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2021-12-15T06:39:35Z

Li Xichang: /* Chapter The Brief History of Bible's Chinese Translation */

=Chapter4 The Brief History of Bible's Chinese Translation=
圣经中译版简史
王镇隆Wang Zhenlong, Hunan Normal University, China

[[Hist_Trans_EN_4]]

== Abstract==
Bible is the only Christian classic. Many Bible translation versions in the territory of China, including the Chinese characters and the languages of ethnic minorities, are not only the important events and modern history publication with the largest circulation, translated versions of books in the modern translation history, but also the close relationship with the modern transformation of Chinese characters and the creation of minority languages. Three aspects of Bible translation history, information, research and outlook are described in this paper.

== 摘要==
圣经是基督教的唯一经典，圣经翻译则是中国近代翻译史上的重要事件。当时的中国境内，出现了包括汉语汉字和少数民族语言文字的众多圣经译本，这不仅使圣经成为中国近代史上出版发行量最大、翻译版本最多的书籍，而且对中国的汉语汉字的近代转型和少数民族文字创制产生了重要影响。本文从 3 个方面对圣经中译的历史、资料、研究及展望进行了叙述。

== Key Words==
History of the Bible translation；Research review;Academic outlook

== 关键词==
圣经中译史；研究回顾；学术展望

== The Overall Introduction of Bible Translation==
“Bible” translation has a pivotal position in the history of Western translation. From the beginning of the era to today, the translation of the “Bible” has never stopped. The range of languages involved, the number of translations, and the frequency of use of translations,etc., are unmatched by the translation of any other work. A birds-eye view of the history of “Bible” translation has the following important milestones: the first is the “Seventy Sons Greek Text” before the Era, the second is the “Popular Latin Text Bible” from the 4th to 5th centuries, and the later the national languages of the early Middle Ages. The ancient texts (such as Old German, Old French translations), modern texts since the 16th century Reformation Movement (such as the Lutheran version of Germany, the King James version, etc.) and various modern texts. All these translations have made indelible contributions to the spread and development of Christianity in the West, as well as the prosperity and development of the languages and cultures of various nations.(Gu Changsheng,1991)

The “Bible” is the holy book of Christianity, including the “Old Testament” and “New Testament.” The Old Testament was written in BC. It is a classic of Judaism. It was inherited by Christianity from Judaism. The original text was in Hebrew. The New Testament was written in the second half of the first to second centuries, and the original text is in Greek. Throughout human history, language translation is almost as old as the language itself. Therefore, from the beginning of the era to today, the translation of the “Bible” has never stopped. The range of languages involved, the number of translations, and the frequency of use of the translations, etc., are unmatched by the translation of any other work. The translation of the "Bible" is mainly to spread the doctrine, so that people are influenced and accepted by the views. According to the “New Testament Acts” Chapter Two, Section One: The saints gathered on Pentecost, and they were all filled with the Holy Spirit, and spoke the words of other countries according to the eloquence given by the Holy Spirit. However, the translation at that time was mainly “interprete” or “interpretation.” Among them, St. Paul himself is a multilingual believer. He preached in Jerusalem, Athens and Rome in Hebrew, Greek and Italian respectively. The Bible was first translated from Hebrew into Greek, then into Latin, and then into Romanian, Portuguese, Spanish, Italian, and Walloon (wal-lon), German, French, Romance languages. English was then translated into various languages in the world, and the translations of its various texts were repeatedly revised by experts in the translation of the classics, which lasted more than ten centuries.

In the history of the translation of the Bible, it has gone through several milestone stages: the first is the “Seventy Sons Greek Text” before the era, the second is the “Popular Latin Text Bible” from the 4th to 5th centuries, and later it is the national languages of the early Middle Ages. Ancient texts (such as Old German, Old French translations), modern texts since the 16th century Reformation Movement (such as Luther, Casio Dorobin in Spain, King James Version in English, Nikon in Russia) and All kinds of modern texts (such as “American Standard Text” in English, “New English Bible” and “English Today”, etc.). “The Bible Old Testament” is the first important and earliest translation in ancient times in the West, and it was translated into Greek. The Old Testament was originally the official classic of Judaism, originally in Hebrew. The Jews have been scattered around for a long time and drifted overseas. Over time, they have forgotten the language of their ancestors and spoke foreign languages such as Arabic and Greek. Among them, Greek speakers accounted for the majority. In ancient times, the city of Alexandria in Egypt was the cultural and trade center of the eastern Mediterranean. The Jews living here accounted for two-fifths of the city’s total population. In the third century BC, in order to meet the increasingly urgent needs of these Greek-speaking Jews, the church decided to translate the Hebrew text of the Old Testament into a Greek text. In the second century BC, an unknown Jew once wrote an epistle article, which was later named “Letter of Aristeas” (“Letter of Aristeas”), which records that in the third century BC, Jerusalem At the request of Egyptian King Ptolemy II Feiradelphis (308-246 BC), Bishop Elizar sent translators to Alexandria to undertake the translation of the Old Testament. In this way, according to Ptolemy II's will, between 285 and 249 BC, 72 “noble” Jewish scholars gathered in the Library of Alexandria, Egypt, to perform this translation. According to legend, the 72 scholars came from 12 different Israeli tribes, with 6 from each tribe. After they came to the Library of Alexandria, they worked in pairs in 36 locations and translated them into 36 translations that were very similar to each other. Finally, 72 translators gathered together to compare and check the 36 translation manuscripts, and reached a consensus on the wording of the final version, and called it the “Seventy Son Text” or “Seventy Magi Translation”, that is, “Septuagint” (“Septuagint”), has since opened a precedent for collective translation in the history of translation. Soon after the translation of the “Seventy Sons”, the priests held a joint meeting with the Jewish leaders and pointed out: “This translation is well translated, pious, and very accurate. (Marshall Broomhall,1934,P.2)

Therefore, it must be kept as it is and cannot be changed.” We also regarded it as the classic translation. In fact, this Greek translation became the “second original”, and sometimes even replaced the Hebrew text and ascended to the throne of the “first original”. Many of the translations of the Bible in languages such as ancient Latin, Slavic, and Arabic are not based on the original Hebrew but on the Greek translation.

== Multilingualism in the Chinese version of the Bible==
According to the report of the World Union Bible Association in 2006, the new and Old Testament of the Bible has been translated into 301 different languages. If regional dialects and partial translations are included, the translated languages of the Bible have exceeded 2287 different languages. The Bible is the most widely circulated and translated book in the world.

If someone says that in Chinese history, the Bible has the largest number of translated versions, the largest number of Chinese language forms, both vernacular and classical Chinese, and the largest number of Chinese dialect forms. It has not only created nearly 10 ethnic minority languages, but also nearly 20 ethnic minority language translation books, but also the largest publication and circulation in modern history, There must be many people who don't believe it.(William Canton,1904,1910)

But this is the fact of history. The Chinese version of the Bible does have many historical “best”, which is related to the super pronunciation and super dialect nature of Chinese language and characters, the reform and cultural transformation of Chinese language and culture in the late Qing Dynasty and the early Republic of China, and the fact that most ethnic minorities in Southwest China have only language but no words. The period of the late Qing Dynasty and the beginning of the Republic of China, that is, the 1860s to the 1930s, was the period of the most drastic changes in Chinese language and characters, the period of the transformation of ancient Chinese and its culture into vernacular, the period of the widespread voice and hard practice of Chinese Latinization, the most active period of language and character reform, and the transformation and reform of Chinese language and characters, A variety of transitional writing methods have emerged due to text reform and stylistic changes. However, the reform and expression methods of multiple languages and characters in the late Qing Dynasty and the early Republic of China, some of which are even very short-lived transitional writing methods. The Bible has published translated versions in this text form. This can be best confirmed by many translations of the Bible, such as classical Chinese, half written and half spoken, vernacular, dialect Chinese characters, dialect church Roman characters, Wang Zhao Mandarin phonetic alphabets, Mandarin phonetic alphabets, Mandarin Roman characters, weituoma Pinyin, kuaizi, a variety of ethnic minority characters, blind characters and so on.(Li Kuanshu,1998)

The large-scale cultural exchange and interaction between China and the west is an important historical phenomenon in the modern world. This cultural relationship has not only changed the cultural and political pattern all over the world, but also greatly affected the development of Chinese culture and society. Language contact is not only an important part of cultural relations, but also an important prerequisite for all other exchanges. The large-scale and multilingual cross-cultural in-depth language and cultural exchange is a modern cultural phenomenon gradually formed all over the world after the great discovery of geography. It is also a prominent manifestation in the history of China's modern foreign cultural relations, which is particularly different from previous dynasties.

The language and cultural exchange in modern China began with the arrival of Christian missionaries in China. As the only classic of Christian religion, the Bible inevitably involves the problems of how to translate into China’s local language, how to adapt to and influence the local ideology and culture in the historical process of Christian communication and translation.

The earliest translation of the Bible in China can be extended to the Tang Dynasty, which has a long history of thousands of years. Although the Bible translation activities have been interrupted, they continue to this day. In Taiwan and Hong Kong, the Bible translation is still not over.

== Bible Translation from Different Perspectives==
From the perspective of language, Bible translation can be divided into Chinese language and minority language. In addition to the Chinese translation (the Chinese translation is described in detail below), in the process of Bible translation, the missionaries took advantage of the Pinyin advantages of their Latin mother tongue and combined with the pronunciation of local minority languages to create Pinyin characters in the form of Latin letters for those southwest minorities who only have spoken language but no words, that is, bagri Miao Language (old Miao Language) in Northeast Yunnan Frame format: East Lisu, Funeng Renxi Lisu (old Lisu), Jingpo, Zawa, Lahu, Buyi, WA, etc. It also borrowed Chinese phonetic alphabets and modified and created Hu Zhizhong’s Miao language. They translated and published the complete Scriptures or section translations of Jingpo language, Zaiwa language, East Lisu language, West Lisu language, Yi language, Nuosu language and Gepo language, Lahu language, WA language, Naxi language, Dehong Dai language, Xishuangbanna Dai language, Huayao Dai language, Huamiao language, Chuanmiao language, heimiao language, Buyi language and other languages. Among them, Jingpo, Funeng Renxi Lisu and bagri Miao are still widely used in society, and Hu Zhizhong Miao is still used among religious believers in Kaili, Guizhou. These characters not only ended the history of these nationalities without characters, but also provided great reference and Enlightenment for the large-scale creation of characters for ethnic minorities in New China. In the northern minority languages, the missionaries also translated and published Bible translations in Mongolian (karmec Mongolian, kalka Mongolian, Buryat Mongolian), Tibetan (Tibetan Classical Chinese, Tibetan Ladakh dialect, Tibetan Lahore dialect), Manchu, Kazakh and Korean. In Taiwan, missionaries and today’s Taiwan Christian Church have also created Pinyin characters in the form of Latin letters for the Paiwan, Taiya, AMI, Taroko, Yamei, Bunun, Lukai, Dawu and other indigenous peoples, translated and published biblical translations, which are still in use today.(Wang Zhixin,2004)

From the perspective of Chinese style, Chinese versions of the Bible can be divided into three categories:

1. Classical Chinese translation, that is, the translation of deep arts and Sciences: in history, there have been yangmano's direct interpretation of the Bible, daysun's translation, masman's translation, Morrison's translation, Guo Shili's translation, commissioned translation (or representative translation), bizhiwen / kebicun translation, Gaode translation, the printed version of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom, lianweiren translation, and Heshen's translation of Arts and Sciences.

2. Half written and half white translation, i.e. shallow liberal arts translation: in history, there have been Yang Ge's non shallow liberal arts translation, Shi Joseph's shallow liberal arts translation, Bao John / Ke Bicun translation and hehe shallow liberal arts translation.

3. Vernacular translation: China is a country with many dialects. Six of China's seven dialects have Bible translations. Among them, nine branches of five dialects, including Wu, min, Guangdong, Hakka and Mandarin, have biblical Chinese characters. They are Nanjing dialect translation, Beijing dialect translation, Hankou dialect translation, Tianjin dialect translation, Shanghai dialect translation, Ningbo Dialect translation, Suzhou dialect translation, Hangzhou dialect translation, Fuzhou dialect translation, Xiamen dialect translation, Shantou dialect translation, Guangzhou dialect translation, Hakka dialect translation Hakka Sanjiang dialect translation. In 1919, the vernacular intensive cost and official script appeared, which is the Bible translation used by the Christian Church of China.

From the perspective of Chinese text form, Bible translation can be basically divided into seven categories:

1. Chinese Character Edition: in history, there were classical Chinese character edition and vernacular Chinese Character Edition (including dialect Chinese Character Edition);

2. Roman script of church Dialect: missionaries spell the words of local dialects according to the Latin alphabet. There are 15 branches of the six dialects, including Nanjing dialect translation, Beijing dialect translation, Shandong dialect translation, Shanghai dialect translation, Ningbo Dialect translation, Hangzhou dialect translation, Wenzhou dialect translation, Jinhua dialect translation, Taizhou dialect translation, Fuzhou dialect translation Bible translations of Xiamen dialect, Shantou dialect, Xinghua dialect, Jianyang dialect, Shaowu dialect, Hainan dialect, Guangzhou dialect, Hakka Guangdong and Taiwan dialect, Hakka Wujingfu dialect, Hakka Tingzhou dialect and Hakka Jianning dialect;

3. Wang Zhao Mandarin phonetic alphabet: the Bible is spelled with Wang Zhao Mandarin phonetic alphabet. There have been Bible translations of Tianjin dialect, Hankou dialect, Hebei dialect and Jiaodong dialect;

4. Mandarin phonetic alphabet: there have been Bible translations of Fuzhou dialect and Jiaodong dialect;

5. Braille script；

6. Quick script: that is, the Bible translation of early sketch;

7. Weituoma Pinyin book.

In terms of publication forms, there are many kinds of publications, such as Chinese character edition, Chinese character and foreign language comparison edition, Chinese character and Mandarin phonetic alphabet comparison edition, Chinese character and Wang Zhao Mandarin phonetic alphabet comparison edition, Chinese character and church Roman character comparison edition, church Roman character and Mandarin phonetic alphabet comparison edition, etc. As far as the editions are concerned, there are single volume edition, multi volume edition, the New Testament, the Old Testament, the New Testament with psalms, the new and Old Testament, etc., with a total number of more than 1000. Based on the American Bible Society, the British Bible Society and the Scottish Bible Society, which had the greatest influence in old China and published and sold various versions of the Bible, a total of 225 million copies were sold from 1814 to 1934; From 1814 to 1950, 279351752 copies were sold.(Chen Yugang,1992)
After the founding of new China, the Chinese Christian Church basically took the heheguan vernacular Version (later called hehehe vernacular version, hereinafter referred to as hehe version) as the Bible translation dedicated to the church, and no other Chinese classical Chinese or dialect versions of the Bible were published. As of December 2007, the Christian Church of China has printed and distributed 50 million copies of Hehe vernacular books. China has become one of the countries with the largest number of printed Bibles in the world.

== Writings and Work Records of Biblical Translators==
As the only classic of Christian religion, the meaning of the Bible is different. Since the Christian foreign missionaries came to China in the 19th century, they have been translating the Bible continuously, and published many documents and works at the same time. Most of these archives and works are the reports and introductions of Christian sects to publicize and introduce their own work achievements, which are limited to the publicity of their own sects without academic and serious research.

The earliest works related to the translation and recording of Bible translation were written by personnel and institutions related to Christian religion. The first documentary about the Chinese Bible translation is the Bible in China by Alexander Wylie, a missionary who once served as the director of the British Bible Society. This article records the earliest Bible translation in China, which is the work report of Alexander Wylie.

Among the records of missionaries on Bible translation, the Bible in China written by Marshall Broomhall, a missionary of the mainland church, is the most concentrated and representative. Hainbo is the director general of the headquarters of the mainland Association in London and is responsible for editing China's million, the most important publication of the mainland Association, for 20 years.

Another book about Bible translation is the Chinese versions of the Bible (1934) written by A. J. Garnier, a missionary of the British Baptist Church. His book is more often seen in its Chinese translation, which is compiled by George Milligan.

History of the spread of the New Testament (Guangzhou society, 1934). These two books are not long, about 100000 words. They describe the general situation of Bible translation from ancient times to now. They are basically the working records and introduction of Bible translation. The recording time is up to the three combined versions of the main translations of missionaries in 1919. The early Catholic translation, the Christian minority language translation in the late Qing Dynasty and the early Republic of China, and the Chinese dialect translation are too vague and too brief to cover, including the Chinese translation and the Catholic sigo translation. They can not be called academic research works. The Bible translation of missionaries is mostly missionary encouragement and publicity, which belongs to the missionary works of the church.(Yang Senfu,1968)

In modern Chinese history, foreign institutions or individuals have many publishing and sales institutions in China, among which the Bible has a certain nature of exclusive translation, monopoly and sales. The Chinese translation of the Bible is basically undertaken by the Bible Societies of various countries in China. Among the Foreign Bible Societies in China, the American Bible Society, the British Bible Society and the Scottish bible society are mainly responsible for the dissemination of the Chinese Bible, including the organization and arrangement of Bible translation, financial support, the formulation of translation principles, the selection and determination of translators, the publication and reprint of the Bible, the sales of the Bible, and almost all the leading work of Bible translation. The most detailed work on the history of the British bible society so far is a history of the British and Foreign Bible Society written by William Canton, which introduces the work of the British Bible Society in the 19th century. The more important work in recent years is the cheap Bibles: Nineteen Century Publishing and the British and Foreign Bible Society written by Leslie Howsam, but its history and content are still dominated by the 19th century. For the history of the British Bible Society in the first half of the 20th century, please refer to a history of the British and Foreign Bible Society, 1900-1954 written by James M. roe. As for the historical works of the American Bible Society, what is important is the centennial history of the American Bible Society written by Henry O. Dwight, which introduces the work progress of the American Bible Society around the world in the 19th century. Chinese Bible translation is only a small part of it. In the same year, translations of the scripts into the languages of China and her dependencies [10], written by John R. hykes, director general of the American Bible Society in China, specifically described the Bible translation work of the American Bible Society in China. These monographs introduced the missionary work of various Bible Societies in China, especially the printing and distribution of the Bible.(Chloe Starr,2008)

In the Chinese recorder edited by missionaries, there are scattered information about the translation and publication of various versions of Bible translation written by missionaries in different times, or missionaries' discussions on various affairs and research of Bible translation. Educational administration magazine is an English magazine sponsored by missionaries in China for more than 100 years.

== Catalogue of Biblical Editions==
In addition to the reports of the Bible guild and missionaries, there are some catalogues of Biblical translations that can be viewed as data. Alexander Wylie, a British missionary, has been acting for the British Bible Association since 1863. He catalogued all kinds of Christian books and periodicals published at that time and published the biographies and works of missionaries who came to China in 1867 （Memorials of Protestant Missionaries to the Chinese Given a List of Their Publications and Obituary Notices of the Deceased, with Copious Indexes） The book records the life stories, catalogues and abstracts of early missionaries in China, and is the most complete bibliography of religious translation in the period of the Republic of China. However, according to the author's comparative verification of the original Bible translations collected by the National Library, it is found that the catalogue misjudges some of the Bible translations, or some translations do not judge the translations, so it is necessary to judge them according to each library Up to now, the catalogue of Chinese versions of the Bible published abroad is more detailed than the collection, introduction and description of the collection information and records of the mainland edition catalogue.

== Academic Research: Western Part==
Thor strandenaes graduated from Uppsala University in Sweden in 1987. His doctoral thesis principles of Chinese Bible translation is the earliest doctoral thesis focusing on the Chinese Bible. He is particularly inclined to compare different Chinese versions of the Bible. From the perspective of translatology and Christian theological interpretation, he analyzes the translation principles of five Bible versions, including Morrison's version of Shen Wenli, the Commission's version of Shen Wenli, the vernacular hehe version, the Catholic SIKO Bible version and the modern Chinese version of Taiwan. He believes that Bible translation has strong inheritance and mutual influence, But at the same time, Catholicism and Christianity have formed their own translation style and vocabulary system. Shi Fulai is a priest, so his research especially emphasizes the theological factors and influence of Bible translation . Jost zetzsche graduated from the University of Hamburg, Germany, in 1999. His doctoral dissertation the Bible in China: the history of the union version or the cultivation of Bible missionary Bible translation in China is a masterpiece in recent years. From the perspective of Christian theological theory and church use, he also discussed the Bible and the combined version, which has the greatest influence, the largest circulation and is still used by the Christian Church, and came to the conclusion that the combined version is the greatest achievement of Bible translation. Both English Monographs discuss the attitude and evolution of missionaries towards Bible translation, the role of Bible translation in the spread of Christianity in China, the scale of Bible distribution, the evolution of Bible translation and sales institutions from the perspective of church position and theology. The paper has a certain historical overview of various early versions, especially the deep arts and science versions, but it does not involve the dialect Bible versions and ethnic minority Bible versions, nor does it discuss the significance and role of the Bible as a Christian classic. (Eugene A.Nida,1972)

This paper studies one of dozens of translations of the Bible - the translation of different stylistic versions of heheben, as well as the theological basis and theological disputes of the translated Heben. Both of these doctoral theses give full play to the author's expertise in Western mother tongue, and focus on one aspect with the archives of the Christian missionary church, including work reports and letters, work records and the archives of the Bible Association as the main data sources.

Including the discussion of individual translations or translators. Thor strantenaes's paper anonymous Bible translators: native language and the translation of the Bible into Chinese (1817-1917) discusses the role of Chinese people in Chinese Bible translation. Due to the cultural arrogance of missionaries, The contribution and role of Chinese scholars in Bible translation has been buried. Reading Christian scripts in China, edited by chole Starr, is a collection of multiple papers to explore the translation of the Chinese Bible in the 19th century and its impact on the final synthesizer and integration of the Bible.

