent” and Catford’s “textual equivalence” and had analyses in his paper, demonstrating that the equivalence in translation is a key concept in the process of translation. (Liao 1994: 35-37) Lin Kenan had an overall comparison between Nida's and Newmark's theory to find out the similarities and differences between their theories, aiming to give some references for Chinese scholars. (Lin 1992:2-5)

2) There were still a group of scholars, including Lin Kenan (Lin 1996:7-10+17), Xi Zhaoyan (Xi 1996: 3-6), and Heng Xiaojun & Wang Chengzhi (Heng & Wang 1995: 18-20), tried to employ Nida’s theory to solve the translation difficulties, and the concept of “translation equivalence” was the major issue, for almost all those scholars regarded it as their theoretical support. Two of the representatives was Heng Xiaojun & Wang Chengzhi, who, in their paper, took Nida’s dynamic equivalence into compiling a bilingual dictionary but found out it might not work. (Heng & Wang 1995: 18-20)

3) With studies went further, more and more scholars recognized that even though Nida’s theory had provided ingenious perspectives for translation, it still had its own shortcomings. Scholars like Huang Bangjie (Huang 1996: 40-42+46) and Wang Shoureng directly pointed out their critics towards the incompetence of the application of Nida’s theory in Chinese-English translation. (Wang 1992: 45-48) Yang Xiaorong reflected in her paper that did the translators in China really understand Nida and should the translation field make some adjustments towards the study of his theories. (Yang 1996: 9)

====2.3 The third Stage: Transitioning Stage====

The third period was from 2000 to 2009. The number of papers connected with Nida and his theory during this period was 20. During this transition time, though the number of papers remained high, the contents have changed: the introductive papers at this period slumped, instead the scholars applied his theory to discuss the hotspot issues in China during that time, such as the possibility of setting the discipline of “translatology” for translation studies. Unlike the previous studies that focused on Nida’s theory only, more and more scholars regarded Nida‘s theory as an object for the comparisons with other major theorists during this time, among which the key concept has transferred from "equivalence" to "function". On top of this, a group of scholars continued to retrospect upon the application of Nida’s theory in China.

1) Li Tianxin mentioned the transformation of Nida’s thoughts in the possibility of whether translation could be a science to support her idea that translation could never be considered as a science in 2000. (Li 2000: 8-10) Lv Jun regarded Nida’s theory as part of structuralism and made a review of Nida’s theory, together with some other major translation theories, to list the difficulties and major tasks that Chinese scholars faced when building a discipline of "translatology". (Lv 2001: 8-11.)

2) As Halliday’s functional grammar theory and other western theories came to China, more and more scholars compared those theories with Nida’s “functional equivalence” to have a better understanding of these translation theories, Among who Zhang Meifang & Qian Hong was the representatives. She listed Nida’s functional equivalence, Holmes’s function-oriented studies, Halliday’s functional grammar theory, and functionalism from German to make analyses between those theories and figure out the meaning of function in each of these theories, which pave the way for the study around function. (Zhang & Qian 2007: 10-16+93.)

3) As more and more western theories came to China and have been applied by the translators, a group of translators reflected upon the progress but also pointed out the problems. However, at that time, Nida and his theory were not the major subject but were included in all the western theories. Lin Kenan, based on four M.A. degree theses, revealed the prevailing problems when scholars and M.A. students applyiing the overseas translation theories, one of which was Nida’s "dynamic equivalence" and gave some suggestions to improve the situation. (Lin 2003: 46) Zhang Jinghao, taking Nida’s theories as an example, illustrated that most the Chinese scholars have not really understood the essence of those western theories because of some reason like that most of the scholars only read the translated version and never delve in to the original books, and they simply accepted those theories without questioning and further practicing.(Zhang 2006: 59-61)

====2.4 The Fourth Stage: Falling Stage====

The fourth period was from 2010 to 2020. The number of papers focusing on Nida and his theory during this period dropped to 8. The latest Nida-related paper on ''Chinese Translators Journal'' was published in 2015. The shrinking number clearly showed that Nida is not the main focus in the translation studies in this new century. Although ''Chinese Translators Journal'' could not represent the whole scope of translation study in China, it exactly showed that the research on Nida is no longer mainstream for Chinese translators.

For those 8 related papers, the contents still covered Nida’s major concepts like equivalence in scholar Cai Lijian's (Cai 2015: 81-87) and Liu Runze & Wei Xiangqing & Zhao Wenjing's papers. (Li & Wei & Zhao 2015: 18-24+127), but more scholars stretched to some theories that have been neglected in the early periods. Li Shaoyan quoted Nida’s social dialects to explain why interpreters should keep the culture in mind when working (Li 2011: 41-44), and both Wang Aiqin (Wang 2012: 98-102) and Wang Zhaoyuan (Wang 2012: 113-116) applied Nida’s translation procedures to form their own mode of translation procedures.

Besides translation studies, as this master of translation passed away in 2011, there was a piece of an obituary together with article written by Ye Zinan to memorize him, which showed the great grief among the Chinese scholars for the loss of Nida and also the significance of Nida for the translation studies in China as Ye Zinan mentioned in his article:" Nida has a tremendous influences on the translation studies in China". (Ye 2011: 86)

====2.5 Summary====

According to the above number and content of the papers, in general, Nida’s theory in China has gone through the process of (1) introduction of works and theories, (2)study and comparison, and (3) retrospection and criticism. Since the 1980s when Tan Zaixi first published Nida's theory in China Translation, it has led to a Nida fever, and translators not only introduced Nida’s theory to China in a large scale but also try to apply Nida’s theory to solve Chinese translation problems, such as the debate between free translation and literal translation.

As the study went further, more and more criticism was formed upon the shortcomings of his theory and the imcompatibility of his theory in China, and then a group of scholars made retrospections on the study of Nida in China, at the same time, they argued that Chinese scholars should have a dialectical view towards Nida’s theory, to learn its merits and abandon those incompatible. The study of Nida reached its climax in 1990-1999, for the entry of other Western translation theories then distracted Chinese scholars from their research, which was also the reason why a large group of scholars compared Nida’ theory with other translators’ in order to have a deeper understanding of their theories and provide a better reference for Chinese translation.

With only few theories under discussion, the passion for Nida’s theory has been cooled down entering the 21 Century. Among all Nida’s theories, the concepts of dynamic equivalence, function, and translation procedure have been discussed and studied the most and have the greatest influence on Chinese translation scholars.

===3. The Influences of Nida’s Theory in China===

As a major figure in the translation field, Nida is regarded as one of the most influential theorists in the translation field. His translation theory was the first and most systematically western theory that was introduced and studied in China, which could be indicated from the number and content of the papers on ''Chinese Translators Journal'' from the 1980s till present.

====3.1 The Studies of Translation in China Before the Introduction of Nida’s Theory====

The large-scale translation activities in China originated in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The first person who formed a theory in China was the Buddhist master Dao An (312-385), who was enlightened by the process of his translating of Buddhist scriptures and proposed the theory of “Five Losses and Three Difficulties”, which was the beginning of Chinese translation theory. In his theory, he raised the question of “Wen” (text) and “Zhi” (form), which is essentially was the comparison of free translation and literal translation. The “Five Losses” covered aspects like the source language, syntax and style of the original text, and the later translation scholars also followed his path to have more researches on separate perspectives but never formed a standard for the evaluation of the translation. (Liu 1994: 2-3)

It was not until Yan Fu put forward the translation standard of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” that established a translation standard for Chinese translators. After Yan Fu put forward his concept, there were a large number of supporters. However, there were also many criticisms. Moreover, some translators gave new meanings to this theory and form their own theory, such as Liu Zhongde’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness”, and many others tried to put aside Yan Fu’s theory and created their own new translation theory, such as Lin Yutang’s “Faithfulness, Fluency, and Beauty” (Liu 1994: 5).

However, it is not difficult to recognize that these theories were still under the framework of Yan Fu’s theory. While the dispute between free translation and literal translation continued among the scholars, they still failed to provide practical criteria for judging translation in China. It was right at the time when Nida’s translation theory was spread into China (Liu 1994: 6-8).

====3.2 The Influences on Chinese Translation Studies After the Introduction of Nida’s Theory====

Based on the stagnant situation of the Chinese translation theory at that time, Nida brought a new light to the field of Chinese translation, leading the trend of studying western translation theories in China, and triggering Chinese scholars to have a critical mind towards western translation theories.

=====3.2.1 It Brought New Perspectives for Translation Theory in China.=====

In contrast with the booming studies in translation studies in the West in the 1960s to 1970s, the development of translation studies in China almost paused in the 1950s because of some social unrest, which has been stagnating for at least 20 years. What’s more, translators have been struggling in the dispute between free translation and literal translation without producing a systematic and thorough interpretation. Since Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” was proposed, it has dominated Chinese translation theory for a long time. The reason why Yan Fu’s theory has been passed down for so many years was that there was no scientific and acceptable theory to take his place for the time being. (Tu & Xiao 2000: 100)

Hence, there was an urgent demand for breakthroughs in translation studies. Nida's theory on translation and the theoretical understanding of translation have brought Chinese translators brand perspectives, such as functional equivalence and readers’ response, which have never been fully covered by Chinese scholars and opened a window for Chinese scholars to study the language from the language itself instead of only translation such as linguistics and social symbols. (Tu & Xiao: 2000: 19)

In addition, Nida’s theory set specific standards for the evaluation of the translation. By studying, learning, and applying Nida’s theory, Chinese scholars have also produced their own corresponding theoretical structures, enriching the theories of Chinese scholars themselves. based on Nida’s theory, Wang Zhaoyuan had made his own translation procedures, which contains six steps: prepare, translate, examine the content, examine the style, examine the form and proofread. (Wang 2012: 113-116)

=====3.2.2 It Led the Trend of Studying Western Translation Theories.=====

Since the shortcomings and problems of the traditional translation theories in China appeared, the translators in China were also desperate to draw on some helpful theoretical elements from the achievements of the west in this field. Among them, Nida’s theory was a critical one. Since the introduction of Nida’s theory into China, scholars have conducted extensive discussions and studies from various perspectives. With Nida as a precedent, more and more Chinese scholars recognized the advancement of western theories and introduced other foreign translation theories to China. (Tu & Xiao 2000: 18)

Chen Hongwei scanned the papers on ''Chinese Translators Journal'' from 1980 to 2000 in all aspects and divided them into four stages. In addition to the introduction of Nida's theory, the theories of five translators were introduced in the first stage (1980-1984), the works and theories of 20 foreign translators were introduced in the second stage (1985-1989), 13 translators were introduced in the third stage (1990-1994), and the approaches and works of 17 translators were introduced in the fourth stage (1995-2000). (Chen 2001: 46-48)

While introducing the theories of other translators, a large number of scholars have compared them with Nida’s translation theories, and a large number of Western theories have entered China, enlivening the academic atmosphere of translation theories and enriching the theoretical foundation of the Chinese translation study.

=====3.2.3 It Liberated the Minds of Chinese Scholars Towards the Western Translation Theories.=====

After the introduction of Nida’s theory, a large group of translation scholars were attracted to his theory and carried out extensive studies, and almost all of them agreed with his unique perspectives. However, they gradually realized the shortcomings of Nida’s theory. since his theory was based on biblical translation, which bore religious and dissemination elements, and was different from the area of research among Chinese translation scholars, some of his theory was not applicable to Chinese translation.

The reflection on Nida’s theory has also prompted more Chinese scholars to reflect on the introduction and application of other western theories, realizing that Chinese and western theoretical systems are different and that they need to adopt a critical attitude, taking the essence and the dross. In his paper, Zhang Jinghao proposed that it is necessary to look at foreign translation theories calmly and objectively and at the same time return to the proper path of translation research in China, that is, to study Chinese traditions and experiences mainly, supplemented by foreign theories, which is the proper path that translation theory research in China should step on. (Zhang 2006: 61)

Moreover, it has encouraged Chinese scholars to question the western authority. In the later studies, it is obvious that even though scholars compared Nida’s theory with other theories and introduced more western translation theories, scholars no longer took the one-sided attitude that they had before, they tried to explore the foreign theories from multiple perspectives of a critical point of view, like positive and negative sides and promote the translation study in China to a more stable and mature path. (Chen 2001: 48)

===Conclusion===

From the analysis of ''Chinese Translators Journal'', it can be seen that Nida’s theory has entered China through three stages: translation and introduction of works, study and comparison, and retrospection and criticism, and the number of Nida-related has experienced three processes: surging, transitioning and falling. In terms of time, the discussion was most enthusiastic from the 1980s to the beginning of the 21st century, and the important translation concepts under study included:“ functional equivalence”, “reader‘s response’, and ‘the procedure of translation’, which had a significant influence on Chinese translation scholars.

Throughout the history of translation in China, Chinese translators emphasize practice but not the guiding theory, and even though a small number of translators have summarized certain theoretical experiences, they have not been able to form a complete set of influential theories. Nida’s theory was novel in perspective, excelling in guiding the translation of ''The Bible'', and since the publication of ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'', his theoretical achievements have enjoyed a worldwide reputation in translation, which could add new sparks for Chinese translation study. This is why Nida’s theory has triggered such a strong impact after entering China, which can also be seen from the number of relevant papers in the ''Chinese Translators Journal''.

However, in the later stage, Chinese scholars gradually discovered the incompatibility between Nida’s theory and the actual situation of Chinese translation and began to substantially criticize Nida’s theory.

At the same time, some scholars proposed to look at Nida's theory calmly and objectively and finally the scholars realized that it is necessary to adopt an objective attitude towards foreign translation theories, focusing on Chinese translation experiences and practices, and some scholars extracted the merits from Nida’s theories and created their own theoretical systems, which is a new and mature path for the Chinese translation study.

Nida’s theory of translation has opened up a new perspective for Chinese translation and propelled Chinese translation to step on a new and correct path. Although Chinese translation scholars have taken some detours in the middle of this process, they made progress while groping and gradually discovered the path that Chinese translation itself should take, which could be the greatest contribution Nida’s theory has brought to Chinese translation studies.

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==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory-解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译==
<center>解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译</center>

===Abstract===

With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese.

==A Study on the History of Interpretation and the Prospect of Interpretation in China 雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi 202070080639 英语口译==

<center>雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi 202070080639</center>

===Abstract===
This paper mainly outlines the development history of interpretation, briefly compares the development history of interpretation in China and the West and their respective development characteristics, and compares the interpretation research in the West with the late start of interpretation research in China, and the development history of interpretation research in China in the past 40 years of reform and opening up, mainly through four stages: the "budding period" from the late 1970s to the late 1980s, the "initial development period" in the 1990s, the "emerging period" in the first decade of the 21st century, and the "diversified development period" in the second decade of the 21st century.Finally reviewed the current state of development and future prospects of interpretation research in China.

===Key Words===
Interpretation, historical development, interpretation studies, development trends

===摘要===
本文主要概述了口译的发展历史，简要对比中西方口译发展历程和各自的发展特点，对比西方的口译研究，中国对口译的研究起步较晚，在改革开放40年来中国口译研究的发展历程，主要经历四个阶段：20世纪70年代末到80年代末的“萌芽期”、20世纪90年代的“初步发展期”、21世纪头十年的“新兴期”、21世纪第二个十年进行中的“多元发展期”，最后就目前中国口译研究的发展现状和未来展望进行评析。

===关键词===
口译，历史发展，口译研究，发展趋势

===1.Introduction===

The expression of the meaning of one language through another language is called translation. There are two main forms of translation, namely, interpretation and translation. Interpretation can be between two different national languages, or between a standard language and a dialect or between a dialect and another dialect.

Interpreting has a long history and is one of the oldest professions of human beings. In primitive societies, primitive tribal groups ruled separately.with the development of history, this self-enclosed form of society hindered the economic and cultural progress of human beings, so the tribes had the desire and need to cross the frontiers and develop outward into the countryside for trade and cultural exchange. The language barrier became the biggest obstacle to this cross-ethnic communication. Interpretation as a language intermediary can make people realize the desire of economic and cultural communication with the outside world. Thus,bilingual or multilingual interpretation is born.

Human interpretation activities have also recorded the political, economic, military, cultural, scientific and technological, health and educational interactions between people of all races in the world over the centuries. All the major events in human history have been marked by interpretation. In the history of human development, interpretation activities have become the lubricant that drives the wheels of human society to roll. With the development of the times, people's communication has become deeper and deeper, and the concept of "global village" has gradually come to the fore, so the status of interpretation has become extremely important. The establishment of the United Nations, especially the Geneva International Conference Interpreters Association, has brought its status to an unprecedented level. At the same time, interpretation has also entered the universities as a discipline, and its development has become increasingly rapid and perfect.As a country that attaches importance to international friendship and multilateral trade, China has been paying more attention to interpretation and cultivating interpretation talents, and the research on interpretation in China has been increasing year by year, and China will continue to pay attention to the development and progress of interpretation in the future, and the overall development will show a good and steady rise.（Zhao Yonghong,2007）

===2.The overall development and overview of the Interpretation===

Language interpreting is known to date back to Ancient Egypt during the 3rd millennium B.C. The first records of interpreting were in the form of Egyptian low-relief sculptures in a prince’s tomb that made reference to an interpreter supervisor.In ancient China as early as the Spring and Autumn period there was the work of translation, at that time was called "tongue man", while we in the "Book of Rites - King's system" “五方之民，言语不通，嗜欲不同，达其志，通其欲。东方曰寄，南方曰象，西方曰狄鞮，北方曰译。”And "The Rites of Zhou - Autumn Officials - Preface Official" (Jia Gongyan, a great scribe and linguist of Tang Dynasty)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book.

Oral communication preceded the emergence of writing, so the work of interpretation also preceded that of translation, so the history of interpretation as a social phenomenon or social activity can be traced back to a long time ago. However, interpretation as an internationally recognized profession began at the end of World War I at the Paris Peace Conference. Although there have been interpreters in Western countries for hundreds of years, most of them are part-time interpreters. It was at the beginning of the 20th century that interpreting was recognized as a formal profession internationally. In 1919, after the end of World War I, the organizers of the Paris Peace Conference recruited a large number of full-time interpreters who worked as official interpreters for the Paris Peace Conference as 'successive interpreters. '(or "consecutive translators," as they were called). "The founders of the Paris Peace Conference ended the agency.

From then on, the professional nature of interpreting was recognized, and the training of basic methods and skills of interpreting began to be emphasized. After the end of the World War Two, the Nuremberg War Criminals Trial adopted the method of near-simultaneous interpretation of the original and translated languages. The emergence of new forms of interpretation, marked by "simultaneous interpretation", made people look at the uniqueness of the profession of senior interpreters. With the creation of the United Nations and the emergence of various global and regional organizations, international interactions have become more frequent, and a vivid modern drama has been performed on the multilateral and bilateral stages of the world, in which interpreters have played a unique role.

The status of professional international conference interpreters is getting higher and higher, the United Nations has established a special translation agency, and the study of its principles and methods by the International Association of Senior Interpreters has also entered higher education institutions. For over half a century, senior interpreters have been looked for by international agencies, governments, and various cross-cultural institutions and organizations. Professional interpreters have become a highly respected and noble profession, especially senior international conference interpreters, who are both intelligent linguists and knowledgeable international diplomats.

However, the history of formal interpreting that we now see commonly used in various international conferences and negotiations is not very long. The first large-scale use of conference interpretation in history was at the end of World War I. The Paris Peace Conference held in 1919 was the first large-scale official use of consecutive interpretation in history.The first large-scale use of simultaneous interpretation in history was at the end of World War II.Before that, consecutive interpretation was commonly used at international conferences because the working languages were mostly limited to French and English, and the science and technology required for simultaneous interpretation equipment had not yet been developed. It was not until 1947, when the trial of Nazi war criminals was held in Nuremberg, Germany, where four languages were used simultaneously: German, English, French and Russian, that the use of simultaneous interpretation began to be experimented with in order to improve the efficiency of the court. Initially, the method used was that after a speech, different interpreters simultaneously translated the speech into the other three languages and transmitted it through headphones to the ears of different listeners. Of course, this was still in fact consecutive interpretation.

Later, further experiments were conducted with simultaneous interpretation of speeches, which greatly improved the efficiency and thus began to be used on a large scale, which led to the first real simultaneous interpretation in history.Now,with the development of science and technology, there were more equipment helping the work of interpreting.It is the golden age of the interpreting profession.

====2.1 The development of the Interpretation in west====

Interpreting is ancient. Maybe as ancient as languages or mankind. Interestingly enough there are references to interpreters in many different historical sources.
Cicero in ancient Rome spoke highly of his interpreter and the services the interpreter did for him. In the Ottoman empire interpreters were called dragoman and their roles were not just interpreting but also acting as guides, go-betweens and door-openers to the Ottoman empire. The Ottoman empire also had sworn court interpreters, as can be seen from old court records from the Ottoman empire. Update December 6, 2010: Another interesting post on dragomans and the history of interpreting by Unprofessional Translations
There were also sworn court interpreters in Spain in the 16th Century. And interpreters were also used by the conquistadors to communicate with the indigenous people in the Americas. Although the training those interpreters received were perhaps not to be envied. Natives were brought back to Spain where they worked as slaves and learnt the language. If they were judged good enough they were brought back to their origins to act as interpreters.

Interpreters continued to be employed throughout the middle Ages. Monks of many different nationalities interpret in monasteries; preachers of foreign lands interpret in councils, as well as some individuals interpreting on business expeditions, military incursions and diplomatic meetings.During the Age of Discovery,the use of new and different languages had greatly changed the way we see interpretation today. Christopher Columbus in his first voyage noted that his Arabic and Hebrew-speaking interpreters we not very helpful in communicating with the Indians. After this voyage he decided to capture some Native Americans and teach them Spanish so they could help him as interpreters on his next expedition.

But interpreting hit the headlines with the Nüremberg Trials. Although interpreting was used at the international organizations before the Second World War, this was the first time that large scale simultaneous interpreting was used. Technology now allowed interpreters to listen to the original in head phones and interpret into a microphone that broadcast the interpreting to listeners. Hardly any of the interpreters who interpreted at the Nüremberg Trials had any interpreting training. But most of the interpreters there then went on to a career in interpreting. These interpreters were the founding fathers and mothers of the profession. They were active in the professionalization of interpreters, they helped training new interpreters and they lay the foundations of AIIC, the international association for conference interpreters.

Community interpreters are a different case. Community interpreting has not started its professionalization until the past 10 or 15 years. Community interpreters were typically because of friends and and family of the person needing community interpreting. However, thanks to researchers and very active community interpreters, and in particular thanks to the critical link conference, community interpreting is slowly gaining professional standards in the same way as its big sister conference interpreting.
（https://interpretings.net/2010/09/13/history-of-interpreting/）
（https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.）

====2.1.1The four development stages of western interpretation research====

The Pre-research Period

From the 1950s to the early 1960s, mainly focused on interpreters talking about their personal experiences, observing and reflecting on interpreting behaviors and the working environment of interpreters, and exploring issues such as the language and knowledge requirements of interpreters, the difficulties encountered by interpreters in their work, the relationship with clients or fatigue, etc. The issues discussed include the language and knowledge requirements of translators, the difficulties they encounter in their work, their relationship with clients or their fatigue, etc. The research at this stage was not very theoretical, but the two manuals published during this period, Rozen (1956) and Herbert (1952)1, are classics, among which the basic principles and methods of consecutive interpreting notes described in Rozen's book are still widely accepted today.