== Academic Research: Chinese Part==
So far, the Chinese world has not carried out in-depth and systematic historical investigation and academic research on the Bible translation. Only in the history of Chinese Christianity, the history of modern Chinese printing and the history of modern Chinese translation can we see some brief introductions, such as Gu Changsheng's missionaries and modern China (page 16); Yang Senfu's history of Christianity in China (12 pages); A brief history of Christianity in China by Li kuanshu (5 pages); Wang Zhixin's outline of the history of Christianity in China (4 pages); Chen Yugang's historical manuscript of Chinese literary translation (5 pages).

The more in-depth discussions basically point to the theoretical discussion of Chinese Bible translation. The most important thing is the discussion on "term question", sometimes called "holy number problem". This problem involves how to use Chinese to call Hebrew "YHWH" and "Elohim", Greek "theos", Latin "Deus" or English "God", and how to translate theological names such as "Holy Spirit", "an - gel" or "baptism". How to translate holy names into Chinese is not only a linguistic and theological problem, but also involves the connotation of Chinese religious beliefs, but also involves how one language and culture is translated into another language and culture of heterogeneous paganism. This is a long-standing and controversial topic on translation in the history of Chinese Christian religion. Until today, there is still no final conclusion within Christianity. Zhao Weiben's "debate on the translation of the Chinese Bible: Shenhu? Dihu" is an early academic paper on the dispute over the translation of the Chinese Bible; Li Chi Chang, editor in chief, compiled more than 60 debates on the translation of "God" and "God" published by Chinese Christians in the communique of nations from 1877 to 1878. It pays close attention to the opinions and responses of Chinese Christians, It is a significant revision of the tendency of many works and historical materials to only pay attention to missionaries and forget the Chinese people. Zhao Xiaoyang's translation and introduction of local culture and foreign religions in regeneration: from the perspective of the Chinese translation of God and God discusses the fierce debate between Catholicism and Christianity on the "translation problem" for 300 years. Under the interpretation of Western religious ideas, the traditional Chinese words "God" and "God" have been gradually Christianized, lost the connotation of their original local religion, and regenerated into new words symbolizing western culture. This paper goes beyond the narrow theological scope of discussing the translation of names within the church in the past, and discusses this cultural problem from a broader perspective. Cheng Xiaojuan's doctoral thesis, discussion and acceptance of "God" in Chinese Bible translation, comprehensively examines the discussion of Western missionaries on the translation of "God" and the history of Chinese acceptance of "God", hoping to form a horizontal investigation of the complete cultural exchange system of "dissemination acceptance", Vertically, it shows their historical changes in different historical situations and cultural exchange stages.(Leslie Howsam,1991)

Cai Jintu's doctoral thesis, the orientation and problems of commissioned Chinese Bible translation, specially discusses one of many deep arts and science translations - commissioned translation, its translatological principles, translation activities, sales, assistance of Chinese assistants, etc., focusing on the theological theory of Bible translation, And the influence of these theological theories on Chinese Bible translation and the development of Christian Church. Ren Dongsheng's doctoral thesis, a study on the culture of Bible Chinese translation, discusses the thematic changes of Bible literature, history and theology from the perspective of translatology.

At present, the academic research on the Chinese version of the Bible is still insufficient. So far, only Ma min's mahiman, Rasha and the early Chinese translation of the Bible has achieved a high level of academic research results; Wu Yixiong's the dispute over translation names and the Chinese translation of the early Bible; Zhao Xiaoyang's research on the relationship between the two horse Bible versions and the daysun Bible versions, an analysis of the origin of the printed Bible base in the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom, Chiang Kai Shek and Bible translation during the war of resistance against Japan, and a historical overview of the Centennial Ministry of the American Chinese Bible Society. Based on the discovery of new materials in Chinese and English, these Chinese papers textual research and analyze the basic historical facts of the Bible translation and Foreign Bible Societies, and describe the work contents of Bible translation, personnel changes, Bible sales, version identification and textual research, disputes and focus during translation in each period. These research papers only involve the earliest translation of Christian missionaries or the Bible translation of Chiang Kai Shek, a famous political figure in modern history.(Hubert W.Spillett,1975)

== Conclusion==
But up to now, due to the differences and opposites between Catholicism and Christianity, there are differences and estrangements among many sects in Christianity; Under the influence of social and political ideology, academic circles have neglected and lacked this field intentionally or unintentionally in the past; The objective difficulties in the study of Chinese versions of the Bible, such as the vast majority of archival materials and various versions are kept abroad, and the majority of foreign materials; There is still no academic research monograph on the historical investigation of the whole Chinese translation of the Bible. The existing in-depth research on Chinese Bible translation is also limited to the most famous versions of the Bible in the history of Chinese Bible translation, such as the marsmian version, the Morrison version, the Guo Shili version, the commissioned version and so on. There is no dialect translation and minority language translation of the Bible, no Roman Bible translation of many churches, and no Chinese translation in the post missionary era. Special studies on the impact, response and reference of Chinese Bible translation on Chinese language, language reform, social culture, new literature and new words, the impact of Chinese Bible translation on the spread and development of Chinese Christian religion, the impact and response of Chinese Bible translation on Chinese traditional ideology and culture, and the impact and significance of Chinese Bible translation on the history of Chinese translation, It is even more rare to pay. The research on the translation and influence of the Bible is a blank spot that needs to be developed. It is worth us to devote ourselves to it and make a difference.(Henry O.Dwight,1916)

== References==

Marshall Broomhall, The Bible in China, London: British and Foreign Bible Society, 1934, p.2.

William Canton, A History of the British and Foreign Bible Society，London: John Murray, 1904, 1910.

Leslie Howsam, Cheap Bibles: Nineteenth-Century Publishing and the British and Foreign Bible Society,Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991.

Henry O. Dwight, The Centennial History of the American Bible Society, New York: Macmillan, 1916.

Hubert W. Spillett, A Catalogue of Scriptures in the Languages of China and the Republic of China, Hong Kong: British and Foreign Bible Society,1975.

Eugene A. Nida, The Book of A Thousand Tongues, New York: United Bible Societies, 1972.

Chloe Starr edit, Reading Christian Scriptures in China,London: T&T Clark, 2008.

Tony 汤因. 中国基督教圣经事业史料简编 A compendium of historical materials on the cause of Chinese Christian Bible [J] 协进 Xie Jin, 1953 (9): 48

Gu Changsheng 顾长声.传教士与近代中国 Missionaries and modern China [M] 上海：上海人民出版社 Shanghai: Shanghai People's publishing house,1991

Yang Senfu 杨森富.中国基督教史 History of Christianity in China [M] 台北：商务印书馆 Taipei: Commercial Press, 1968

Li kuanshu 李宽淑.中国基督教史略 A brief history of Christianity in China [M] 北京：社会科学文献出版社 Beijing: Social Science Literature Press,,1998

Wang Zhixin 王治心.中国基督教史纲 Outline of Chinese Christian history [M] 上海：上海古籍出版社 Shanghai: Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House,2004

Chen Yugang 陈玉刚.中国文学翻译史稿 History of Chinese literary translation [M] 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司，Beijing: China translation and Publishing Corporation, 1992

--Written by Wang Zhenlong--[[User:Li Xichang|Li Xichang]] ([[User talk:Li Xichang|talk]]) 06:39, 15 December 2021 (UTC)

History of Translations

2021-12-15T05:05:13Z

Li Xichang: /* Conclusion */

[[History_of_Translations|Overview Page of History of Translation]]

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=chapter 1 Rouabah Soumaya: History of translation in the Middle Ages=
[[Hist_Trans_EN_1]]
== Abstract==
The history of translation is seen variously as examining the role of translation in historical episodes through decades or investigating the phenomenon or understanding of translation itself historically. These different historiographical perspectives involve potentially different research aims, approaches, concepts, methods and scholarly interlocutors. The paper focuses on this question of disciplinary commensurability in historical studies, and draws parallels between the history of translation and translation in the middle ages. Themes addressed include the bible translation as , established historiographical norms and alternative, interdisciplinary approaches. It is argued that both the history of translation started with the translation of the Bible in the early BC comes, towards a reflexive, transnational history that seeks productive modes of engagement with other historical disciplines. By bringing to the attention of translation scholars some of the key debates in the history of translation and by identifying commonalities, this paper hopes to present an overall view of translation in the middle ages with slight knowledge of Bible translation in the early centuries of the middle ages, which starts from th5 to the 15 century.

== Keywords==
History of Translation , Bible Translation, Translation in the Middle Ages
medieval translation, medieval translator, translation and culture

== Introduction ==
This paper aims at a general review of the history of translation studies and the prevalent approaches from antiquity to the present in the west, in the form of a historical survey in which key theoretical developments are taken into account, focusing on approaches that have been developed during the twentieth century. Without a doubt, It is James Holme's seminal paper "the name and nature of translation studies" that draws up a disciplinary map for translation studies and serves as a springboard for researchers with its binary division of Translation Studies into two branches: "pure" and "applied." Its growth as a discipline goes back to the 1980s. As time elapses, translation studies, by achieving a certain institutional authority and coalescing with many a resurging disciplines and trends as cultural studies, linguistics, literary theory and criticism, brings a renewed aspect to translation theory.

In addition, this paper argues that English medieval translation can be considered as part of a cultural project in that the medieval translator is concerned more with the role and the function of translation in the target culture. Medieval translation theory derives from the classical theories of translation, however, prefaces to translations indicate that medieval translator appropriates the classical translation theory and uses it to serve the cultural and ideological objectives of translation in the middle Ages.

Key words: medieval translation, medieval translator, translation and culture, translation theory.
The pioneering work of Jeannette Beer and Roger Ellis has decidedly promoted medieval translation as a significant area, and has established medieval translation as the work of culturally responsible, academically oriented people of learning.

1 Susan
* Assist. Prof. Dr., Hacettepe University, Department of English Language and Literature
1 The problematic situation of Medieval translation in the academia is discussed by Ruth Evans in "Translating
Past Cultures?" in The Medieval Translator /Vied. Roger Ellis and Ruth Evans, the University of Exeter Press,
Medieval Translation and Cultural Transformation

== Early History of Translation==
The word ‘translation’ comes from a Latin term which means, “To bring or carry across”. Another relevant term comes from the Ancient Greek word of ‘metaphrasis’ which means, “To speak across” and from this, the term ‘metaphrase’ was born, which means a “word-for-word translation”. These terms have been at the heart of theories relating to translation throughout history and have given insight into when and where translation have been used throughout the ages.

It is known that translation was carried out as early as the Mesopotamian era when the Sumerian poem, Gilgamesh, was translated into Asian languages. This dates back to around the second millennium BC. Other ancient translated works include those carried out by Buddhist monks who translated Indian documents into Chinese. In later periods, Ancient Greek texts were also translated by Roman poets and were adapted to create developed literary works for entertainment. It is known that translation services were utilised in Rome by Cicero and Horace and that these uses were continued through to the 17th century, where newer practices were developed.

The history of translation has been a topic that has long been debated by scholars and historians, though it is widely accepted that translation pre-dates the bible. The bible tells of different languages as well as giving insight to the interaction of speakers from different areas. The need for translation has been apparent since the earliest days of human interaction, whether it be for emotional, trade or survival purposes.

The demand for translation services has continued to develop and is now more vital than ever, with businesses acknowledging the inability to expand internationally or succeed in penetrating foreign markets without translating marketing material and business documents.

It is significant to review the history of translation in different languages. There are divisions of period made by scholars like George Steiner. According to Steiner, the history of translation is divided into four periods. Starting from the Roman translators Cicero and Horace to Alexander Fraser Tytler is the first period; the second period extends up to Valery and from Valery to 1960s becomes the third period and the fourth period 1960s onwards. The history of translation is stressed out from 3000 B.C. Rosetta Stone is considered the most ancient work of Translation belonged to the second century B.C. Livius Andronicus translated Homer’s Odyssey named Odusia into Latin in 240 B.C. All that survives is parts of 46 scattered lines from 17 books of the Greek 24-book epic. In some lines, he translates literally, though in others more freely. His translation of the Odyssey had a great historical importance. Before then, the Mesopotamians and Egyptians had translated judicial and religious texts, but no one had yet translated a literary work written in a foreign language until the Roman Empire. Livius’ translation made this fundamental Greek text accessible to Romans, and advanced literary culture in Latin. This project was one of the best examples of translation as artistic process. The work was to be enjoyed on its own, and Livius strove to preserve the artistic quality of original. Since there was no tradition of epic in Italy before him, Livius must have faced enormous problems. For example, he used archaizing forms to make his language more solemn and intense. Barnstone Willis. The Poetics of Translation: History, Theory and Practice. London: Yale University Press, 1993. Print. Bassnett, Susan and Lefevere, Andre (Eds.). Translation, History and Culture. London: Pinter, 1990. Print.

When we talk about the history of translation, we should think of the theories and names that e merged at its different periods. In fact, each era is characterized by specific changes in translation history, but these changes differ from one place to another. For example, the developments of translation in the western world are not the same as those in the Arab world, as each nation knew particular incidents that led to the birth of particular theories. So, what marked the western translation? .By Marouane Zakhir English translator University of Soultan Moulay Slimane, Morocco

== Translation in the Western World==
For centuries, people believed in the relation between translation and the story of the tower of Babel in the Book of Genesis. According to the Bible, the descendants of Noah decided, after the great flood, to settle down in a plain in the land of Shinar. There, they committed a great sin. Instead of setting up a society that fits God's will, they decided to challenge His authority and build a tower that could reach Heaven. However, this plan was not completed, as God, recognizing their wish, regained control over them through a linguistic stratagem. He caused them to speak different languages so as not to understand each other. Then, he scattered them all over the earth. After that incident, the number of languages increased through diversion, and people started to look for ways to communicate, hence the birth of translation (Abdessalam Benabdelali, 2006) (1).

Actually, with the birth of translation studies and the increase of research in the domain, people started to get away from this story of Babel, and they began to look for specific dates and figures that mark the periods of translation history.

Researchers mention that writings on translation go back to the Romans. Eric Jacobson claims that translating is a Roman invention (see McGuire: 1980) (2). Cicero and Horace (first century BC) were the first theorists who distinguished between word-for-word translation and sense-for-sense translation. Their comments on translation practice influenced the following generations of translation up to the twentieth century.

Another period that knew a changing step in translation development was marked by St Jerome (fourth century CE). "His approach to translating the Greek Septuagint Bible into Latin would affect later translations of the scriptures." (Munday, 2001) (3)

The first important translation in the West was that of the Septuagint, a collection of Jewish Scriptures translated into early Koine Greek in Alexandria between the 3rd and "1st centuries B C E The dispersed Jews had forgotten their ancestral language and Throughout the .middle Ages, /Latin was the lingua franca of the western learned world. -Wikipedia .org/wiki/

The 9th1century Alfred the Great, king of Wessex in England, was far ahead of his time in commissioning 'vernacular Anglo -Saxon translations of Bede’s Ecclesiastical History and Boethius « Consolation of Philosophy ) meanwhile, the Christian church frowned on even partial adaptations of St . Jerome ‘s Vulgate of CA 384 CE, the Latin Bible . -Wikipedia .org/wiki/

The broad historic trends in Western translation practice may be illustrated on the example of translation into the English language .

The first fine translations into English were made in the "the century by Geoffrey Chaucer, who adapted from the Italian of Giovanni Boccaccio in his own Knight's Tal e and Troilus and Criseyde ; began a translation of the French -language Roman de la Rose 7 and completed a translation of Boethius from the Latin . Chaucer bounded an English poetic tradition on adaptations and translations from those earlier established literary languages . -Wikipedia .org/wiki/

The first great English translation was the Wycliffe (CA 1382), which showed the weaknesses of an under developed English prose . only at the end of the "15th century did the great age to English prose translation begin with Thomas Malory ‘s "le Morte D arthur”- Ban adaptation of Arthurian romances so free that it can, in fact, hardly be called a true translation . The first great Tudor translations are, accordingly, the Tyndale new Testament ( 1525), which influenced the Authorized Version (1611), and Lord Berners version of jean Froissart’s Chronicles ( 1523- 25) . - Wikipedia .org/wiki/

== History of Translation in the Middle Ages==
In the history of Europe, the middle Ages or medieval period lasted approximately from the Fifth to the late 15th centuries, similarly to the Post-classical period of global history. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and transitioned into the Renaissance and the Age of Discovery. The middle Ages is the middle period of the three traditional divisions of Western history: classical antiquity, the medieval period, and the modern period. The medieval period is itself subdivided into the Early, High, and Late Middle Ages.

This article is about medieval Europe. For a global history of the period between the 5th and 15th centuries, see Post-classical history. For other uses, see middle Ages (disambiguation).

"Medieval times" redirects here. For the dinner theatre, see Medieval Times.

Latin was the lingua franca of the Western learned world throughout the middle Ages, with few translations of Latin works into vernacular languages. In the 9th century, Alfred the Great, King of Wessex in England, was far ahead of his time in commissioning vernacular translations from Latin into English of Bede’s “Ecclesiastical History”and Boethius's “The Consolation of Philosophy”, which contributed to improve the underdeveloped English prose of that time.

It is argued that the knowledge and findings of Greek academics was developed and understood so widely thanks to the translation work of Arabic scholars. When the Greeks were conquered, Arabic scholars, who translated them and created their own versions of the scientific, entertainment and philosophical understandings took in their works. These Arabic versions were later translated into Latin, during the middle Ages, mostly throughout Spain and the resulting works provided the foundations of Renaissance academics.

Medieval times in human history – also referred to as the “Middles Ages” – was the time period that fell roughly between the fall of the Roman Empire in 476 CE and the 14th century. However, these years bear another moniker as well: the Dark Ages. There are valid reasons for that term. In the eyes of many historians, people during this age made little to no significant advancements that benefitted humankind. In addition, most notably, this was the period when the “Black Death” (the bubonic plague) killed an estimated 30 percent of the population of Europe.

However, the middle Ages were not completely “dark.” In fact, modern historians are taking a second look at this period with a more objective – and perhaps more generous – perspective. There is no doubt, for example, that religion flourished during this time. The Catholic Church came to prominence throughout Europe, and the rise of Islam was occurring simultaneously in the Middle East. It was there – particularly in urban centres such a Baghdad, Damascus and Cairo – that an extremely vibrant culture and intellectual society thrived.

The art of translation also made great strides during the middle Ages. Thanks to Alfred the Great (the king of England during the 9th century), The Consolation of Philosophy by Boethius and Ecclesiastical History by Bede were translated from Latin to English – a major feat that would have a great impact on the overall advancement of English prose during this period. Later, during the 12th and 13th centuries, the Toledo School of Translators (“Escuela de Traductores de Toledo”) worked on a wide variety of translations, including religious, scientific, philosophical and medical works. The original texts were created in Arabic, Hebrew and Greek, and all were translated into Castilian – and that formed the basis for the formation of the Spanish language. Also during the 13th century, English linguist Roger Bacon postulated the concept that a translator not only needed to be fully fluent in both the source and target languages of the work being translated, but also that a translator should be fully versed in the topic of the work to be translated – a tenet that still holds true in the language arts to this day.

One of the most notable translators during the middle Ages was also one of the most accomplished authors and poets – Geoffrey Chaucer. In fact, those historians who still maintain that the Dark Ages produced little to no significant contributions to humankind might do well to remember the works of Chaucer. In a lifetime that spanned some 60 years (from the 1340s until 1400), Chaucer earned the reputation as the “father of English literature.” However, that description only scratched the surface of Chaucer’s accomplishments. He was also a noted astronomer and philosopher, as well as a diplomat, bureaucrat and parliament member. Chaucer’s contributions to the language arts were no less significant; his use of Middle English (as opposed to Latin or French, which were the two most commonly used languages of the day) quite literally brought English into mainstream usage, as did his translations of numerous works from Italian, French and Latin into English.

It can truly be said that historians have given medieval times somewhat of a bad rap over the centuries. And while there’s no doubt that the accomplishments of linguists and others during the Middle Ages can’t come close to comparing with those of the Renaissance or later time periods, the contributions made during the “Dark Ages” should not be overlooked. In fact, from a linguistic point of view, this was an extremely crucial time. Not only were the basic principles of translation developed during the middle Ages, but also English itself began to take shape as a language of import for future years.

Studies on the theory and practice of medieval translation reveal therefore that the translation principles and the issues of translation theory in the Middle Ages derive from a long established tradition of translation theory developed by the classical authors. In practice, Roger Ellis states, medieval translation is heterogeneous; "every instance of practice that we may be tempted to erect into a principle has its answering opposite, sometimes in the same work (quoted in Evans, 1994: 27). Evidently, not only the critical approaches to translation in the Middle Ages but also theory and practice of translation of the period vary considerably. However, it seems that medieval translation utilises the translation and writing theories inherited from the classical authors to adopt a translational approach that recognises translation's vital role in the cultural transformation of the middle Ages. Page 96

This paper argues therefore that the medieval interest in translation can be considered as a cultural and political interest since the 1994. pp. 20-45. See Jeanette Beer, Medieval Translators and Their Craft.1989 and Roger Ellis (ed) assisted by Jocelyn Price, Stephen Medcalf and Peter Meredith. The Medieval Translator: The Theory and Practice of Translation in the Middle Ages: Papers Read at a Conference Held 20-23 August 1987 at the University of Wales Conference Centre, Gregynog //a//.Woodbridge, Suffolk: D.S. Brewer, 1989.

Rita Copeland, Rhetoric, Hermeneutics, and Translation in the Middle Ages: Academic Traditions and
Vernacular Texts. Cambridge, 1991. See particularly A. J. Minnis and A. B. Scots (eds) Medieval Literary
Theory and Criticism c.l 100-1375 The Commentary Tradition. Oxford, 1988.

Translations of the period are introduced as potential projects for cultural transformation. The formative role of translation in the middle Ages can be observed in medieval culture's awareness of the significance of cultural interaction. Medieval culture is a highly bookish culture, which contributed to the development of a vigorous translation activity in the Middle Ages. The recognition of the authority of the books seems to have led to the utilisation of the potential in translation for cultural education and transformation. As there was little or no difference between translation and original composition in the Middle Ages, translation was often considered in association with the pragmatic function of the book (Barratt, 1992:13-14).

In Geoffrey Chaucer's The Prologue to the Legend of Good Women, the fictional dialogue concerning the translations of the narrator provides an instructive interaction concerning translation activity as an integral part of cultural re-construction in the middle Ages.

The god of Love presents two works of Chaucer, the Troilus and Criseyde and the Romance of the Rose, as translations and questions the narrator's motives in choosing to translate works undermining the doctrine of Love (322-335). This fictional questioning introduces, in fact, the main attitude to translation in the middle Ages as it recognises the transformative role of translation on the target audience as an important issue the medieval translator recognises and aims at as the ultimate target of translation. Similarly, the narrator in Chaucer's Prologue to the Legend of Good Women argues that he wanted to teach the reader the true conduct in love through the experience of the lovers in the books he translated (471-474).

The translator in this fictional debate introduces the main objective of translation as making the works of foreign languages available to the linguistically disadvantaged audience for their cultural improvement. This rather pragmatic translational paradigm, moreover, introduces another important issue of medieval translation addressed by theoretical tradition of translation in the middle Ages. In fact, the translator accused of mistranslation in Chaucer's Prologue to the Legend of Good Women is also a writer, his accuser does not make a distinction between his role as a translator and his role as a writer.3 many of the medieval translators were also writers, and translation and interpretation were considered as important strategies in medieval composition. Moreover, most of the medieval translation activity from Latin into the vernacular involved a transfer of the past works into the vernacular by re-writing.
As Douglas Kelly argues, "such re-writing is 'translation' as literary invention, using pre-
existent source material. It is a variety of translation study « (1997: 48). Medieval reception of the translation theory of the classical antiquity as a principle governing creative activity led to a special sense of translation, that is, translation as "an 3 See the Prologue to the Legend of Good Women, lines 322-35 and 362-370. 97

".. And other bokes took me ...To reed upon ": Medieval Translation and Cultural Transformation 'unfaithful' yet artful interpretation or reinterpretation"(Kelly, 1997: 55), or "secondary translation" to put it in Copeland's words.

Identifying the important status of translation in the Middle Ages as a branch of writing reveals that the Middle Ages was not totally oblivious to the legacy of rhetorical and hermeneutic traditions of the classical antiquity. More importantly, it testifies to the significant function translation is given in the cultural transformation. As stated above, a theoretical understanding of translation in the middle Ages was largely dependent on the classical ideas of translation. Rita Copeland argues for the necessity of recognising the medieval awareness of the classical tradition as the strong theoretical foundation of Medieval translation.

==Translation in middle Ages (The Philological Perspective)==

Middle Ages epoch roughly represents the time between late fifth century and the fifteenth century A.D.in Europe. Middle Ages, however, continue until the advent of European Colonialism (about eighteenth century) in the 'Oriental' and African countries. With the spread of Christianity, translation takes a new role of disseminating the word of God. How to translate the divine words faithfully was a serious issue because of dogmatic and political concerns. “St. Jerome claims that he follows sense for sense approach rather than word for word approach when translating the New Testament in AD 384.”18 Since the aim of the divine text is to provide understanding and guidance, it seems logical to follow sense for sense approach. Thence, there is a possibility of intentional or unintentional change of meaning and the context; for these reasons, some scholars emphasize on the word for word translation approach. The first translation of the complete Bible into English was the Wycliffe Bible is which was produced between 1380 and 1384; “Wycliffe believes man should have direct contact with God and thus the Bible should be translated into language that man can understand, i.e. in the vernacular. Purvey believes translator should translate “after sentence (meaning),” not only after words. Martin Luther says, “... the meaning and subject matter must be considered, not the grammar, for the grammar should not rule over the meaning;”19 Criticism on sense for sense was widespread because it minimized the power of the church authorities, “while literal translation was bound up with the Bible and other religious and philosophical works, says Jeremy Monday; non-literal or non-accepted translation came to be seen and used as a weapon against the Church.”20“In the Western Europe this word-for-word versus sense-for-sense debate continued in one form or another until the twentieth century. The centrality of Bible to translation also explains the enduring theoretical questions about accuracy and fidelity to fixed source.”21 In the eighth and ninth century A.D., a large number of translations from Greek into Arabic gave rise to Arabic learning. “Scholars from Syria, a part of the Roman Empire (during 64B.C.-636A.D) came to Baghdad and translated Greek works of Physician Hippocrates (460-360 B.C.), philosophers Plato (427-327 B.C.) and Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) into Arabic during the eighth and ninth century A.D. Baghdad continued to be a centre of translations of Greek classics into Arabic even in the twentieth century A.D.”22 The dominance of religion is prominent in the Translation Era of Middle Ages. In this era, both the trends of Antiquity period can be seen in action, yet emphasis is again on the sense for sense approach.

==Translation In the middle Ages between the 12th and the 15 centuries;==

In the 12th and 13th centuries, the Toledo School of Translators (Escuela de Traductores de Toledo) became a meeting point for European scholars who — attracted by the high wages they were offered — came and settled down in Toledo, Spain, to translate major philosophical, religious, scientific and medical works from Arabic, Greek and Hebrew into Latin and Castilian. Toledo was a city of libraries offering a number of manuscripts, and one of the few places in medieval Europe where a Christian could be exposed to Arabic language and culture.

The Toledo School of Translators went through two distinct periods. Archbishop Raymond de Toledo, who advocated the translation of philosophical and religious works, led the first period (in the 12th century) mainly from classical Arabic into Latin. These Latin translations helped advance European Scholasticism, and thus European science and culture. King Alfonso X of Castile himself led the second period (in the 13th century). On top of philosophical and religious works, the scholars also translated scientific and medical works. Castilian — instead of Latin — became the final language, thus resulting in establishing the foundations of the modern Spanish language.

The translations of works on different sciences (astronomy, astrology, algebra, medicine) acted as a magnet for numerous scholars, who came from all over Europe to Toledo to learn first-hand about the contents of all those Arab, Greek and Hebrew works, before going back home to disseminate the acquired knowledge in European universities. While some Toledo translations of physical and cosmological works were accepted in most European universities in the early 1200s, the works of Aristotle and Arab philosophers were often banned, for example at the Sorbonne University in Paris.

Roger Bacon was a 13th-century English scholar heralded for his early exposition of a “universal grammar” (the concept that the ability to learn grammar is hard-wired into the brain). He was the first linguist to assess that a translator should know well both the source language and the target language to produce a good translation, and that the translator should be well versed in the discipline of the work he was translating. According to legend, after finding out that few translators did, Roger Bacon decided to do away with translation and translators altogether. However, his decision did not last long. He relied on many Toledo translations from Arabic into Latin to make major contributions in the fields of optics, astronomy, natural sciences, chemistry and mathematics.

Geoffrey Chaucer produced the first fine translations into English in the 14th century. Chaucer translated the “Roman de la Rose” from French, and Boethius’s works from Latin. He also adapted some works of the Italian humanist Giovanni Boccaccio to produce his own “Knight’s Tale” and “Troilus and Criseyde” (c.1385) in English. Chaucer is regarded as the founder of an English poetic tradition based on translations and adaptations of literary works in languages that were more “established” than English was at the time, beginning with Latin and Italian. The finest religious translation of that time was the “Wycliffe’s Bible” (1382-84), named after John Wycliffe, an English theologian who translated the Bible from Latin to English.

In the 15th century : Byzantine scholar Gemistus Pletho’s trip to Florence, Italy, pioneered the revival of Greek learning in Western Europe. Gemistus Pletho reintroduced Plato’s thought during the 1438-39 Council of Florence, in a failed attempt to reconcile the East-West schism (a 11th-century schism between the Eastern Orthodox and Catholic churches). During this Council, Pletho met Cosimo de Medici, the politician ruling Florence and a great patron of learning and the arts, and influenced him to found a Platonic Academy. Led by the Italian scholar and translator Marsilio Ficino, the Platonic Academy took over the translation into Latin of all Plato’s works, the “Enneads” of Plotinus and other Neo-Platonist works. Marsilio Ficino’s work — and Erasmus’ Latin edition of the New Testament — led to a new attitude to translation. For the first time, readers demanded rigor of rendering, as philosophical and religious beliefs depended on the exact words of Plato and Jesus (and Aristotle and others).

The great age of English prose translation began in the late 15th century with Thomas Malory’s “Le Morte d’Arthur” (1485), a free translation/adaptation of Arthurian romances about the legendary King Arthur, as well as Guinevere, Lancelot, Merlin and the Knights of the Round Table. Thomas Malory “interpreted” existing French and English stories about these figures while adding original material, e.g. the “Gareth” story about one of the Knights of the Round Table.4

== An Overview of Bible Translations in The Middle Ages==
The most significant turn in the history of translation came with the Bible translations. The efforts of translating the Bible from its original languages into over 2,000 others have spanned more than two millennia. Partial translation of the Bible into languages of English people can be stressed back to the end of the seventh century, including translations into Old English and Middle English. Over 450 versions have been created overtime.
SSN 1799-2591

Theory and Practice in Language Studies, Vol. 2, No. 1, pp. 77-85, January 2012
© 2012 ACADEMY PUBLISHER Manufactured in Finland.
doi:10.4304/tpls.2.1.77-85

Bible translations in the Middle Ages discussions are in contrast to Late Antiquity, when the Bibles available to most Christians were in the local vernacular. In a process seen in many other religions, as languages changed, and in Western Europe, languages with no tradition of being written down became dominant, the prevailing vernacular translations remained in place, despite gradually becoming sacred languages, incomprehensible to the majority of the population in many places. In Western Europe, the Latin Vulgate, itself originally a translation into the vernacular, was the standard text of the Bible, and full or partial translations into a vernacular language were uncommon until the Late Middle Ages and the Early Modern Period. A page from the luxury illuminated manuscript Wenceslas Bible, a German translation of the 1390s.[1] From Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia

During the Migration Period Christianity spread to various peoples who had not been part of the old Roman Empire, and whose languages had yet no written form, or only a very simple one, like runes. Typically, the Church itself was the first to attempt to capture these languages in written form, and Bible translations are often the oldest surviving texts in these newly written-down languages. Meanwhile, Latin was evolving into new distinct regional forms, the early versions of the Romance languages, for which new translations eventually became necessary. However, the Vulgate remained the authoritative text, used universally in the West for scholarship and the liturgy since the early development of the Romance languages had not come to full fruition, matching its continued use for other purposes such as religious literature and most secular books and documents. In the early middle Ages, anyone who could read at all could often read Latin, even in Anglo-Saxon England, where writing in the vernacular (Old English) was more common than elsewhere. A number of pre-reformation Old English Bible translations survive, as do many instances of glosses in the vernacular, especially in the Gospels and the Psalms.[4] Over time, biblical translations and adaptations were produced both within and outside the church, some as personal copies for religious or lay nobility, and others for liturgical or pedagogical purposes.[5][6] From Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia

The Bible was translated into various languages in late antiquity; the most important of these translations are those in the Syriac dialect of Aramaic (including the Peshitta and the Diatessaron gospel harmony), the Ge'ez language of Ethiopia, and, in Western Europe, Latin. The earliest Latin translations are collectively known as the Vetus Latina, but in the late fourth century, Jerome re-translated the Hebrew and Greek texts into the normal vernacular Latin of his day, in a version known as the Vulgate (Biblia vulgata) (meaning "common version", in the sense of "popular"). Jerome's translation gradually replaced most of the older Latin texts, and gradually ceased to be a vernacular version as the Latin language developed and divided. The earliest surviving complete manuscript of the entire Latin Bible is the Codex Amiatinus, produced in eighth century England at the double monastery of Wearmouth-Jarrow. By the end of late, antiquity the Bible was therefore available and used in all the major written languages then spoken by Christians. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia

== Conclusion ==
The history of translation studies and the resurgence and genesis of the approaches to this emerging discipline was marked by the first century (BCE) commentator Cicero and then St. Jerome whose word-for-word and sense-for-sense approaches to translation was a springboard for other approaches and trends to thrive. From the medieval ages until now, each decade was marked by a dominant concept such as translatability, equivalence etc. Whilst before the twentieth century translation was an element of language learning, the study of the field developed into an academic discipline only in the second half of the twentieth century, when this field achieved a certain institutional authority and developed as a distinct discipline. As this discipline moved towards the present, the level of sophistication and inventiveness did in fact soared and new concepts, methods, and research projects were developed which interacted with this discipline. The brief review here, albeit incomplete, reflects the current fragmentation of the field into subspecialties, some empirically oriented, some hermeneutic and literary and some influenced by various forms of linguistics and cultural studies which have culminated in productive syntheses. In short, translation studies is now a field which brings together approaches from a wide language and cultural studies, that for its own use, modifies them and develops new models specific to its own requirements.
SSN 1799-2591 Theory and Practice in Language Studies, Vol. 2, No. 1, pp. 77-85, January 2012
© 2012 ACADEMY PUBLISHER Manufactured in Finland.
doi:10.4304/tpls.2.1.77-85

== References ==
-A page from the luxury illuminated manuscript Wenceslas Bible, a German translation of the 1390s.[1] From Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia

-Barnstone Willis. The Poetics of Translation: History, Theory and Practice. London: Yale University Press, 1993. Print. Bassnett, Susan and Lefevere, Andre (Eds.). Translation, History and Culture. London: Pinter, 1990. Print. 2- Barnstone Willis. The Poetics of Translation: History, Theory and Practice. London: Yale University Press, 1993. Print. Bassnett, Susan and Lefevere, Andre (Eds.). Translation, History and Culture. London: Pinter, 1990. Print.

-Early history of translation .By Marouane Zakhir English translator University of Soultan Moulay Slimane, Morocco

-From Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia

-https//www.tandfonline.com// 5- https//www.tandfonline.com//

-Prologue to the Legend of Good Women, lines 322-35 and 362-370. 97 ".. And other bokes took me ...To reed upon ": Medieval Translation and Cultural Transformation 'unfaithful' yet artful interpretation or reinterpretation"(Kelly, 1997: 55), or "secondary translation" to put it in Copeland's words.

-Susan * Assist. Prof. Dr., Hacettepe University, Department of English Language and Literature The problematic situation of Medieval translation in the academia is discussed by Ruth Evans in "Translating Past Cultures?" in The Medieval Translator /Vied. Roger Ellis and Ruth Evans, the University of Exeter Press, Medieval Translation and Cultural Transformation .

-SSN 1799-2591 Theory and Practice in Language Studies, Vol. 2, No. 1, pp. 77-85, January 2012 © 2012 ACADEMY PUBLISHER Manufactured in Finland. doi:10.4304/tpls.2.1.77-85.

-This article is about medieval Europe. For a global history of the period between the 5th and 15th centuries, see Post-classical history. For other uses, see middle Ages (disambiguation). "Medieval times" redirects here. For the dinner theatre, see Medieval Times.

-the 1994. pp. 20-45. See Jeanette Beer, Medieval Translators and Their Craft.1989 and Roger Ellis (ed) assisted by Jocelyn Price, Stephen Medcalf and Peter Meredith. The Medieval Translator: The Theory and Practice of Translation in the Middle Ages: Papers Read at a Conference Held 20-23 August 1987 at the University of Wales Conference Centre, Gregynog //a//.Woodbridge, Suffolk: D.S. Brewer, 1989.

^ Rita Copeland, Rhetoric, Hermeneutics, and Translation in the Middle Ages: Academic Traditions and Vernacular Texts. Cambridge, 1991. See particularly A. J. Minnis and A. B. Scots (eds) Medieval Literary Theory and Criticism c.l 100-1375 The Commentary Tradition. Oxford, 1988.

-Wikipedia .org/wiki/

=Chapter 2 History of Modern and Contemporary Chinese Translation=
“中国现当代翻译史”

[[Hist_Trans_EN_2]]

Li Xichang, 李习长, Hunan Normal University, China

=Chapter 3 The Translation of Buddihist Sutra in Chinese Translation History=
“佛经翻译”

[[Hist_Trans_EN_3]]

Huang Zhuliang 黄柱梁 Hunan Normal University, China

=王镇隆 The Brief History of Bible's Chinese Translation=
== Abstract==
Bible is the only Christian classic. Many Bible translation versions in the territory of China, including the Chinese characters and the languages of ethnic minorities, are not only the important events and modern history publication with the largest circulation, translated versions of books in the modern translation history, but also the close relationship with the modern transformation of Chinese characters and the creation of minority languages. Three aspects of Bible translation history, information, research and outlook are described in this paper.

== 摘要==
圣经是基督教的唯一经典，圣经翻译则是中国近代翻译史上的重要事件。当时的中国境内，出现了包括汉语汉字和少数民族语言文字的众多圣经译本，这不仅使圣经成为中国近代史上出版发行量最大、翻译版本最多的书籍，而且对中国的汉语汉字的近代转型和少数民族文字创制产生了重要影响。本文从 3 个方面对圣经中译的历史、资料、研究及展望进行了叙述。

== Key Words==
History of the Bible translation；Research review;Academic outlook

== 关键词==
圣经中译史；研究回顾；学术展望

== The Overall Introduction of Bible Translation==
“Bible” translation has a pivotal position in the history of Western translation. From the beginning of the era to today, the translation of the “Bible” has never stopped. The range of languages involved, the number of translations, and the frequency of use of translations,etc., are unmatched by the translation of any other work. A birds-eye view of the history of “Bible” translation has the following important milestones: the first is the “Seventy Sons Greek Text” before the Era, the second is the “Popular Latin Text Bible” from the 4th to 5th centuries, and the later the national languages of the early Middle Ages. The ancient texts (such as Old German, Old French translations), modern texts since the 16th century Reformation Movement (such as the Lutheran version of Germany, the King James version, etc.) and various modern texts. All these translations have made indelible contributions to the spread and development of Christianity in the West, as well as the prosperity and development of the languages and cultures of various nations.(Gu Changsheng,1991)

The “Bible” is the holy book of Christianity, including the “Old Testament” and “New Testament.” The Old Testament was written in BC. It is a classic of Judaism. It was inherited by Christianity from Judaism. The original text was in Hebrew. The New Testament was written in the second half of the first to second centuries, and the original text is in Greek. Throughout human history, language translation is almost as old as the language itself. Therefore, from the beginning of the era to today, the translation of the “Bible” has never stopped. The range of languages involved, the number of translations, and the frequency of use of the translations, etc., are unmatched by the translation of any other work. The translation of the "Bible" is mainly to spread the doctrine, so that people are influenced and accepted by the views. According to the “New Testament Acts” Chapter Two, Section One: The saints gathered on Pentecost, and they were all filled with the Holy Spirit, and spoke the words of other countries according to the eloquence given by the Holy Spirit. However, the translation at that time was mainly “interprete” or “interpretation.” Among them, St. Paul himself is a multilingual believer. He preached in Jerusalem, Athens and Rome in Hebrew, Greek and Italian respectively. The Bible was first translated from Hebrew into Greek, then into Latin, and then into Romanian, Portuguese, Spanish, Italian, and Walloon (wal-lon), German, French, Romance languages. English was then translated into various languages in the world, and the translations of its various texts were repeatedly revised by experts in the translation of the classics, which lasted more than ten centuries.

In the history of the translation of the Bible, it has gone through several milestone stages: the first is the “Seventy Sons Greek Text” before the era, the second is the “Popular Latin Text Bible” from the 4th to 5th centuries, and later it is the national languages of the early Middle Ages. Ancient texts (such as Old German, Old French translations), modern texts since the 16th century Reformation Movement (such as Luther, Casio Dorobin in Spain, King James Version in English, Nikon in Russia) and All kinds of modern texts (such as “American Standard Text” in English, “New English Bible” and “English Today”, etc.). “The Bible Old Testament” is the first important and earliest translation in ancient times in the West, and it was translated into Greek. The Old Testament was originally the official classic of Judaism, originally in Hebrew. The Jews have been scattered around for a long time and drifted overseas. Over time, they have forgotten the language of their ancestors and spoke foreign languages such as Arabic and Greek. Among them, Greek speakers accounted for the majority. In ancient times, the city of Alexandria in Egypt was the cultural and trade center of the eastern Mediterranean. The Jews living here accounted for two-fifths of the city’s total population. In the third century BC, in order to meet the increasingly urgent needs of these Greek-speaking Jews, the church decided to translate the Hebrew text of the Old Testament into a Greek text. In the second century BC, an unknown Jew once wrote an epistle article, which was later named “Letter of Aristeas” (“Letter of Aristeas”), which records that in the third century BC, Jerusalem At the request of Egyptian King Ptolemy II Feiradelphis (308-246 BC), Bishop Elizar sent translators to Alexandria to undertake the translation of the Old Testament. In this way, according to Ptolemy II's will, between 285 and 249 BC, 72 “noble” Jewish scholars gathered in the Library of Alexandria, Egypt, to perform this translation. According to legend, the 72 scholars came from 12 different Israeli tribes, with 6 from each tribe. After they came to the Library of Alexandria, they worked in pairs in 36 locations and translated them into 36 translations that were very similar to each other. Finally, 72 translators gathered together to compare and check the 36 translation manuscripts, and reached a consensus on the wording of the final version, and called it the “Seventy Son Text” or “Seventy Magi Translation”, that is, “Septuagint” (“Septuagint”), has since opened a precedent for collective translation in the history of translation. Soon after the translation of the “Seventy Sons”, the priests held a joint meeting with the Jewish leaders and pointed out: “This translation is well translated, pious, and very accurate. (Marshall Broomhall,1934,P.2)

Therefore, it must be kept as it is and cannot be changed.” We also regarded it as the classic translation. In fact, this Greek translation became the “second original”, and sometimes even replaced the Hebrew text and ascended to the throne of the “first original”. Many of the translations of the Bible in languages such as ancient Latin, Slavic, and Arabic are not based on the original Hebrew but on the Greek translation.