The Experimental Psychology Period

From the 1960s to the early 1970s, mainly some psychologists and psycho-linguists used the theoretical framework of psychology and psycholinguistics to study the cognitive problems of interpreting, put forward some hypotheses about the process of interpreting, and analyzed source language, noise speaking speed, the impact of variables such as EVS (Ear-Voice Span, i.e. the time difference between the two streams of the source language and the translated language) on interpretation and the countermeasures often adopted by interpreters, etc.. However, some authors are skeptical about whether this phase of research can really help people better understand the interpreting process.

The early 1970s to the mid-1980s was dominated by theoretical research conducted by interpreting practitioners (most of them were part-time interpreting teachers). The most representative theory was the théorie du sens (interpretation theory) created by the École Supérieure des Interprètes de Paris (ESIT), which emphasized that interpretation was centered on meaning rather than on the translation of words and language structures. The théorie du sens theory was once the dominant theory in the interpretation community and still has a positive influence in interpretation training today. However, research at this stage was relatively isolated, there was a lack of communication between schools of thought, and the significance of empirical research was almost completely ignored.

The Renewal Period

It began in the latter half of the 1980s, marked a turning point with an important conference on interpretation held at the University of Trieste in Italy in 1986, from which interpretation research entered a new historical period. In the third stage, the dominant views and theories were openly questioned and challenged, and the interpreting community ended its isolation for many years, and extensive and in-depth exchanges among various schools of thought began.
(Xiao Xiaoyan，2002，71-72)

====2.2 The development of the Interpretation in china====

Interpretation as a specialized profession has a history of more than 2,000 years in China. In ancient times,as early as the Spring and Autumn period,people who were engaged in the profession of interpretation were called "tongue man" or “Yi”. (“译”、“寄”、“象”、“狄银”、“通事”或“通译”) In the Book of Rites(《礼记·王制》), it is written that“五方之民言语不通，嗜欲不同。达其志，通其欲，东方日寄，南方曰象，西方日狄革是，北方曰译。”The "Kueixing miscellaneous knowledge after the collection - translator" (《癸幸杂识后集·译者》)made this explanation: "translation, Chen also; Chen said that the internal and external words are established this transmitter of the language to pass its will, now the north is said to be through the matter."(“译，陈也；陈说内外之言皆立此传语之人以通其志，今北方谓之通事。”) The Later Han Dynasty - The Chronicle of Emperor He mentions the demand for translators at that time: "Duguo Xi refers to, then pass translators 40,000." (“都护西指，则通译四万。”)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book.

Interpretation as a discipline began to be studied by some experts and scholars, and it started relatively late. The study of interpretation in the West basically started after World War II, while in China, it was not until the early 1980s that some articles analyzing the characteristics and techniques of interpretation were published, and its development was relatively slow. Only after 1996 did it start to develop rapidly and achieve some scientific achievements.

Since the founding of the People's Republic of China, China has become more and more active in the international arena. In the early 1970s, China returned to the United Nations and since then its international status has been rising rapidly. After entering the 1980s, marked by reform and opening up, China's economy began to take off and the door to the outside world opened wider and wider. In the 1990s, when the economies of many countries and regions in the East and West were in recession, China's economic train continued to run at high speed with its strong vitality along the track to the ranks of the world's economically developed countries. A China that has chosen a socialist market economy with great success and has become the preferred target of many overseas investors and tourists. A fully open China, which is following the path of a strong nation at a steady pace, has more and more contact points and a larger contact area for foreign exchanges. The demand for all kinds of interpreters is increasing day by day, and the contradiction between the supply and demand of senior interpreters is becoming more and more prominent.

The "Shanghai English Interpreting Qualification Examination" has come into being, and English undergraduate majors in all colleges and universities across China have been offering practical courses on interpreting, and "Research and Practice of Interpreting" as a course combining theory and practice has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree classes by more and more colleges and universities. As a course combining theory and practice, "Interpretation Research and Practice" has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree courses by more and more universities. Some universities have also held national seminars on interpretation. This is the need of the times, the need of the country and the need of the market. At the same time, the study of interpretation has also enriched the theories of linguistics and applied linguistics (such as psycholinguistic studies, discourse studies, bilingual studies and translation studies).

====2.2.1The four development stages of Chinese interpretation research====

The "budding period" from the late 1970s to the late 1980s

During this period, there were only 27 papers on interpretation published in core foreign language journals,and the research on interpretation in China was still in the nascent stage, and the topics discussed in the papers were mostly at the level of experience introduction, and many papers only raised some phenomena and problems without in-depth discussion from the theoretical level.The landmark event of this period is the opening of the "United Nations Interpreter and Translator Training Course" in Beijing Foreign Language Institute in 1979, which has trained nearly 100 interpreters by the early 1990s.(Chen Bei,2009)

The "Initial Development Period" in the 1990s

Between 1990 and 1999, 112 papers on interpretation were published in core foreign language journals, and the research on interpretation in China entered the "initial development period". Most of the papers in this period were mainly focused on the summary of interpretation skills and the discussion of the prescriptive teaching methods, and in general, the interpretation research in this period lacked theoretical guidance. Although a few scholars (e.g. Bao Gang and Liu Heping) began to pay attention to the combination of interpretation teaching concepts and interpretation theories, the theoretical perspectives are still relatively homogeneous and mainly focus on interpretation theories.

During this period, professional interpretation teaching started to be initiated in institutions. In the 1990s, Beijing Foreign Studies University started to establish a senior translation school, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies established a translation department in the College of English, and with the support of the British Council, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies and Xiamen University both offered professional interpretation courses, and Beijing Language and Culture College also offered professional interpretation courses in the French major.The first and second National Symposium on Interpretation Theory and Teaching held in 1996 and 1998 were the main academic events of interpretation in this period, marking the beginning of the development of interpretation research in China with the awareness of research fields.(Chen Bei,2009)

The "Emerging Period" in the first decade of the 21st century

With the formal establishment of interpretation majors in some universities and the development of interpretation practice in the direction of professionalization and specialization, interpretation research in China entered the emerging period. 251 papers on interpretation were published in core foreign language journals from 2000 to 2009.
In this period, not only the number of interpretation papers has increased significantly, which is equivalent to twice of the previous period, but also the quality of research has improved significantly, and interpreting researchers have started to break away from the traditional research perspective, pay attention to the research results of other disciplines (Liu Heping 2001a), and are not satisfied with putting forward some prescriptive principles and methods of interpreting and interpreting teaching, but begin to try to explore the inner laws of interpreting and the principles and methods of teaching In this period, Shanghai Foreign Language Institute (SFLI) has been working on the concept behind the teaching of interpretation.

During this period, Shanghai Foreign Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, etc. established senior translation schools one after another, and the training of doctoral students in interpretation studies also started in Beijing Foreign Studies University, Shanghai Foreign Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, etc.

The "National Conference on Interpretation" was held every two years and became an important academic event to unite the strengths of interpretation research, and the 5th National Conference and International Conference on Interpretation held in 2004 was themed "Interpretation Professionalization: International Experience and Development in China".With the theme of "Professionalization of Interpretation: International Experience and Development in China", the conference focused on the problems and challenges faced by Chinese interpreters on the road to professionalization, such as the standardization and professionalization of the profession and the marketization of interpretation, and discussed the training and certification of interpreters, interpretation theory and interdisciplinary research, as well as interpretation teaching and evaluation (Yuanyuan Mu and Jun Pan 2005), and began to publish the Proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference. The conference also started to publish the proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference.(Chen Bei,2009)

The "Period of Diversified Development" in the Second Decade of the 21st Century

From 2010 to 2017, there were more than 300 papers on interpretation in core journals. In this period, not only the number of published papers continued to increase, but also the quality of research has been significantly improved, the research themes were diversified, and the research methods are also more diversified.
The vigorous development of interpretation research in China during this period is inseparable from two driving forces: first, the establishment of undergraduate translation majors and master's degrees in translation (MTI) in mainland China; second, the strengthening of exchanges between the Chinese interpretation research community and the international interpretation research community.

During the 7th National Conference and International Symposium on Interpretation, the interaction between the conference organizers and representatives of the international interpretation research community led to the publication of the authoritative international journal Interpreting: International Journal of Research and Practice in Interpreting in 2009. In 2011, the book was published in John Benjamins Publishing's famous "Benjamins Translation Library" under the title of "Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China". The book was published in 2011 as a stand-alone book entitled Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China in John Benjamins' famous Benjamins Translation Library series, which then became "an international showcase of the interface of Chinese interpreting research" (Wang Binhua and Zheng Xun 2011).

And,some young Chinese scholars have completed their doctoral dissertations in the field of interpretation research and become the new force of Chinese interpretation research; some Chinese interpretation researchers have started to go to international academic circles, either publishing papers in international important translation journals or applying for teaching positions in international famous universities, forming interaction with international interpretation research circles.

===3.Current situation and the prospect of the interpretation in China===

At present, the interpretation work is subdivided into five major categories:conference interpreting,court interpreting,business interpreting,accompaniment interpreting and document translation. From the perspective of language, there is a need for Spanish, Korean, Japanese, French, German and other small language talents.

Nowadays, with the expanding foreign economic and cultural exchanges, a translation market of ten billion RMB has been created in China. Especially in the past two years, a large number of translation companies emerged all over the country, and the translation service market in China is expanding rapidly. At present, there are more than 6,000 professional translation registration companies of various kinds, and there are tens of thousands of companies registered in the name of consulting companies, printing agencies, etc., which actually undertake translation business. In Shanghai alone, there are more than 200 translation registration companies.

However, the shortage of translation service teams is still a major problem plaguing the translation industry. The existing translation professionals employed in China are about 60,000, and the number of translation practitioners is conservatively estimated to be 600,000, while the relevant sample survey shows that the number may reach 1 million. Even so, the existing translation team is still unable to meet the huge market demand.(wenku)

Guo Xiaoyong, executive deputy director of the China Foreign Language Bureau and first executive vice president of the China Translation Association, said that the biggest challenge facing Chinese translation work is undoubtedly the shortage of qualified translators, and "it is not a shortage in the general sense, but an extreme shortage, especially the serious shortage of high-quality and professional translators who can undertake the ever-expanding tasks of foreign cultural exchanges.(http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm)

The current translation work also faces many problems and challenges, including the lack of scientific understanding and due attention to the importance of translation work and its laws, as well as the unclear positioning of the industry, which affects the sustainable development of the industry, and the lack of access system, which causes a number of poorly qualified translation enterprises and practitioners to enter the translation market.

according to the statistics of the Ministry of Human Resources and Social Security, by the end of 2010, there were less than 30,000 professional translators (i.e. those who have obtained professional and technical titles of translation) in state-owned enterprises and institutions; the number of people who have passed the national translation professional qualification (level) examination is more than 27,000; the undergraduate and master's degree education in translation which started not long ago It is estimated that only a few thousand translation graduates have been trained so far, and it is difficult for such a limited professional team to meet the needs of increasingly extensive international exchanges.

Over the past 30 years, with the joint efforts of the Chinese translation industry and people inside and outside the industry, the face of China's translation industry has undergone great changes. Among them, as of November this year, 57 colleges and universities in China have been approved to offer professional degree courses in translation and 159 colleges and universities have been approved to offer professional degree courses in translation. Translation education has developed from being an auxiliary means of foreign language teaching in the past to becoming an independent discipline specialty for training professional translation talents and translation research talents, and has made a major breakthrough in the status of higher education, and the translation discipline system has become more and more perfect; the language service industry with The language service industry with translation as its core has developed into a new industry, with an average annual growth rate of 18.4% between 2003 and 2011; it is expected to grow at an average annual rate of 15% during the 12th Five-Year Plan period, which will be higher than the average speed of China's economic development.

With the increasing international status of China, the density of international conferences is also greater, and the number of professional English interpreters capable of handling larger international conferences in China is only about 10,000. so we should cultivated more interpreting talents and attach great importance to the cultivation of high-quality and specialized translation talents in shortage,establish an industry-university-research combination model linking industry associations, colleges and universities and employers, further improve the translation professional education system, further improve the evaluation and certification system for translation talents and promote it in the whole society to form a consensus in the industry.(http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm)

With the increasing international status of China, the density of international conferences is also greater, and the number of professional English interpreters capable of handling larger international conferences in China is only about 10,000. so we should cultivated more interpreting talents and attach great importance to the cultivation of high-quality and specialized translation talents in shortage,establish an industry-university-research combination model linking industry associations, colleges and universities and employers, further improve the translation professional education system, further improve the evaluation and certification system for translation talents and promote it in the whole society to form a consensus in the industry.

===4.Conclusion===

Interpretation has gone through a long process of development from low to high level, from imperfect to increasingly perfect, and it continues to develop steadily along a long development trajectory of more than two thousand years, and its characteristics will be increasingly enriched and intermingled.

Today, the wheel of history has brought us into a new century. It is the century of comprehensive revitalization of our country, the century of recasting glory, the century of extensive exchanges and common prosperity between Chinese culture and cultures of all ethnic groups in the world, and it is also the golden age of the interpreting profession. Over the years, China has carried out all-round and multi-level exchanges with other countries in the world, allowing us to better understand the world and the world to better understand us. As an indispensable intermediary force in Sino-foreign exchanges, foreign interpreters are shouldering the heavy responsibility of history. Today, more than ever, China needs a large number of qualified full-time or part-time interpreters to build and strengthen the bridge of foreign communication.

===Bibliography===

* Li Nanqiu 黎难秋(2002),中国口译史[The history of interpretation in China],青岛出版社[Qingdao Press]
* Zhao Yonghong, Zhao Hualing, Yao Jiaonv, Huang Lina, Wan Lili 赵永红，赵华玲，姚脚女，黄丽娜，万莉莉(2007),口译的发展史及特点[The history and characteristics of interpretation]
* Xiao Xiaoyan 肖晓燕(2002),西方口译研究：历史与现状[Study of Western Interpretation: History and Current Situation],71-72
* https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.
* http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm
* Chen Bei 陈蓓(2009),中国口译研究：历史和现状分析[Study of Interpretation in China: An Analysis of History and Current Situation]
* https://interpretings.net/2010/09/13/history-of-interpreting/

==The Three Translation Climaxes in the History of Chinese Translation in Relation to the Social and Cultural Development of China 郑华君 Zheng Huajun 202020080669 亚非语言文学（朝鲜韩国文学方向）==
===Abstract===
The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Eastern Han Dynasty, formed the first important period in the history of translation in China. In the following thousand years, the history of Chinese translation has gone through some important historical periods, and the theory and practice of translation have constantly interacted with each other. When we open the history of translation, we can see that the translation climaxes in different periods of Chinese history have produced a large number of translators, and both the theory and practice of translation have made great achievements. The several translation climaxes in Chinese history have had an important impact on Chinese literature, culture and society, including the development of Chinese translation itself.

The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Eastern Han Dynasty, formed the first important period in the history of translation in China. In the following thousands of years, the history of Chinese translation has gone through some important historical periods, and the theory and practice of translation have constantly interacted with each other. When we open the history of translation, we can see that a large number of translators appeared during the translation climaxes in different periods of Chinese history, and both the theory and practice of translation have made great achievements. The several translation climaxes in Chinese history have had an important impact on Chinese literature, culture and society, including the development of Chinese translation itself.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 09:18, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Key words===
History of Chinese；Translation Translation；Climax Socio-Cultural Development in China

History of Chinese；Translation Climax； Socio-Cultural Development in China--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 11:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===题目===
中国翻译史上的三次翻译高潮与中国社会文化发展的关系

===摘要===
起始于东汉时期的佛经翻译形成了我国翻译历史上第一个重要时期。在此后的一千多年的时间里, 中国翻译史上又经历了一些重要的历史时期, 翻译理论与实践不断互动。打开翻译史册, 可以看到中国不同时期的翻译高潮都产生了一大批翻译家, 翻译理论和实践都取得了很大成就。中国历史上的几次翻译高潮对中国的文学、文化、社会包括中国翻译事业自身发展产生了重要影响。

===关键词===
中国翻译史翻译高潮中国社会文化发展

===I.Introduction===
Scholars who study translation have different views on the division of historical periods of translation climaxes.
Some think that the translation business in China has experienced five great climaxes so far, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement, the translation of East and West literature from the early period of the Founding of the People's Republic to the Cultural Revolution, and the period when translation has blossomed in various fields from the 1970s to the present.

Scholars who study translation have different views on the division of historical periods of translation climaxes.
Some think that the translation circles in China has experienced five great climaxes so far, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement, the translation of Eastern and Western literature from the early period of the Founding of the People's Republic to the Cultural Revolution, and the period when translation has blossomed in various fields from the 1970s to the present. --[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

According to some people, "the fourth translation climax in Chinese history is now flourishing on the land of China, and it is a spectacular scenario. There were three translation climaxes in Chinese history: the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, and the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement. But this translation climax is incomparable to the three previous ones in terms of scale, scope, quality and contribution to the development of Chinese society." (Ma Zuyi 1998:46).

And "André Lefevere, in his article "Thinking about Chinese and Western Translation", mentions that 'there were three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures in the 2nd-7th centuries AD, the spread of Western Christian culture in the 16th century, and the import of modern Western thought from the 19th century onwards. '" (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2) :66-71)

And "André Lefevere, in his article ''Thinking about Chinese and Western Translation'', mentions that 'there were three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures from 2nd to 7th centuries AD, the spread of Western Christian culture in the 16th century, and the introduction of modern Western thoughts from the 19th century onwards. '" (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2) :66-71)--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

We believe that the second viewpoint is similar to the third viewpoint to some extent, therefore, this paper will analyze the relationship between the three translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation and the development of Chinese society and culture by examining the first three translation climaxes that have been completed.

This is because such a division is conducive to analyzing the interactions between translation and society and culture. The four translation climaxes have made translation no longer a "pigtail" or a "matchmaker", and have freed translation from the superficial understanding that it is only a tool of communication. Next, we will focus on the impact of these climaxes on the development and change of society and culture, and the role of each climax on the society and culture of a specific period.

===II.Introduction of the three translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation===

====1.The First Translation Climax-The Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Tang and Song Dynasties====
====1.The First Translation Climax-The Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties====--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The first high point of translation in China was the translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Han Dynasty, flourished in the Tang Dynasty, declined in the Song Dynasty, and came to an end in the Yuan Dynasty, and its influence on Chinese culture and thought was enormous. Generally speaking, the emergence of any phenomenon in human history has its specific political, economic and cultural background, which provides the soil for the germination and growth of such phenomenon, and translation of Buddhist scriptures is no exception.

During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the main body of translators were monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. All of them have their own representative translation theories, and their efforts are inseparable from the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation.

During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the translators were mainly some monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. All of them have their own representative translation theories, and the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation are inseparable from their efforts --[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also brought great influence to Chinese culture, such as: influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning; enriching the world of imagination; strengthening storytelling; changing the form of literature; and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; in turn, the development of translation business also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.

At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also had a great influence on Chinese culture, such as influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning, enriching the world of imagination, strengthening storytelling, changing the form of literature, and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; or vice versa, the development of translation cause also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.The Second Climax of Translation-Technical Translation in the Late Ming and Early Qing Dynasties====
The second climax of translation went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to technological progress and social development. With the development of seafaring, the exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not only limited to commodities, but also culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.

The second climax of translation went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to technological progress and social development. With the development of maritime navigation, the exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not limited to commodities, but also included culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.
--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as the medium for the exchange of Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendars, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc. into China. During this period, many of the most famous translators emerged: Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbao, the Germans Tang Ruowang, and the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo.

In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as the medium for the exchange of Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendar, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc. into China. During this period, many of the most famous translators emerged, such as Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbao, the Germans Tang Ruowang, and the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize the deficiencies of Chinese culture and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China, and to be inspired in their thinking.

The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize Chinese cultural deficiencies and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China itself, and to be inspired in their thinking.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====3.The Third Climax of Translation: Translation of Western Studies from the Opium War to the Post-May Fourth Period====
China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the face of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and tried to introduce Western learning through various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress. During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, including traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented.

China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the aspect of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and intended to learn from Western countries by various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress.During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, including traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists included Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xubai, Chen Xi Ying, Lin Yutang, and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China.

A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists included Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xubai, Chen XiYing, Lin Yutang and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China. --[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on Chinese was also great. Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on using ancient style to translate Western studies; some translators, such as Qu Qubai, insisted on "absolute vernacular"; others, such as Lu Xun, "disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'absolute vernacular'. Other translators, such as Lu Xun, "disagreed with the idea that the so-called 'absolute vernacular' should be advocated for the absolute exclusion of literary and written languages from translation.

On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on Chinese was also great. Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on using ancient style to translate Western studies; some translators, such as Qu Qubai, insisted on "absolute vernacular"; others, such as Lu Xun, "disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'absolute vernacular'. --[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In short, this culmination of translation has freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expressive power of the language, making it very different from before in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors, while at the same time, its grammatical functions have also been enhanced.

In short, this culmination of translation has freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expression of the language, making it very different from before in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors,at the same time, its grammatical functions have also been enhanced.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===The constraints and influence of socio-cultural factors on the three translation climaxes===
"Translation is never produced in a vacuum" (Lefevere 1998:3). Therefore, translation studies need to "objectively examine the dynamics of translation in a particular historical and cultural context, analyze and study the constraints of social, historical and cultural factors on translation strategies and methods, and the impact of translations on the receiving culture". (Liao Qiyi 2002 (2):106-109) Translation usually reflects the position of the subject culture to the foreign culture, and the translation strategy is usually the result of the interaction between the subject culture and the foreign culture, so the choice of translation strategy is never accidental.

"Translation is never produced in a vacuum" (Lefevere 1998:3). Therefore, translation studies need to "objectively examine the dynamic of translation in a particular historical and cultural context, analyze and study the constraints of social, historical and cultural factors on translation strategies and methods, and the impact of translations on the receiving culture". (Liao Qiyi 2002 (2):106-109) Translation usually reflects the position of the subject culture to the foreign culture, and the translation strategy is usually the result of the interaction between the subject culture and the foreign culture, so the choice of translation strategy is never accidental.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

====1.The first translation climax====
The first translation climax spanned the Han and Tang dynasties. There was no lack of translators from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang Dynasty, but Xuanzang, a landmark translator in the history of translation, was born in the Tang Dynasty. Long-term political stability and unprecedented socio-economic development created a strong national power and a relaxed cultural atmosphere at that time. All kinds of ideas, cultures and art forms blossomed and competed with each other.

The first translation climax spanned the Han and Tang Dynasties. There was no lack of translators from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang Dynasty, for example, Xuanzang, a landmark translator in the history of translation, was born in the Tang Dynasty. Long-term political stability and unprecedented socio-economic development built up its national power and created a harmonious cultural atmosphere at that time. All kinds of ideas, cultural and artistic forms blossomed and competed with each other.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

The country as a whole showed a healthy and positive cultural mentality: it was tolerant and unrestrained, and dared to introduce foreign cultures, which led to an unprecedented peak of economic and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries. A healthy national cultural mentality undoubtedly provided a wonderful platform for Xuanzang to achieve immortal results in the history of Chinese translation. Before that, many translators had already established translation standards and translation theories worthy of reference, such as "On the Five Failures" and "Three Failures" by Dao An of the Jin Dynasty, and "The Eight Preparations" by Yan Bo of the Sui Dynasty, The translation method is already quite thorough.