== Multilingualism in the Chinese version of the Bible==
According to the report of the World Union Bible Association in 2006, the new and Old Testament of the Bible has been translated into 301 different languages. If regional dialects and partial translations are included, the translated languages of the Bible have exceeded 2287 different languages. The Bible is the most widely circulated and translated book in the world.

If someone says that in Chinese history, the Bible has the largest number of translated versions, the largest number of Chinese language forms, both vernacular and classical Chinese, and the largest number of Chinese dialect forms. It has not only created nearly 10 ethnic minority languages, but also nearly 20 ethnic minority language translation books, but also the largest publication and circulation in modern history, There must be many people who don't believe it.(William Canton,1904,1910)

But this is the fact of history. The Chinese version of the Bible does have many historical “best”, which is related to the super pronunciation and super dialect nature of Chinese language and characters, the reform and cultural transformation of Chinese language and culture in the late Qing Dynasty and the early Republic of China, and the fact that most ethnic minorities in Southwest China have only language but no words. The period of the late Qing Dynasty and the beginning of the Republic of China, that is, the 1860s to the 1930s, was the period of the most drastic changes in Chinese language and characters, the period of the transformation of ancient Chinese and its culture into vernacular, the period of the widespread voice and hard practice of Chinese Latinization, the most active period of language and character reform, and the transformation and reform of Chinese language and characters, A variety of transitional writing methods have emerged due to text reform and stylistic changes. However, the reform and expression methods of multiple languages and characters in the late Qing Dynasty and the early Republic of China, some of which are even very short-lived transitional writing methods. The Bible has published translated versions in this text form. This can be best confirmed by many translations of the Bible, such as classical Chinese, half written and half spoken, vernacular, dialect Chinese characters, dialect church Roman characters, Wang Zhao Mandarin phonetic alphabets, Mandarin phonetic alphabets, Mandarin Roman characters, weituoma Pinyin, kuaizi, a variety of ethnic minority characters, blind characters and so on.(Li Kuanshu,1998)

The large-scale cultural exchange and interaction between China and the west is an important historical phenomenon in the modern world. This cultural relationship has not only changed the cultural and political pattern all over the world, but also greatly affected the development of Chinese culture and society. Language contact is not only an important part of cultural relations, but also an important prerequisite for all other exchanges. The large-scale and multilingual cross-cultural in-depth language and cultural exchange is a modern cultural phenomenon gradually formed all over the world after the great discovery of geography. It is also a prominent manifestation in the history of China's modern foreign cultural relations, which is particularly different from previous dynasties.

The language and cultural exchange in modern China began with the arrival of Christian missionaries in China. As the only classic of Christian religion, the Bible inevitably involves the problems of how to translate into China’s local language, how to adapt to and influence the local ideology and culture in the historical process of Christian communication and translation.

The earliest translation of the Bible in China can be extended to the Tang Dynasty, which has a long history of thousands of years. Although the Bible translation activities have been interrupted, they continue to this day. In Taiwan and Hong Kong, the Bible translation is still not over.

== Bible Translation from Different Perspectives==
From the perspective of language, Bible translation can be divided into Chinese language and minority language. In addition to the Chinese translation (the Chinese translation is described in detail below), in the process of Bible translation, the missionaries took advantage of the Pinyin advantages of their Latin mother tongue and combined with the pronunciation of local minority languages to create Pinyin characters in the form of Latin letters for those southwest minorities who only have spoken language but no words, that is, bagri Miao Language (old Miao Language) in Northeast Yunnan Frame format: East Lisu, Funeng Renxi Lisu (old Lisu), Jingpo, Zawa, Lahu, Buyi, WA, etc. It also borrowed Chinese phonetic alphabets and modified and created Hu Zhizhong’s Miao language. They translated and published the complete Scriptures or section translations of Jingpo language, Zaiwa language, East Lisu language, West Lisu language, Yi language, Nuosu language and Gepo language, Lahu language, WA language, Naxi language, Dehong Dai language, Xishuangbanna Dai language, Huayao Dai language, Huamiao language, Chuanmiao language, heimiao language, Buyi language and other languages. Among them, Jingpo, Funeng Renxi Lisu and bagri Miao are still widely used in society, and Hu Zhizhong Miao is still used among religious believers in Kaili, Guizhou. These characters not only ended the history of these nationalities without characters, but also provided great reference and Enlightenment for the large-scale creation of characters for ethnic minorities in New China. In the northern minority languages, the missionaries also translated and published Bible translations in Mongolian (karmec Mongolian, kalka Mongolian, Buryat Mongolian), Tibetan (Tibetan Classical Chinese, Tibetan Ladakh dialect, Tibetan Lahore dialect), Manchu, Kazakh and Korean. In Taiwan, missionaries and today’s Taiwan Christian Church have also created Pinyin characters in the form of Latin letters for the Paiwan, Taiya, AMI, Taroko, Yamei, Bunun, Lukai, Dawu and other indigenous peoples, translated and published biblical translations, which are still in use today.(Wang Zhixin,2004)

From the perspective of Chinese style, Chinese versions of the Bible can be divided into three categories:

1. Classical Chinese translation, that is, the translation of deep arts and Sciences: in history, there have been yangmano's direct interpretation of the Bible, daysun's translation, masman's translation, Morrison's translation, Guo Shili's translation, commissioned translation (or representative translation), bizhiwen / kebicun translation, Gaode translation, the printed version of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom, lianweiren translation, and Heshen's translation of Arts and Sciences.

2. Half written and half white translation, i.e. shallow liberal arts translation: in history, there have been Yang Ge's non shallow liberal arts translation, Shi Joseph's shallow liberal arts translation, Bao John / Ke Bicun translation and hehe shallow liberal arts translation.

3. Vernacular translation: China is a country with many dialects. Six of China's seven dialects have Bible translations. Among them, nine branches of five dialects, including Wu, min, Guangdong, Hakka and Mandarin, have biblical Chinese characters. They are Nanjing dialect translation, Beijing dialect translation, Hankou dialect translation, Tianjin dialect translation, Shanghai dialect translation, Ningbo Dialect translation, Suzhou dialect translation, Hangzhou dialect translation, Fuzhou dialect translation, Xiamen dialect translation, Shantou dialect translation, Guangzhou dialect translation, Hakka dialect translation Hakka Sanjiang dialect translation. In 1919, the vernacular intensive cost and official script appeared, which is the Bible translation used by the Christian Church of China.

From the perspective of Chinese text form, Bible translation can be basically divided into seven categories:

1. Chinese Character Edition: in history, there were classical Chinese character edition and vernacular Chinese Character Edition (including dialect Chinese Character Edition);

2. Roman script of church Dialect: missionaries spell the words of local dialects according to the Latin alphabet. There are 15 branches of the six dialects, including Nanjing dialect translation, Beijing dialect translation, Shandong dialect translation, Shanghai dialect translation, Ningbo Dialect translation, Hangzhou dialect translation, Wenzhou dialect translation, Jinhua dialect translation, Taizhou dialect translation, Fuzhou dialect translation Bible translations of Xiamen dialect, Shantou dialect, Xinghua dialect, Jianyang dialect, Shaowu dialect, Hainan dialect, Guangzhou dialect, Hakka Guangdong and Taiwan dialect, Hakka Wujingfu dialect, Hakka Tingzhou dialect and Hakka Jianning dialect;

3. Wang Zhao Mandarin phonetic alphabet: the Bible is spelled with Wang Zhao Mandarin phonetic alphabet. There have been Bible translations of Tianjin dialect, Hankou dialect, Hebei dialect and Jiaodong dialect;

4. Mandarin phonetic alphabet: there have been Bible translations of Fuzhou dialect and Jiaodong dialect;

5. Braille script；

6. Quick script: that is, the Bible translation of early sketch;

7. Weituoma Pinyin book.

In terms of publication forms, there are many kinds of publications, such as Chinese character edition, Chinese character and foreign language comparison edition, Chinese character and Mandarin phonetic alphabet comparison edition, Chinese character and Wang Zhao Mandarin phonetic alphabet comparison edition, Chinese character and church Roman character comparison edition, church Roman character and Mandarin phonetic alphabet comparison edition, etc. As far as the editions are concerned, there are single volume edition, multi volume edition, the New Testament, the Old Testament, the New Testament with psalms, the new and Old Testament, etc., with a total number of more than 1000. Based on the American Bible Society, the British Bible Society and the Scottish Bible Society, which had the greatest influence in old China and published and sold various versions of the Bible, a total of 225 million copies were sold from 1814 to 1934; From 1814 to 1950, 279351752 copies were sold.(Chen Yugang,1992)
After the founding of new China, the Chinese Christian Church basically took the heheguan vernacular Version (later called hehehe vernacular version, hereinafter referred to as hehe version) as the Bible translation dedicated to the church, and no other Chinese classical Chinese or dialect versions of the Bible were published. As of December 2007, the Christian Church of China has printed and distributed 50 million copies of Hehe vernacular books. China has become one of the countries with the largest number of printed Bibles in the world.

== Writings and Work Records of Biblical Translators==
As the only classic of Christian religion, the meaning of the Bible is different. Since the Christian foreign missionaries came to China in the 19th century, they have been translating the Bible continuously, and published many documents and works at the same time. Most of these archives and works are the reports and introductions of Christian sects to publicize and introduce their own work achievements, which are limited to the publicity of their own sects without academic and serious research.

The earliest works related to the translation and recording of Bible translation were written by personnel and institutions related to Christian religion. The first documentary about the Chinese Bible translation is the Bible in China by Alexander Wylie, a missionary who once served as the director of the British Bible Society. This article records the earliest Bible translation in China, which is the work report of Alexander Wylie.

Among the records of missionaries on Bible translation, the Bible in China written by Marshall Broomhall, a missionary of the mainland church, is the most concentrated and representative. Hainbo is the director general of the headquarters of the mainland Association in London and is responsible for editing China's million, the most important publication of the mainland Association, for 20 years.

Another book about Bible translation is the Chinese versions of the Bible (1934) written by A. J. Garnier, a missionary of the British Baptist Church. His book is more often seen in its Chinese translation, which is compiled by George Milligan.

History of the spread of the New Testament (Guangzhou society, 1934). These two books are not long, about 100000 words. They describe the general situation of Bible translation from ancient times to now. They are basically the working records and introduction of Bible translation. The recording time is up to the three combined versions of the main translations of missionaries in 1919. The early Catholic translation, the Christian minority language translation in the late Qing Dynasty and the early Republic of China, and the Chinese dialect translation are too vague and too brief to cover, including the Chinese translation and the Catholic sigo translation. They can not be called academic research works. The Bible translation of missionaries is mostly missionary encouragement and publicity, which belongs to the missionary works of the church.(Yang Senfu,1968)

In modern Chinese history, foreign institutions or individuals have many publishing and sales institutions in China, among which the Bible has a certain nature of exclusive translation, monopoly and sales. The Chinese translation of the Bible is basically undertaken by the Bible Societies of various countries in China. Among the Foreign Bible Societies in China, the American Bible Society, the British Bible Society and the Scottish bible society are mainly responsible for the dissemination of the Chinese Bible, including the organization and arrangement of Bible translation, financial support, the formulation of translation principles, the selection and determination of translators, the publication and reprint of the Bible, the sales of the Bible, and almost all the leading work of Bible translation. The most detailed work on the history of the British bible society so far is a history of the British and Foreign Bible Society written by William Canton, which introduces the work of the British Bible Society in the 19th century. The more important work in recent years is the cheap Bibles: Nineteen Century Publishing and the British and Foreign Bible Society written by Leslie Howsam, but its history and content are still dominated by the 19th century. For the history of the British Bible Society in the first half of the 20th century, please refer to a history of the British and Foreign Bible Society, 1900-1954 written by James M. roe. As for the historical works of the American Bible Society, what is important is the centennial history of the American Bible Society written by Henry O. Dwight, which introduces the work progress of the American Bible Society around the world in the 19th century. Chinese Bible translation is only a small part of it. In the same year, translations of the scripts into the languages of China and her dependencies [10], written by John R. hykes, director general of the American Bible Society in China, specifically described the Bible translation work of the American Bible Society in China. These monographs introduced the missionary work of various Bible Societies in China, especially the printing and distribution of the Bible.(Chloe Starr,2008)

In the Chinese recorder edited by missionaries, there are scattered information about the translation and publication of various versions of Bible translation written by missionaries in different times, or missionaries' discussions on various affairs and research of Bible translation. Educational administration magazine is an English magazine sponsored by missionaries in China for more than 100 years.

== Catalogue of Biblical Editions==
In addition to the reports of the Bible guild and missionaries, there are some catalogues of Biblical translations that can be viewed as data. Alexander Wylie, a British missionary, has been acting for the British Bible Association since 1863. He catalogued all kinds of Christian books and periodicals published at that time and published the biographies and works of missionaries who came to China in 1867 （Memorials of Protestant Missionaries to the Chinese Given a List of Their Publications and Obituary Notices of the Deceased, with Copious Indexes） The book records the life stories, catalogues and abstracts of early missionaries in China, and is the most complete bibliography of religious translation in the period of the Republic of China. However, according to the author's comparative verification of the original Bible translations collected by the National Library, it is found that the catalogue misjudges some of the Bible translations, or some translations do not judge the translations, so it is necessary to judge them according to each library Up to now, the catalogue of Chinese versions of the Bible published abroad is more detailed than the collection, introduction and description of the collection information and records of the mainland edition catalogue.

== Academic Research: Western Part==
Thor strandenaes graduated from Uppsala University in Sweden in 1987. His doctoral thesis principles of Chinese Bible translation is the earliest doctoral thesis focusing on the Chinese Bible. He is particularly inclined to compare different Chinese versions of the Bible. From the perspective of translatology and Christian theological interpretation, he analyzes the translation principles of five Bible versions, including Morrison's version of Shen Wenli, the Commission's version of Shen Wenli, the vernacular hehe version, the Catholic SIKO Bible version and the modern Chinese version of Taiwan. He believes that Bible translation has strong inheritance and mutual influence, But at the same time, Catholicism and Christianity have formed their own translation style and vocabulary system. Shi Fulai is a priest, so his research especially emphasizes the theological factors and influence of Bible translation . Jost zetzsche graduated from the University of Hamburg, Germany, in 1999. His doctoral dissertation the Bible in China: the history of the union version or the cultivation of Bible missionary Bible translation in China is a masterpiece in recent years. From the perspective of Christian theological theory and church use, he also discussed the Bible and the combined version, which has the greatest influence, the largest circulation and is still used by the Christian Church, and came to the conclusion that the combined version is the greatest achievement of Bible translation. Both English Monographs discuss the attitude and evolution of missionaries towards Bible translation, the role of Bible translation in the spread of Christianity in China, the scale of Bible distribution, the evolution of Bible translation and sales institutions from the perspective of church position and theology. The paper has a certain historical overview of various early versions, especially the deep arts and science versions, but it does not involve the dialect Bible versions and ethnic minority Bible versions, nor does it discuss the significance and role of the Bible as a Christian classic. (Eugene A.Nida,1972)

This paper studies one of dozens of translations of the Bible - the translation of different stylistic versions of heheben, as well as the theological basis and theological disputes of the translated Heben. Both of these doctoral theses give full play to the author's expertise in Western mother tongue, and focus on one aspect with the archives of the Christian missionary church, including work reports and letters, work records and the archives of the Bible Association as the main data sources.

Including the discussion of individual translations or translators. Thor strantenaes's paper anonymous Bible translators: native language and the translation of the Bible into Chinese (1817-1917) discusses the role of Chinese people in Chinese Bible translation. Due to the cultural arrogance of missionaries, The contribution and role of Chinese scholars in Bible translation has been buried. Reading Christian scripts in China, edited by chole Starr, is a collection of multiple papers to explore the translation of the Chinese Bible in the 19th century and its impact on the final synthesizer and integration of the Bible.

== Academic Research: Chinese Part==
So far, the Chinese world has not carried out in-depth and systematic historical investigation and academic research on the Bible translation. Only in the history of Chinese Christianity, the history of modern Chinese printing and the history of modern Chinese translation can we see some brief introductions, such as Gu Changsheng's missionaries and modern China (page 16); Yang Senfu's history of Christianity in China (12 pages); A brief history of Christianity in China by Li kuanshu (5 pages); Wang Zhixin's outline of the history of Christianity in China (4 pages); Chen Yugang's historical manuscript of Chinese literary translation (5 pages).

The more in-depth discussions basically point to the theoretical discussion of Chinese Bible translation. The most important thing is the discussion on "term question", sometimes called "holy number problem". This problem involves how to use Chinese to call Hebrew "YHWH" and "Elohim", Greek "theos", Latin "Deus" or English "God", and how to translate theological names such as "Holy Spirit", "an - gel" or "baptism". How to translate holy names into Chinese is not only a linguistic and theological problem, but also involves the connotation of Chinese religious beliefs, but also involves how one language and culture is translated into another language and culture of heterogeneous paganism. This is a long-standing and controversial topic on translation in the history of Chinese Christian religion. Until today, there is still no final conclusion within Christianity. Zhao Weiben's "debate on the translation of the Chinese Bible: Shenhu? Dihu" is an early academic paper on the dispute over the translation of the Chinese Bible; Li Chi Chang, editor in chief, compiled more than 60 debates on the translation of "God" and "God" published by Chinese Christians in the communique of nations from 1877 to 1878. It pays close attention to the opinions and responses of Chinese Christians, It is a significant revision of the tendency of many works and historical materials to only pay attention to missionaries and forget the Chinese people. Zhao Xiaoyang's translation and introduction of local culture and foreign religions in regeneration: from the perspective of the Chinese translation of God and God discusses the fierce debate between Catholicism and Christianity on the "translation problem" for 300 years. Under the interpretation of Western religious ideas, the traditional Chinese words "God" and "God" have been gradually Christianized, lost the connotation of their original local religion, and regenerated into new words symbolizing western culture. This paper goes beyond the narrow theological scope of discussing the translation of names within the church in the past, and discusses this cultural problem from a broader perspective. Cheng Xiaojuan's doctoral thesis, discussion and acceptance of "God" in Chinese Bible translation, comprehensively examines the discussion of Western missionaries on the translation of "God" and the history of Chinese acceptance of "God", hoping to form a horizontal investigation of the complete cultural exchange system of "dissemination acceptance", Vertically, it shows their historical changes in different historical situations and cultural exchange stages.(Leslie Howsam,1991)

Cai Jintu's doctoral thesis, the orientation and problems of commissioned Chinese Bible translation, specially discusses one of many deep arts and science translations - commissioned translation, its translatological principles, translation activities, sales, assistance of Chinese assistants, etc., focusing on the theological theory of Bible translation, And the influence of these theological theories on Chinese Bible translation and the development of Christian Church. Ren Dongsheng's doctoral thesis, a study on the culture of Bible Chinese translation, discusses the thematic changes of Bible literature, history and theology from the perspective of translatology.

At present, the academic research on the Chinese version of the Bible is still insufficient. So far, only Ma min's mahiman, Rasha and the early Chinese translation of the Bible has achieved a high level of academic research results; Wu Yixiong's the dispute over translation names and the Chinese translation of the early Bible; Zhao Xiaoyang's research on the relationship between the two horse Bible versions and the daysun Bible versions, an analysis of the origin of the printed Bible base in the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom, Chiang Kai Shek and Bible translation during the war of resistance against Japan, and a historical overview of the Centennial Ministry of the American Chinese Bible Society. Based on the discovery of new materials in Chinese and English, these Chinese papers textual research and analyze the basic historical facts of the Bible translation and Foreign Bible Societies, and describe the work contents of Bible translation, personnel changes, Bible sales, version identification and textual research, disputes and focus during translation in each period. These research papers only involve the earliest translation of Christian missionaries or the Bible translation of Chiang Kai Shek, a famous political figure in modern history.(Hubert W.Spillett,1975)

== Conclusion==
But up to now, due to the differences and opposites between Catholicism and Christianity, there are differences and estrangements among many sects in Christianity; Under the influence of social and political ideology, academic circles have neglected and lacked this field intentionally or unintentionally in the past; The objective difficulties in the study of Chinese versions of the Bible, such as the vast majority of archival materials and various versions are kept abroad, and the majority of foreign materials; There is still no academic research monograph on the historical investigation of the whole Chinese translation of the Bible. The existing in-depth research on Chinese Bible translation is also limited to the most famous versions of the Bible in the history of Chinese Bible translation, such as the marsmian version, the Morrison version, the Guo Shili version, the commissioned version and so on. There is no dialect translation and minority language translation of the Bible, no Roman Bible translation of many churches, and no Chinese translation in the post missionary era. Special studies on the impact, response and reference of Chinese Bible translation on Chinese language, language reform, social culture, new literature and new words, the impact of Chinese Bible translation on the spread and development of Chinese Christian religion, the impact and response of Chinese Bible translation on Chinese traditional ideology and culture, and the impact and significance of Chinese Bible translation on the history of Chinese translation, It is even more rare to pay. The research on the translation and influence of the Bible is a blank spot that needs to be developed. It is worth us to devote ourselves to it and make a difference.(Henry O.Dwight,1916)

== References==

Marshall Broomhall, The Bible in China, London: British and Foreign Bible Society, 1934, p.2.

William Canton, A History of the British and Foreign Bible Society，London: John Murray, 1904, 1910.

Leslie Howsam, Cheap Bibles: Nineteenth-Century Publishing and the British and Foreign Bible Society,Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991.

Henry O. Dwight, The Centennial History of the American Bible Society, New York: Macmillan, 1916.

Hubert W. Spillett, A Catalogue of Scriptures in the Languages of China and the Republic of China, Hong Kong: British and Foreign Bible Society,1975.

Eugene A. Nida, The Book of A Thousand Tongues, New York: United Bible Societies, 1972.

Chloe Starr edit, Reading Christian Scriptures in China,London: T&T Clark, 2008.

Tony 汤因. 中国基督教圣经事业史料简编 A compendium of historical materials on the cause of Chinese Christian Bible [J] 协进 Xie Jin, 1953 (9): 48

Gu Changsheng 顾长声.传教士与近代中国 Missionaries and modern China [M] 上海：上海人民出版社 Shanghai: Shanghai People's publishing house,1991

Yang Senfu 杨森富.中国基督教史 History of Christianity in China [M] 台北：商务印书馆 Taipei: Commercial Press, 1968

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== 叶维杰 Medieval Arabic Translation Movement=
中世纪阿拉伯翻译运动
Ye Weijie 叶维杰 Hunan Normal University, China

== Abstract==
The Medieval Arabic Translation Movement(The Harakah al—Tarjamah) is also called the Translation Movement. It was a large-scale organized academic activity carried out by the Arab Empire in the Middle Ages to translate and introduce ancient Greek and Eastern scientific and cultural classics. The Abbasid Caliphate implemented a diversified and inclusive cultural policy, vigorously advocated and sponsored the translation of academic classics from ancient Greece, Rome, Persia, India and other countries into Arabic to absorb advanced cultural heritage. The Arabic translation movement preserved the natural sciences and humanities in ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and played an extremely important role in promoting the cultural revival of European political and cultural conditions in the late Middle Ages. The Hundred-Year Arab Translation Movement lasted for more than two hundred years, spanning the vast regions of Asia, Africa, and Europe, and blending ancient Eastern and Western cultures such as Persia, India, Greece, Rome, and Arabia. There are not many translation activities in the history of world civilization. Analyzing its causes, processes, results, and impacts is of great academic value for studying the phased development of human civilization and the commonality of human wisdom, and it is also of great help to deeply understand the Arab Islamic philosophy and culture.

== Key words==
Harakah al—Tarjamah, translation movement, Western culture, Islamic culture，Middle Ages

== 摘要 ==
中世纪的阿拉伯语翻译运动（The Harakah al-Tarjamah）也叫百年翻译运动。它是中世纪阿拉伯帝国为翻译和介绍古希腊和东方科学文化经典而进行的有组织的大型学术活动。阿拔斯王朝哈里发推行多元包容的文化政策，大力倡导和赞助将古希腊、罗马、波斯、印度等国的学术经典译成阿拉伯文，吸收先进的文化遗产。阿拉伯语翻译运动保存了古希腊罗马文化中的自然科学和人文学科，对中世纪晚期欧洲政治文化状况的文化复兴起到了极其重要的推动作用。阿拉伯百年翻译运动持续了两百多年，横跨亚非欧广大地区，融合了波斯、印度、希腊、罗马、阿拉伯等古老的东西方文化。世界文明史上的翻译活动并不多。分析其成因、过程、结果和影响，对于研究人类文明的阶段性发展和人类智慧的共性具有重要的学术价值，对于深入了解阿拉伯伊斯兰哲学和文化也有很大帮助。

== 关键词 ==
阿拉伯百年翻译运动，翻译运动，西方文化，伊斯兰文化，中世纪

== Introduction==
The Harakah al—Tarjamah is also called the Translation Movement. The Centennial Arab Translation Movement lasted for more than two hundred years. The content of translation involved cultural achievements such as ancient Greek and Roman culture, Persian Mesopotamian culture, and ancient Indian culture. It spanned three continents and five seas in space and was the most extensive in human history. One of the major events. The Arab translation movement in the middle of the eighth century to the end of the tenth century not only changed the backward state of the Arab nation, but also gave birth to a strong Arab-Islamic culture; and its document translation was extremely important to the Renaissance movement in the later political and cultural state of Europe.The Arab Empire in the Middle Ages carried out large-scale and organized academic activities that translated and introduced ancient Greek and Eastern scientific and cultural classics. The Abbasid Caliphate implemented a diversified and inclusive cultural policy, vigorously advocated and sponsored the translation of academic classics from ancient Greece, Rome, Persia, India and other countries into Arabic to absorb advanced cultural heritage. The Arabic translation movement preserved the natural sciences and humanities in ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and played an extremely important role in promoting the cultural revival of European political and cultural conditions in the late Middle Ages. The Hundred-Year Arab Translation Movement lasted for more than two hundred years, spanning the vast regions of Asia, Africa, and Europe, and blending ancient Eastern and Western cultures such as Persia, India, Greece, Rome, and Arabia. There are not many translation activities in the history of world civilization. Analyzing its causes, processes, results, and impacts is of great academic value for studying the phased development of human civilization and the commonality of human wisdom, and it is also of great help to deeply understand the Arab Islamic philosophy and culture.

The Arabic translation movement can be divided into three periods: the first period is from the middle and late 8th century to the late 9th century. Translation activities in this period were mainly carried out with the support of the famous Caliph Mansour and Harun Rashid. The translated books are mainly Persian works, and the content mostly revolves around astronomy and medicine. The second period was from the early 9th century to the middle and late 9th century. The Caliph Maimon strongly supported this matter and achieved the golden age of the 100-year translation movement. The content involved ancient Greek philosophy, natural sciences, etc.; the last period was from the middle and late 9th century to the early 10th century. During this period, the support of the Caliphate and the pace of translation declined, and a lot of work was retranslation and revision of previous translations. At this time, the translation movement has also entered its end. The century-old translation movement with a history of more than 200 years changed the backwardness of the Arab nation and gave birth to Arab-Islamic culture, which had a significant impact on Arab society. This movement promoted the exchange of various cultures while preserving classics and ancient books. Rongtong has added an important heritage to the world cultural treasure house, and has had a positive and valuable impact on the development of world culture. This article will give a more systematic introduction to the movement, divided into the following three parts: the reasons for the translation movement, the Baghdad Translation Center of the translation movement, and the influence of the translation movement.

== The Background and Cause of Translation Movement ==

During the Umayyad dynasty, Arab Muslims were fully aware of the importance of absorbing the highly developed spiritual culture of foreign nations. In order to adapt to the actual needs of society, Khalid bin Yazid organized a group of people who were proficient in Syriac, Greek or Persian scholars, focusing on the translation of ancient books in medicine and pharmacology and chemistry, and have conducted translation explorations in a broader academic field. The beginning of the Arabic translation movement and its subsequent 200-year glorious achievements are mainly due to the following four factors:

1.Geographical factors:

Since Mansour, the second caliph of the Abbasid dynasty, established its capital in Baghdad, the important position of Baghdad as the political, economic and cultural center of the dynasty has been highlighted. Baghdad is located in the two rivers basin of West Asia and is located in the main traffic arteries between the East and the West. Throughout the history of civilizations in the world, rivers and civilizations have accompanied each other. The superior geographical location has created good conditions for cultural exchanges, accelerated the circulation of classics from various countries, and provided large-scale translation activities. Provides a wealth of source text.

Damascus, the capital of the former Umayyad dynasty, was handed over to Muslim rule after several regime changes. Prior to this, Damascus was an important center of Greco-Roman culture, with Greek as the official language, while the new capital of the Abbasid dynasty, Baghdad, was close to Persia. Ctesiphon, the old capital of the Sassanid Dynasty, was influenced by Persian culture before Islamic cultural rule. Therefore, during the translation movement at that time, a considerable number of Persian translators participated in the translation, and a large number of Persian classics were translated into Arabic and retained . "The Persian influence set back the original life of the Arabians, and paved the way for a new era characterized by the development of science and academic research." By translating classic works of other ethnic groups, cultural exchanges between different ethnic groups can be realized. Translation Played an important role as a bridge. At the same time, the Persian aristocracy made great contributions to the establishment of the Abbasid dynasty and was quite influential in the regime. The caliph also urgently needed the support of this force to promote cultural integration and identity identification among different ethnic groups. Therefore, geopolitical factors are undoubtedly one of the important driving forces for the vigorous development of the Abbasid dynasty translation movement.

2.Religious factors:

In the early days of the Umayyad dynasty, the domestic political situation was basically stable, but there were still some political opponents and religious scholars dissatisfied with the rule. The influence of Christianity still exists. Islam, as a relatively young faith, has impacted on different religions and cultures. Make efforts to gain a firm foundation. In the early days of the rise of Islam, the spread of teachings could only be done through word of mouth, and academic interpretation was mainly based on the Koran. Except for Arabic and Islam, the early Muslims failed to import advanced culture or science and technology into the conquered areas, and only focused on consolidating the rule of Islam in the Arab region. The purpose of early translation activities was limited to promoting the dissemination of Islamic culture. For religious purposes, the original intent of religious works was greatly changed during the translation process. Although this practice can play a certain missionary role, it violates the basic principles of translation, fails to accurately convey the original information, and loses the inheritance significance of the original.

After the establishment of the Abbasid dynasty, the Islamization of the empire further deepened, and at the same time a batch of fresh religious and cultural blood was injected. The Quran is more tolerant towards foreign denominations such as Judaism and Christianity. Especially for Christians, the Quran calls them “the closest people to Muslims”. Under the guidance of this doctrine, “The Abbasid Empire has become an Islamic empire instead of a Umayyad-style “Arab Empire”. A large number of infidels and Muslims intermarried, reducing the ideological gap between various ethnic groups. Translator The religious structure of the group has been substantially adjusted. The converts filtered by Islamic ideology brought an active academic atmosphere and non-Islamic theological concepts, and multidisciplinary systems such as linguistics, literature, law, philosophy, and mathematics were gradually formed.

Islamic culture was further enriched in the Abbasid dynasty. The spirit of advocating knowledge and scholarship became the spiritual source of the translation movement during this period. The increasingly diversified inner religious spirit became the source of the translation movement, and promoted the translators of different religions. Translation behavior and multiple beliefs collide with each other, the scale of translation continues to expand, and the types and content of translations are also enriched by the tolerance of religious and cultural attitudes. The prosperity of the translation movement was promoted by many factors. At the religious and cultural level, the acceptance of various religious beliefs is a prerequisite for the vigorous development of the translation movement. If Muslims completely reject paganism and force other believers to convert to Islam, the participation of Christians or Jews in translation activities will be greatly reduced, the diversity of translator groups will be combated, and the perspective of translation research will inevitably be affected.

3.Science and technology factors:

In terms of science and technology, two factors have jointly promoted the development of translation, one is the foundation of early document translation, and the other is the introduction of papermaking.

The Prophet Muhammad said: “Learning is divided into two categories: religious learning and physical learning (medicine).” Translators of the Umayyad Dynasty followed this precept and performed sporadic translations of works on medicine, philosophy, and chemistry. , Pave the way for the emergence of the golden age of the translation movement in the later dynasties. "As for the natural sciences such as medicine, logic, and mathematics of the Islamic nation, it has been systematic from the beginning. Because partial research on it has already been carried out in Greece, India, Persia and other countries, and it has been sorted and recorded. It’s the stage of analysis and analysis. In the Abbasid era, these subjects were completely translated into Arabic without starting from scratch. Perhaps, when the writers of the paraphrasing subjects saw the rigorous system of natural science, they copied their practices. Some styles that they think are good have been added.” The scientific inquiry and translations of works in early Islam facilitated the prosperity of the translation movement, and Abbasid translators only needed to review the documents based on the collated documents. Or retranslation, which greatly improves the accuracy of translation.

The status of the development of emerging technologies in the Arab translation movement is undeniable, but technological development is equally important to the spread of early civilizations and is not unique to the Abbasid dynasty, so it cannot be used as a unique motivation for the emergence of large-scale translation activities in the Abbasid dynasty. However, the introduction of papermaking technology did make an indelible contribution to the cultural heritage of the empire. The first paper mill in the empire was located in Samarkand on the Silk Road in Central Asia. In the centuries before it was conquered by Islam, this city was already one of the most prosperous cities in the Persian Empire, and it was the academic center of Persia until the Middle Ages. The smooth flow of Eastern Commercial Road brought papermaking technology to Muslim countries. The introduction of papermaking has obvious influence on the translation movement. The Arabs replaced expensive parchment with relatively inexpensive paper, which made writing records and book circulation more convenient and expanded. People's demand for academic works has promoted the large-scale emergence of translation movement.

4.Translation ability factor：

Maimon, the seventh caliph of the Abbasid dynasty, established a "wisdom palace" on the basis of the Mansour Royal Library to recruit academic elites from all walks of life for translation work. The historian Yakubi once described the academic style in Baghdad: "Scholars in Baghdad have a higher education level, where experts are more knowledgeable in tradition, grammarians are more reliable in syntax... Logicians think more clearly Missionaries are also more eloquent.” Although the translators of this period were not true translators, they all had received strict philosophical and logical training. Some Syrian Christians specially returned to Greece to study in order to improve their language skills. They used Syriac as their mother tongue as a translation agency and played an important role in the translation movement. The translators in the Abbasid period built bridges between different languages and cultures with their outstanding professional ability, serious translation attitude and unlimited enthusiasm for science, which became another important driving force for the vigorous development of translation movement.

With the popularization of academic knowledge and the dissemination of various books, the scientific and cultural literacy of translators has also been comprehensively improved. The increase in knowledge reserves in astronomy, medicine, philosophy, etc. makes translation activities not only at the level of mechanical code switching. , But based on understanding and even proficiency in the meaning of the text, improving the level of translation in terms of translation quality and translation speed.

== Baghdad Translation Center ==

Baghdad Translation Center:

Before the Arab conquest, there was a tradition of studying ancient Greek cultural classics and translating them into Syriac. With the expansion of Islamic countries and the spread of religion, Arabic was popularized as an official language. At that time, there were many Syrians, Persians, Egyptians, Jews, Bebers, Spanish, Sicilians, and even Italians have become Muslims, and the Arabic language has been greatly popularized. During the reign of the Caliph dynasty, due to its rulers' enthusiasm for academic research and translation, under the impetus of the rulers, the Arab region in the Middle Ages became the center of science and translation.

Baghdad was the capital of the Abbasid Caliph dynasty. The rulers of the dynasty strongly supported the translation and paid the translators a very substantial compensation. With the support of the caliph ruler, a large number of Syrian, ancient Persian and Sanskrit texts were translated. At that time, they were most interested in medicine and philosophy. The choice of translation work text was not only political and cultural, but the personal interests of the current caliph and courtiers were also important factors. The Arab world attaches great importance to astronomy and calendar, mainly for the service of its religion. They used astronomy and calendar to accurately calculate the exact time of the five prayers, so that they could give the correct latitude and longitude coordinates facing the holy city of Mecca in any Islamic mosque for pilgrimage and prayer, and accurately calculated the time of fasting The exact number of days of the period. Therefore, many caliphs of the Abbasid dynasty paid great attention to the translation of astronomy and calendar classics. During the reign of the third-generation caliph Harun Al-Rashid (Harun Al-Rashid, said to be the prototype of the protagonist in the story of "The Thousand and One Nights"), the "Treasury of Knowledge" library was Established, it contains a large number of trophies of Greek literature and science obtained by defeating Byzantium. By the time of the fourth caliph Al-Mamun (reigned 813-833), Mamun was built in Baghdad in 830 AD The “House of Wisdom” (House of Wisdom), which is larger than the “Treasure House of Knowledge”, aims to translate the scientific and philosophical works of ancient Greece into Arabic. A large number of ancient Syriac, ancient Persian, and texts can be obtained here. In addition to translation, it is worth mentioning that during this period, many ancient Greek texts were translated into Arabic and preserved. In the 9th and 10th centuries AD, the city of Baghdad was the center of a vast translation project whose goal was to translate ancient Greek scientific and philosophical works into Arabic. This event had a profound impact on the development of science and philosophy in the entire Arab world, and directly brought about the dramatic changes in the culture and ideas of the region at that time. At that time, Hunayn Ibn Ishaq was in charge of the translation work. He and his more than 90 people translated a large number of Plato and Aristotle's works: Plato's Dialogues and "The Utopia", Aristotle's Logic Essays Set The Organon, including Categories, On Interpretation, Pior Analytics, Posterior Analytics, Topics, On Sophistical Refutations, The Metaphysics.

In addition to noting the translations of the original authors, the Arab scientists of this period also contained translational elements in their own works. Al-Razi (865-925), the author of the most important medicinal work at the time, was a student of Hunayn’s disciple. His most famous "Medical Integration" actually had a lot of content compiled, and the book collected All the medical knowledge of ancient Greece, India and the Middle East that was known at that time.

Alchemy also emerged in Arab countries during this period. It was initiated by the "mystic" Jabir Ibn Hayyan. He put forward a doctrine in his legacy writings that all things, especially metals, are based on mercury and Formed by the interaction of sulfur. The alchemy of China and Alexandria also had the seeds of this doctrine. Arab alchemists adopted the four-element theory of ancient Greece and imagined that by changing the amount of the elements that make up a metal, one metal can be transformed into another metal.

In the Arab world in the Middle Ages, like other ancient civilizations, encyclopedic scholars also appeared. The most representative one is Omar Khayyam (1048-1131). He was proficient in calendar reforms and algebraic studies, but his " Quartet" made him famous soon after him. His Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam is popular all over the world, and there have been hundreds of versions so far. His poems are recognized as the treasure of world literature and become the pride of ancient Persian literature.

During this period, Al-Khwarizmi (?-835) introduced Indian numbers and Indian algorithms to Arab countries, and later spread them to the world through Europe, which is what we now call "Arabic numbers".

The "Palace of Wisdom" established in 830 AD was the result of Arab absorbing the cultural wealth of China, India, Persia, and ancient Greece. A large number of translation activities continued until the decline of the empire in the 13th century. Translation has had a profound impact on the development of science and philosophy throughout the Arab world. For translators in Baghdad, the translation works play the role of raw materials, and the translated text is not the goal, but the catalyst that stimulates the original ideas and products of knowledge. Therefore, translators regard translation as a creative process, and the translation is often accompanied by comments, summaries or explanatory notes to make the original text easier to understand. Translators are often experts in the field of their translation. In translation, they not only exert their own understanding and comprehensive ability, but also practice their own creativity. A new ideological system was established with the help of translation and became the basis of Arab-Muslim culture. In this context, the prosperous Arab astronomy took the lead in blooming flowers from here, forming the so-called "Baghdad School" of later generations. The works of Alaba during this period were translated into Latin by later European academic circles, which in turn influenced the entire Western civilization.

== The Influence of the Arabic Translation Movement ==

The Influence of the Translation Movement

The Abbasid dynasty was the golden age of the Arab translation movement. The academic research and cultural activities carried out on the basis of translation completely changed the early material and spiritual scarcity of the Arab nation, promoted the development of natural sciences in the Middle Ages, and gave birth to Arab- Islamic culture.

1.Promotion of the development of natural sciences:

In the golden age of the translation movement of the Abbasid dynasty, a large number of natural science and medical works from Persia and Greece were translated into Arabic. Translators learn astronomy and geography in the translation process, digest the source text and perform creative translation, use Arabic to annotate and explain the unclear or obscure meanings of the original text, and then use the target language that is easy for Muslims to output, which enhances The universality of the text promoted the popularization of Muslim science and culture. "In the eighty years after the establishment of the Abbasid dynasty, the cultural essence of the above-mentioned peoples has been recorded in Arabic. I didn’t know anything about arithmetic, geometry, medicine and other terms, and I knew Aristotle’s logic. Arabs who have never heard of philosophy can use Arabic to express Euclid’s most refined theories, express the law of sines in Indian mathematics, and express Aristotle’s Materialism, Ptolemy’s principles of astronomy, Galen’s medicine, Bizley’s motto, and the politics of the Persian king.” By studying translations, the Arabs built an Islamic medical system on the basis of native medicine. From theory to clinical practice, it has corrected and made up for the medical gap before the Abbasid dynasty. During the Abbasid period, medical achievements have been fruitful and have attracted worldwide attention. At the same time, research in the fields of pharmacology, botany, mathematics, and physics has gradually deepened, and many authoritative works have been published, which have made inestimable contributions to the development of modern science in China, the Arab world, and Europe, and even the development of human civilization. contribute.

Whether it is for the caliph’s personal preferences or serving in religious ceremonies, the translation of astrological and astronomical works has promoted the development of modern Arab science and technology. Some translators became astronomers or scientists by translating classics, thus realizing the transformation of their identities. After reading the translated works, many Arabs developed a keen interest in astronomy and mathematics, and then continued to translate. The main works of Euclid and Ptolemy were also translated into Arabic during this period. The translation of classics and scientific development promoted each other, and academic atmosphere became popular for a time.

2.The formation of Arab-Islamic culture:

While the natural sciences are developing vigorously, from the perspective of ideological and cultural analysis, the translation movement gave birth to Arab-Islamic culture. With the expansion of the Abbasid Empire, Islamic civilization was also brought to the vast conquered areas. Islam in the Umayyad period only existed as a foreign religion in the conquered areas. Christianity still has a profound influence there, and the beliefs of residents have not changed much. With the influence of various factors such as intermarriage and political dependence, the Islamization of the Arab empire has gradually advanced in the ruled areas and merged with the local culture into a splendid and complex Arab-Islamic culture. "After the 7th century, Islamic culture rose to become the mainstream culture of the Mediterranean. The Arab Empire became an important center of world culture at that time, and it radiated strongly outward."

The unification of language helps resolve ideological contradictions and promote national cultural identity. During the translation movement, the further popularization of Arabic became the official language of the empire, the civilization of neighboring countries gradually declined, and the status of Arab-Islamic culture gradually took shape. Without the prosperity of the Abbasid translation movement, there would be no new cultural construction of Islamic civilization. Since then, Arab-Islamic culture has shined in Spain. During the Arab rule of the Iberian Peninsula, it had a significant impact on the formation of Spanish national culture and language, and it also left a deep Arab imprint in the formation of European civilization. Although the Arab Empire fell apart due to religious and political struggles, the Arab-Islamic civilization left behind by the translation movement is still shining.