The country as a whole showed a healthy and positive cultural mentality, because it was tolerant and unrestrained, and dared to introduce foreign cultures, which led to an unprecedented peak of economic and cultural exchanges between China and other countries. A healthy national cultural mentality undoubtedly provided a wonderful platform for Xuanzang to achieve immortal works in the history of Chinese translation. Before that, many translators had already established translation standards and translation theories worthy of reference, such as "On the Five Failures" and "Three Failures" by Dao An of the Western Jin Dynasty, and "The Eight Preparations" by Yan Bo of the Sui Dynasty, The translation method is already quite thorough.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

As a patriarch of his generation, Xuanzang, who was well versed in Sanskrit and Chinese, studied Buddhist texts deeply, and was well versed in Buddhist teachings, changed the old practice of relying on foreigners for translations and became the founder of new translations by taking charge of his own translations and punishing the mistakes of previous generations. It is no coincidence that his translations have maintained the level of "faithfulness, elegance, and elegance" from the beginning to the end, i.e., they are both "true" and "popular", and no one has been able to surpass them so far.

As a patriarch of his generation, Xuanzang, who was well versed in Sanskrit and Chinese, deeply studied Buddhist texts, and was well excelled in Buddhist doctrine, changed the old practice of relying on foreigners for translations and became the founder of new translations by taking charge of his own translations and punishing the mistakes of previous generations. It is no coincidence that his translations have met the demand of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" from the beginning to the end, i.e., they are both "true" and "popular", and no one has been able to surpass them so far.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

The rigorous attitude of Xuanzang in translating the scriptures, the large number of volumes, and the fluency of his translations have surpassed those of the masters before and after him. His translation is prudent and precise in language, so it has reached the "state of perfection". He does not advocate the style of translation of Hatamurashi, which is "not strict to get the original text, but in taking the meaning", and opposes the style of direct translation. His translation strives to match the text and meaning of the original work, while the text follows the words, and he does not stick to one case of direct translation or translation.

The rigorous attitude of Xuanzang in translating the scriptures, the large number of volumes, and the fluency of his translations have surpassed those of the masters before and after him. His translation is prudent and precise in language, so it has reached the "perfection". He does not advocate the style of translation of Hatamurashi, which is "not strict to get the original text, but directly taking the meaning", and opposes the style of direct translation. His translation strives to match the words and meaning of the original text, while the text follows the words, and he does not stick to one case of direct translation.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

His aim was not to exoticize the Chinese language, but to create an original style of translation that was "strict and serious", without compromising the original meaning and making it easy for the reader to understand. He always understood the original text thoroughly first, and then expressed it clearly in appropriate Chinese, and often added a concluding phrase after a section to make the translation exegetical and enriching; sometimes he used another translation name instead of specialized terms to make it easy for readers to understand. His theory of "five non-translations" of sound and meaning became the model for later translations of scriptures.

His aim was not to exoticize the Chinese language, but to create an original style of translation that was "strict and serious", without compromising the original meaning, to make it easy for the reader to understand. Firstly, he understood the original text thoroughly, and then expressed it clearly in appropriate Chinese, and often added a concluding phrase after a section to make the translation exegetical and enriching; sometimes he used another translation name instead of specialized terms to make it easy for readers to understand. His theory of "five non-translations" of sound and meaning became the model for later translations of scriptures.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

Liang Qichao, in "Translating Literature and Buddhist Texts," argued: 'If Xuanzang is a translator, then the translation is straightforward, full and harmonious, and the ultimate track of the Way. According to the research of Indian scholar Pak Lok Tin and Chinese scholar Zhang Jianmu, Xuan Zang successfully used such translation techniques as complementary method, omission method, transposition method, division method, transliteration method and pronoun reduction method in his translation of the scriptures.

Liang Qichao, in "Translation of Literature and Buddhist Texts," argued 'If Xuanzang is a translator, then the translation is straightforward, full and harmonious, and the ultimate track of the Way. According to the research of Indian scholar Pak Lok Tin and Chinese scholar Zhang Jianmu, Xuan Zang successfully used translation techniques, such as complementary method, omission method, transposition method, division method, transliteration method and pronouns reduction method in his translation of the scriptures.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

After an in-depth study of the Sanskrit and Chinese Buddhist scriptures, Ji considers Xuanzang's translation 'faithful to the original text and not awkward to read, it has reached the pinnacle of excellence'. Although the main culture of Xuanzang's time 'occupied the central position of culture', it 'absorbed heterogeneous cultures' (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2): 66-71).

After an in-depth study of the Sanskrit and Chinese Buddhist scriptures, Liang considers Xuanzang's translation 'faithful to the original text and not awkward to read, it has reached the pinnacle of excellence'. Although the main culture of Xuanzang's time 'occupied the central position of culture', it 'absorbed heterogeneous cultures' (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2): 66-71).--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

It has enriched itself, and has been promoted and developed. "Liang Qichao found that, in terms of vocabulary alone, there are about 35,000 words in Chinese that come from translations of Buddhist scriptures, such as 'cause and effect', 'world', 'perfection ', 'enlightenment', 'true meaning', etc. In terms of syntax, the judgment sentence 'is', the question sentence 'what is ', the dictum 'not also', and the passive sentence‘为……所’and so on.The Chinese language has been introduced one after another, and has become familiar to people." (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71)

It has enriched itself, and has been promoted and developed. "Liang Qichao found that, in terms of vocabulary alone, there are about 35,000 words in Chinese that come from translations of Buddhist scriptures, such as 'cause and effect', 'world', 'perfection ', 'enlightenment', 'true meaning', etc. In terms of syntax, the judgment-sentence 'is', the interrogative sentence 'what is ', the dictum 'not also', and the passive sentence 'be done' and so on.The Chinese language has been introduced one after another, and has become familiar to people." (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71)--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.The second translation climax====
The second translation climax occurred in the middle and late Ming Dynasty. During this period, the culture was closed, and only a few translations were published, such as the Northern Song Dynasty, where Emperor Taizong built a translation institute in the Taiping Xingguo Temple in Kaifeng and issued an edict to translate the scriptures; in the Yuan Dynasty, several people, such as Bahesipa and Guanshangba, were ordered to translate the scriptures.

The second translation climax occurred in the middle and late Ming Dynasty. During this period, the feudal rulers adopted a policy of seclusion, which hampered China's progress and its exchanges with the outside world., and only a few translations were published, such as the Northern Song Dynasty, where Emperor Taizong built a translation institute in the Taiping Xingguo Temple in Kaifeng and issued an edict to translate the scriptures. In the Yuan Dynasty, several people, such as Bahesipa and Guanshangba, were ordered to translate the scriptures.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

In the Ming Dynasty, the government's control over society was the tightest it had ever been; the eunuchs were poisoned, adding to the misery; the scholars were trapped in the eight examinations and lacked independent thought; and the reopened Great Wall prevented nomadic encroachment and cut off free communication.By the time of the Great Geographic Discoveries and the European Reformation in the sixteenth century, the old religions were no longer established in the West and had to go to the East to find new horizons with the colonial expansion.

In the Ming Dynasty, the government's control over society was the tightest it had ever been; the eunuchs were poisoned, adding to the misery; the scholars were trapped in the eight examinations and lacked independent thought; and the reopened Great Wall prevented nomadic encroachment and cut off free communication.By the time of the Great Geographic Discoveries and the European Reformation in the sixteenth century, the old religions did no longer exist in the West and had to go to the East to find new horizons with the colonial expansion.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

The famous missionary Matteo Ricci created a new way of missionary work, which also led to the climax of translation. He studied Chinese, studied the Confucian classics, changed to wear Confucian clothing, and integrated into the Chinese culture as much as possible; he also interpreted Catholic doctrine with Confucianism, and allowed his followers to worship Heaven, ancestors, and Confucius.

The famous missionary Matteo Ricci created a new way of missionary work, which also led to the climax of translation. He studied Chinese, studied the Confucian classics, put on wear Confucian costume, and integrated himself into the Chinese culture as much as possible; he also interpreted Catholic doctrine with Confucianism, and allowed his followers to worship Heaven, ancestors, and Confucius.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

In the "General Catalogue of the Calendar" submitted by Xu Guangqi in the spring of 1631, he not only put forward the opinion that the translation of the Western calendar must be prioritized and progressed step by step, but also put forward his own translation ideas: "In my humble opinion, if we want to surpass, we must understand; before we understand, we must first translate." That is to say, only through translation can we "understand" (learn and master), and only through "understanding" can we "surpass" (surpass and win).

In the "General Catalogue of the Calendar" submitted by Xu Guangqi in the spring of 1631, he put forward not only the opinion that the translation of the Western calendar must be prioritized and progressed step by step, but also his own translation ideas: "In my humble opinion, if we want to surpass, we must understand; before we understand, we must first translate." That is to say, only through translation can we "understand" (learn and master), and only through "understanding" can we "surpass" (win).--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

It can be seen that the translation and importation of scientific knowledge at that time played a certain role in promoting the socio-economic and cultural development of China, and had an awakening effect on a few advanced elements of the Chinese scholarly class. The influence of missionaries in China, through translation, led to the spread of Western learning to the East, far more so in terms of scientific and cultural exchange than in terms of mission itself. As a result, "a period of peak science and technology emerged at the end of the Ming Dynasty, when scientific development took on a new life after a long period of silence". (Da Xiang 2005:61-64)

It can be seen that the translation and importation of scientific knowledge at that time played a certain role in promoting the socio-economic and cultural development of China, and had an awakening effect on many intellectuals of the Chinese scholarly class. The influence of missionaries in China, through translation, led to the spread of Western learning to the East, far more so in terms of scientific and cultural exchange than in terms of mission itself. As a result, "a period of peak science and technology emerged at the end of the Ming Dynasty, when scientific development took on a new life after a long period of silence". (Da Xiang 2005:61-64)--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

====3.The third Translation Climax====
The third translation climax was seen in the Qing Dynasty. The three dynasties of Kang, Yong and Qian were the most important ones, which seriously suppressed the wisdom and freedom of the people; the rulers were conservative and arrogant, and they enjoyed themselves in a closed country. The whole nation closed its eyes and ears, and the development of thought, culture and science and technology lagged seriously, which inevitably led to backwardness and defeat. In the nineteenth century, the Western ships and cannons opened the closed door of China, completely shattering the daydream of a great nation.

The third translation climax was seen in the Qing Dynasty. The three dynasties of Kang Xi, Yong Zheng and Qian Long were the most important ones, which seriously suppressed the wisdom and freedom of the people; the rulers were conservative and arrogant, and they enjoyed themselves in a closed country. The whole country closed its eyes and ears, and inhibited the development of thought, culture, science and technology lagged seriously, which inevitably led to backwardness and defeat. In the nineteenth century, the Western ships and cannons opened the closed-door of China, completely shattering the daydream of a great nation.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

Along with the division of spheres of influence by the powers, the Western modern thinking also poured in. However, "when a world-centered culture accepts other cultures, it usually takes the way of behavior of its own culture as 'natural' and only correct, and the foreign cultural components will be 'naturalized' without any doubts and restrictions. '". (Gu Jun, Gu Nong 1999 (9):12-13) The deformed nature of semi-colonial and semi-feudal society made the translators in the late Qing Dynasty eager to introduce advanced Western ideas on the one hand, and to submit to the ideology and values of feudal culture on the other.

Along with the division of spheres of influence by the powers, the Western modern thinking also poured in. However, "when a world-centered culture accepts other cultures, it usually takes the way of behavior of its own culture as 'natural' and only correct, and the foreign cultural components will be 'naturalized' without any doubts and restrictions. '". (Gu Jun, Gu Nong 1999 (9):12-13) The deformed nature of semi-colonial and semi-feudal society made the translators in the late Qing Dynasty eager to introduce advanced Western ideas on the one hand, and to submit to the ideology and values of feudal culture on the other hand.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

The translation is not only difficult but also difficult to read. As a result, the translations were not only difficult to understand, but also unfaithful to the original text, resembling adaptations. At that time, China was facing a crisis of national survival, and the dominant culture was about to break up, "no longer occupying the central position of culture, it had to achieve the purpose of creative transformation and cultural reconstruction through the absorption of heterogeneous cultures". (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71)

It is difficult not only to translate but also to read. As a result, the translations were not only difficult to understand, but also unfaithful to the original text, resembling adaptations. At that time, China was facing a crisis of national survival, and the dominant culture was about to break up, "no longer occupying the central position of culture, it had to achieve the purpose of creative transformation and cultural reconstruction through the absorption of heterogeneous cultures". (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71)--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

Therefore, in order to "seek new voices in foreign countries", "not only will the outside not lag behind the world's trend of thinking, but the inside will still lose its inherent bloodline" (Lu Xun 1992:12-13), translation must (Lu Xun 1992:12-13) Translation must "seek the truth"; in order to "seek the truth", translation must "tolerate as much disorder as possible". (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71)

At the end of Qing Dynasty, Ma Jianzhong proposed the saying of "good translation" in his "Ma's Text": "We must first translate the words of the translator and the translator of the two countries, deeply enjoy the words, and compare the words and sentences, in order to examine the source of the breeding of each other's words, and the reason of the similarity and difference. All the actual meanings of the current phase, and the elaborate investigation, to examine the sound of its high and low, analyze the complexity of its words and sentences, and exhaust the perversion of its style, as well as the meaning of the profound and mysterious reasons."

At the end of Qing Dynasty, Ma Jianzhong proposed the saying of "good translation" in his "Ma's Text": "We must first translate the words of the translator of the two countries, deeply enjoy the words, and compare the words and sentences, in order to examine the source of the breeding of each other's words, and the reason of the similarity and difference. All the actual meanings of the current phase, and the elaborate investigation, to examine the sound of its high and low, analyze the complexity of its words and sentences, and exhaust the perversion of its style, as well as the meaning of the profound and mysterious reasons."--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

The meaning of this passage is quite rich and comprehensive. It covers style, grammar, rhetoric, and even the field of general cultural studies. Ma Jianzhong's standard of "good translation" is to strive for a translation that does not differ in meaning from the original text, and that enables the reader to read the translation and feel the same as the reader of the original text. This formulation is very close to the modern equivalence translation theory."The May Fourth Literary Revolution" replaced the literary language with the vernacular language, changing the direction of Chinese literature and becoming a watershed in the history of modern translation.

The meaning of this passage is quite rich and comprehensive. It covers style, grammar, rhetoric, and even the field of general cultural studies. Ma Jianzhong's standard of "good translation" is to strive for a translation that does not differ in meaning from the original text, and that enables the reader to read the translation and feel the same as the reader of the original text. This formulation is very close to the modern equivalence translation theory."The May Fourth Literary Revolution" replaced the literary language with the vernacular language, changing the direction of Chinese literature and becoming a watershed event in the history of modern translation.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

Lu Xun, who was the most influential translator among the left-wing literati in the 1930s, opposed the localization of the cultural "other" and advocated that "all translations must take into account both sides, one of course striving for its easy interpretation and the other preserving the richness of the original work". He advocates changing the cultural narcissism of the nation through translation, and proposes the principle of "hard translation" of "preferring to believe rather than obey" in response to Zhao Jingshen's "preferring to obey rather than believe", which gives translation another function: promoting the culture of the subject. It was also given another function: to promote the language reform of the main culture.

Lu Xun, who was the most influential translator among the left-wing literaries in the 1930s, opposed the localization of the cultural "other" and advocated that "all translations must take into account both sides, one of course striving for its easy interpretation and the other preserving the richness of the original work". He advocates changing the cultural narcissism of the nation through translation, and proposes the principle of "hard translation" of "preferring to believe rather than obey" in response to Zhao Jingshen's "preferring to obey rather than believe", which gives translation another function: promoting the culture of the subject. It was also given another function: to promote the language reform of the main culture.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

The representatives of the three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation have one thing in common: to promote the scientific and technological cultural development of the country and the nation through translation. As an accompanying culture of language, translation is inevitably subject to the constraints and influences of social, historical and cultural factors, which in turn react on social and historical culture. Translation strategies and methods cannot presuppose an always correct premise, but change with the development of the subject culture. Therefore, under certain historical conditions, one cannot simply promote or criticize a certain type of translation method, but should examine whether it can enrich the subject culture or promote the reform of the subject culture.

The representatives of the three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation have one thing in common, that is, to promote the scientific and technological cultural development of the country and the nation through translation. As an accompanying culture of language, translation is inevitably subject to the constraints and influences of social, historical and cultural factors, which in turn reacts on social and historical culture. Translation strategies and methods cannot presuppose a totally correct premise, but change with the development of the subject culture. Therefore, under certain historical conditions, one cannot simply promote or criticize a certain type of translation method, but should examine whether it can enrich the subject culture or promote the reform of the subject culture.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

===III.The Impact of Three Translation Climaxes on Chinese Society and Culture in the History of Chinese Translation===

====1.The first translation climax====
"The first translation climax in China was the translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Han Dynasty, flourished in the Tang Dynasty, declined in the Song Dynasty, and was nearing its end in the Yuan Dynasty, and its influence on Chinese culture and thought was enormous. In general, it seems that any phenomenon in human history has its specific political, economic and cultural background, which provides the soil for the germination and growth of this phenomenon, and translation of Buddhist scriptures is no exception." (Cai Xinle 2006 (10): 23)

"The first high point of translation in China was the translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Han Dynasty, flourished in the Tang Dynasty, declined in the Song Dynasty, and came to an end in the Yuan Dynasty, and its influence on Chinese culture and thought was enormous. Generally speaking, the emergence of any phenomenon in human history has its specific political, economic and cultural background, which provides the soil for the germination and growth of such phenomenon, and translation of Buddhist scriptures is no exception."(Cai Xinle 2006 (10): 23)--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the main body of translators were monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on.

During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the translators were mainly some monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

All of them have their own representative translation theories, and their efforts are inseparable from the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation. At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also brought great influence to Chinese culture, such as: influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning; enriching the world of imagination; strengthening storytelling; changing the form of literature; and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; in turn, the development of translation business also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.

All of them have their own representative translation theories, and their efforts are inseparable from the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation. At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also brought great influence to Chinese culture, such as: influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning, enriching the world of imagination, strengthening storytelling, changing the form of literature, and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; or vice versa, the development of translation cause also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.The second translation climax====
The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties from the 16th to the 18th century was the second climax of translation after the translation of Buddhist scriptures, and the first climax of scientific and technological translation in the history of China. The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties not only introduced advanced scientific and technological knowledge from abroad and made modern scientific research in China sprout, but also some translation concepts in this climax of scientific and technological translation are still worthy of reference for translation researchers. Therefore, scientific and technological translation had a profound impact on Chinese society.

The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties from the 16th to the 18th century was the second climax of translation after the translation of Buddhist scriptures, and the first climax of scientific and technological translation in the history of China. The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties not only introduced advanced scientific and technological knowledge from abroad and made modern scientific research in China spring up, but also some translation concepts in this climax of scientific and technological translation are still worthy of reference for translation researchers. Therefore, scientific and technological translation had a profound impact on Chinese society.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

The second translation climax went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to the progress of science and technology and social development. With the development of navigation, exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not only limited to commodities, but also culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.

The second climax of translation went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to technological progress and social development. With the development of maritime navigation, the exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not limited to commodities, but also included culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation. --[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

"In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as a medium of exchange between Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendars, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc., into China. (Chen Fukang 2002: 13)

"In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as a medium of exchange between Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendars, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc., into China. (Chen Fukang 2002: 13)--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

Many of the most famous translators emerged during this period: Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbai, the Germans Tang Ruowang, the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo. The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize the deficiencies of Chinese culture and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China, and to be inspired in their thinking.

During this period, many of the most famous translators emerged, such as Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbao, the Germans Tang Ruowang, and the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo. The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize Chinese cultural deficiencies and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China itself, and to be inspired in their thinking.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

====3.The third Translation Climax====
China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the face of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and tried to introduce Western learning through various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress.

China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the aspect of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and intended to learn from Western countries by various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

"During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then of social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, with the appearance of traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and strong political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented." (Hu Cui'e 2007: 43)

"During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, including traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented." (Hu Cui'e 2007: 43)--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists include Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xu Bai, Chen Xi Ying, Lin Yutang, and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China.

A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists included Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xubai, Chen XiYing, Lin Yutang and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on the Chinese language was also tremendous. "Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on "absolute vernacular"; others, such as Lu Xun, "disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'vernacular'. (Jiang Xiaohua 2003: 12). (Jiang Xiaohua 2003: 12)"

On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on Chinese was also tremendous. Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on "absolute vernacular"; others, such as Lu Xun, "disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'absolute vernacular'. (Jiang Xiaohua 2003: 12)"--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

In short, this culmination of translation freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expressive power of the language, making it very different from the previous one in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors, while at the same time, its grammatical functions were also enhanced.

In short, this culmination of translation has freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expression of the language, making it very different from before in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors,at the same time, its grammatical functions have also been enhanced.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

===IV.Conclusion===
Translation as an intercultural communication activity has a long history. Xu Jun once said, "Translation activity itself is not static, but constantly enriched and developed in form according to the actual communication needs at different historical stages. And with the continuous enrichment of the concrete practice of translation, people's understanding of translation is bound to change constantly." (Xu Jun 2006: 30).

The representatives of the three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation have one thing in common: to promote the scientific and technological culture of the country and the nation forward through translation. Translation, as an accompanying culture of language, is inevitably conditioned and influenced by social, historical and cultural factors, and in turn, it reacts to social history and culture.

The representatives of the three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation have one thing in common, that is, to promote the scientific and technological culture of the country and the nation forward through translation. Translation, as an accompanying culture of language, is inevitably conditioned and influenced by social, historical and cultural factors, and in turn, it reacts to social history and culture.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:20, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

Translation exposes people to new cultures, new things and new concepts, broadens their minds and enriches their languages, thus to a certain extent promoting the development of cultural history, and some people even put forward the saying that "the history of translation in a country is the history of culture". It has been said that the history of translation is the history of culture. In the future, with the further deepening of various exchanges between countries, translation is bound to play an increasingly important role and further promote the development of world history and culture.

Translation exposes people to new cultures, new ideas and new concepts, broadens their horizons and enriches their languages, thus to a certain extent promoting the development of cultural history, and some people even put forward the saying that "the history of translation in a country is the history of culture". It has been said that the history of translation is the history of culture. In the future, with the further deepening of various exchanges between countries, translation is bound to play an increasingly important role and further promotes the development of world history and culture.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:20, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

===References===
Ma Zuyi. 马祖毅.(1998).中国翻译简史.[A brief history of Chinese translation]. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Foreign Translation and Publishing Corporation]46-48.

Ma Zuyi. 马祖毅.(1998).中国翻译简史.[A brief history of Chinese translation]. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation]46-48.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:28, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

Lefevere Andre.(1998).Introduction:Where Are We inTranslation Studies[A] In Susan Bassnett&Andre Lefevere (eds.) .Constructing Cultures: Essays on translation[C].Clevedon:Multilingual Matters Ltd.3.

Lefevere Andre.(1998).Introduction:Where Are We in Translation Studies [A] In Susan Bassnett&Andre Lefevere (eds.) .Constructing Cultures: Essays on translation [C] . Clevedon: Multilingual Matters Ltd.3.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:28, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

Zhang Jinghua.张景华.(2006）从“硬译”透视鲁迅对中国文化转型的探索.[Lu Xun's exploration of Chinese cultural transformation through the lens of "hard translation"].四川外语学院学报.[Journal of Sichuan Institute of Foreign Languages]66-71.

Zhang Jinghua.张景华.(2006）从“硬译”透视鲁迅对中国文化转型的探索.[Lu Xun's exploration of Chinese cultural transformation through the lens of "hard translation"].四川外语学院学报.[Journal of Sichuan International Studies University]66-71.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:28, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

Liao Qiyi.廖七一.(2002).重写神话:女性主义与翻译研究.[Rewriting myths: Feminism and translation studies]. 四川外语学院学报[Journal of Sichuan Institute of Foreign Languages]106-109.

Liao Qiyi.廖七一.(2002).重写神话:女性主义与翻译研究.[Rewriting myths: Feminism and translation studies]. 四川外语学院学报[Journal of Journal of Sichuan International Studies University]106-109.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:28, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

Da Xiang.达向.(2005).文明探索:明朝.[Exploration of civilization: Ming Dynasty].郑州:大象出版社.[Zhengzhou: Daxiang Publishing House]61-64.

Da Xiang.达向.(2005).文明探索:明朝.[Exploration of civilization: Ming Dynasty].郑州:大象出版社.[Zhengzhou: Elephant Press]61-64.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:28, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

Gu Jun,Gu Nong.顾均,顾农.(1999).鲁迅主张“硬译”的文化意义.[The cultural significance of Lu Xun's advocacy of "hard translation"].鲁迅研究月刊.[ Lu Xun Studies Monthly]12-13.

Gu Jun,Gu Nong.顾均,顾农.(1999).鲁迅主张“硬译”的文化意义.[The cultural significance of Lu Xun's advocacy of "hard translation"].鲁迅研究月刊.[ Luxun Research Monthly]12-13.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:28, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

Lu Xun.鲁迅.鲁迅散文 (第3集).Lu Xun's Prose (3rd collection).(1992).北京:中国广播电视出版社.[Beijing: China Radio and Television Press]12-13.

Lu Xun.鲁迅.鲁迅散文 (第3集).Lu Xun's Prose (3rd collection).(1992).北京:中国广播电视出版社.[Beijing: China Radio Film & TV Press]12-13.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:28, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

Cai Xinle.蔡新乐.(2006).文化史就是翻译—陈寅恪的历史发现与其翻译观初探[Cultural history is translation: A preliminary investigation of Chen Yinke's historical discovery and his view of translation ].外语与外语教学, [Foreign Languages and Foreign Language Teaching]23.

Cai Xinle.蔡新乐.(2006).文化史就是翻译—陈寅恪的历史发现与其翻译观初探[Cultural history is translation: A preliminary investigation of Chen Yinke's historical discovery and his view of translation ].外语与外语教学, [Foreign Languages and Their Teaching]23.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:28, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

Chen Fukang.陈福康.(2002).中国译学理论史稿[A draft of the history of Chinese translation theory].上海:上海外语教育出版社 [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press]13.

Hu Cui'e.胡翠娥.(2007).文学翻译与文化参考—晚清小说翻译的文化研究[Literary Translation and Cultural Reference:A Cultural Study of the Translation of Novels in the Late Qing Dynasty].上海:上海外语教育出版社 [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]43.

Hu Cui'e.胡翠娥.(2007).文学翻译与文化参考—晚清小说翻译的文化研究[Literary Translation and Cultural Reference:A Cultural Study of the Translation of Novels in the Late Qing Dynasty].上海:上海外语教育出版社 [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press]43.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:28, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

Jiang Xiaohua.蒋晓华.(2003).意识形态对翻译的影响:阐发与新思考[The Influence of Ideology on Translation: Explanation and New Thinking.中国翻译[Chinese Translation]12.

Jiang Xiaohua.蒋晓华.(2003).意识形态对翻译的影响:阐发与新思考[The Influence of Ideology on Translation: Explanation and New Thinking.中国翻译[Chinese Translators Journal]12.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:28, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:23, 30 October 2020 (UTC)

='''Western Translation Theories'''=

==An Analysis of the Limits of Translatability from the Perspectives of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida's Translation Theories 文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi,202020080650==
<center>文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi</center>
===Abstract===
Since there are no identical languages in the world, languages differ not only in the system of linguistic signs but also in culture. In the process of translation, there might be some limits of translatability. Briefly speaking, the limits of translatability are divided into two types. One is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida both have mentioned their opinions about the limits of translatability in their works. After introducing their translation theories and their definitions of translation, this paper will give a brief introduction to their views of untranslatability. Then, this paper also exemplifies some examples of these two kinds of untranslatability. The aim of this paper is to analyze the reasons which cause the limits of translatability and to find some translation strategies to deal with these limits.

===Key Words===
Untranslatability, J. C. Catford, Eugene A. Nida
===题目===
根据卡特福德和尤金·奈达的翻译理论观点分析翻译的限制

===摘要===
世界上没有两种完全相同的语言，每种语言都有独特的语言结构和文化内涵。翻译中可能会出现一些不可译的现象。一般来说，翻译的限制大致分为语言不可译和文化不可译两种。对于翻译的限制的问题，卡特福德和尤金·奈达都有各自的看法。本文除了介绍他们各自的翻译理论和对翻译的定义以外，还介绍了他们各自对翻译的限制的看法。同时，本文还分别列举了语言不可译和文化不可译的一些实例，希望借此进一步分析造成翻译中语言不可译和文化不可译的原因以及寻找其对应的翻译策略。

===关键词===
不可译；卡特福德；尤金·奈达
===1.Introduction===
Translation is an activity that concerns more than two languages. Narrowly speaking, every language contains its own linguistic structure and cultural connotation so that some aspects of various languages are quite different. These may cause the gap between the source language and the target language in translation. Accordingly, some problems of translation may be certain to arise at the same time such as the dispute over the translatability and untranslatability. Different scholars hold their own opinions.

On the one hand, some scholars are very strict to the definition of translation and the limits of translatability. For example, J. C. Catford states that each language is an isolated linguistic system and the formal and contextual meaning of a language are decided by the formal and contextual relations of the language. It is impossible to translate the linguistic meaning from one language to another. But it can implant the values of the source language into the target language by using the process of transference. And Catford also proposes two kinds of untranslatability which are linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability.

On the other hand, some scholars are positive to the limits of translatability. For example, Eugene A. Nida approves that there are some general principles of all languages so that all languages can produce the same expression effects to satisfy the needs of expressing ideas and communication. He holds that translation should take the readers as its primary objective.

J. C. Catford's and Eugene A. Nida’s views of the limits of translatability are different. To study this question further, it is of necessary to understand and assimilate some opinions of Catford and Nida. And based on both of their translation theories, the aim of this paper is to provide some new ideas about the limits of translatability.

===2.The Limits of Translatability===
====2.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida’s Translation Theories====
2.1.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and His Translation Theory

J. C. Catford is a famous linguist and translation theorist in Britain and his representative work in the field of translation is called ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' which has first published by Oxford University Press in 1965. This book is an important milestone in the field of translation theory and exerts a profound influence to the western translation theory. In this book, Catford holds that translation has to be based on a general linguistic theory and the theory of translation is a branch of comparative linguistics. The reason why is that “translation has to do with language, the analysis and description of translation-processes must take considerable use of categories set up for the description of languages.” And Catford mentions that the general linguistic theories used in this book to a large extent are influenced by the works of M. A. K. Halliday and J. R. Firth.(Catford, 1965,vii)

He also holds that language is a two-directional process while translation is a unidirectional process which is performed from a source language to a target language. Besides, he believes that “translation equivalences may be set up, and translation performed, between any pair of languages or dialects- related or unrelated and with any kind of spatial, temporal, social or other relationship between them.” He also distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. The former refers to that the meanings of target language items are set up by the formal and contextual relations in the target language itself while the later refers to that parts of the target text have values set up in the source language. (Catford, 1965,20)

In this way, Catford proposes his ideas about the conditions of translation equivalence and the types of translation shifts. In the final part of this book, he discusses the limits of translatability and mentions two kinds of untranslatability called linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. And he holds that “cultural untranslatability is ultimately describable in all cases as a variety of linguistic untranslatability.” From this perspective, we can find that Catford emphasizes the values of the linguistic items in its own linguistic system and he pays attention to formal equivalence and conceptual meaning. All in all, Catford provides a scientific and objective way of studying translation theories.(Catford, 1965,103)

2.1.2 A Brief Introduction to Eugene A. Nida and His Translation Theory

Eugene A. Nida is one of the pioneers of modern discipline of translation studies. He is keen on the translation of Bible and he is also one of the main editors of the magazine called ''The Bible Translator''. As the executive secretary of the American Bible Society Translation Department and one of the main members of the United Bible Society Working Committee, Nida undertakes much of the organization of Bible translation. Although Nida doesn’t translate any complete works by himself, he proposes lots of translation principles which influence the practice of Bible translation. He encourages translators to use a common language which refers to a language that could be accepted and understood by most readers.(Nida, 1982,vii)

The development of Nida’s translation theories can be divided into three parts. The first part is the stage of descriptive linguistics whose main focus is the syntactical and lexical phenomenon of languages. He is influenced by the father of the structuralist linguistics in the United States called Leonard Bloomfield and an American anthropologist and linguist called Edward Sapir. The second stage is the communication theory in which Nida’s achievements ensure his status in the field of the western translation theory study. In this period, he publishes his famous works such as ''Toward a Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. （谭载喜，1999,xv）

Nida states that “translation is far more than a science and it is also a skill and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art.” He also proposes the communicative translation theory by adding the information theory into translation. Moreover, he also proposes his famous theory called the dynamic-equivalence theory which refers to translate “thought for though” rather than “word for word”. And in the third stage, Nida mainly focuses on the componential analysis of meaning. His main ideas of this period are that language is a system of signs so that the analysis of translation should be taken from the perspectives of sociolinguistics and semiotics. And Nida replaces dynamic equivalence by functional equivalence. And he also pays attention to the problems of rhetoric in translation, especially the contrastive rhetoric. All in all, Nida has contributed to the biblical translation and translation theories all his life.(Nida, 1982,vii)

====2.2The Definition of Translation according to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida====
2.2.1 The Definition of Translation according to J. C. Catford

The definition of translation is a subject at issue in the field of translation theories. Broadly speaking, every translation theorist clings to the ideas of his own understanding. According to Catford, translation is a process performed from a source language into a target language. He states that “translation is the replacement of textual material in one language (source language) by equivalent textual material in another language (target language).” He explains the implication of “textual material” that there may be some replacements by no-equivalent target language material. The main focus of translation practice is to find target language translation equivalents and the main focus of translation theory is to define the nature and conditions of translation equivalence.(Catford, 1965,20)

Besides, Catford distinguishes textual equivalence and formal correspondence. For him, the former refers to that "any target language form is observed to be the equivalent of a given source language form." The later one refers to that "any target category occupies the same place in the economy of the target language as the given category occupies in the source language." He adds that formal correspondence can be only approximate rather than identical.(Catford, 1965,27)

As for the theory of meaning in translation, Catford holds that it is impossible for the source language texts and the target language ones to have that same meaning. He borrows the definition of meaning proposed by J. R. Firth that “meaning is the total network of relations entered into by any linguistic forms.” There are two relations called formal relations and contextual relations so that there are accordingly two kinds of meanings. One is formal meaning that is constituted by the various formal relations. The other is contextual meaning that is constituted by a range of situational elements.(Catford, 1965,27)

Because of the approximation of the formal correspondence, it is nearly impossible for the formal meanings of source language items to be identical with target language items. Therefore, Catford proposes a process called transference that refers to an operation to set up values of the source language into the target language text. As a result, Catford distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. He states that translation means the substitution of target language meanings for source language meanings while transference contains the implantation of source language meanings into the target language text.(Catford, 1965,35)

The source language and target language items have little similarities of the meaning in the linguistic sense so the aim of the translation is to select target language equivalents with the greatest possible overlap of situational range as the source language items. Catford concludes conditions for translation equivalence that translation equivalence occurs when there are some identical features of substance between the source language and target language. According to his distinction of the total translation and restricted translation, Catford proposes some limits of translatability.(Catford, 1965,35)

2.2.2 The Definition of Translation according to Eugene A. Nida

In the book called ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'', Nida has mentioned that “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” To define translation in this way, Nida emphasizes the importance of reproducing the message rather than remaining the form of the utterance. He also emphasizes the closet natural equivalent which refers to the closet relationship between the meaning of source language and target language. Besides, he deems the priority of meaning and the significance of style. Therefore, he states that the departures from the formal structure are legitimate and desirable. Nida proposes some principles of translation, for example, contextual consistency is prior verbal over consistency and dynamic equivalence is prior over formal correspondence.(Nida, 1982,12)

Nida states two types of equivalence that one is formal equivalence and the other is dynamic equivalence and he also deems that the aim of translation is to find the closet possible equivalent. Formal correspondence refers to a kind of gloss translation that the translator tries to reproduce the form and content of the message in the source language. In such a translation, it is concerned with correspondences as sentence to sentence or concept to concept.It may be determined by the translation standards such as accuracy and correctness.(Nida, 1982,13)

In contrast to formal correspondence, a translation of dynamic equivalence is based on the principle to produce equivalent effects. It pays attention to the dynamic relationship between receptor and message which needs to be similar to the relationship between the original receptors and the message. The aim of dynamic equivalence is the naturalness of expression so that the receptor could understand the message under his own cultural patterns rather than that of the source language context.(Nida, 1982,13)

Nida also mentions the restrictions of the permissible degree of dynamic equivalence in translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. The linguistic restrictions involve the literary forms and the vehicles and the cultural restrictions involve the standard of “faithfulness” and the diversity of dialects in the receptor language.(Nida, 1982,12)

====2.3The Limits of Translatability according to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida====
2.3.1The Limits of Translatability according to J. C. Catford

In ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford distinguishes two kinds of translations which are called total translation and restricted translation according to the levels of language involved in translation. Total translation is defined as “replacement of source language grammar and lexis by equivalent target language grammar and lexis with consequential replacement of source language phonology/graphology by(non-equivalent) target language phonology/graphology.” And restricted translation is defined as “replacement of source language textual material by equivalent target language textual material, at only one level.” This kind of translation is performed only at the phonological or at the graphological level, or at only one of the two levels of grammar and lexis.(Catford,1965, 22)

As for the limits of translatability for restricted translation, Catford generalizes two limits. The first is that translation between media is impossible. In other words, to translate the spoken form of a text to a written form is impossible. The reason is that the phonic and graphic substances are absolutely different. The phonic substance is relevant to the sound produced in the human vocal tract while the graphic substance is relevant to visible marks on papers or stones.Therefore, it is only a universal practice among literates to converse spoken medium to written medium.(Catford,1965, 22)

And the second kind of limit is that translation between either of the medium-levels and the levels of grammar and lexis is impossible. It is the same that phonic and graphic substances are absolutely different from situation- substance. As a result, there is never any translation from the levels of grammar and/or lexis to the levels of phonology or graphology, and vice versa.(Catford,1965, 23)

As for the limits of translatability for total translation, Catford states that “translatability appears to be a cline rather than a clear- cut dichotomy.” In other words, source language texts are not absolutely translatable or untranslatable. As for total translation, both source language and target language texts must be relatable to be functionally relevant features of the situation. And the untranslatability or the limits of translatability will occur if it is impossible to build functionally relevant features of the situation into the contextual meaning of the target language text. (Catford,1965, 23)

Broadly speaking, there are two kinds of untranslatability which are linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability occurs when the target language has no formally corresponding features with the source language text. A best example of linguistic untranslatability is an ambiguity peculiar to the source language text. One source of ambiguity is that two or more distinct grammatical or lexical items are expounded in the same phonological or graphological form. Another source of ambiguity is that polysemy. Polysemy means that one single item has a wide contextual meaning so that it may cover a wide range of specific situational features.(Catford, 1965, 93)

All in all, linguistic untranslatability is leaded by the formal linguistic differences when the formal feature of the source language is itself the functionally relevant feature. And cultural untranslatability occurs when a situational feature is completely absent from the culture of which the target language is a part. It is not so absolutely as linguistic untranslatability. Catford also adds that cultural untranslatability might be a type of linguistic untranslatability in that it refers to the impossibility of finding an equivalent collocation in the target language.(Catford, 1965, 93)

2.3.2 The Limits of Translatability according to Eugene A. Nida

Although there are no identical languages and no absolute correspondences between languages, many languages have the potential and actual equivalence and equivalent idioms. The total impact of a translation may be reasonably close to the original but little identity in detail. It is the fact that each language has its own characteristics and is rich in vocabulary for the area of cultural focus. Each language has its own system of symbolizing meaning. It is also the fact that “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another, unless the form is an essential element of the message.” Nida states that the translator must attempt to reproduce the meaning of a passage. (Nida, 1982,4)

When the form is of its significance in the source language text, there may be a limitation to express this significance from one language to another. Nida holds that “to preserve the content of the massage the form must be changed.” (Nida, 1982,5) It means that translators may be prepared to alter the forms or sacrifice certain formal niceties to preserve the content. And Nida also adds that “the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend on the linguistic and cultural distance between languages.” (Nida, 1982,5)

As regards to the linguistic and cultural distance, there are three different types of relatedness between the codes used to convey the messages. Firstly, a translation may involve comparatively closely related languages and cultures. Secondly, in a translation, the language may not be related, even though the cultures are closely parallel. Thirdly, a translation may involve not only differences of linguistic affiliation but also highly diverse cultures. In Nida’s view, “differences between cultures cause many more severe complications for the translator than do differences in language structure.” (Nida, 1964,161)

In ''Toward a Science of Translation'', Nida mentions the restrictions on the permissible degree of dynamic equivalence in translation. He states that there are certain serious restrictions of a linguistic and a cultural nature when translators undertake the process of translation with a considerable degree of dynamic equivalence. The linguistic restrictions include the literary forms such as poetry and proverbs and the vehicle used to convey the message such as songs. As for literary forms, sound effect is impossible to be reproduced in that languages are different in the types of sounds they use and the values they tend to attach to these uses. (Nida, 1964,161)

In the translation of poetry, it is hard to agree with the poetic superstructure in the target language text. Nida deems that the translators may abandon formal equivalence to strive for dynamic equivalence which means to take the liberty of composing another poem capable of eliciting similar feeling. This is the same to the song translators that the form must be maintained, so some contents might be sacrificed. It demands much greater conformity to the musical vehicles in the translation of a song. (Nida, 1964,163)

Nida also mentions the cultural restrictions which involve attitudes about so-called “faithfulness” in translation, the diversity of dialects in the receptor language and so on. As for pressures from tradition, it concerns that the standards of translation such as “faithfulness”’ “accuracy” and “effect”. The reason is that there are differences of taste in translation at different historical periods. Dialectal differences also cause restrictions upon the form of a translation. (Nida, 1964,162)

Problems of dialectal differences may occur in the phenomenon that how to accommodate these complex linguistic facts or how to deal with the dialectal variations in the text itself. Although there are many restrictions in translation, a good translation is to fulfill the same purpose in a new language as the original does in the language in which it is written.(Nida, 1964,161)

====2.4 Specific Examples to Illustrate the Limits of Translatability====
2.4.1Specific Examples to Illustrate Linguistic Untranslatability

It is obvious that no two languages are identical and each language has its own way to constitute words, phrases and sentences. Each language has its own characteristics especially in vocabulary containing the cultural elements. Some languages may be rich in vocabulary of fishing and hunting while some languages may be rich in the expressions of technology.

Every language has its own ways of classifying the various elements of experiences with the symbols which are quite different from all other languages. The system of language is very complex in that there are lots of ways to symbolize meaning. The way of thinking may be illustrated in the deep layer of language. Different native speakers of different languages may differ in the using of the rhetoric techniques and expressions. There are some examples to illustrate the limits of translatability between Chinese and English.

Every language has its own way of classifying the various elements of experiences with the symbols which are quite different from all other languages. The system of language is very complex in that there are lots of ways to symbolize meaning. The way of thinking can be illustrated in the deep layer of language. Different native speakers of different languages may differ in the using of the rhetoric techniques and expressions. There are some examples to illustrate the limits of translatability between Chinese and English.--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 12:52, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

The first type of these examples is the rhetorical technique called pun. Pun is a clever and amusing use of a word or phrase with more than one meaning or of words with the same or nearly the same sound but different meanings. It just like a game playing with language. There are broadly two kinds of pun which are homophonic pun and homographic pun.

Examples of homophonic pun:

Example 1:
*King: My cousin Hamlet, and my son-how is it that the clouds still hang on you?
*Hamlet: Not so, my lord. I am too much in the sun.(''Hamlet'')

Example 2:
More sun and air for your son and heir.(Hu Yi,1999,8)

Example 3:
东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。(刘禹锡《竹枝词》)

There are many homophonic words in these examples which share the same sound but with different meaning. In English, “sun” and “son” have the same sound as well as “air” and “heir”. In Chinese, “晴” and “情” are identical in pronunciation but containing different meanings. These examples exemplify that it is nearly impossible to translate the form and content of these puns at the same time. The forms of the puns must be changed to convey the meanings.

There are many homophonic words in these examples which have the same sound but with different meanings. In English, “sun” and “son” have the same sound as well as “air” and “heir”. In Chinese, “晴” and “情” are identical in pronunciation but containing different meanings. These examples exemplify that it is nearly impossible to translate the form and content of these puns at the same time. The forms of the puns must be changed to convey the meanings.--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 12:52, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

Examples of homographic pun:

Example 4:
Spoil yourself and not your figure.(Xiang Chengdong,1996,2)

Example 5:
Better late than late.(Hou Weirui,1988)

Example 6:
白团扇，今来此去捐。愿得入郎手，团圆郎眼前。( 张祜《团扇郎》)

There are many homographic words in these expressions. “Spoil oneself” means one gives himself something nice as a treat while “spoil one’s figure” means to get fat. The same is to the word “late” which has two meanings. Late can express the meaning of after the planned, expected or usual time and also can express that someone has died. It is hard to remain the form of the words in the process of translation. It is necessary to scarify the form of the words to express the meanings.

Besides, there is another interesting phenomenon to illustrate the limits of linguistic translatability called palindrome. Palindrome is a word or phrase which is the same when you spell it backwards. It is also a typical character of a language. It is almost impossible to find the formal equivalents of a palindrome in the target language.

Examples of palindrome:

Example 7:
*Madam，I’ m Adam.
*No x in Nixon.
*上海自来水来自海上。

These examples imply the differences between the system of linguistic signs of different languages. Each language has its isolated linguistic system. What translators could do is to find the closet natural equivalent rather than the identical. There are also good examples to translate palindrome in Chinese. A good example to illustrate is to translate “Ma is as selfless as I am” into “妈妈为我, 我为妈妈”.（Zuo Biao,2000）

Another example is to translate “Able was I ere I saw Elba” into “不到俄岛我不倒”. Both translations try to maintain the forms and contents of the palindrome of the source text. Although it is not identical expressions, it is better illustrations of the potential and actual equivalence of languages.（Xu Yuanchong,1984）

Another example is to translate “Able was I ere I saw Elba” into “不到俄岛我不倒”. Both translations try to maintain the forms and contents of the palindrome of the source text. Although it is not an identical expression, it is better illustrations of the potential and actual equivalence of languages.（Xu Yuanchong,1984）--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 12:52, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

The limits of linguistic translatability also manifest in the translation of poetry. There is a large focus on formal elements in the translation of poetry. In this kind of translation, sometimes forms are sacrificed for the sake of contents while more often the contents are restricted in the formal molds. Each poetry has its specific emotional intensity and flavor which are hard to be reproduced in another different language. Taking English poetry as examples, there are foots and rhythm which are particular to the expressions of English poetry. There are eight kinds of foot like iambic, trochee and so on. Besides, there are tetrameter, pentameter and so on to express the flowing of words.