3.Having Promoted the Renaissance in Europe:

In the history of modern science, the Western Middle Ages has been given the image of a "dark age". In the Middle Ages from 500 to 1500 AD, because European countries pursued a religious theology and idealistic view of nature, the priests of the Roman Church only knew that they adhered to the dogma of their church. Religion seriously hindered the development of science. Therefore, Western science was here. The stage of development is unusually slow. The Christian churches in the West had brutally attacked the ancient Greek heritage and regarded this as a heritage related to idolatry that was harmful to the Christian faith. Christians were forbidden to learn more. At that time, the writings of most Greek philosophers and writers were despised. . The Byzantine emperor Constantine even closed the philosophical school in Athens in 529 AD, and this hostile attitude towards Greek heritage continued for centuries. Muslim scholars saved the Greek heritage by studying and in-depth annotations of the writings of Aristotle, Gran, and Ptolemy. It was through the labor of these Muslim scholars that the European countries that were shrouded in the dark age at that time realized their true and forgotten traditions of Greek science and philosophy. It is precisely because of the Arab world's translation of ancient Greek and Roman scientific and philosophical works that the natural and human sciences in ancient Greek and Roman cultures were preserved, so that the translation of Arabic documents in Europe in the late Middle Ages promoted European politics In this regard, the cultural revival is indispensable for the contribution of the Arab Translation Movement.

== Conclusion==

The Abbasid dynasty was the second hereditary dynasty of the Arab Empire, which lasted for more than five hundred years. The translation movement that flourished in this era pushed Arab-Islamic culture to its peak under the multiple combined forces. Although the power of the Arab empire in the second half of the 9th century was declining and the Caliphate came to an end, its cultural influence has never diminished. With the advancement of international cultural exchanges between countries, the Arab translation movement still has important practical significance:

First of all, cultural exchanges between countries in the world are becoming more and more frequent. Translation disciplines are no longer limited to the language field. Interdisciplinary translation has become a future trend. It is a new type of challenge;

secondly, a good academic environment is a prerequisite for promoting knowledge progress and achieving academic innovation. During the Abbasid dynasty, translation activities were organized and carried out on a large scale under the call of the state, focusing on and rewarding academic activities, and setting up academic institutions. The academic atmosphere of the entire Baghdad city was strong, and the natural sciences and social sciences had been developed by leaps and bounds. This provides a reference for the further construction of the academic environment of other countries.

Furthermore, the development of science and technology has closely linked the countries of the world, and the collision of multiculturalism has become the theme of the development of civilization in the world today. The reason for the success of the Arab translation movement is that Muslims' tolerance towards other religions and foreign cultures is a crucial part. This is also the main reason why Arab-Islamic culture has absorbed the millennium culture of ancient Greece and Rome in a century. In summary, the Abbasid dynasty’s open and inclusive attitude towards academic activities led the Arab translation movement into a golden age. The vigorous development of the translation movement during this period promoted the progress of the natural sciences of the Arab Empire, and laid a solid academic foundation for the early inheritance of science and culture, as well as the exchanges and mutual learning between Eastern and Western civilizations. Despite the decline of the Arab empire, the characteristics of Arab-Islamic culture will continue in new ways. In the contemporary era, the Abbasid dynasty translation movement provides the world with a deeper historical perspective, and provides a useful reference for the training of translators and cultural exchanges in various countries around the world.

Although the vigorous Arab translation movement for a century has been obliterated in the long river of history, the impact of the Arab-Islamic culture produced is far-reaching. Throughout the long history, one can still hear the voices of many Muslims and non-Muslim scholars struggling to translate manuscripts in the "Wisdom Hall", as well as their clamor for truth and academic culture; you can still hear the Arab Muslims in "for Allah" Under the slogan of "War", the screams of expansion riding on a war horse; I can still imagine the amazing scenes of Arab merchants traveling thousands of miles and sailing merchant ships to China and Scandinavia. Under the influence of the strong Arab-Islamic culture, the people of the Arab empire have discarded national and racial differences and formed a spirit of "Muslim brothers and sisters" psychologically. This strong culture and common psychological cognition give Arab-Islamic culture a tenacious vitality, and it still arouses echoes from time to time in Arab countries and the Islamic world.

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= Brief history of French translation =
李怡 Li Yi ,Hunan Normal University ,China
== Abstract==
The purpose of this article is to make a brief introduction to the translation history of France. The history of French translation began in the Middle Ages: with the development of Christianity and nationalism, the royal family hired translators to translate the Bible. The Renaissance in the 16th century, as well as economic and educational development, increased the demand for reading and writing, thus promoting the development of translation, most of the translated works are classical works. Then two religious films appeared in France: Jansenists and Jesuit, which had a great influence on the translation schools of that time. During the Enlightenment in the 18th century, France was deeply influenced by Britain, so most of the works in this period were British progressive thoughts and literature. The Industrial Revolution in the second half of the 18th century increased French scientific and technological translation. With the progress of the French Revolution, French translators are more inclined to the economic and political and judicial fields. After the Second World War, the translation industry in France recovered and developed vigorously. France even set up ESIT（École Supérieure d'Interprètes et de Traducteurs）to train senior translators. In the 20th century, there appeared many translation theorists in France, which promoted the professionalization of translation.
== Key words==
Renaissance, French translation, contemporary, French Revolution
== Introduction==
As a developed country in the west, France has a very long translation history. Translators and translation theories emerge in endlessly, which can not be ignored in the history of translation. At the same time, with the development of globalization, translation theories in various countries learn from and integrate with each other. Among them, French translation theory also plays a very important role. Therefore, it is necessary to comb the history of French translation and study the translators of relevant times and their relevant theories.
==1.Medieval French translation based on Bible Translation==
In the middle ages, translation in various countries was deeply influenced by religion, especially the translation of the Bible, which greatly promoted the development of translation. In France, the royal family specially hired translators to translate various Latin and Greek works for the imperial court. The most prominent court interpreter was Nicholas Oresme of the Charles V Dynasty. Aristotle's works translated by him in 1377 had a great impact on the French translation and philosophy circles at that time. Jean de Vigne translated the Latin Bible in French in 1340. In addition, Jean de malkaraume, J argyropylos and others translated the works of Virgil, Ovid, Aristotle, Plato and contemporary writers at the same time.
==2.Renaissance: the development of French translation==
The Renaissance is the development period of French translation theory. The main representatives are Dolet and Jacques Amyot, especially the former. In the 16th century, there was an upsurge of translation in France. During this period, the focus of translation shifted from religious translation such as the Bible to classical literature translation. Religious translation abides by the translation principle of "word to word" . Its purpose is to follow the will of God and avoid blasphemy. This is irrefutable, so there are not many translation theories to speak of. However, as a new genre, the translation of literary works is different from the previous religious translation. Translators face many new problems, so translation theory came into being. Dolet and amyot are the most prominent representatives of translation theory in this period. They are both translators and translation theorists, and the latter wins especially by translation. Both their translation theories come from translation practice, so they are persuasive. Dolet is famous for his "five principles of translation". "Five principles of translation" comes from his paper on how to translate well published in 1540 ,La manière de bien traduire d’une langue à l’autre. 1. the translator must fully understand the content of the translated work; 2.The translator must be familiar with the target language and the target language; 3.The translator must avoid word by word translation; 4.The translator must adopt the popular language form; 5.The translator must select words and adjust word order to make the translation produce the effect of appropriate tone. (Tan Zaixi,2004:71)These five principles involve the criterion of "faithfulness" in translation, the translator's bilingual ability, translation methods, style and style of translation. Amyot is one of the greatest translators in the history of French translation. He is known as the "king of translation". His translation has had a great impact on that time and future generations. He follows two principles in Translation: 1. The translator must understand the original text and make great efforts in the translation of content; 2.The translation must be simple and natural without any decoration. The first involves the standard of faithfulness in translation, and the second involves the style of translation. These two principles are similar to the first and fifth of Dolet's five translation principles.

==3.The 17th century: the climax of French translation and various translation schools==
After the Renaissance, classicism deeply influenced France. In the translation circle at that time, people were engaged in the translation of classical works on a large scale. Translation has launched a magnificent "dispute between ancient and modern" around the translation methods of classical works. Some translators pay more attention to the past than the present: they pay attention to the imitation of words with sentences, and praise the so-called accurate translation method. Some translators prefer to use the opposite translation method.
In the 17th century, the most famous French translator was Perrot d’Ablancourt,, His translation is sophisticated and elegant, both meaningful and beautiful, and easy to understand. There are no words that need to be explained in order to clarify the meaning in the translation, and there are no annoying cliches. Therefore, he has a great reputation for a long time. His characteristic is to take an original work and grasp the main idea. No matter what the original style is, as long as the translation is literary and readable and can make contemporary readers love and welcome, he will do whatever he can to add or delete the content at any cost, and modify it if he can, regardless of the accuracy of the translation. At that time, this literary and beautiful translation method attracted many followers, but it was also criticized by many people as "beautiful but unfaithful".By the end of the 17th century, those who advocated free translation were overwhelmingly in favor, while those who really advocated accurate translation were few and far between. The earliest theorist to advocate accurate translation was Bachet de Méziriac in the mid-17th century. In December 1635, he published an essay entitled "on translation" at the French academy, stating that translators must observe three principles :1.do not stuff the original work with personal goods; 2.The original work shall not be abridged; 3.No alteration may be made detrimental to the original intention.
As one of the most influential translators in France in the 17th century, Daniel Huet, worshipped classical literature and clearly advocated accurate translation. He criticized both post-modern translators and unfaithful translators abranguel. He believes that the best translation method is: the translator first closely follows the original author's meaning; Secondly, if possible, stick to his words; Finally, try to reproduce his character as much as possible; The translator must carefully study the character of the original author, not delete, weaken, add and expand, and faithfully make it complete as the original. His translation principles are: the only goal of translation is to be accurate. Only by accurately imitating the original in language can it be possible to accurately convey the original author's meaning; The translator has no right to choose words or change word order arbitrarily, because "Deviation" from the original text will lead to deviation from the original meaning. His translation theory has been praised by many people, but due to the lack of practice, his theory is not attractive to translators.
In the 17th century, there were also two representatives from inaccurate translation to accurate translation,François Maucroix and Jacques de Tourreil.
François Maucroix is regarded by contemporary and later critics as one of the most outstanding French translators in the 17th century and the first person to translate demesne in the 17th century. In addition to demesne, he also translated the works of Plato and others. Maucroix received the education of the Jesuit Church in his early years, was greatly influenced by the Jesuit Church, loved debating literature, and paid attention to ingenious expression and beautiful language style.
His early translations were inaccurate in content, style or written expression. He liked to modernize ancient terms and expressions. In 1685, his style changed, and his translation became more accurate, which seemed to have completely corrected the defects of procrastination and weakness in his early translation. The reason can be seen from his letters with Boileau in the last decade of the 17th century. He regarded Boileau not only as the most important representative of classical literature, but also as an authority on translation theory. Therefore, he always sent the translation to Boileau for revision. Boileau read the manuscript carefully, criticized some paragraphs and put forward better translation methods. In his reply, Maucroix said that Poirot's criticism of some of his inaccurate translations was pertinent, and his opinions on the revision were also very good. He admitted that the inaccurate translation was a mistake and must be completely corrected. He finally realized that translators must adhere to the principle of accurate translation if they want to become real classicists.
Jacques de Tourreil also experienced a change from inaccurate translation to accurate translation, which is reflected in his translation of three different versions of Demosthenes. In 1691, he published his first translation, which was influenced by the education of the Jesuit and paid attention to elegant style rather than accurate content. Tourreil processed the original work in the most ingenious way to modernize the ancients. After the translation was published, it was immediately severely criticized by Racine. After being criticized, Tourreil published a revised version in 1710, but the revised version actually only made detailed changes to the original translation, and the guiding principle of translation remains unchanged, that is, we must "make the characteristics of the original work conform to the characteristics of our nation". The new translation has received various comments. On the one hand, the ancient school refers to Tourreil 's attempt to impose new ideas on Demosthenes, believing that he not only did not beautify the original work, but distorted and vilified the original work. On the other hand, the present school believes that Tourreil's unfaithful translation of the original is better than the original, which is worth applauding. Tourreil himself is an ancient school. Naturally, he doesn't appreciate the present school's praise and thinks that this praise is "the most severe criticism to the translator". After that, he revised the translation for the third time, which is very different from the first two versions. It was not only a rare and accurate translation at that time, but also extremely beautiful. The translator translates in strict accordance with the original work, neither adding or subtracting nor making changes. By this time Tourreil had fundamentally changed his point of view.
Discussing the history of French translation from the 17th century to the 18th century is bound to involve the influence of Jesuit and Jansenists. The main reason is that the people engaged in education at that time were members of these two schools. They had direct or indirect contact with each translation school through their own translation practice and teaching.
The Jesuit believes that classical literature is worth studying and learning only in the aspect that it provides moral education or guides people how to learn eloquence. The excavation of classical works is not because their contents are of great value, but because of their beautiful forms. Teachers believe that the purpose of teaching is not so much to enable students to obtain substantive knowledge as to enable them to obtain formal learning identity.
The works translated by Jesuit teachers or students generally have an obvious sign, that is, they do not pay much attention to the spiritual essence of the original work, but only pay attention to the expression of the original thought and the beauty of the translation style. In order to achieve this, translators often sacrifice the content, even misinterpret the original meaning, and religiously turn classical literary works. Therefore, the origin of inaccurate translation in the 17th century is often influenced by Jesuit thought.
Jansenists is the second school that directly or indirectly affects translation principles. They believe that once students can read and write, they should read these translations in order to obtain basic knowledge about the original author and facilitate more and better reading of the original works in the future. In the early days, the views of the janssenian translators and the Jesuit translators were basically the same. Later, the translators of Jansenists believed that the practice of style for style in translation was also dangerous. However, towards the middle of the 17th century, their views changed and they believed that the style of ancient Greek and Latin writers, especially the style of ancient Greek writers, was worth learning. They really appreciate classical works more than the Jesuits. They admit that the language style of the ancients is superior to that of the present, but the present enjoys more inspiration from God, so the present surpasses the ancients in terms of thought and morality. In this way, no matter from which perspective, their views are completely consistent with those of ancient school. But the translation of Jansenists is far less elegant and beautiful than that of the Jesuits.
==4.The decline of French translation in the 18th century and the translator Charles Batteux==
In the 18th century, France was not as powerful as in the 16th and 17th centuries, nor was it culturally complacent. So she began to look at other countries' literature, first of all England. For example, the novels of the contemporary British sentimentalist writer Richard Were translated into French, which had a great influence on the development of French sentimentalist literature. In particular, the Chinese culture, which had been introduced to Europe for a long time, became more active in France in the 18th century. Although the number of translations is large, the quality is often not high.
Charles Batteux was one of the most important translators in France in the 18th century. He was one of the most influential literary and translation theorists in France and the whole Europe in the 18th century. He edited and published a variety of translation books, translated aristoteles, Horace and many other classical works of ancient Greece and Rome, wrote Principes de Litterature, Cours de Belles-Lettres and other works. Batteux elaborated his thoughts and views on translation in The Principles of Treatise. His original views and excellent exposition made this book an important milestone in the development of translation theory in the 18th century.
The fifth part of Principes de Litterature deals with translation problems.The theory of Charles Batteux obviously has the characteristics of philosophers, linguists, philology and translation. In other words, Charles Batteux discusses the principles of translation mainly from the perspective of general linguistic skills, rather than literary creation. He proposed the following 12 rules for dealing with word order in translation: 1. We must not alter the order of what the original says, either as fact or inference. 2. We should also preserve the order of ideas in the original text. 3. No matter how long the original sentence is, it should be kept intact in the translation, for a sentence is a thought in which the different elements are related to each other, and their correlation constitutes a kind of harmony. 4.All the conjunctions in the original text should be preserved. It is these conjunctions, so to speak, that hold the sentence elements together. 5. All adverbs should be placed either before or after the verb, depending on the harmony and momentum of the sentence. 6.Symmetrical sentences should be translated into symmetrical sentences. 7. Colorful ideas should be expressed in as much space as possible in the translation so as to maintain the same brilliance. 8. Rhetorical devices and forms of speech used to express ideas must be preserved in the translation. 9. We must translate short and pithy sayings that people like, or translate them into words that are natural and can be used as proverbs. 10. Interpretation is incorrect and incomplete because it is no longer a translation but a commentary. However, if there is no other way to convey the meaning of the original text, the translator has no choice but to use interpretation. 11. For the sake of meaning, we must abandon all forms of expression in order to make ourselves intelligible; Abandon emotion in exchange for a lively translation; Give up harmony for the pleasure of translation. 12. The idea of the original text can be expressed in different forms, combined or broken up by the words used to express it, and expressed by verbs, adjectives, nouns and adverbs, as long as its essence remains unchanged（Tan Zaixi,2004:98）.