Example 8:
Life is the lust of a lamp for the light that is dark till the dawn of the day that we die．(Algernon Charles Swinburne, ''Nephelidia'')

From this examples, it is obvious that the use of rhymes in poetry is various in different languages. It is hard to reproduce these elements with another kind of linguistic signs. The ways of rhymes like alliteration and assonance are impossible to find the formal equivalents in Chinese. One of the reasons may be that the linguistic distance of English and Chinese is so far that there is little linguistic affirmation. The codes used to convey the message are totally different.

2.4.2 Specific Examples to Illustrate Cultural Untranslatability

Culture is integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief and behavior. It consists ideas, customs, taboos and so on. Each human society has its own particular culture which is manifested in folk culture, enterprise culture or food culture. Each language has a system of linguistic signs to express its own cultural substances and values. In fact, the limits of cultural translatability are not so absolute as linguistic untranslatability. It is relative untranslatability.

Idioms is a product of culture which is also called the linguistic forms of culture. Idiom refers to a group of words that have a special meaning whose meaning can’ t be guessed from each separate word. Idiom is related to some connotative meanings which differs in the cultural background of each national community. As a result, the translation of idioms needs to convey the massage of some cultural elements. Although culture differs from each community, translators need to use different translation strategies to convey the cultural information as more as possible. Usually, there are three methods to translate idioms.

The first method is literal translation which can both convey the literal meaning and rhetorical meaning.

Example 9:
*Pour oil on fire 火上浇油

*Strike while the iron is hot 趁热打铁

*Practice makes perfect 熟能生巧

*Seeing is believing 眼见为实 (Zhang Peiji,1979)

In fact, there are many commonalities between human beings so that there are also some similarities between two languages. This kind of translation is very ideal which expressing both the literal and rhetorical meaning.

However, there are still differences between the cultural background of two languages which are mirrored in the translation of idioms.

The second method is literal translation with annotation which is to translate the literal meaning and explain the rhetorical meaning with annotations.

Example 10:
Every family is said to have at least one skeleton in the cupboard.
衣橱藏骷髅，丑事家家有。(Peng Changjiang,2012,277)

The third method is free translation which is to translate the rhetorical meaning only or to translate the rhetorical meaning and parts of the literal meaning.

Example 11:
*Fish where the fish are. 有的放矢

*You can’t catch old birds with chaff. 有经验的人不易上当受骗

*Shrouds have no pockets. 人死带不走钱财

*Revenge is a dish best eaten cold. 君子报仇十年不晚

These examples are just translating the rhetorical meanings. There are other examples including the translation of both the rhetorical meaning and parts of the literal meaning. For example, translating “破釜沉舟” in Chinese to “burn one’s boat” in English is expressing the rhetorical meaning and similar literal meaning of the idiom.

All in all, the differences between culture deserve further consideration in the translation of idioms. Translators are supposed to choose an appropriate approach to convey the message contained in idioms.

===3.Conclusion===
Each language has its own genius so that it has its special way to build word, phrases and sentences. And it also has its special way to symbolize meanings which depends on its native speakers’ understanding and experiences of the world. And each language has its typical expressions which can be manifested in its specific types of poetry, proverbs and dialects.

Each language has its own genius so that it has its special way to build words, phrases and sentences. And it also has its special way to symbolize meaning which depends on its native speakers’ understanding and experiences of the world. And each language has its typical expressions which can be manifested in its specific types of poems, proverbs and dialects.--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 12:55, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

All these reasons may have an impact on translation in that there are lots of differences between languages. The limits of translatability are briefly divided into linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. Sometime the linguistic untranslatability is absolute for languages differ in the system of linguistic signs. Therefore, there may be a choice between the form and content of the source language. Sometimes the form of the source text might be sacrificed for the sake of the contents. But the cultural untranslatability is not absolute as the linguistic untranslatability. It is relatively untranslatable. Translators can use some translation strategies to convey the cultural message and explain the implication of the cultural information. Although there are lots of limits of translatability, the ultimate aim of translation is to convey the message rather than to find equivalents in the target language.

===References===
*Catford, J. C.1965. ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation: An Essay in Applied Linguistics''[M]. London: Oxford University Press.
*Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (1999). 《新编奈达论翻译》.[The New Edition of Nida's Theory on Translation]. 中国对外翻译出版公司 [China Translation and Publishing Corporation].
*Nida, Eugene A. & Charles R. Taber. 1982. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill.
*Nida, Eugene A .1964. ''Towards a Science of Translating''[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill.
*Hu Yi. 胡一. (1999). 广告英语的修辞魅力. [Rhetorical Charm of Advertising English]. ''英语学习''[Journal of English Study] (8).
*Xiang Chengdong.项成东.(1996).试谈广告英语中的复义[On Polysemy in Advertising English].''山东外语教学''[Journal of Foreign Language Teaching in Shandong](2).
*Hou Weirui.候维瑞.(1988).《英语语体》[English Style].上海外国教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Education Press].
*Zuo Biao. 左飙.(2000).论文化的可译性[On Translatability of Culture].扬自俭Yang Zijian.英汉语比较与翻译[Comparison and Translation between English and Chinese].上海教育出版社[Shanghai Education Press].
*Xu Yuanchong.许渊冲. (1984).翻译中的几对矛盾[A Few Pairs of Contradictions in Translation].翻译的艺术[Art of Translation].中国对外翻译出版社[China Foreign Translation Press].
*Zhang Peiji. 张培基. (1979).习语汉译英研究[A Study of Chinese-English Translation of Idioms ].商务印书室[Commercial Press].
*Peng Changjiang. 彭长江. (2012).英汉-汉英翻译教程[English-Chinese-English Translation Course].湖南师范大学出版社[Hunan Normal University Press].

==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 陶冶 Tao Ye==
=== Cultural Differences on English Interpretation and the Coping Strategies ===
< c e n t e r > Tao Ye 202020080644 < / c e n t e r >

===Abstract===
Since the reform and opening up,China’s communication with the world has become more and more frequently. At the same time, with the economic globalization, the world has become a global village,and interpretation has becoming more and more needful to human beings. However,because of the lack of intercultural awareness,the interpretation activities has emerged many problems. This thesis introduced the history of interpretation,and the purpose is to point out the intercultural differences in interpretation and the coping strategies.

=== Key Words ===
Key words:intercultural awareness;intercultural differences;coping strategies

=== 题目 ===
英语口译中的文化差异及解决策略

=== 摘要 ===
改革开放以来，中国与世界的交往愈发频繁。同时，随着经济全球化，世界变成了一个“地球村”。口译也越来越为人们所需要。然而，因为缺少跨文化意识，口译也出现了不少问题。本文介绍了口译的历史，本文的目的是指出中英在口译中的文化差异以及解决策略。

=== 关键词 ===
跨文化意识；文化差异；解决办法

=== Introduction ===
Although the origin of interpretation predates translation, there is little evidence for the existence of interpretation history. Until the beginning of the 20th century, interpreters were still generally composed of non-professional translators. In the West, they were mostly university professors, diplomats and journalists with equivalent language and knowledge. Their working style was rigorous and faithful, but there was no theoretical refinement. Such extensive interpretation did not change in the West until after the first World War.(Bao Gang 1998,2)

Although the origin of interpretation predates translation, there is little evidence for the existence of a history of interpretation. Until the early 20th century, interpreters generally consisted of non-professional translators. In the West, they are mostly university professors, diplomats and journalists with the same language and knowledge. Their work style is rigorous and faithful, but there is no theoretical refinement. This broad interpretation did not change in the West until after the First World war. (Bao Gang 1998,2)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan

At the beginning of the 20th century, there was more and more communication between different countries in the world. During this period,the demand for interpreters throughout the world increased as more and more countries came into contact with each other in wars, agreements and international conferences, and the international community diversified its languages. In just a few decades, there has been a great development in interpreting pairs, continuous interpretation is becoming more and more perfect, and a number of famous part-time interpreters had appeared.

Examples include Pauer Mantoux(historian, professor of University of London), an early interpreter who first used sophisticated interpretation techniques in the Paris Peace Conference; Jean Herbert, founder of the United Nations Translation Service and chief interpreter of international conferences, etc. Since then, interpreters have developed a set of systematic working methods, and interpretation has gradually become a professional bilingual communication work.(Bao Gang 1998,3)

For example, using complex for the first time in Paris peace conference interpreting skills early interpreters Paul mann tusk (historian, a professor at the university of London), founder of the translation service, international conference, chief interpreter jean Herbert, etc., from then on, the interpreter formed a system of working methods, gradually become a professional bilingual communication and interpretation.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan

During this period, the interpreters translated after the speaker finishing a paragraph. Because speech and translation are done alternately, it is called "consecutive interpretation" or "continuous interpretation". It was not until the Nuremberg Trial which was after The Second World War that simultaneous interpretation was used for the first time, to make sure that the long trial and the conversations between the judge and the criminals can be done fluently,and to save time. After that, the simultaneous interpretation had becoming popular around the world. The Nuremberg trial after the End of the Second World War is undoubtedly an important turning point in the history of interpretation.(Bao Gang 1998,4)

In 1957, the Sorbonne University of Paris (ESIT-- ECOLE SUPERIEEURE D’INTERPRETES ET TRADUCTEURS) established the first systematic interpretation theory in the world in the 1980s, namely the "interpretive theory" of interpretation. The theory was founded by Danika Selescovic and Mariana Ludere. According to this theory, the essence of interpretation is to release the meaning in the external form of language, and extralinguistic factors such as thinking, knowledge and cognitive process play an important role in its concrete process.(Bao Gang,1998,6)

In contrast, the interpretation work in China started relatively late. In the 1970s, Beijing Translation and Publication Office published a publication translation Communication, which was later renamed China Translation. Most important papers on interpretation in our country are published in this journal. In the 1980s, it published many insightful summaries of interpreting practice by famous Chinese senior interpreters, such as Li Yue Ran and Qi Zong Hua. In the early 1990s, a small number of exploratory papers with the nature of preliminary theoretical sublimation were published, but scientific and systematic research results on interpretation theory have been lacking up to now.(Bao Gang 1998,8)

In 1996, the Translators' Association of China, Nanjing Institute of International Relations, Nanjing Institute of Translators and Interpreters and Beijing Foreign Affairs University jointly hosted the first "National Seminar on Translation Teaching". In the following year, it co-sponsored the International Translation Seminar with Beijing Foreign Studies University, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, etc. .Until now,English interpretation in China has step into a new stage. With more and more Chinese interpreter’s name appeared in the international translation magazines, the interpreters in China has gown a lot of attention,and their theories are becoming important around the world.(Bao Gang,1998,6)

In 1996, the China Translators Association, Nanjing Institute of International Relations, Nanjing Institute of Translation and Interpreting, and Beijing Foreign Affairs University jointly held the first National Seminar on translation teaching. In the following year, it co-organized an international translation seminar with Beijing Foreign Studies University, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, etc. So far, English interpretation in China has entered a new stage. With more and more Chinese translators' names appearing in international translation magazines, Chinese translators have attracted wide attention and their theories are becoming more and more important worldwide.(Bao Gang,1998,6)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Peng juan

=== 1.Cultural Differences in English Interpretations===
Because of different language system and different cultural background,Chinese and English have their unique expression way and formed different way of thinking and value standard. This character of language makes it hard to learn a foreign language, for one thing has different way of saying in different languages. The following paragraphs will explain this relatively in two aspects:color and animal. According to the two different expressions and definitions of them, that the cultural differences between English and Chinese will make sense.
=== 1.1Color ===
Different color represents different meanings in Chinese and English,the following part will explain it in three colors:red,yellow and green.
=== 1.1.1Red===

Chinese people is very familiar with red. In major festive festivals such as the Spring Festival and Lantern Festival and important life events such as weddings, red will become the main decorative color to express festival, auspiciousness and passion. The Chinese words that express this meaning include "满堂红", "万紫千红", "大红大紫", etc., which all entrust people's yearning and joy for a better life. During the Spring Festival, the traditional custom is to put a red couplet on the door, “千门万户瞳瞳日，总把新桃换旧符”(Du Tian Yu 2020,187)

In the traditional wedding ceremony, the bride must wear red formal dress. In addition, the "five-star red flag", "red scarf", and "red revolution" embody the solemnity and awe of red in Chinese. However, in English, although red sometimes does contain similar colors of joy and happiness and serious meanings, such as remembrance day and red carpet, etc. The meaning of cruelty, danger, terror and warning is also very common, such as red-cock (fire caused by arson), red flag (danger signal), red revenge (bloody revenge), and even red in English. It also implies low-level tastes of lewdness, such as red light district,a place which full of brothels,discotheques,bars,nightclubs,etc. (Du Tian Yu 2020,187)

In "The Scarlet Letter" , the red letter A which means adultery stands out on the heroine's chest. In economic terms, red means "loss". Such as in the red,which means a lack of money. In addition, we should also pay attention to the non-correspondence of the concept of color expression in Chinese and English expressions. In the English-Chinese corresponding translation, words of different colors may be used to describe the objective phenomenon of the same thing.

For example, what we say in Chinese "红茶" is not red tea but black tea in English. This is because that Chinese and English see things from different aspect,in China, people regard “红茶”as red;while in English,people think that it is “black tea”. This is due to our different living habits and different angles of observation. The difference can also be seen in “红糖” and “brown sugar”. People in different cultures see the same thing from different aspects,due to different way of looking or understand the world. (Du Tian Yu 2020,187)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan

=== 1.1.2Yellow===

Yellow has multiple images in the expression of Chinese. In ancient times, yellow was regarded as the "color of the emperor". It represents royalty and power,such as the emperor's dragon robe. We sometimes use “黄袍加身”"yellow robe plus body" to describe the emperor's accession to the throne. Both of the two things show the important status and power that yellow represents in Chinese culture. But in English, the color that generally represents the supremacy is purple. The reason is that in ancient Greece and Rome, emperors, consuls, and generals were all dressed in purple. (Du Tian Yu 2020,188)

Wearing purple robe means the rise of power and high social status, such as The Chinese "生在帝王之家" corresponds to the English translation of be born in the purple, and "marry with the royal family or nobles" is to marry into the purple. In English culture, yellow is the color worn by the Jewish people who betrayed Jesus in the Bible, so the expression of yellow in English is often associated with traits such as betrayal, cowardice, and helplessness, such as yellow streak (cowardly) , Yellow-low looks (sullen and suspicious look), yellow livered (cowardly). (Du Tian Yu 2020,188)

At the same time, in Chinese, yellow is also used to express low-level interest, corruption, and other meanings, but we cannot literally translate pornographic magazines as yellow magazines. The yellow corresponding to express pornography in Chinese should be blue in English, such as blue joke (indecent joke), blue movie (porn movie). Due to cultural non-correspondence, the same color produces different images in the brains of people of different nationalities. We should pay special attention to the expression of this situation, and use different color words to express the same associative meaning.
Some words with "黄" in Chinese have nothing to do with yellow in English. For example, "黄道吉日" in English translates it into good luck, "黄毛丫头" in English translates it into a silly little girl, and "黄花" in English. It translates into clay lily and so on. Yellow also has an extended meaning, which means "cowardly, mean," and so on, for example: He is too yellow to stand up and fight. (He is too weak to stand up and fight). It is worth mentioning that, unlike Chinese using "yellow" to mean "obscene and pornographic", blue is often used to mean "yellow" in Chinese, which means "indecent and obscene". For example, blue jokes (indecent jokes), blue revolution (sexual liberation), blue films (yellow movies), blue software (yellow software) and so on.（Tian Yan 2014,121）

At the same time, in Chinese, yellow is also used to mean vulgar taste, corruption and so on, but we can not literally translate pornographic magazines into pornographic magazines. Yellow is blue in English, such as Blue Joke, Blue Movie, Blue Movie, Blue Movie, Blue Movie. As a result of the cultural non-correspondence, the same color has produced the different image in the different National People’s brain. Pay special attention to the expression of this situation, with different color words to express the same associative meaning. Some words with “yellow” are used in Chinese English with yellow. For example, “Auspicious Day” translates into good luck in English, “Yellow Girl” in English translates to a stupid little girl, and “Yellow Flower” in English. It translates as Mud Lily and so on. He was too weak to stand and fight. It is worth mentioning that “Blue” is often used as “yellow” in Chinese, which means “indecent, obscene” , unlike the Chinese word “yellow” which means “obscene, obscene” . Examples are “blue jokes”(dirty jokes) , “Blue Revolution”(sexual liberation) , “Blue Movies”(dirty movies) , “Blue Software”(Dirty Software) , and so on.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan

=== 1.1.3Green===
In Both Chinese and English, green is basically related to hope and good wish, which is often used in environmental protection, such as green consumerism, green energy, etc. But in ancient Chinese culture, green meant low, because low people wore green clothes,such as “绿林好汉”The color green in English has many extended meanings. Green in English often is used to represent a "jealousy, envy, is said to be jealous, unhappy or disease causes the body's secretion of yellow bile, one of the symptoms is either eyes blue or pale, so in English, there is green with envy (very jealous), green as jealousy, in Shakespeare's famous tragedy" Othello "has the green - eyed monster (pro monster, refers to envy) this phrase. "As green as grass," "a green eye," "a green hand," "As green as grass," "A green eye," （Du Tian Yu,2020,187）

So in Chinese "envy" or "against the pink eye" in English should be green - eyed, "red eye" in the Chinese into English in the "green eyes", and if it is translated into "red - eyed" that would be a mistake, British and American people would think that because of eye irritation and congestion is red, and medical "jealous" in English is called "pink eyes". In American politic elections the candidates that win are usually the ones who have green power backing them. Green in English is also used to indicate inexperience, lack of training, lack of knowledge, etc. For example, a green hand means "new person," while a greenhorn means "someone with no experience" or "someone who comes to a new place and doesn't understand the local customs."(Tian Yan,2014,121)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan

=== 1.2Animal===
Due to different cultural background,though the same word will have different representative meaning in different culture. The following paragraph will explain the different meaning of the same word in different culture.
=== 1.2.1Dog===
Though Chinese people feed dog as pet nowadays,dog has been seen as inferior and stupid animal in Chinese culture. In China, people raise dog to protect themselves. Because of the serving capability of dog, people in China often look down upon dogs, and there are many idioms and proverbs to describe Chinese people’s discrimination for dogs. For example:
1.狗胆包天—monstrously audacious
2.狗急跳墙—a cornered beast will dosomething desperate
3.狗屁不通—mere trash；unreadable rubbish
4.猪狗不如---that one is too evil to compare as a pig and dog
5.狗头军师—a person who offers bad advice
6.狗尾续貂—a dog’s tail joined to sable

7.狗血喷头—pour out a flood of invective against somebody
8.狗眼看人低—be a bloody snob

9.狗仗人势—like a dog threatening people depending on the strength its master’s power

10.狗嘴里吐不出象牙—no ivory issues from the mouth of a dog(Liu Xiang Ya 2009,154)
On the contrary, the English people regard dog as their best friend. Dog can play with them,eat dinner with them,and even sleep with them. Dog is a kind of family member in English society,and a trustful friend to English people. There are some examples:
Hot dog——A lucky dog——幸运儿
Top dog——胜利者，夺魁者；主要人物
A clever dog——聪明的小孩子；伶俐的小伙子Sea dog——老练的水手，海员
Big dog——要人，大亨，保镖
A gay dog——快活的人，爱开玩笑的人Love me，love dog——爱屋及乌
Work like a dog——拼命工作的人
To help a lame dog over a stile——雪中送炭As a dog with two tails——非常开心
A good dog deserves a good bone——有功者受赏An old dog——经验丰富的人，年事已高的人
An old dog barks not in vain——老将出马一个顶俩
The more I see of men，the more I admire dogs——我愈观察人，我愈爱慕狗(Zhao Le 2013,155)
According to the Bible, everything in the world is created by God, and animals are also created by him. Everyone is equal before God, and the core of the democratic spirit in the doctrine itself is the direct theoretical source of the modern Western thought of "freedom, equality and fraternity". Since then, the concept of equality has become an unshakable idea in the West and a kind of national cultural psychology in the West. "Dog is man's best friend" is not just a verbal expression. Westerners' love for dogs is also reflected in their daily life. In Europe, dog ownership is common in both rural and urban areas. (Zhao Le 2013,155)
English people treat dogs as companions, as friends, as family members. In some European homes, the dog does not have an extra meaning. It can walk and rest in every room of its owner. The host treats, the guest friend is full, it is free, still around the table to eat, the dog's saliva water flows down, the host or the guest will use the napkin to wipe it, even directly with the hand wipe, just like to treat their own children. There is no cultural psychology of "respecting guests before scolding dogs" as Chinese people think, which is also related to the abstract logical thinking mode of Westerners. There is no connection between the "fawning and fawning" image of dogs, but it is just a kind of nature of dogs.(Zhao Le 2013,155)

=== 1.2.2Dragon===
In Western myths and legends, a dragon is an extremely fierce monster that can breathe fire to destroy buildings and is extremely destructive. Dragon refers to people often contain derogatory sense, for example: Shakespeare writes of Juliet hearing Romeo kill:
O serpent heart, hid with a flowering face!
Did ever dragon keep so fair a cave?
Beautiful tyrant! fiend angelical!
Oh, the heart of a viper in the face of a flower!
Which dragon dwelt in this elegant cave?
Beautiful tyrant! The angelic devil！(Huang Fu Hong 2000,8)

In English, the old dragon means a devil. Westerners believe that Dragon is a symbol of satyr and a monster of cruelty and abuse, which should be destroyed. In some legends about saints and heroes, the deeds of fighting against monsters like dragons often end with the monsters being killed. The letter is probably best known as the Anglo-Saxon narrative poem Beowulf. Regardless of his old age, Beowulf determined to kill the dragon to rescue people. He took the eleven warriors to fight and and devoted his life for the people happiness.(Huang Fu Hong 2000,8)

The word "龙" in Chinese, as we are all familiar with, cannot be translated literally as "Dragons". The reason is that the English people have a terrible impression of the dragon, which is the symbol of crime. Many English-language newspapers cater to the habits of their British and American readers, and their translations have undergone a cultural transformation. Asia's "Four Tigers" is an apt translation.(Huang Fu Hong 2000,8)

The dragon is said in the year of the Dragon, from the comparison of dragon culture, the integration of Chinese and Western culture and national psychological characteristics can be seen. This is a problem we should pay attention to in foreign language learning and teaching Chinese as a foreign language.(Huang Fu Hong,2000,8)

Dragon means in the year of the Dragon, from the comparison of dragon culture, we can see the fusion of Chinese and Western culture and national psychological characteristics. This is the problem that we should pay attention to in the study and teaching of Chinese as a foreign language. (huang fuhong, 2000,8)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan

=== 2.Coping Strategies===
Since there a lot of cultural differences between Chinese and English,interpreters should figure out ways to settle them. The following paragraphs introduced some good qualities of interpreters and the ways that interpreters can use to deal with these cultural problems.
=== 2.1Good qualities of interpreters===
=== 2.1.1Clear and accurate speech===
Interpreter's speech should be clear and accurate, with no fluctuation of volume. Don't make your voice too harsh, or break or shake because of tension. In more formal Settings, interpreters should also control their distance from the microphone and keep the tone at a labor-saving and pleasant height, depending on the situation. At the same time, it accentuates and lengthens certain syllables of affairs or certain vowels of Chinese, thus making the speech chain appear cadence and giving one's voice a certain solemn and specific delivery effect in the hall.(Bao Gang 1998,226)

Do not, however, be so artificial as to incur the general dislike of the audience. The interpreter may have minor speech defects, such as a less severe accent, but in general the interpreter's voice condition should be better than that of ordinary people. In the scene of interpretation, the most taboo words are stagnation of language flow and tension of voice, because this will make the audience have doubts about the translation ability of the interpreter, which will lead to a crisis of confidence in the interpreter.(Bao Gang 1998,226)

Secondly, the speed of the interpreter should be appropriate, not the faster the better. Of course, a qualified interpreter should be able to publish the target language quickly, but the interpreter must be adjusted as appropriate in the specific interpretation environment. In fact, the most important thing is to keep the language flow on the level of fluency and communication.(Bao Gang 1998,226)

At the level of paralanguage information transmission, attention should be paid to convey appropriate paralanguage and other information of the source language to meet the needs of on-site communication. Interpreters should not excessively imitate the intonation, tone and other paralinguistic information of the source speaker, let alone exaggerate the information. In theory, most of the paralinguistic information of the source language is conveyed without an interpreter.

Because these information can be directly and clearly felt by all the listeners on the scene, such as gestures, facial expressions and other body language information. Only intonation and tone are the important paralinguistic information that must be taken into account by the translator in the output of the target language. Translators should not be indifferent to the intonation, tone and other information of the source speaker, but should translate mechanically in a flat tone. Don't dazzle or mime around others to appear dominant.(Bao Gang 1998,227)

Because these messages can be directly and clearly felt by all the audience, such as gestures, facial expressions and other body language information. Only intonation and tone are important paralinguistic information that translators must consider when translating the target language. The translator should not be indifferent to the tone, intonation and other information of the source text, but should translate it mechanically into a flat tone. Don't show off or imitate in front of others to show your dominance. (Bao Gang 1998,227)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan

=== 2.1.2Intercultural awareness===
For example, when greeting an American at a Chinese airport, if the Chinese receptionist says, "Are you tired from the trip”? Maybe Americans can accept this, but it's not the best expression. In America, interpreters should better say:”Did you have a nice trip? "Because Americans don't like to be asked too personal questions. Similarly,it is inappropriate to ask English people about their age,salary,weight and so on. Interpreters should keep this in mind when interpreting. Although it is difficult to define the interpreter and the speaker had how much the same cultural background, but the more the interpreter know the speaker's knowledge background, the interpretation will do the more smoothly. That is to say, when interpreting,the interpreter should prepare for the information of the speaker in advance,such as his or her cultural background,speaking habit and so on,which can benefit both the speaker and the interpreter.(Liu Ya Feng 2018,57)

In the communication with the English countries,there are many intercultural problems. The following paragraphs will show what problems that interpreter should pay attention to.
=== 2.1.3 Differences in social systems, values and world views===
Culture brings different contexts to language. The same expression is sometimes very different in the two cultures, and this difference also represents the difference in values. For example, a Chinese host meets a foreign friend in the morning and asks, “您吃了吗?” Then the interpreter should not interpret it into”Have you eaten yet?” Instead, the interpreter should translate this sentence into:”How are you?” This is because that in Chinese culture,”您吃了吗？”is just a greeting. Another difference is that China is a socialist country, words related to socialism with Chinese characteristics often appear. When interpreting such words, the differences between Chinese and foreign cultures should be taken into account. For example, if the interpretation of "不忘初心" is "Don't forget our first heart”,then the English listeners will feel quite confused. The interpretation should be combined with our social conditions,”不忘初心” can be translated as “Don’t forget our initial determination” or "Don't forget why we started", "Remain true to our original aspiration", "Stay true to our original mission", etc. With the continuous expansion of the Chinese government's external publicity work, foreigners have become more and more understanding of this English expression.
=== 2.1.4 Differences in customs and habits===
The English people are fond of dogs and often regard them as their companions and lovely animals. They use a dog as a metaphor for a person's life. For example:in Chinese,people say:”他是个幸运儿”. While in English,this sentence should be interpreted into “He is a lucky dog”. (Liu Ya Feng 2018,57)
What’s more,”He is dog-tired.” is to describe that he is terribly tired. It would be a mistake to translate "He works like a dog" into "他像狗一样地工作"since the meaning of this sentence is to say that he is a workaholic. In our country's political life, We often see other figurative uses, for example, "坚定不移地打虎、拍蝇、猎狐" translated into "We have taken firm action to take out tigers, swat flies, and hunt down foxes." In this context, Chinese people compare "tigers", "flies" and "foxes" to officials of different levels of corruption. (Liu Ya Feng 2018,57)
=== 2.1.5 Different usage habits in English and Chinese===
Compared with English, some words are put in a different order. For example, if "中小企业" is translated into "Medium and small-sized Enterprises"do not fit British and American habits, but instead are translated into "Small and medium-sized Enterprises". “贫富差距” is not “the gap between the poor and the rich” but “the gap between rich and poor”. The translation of "暖心的故事" is not "warming-heart stories", but "heart-warming stories". (Liu Ya Feng 2018,58)

===3.Analysis of interpretation===

Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing answered the question raised by the reporter of China Radio International on China's relations with other developing countries.
　　
Example 1: Integration of key points in oral interpretation

Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing; 我也访问了一个人口很少的国家，叫佛得角。这个国家的领导人对我很热情，又特别客气。不断地说：“ 啊，我们国家很小很小。”我被他们的谦虚态度所感动，但我也诚恳地告诉佛得角朋友：“ 山不在高，有仙则名。国不在大，热爱和平，主持公道就好。”(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)
Interpreter: And I also visited a country with a very small size of population，called Cape Vede. I was received with tremendous warm and kindness there. The people there were very modest.They kept telling me that our country is very small But in spite of their modest attitude，I told them sincerely that as an old saying goes in China： A mountain，no matter how high it is，if it is blessed with a touch of divine，it will be well-known. And a country，no matter how big it is，if it can uphold peace and justness in the world， it w ill be a good country.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)

Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing; What matters with a mountain is not its height. And what matters with a country is not its size.
Comments:In this passage, Foreign Minister Li borrowed the first sentence of Liu Yu-suk's Humble House Inscription, "The mountain is not high, but the immortal name is", and extended it to the analogy of international relations. Due to the time pressure of the scene, the translator did not fully understand the meaning of the sentence and adopted the word-for-word translation.

Although on the surface, the translator translated every word and sentence, but a little careful, it can be seen that the translation does not express the information meaning of the original. Apparently, Li also felt that the interpreter did not accurately convey the meaning he wanted to convey. So, no sooner had the interpreter spoken than Li retranslated it (in bolded English). Li's translation makes it clear that he does not use the corresponding translation of words and phrases, but directly conveys the message meaning of the source language (i.e. the interpretive translation of the ideograms).(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)

Although on the surface, the translator translates every word and sentence, but with a little care, it can be seen that the translation does not express the information meaning of the original text. Apparently, Mr. Li also felt that the translation did not convey exactly what he was trying to say. So as soon as the interpreter opened his mouth, Li translated it (in bold English). Li's translation makes it clear that he does not use the translation of corresponding words and phrases, but rather conveys the informational meaning of the source language directly (i.e., interpretive translation of ideograms)..(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan

Example 2: Cultural considerations in oral interpretation

Foreign Minister Li Zhaoxing answered the question raised by CCTV reporter on overseas travel of Chinese citizens:

Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing; 为以防万一，你最好能了解离你到的地方最近的中国大使馆或者总领事馆的电话，一旦出事，你可以放心，中国驻有关国家或地区的大使馆或者总领事馆，会全力以赴、会依法为你提供帮助。

Interpreter: And what you could do，beside that if you are the unlucky one is you could find the telephone numbers o f embassy and consulate general the closest to you. So whenever there is an incident you could ask for help f rom our embassy and consulate general. Our people will surely go all out to give you lawful protection.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)

Comments:The translator has a thorough understanding of the additional points in the original language and provides a smooth and accurate translation by means of interpretive translation. What is particularly commendable is a translation of "If you are the hype one" for a rainy day. The language form of the clause "you can rest assured" is not given in the target language, but its meaning is incorporated into the subsequent translation. Building protection refers to a direct interpretation of "lawful assistance" as "to give you guidance".

Comments: The translator has a thorough understanding of the additional points in the original text and provides accurate and smooth translation through interpretive translation. Particularly commendable is the translation of "If you are the hypeone" in case of need. The linguistic form of the clause "You can rest assured" was not given in the target language, but its meaning was incorporated in a later translation. Building protection means to interpret "lawful assistance" directly as "giving you guidance".--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan

This approach takes into account the differences between Chinese and Western ways of thinking and the differences between Chinese and English ways of expression. This is exactly what the interpretive theory advocates. According to the theory of interpretive interpretation, interpreters must consider the acceptability of both sides in the context of two languages and cultures.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)
　　
Example 3: Emotional communication in oral interpretation

Foreign Minister Li Zhao Xing answered a question on China-Us trade raised by the Reuters news Agency.
Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing：实际上，很难说得清楚什么叫军用，什么叫民用。比如说这杯茶，我和姜恩柱主任委员喝了就是民用，要是当兵的喝了就是军用，说得清楚吗？
Interpreter: Actually it would be very difficult to distinguish from military purposes and civilian purposes. Just take the cup of tea in front of me as an example. If I and Chair man Jiang drink this tea， it w ill be rendered as for civilian use. But if a soldier drinks this tea， then the tea becomes for military use. So it is very difficult to have a clear definition of this term.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)

Comments:In the part that add in the original language is the Chinese commonly used rhetorical question. The form of rhetorical questions in Chinese is equivalent to rhetorical questions in English. But the rhetorical function is not the same. In Chinese, rhetorical questions are usually used for intensification, as in the original "Is it clear? "Is for the purpose of emphasizing" can't say clearly ".

And rhetorical questions in English also have the function of moderating mood. Therefore, translators adopt the way of interpretation to the rhetorical directly translated into statements, both to avoid the ambiguity, and to accurately convey the original meaning of language information (including emotional information), the effect of interpretation as sent interpreting theory emphasizes: the interpreter in interpreting process must consider how to accurately convey the original language discourse information such as the thoughts, images, and emotions.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)

Example 4: Syntactic recombination in oral interpretation

Foreign Minister Li Zhaoxing answered a question on China-Us trade raised by the Reuters news Agency.

Foreign Minister Li Zhao Xing：你的问题富有战略眼光，你问到十年甚至二十年之后的中美关系。

Interpreter： Your question show s that you are a person with a strategic perspective， because you asked about the outlook o f Sino-US relations in ten or twenty years’ time.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)

Comments:Of course, this sentence cannot be translated in the corresponding way of words. "Problems" can't have "strategic vision," it's the person asking the question who has "strategic vision." When the true meaning of the source language is understood, the expression of the target language becomes accurate and clear.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)

Example 5: Semantic interpretation in oral interpretation

Xinhua News Agency reporter asked Premier Wen About education:

Reporter: In your report, education is a highlight, especially compulsory education. You proposed the policy of "two exemptions and one subsidy" starting from this year.

Interpreter：We can see that education figures quite prominently in your government’s report particularly the compulsory education. We know starting from this year， the government is going to exempt the tuition and miscellaneous fees for the rural poor students receiving compulsory education and government is also going to give subsidies to the students attending schools f rom poor families.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)

As we can see, education occupies a very important place in your government's report, especially compulsory education. As we know, starting from this year, the government will exempt the tuition and miscellaneous fees for compulsory education for the poor in rural areas. The government will also provide subsidies for students from poor families to attend school. (Yi Zhi Ling 2012)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan

Comments:This way of using numbers to sum up a policy, an idea, etc., is a feature of The Chinese language. From the "three Antis", "Five Antis", "four Antis", "four Qing dynasties", "Five stresses, four Beauties and three loves" to the present "three Represents", "three agricultrals", "eight honors and eight disgraces" and so on, there are many examples. Therefore, when the "two free and one supplement" appeared in the reporter's question, the country's top interpreters naturally have a good idea. Without any hesitation, the field interpreter directly explained the exact meaning of "two exemption and one supplement", without any word-to-word translation of the phrase itself. The interpretive nature of interpretation is further supported here.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)

Example 6: Logical processing in oral translation and interpretation

Premier Wen Jiabao answered the question on education raised by Xinhua News Agency.

Premier Wen: I'd like to stress the importance of civilian education here, because the vast majority of people in the world are civilians. The quality of common people is related to the quality of the whole people of a country. We have 1.3 billion people, 900 million farmers, a higher proportion of civilians.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)

Interpreter: Here，I would like to give the stress and the importance to the education for the general public. Most of the people in this world are ordinary people and belong to the general public. I think the competence of the general public is a direct reflection of the overall competence of the country. China is a country with a population of 1. 3 billion and 900 million of the Chinese people live in the countryside. So we have even a bigger proportion of our people receiving ordinary education.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)

Comments:There is no conjunctions between clauses, and the logical relation is clear at a glance, which is also the charm of Chinese "meaning meeting". However, English focuses on "speech and communication", and the logical relationship is reflected in the language form. Therefore, the interpreter must thoroughly understand the logical relations between Chinese clauses: they are not parallel relations, "there are 1.3 billion people" and "there are 900 million farmers" are inclusive relations, and the relationship between the first two clauses and the last one is causal.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)

Comments: There is no conjunctions between clauses, and the logical relationship is clear, which is also the charm of Chinese "Meaning association". However, English attaches great importance to "speech and communication", and its logical relationship is reflected in the form of language. Therefore, the interpreter must fully understand the logical relationship between Chinese clauses: they are not parallel, "there are 1.3 billion people" and "there are 900 million farmers" are inclusive, and the relationship between the first two clauses and the latter is causal.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan

Interpreters interpret on the basis of understanding the true connotation of the source language, which is not the corresponding language translation of words and phrases, but the interpretive interpretation (the italic part of the translation) that conveys the overall message meaning of the source language. This also explains the definition of "meaning" in interpretive theory: the meaning of speech refers to "the overall meaning of discourse" in interpreting activities.

On March 18, 2008 held a press conference, premier Wen Jiabao quote the old saying or answer questions from Chinese and foreign journalists, ancient Chinese poems before and after nine times, and the interpreter is also easy to immediately after the prime minister stated to complete these classical Chinese sentence translation, not only embodies the solid basic language interpreter itself strength and extensive knowledge, also for the interpretation of the study and research provides vivid data, more convenient to our understanding of cross-cultural awareness of the significance of a good interpreter.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)

From the analysis of the above examples, it can be seen that interpretation is not only a technology but also an art, which requires translators to have a keen cross-cultural awareness and overcome the obstacles behind the linguistic and cultural factors. Through extensive reading, translators should actively expand their scope of knowledge, strengthen the accumulation of their own cultural knowledge and the cultivation of cross-cultural communication, and strive to avoid mistranslation caused by ignoring linguistic and cultural differences through constant practice and summary, so as to achieve the purpose of external communication.

Through the analysis of the above examples, it can be seen that interpretation is not only a technology, but also an art, which requires translators to have a keen cross-cultural awareness and overcome the obstacles behind language and cultural factors. Through extensive reading, translators should actively expand their knowledge fields, strengthen the accumulation of their own cultural knowledge and the cultivation of cross-cultural dialogue, and strive to avoid mistranslation caused by ignoring language and cultural differences through constant practice and summary, so as to achieve the purpose of external communication.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:41, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan

Interpreters in the interpreting process is not constrained in the primitive form of language, but fully considering the situation and primitive released into their related knowledge, a thorough understanding of primitive information, abandon words corresponding translation methods, focus on search to find the right words within the prescribed time to convey meaning in the context of a specific information.

In the process of interpretation, interpreters are not limited by the original form of language, but give full consideration to the situation and the original release into their relevant knowledge, thoroughly understand the original information, abandon the translation method of corresponding words, focus on finding appropriate words within the specified time, and convey meaning in the context of specific information.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan

=== Conclusion ===
With the deep economic globalization and many international issues,interpreters has become more and more important throughout the world. As an interpreter,it’s essential for them to learn more about the cultural differences. As an interpreter,he or she should keep learning to keep up with the fast-changing world.Rich cultural background and relevant professional knowledge will help interpreters improvise. But a solid language foundation is the key. Therefore, we should accumulate relevant professional knowledge in our daily study and strengthen the training of interpretation, so as to be able to do well in on-site interpretation.Due to the cultural differences that lead to the untranslatability between Chinese and English in some occasions, we should admit that translation is not always possible, but only within certain limits and limits. As an interpreter,daily learning and accumulation of cultural knowledge are very important.Only by having a thorough understanding of the similarities and differences between Chinese English and their cultures can translators reduce mistakes in interpreting and effectively serve as a bridge between them.

=== References ===

*Bao Gang鲍刚.(1998).口译理论概述[M].[An Overview of Interpretation Theory].北京:旅游教育出版社Beijing:Travel and Education Press.

*Du Tianyu杜恬雨.(2020).浅析文化差异对汉英颜色词翻译的影响[J].[A Brief Analysis of the Influence of Cultural Differences on the Translations of Chinese-English Color Words].科教文汇The Science Education Article Collects(07):187-188

*Huang Fuhong黄福洪.(2000).汉英龙文化差异浅析[J].[The Influence of Cultural Differences Between Chinese and English].修辞学习The Rhetoric Study(03):8.

*Liu Yafeng刘亚峰.(2018).中英文化的差异对口译的影响[J].[The Influence of Cultural Differences Between Chinese and English on Interpretation].辽宁经济职业技术学院.辽宁经济管理干部学院学报 Liaoning Economic Vocational And Technical College. Journal of Liaoning Economic Management Cadre Institute(06):56-58.

*Liu Xiangya刘相娅.(2009).英汉文化中“dog”“狗”的对比研究[J].新课程学习(学术教育)A Comparative Study of Dogs in English and Chinese Cultures New Curriculum Learning (Academic Education)(12):154-155.

*Zhao Le赵乐.(2013).汉英“狗”族词汇褒贬义对比及成因分析[J].A Comparative Analysis of the Commendatory and Derogatory Meanings of Chinese and English "Dog" Words and their Causes.现代语文(语言研究版) Modern Chinese (Language Research Edition)(02):155-158.

*The Spirit of Interpretation 译之灵.记者招待会现场口译实例评析Comments on interpretation examples at the reception.2012.

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--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 14:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan

==On Lefevere's manipulating theory 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan==

<center> 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan, 202020080609</center>

===Abstract===
In 1980s, the research object of translation studies changed from text itself to culture. Cultural factors were brought into translation studies. Andre Lefevere, as the founder of cultural transformation, puts forward the famous manipulation theory and its three elements-poetics, ideology and patron. He believes that translation is not a simple change between languages, and translators' translation activities are influenced and restricted by social factors such as ideology, poetics and patronage. He points out that translation is a form of rewriting the text, and it is "manipulating" the original text to make it compatible with the cultural background of the target text. The main body of the thesis is divided into three parts, which explore the rewriting phenomenon caused by poetics, ideology and sponsors in translation activities by displaying different translation cases.

===Key Words===
Ideology; Poetics; Patronage; Manipulation

===题目===
勒弗菲尔的操纵理论

===摘要===
20世纪80年代，翻译研究的研究对象从文本本身转向文化，将文化因素纳入翻译研究之中。安德烈勒弗菲尔作为文化转换的奠基人提出了著名的操纵理论及其三要素—诗学、意识形态和赞助人。他认为翻译不是一件简单的语言间的转换，译者的翻译活动受到意识形态、诗学和赞助人等社会因素的影响和制约。他指出翻译是改写文本的一种形式，是对原文的“操纵”，使其与目的语文本所在的文化背景相容。论文主体主要分为三部分，分别通过展示不同的译本分析，探究诗学、意识形态和赞助人在翻译活动中造成的改写现象。

===关键词===
意识形态；诗学；赞助人；操纵

===1.Introduction===

Before the 20th century, western translation theories mainly fell into the category of literature and art, which regarded translation as an art and emphasized the translator's creative reproduction of the original text. Until the mid-20th century, translation theorists introduced the theories and achievements of modern linguistics into translation studies, thus producing a linguistic school.Linguistic school regarded translation as a science of mutual transformation at the linguistic level, emphasizing the language equivalence between the original text and the target text.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)

Compared with the literary school, the linguistic school has deepened translation studies and achieved fruitful results, which was beyond doubt. However, it only limited translation studies to the linguistic level, ignoring external linguistic factors such as discourse and context, which led to the fossilization of translation studies.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)

Since the 1980s, under the influence of post-modernism and cross-cultural studies, translation studies have ushered in a "cultural turn", which has gradually transformed translation studies from a linguistic perspective to a cultural perspective, and thus a cultural school of translation has emerged. The cultural school broke through the traditional text comparative study mode of literature and linguistics, and paid attention to many social factors that influenced translation under the broad cultural background, thus broadening the scope of translation studies and injecting new blood into translation studies. Manipulation school was one of the most influential schools of culture.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)

The development of Manipulation School was based on comparative literature research, which mainly studied literary translation. The representative figures were Hermans and Lefevere. Hermans first applied "manipulation" to the study of translation theory, forming the embryonic stage of the manipulation school.In the book "Manipulation of Literature: Studies of Literary Translation", Hermans gave the programmatic view of Manipulation School: Manipulation School thinks that literature is a complex dynamic system. As Hermans said: "From the perspective of the target text, all translations are manipulations of the original text for some purpose." (Hermans 1985, 10-11)

Andre Lefevere, a famous Belgian American comparative writer and translation theorist, pointed out that literary translation always came into being in a certain historical period and a certain cultural context. In this sense, translation was a rewriting of the original text and a form of creating the text. Lefevere further pointed out that literary criticism, biography, literary history, film, drama, reader's guide and so on were all rewriting the text and creating another form of text image.(Zhang xiaojuan 2010, 130)

In other words, translation created the original author, the original text and the literary and cultural images of the original text. All rewritings, regardless of its intention, reflected certain ideology and poetics under the influence of the patronage. He thought that translation was rewriting, and rewriting was manipulation.The rewriting in different historical periods should be controlled by the ideology and main stream poetics, which was finally related to power and became a means to serve them. He believed that translation cannot truly reflect the original appearance, which was mainly manipulated by these three factors: ideology, poetics and patronage.(Zhang xiaojuan 2010, 130)

===2 Three Elements of Lefevere's manipulation Theory===

===2.1 Ideology===

Generally speaking, ideology refers to the concept system that reflects the interests and requirements of specific economic forms, specific classes or social groups, and its basic contents include people's political, legal, moral, philosophical, artistic and religious views, etc. In Lefevere's view, translation practice is a practice related to certain historical reality, a practice of reinterpreting the original text according to the interests of a certain social group in the new historical environment, and it is essentially a practice of culture and politics. Manipulation school is most concerned about not how the translation should be translated, but why it is translated like this.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 13:59, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

Translations are not made in a vacuum. Translators function in a given culture at a given time. The way they understand themselves and their culture is one of the factors that may influence the way in which they translate. (Andre Lefevere 1992,14)