==5.The revival of French translation in the 19th century and its rich translators==
Another high tide of French translation came in the 19th century, when a large number of English, German, Italian, Spanish and Latin literary works were translated, such as Shakespeare, Milton, Byron, Shelley in England, Goethe and Schiller in Germany, Dante in Italy, and Spanish folk songs. The most prominent remains the translation of Shakespeare's works. If the 18th century was Shakespeare's Silver age in France, the 19th was the golden age. In the 19th century, people not only worshiped Shakespeare's works, but also worshipped him, and Shakespeare fever spread throughout France. From 1800 to 1910, at least eight different translations of Shakespeare's complete works were produced in France, of which francois-Victor Hugo is the best. Hugo's father was Victor Hugo, a great writer. With Hugo's assistance and cooperation, the complete works of Shakespeare were translated between 1859 and 1867. This translation has faithfully retained the unique rhythm of the play, so it has been praised by critics as the second milestone in the history of French translation of Shakespeare's plays, even more important than Letourne's famous translation in the late 18th century.
Famous French translators in the 19th century included Francoise-René de Chateaubriand, Gérard de Nerval, and Charles Baudelaire. Chateaubriand is another epoch-making translator in France after Amio. His translation is faithful and beautiful. His literal translation of Milton's Paradise Lost is one of the outstanding French translations with its melodious and poetic tone. Nerval is best known for his translation of Goethe's Faust in prose style. In 1830 Goethe saw Nerval's translation and praised it as better than his original. Baudelaire, another famous poet of this period, was one of the earliest French translators of American literature and the first translator of Allan Poe. For 13 years from 1852 to 1865, he wrote, translated and commented on the complete works of Allan Poe. Baudelaire found what he was pursuing in Allan Poe's works, and believed that he and the author were in the same spirit, so that the translation could be in touch with the author. The translation was smooth and natural, just like the French creation, and was listed as an excellent classic of French prose.
==6.The specialization of French translation in the 20th century and the maturity of translation theory==
The 20th century has been the heyday of French translation theory. The characteristics of French translation in this period are: since the end of the Second World War, due to practical needs, commercial, diplomatic, scientific and technological aspects of the translation boom(Chen Shunyi,2014:6), its momentum even more than literary translation, thus forming a major content of the development of modern western translation; The study of translation theory is unprecedented and has produced translation theorists who have an important influence on the history of translation in the world. Before the First World War, the two countries used the language of power in business transactions, and French, which was considered the language of diplomacy at international conferences and other diplomatic occasions, did not have much problem in translation. However, after the end of the First World War, French lost its dominance, and English rose to take the lead with French, forming a situation in which French and English were used together. The Paris Peace Conference of 1919 was the beginning of this situation. Later, the European Union has 24 official languages, which means that translation has become an indispensable part of daily work, whether it is communication between countries in other regions or between western countries. With the increase of cooperation between countries, the need for translators is increasing. To meet this need, a number of schools specializing in training translators have been set up. One of the most prominent is ESIT（École Supérieure d'Interprètes et de Traducteurs）.
ESIT was founded in 1957, set up the department of Oral translation and pen translation, initially only opened several European languages, since 1972 added Chinese, now a total of English, Chinese, Russian, Arabic, French, German, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, Danish, Swedish, Icelandic and other languages translation courses. Later, on the basis of the original two departments, the School added a department of Translation Studies, specializing in the study of language and translation theory, with the right to confer doctoral degrees. After graduation, most of the students apply for translation departments of international institutions, and some graduates apply for the work license of free translators to relevant institutions of various countries in order to work freely and not apply for the work license of free translators to international institutions. Over the years, ESIT has trained a number of senior translators for the foreign affairs departments of the United Nations, the European Community (EU) and western countries.
Another characteristic of modern French translation is that French translators are organized in large numbers, setting up various translation associations and establishing various translation publications. Each association has its own purpose and purpose to carry out its work effectively. There are two major translation associations in France: the Association of French Translators and the Association of French Literary Translators. The Association of French Literary Translators was founded in 1973 as a splinter from the Association of Translators. Its entry requirements are the most stringent of any of its kind. Only highly qualified translators are eligible to join. Applicants must have at least one translation, which is carefully reviewed against the original work by a special selection committee. The aims of the association are :1.to improve the quality of French literature and literary translation publications; 2.To protect the rights and interests of members in respect of copyright, remuneration and working conditions of translated works; 3.Do not participate in any political activities. Since its establishment, the association has held many lectures and lectures, and its members have published many articles on translation in such authoritative publications as le Monde and New Literature. Through this series of business activities, it has become the most distinctive and vocal translation organization in France.
In the first half of the 20th century, the French translation theorist J.Marouzeau is worth a book. He is a professor at the University of Paris and editor in chief of Année Philologique. In 1931, he published a pamphlet called La Traduction du Latin. The theory is as follows:1.Translation is, first of all, a skill. Maruzzo does not deny that translation is an art and a science, and that it is more of a skill. To master it, we mainly rely on rich practical experience, solid language knowledge and flexible translation methods. 2.In order to reach as many readers as possible, the translator's primary task, like linguists, educators and exegetists, is to reveal to the reader what the source text is, not what it covers. 3.The purpose of using a dictionary is not to translate, but to understand. It is a puzzling view, but it is not hard to discern the truth in it. He points out that translators must learn to use dictionaries, but must first understand what problems they are using them to solve. Latin, for example, is very different from French, he said. Latin words are not related to each other, and there is no strict word order, which must be added to a French translation to make the translation smooth. Dictionaries don't help in this respect. They define a particular word in inverse proportion to its simplicity, thus leaving the translator in a difficult position to choose between many different translations. Therefore, the main purpose of using a dictionary is not to find ready-made words, but to understand the meaning of the original text, to explain the text of the original text, and then produce a translation on this basis. At the same time, Marouzeau points out that words from different sources must be interpreted differently. 4.Translation is not guesswork. This is especially important. When encountering difficulties, the translator must carefully consider and avoid any "preconceived ideas", because in translation, the first thought of meaning or expression is often not the most correct or best. 5.Translation must be in living language. This was a popular idea in England in the 17th and 18th centuries. Marouzeau said that to translate Latin into French, if you need to introduce an old expression, you have to turn to a living language so that the translation is alive. That is to say, the translator must ask: if the original author were alive today and writing in French, how would he express the same thing? But Marouzeau also points out that this is not a generalization, and that for some passages, especially those of Ovid, "a bit of antiquity is most appropriate in French translation".
The following is an introduction to Georges Mounin, a famous French translation theorist in the second half of the 20th century. He devoted his life to the teaching and research of linguistics and translation theory with outstanding achievements. He is regarded as the founder and most important representative of linguistic theory in contemporary French translation studies. Major theoretical works include Le belles infidèles , Les problèmes théorique de la traduction, La machine à traduire: Histoire des problèmes linguistiques, Linguistique et traduction, Semiotic praxis, etc. Among them, Les problèmes théorique de la traduction is the most praised by contemporary Western translation theorists. As mentioned above, this book uses the basic theories and methods of modern linguistics to explain translation, and sets up the first clear-cut flag of linguistic school in the field of Translation studies in France.
The core idea of Mounin 's book is that he thinks translation belongs to linguistics, so it should be studied, understood and explained by means of modern linguistics. To establish an effective translation theory, it has to for translation and the translation of basic problems related to make a scientific understanding of these problems include the nature of translation, translation and the meaning of vocabulary, grammatical structure, the relationship between translation and the objective world, the world's image), the relationship between translation and language universals and language features, the relationship between the processing of language features in translation, and so on. Mounin 's discussion of translation theory revolves around these questions.
What exactly is a translation? What kind of discipline should translation studies belong to and what kind of methods should be adopted? And so on. Such problems have always been the most concerned by translation researchers but have not been properly explained. Mounin believes that translation is a special and universal language activity, which naturally belongs to the scope of linguistics research, and the research results of language science can be applied to the study of translation problems. Mounin admit that the translation of poetry, the literature such as drama, movies, many factors other than language and paralanguage does play an important role, but the basis of translation activity is mainly to the original and the translation of linguistic analysis, and applied linguistics is more than any other skilled experience can provide accurate and reliable. Of course, from another point of view, especially from the perspective of the development of translation studies as an independent discipline since the 1980s, the practice of classifying translation studies as linguistics has been outdated. However, even if translatology is regarded as an independent discipline, its independence is only relative. Since translation (interlingual and intralingual translation) necessarily involves language, translation studies should not and cannot be completely free from the influence of linguistics at any time. In this sense, Mounin's view of linguistic translation has always been positive.
Since the 1970s and 1980s, the interpretive school represented by Seleskovitch or the Paris School has emerged in the field of Translation studies in France and become the most remarkable and French characteristic in the post-modern period, thus forming the second major feature of the development of contemporary French translation theory. It should be said that this school does not negate the basic idea of the school of linguistics to study linguistic phenomena, but only opposes the pure linguistic orientation of the school of linguistics and focuses on the research method of form. Interpretive theory holds that translation is a linguistic act, but it requires the participation of extralinguistic knowledge. Whether it is diachronic linguistics in the 19th century, synchronic descriptive linguistics and contrastive structural linguistics in the 20th century, or the later transformational generative grammar theory, it ignores the pragmatic context as the main component of language communication, so it cannot reasonably explain translation problems. Based on practice, the theory of interpretation studies translation as a linguistic act, and interprets and conveys the meaning of language from linguistic factors, cultural factors, and extralinguistic factors, so as to give a scientific and reasonable explanation to the reality of translation.
An important feature of interpretive translation theory is to reveal the essence of translation as communicative behavior from practice. Interpretivism holds that translation is a kind of linguistic act, which, like language use, must be supported by non-linguistic knowledge. However, as an act, the object of translation is not language, but meaning, which is the communicative meaning of the text. The output of meaning requires the combination of nonverbal thoughts and signs, and the reception of meaning requires the conscious behavior of the addressee. The arrangement of words is only a means of meaning formation for the originator of words. The understanding and grasp of meaning need to get rid of the original language form. The acquisition of meaning is instantaneous, not staged. Meaning is not the sum of words, but an organic whole, and the comprehension of meaning is completed at the level of discourse.
According to the interpretive theory, language and thought are separated in the translation of translators. Language and thought are not exactly the same thing, but there is a constant two-way communication between them. Thought waves can be transformed into language, and language can be transformed into thought waves. Human knowledge and experience do not reside in the brain in the form of words.
Interpretive theory also holds that understanding requires the participation of cognitive knowledge; The process of comprehension is the process of interpretation. Interpretation is the prerequisite of translation, and translation cannot be carried out without interpretation. Translation, on the other hand, is interpretation. Interpretive translation is a translation of meaning equivalence, which is established between texts. If a translation is to be successful, it is necessary to seek the overall meaning equivalence between the source text and the target text, and the meaning equivalence needs to achieve cognitive and emotional equivalence. Translators use their own abilities to organically combine the cognitive content and emotional content of the source text into an indivisible whole, and then successfully express it. Only in this way can the equivalence of meaning be achieved, which is the essence of the interpretive theory.
The interpretive theory also focuses on fidelity. The translator cannot interpret at will, and his interpretation and understanding can only be faithful to the actual content of the speaker. Although the interpreter interprets in his own words, he conveys the meaning of the speaker and imitates the speaker's style. The interpreter should understand the overall style of the speech, and tend to be consistent with the speaker, should be as far as possible to get rid of the constraints of words, in order to accurately reflect the original style.
== Conclusion==
There may be many deficiencies and omissions in the simple combing of French translation history, but as a powerful and long-standing western developed country, France's translation process and theory have great research and reference significance for China and the world. The world is still developing, so is translation. With the development of modern science and technology, people explore translation more deeply, and new theories are constantly put forward. Therefore, we should seize the trend of the times, base ourselves on China, look at the world and seriously study these excellent theories.
== References==
[1]Chen Shunyi陈顺意（2014）.法国翻译理论源流Sources and schools of French translation theory.法国研究The French Study.
[2]Tan Zaixi谭载喜（2004）.西方翻译简史A Short History of Translation in the West.商务印书馆The Commercial Press.
[3]Xu Jun许均,Yuan Xiao一袁筱一(1998).当代法国翻译理论Contemporary Translation Study in France .湖北教育出版社Hubei Education Press.
[4]Liu Mingjiu柳鸣九,Zheng Kelu郑克鲁,Zhang Yinglun张英伦(1979).法国文学史History of French Literature,人民文学出版社People's Literature Publishing House
[5]Xie Tianzhen谢天振（2009）.中西翻译简史A brief history of Chinese and Western translation,外语教育与研究出版社Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.

=李新星A Comparative Study on The Translation history of Modern Chinese and Korean Literature under the Background of "Western Learning" (1894~1949) =
==Abstract==
The spreading of Western learning to the east is an extensive and far-reaching influence of modern Western culture on eastern civilization, which started from translation as a means of cultural communication.Scholars in China and Korea have always recognized the influence of the eastward spread of Western learning on the development of translation in their countries.However, most studies on modern and contemporary translation take the country as the boundary and rarely talk about the comparison and exchange between the two countries.In fact, although there are some individual differences between Chinese and Korean translation in modern times due to different national conditions, there are also many similarities and connections worthy of attention and research.From the perspective of translation history, this paper will explore the history of literary translation in China and Korea under the trend of western learning to the east, compare the commonness and individuality of the two countries' literary translation practices, explore the historical information behind the translation practices, and finally achieve the purpose of restoring the history of cultural (literary) exchanges between the two countries.

The spreading of western culture to the East was an extensive and far-reaching influence of modern Western culture on Eastern civilization, resulted from translation as a means of cultural communication.Scholars in China and Korea had always recognized the influence of the eastward spread of Western learning on the development of translation in their countries. However, most studies on modern and contemporary translation take the country as the boundary and rarely talk about the comparison and exchange between the two countries.In fact, regardless of some individual differences between Chinese and Korean translation in modern times due to different national conditions, there are also many similarities and connections worthy of attention and research.From the perspective of translation history, this paper will explore the history of literary translation in China and Korea under the trend of western learning to the East, compare the commonness and individuality of the two countries' literary translation practices, dig out the historical information behind the practices, and finally achieve the purpose of restoring the history of cultural exchanges between the two.--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 07:23, 11 December 2021 (UTC)

==Key words==
History of literary translation；“Western Learning”;China;Korea

==摘要==
西学东渐是近代西方文化对东方文明的一次广泛而深远的影响，而这影响首先是从作为文化交流的手段———翻译开始的。一直以来，中韩两国学者都认同西学东渐对本国翻译发展的影响，但现有的研究在探讨近现代翻译时大多以本国为界，很少谈及两国比较和交流。而实际上，虽然因为国情不同，中国与朝鲜半岛的近现代翻译存在一定的个体差异，但同时也有很多相似点和联系点值得关注和研究。本文将从翻译史视角出发，窥探西学东渐时代潮流下中韩两国文学翻译史的面貌，比较两国文学翻译实践的共性和个性，发掘翻译实践背后的历史信息，最终达到还原两国文化 (文学) 交流史的目的。

==关键词==
文学翻译史；“西学东渐”；中国；朝鲜（韩国）

==1.Introduction==
The spreading of Western learning to the east is an extensive and far-reaching influence of modern Western culture on Eastern civilization.Late 19th century to early 20th century,When the West had modernized and gradually replaced the East as the world's dominant power,The three East Asian countries ( China, Japan and Korea), which had been sleeping for a long time, were gradually awakened and embarked on the "journey" of modernization.Among them, In order to achieve a rich country and a strong army, Japan left Asia and entered Europe,Take the lead in taking a series of measures to actively learn from the West and introduce advanced ideas and culture.The main measure is to develop the translation of western literature.Under the influence of such a large environment, the translation of overseas literature in China and the Korean Peninsula has also set off a boom.It can be said that the influence of the eastward spreading of Western learning on the modernization of East Asia began with translation as a means of cultural exchange.
Some scholars have pointed out that in the process of modernization in East Asia represented by Japan,Translation plays an important role.Without translation, East Asia would not have been able to open the door to modernization.This is also true in modern China and the Korean Peninsula.It can be said that after entering the modern society, the cultural exchanges between the two countries were continued through translation --"A history of translation is not only a history of cultural exchange, but also a history of the dissemination of ideas".As we all know, the study of translation history is a "basic project" in the construction of translation discipline.Behrman, a famous translator and translation theorist, once pointed out that "the composition of translation history is the first task of modern translation theory, and self-reflection is the establishment of itself" .The history of literary translation is an important part of the study of translation history and an indispensable factor in the investigation of a country's literature and even the whole cultural background in a particular period.
In view of the above analysis, the author believes that in order to have a macro and in-depth understanding of the cultural exchanges between China and Korea in modern times.It is necessary for us to make a comparative study of literary translation between the two countries during this period (1894 ~ 1949).Writers believe that only by putting literary translation activities into a larger social and historical context can we have a clearer understanding of the translation practices of the two countries at that time.Therefore, from the perspective of translation history, this paper will explore the history of literary translation in China and Korea under the trend of western learning to the east, compare the commonness and individuality of the two countries'literary translation practices, explore the historical information behind the translation practices, and finally achieve the purpose of restoring the history of cultural (literary) exchanges between the two countries.

The spreading of Western learning to the east exerted an extensive and far-reaching influence on Eastern civilization.In the late 19th century to early 20th century,when the West had modernized and gradually replaced the East as the world's dominant power,the three East Asian countries (China,Japan and Korea),which had been sleeping for a long time, were gradually awakened and embarked on the "journey" of modernization. In order to attain prosperity, Japan left Asia and entered Europe, taking a series of measures to actively learn from the West and introduce advanced ideas and culture through the media of translation.Under the influence of such a univerasl situation, the translation of overseas literature in China and the Korean Peninsula had also set off a boom.It could be said that the influence of the eastward spreading of western learning on the modernization of East Asia began with translation as a means of cultural exchange.
Some scholars have pointed out that translation plays an important role in the process of modernization in East Asia represented by Japan.Without translation,East Asia would not have been able to open the door to modernization.This is also true in modern China and the Korean Peninsula.It can be said that after entering the modern society, the cultural exchanges between the two countries were continued through translation --"A history of translation is not only a history of cultural exchange, but also a history of the dissemination of ideas".As we all know, the study of translation history is a "basic project" in the construction of translation discipline.Behrman, a famous translator and translation theorist, once pointed out that "the composition of translation history is the first task of modern translation theory, and self-reflection is the establishment of itself".The history of literary translation is an important part of the study of translation history and an indispensable factor in the investigation of a country's literature and even the whole cultural background in a particular period.
In view of the above analysis, the author believes that in order to have a macro and in-depth understanding of the cultural exchanges between China and Korea in modern times.It is necessary for us to make a comparative study of literary translation between the two countries from 1894 to 1949. Only by putting literary translation activities into a larger social and historical context can we have a clearer understanding of the translation practices of the two countries at that time.Therefore, from the perspective of translation history, this paper will explore the history of literary translation in China and Korea under the trend of western learning to the East, compare the commonness and individuality of the two countries' literary translation practices, explore the historical information behind the practices, and finally achieve the purpose of restoring the history of cultural (literary) exchanges between the two countries.--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 07:34, 11 December 2021 (UTC)

==2. The origin and development of modern translation in both countries ==
After being opened to the outside world, western civilization flooded in. China and North Korea, which had been pursuing the policy of "closing the door to the outside world", began to "open their eyes to the world".From the government to the people, there has been an upsurge in the introduction of advanced Western civilization.Translation plays an important, even decisive role in this process.
====2.1The historical evolution of Modern Translation in China====
As is known to all, Among the three East Asian countries, China is the first to pay attention to the West and understand and learn the West through translation.In the 1860s, after the Westernization Movement, a climax of modern Chinese translation began slowly.Strictly speaking, this translation period can be further divided into two stages, namely, with the Sino-Japanese War of 1894 as the dividing line, the early stage was the translation period dominated by westernization school, and the later stage was the translation period dominated by reformists.If the translation during the Westernization Movement was the primary stage of modern Western learning translation in China, there were still many problems, then the translation activities led by reformists such as Kang Youwei, Liang Qichao and Yan Fu had a greater development in terms of scale, significance and function.From the perspective of translation history, they set up translation institutes and translated western books widely(Especially those that had a great influence on Meiji Restoration in Japan.)Training translation talents, etc.Its scale, breadth of subjects, quantity and quality are unmatched by translation in the Westernization period.It should be noted that since the 1880s, China's interest in learning from the West has shifted from science to politics, education system and so on.In the late Qing Dynasty and early period, literary works gradually became the main object of translation activities.In the minds of the Vixinists represented by Liang Qichao, novels have become the most appropriate tool for political reform, popular enlightenment and the modernization of the country.Thus, beginning in the late 19th and early 20th centuries,Foreign literature has been widely translated into China, and communication channels include not only modern media such as newspapers and magazines, but also single-line books and large-scale translation literature series, which have also produced a series of arguments and discussions on translation methods and techniques.Modern Chinese translation has also entered a new period, that is, from the Ming and Qing period of scientific and technological translation as the mainstream gradually to culture / literature / literary translation as the core of the translation activities period.Overall, the translation of modern foreign literature in China from the end of the 19th century to the period 1949 can be broken down into the following three stages.
The first stage was from the late Qing Dynasty and the early Republic of China to the May 4th Movement in 1919.In December 1898, Liang Qichao translated The Japanese political novel The Adventure of The Beautiful Woman in Qingyi Daily. In 1900, Zhou translated one of the most influential works in Japanese political fiction, Yano Ryuki's "On The Classics of America".Since then, many Japanese political novels have been translated and introduced to China.After a more concentrated translation of political novels, other genres, such as history, science and the popular detective novels, have also been introduced.After 1907, a variety of modern literary magazines sprang up, and a large number of translated novels were published in these magazines in serial form, among which the serialized translated novels in magazines such as "Novel Forest" and "New Novel Cluster" even occupied absolute space, forming the first climax of foreign novel translation.However, it should be emphasized that the translation of literary works in this period was still in the exploratory stage,Although there are a large number of works, there are problems in the selection of works, translation skills and strategies.
The second period is 1916 to 1936. This period can be further subdivided into the May Fourth Movement period and the Left Coalition Period.With the development of the New literature movement, Chinese literary translation has entered the most glorious period in the history of translation.Compared with the late Qing Dynasty, literary translation in this period was larger in scale, higher in quantity and quality, and its influence was unprecedented.It is worth emphasizing that almost all the heavyweights in the history of modern Chinese literature have participated in the translation and introduction.In addition to translation works, they also introduced various literary and artistic thoughts, and actively explored and discussed translation methods and theories.Especially with their active advocacy and hard work, The translation industry in China has been closely integrated with the struggle against imperialism and feudalism.It completely changed the chaotic and unprincipled state of translation circles before the May 4th Movement.In addition, it was from this time that China's translation of Soviet/Russian literature gradually reached its peak.It can be said that the mainstream of Chinese literature translation in the 1930s was Marxist literary trend of thought and progressive literature (especially Soviet/Russian literature).Of course, in addition to Russian/Soviet literature, this period has translated the literature of Britain, The United States, Japan, France, Germany and southeast Northern Europe and Asia.
The third period is from 1937 to 1949. After the war of Resistance against Japan broke out.The translation community, like the rest of the country, has concentrated all its efforts on the cause of saving the nation from extinction and striving for liberation.Therefore, the pace of development of Translation in China slowed down during this period.In spite of this, Chinese writers and translators have overcome various difficulties and translated and published many excellent foreign literary works.During this period, there was a wide range of translations, ranging from western European classical literature to war literature at that time, and even ancient Greek literature and Jewish literature.In terms of genres, there are novels, poems, plays, prose and even some academic works on literary history.A number of famous translators in the history of Chinese translation literature, such as Zhu Shenghao, Ge Baoquan, Fu Lei, Liang Shiqiu, Lin Yutang and so on, are active in literary translation.Of course, the biggest characteristic of this period was the translation of the Soviet Union and other countries anti-fascist war works, in particular, the establishment of the revolutionary translation group "Times Press", published the revolutionary translation publication "Soviet Literature", a large number of Soviet literary and artistic works.