Translation, as a cross-language and cross-cultural communication activity, is inevitably influenced by ideology. It includes the translator's personal ideology and the ideology imposed on the translator by the authority or sponsor. These personal, social or upper-level ideologies will limit the selection of the theme of translated works and the form of expressing the theme and affect the translator's basic translation strategies and the interpretation of the original language and culture. Therefore, under the control of ideology, the translator will arbitrarily add, delete or change the original text, so that the translated text serves his own political purpose. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 130)--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 13:59, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

===2.2 Poetics===

Poetics involves two parts: literary technique and translator's view of literary function. Literary technique mainly includes genre, symbol, theme, etc. Translator's view of literary function refers to the role or function of literature in the whole social system. Translators not infrequently use their translations to influence the evolution of the poetics of their time. The compromises translators find between the poetics of the original and the poetics of their culture provide fascinating insights into the process of acculturation and incontrovertible evidence of the extent of the power of a given poetics. (Andre Lefevere 1992,26)--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 13:59, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

According to Lefevere, the translation method adopted by translators is carried out and developed under a certain system of factors of poetics, and the object of the study of poetics is as small as one word or as large as one sentence and the style of the whole chapter, translation strategies and other aspects of the rewriting of the poetics, which are the important components of the cultural system where the rewriting writers are engaged in their creation. In order to conform to the ideology and poetics which occupied the dominant position in the period where they live and to achieve the goal of making the rewritten works accepted by as many readers as possible, the original works will be adjusted in a fixed degree. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 131)--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 13:59, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

===2.3 Patronage===

Generally speaking, sponsors refer to individuals and groups that can promote or hinder the production and dissemination of literary works in a certain historical period, and institutions that regulate the dissemination of literature and literary thoughts. Patrons can encourage the publication of translations they consider acceptable and they can also quite effectively prevent the publication of translations they do not consider so. (Andre Lefevere 1992,19) --[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 14:00, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

Lefevere regarded various rewriting forms, such as literary translation, as one of the various systems of the society. This department of philology has double factors of operation and control. One is the internal factor of the department of philology, which is composed of various professionals including critics, teachers and translators. The other is the patron who plays a role in the external department of the department.There are all kinds of powers (people or mechanisms) that promote or stop reading, writing or rewriting , such as religious groups, orders, government departments, publishing agencies, mass media mechanisms, or individual power.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 82)--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 14:00, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

Sponsors can encourage works that they think are suitable, and can also effectively curb works that they think are inappropriate. Generally speaking, they play a vital role in the dynamic direction of translation, the development of translated literature, and social status where translators are located. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 131)--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 14:00, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

===3.Cases Study===

===3.1 Cases Study on Ideology===

Example one: In the dialogue between Wang Lifa and Cui Jiufeng in the second act of Teahouse, Wang Lifa said, "可是住在我这里, 天天念经" Cui Jiufeng replied, "我现在只能修持, 忏悔!" As for "念经" in the sentence, Ying Ruocheng's translation of "chanting Buddhist scriptures" is rich in Christian color; Huo Hua's translation "chanting sutras" abandons the meaning of Buddhism. From this, it can be seen that in order to meet the requirements of mainstream ideology, translators will choose corresponding translation strategies and delete or euphemistically treat some of the original texts in the process of translation. From the perspective of manipulation theory, this is the manipulation of ideology on translation.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 144)--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 14:01, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

Example two: Facing globalization, the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation must be strongly supported by the prosperity of culture. Under the background of vigorously advocating the use of literature output to improve the soft power of Chinese culture, we should treat the translation of Chinese literature more rationally. China has been a collectivist country since ancient times and advocated unity and unity. For families, there is a saying that "home is harmonious and everything is prosperous"; For the neighborhood, there is the advocacy of "good neighborliness and friendship".(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)

Therefore, when translating the report of the 19th National Congress into English, it is inevitable to be influenced by the feelings of home and country, which can be seen everywhere in the text.Original text: 大会的主题是：不忘初心，牢记使命…… Translation version：The theme of the Congress is: Remain true to our original aspiration and keep our mission firmly in mind... Analysis: There is no human appellation like "we" in the original text of the sentence, but it appears in the translation that “our original aspiration” and “our mission”.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)

Thus, its text translation is manipulated by our country's ideology, which is intended to show the collectivism consciousness of the Chinese nation and show that all ethnic groups in our country are united and love each other dearly.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)

Example three: As an important media of cultural communication, American TV drama not only has an eye-catching story, but also contains a lot of foreign cultural factors, such as authentic American slang and spoken language, strange historical allusions, and novel network neologisms. As a bridge between Chinese and American cultures, subtitle translation of American TV drama is particularly important. First of all, when the social values of the translation and the source text conflict, ideology will manipulate the translator to rewrite the sensitive parts of the text to meet the social ideology requirements of the target language.(Long juan 2020, 64)

In addition, American TV series contains a lot of local cultural factors, which is difficult to find the corresponding symbols in the process of translation and introduction, so the rewriting of culture in subtitles is inevitable.
English version: Hewlett and Packard
Chinese version: 休利特和帕卡德
(比尔·休利特和戴维·帕卡德是惠普(HP)公司创始人，两者均为男性。)
-Quoted from the Big Bang Theory

Many Chinese audiences are familiar with HP brand, but know little about its founders. Therefore, in addition to translating the names of the two founders literally at the bottom of the screen, the subtitle group members also added their identities and remarks "Both are male" at the top of the screen. This not only preserves the characteristics of the source language culture, but also helps the audience enjoy the movie-watching activities smoothly, and also increases the comedy sense of the play.(Long juan 2020, 64)--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 14:01, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

Example four: In 1930s, the western world knew very little about Chinese culture at that time, and most people thought that China was a savage and backward nation. The Chinese people in Westerners' minds were ignorant, superficial and vulgar. Facing the misunderstanding and discrimination of Westerners towards China, Lin Yutang tried to show the western world the true philosophy of life and attitude of Chinese people by translating “浮生六记” which told the story of a Chinese couple's quiet and simple life. He adopted the translation strategy of combining domestication and foreignization, which made the translated works not only retain the characteristics of Chinese culture, but also be easily understood and accepted by western readers.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 106)--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 14:01, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

Original text: 彼非作《琵琶行》者耶?
English translation: Isn’t he the one who wrote the poem on The Pi Pa Player?
Here, Lin Yutang translated "琵琶行" into "The Pi Pa Player" rather than "lute" and other forms that were easy for western readers to understand. He adopted the translation strategy of alienation and retained Chinese cultural characteristics according to the idea of himself, with the aim of making Chinese culture go abroad and giving western readers a certain understanding of traditional Chinese culture.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 106)

Example five: In the Chinese translation of Peter Pan, Yang Jingyuan chooses the combination of written language and spoken English in Beijing, and downplays the indecent language in the original text. The choice of this language translation strategy must be determined by his ideology.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180) --[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 14:01, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

In the original text, the topic of "mother" appears in many occasions, such as storytelling and character dialogue, and Yang Jingyuan translates it into written language "母亲" in most occasions. "Twins" in the original text is translated by Yang as "孪生子" in written language. Yang Jingyuan tends to use the northern dialect to translate, which is reflected in her translation sequence: when it comes to children's pleasure in never having a hometown, "他们不用上学读那些劳什子的书" "Sweater" is translated as "线衣" and "frock" is translated as "罩褂". "劳什子", "线衣" and "罩褂" are typical northern dialects.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)

In the story, the fairy Ding Keling has a pet phrase "You silly ass", which Yang translated as "你这笨蛋". The severely abusive language in the original text is treated as generally critical language in the translated text. Yang Jingyuan was born into a scholarly family and received higher education. Therefore, when she translated words, she intentionally or unintentionally chose the combination of written language and spoken English in Beijing, and downplayed the indecent language in the original text. Therefore, the translator's ideology really controls her translation process.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 14:01, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

Example six: Zhu Shenghao translated King Lear in 1942. At that time, China was economically backward and politically turbulent. "Saving the country and the people" and "national liberation in an all-round way" became the mainstream ideology of the society at that time. When it was learned that Japanese translator laughed at the backwardness of Chinese culture, which was a barren place without Shakespeare's complete works, Zhu's patriotic enthusiasm was thoroughly aroused. In order to make the people with low education level understand this western classic better, he paid special attention to the harmony of phonology and the smoothness of the whole article in the process of translation. Meanwhile, he wanted to keep the verve of the original as far as possible. Therefore, he mainly adopts domestication.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 14:01, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

(Act II, Scene IV)
Lear: No, rather I abjure all roofs, and choose
To wage against the enmity o’the air;
To be a comrade with the wolf and owl,
Necessity’s sharp pinch! (Shakespeare, 1972)
Zhu’s translation: 不, 我宁愿什么屋子也不要住, 过着风餐露宿的生活, 和无情的大自然抗争, 和豺狼鸱鸮做伴侣, 忍受一切饥寒的痛苦!
Zhu Shenghao is inspired by national honor and disgrace. His three parallelism sentences are full of momentum, like flowing water. Words such as "风餐露宿" and "无情的大自然" also pour out his inner anger and patriotic enthusiasm for the domestic status.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 14:01, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

===3.2 Cases Study on Poetics ===

Example one: There is such a scene in the third act of Teahouse. “美国针、美国线、美国牙膏、美国消炎片。还有口红、雪花膏、玻璃袜子细毛线。”
Ying’s translation: Yankee needles, Yankee thread; Toothpaste white and lipstick red. Patent potions, facial lotions; Nylons sheer, you’ll find here.
Huo’s translation: Yankee needles, Yankee notions, Yankee toothpaste, Yankee potions. Lipsticks red, and cold cream white; Nylon stockings, sheer delight.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 144)--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 14:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

By comparing these two translations, in order to better conform to the rhythm of English poetry and make the whole ditty read fluently, Ying Ruocheng splits the structural meaning of the original text and then reorganizes it. He adopts more alienation translation strategies in order to achieve the same rhythm as the original text. On the other hand, because of his love for Chinese culture and the influence of Chinese traditional literature, Huo Hua is more faithful to the original text in his translation, and translates the whole ditty in the order of the original text. From this, it can be seen that Huo Hua's translation is mostly based on domestication, so as to truly reproduce the cultural level in the source text.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 145)--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 14:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

Example two: The opening report of the 19 th National Congress contains a large number of words with Chinese characteristics, and its English translation is manipulated by the socialist culture with Chinese characteristics. For example：Translate“不忘初心，方得始终”into “Never forget why you started, and you can accomplish your mission” “行百里者半九十”into “As the Chinese saying goes, the last leg of a journey just marks the halfway point”. English translation of such words with Chinese characteristics must be carried out on the basis of fully understanding the connotation of Chinese culture, which also well reflects the translator's own literary accomplishment and mastery of poetic ability.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 14:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

Example three: From the perspective of mainstream poetics, Chinese and Western translation circles tend to combine "domestication" with "foreignization" in translation practice, which can not only solve the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, but also reproduce the characteristics of the source culture in the target language as much as possible.
English version: Look at that, the problem solved itself.
Chinese version: 你瞧!不攻自破了。
English version: Preparation can only take you so far.
Chinese version: 谋事在人，成事在天。
-Quoted from the Big Bang Theory(Long juan 2020, 64)

Influenced by mainstream poetics, translators rewrite the subtitles of American TV series by combining domestication and foreignization. If literal translation is adopted, the over-colloquial expression lacks poetic aesthetic feeling, while subtitle translators use “不攻自破” “谋事在人，成事在天”. These Chinese idioms with profound traditional culture not only accurately convey the meaning of the original sentence, but also cater to the audience's preference of the target language.(Long juan 2020, 64)--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 14:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

Example four: In order to make the target readers better understand and accept and spread the translated version smoothly, Lin Yutang adhered to the translation criteria of "faithfulness, fluency and beauty" and adjusted the original text to a certain extent.
Original text: 桥南有莲心寺。寺中突起喇嘛白塔,金顶缨络,高矗云霄,殿角红墙,松柏掩映,钟磬时闻;此天下园亭所未有者。
English translation: On the south of the bridge there was the Lotus-Seed Temple, with a Tibetan pagoda rising straight up from its midst and its golden dome rising into the clouds, with the terracotta walls and temple roofs nestling under the kind shade of pine-trees and cypresses and the sounds of temple bells and ch’ing [musical stone] coming to the traveler’s ears intermittently——all combining to achieve a unique effect that could not be duplicated in any other pleasure garden of the world.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 14:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

The original text described the beautiful scenery of Lianxin Temple in concise language. Lin Yutang combined the two sentences of the original text into a long sentence, forming a compact and clear structure, which vividly presented the scene of Lianxin Temple to western readers. This beautiful sight of China can bring unique aesthetic feeling to western readers, realize the function of literature, and conform to the mainstream poetics at that time.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)

Example five: Yang Jingyuan definitely affirms Peter Pan's literary value and aesthetic value in the translation sequence. Under the control of this poetics, the translator builds a bridge of fantasy with exquisite and beautiful language in his translation, and poetry is perfectly reflected. The original story happened in Neverland, and Yang Jingyuan translated it as "永无乡". This translation method accurately grasps the spirit of the original work-although this place is good, it is the other side that can never be reached in reality, and the depth of melancholy and helplessness are expressed incisively and vividly. The following examples more fully reflect the manipulation of the original text by the poetics of the target language.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 14:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

Original text: when children died he went part of the way with them.
Translated text: 孩子们死了, 在黄泉
Original text: she used to say afterwards to her husband.
Translated text: 她老是对丈夫说这些事后诸葛亮的话。
The translator deliberately chooses the words "黄泉" and "事后诸葛亮" in a way of additional translation, which are unique in Chinese culture. The manipulation of the target text by the poetics of the target language culture can be seen.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)

Example six: With the rise of the New Culture Movement in China in the 1930s, foreign literature and ideas were constantly introduced by translation. The creation of vernacular Chinese was valued and welcomed. With the principle of letting the general public enjoy Shakespeare's plays, he adopted a more colloquial prose style as the main translation style.
(Act I, Scene I)
Cordelia: But yet, alas! stood I within his grace,
I would prefer him to a better place.
So farewell to you both. (Shakespeare, 1972)
Zhu’s translation: 考狄利娅:可是, 唉!要是我没有失去他的欢心, 我一定不让他依赖你们的照顾。再会了, 两位姊姊。
Zhu Shenghao abandoned the framework of the original text and translated its meaning directly in the form of easy-to-understand prose, reflecting his preference for more colloquial prose translation.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)

===3.3 Cases Study on Patronage===

Example one:In the first act of Teahouse, Grandpa Four often complained to Wang Lifa, "我也得罪了他?我今天出门没挑好日子! " In this sentence, Ying Ruocheng translates "没挑好日子" into "This is not my lucky day!" The big reason is that his translation publishing house is China Foreign Publishing House, and Ying is more suitable for the traditions and habits of foreign readers, so as to facilitate the acceptance of foreign readers.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 145)--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 14:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

On the other hand, Huo Hua translates it as "I should've taken the Almanac's advice and stayed home today." Based on his understanding of Chinese traditional culture, Huo Hua knows that this is what Chinese people usually say orally that going out depends on the lunar calendar, so he translated it as "Take the Almanac's advice and stayed home", which is more faithful to the connotation of Chinese traditional culture. (Huang Mingjuan 2020, 145)

Example two: The report in the opening ceremony of the 19th National Congress belongs to the official documents of the party and government organs, and its sponsors are obviously the Communist Party of China and its leaders. Therefore, the report represents the will of the party and the people, in which every word, phrase and sentence collocation must be carefully screened before being finalized and must conform to the will of the country and represent the interests of the party and the people. This also requires translators to keep a clear head and high political acumen at all times, and to represent and safeguard the national image at all times. (Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 14:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

Example three: In order to obtain social and economic resources and establish their own influence in the target language society, the sponsors will actively encourage the media system to produce as many film and television works as possible and meet the needs of the audience. In order to achieve this goal, they will introduce the mainstream social value orientation in the selection of film and television dramas, and also manipulate subtitle translators to adjust and change the subtitles of American TV dramas to some extent according to the target people's acceptance ability and expectation horizon. (Long juan 2020, 65)

Example four:Sponsors not only have a profound influence on the publication of translated works, but also have an inseparable connection with translators' selection of translation materials. For Lin Yutang's translation of “浮生六记”, the monthly magazine Tianxia and the couple Pearl Buck are influential patrons. (Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 14:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

Example five:Yang Jingyuan was suffering from severe cataract at that time. It was difficult for her to read and write. In order to relieve her distress, her husband helped her translate the book. After reading Peter Pan, Fan Yong especially appreciated it and published it. It can be seen that Peter Pan was originally a spontaneous academic behavior of Yang Jingyuan. The initial sponsor was her lover, and later Fan Yong, general manager of Sanlian Bookstore, so the publishing house was also one of the sponsors. Together, they contributed to the publication of this book. (Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 14:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

Example six: Zhan Wenxu and Zhu Shenghao worked together in the World Publishing House for many years, and Zhan quite appreciated Zhu's literary talent and translation level. Later, Zhan was appointed editor-in-chief of the World Publishing House. He suggested that Zhu Shenghao translate Shakespeare's works, which coincided with Zhu's own ideas. So Zhu signed a contract with the World Publishing House in 1935 and started the process of translating Shakespeare. So Zhan helped Zhu a lot in the road of translation. (Zhou Ya 2014, 178)--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 14:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

===Conclusion===

Lefevere's manipulation theory has a wide influence in the translation field. He holds that translation is a creative process and translators will inevitably be influenced by the culture of the target language, and he emphasizes three major elements: ideology, poetics and patronage. Because of using a different language from the original, facing a completely different readership and operating in different cultural categories, the translator, as the representative of the target culture, would be restricted by various target cultural conditions from the choice of the translation text at the beginning to the selection of translation strategies in the translation process until the acceptance of the final version. Moreover, the translator would have various considerations in translation. Therefore, it is impossible to reproduce the exactly identical translation of the original text.

Lefevere emphasizes the translator's position and role in literary translation, and pointed out that the translator's subjectivity is extremely complex, and its exertion is restricted by subjective and objective factors such as ideology and custom system. Ideology can be divided into mainstream social ideology and translator's personal ideology. Its influence on translation is everywhere, and the translator's thoughts, viewpoints, writing style and even his surroundings will be manipulated by invisible ideology. In the process of translation, the intended readers and clients in the translator's mind come from the target language system, and the translator himself is immersed in the culture of the target language system. Therefore, the mainstream poetic form of the target language system and the popular literary view at that time are largely used in the whole process of translation literature creation. Sponsors have a certain status and can provide remuneration and other help to translators. They can restrict the translation norms and decide the publication of translated works, and even decide the translator's translation goals and strategies and the acceptance of translated works.

===Bibliography===

Theo Hermans.The Manipulation of literature: Studies of literary translation [M]. London and Sydney: Croom Helm, 1985.

Andre Lefevere. Translation, History and Culture [M]. London: Routledge, 1992.

Huang Mingjuan 黄明娟. (2020). 从操纵论看《茶馆》翻译——以英若诚和霍华译本为例. [Translation from the Perspective of Manipulation Theory on Cha Guan--A Case Study of Ruocheng and Huo Hua's versions]. ''青年文学家''Youth Literator (14) 144-145.

Jia Shanshan 贾珊珊. (2018). 翻译操纵理论下的外宣文本英译研究——以十九大开幕式报告为例. [A Study on English Translation of Publicity Texts from the Perspective of Translation Manipulation: A Case Study of the Opening Report of the 19th National Congress]. ''疯狂英语''Crazy English (02) 168-169.

Long Juan, Tang Bo 龙娟,唐博. (2020). 基于操纵理论的美剧字幕翻译研究. [A Study on Subtitle Translation of American TV Series Based on Manipulation Theory]. ''现代英语''Modern English (02) 63-65.

Xie Chengfeng 谢承凤. (2016). 剖析翻译中的操纵论——以译作《彼得·潘》为例. [Analysis of Manipulation in Translation--A case study of the translation of Peter Pan as an example]. ''科教文汇''The Science Education Article Collects (12) 180.

Zhang Baihua, Hu Yajie 张白桦,胡雅洁. (2017). 改写理论三要素对翻译的影响——以林语堂《浮生六记》英译本为例. [The Three Factors of Rewriting Theory's Influence on Translation--A Case Study of Six Chapters of a Floating Life Translated by Lin Yutang]. ''中州大学学报''Journal of Zhongzhou University (01) 105-108.

Zhang Xiaojuan 张晓娟. (2010). 浅谈勒弗菲尔操控理论的三大要素对翻译的影响. [The Three Factors of Manipulation Theory's Influence on Translation]. ''西安社会科学''Xi 'an Social Sciences (04) 130-131.

Zhang Yuanyuan 张园园. (2010). 翻译就是操纵——操纵学派综述. [Translation Is Manipulation--An overview of the Manipulation School]. ''商丘职业技术学院学报''Journal of Shangqiu Vocational and Technical College (03) 81-82.

Zhou Ya 周亚. (2014). 操纵论与《李尔王》译本的对比研究——以梁实秋和朱生豪译本为例. [Comparative Analysis on Two Translations of ''King Lear''from the Perspective of Manipulation Theory]. ''海外英语''Overseas English (23) 176-178.

==Roger T.Bell's Special Outlook on Translation Studies 陈江宁 Chen Jiangning 202020080594==

<center>陈江宁 Chen Jiangning </center>

===Abstract===
“What is translation?” It has been discussed over the'''(去掉the)''' years since the emergence of the translation activities. As we all know, it is difficult to give translation a unified definition as a result of its complicated nature. This paper will mainly discuss British translator Roger T.Bell's Translation Process Theory based on the Systemic Functional Linguistics, '''connected with'''（这两个词也许要去掉） cognitive science and cognitive psychology so as to understand how meaning is perceived and transformed and how the combination of the new and old information form a completely new target text. The contribution Bell has made lies in that he tried to use the graphics mode to fully show translation process, which better explains the interdisciplinary trait of translation and how the translator's thinking mode works during this complex activity.

===Key words===
Roger T.Bell; Translation process; Systemic Functional Linguistics; Cognitive psychology

===题目===
罗杰·贝尔的特殊翻译观

===摘要===
自翻译活动开始之际，人们就开始讨论“什么是翻译”这一问题，却始终没有得到一个统一的答案，由此可见翻译活动之复杂。本文主要探讨英国翻译家罗杰·贝尔提出的翻译过程模式，贝尔的创新之处在于他尝试用图形模式来描述翻译的过程，他以系统功能语言模式为理论基础，结合认知科学、认知心理学探讨意义是如何被认知又如何被转换，新信息与旧信息如何组合形成一个全新的目标语译文，从而更好地解释了翻译学科的跨学科性以及译者在翻译活动中的思维运转方式和操作过程。

===关键词===
罗杰·贝尔；翻译过程；系统功能语言学；认知心理学

===1. Introduction===
Barhudalov, former'''（合适？）''' Soviet Union translation theorist, expressed his opinion in his book called ''Language and Translation'''''(书名斜体）''' that the word “translation” had two meanings: one referred to the result of a process, which was the target text itself; the other referred to the translation process itself, that is to say, it emphasized the act of translating'''（文内引用；陈述一个人的观点要用过去式吗？）'''. So'''（So不能单独成句）''' here come the questions: What is the main focus of translation? Is the target text more important as a translation product or the process that contains translation act more significant? These questions which attracts many translation scholars' attention'''(句子缺谓语）'''and according to the research results of recent translation fruits '''（results和fruits赘余）'''both in eastern and western translation academia, almost all scholars put their focus on the study of product and its standardization; however, translation process is rarely studied. What's worse, the way they study '''（缺宾语）''' is almost the same, all start'''ing''' from analyzing the source text and target text, then compar'''ing''' the two, that is to say, compar'''ing''' the product of source text and target text to see whether it is the same, we call it a product-to-product comparison. Meanwhile, from the perspective of the purpose of translation study, it seems that we should pay more attention to analyze the complex process of the'''（去掉the）''' conversion between two languages, and explains the problems and gives some feasible solutions and operating procedures. There is no doubt that taking translation as a process to study is beneficial to both perfect the translation theory and improve translation level. Therefore, this paper will mainly focus on the study of Roger T.Bell's Translation Process Model, which claimed the essence of translation is the process rather than product. It is also worthy of mentioning that he not only studied the process of translation, but also made a great breakthrough by connecting the translation with systemic functional linguistics and cognitive psychology, which exhibits a more comprehensive translation theory for the whole academia. And it is these two elements that made Bell's translation process model a special and valuable one (Wu Yicheng 1998, 55)

===2. The Main Content of Bell's Translation Process Model ===
====2. 1 The Complexity of Translation Process ====
Generally speaking, former'''（Previous）''' translators have divided translation into two parts: understand and express. First of all, translator needs to understand the meaning of the source text and its author's intention, and what a translator should do next is to translate precisely on the basis of understanding the source text's meaning, its author's writing purpose and the goal of the target text. Even so, it is still hard for us to explain what exactly the translation process is. There are many outstanding translation theorists expressing their principle about what the translation is. For instance, Yan Fu, a brilliant translator once put forward his brief but powerful view about translation, that is, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. Professor Qian Zhongshu also showed his opinion towards translation and brought forth the principle “Sublimation Theory”. As for western translators, Eugene Nida's “Functional Equivalence Theory”; James Holmes' “Text-level Translation Process” and Roger T.Bell's “Translation Process Model” and so on'''（这不是一个句子）''', all of them have come up with meaningful idea about translation. According to Holmes who raised a critical question about translation: How does the translator create a completely new target text which more or less attaches some similarities with the source text during the translation process? How does his “Black Box” operate when he or she was translating an original text? There are a huge amount of obstacles that translators need to come over. However, few scholars had stretched their foot on this area. (Zhang Meifang 2005, 43)

Taking Nida's translation theory as an example, in his opinion, translation process is composed by '''（of）''' four stages: analysis, conversion, reconstruct and examine. Nida further elucidated this conception in his The meaning of Translation'''（书？首字母大写＋斜体）''' that the analysis stage is the stage where the translator determines the meaning of the original text (lexical, syntactic and rhetorical meaning). The translator should consider content and form at this stage; he believes that the process by which people stop thinking in one language and start thinking in another language is still a mystery. According to some concepts of generative-transformation grammar'''（transformational-generative grammar）''', the analysis process is mainly the process of determining the inner meaning. The conversion process takes place at this level, because languages are more similar in substructure'''（deep structure）''' than in surface structure. Once the conversion occurs, the translator must reconstruct the form of the original information to make it suitable for the hypothetical'''（potential？）''' reader, and the detection phase is the phase in which the target text is compared. (Nida 1969, 484)

Although Nida had mentioned a relatively complete translation theory, one of his translation model's deficiencies was that it didn't reveal the translator's psychological process when he or she was translating. That is to say, he didn't consider the function of the translator, like how did he or she analyze the source text? How did translator cut the original text into fundamental structure and rebuild them into the target text? All of these questions haven't been answered yet. In a word, Nida's translation mode didn't concern the translator's thinking activity during the translation process. On the contrary, in Roger T.Bell's translation process model, the role of translator was under '''（taken into)'''consideration, that's why Bell's translation mode was more comprehensive and better interpreted the complexity of translation process. (Xiao Hui 2001, 34)

====2.2 Bell's Main Idea about Translation====
Bell in his book ''Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice'''''（这整个是书名吧？）''' has showed his view towards translation in a different way, considering some factors that may also influence the product of the target text which was never put forward before. He said that one of the goals in this book was to generalize the components that help to constitute all kinds of competences and knowledge of a translator, the second goal is to establish a translation mode on the basis of this generalization. (1991, 18) In order to figure out what exactly the translation process is, he has put forward some relevant questions: What is translation? What is a translator? What is translation theory? And he tried to answer them by combining translation process with systemic functional linguistics and cognitive psychology. What's more, Bell had showed his point of view quite clearly, he stressed that translation must be regarded as a kind of communicative behavior among human beings, which can be guided by linguistics and helped by the fruits of cognitive science and cognitive linguistics to build his translation process model. As Liao Qiyi said in the book ''Contemporary Translation Studies'' in UK that Bell had taken great efforts to establish the translation process model, which was placed in the larger field of human communicative behavior, so it inevitably had to resort to psychology and linguistics. On the one hand, we need to be familiar with the mode of memory and information processing of psychology and psycholinguistics. On the other hand, it requires an understanding of the linguistic mode of the broadest sense of meaning, including the meaning of “beyond sentences”. It is for this reason that Bell takes “mode”, “meaning” and “memory” as the focus of his discussion. (Liao Qingyi 2001, 208)

Generally speaking, Bell's translation theory starts from answering such questions like '''what''' translation, translator, and translation theory '''is.''' Next, he comes to the conclusion that it is the act of translation '''that''' truly matters, so he makes the translation process as his major study. In his book ''Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice''， Bell focuses on theoretical exploration, but he is also closely related to all aspects involved in specific translation activities. Therefore, like'''（As）''' he said in the title of the book, the proposition of combining theory and practice has been found in his research and it has got a comprehensive implementation. Before describing and constructing the translation process model, he defined the concept “translation”, using this as a starting point, and compared the steps involved in monolingual communication with those in bilingual communication, revealing the commonality of the two points and differences to define the characteristics of the communicative act of translation. At the same time, Bell always put translator in the center position and on the basis of studying the competence of a translator, he came up with six '''presumptions''' towards translation process. According to these materials and assumptions, Bell divided translation process into two stages: analysis and synthesis, which separately means convert a special language text (primitive text) into a non-semantic expression of special language; synthesize this semantic expression into a text in a second special language (the target language text). Each stage also contains three levels of syntax, semantic and pragmatics. We will talk about it in the next chapter in detail. (Bell 1991, 44-45)

All in all, in Roger T.Bell's book ''Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice'' we found that the explanation of theory is combined with the display of schema. The nearly 50 schemas in the book contribute to translation activities, translation specific steps, including analysis procedures, synthesis procedures, text reproduction and synthesis procedures, and the relationship between '''(among)''' meaning, meaning generation, text information processing, text processing skills, etc. He made an intuitive display, which fully demonstrated Roger Bell's efforts to direct translation studies to a systematic and scientific nature. (Xu Jun 2003, 37)

===3. The First Special Outlook on Translation: Systemic Functional Linguistics===
====3.1 Systemic functional linguistics and translation====
Although translation process is related to many nonverbal problems linked with two languages, including the psychological and thinking process, philosophy aesthetics and cultural tradition loaded by different languages; nevertheless, it will be extremely hard to achieve systematize '''(用名词）'''and theorization without the guidance of linguistic theory. As Bell said that if translation theorists do not use the research results of linguistics, their comments on texts will inevitably be subjective, and it is inevitable that '''there will be prescriptive colors'''. (1991, 15) Thus, one of the special outlooks of Bell's translation process model is attributed to the systemic functional linguistics. Therefore, it is quite necessary to know what the systemic functional linguistics is first.'''（分段了）'''
Systemic functional linguistics is one of the most influential linguistic schools in the world today. It was developed under the anthropological tradition. The difference from'''（between S-F linguistics and)''' other linguistic schools is that '''they''' emphasize the social nature of language users and focus on the characteristics of language in practical application and the functionality of language. Although systemic functional linguistics is not a specific translation theory, it can be used to study translation theory and improve the development of translation as a result of its universality. The representative of systemic functional linguistics Halliday once wrote an article about linguistics and machine translation and put forward a hypothesis about building translation process model theory. And he further talked about the relationship between translation and comparison in his book ''The Linguistic Sciences and Language Teaching''. In the paper, he made his own point of view about the essence of translation, and established a hierarchical selection of translation patterns on the basis of hierarchy and category grammar. (Halliday 1964, 145)

According to this model, the translator's process of translation is from the low-level to the high-level, that is, from the morpheme level to the word level, phrase level, clause level, and finally up to the sentence level, which is a step by step('''step-by-step)''' selection process. The translator must find the equivalent structure for each item and category at each level. In Halliday's opinion, the essence of translation process is actually a kind of language activity, and the essence of equivalence is not '''formally, but contextually'''(不用副词吧？). Since the meaning system is subject to the linguistic social and cultural context, the search for meaning equivalence is actually the search for the equivalence of two linguistic contexts, that is, the search for the functional equivalence of the texts of the two languages in the same context. For example, when translating application styles such as invitations, notices, regulations and letters, the translator should know how to find a translation that meets the specifications in the target language in the translation. In a word, when it comes to translation, what a translator should do is to find the tasks that should be done in the range of language activities, rather than seeing'''(to see)''' whether it is formally equivalent in the level of grammar and vocabulary between source text and target text. (Halliday 1964, 158)

====3.2 Bell's Application with Systemic Functional Linguistics and Translation Process====
It is well known that systemic functional linguistics regards the actual use of language as the object of study, and they think that language is the tool for social communication. Meanwhile, it is also acknowledged that translation process is related to two communicative processes. The first is a communication process between the '''original author and the original reader''', and then a communication process between the translator and the target reader. The identification of translator is quite particular, because he or she is an information addressee at the first communicative process, while he or she becomes an information addresser at the second communicative process, and both the two processes need to use language to communicate. '''分段了'''
Although translation is different from general communication, it involves many issues such as culture, psychology, philosophy and aesthetics. It is essentially constituted by the communicative process of language. From this point of view, it is self-evident that the actual use of language in the communication process is regarded by the systemic functional linguistics theory as the research object which will guide the translation process. The translation process model that Bell tried to establish was exactly in the frame of systemic functional linguistics. It was built on the basis of '''system theory''' and cognitive theory, and used the three meta-functions of language in system function theory to discuss the understanding of the meaning of the source text, and the interpretation of textual issues, and the explanation of the text problem is also entirely the text theory of the systemic functional linguistics school. (Sun Huijun 2000, 54)

According to Roger T.Bell's book ''Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice'', he contended that the translation process should cover the following contents: First of all, translation is a special case in the universal phenomenon of human information processing; then, the translation process model should belong to the psychological field of translation information processing; thirdly, the translation process takes place in short-term memory and long-term memory, which requires a text decoding device in the original language and a text encoding device in the target language, and a semantic representation that has nothing to do with language (semantic representation); '''分段了'''
next, whether in the analysis of incoming signals or the synthesis of outgoing signals, the translation process is carried out at the language level of clauses. Processing a text in a bottom-up and top-down manner, and combining the two methods through a cascaded operation; analysis or synthesis in one stage must be completed after being activated, corrected and allowed in the next stage; Last but not least, the translation process needs two languages, including visual word-recognition system and writing system; it also needs syntactic processor, which is the choice of dealing with mood system. Furthermore, the translation process must have FLS(frequent lexical store),LSM(a lexical search mechanism) and FSS(a frequent structure store) and a mechanism that is used to analyze sentence grammatically. It requires a semantic processor to handle the choice and use of Transitivity system and exchange information as well. At the same time, the process needs a pragmatic processor to deal with all kinds of choices gained from the Theme system. The last requirement is idea organizer, which the process of tracking and organizing the language behavior of the text (if the translator does not know the type of the text, the organizer of the concept will make inferences based on the existing information) as part of the strategy for the implementation of the goal plan, which is planned and stored in idea organizer. (Bell 1991, 228)

Specifically speaking, in the process of syntactic processing and analysis, clauses are decomposed into many syntactic structures. People can choose clause structure in model system. First, the clauses are used in the form of a series of linear symbols through Common Vocabulary Storage (FLS) and Common Structure Storage (FSS), without having to go through the vocabulary search mechanism or grammatical analysis, and then the vocabulary can directly enter the semantic level during the analysis. Or in the synthesis directly enter the writing system during the process. The so-called common structure storage refers to the frequently occurring structures developed and stored in memory by the translator (such as subject-predicate structure, subject-predicate complement structure, etc.) The so-called grammatical analysis of sentences refers to the task of analyzing clauses when analysis becomes necessary. The so-called vocabulary search mechanism means that when the translator cannot find a matching term in the common vocabulary storage, the translator must use this mechanism to try to find the term that can “produce meaning”. In the process of semantic analysis, the task performed by the semantic analysis program is to “recover the concept”, retrieve the transitive relationship under the clause syntax, and derive content from the syntactic structure through the previous analysis. In the process of pragmatic analysis, the tasks performed by the pragmatic analysis program are off-topic structure and conducting register analysis on topic structure. Translation process cannot be simply regarded as translating clause to clause between two languages, what a translator should do is to disintegrate the clauses of source text into the form of semantic expression, then put this as foundation to rebuild the language of target text.(Xiao Hui 2001, 35)

The so-called concept organizer has three functions: (1) perfect analysis content; (2) control the collection of information from time to time; (3) modify semantic expression. This kind of analysis is finally absorbed by the planner, at which time people can make a decision to continue reading or translate. When the clauses of the original text are transformed into semantic expressions and the reader decides to translate them, we can assume that once the information has been stored in the semantic expressions, the semantic expressions are sufficient to indicate what type of text the clauses are expected to be translated into. In the process of pragmatic synthesis, the target language processing program accepts all the information expressed in semantics and faces three main problems: (1) how to deal with the purpose of the original text; (2) how to deal with the subject structure of the original text; (3) how to deal with the style of the original text.
In the process of semantic synthesis, the target language semantic processor accepts the meaning of intra-language behavior, and generates some structure to transfer the theme content, and the generated satisfactory theme content is passed to the next step of the synthesis stage. In the process of syntactic synthesis, the translation syntax processor accepts the input information from the semantic stage, and finds suitable terms through the storage of common vocabulary; checks the common syntactic storage to find out the appropriate clause type that can represent the proposition. If there is no available clause structure to express special meaning in the vocabulary storage, this proposition must be analyzed grammatically, and finally the writing system is activated. Thus this string of written symbols constitutes the target language text. The last process ends with returning to the original text and the next clause is like a monolingual reader. In conclusion, the translation process is a series of interactive processes, mainly including three stages: synthesis, semantic and pragmatic processing stages, and each of these three stages is related to both analysis and synthesis. The translation process is very complicated. (Xiao Hui 2001, 36)

It is very difficult to describe such a complicated process, especially the textual analysis of the entire interactive integrated process that is not completely linear. Roger Bell made full use of the advantages of schemas and showed us a more intuitive display of the factors involved in the translation process, main activities and activity trends. (Xu Jun 2003, 36)

====3.3 Benefits and Deficiencies of such Combination====
It can be inferred that the study of translation process model'''s''' will definitely help the theoretical exploration and development of translation machines. It is necessary to point out that with the deepening of the research on the issues involved in the translation process, we will encounter difficulties that are difficult to solve by translation studies itself, such as the study of the process of translation thinking activities and translation mechanisms, and other disciplines, such as neurolinguistics and psycholinguistic development and breakthroughs.(Xu Jun 2003, 37)
However, there are also some deficiencies existing in Bell's model. First of all, Bell emphasized that the translation process is a comprehensive and non-linear process. There was no fixed order at each stage, because the translator “is not occasionally but often revises and overturns previous decisions.” The terms “sequence” and “linear” showed that Bell's main concern was the time dimension of translation behavior, and the choice is not fully reflected in the model. (Li Li 2019, 18)

===4. The Second Outlook on Translation: Cognitive Psychology===
====4.1 Cognitive Psychology and Translation====
Regarding translation as a process is actually to research the cognitive psychology process during the transformation of bilinguals. There are some world-famous translation theorists who have already mentioned this. '''For instance, Lin Yutang once said that the problem of translation is still nothing but the mentality of the translator and the relationship between the translator and the translated texts, so the problem of translation can be said to be a language and psychological problem.''' （我觉得这里可能需要引用）'''分段了'''
As we all know, translation contains two steps: the understanding of the source text and the output of the target text. The former one means the translator uses visual primitives to construct meaning in the brain, which is a psychological process. As for the output of target text, it refers to the process by which the meaning that the translator has constructed is re-expressed in the form of the target language. Bilingual conversion is a relatively complex cognitive psychological process; whether it is the understanding of the source language or the output of the target language, it must be restricted by mental representations, that is, cognitive constraints. From the perspective of cognitive science, learning by a person first involves the mechanisms of sensory organs, brain, muscles, etc. Secondly, the stimulation acting on the sensory organs, and thirdly, the known information recovered from the learner's memory. This is a process of interaction between new and old information, which can be called an information processing model. Gagn believed that it is the basis of learning psychology. Therefore, cognitive science thought that human being's cognition is a sort of information processing. And the study of the translation process from a cognitive perspective focuses on explaining the cognitive psychological process of the translator when translating bilingualism from the perspective of human processing information. (Xiao Hui 2003, 33)

Another important point is that the axis of translation activities is the conversion process; this process is not a pure language activity, but a thinking activity. Therefore, the translator must grasp the laws of thinking activities. So how does the discourse change? The original work is the source of information, and the translator's brain also stores an information database. The former one stores more or less emotionally specific information processed by the author, while the latter stores mainly conceptual information. Only when the translator is stimulated by the second signal of the original discourse, can he use the existing concepts to reproduce all the information of the original. The translator's information database stores knowledge units, mainly concepts. Most of these units and the words in the information source are corresponding or similar, so we call “similar blocks”. Information conversion is mainly carried out by “similar blocks”. When translating, the translator compares the received original information with the “similar” information deposited in his own database. The old and new information forms a “similar block” and feeds back to each other. The translator mobilizes all kinds of information related to the new information in his mind, transforms, corrects, supplements, and enriches it. Until the new and old information is similar to each other and reaches the extreme, the translator uses the target language to externalize and change the similar products to the target text. Since bilingual conversion as a kind of thinking process is invisible and intangible, the theoretical goal of its research should be to establish a psychological reality mechanism and thinking pattern that prompts bilingual conversion through an analysis of the translation process. (Dong Junhong 2008, 43)

====4.2 Bell's Application with Cognitive Psychology and Translation====
As we mentioned before, Roger T.Bell tried to use systemic functional linguistics to describe translation process and what knowledge and skill the translator should grasp, and he also combined psychology with information theory model to depict the work process in the mind of the translator when he or she is translating. He said in the book ''Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice'' that translators were just like many other communicators living in a world filled with meanings, where they could conceive all kinds of meanings so as to form the conception. And their experience could recall or even gain revive through the memory system. Bell used “aggregates” “wholes” “system” to depict the process of cognition. '''（分段了）'''
It is generally accepted that the translator is the communicator between two languages, but first of all he must be the message receiver. And as a message receiver, no matter a listener or a reader, '''intralingual or interlingual'''—has to face the same problem: to receive information and carry signals (utterances or texts) and extract them from the source language information and use the target language to construct the best performance model. Bell used the conception of schema to explain the cognitive process of the translator and the productive process of the target text. In the translator's cognitive process, the recognized objects are “aggregates”, which enter the translator's mind through intuition, and are then perceived and transformed into the “wholes” that carries information, and conceptualized as “system” or “pattern”. (Bell 1991, 15-18)

Bell believed that all communicators have knowledge of semantics, grammar and rhetoric. Semantic knowledge helps him to convert concepts into propositions; grammatical knowledge helps him to mark propositions in a language system that can produce clauses; rhetorical knowledge helps him to organize clauses into propositions which could be used in the surroundings of utterance or discourse. Human being's perceptual experience towards the inner and outer world is expressed through language, and the conception stored in the memory is also expressed by language. People understand the characteristics of things by comparing the similarities between different things, and understand their living world from a new perspective. In Bell's opinion, translator is actually a bilingual communicator in the form of written language. (Zhang Meifang 2005, 43)

To sum up, the translation process is not a linear process which strictly follows one stage, but a comprehensive process, that is, the sequence of each stage must be experienced in the translation process, and it is not fixed. The translator can move from the next stage to the previous stage. Besides, the translator's amendment or cancellation of the previous decision is usually in line with the norms. Bell explained the thinking process of translators during the bilingual conversion, which is a huge step in the history of translation studies. (Bell 1991, 56)

====4.3 Benefits and Deficiencies of the Combination of Cognitive Psychology and Translation====
As we talked before, Bell had adopted a new research method for translation procedures and ability analysis. And there are some following advantages. In the first place, '''by''' exploring translation from the perspective of psychology, people can make assumptions about the content constructed in the translator's mind based on the empirical research and application process of translation ability—analysis. It is necessary for people to elaborate on the psychological process of translation; nevertheless, this psychological process is not yet known or investigated. Secondly, as far as the overall psychological research is concerned, one can expect the fact that empirical research on translation ability will provide an in-depth understanding of language processing, speech acceptance, speech production psychological processes, and language users use psychological strategy. (Xiao Hui 2001, 33)

===5. Conclusion===
In summary, Roger T.Bell has provided '''for'''去掉 us with a relatively comprehensive and elaborated outlook of translation process. Foremost, the author puts the translation process in the systemic model of the language, describes and interprets the translation process from a theoretical and practical perspective, and tries to model it. Afterwards, he has considered the importance of the translator's thinking activities and applied some knowledge of cognitive psychology with translation process to fully elucidate his translation theory. Finally, he has built a more complete translation theory based on these. This effort is worthy of complete recognition, because it not only adds a lot of scientific elements to translation studies, but also lays a solid foundation for the construction of translation studies. (Wu Yicheng 1998, 56)

===References===
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Liao Qiyi. 廖七一. (2001). 《当代英国理论》[Contemporary British Theory]. “湖北出版社”[Hubei Education Press]. 208.

Li Li. 李力. (2019). 译者选择的类坐标系模式 [Coordinate-like Mode Chosen by the Translator]. “中国翻译”[China Translation]. 18-19.

Sun Huijun. 孙会军. (2000). 系统功能理论与翻译理论研究 [System Function Theory and Translation Theory Research]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and ForeignLanguage Teaching]. 53-56.

Wu Yicheng. 吴义诚. (1998). 贝尔的翻译与翻译过程：理论与实践评介 [A Review of Bell's Translation and Translation Process: Theory and Practice]. “中国翻译”[China Translation]. 55-56.

Xiao Hui. 肖辉. （2001）. 翻译过程模式论断想 [On the Model of Translation Process]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 33-36.

Xu Jun. 许钧. (2003). 简论翻译过程的实际体验与理论探索 [Briefly on the Practical Experience and Theoretical Exploration of the Translation Process]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 33-38.

Zhang Meifang. 张美芳. (2005). 图示分析隐喻翻译中的认知过程 [Schematic Analysis of the Cognitive Process in Metaphor Translation]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 43-46.

Bell, Roger T. (1991). Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice. London and New York: Longman.

Halliday, M.A.K. (1961). Linguistics and Machine Translation in McIntosh. London: Longman.

Nida, Eugene A. (1964). Toward a Science of Translating—with Special Reference to Principles Involved in Bible Translating. Leiden: E.J.Brill.