====2.2 The situation of modern and contemporary Translation on the Korean Peninsula and the Influence of China==
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From the end of the 19th century, western civilization began to flow into East Asia on a large scale, and Korea was further plunged into the situation of internal troubles and foreign aggression. Faced with the complicated situation at home and abroad, the enlightened intellectuals of Korea further realized that translating Western books was an important task at that time. As early as 1886, The "Seoul Weekly" published by Powen Bureau had a column specially emphasizing the importance of translation, and proposed to establish a special translation agency to translate foreign books. And six years later, another important newspaper of the day 《Huangcheng News 》also commented, stressing that translation is an important means to enrich the country and strengthen the army and realize modern civilization. We call for the establishment of specialized translation institutions under the guidance of the government "to strengthen the guidance and management of translation. On behalf of this, not only all kinds of news media actively propagated, but also some intellectuals at that time called for the realization of civilization and the prosperity of the country and the strength of the army by translating overseas literature and learning advanced western experience. As a result, the Korean Peninsula at that time set off a boom in the translation of overseas works, especially literary works. Of course, as in China, one of the preconditions for translating Western books in the Korean Peninsula was the development of modern media, which provided a platform for the dissemination of written works at that time. After the 1895-1895 revolution, modern schools were established one after another, and special language schools were set up, which played a positive role in understanding overseas and spreading Western culture, and reserved talents for the translation and introduction of foreign literature.
Generally speaking, the history of translation of foreign works on the Korean Peninsula from 1895 to 1949 can be divided into the following five stages: Patriotic enlightenment period (1895-1910), translation literature awakening period (1911-1919), translation into the proper period (1920-1935), dark Period (1936-1945), Regeneration period (1945 ~1949). We can refer to Kim Byung-chul's Studies on the History of Modern Korean Translation Literature, the earliest and only work on the history of modern Korean Translation literature. However, it is worth noting that Kim Byung-chul's pioneering work has carefully combed and studied the translation history of modern Korean literature from both macro and micro perspectives. However, there is no introduction to the translation of Chinese and Japanese literature. In fact, in the whole modern and modern period, although the communication between China and South Korea seems not as active and close as that in ancient times, the spiritual, political and cultural ties that have connected the two countries for thousands of years have not disappeared overnight. This point can be seen from the early stage of The History of Korean translated literature with China as the medium of translation activities and the late continuous translation of Modern Chinese literature.
The first stage (1895-1910) is the period of patriotic enlightenment，The main function of translation in this period was "enlightenment of civilization, independence, social and political enlightenment", and the translation activities inevitably had obvious purpose and utility. The patriotic enlighteners represented by Xuan CAI, Zhang Zhiyuan, Shen Caihao and Zhou Shijing received Chinese education from childhood and were deeply influenced by Confucian culture. Most of the works translated from The Korean Peninsula during this period were biographies of great men, history of the war, history of independence and geographical history. Almost all the translated works are from Chinese and Japanese versions. According to statistics, there were about 37 separate editions of such works translated in the Korean Peninsula before 1910, among which 16 were based on Chinese translations, not including those published in newspapers and magazines. In particular, it is worth emphasizing the important works in the early history of Korean literature, such as The History of The Fall of Vietnam, the Biography of the Three Masters of the Founding of Italy, and so on.The Biography of the Patriotic Lady was introduced to the Korean Peninsula based on the Chinese version. In addition, the Japanese Ryoki Yano's Korean single version of The Book On The Nation and the United States (1908, Translated by Hyun Gonglian) was based on zhou Kui's Chinese version in 1907. It is also highly likely that The first western literary work to be officially translated into Korea, Robin Sun Crusoe (1908, translated by Kim Chan), was translated into Chinese. In a word, China's influence cannot be ignored in the history of translated literature during the Korean civilization period.
The second stage (1910 ~ 1919) is called "the Awakening period of Translated literature". The translation activities of this period did have many characteristics different from those of the previous period. For example, many translations clearly identify the original author and translator; There appeared some literary magazines that paid attention to translation, such as Youth, New Star, Youth, Light of Learning and New Wenjie.“Three Lights", and "Tai Xi Literature and Art News" founded in 1918 with the main purpose of translating foreign literary works; At the beginning, it was consciously emphasized that translation should be based on the original text rather than through a third language. Translation methods also began to emphasize the separation from the earlier simple emphasis on the transmission of content translation, summary translation, abbreviated translation, etc. It puts forward the importance of respecting the original text and being faithful to the original text, and actively practices it. Kim Il and other important figures in the history of Korean translation literature have officially started their translation activities. And so on. All these indicate that the translation activities on the Korean Peninsula have "awakened" and are ready for further progress on the right track.
Generally speaking, since 1908, when Juvenile was first published，The Translated literature of the Korean Peninsula further broke away from the original utilitarian and purist nature and began to enter the era of "pure literature and art" translation. Since then, a great deal of Western literature has been translated into The Korean peninsula, and the quality of translation in this period is significantly higher than that of the Patriotic Enlightenment period. In addition to new novelists such as Lee Sang-hyup, Lee Hae-jo and Ahn Guk-seon, the translators also include famous figures in the history of literature such as Choi Nam-seon, Hong Myung-hee and Lee Kwang-soo, as well as some publishers and media workers. It is worth noting that some scholars believe that literary exchanges between China and Korea ended after Japan annexed the Korean Peninsula in 1910. This view is obviously somewhat arbitrary. According to incomplete statistics, at least 20 Chinese translations were introduced to the Korean Peninsula through the medium of Chinese translations, although the translation activities based on Chinese translations were not as active as in the Enlightenment period. These works include not only reprints of Chinese vernacular novels in Ming and Qing Dynasties, but also western novels based on Chinese translations. Among these Chinese translations of western novels, 8 are from the large western literature translation series "Shuobo Congshu", which was planned and published by the Shanghai Commercial Press in 1903. Choi Chan-sik, a famous writer of new novels at the time, recalled that recalled that he began writing a new novel after translating a book in the "Shaobo Series" published in Shanghai, China. These data show that even at a time when Japan's control over the Korean Peninsula was increasing, China's translation and media activities still have a certain influence on Korean intellectuals. In other words, under the new historical conditions, the cultural exchanges between the two countries are still struggling to continue in a new form.
The third stage (1920-1935) marked the beginning of joseon's translation literature. According to Kim byung-chul's statistics, at least 600 foreign literary works have been translated to the Korean Peninsula in various forms since the 1920s, Genres include fiction, poetry, drama, essays, fairy tales, and some literary criticism, Countries involved Britain, the United States, Germany, France, Russia, India and so on. Of course, this statistic does not include the translation of Chinese literature. In fact, after the 1920s, one of the biggest changes in the history of Sino-Korean translation was the movement that was then in China and the new literary works began to be translated and introduced to the Korean Peninsula. According to incomplete statistics, about 30 kinds of modern Chinese literary works including novels were translated and translated in the Korean Peninsula during the colonial period (In addition to the only collection of Chinese Short Stories during the colonial period), 16 plays, 41 poems, 3 essays, 1 fairy tale, etc., and more than a dozen literary criticism. If we add the Chinese classical literature translated in this period, we can say that after 1920, the translation of Chinese literature in the Korean Peninsula is relatively comprehensive and continuous, which should not be excluded from the history of Korean translated literature.
The fourth stage (1936-1945) was a dark period for the entire Korean Peninsula. In terms of translated literature, Japan has strengthened its control over public opinion and media by strengthening its policy of suppressing national language, The flood of Japanese books, coupled with the growing economic collapse on the Korean peninsula, has put pressure on the publishing industry and reduced the number of magazines, Access to foreign books has also been blocked, resulting in a huge blow to translation activities on the Korean Peninsula. This was the darkest period in the history of Translated literature on the Korean Peninsula. Although there were sporadic translations of Chinese literary works, they only catered to the political needs of the Japanese colonial government and chose some works that were irrelevant to politics and even covered up and beautified its militarist ambitions. In 1940, for example, Three Thousand Miles magazine ran a special collection of "New Chinese literature,"The content of the works is either daily life, love or traditional art, which has nothing to do with politics, and the original translations are entirely dependent on Japanese translations. The content of the works is either daily life, love or traditional art, which has nothing to do with politics, and the original translations are entirely dependent on Japanese translations.
In the fifth stage (1945-1949), the Korean Peninsula was finally liberated from Japanese colonial rule. The country was in ruins and all walks of life seemed to be full of hope, but at the same time, it was in a sudden chaos. At this time, translation has gradually entered the recovery period. From the point of view of countries, the United States and the Soviet Union were the most translated works, which obviously reflected the political situation and ideology at that time. However, the translation and study of modern Chinese literature also ushered in a brief bright period. Many researchers from academic schools joined the ranks of translation, and the translation of their works also moved toward specialization and systematization, with the emergence of selected Modern Chinese Short Stories (1946), Short Stories of Lu Xun (1946), Selected Modern Chinese Poems (1947) and other individual editions. He even published the history of Modern Chinese Literature (1949), the first book of Chinese studies in Korea. Compared with the colonial period, translation at this time was no longer subject to many restrictions, and further got rid of the early enlightenment and utilitarian color in nature. It began to attempt to approach modern Chinese literary works from the perspective of aesthetics and pure literature and carried out systematic and professional research. Translators seem to want to make up for the many regrets of the colonial period and are eager to translate and study modern Chinese literature in an all-round way. Unfortunately, this boom came to an abrupt end after the outbreak of the war in 1950, and The cause of Chinese literary translation fell into recession again.

==3. Differences and Similarities in the translation history of Modern Chinese and Korean literature==
Differences and similarities in the translation history of Modern Chinese and Korean literature
As is known to all, since the 1970s, translation studies have achieved a "cultural" shift, and the scope of research has expanded from the purely linguistic category to the non-linguistic category of culture, ideology, power relations, politics and so on.The literariness and thinking of literary works determine that literary translation has the dual orientation of ideology and poetics.Therefore, the study of literary translation should be connected with the socio-historical background and the poetic background so as to analyze and explain the important translation phenomena in depth.Throughout the history of modern literary translation in China and South Korea, we will find that the biggest similarity is that the "cultural political practice" (Venuti) of translation has always been controlled by ideology.Under the environment of western learning spreading eastward, one of the main social ideologies in East Asia was"Modern transformation".As an important means of modernization transformation, translation not only has an impact on the political and economic development of China and Korea, but also plays an important role in the two countries' acceptance of Western civilization, dissemination of new knowledge, formation of new culture, and the development of their own language and literature.In the process of sorting out the translation history of modern Chinese and Korean literature, we can clearly find that there are many similarities and intersections, and of course there are individual differences.Whether similarities or differences arise, some of them are related to the social ideology of the two countries, and some are related to the influence of the translator's personal ideology.It can be said that ideology permeates all aspects of modern translation in both countries, especially the change and development of social ideology plays a significant role in the evolution of translation.Below, this paper will compare and analyze the similarities and differences of literary translation between the two countries from several aspects.
(1) The nature and motivation of translation
In terms of the nature of translation, the modern translation activities in China and South Korea have obvious utilitarian, effective and political characteristics.Before the formal launch of literary translation, China had gone through a long stage of translating and introducing western scientific and technological books for the purpose of learning from the West, strengthening industrial development and achieving a prosperous country and a strong army.After the failure of the Reform movement of 1898, the development of Chinese foreign literature translation was in fact based on the translation of novels.One of the reasons is that Liang Qichao, the leader of the Reformists, put forward the slogan of "novel revolution" and advocated the translation of political novels, blowing the horn of literary translation. At the same time, a group of literary translators represented by Lin Shu actively engaged in translation practice, which also promoted the development of literary translation at that time.At that time, the purpose of literary translation was also to enlightening the people, reforming the society and giving play to the unique role of literary thought in shaping the "consciousness of the world".After the May 4th Movement, political demands still played a leading role in the selection of translators despite literary factors.On the other hand, the Korean Peninsula, because of the late opening of port and the depth of the country's internal troubles and foreign aggression, had no time to translate western literature as China and Japan did in terms of promoting industrial development and enriching the country and strengthening its armed forces.For them, translation is first of all a means of understanding the outside world, and its direct purpose is to get rid of the control of foreign forces and achieve independence.Therefore, the modern translation of the Korean Peninsula did not go through the stage of large-scale scientific translation, but from the very beginning, a part of social science translation and a large number of literary translation, including political novels, biographies of great men and so on.In particular, the translation of literary works has always occupied an important position in the modern translation of the Korean Peninsula.It is worth mentioning that liang Qichao had a great influence on literary translation during the Period of Korean Civilization.It was under his influence that a large number of political novels were translated and introduced to the Korean Peninsula, and played an important role in the transformation of thoughts and concepts in the Korean Peninsula in the modern period and the emergence and development of modern literature.Of course, after entering the period of colonial rule, the Translation of the Korean Peninsula became more colonial,In many ways, it is more influenced and restricted by Japan. Although there is also the pursuit of literature, the final translation inevitably has a strong political nature.In a word, the translation activities in the first half of the 20th century in both countries are determined by both literary factors and social ideology, but in the final analysis, the latter always plays a dominant role.Due to the special historical environment and similar fate, translation in both countries has strong utilitarian, utility and political characteristics to a large extent, which are the manifestation of the "manipulation" of translation by the ideological form.
(2) The source of the translation
There is no doubt that in all stages of modern translation history, the sources of translated works in the two countries are closely related to Japan, but there are differences in the specific range of sources and degree of dependence on Japan.In fact, before the late Qing Dynasty, a large number of Western scientific and technological books translated in China were basically based on the original Western language.In the translation period dominated by the Reformists, due to the vigorous development of Japanese translation and the characteristics of easy learning and understanding of Japanese, Liang Qichao and Kang Youwei advocated the translation of foreign works from Japanese. It was not until then that A large number of Japanese translations were carried out in China.
After the May 4th Movement, Translation in China flourished, with translators of various languages appearing in large numbers and many intellectuals participating in translation activities.At this time, the original versions of Chinese translations are also varied, including Japanese and English versions, and many are directly translated from the original.On the other hand, due to the influence of history, during the whole period of the Korean Peninsula, the translation of foreign books mainly consisted of Japanese and Chinese versions, and few of them were directly translated from the original.After entering the period of colonial rule, due to Japan's rule and influence on the Korean Peninsula in various fields, there were fewer and fewer translation cases based on The Chinese version, and the Japanese version took the dominant position.However, due to the increasing number of intellectuals focusing on Western language and literature (such as the emergence of the "Overseas Literature School" in 1926), the call for translation based on the original text became stronger and stronger.After all, most of the Korean intellectuals of the "overseas literary school" studied in Japan,Therefore, although they put forward the slogan of "translation from the original text", their translation activities are still directly or indirectly influenced by the Japanese knowledge system.In short, if the modern times of East Asia are "modern times of translation", as a bridge of translation in East Asia, Japanese translation is based on the original text or English.In China, there are both literal translation of the original text and retranslation of English and Japanese versions. On the other hand, Korean translation sources are a little bit unitary, basically retranslating some Chinese and most Japanese versions.However, from another point of view, the translation path of the Korean Peninsula at that time was the most complicated among the three countries, which could be the path of "Japanese → Korean", "Western → Chinese → Korean" or even "Western → Japanese → Chinese → Korean".
At that time, many Korean intellectuals were fluent in both Chinese and Japanese, so it was difficult to refer to only one source in the translation process.For example, The book On The Classics and The United States (1908), marked with the "translation" of Xuan Gonglian, was published with reference to both the Japanese and Chinese versions.Kim Kyo-je, a famous writer of new novels in the early modern period, translated or reprinted 11 novels at least four were translated to the Korean Peninsula through the path of "Western → Chinese → Korean";While Li Haichao translated Iron World (1908), the translation path is "Western → Japanese → Chinese → Korean" .
In Korea at that time, this kind of double, triple or even multiple retranslation is very common. For this reason, the modern Korean Peninsula is also called "retranslated modern times" by scholars.
(3) Topic selection and content of the translated work
Corresponding to the nature, motivation and characteristics of translation, there are not only similarities and intersecting points, but also their own characteristics in the topic selection of translated works.For example, the pilgrim's Progress, a religious novel by English novelist John Bunyan (1628-1688), was among the first western literary works translated in both countries.
This fact reflects the important role of western missionaries in the translation history of the two countries.Aesop's Fables is also one of the earliest and most frequently translated western literary works in both countries.Aesop's Fables was translated many times in both countries and included in the textbooks of the time as a children's book.After entering the modern and contemporary period, both countries highly respected historical and biographical works and political novels, and had a period of concentrated translation.For example, political novels such as "A Journey with the Wind", "Jingguo Meiyu" and "Iron World" have been translated into Chinese and English respectively.In addition, many historical and biographical works (especially the history of subjugations) were translated into The Korean Peninsula through Chinese media at that time, such as The Founding of Switzerland and Fifteen Little Heroes. As well as liang Qichao's writings or translations of the hundred Days' Coup, The History of the Fall of Vietnam, the biography of the three Heroes of the Founding of Italia, The biography of Madame Roland, and the biography of Hungarian patriot Gasus, etc.History books such as A New History of Tai Xi, a Brief History of Russia, A War in the Middle East and modern History of Egypt were also translated from Chinese versions. In the whole period of civilization, the Korean Peninsula concentrated on the translation of history, biographical works and political novels, although there is no lack of Japanese influence, but obviously The Influence of China can not be ignored.Due to reasons such as politics, current affairs and the market, the two countries in politics, history and biography of before and after the translation in the first decade of the 20th century gradually into the low tide, and other types of novels, such as science fiction, detective novels, western pure literary fiction and gradually be translated a lot, at the same time, poetry translation have greater development.It is worth mentioning that translation in both countries reached a new climax after the late decade of the first decade of the 20th century.In terms of the number and diversity of genres, China is far more diverse than The Korean Peninsula, but there are some interesting intersections in the literary translation topics of the two countries, such as Shakespeare, Hardy, Stevenson and Conan Doyle in The UK, Tolstoy, Gorky and Chekov in Russia, Tagore in India,Norway's Ibsen and other works have had a great influence in both countries.It is worth mentioning that there are obvious differences between the two countries in the topic selection of translated works as follows. The first is the translation of Japanese literature
The problem. As we all know, Japanese literature plays a very important role in the history of Chinese translation of foreign literature in the 20th century.On the Korean Peninsula, although the influence of Japanese literature is beyond doubt, and the translation of Japanese literature in the first half of the 20th century can be said to run through the whole modern translation activities of the Korean Peninsula, but the translation of Japanese literature in the Korean Peninsula itself is very few.
The reasons are mainly related to the special political and historical background of the Korean Peninsula and the control and infiltration of Japanese language in the Korean Peninsula after entering the colonial period, as well as the role of national emotional factors.Secondly, the translation and introduction of the other side's literature. In the first half of the 20th century, the literature of the two countries was not the main target of translation in each other's country, but this does not mean that there is no overlap between them. On the whole, the Korean Peninsula paid more and deeper attention to Chinese literature than China did to Korean literature during this period.After entering the modern society, under the extremely complicated and difficult cultural environment, the Korean Peninsula continued to translate Chinese vernacular novels and some classical poems in the Ming and Qing dynasties, and at the same time carried out a relatively concentrated translation of Liang Qichao, the pioneer of Chinese novel revolution. However, what is more noteworthy is his continuous translation and introduction of New Chinese literature, which started in the second half of the 1910s.Due to the special historical and geographical relationship, Korea is the first country in the world to notice China's new cultural movement except Japan. At that time, many magazines and newspapers on the Korean Peninsula introduced and reported the New Chinese literature. Some Korean intellectuals had deep feelings about the innovative atmosphere in The Chinese literary circle and hoped to provide necessary reference for the improvement and innovation of their own literature through the translation and introduction of The new Chinese literature.In a word, during the Period of Japanese rule, the Translation and introduction of modern Chinese literature in The Korean Peninsula was quite comprehensive, and many famous writers and works in the history of Chinese literature were involved in the topic selection, which played an important role in the study of Chinese literature in Korea. On the contrary, China's translation of Korean literature at that time was very limited, mainly due to the concern of "weak and weak ethnic literature", and also influenced by the war ideology of anti-japanese and national salvation, nationalism. However, in the huge history of modern Chinese literature translation, the translation of Korean literature is just a drop in the ocean and has not received enough attention. All in all, the depth and breadth of the translation of each other's works is extremely unbalanced.
(4) The translator's main body, translation strategies and methods
There are also similarities between the two countries on the subject of translators in the history of modern translation literature. In the early stage of translation activities, western missionaries played a great role. Later, famous intellectuals, social activists and literary scholars of the two countries realized the importance of translation, actively participated in translation activities, and became the leading leaders of modern translation in the two countries.For example, yan Fu, Liang Qichao and Lin Shu were active translators in early China, while xuan CAI, Pu Yinzhi, Shen Caihao and other famous scholars, thinkers and social activists led the translation during the Korean Peninsula's enlightenment period. After entering the decade of the 20th century, the translation of the two countries gradually entered the climax.Many Chinese writers, including Lu Xun, Guo Moruo and Zhou Zuoren, actively translated while writing. Choi Nam-sun and Lee Kwang-soo, leaders of Korean literature in the first decade of the 20th century, also actively translated their works.In addition, famous writers of new novels such as Lee Hae-jo, Ahn Guk-seon, and Choi Chan-sik were motivated and motivated by translation activities. With the development of translation, a number of specialized literary translators have emerged in both countries. In addition, some new women at that time also participated in the translation, such as Bing Xin from China and Kim Myung-soon from Korea.In terms of translation strategies or ways, early modern translation system is far from mature, highly standard translation way, utilitarian purpose, color thick, many translators from themselves and the needs of the audience, or excerpts and delete any reduction of the original (AD, Jane), or add their own opinions and comments in the process of translation, the tai shang ganying pian), Or in the form of translation only summarize the general idea (synopsis), for example, liang Qichao and Cui Nanshan's translation to a large extent are abridged, synopsis or translation.Generally speaking, the forms and methods of translation at that time were characterized by diversity and hybridity, which were similar in China and Korea. The reason is related to the mainstream ideology of the translation leaders who hoped to enlighten the people, enrich the country and strengthen the army through translation as soon as possible.
(5) Disputes on "Literary translation"
After literary translation gradually got on the right track and became the mainstream of translation works in the two countries, translators in the two countries gained further insights on the application, methods and techniques of translation and gradually began to express their own views on translation, whose discussions cover all aspects of translation. Such as translation methods, translation skills, translation and the status of translators, the role of translation. The opinions of different translators are bound to be different. Therefore, in the modern and contemporary period, both China and South Korea had debates on translation (literary translation). The focus and theme of the debate are similar, such as "translatable or untranslatable", "literal translation versus free translation" and so on.It is well known that in the history of modern Chinese translation, especially in the May Fourth Movement period, many writers began their literary career by translating foreign literature, and most of them published discussions on translation. The differences between different translators and groups have led to several famous debates in the history of Chinese translation. For example, lu Xun and Zhou Zuoren proposed Literal translation and related debates are typical examples. In addition, in the history of modern Chinese translation, there are also debates on "translated names", "translatable or not translatable literary works", translation methods such as mistranlation, hard translation and dead translation, and translation paths such as literal translation or retranslation.The 1920s was a period when the history of modern and contemporary translation in Korea was on the right track. Many newspapers and magazines published discussions on translation and related debates. In the history of modern translation on the Korean Peninsula, one of the most famous disputes about translation is the dispute between Jin Yi and Liang Zhudong about "literal translation" and "free translation" in poetry translation. Liang zhudong believes that poetry is untranslatable and should be literal compared with free translation. Jin Yi believes that although poetry is untranslatable, if translators exert their own subjective initiative, it can completely improve the value of translated poetry and even become a new creation. However, it is interesting that although Liang zhudong praised the method of "literal translation", he criticized the "overseas literature school" that focused on foreign literature at that time for being too rigid in the way of literal translation, and believed that "literal translation" should be organically combined with "free translation".In fact, the debate between literal translation and free translation, or "domestication" and "foreignization", is closely related to ideology.
The debate between translators in the two countries over these issues is actually carried out at the ideological level. According to venuti, a famous translation theorist of deconstruction school, the choice of translation strategy is determined by ideology.
(6) The influence of translation on the languages and literature of the two countries
In fact, the greatest influence of modern literary translation on China and South Korea is reflected in the development of characters and literature. First of all, translation must be carried out with language as the carrier. Under normal circumstances, the translated language is naturally the lingua franca of a country and a nation, but for China and South Korea in the late 19th and 20th centuries, a common problem emerged in the process of translation in terms of language carrier: At that time, both countries had two parallel language systems, which coincided with the social and cultural transition, so language translation became a very interesting topic.As we all know, in the late 19th century and the early 20th century, There were two languages in China: Classical Chinese and vernacular Chinese. Vernacular Chinese was still in the ascendant, while classical Chinese still played an important role in written and literary translation. Of course, the classical Chinese at this time refers to the late Qing Dynasty and the early Republic of China common "shallow classical Chinese", it is different from the past obscure ancient prose, but in classical Chinese mixed with common sayings, is a kind of literary language between ancient Classical Chinese and vernacular.For example, Lin Shu, a great modern translator, translated foreign literature in classical Chinese. His translation was not only welcomed by readers at that time, but also had a great influence on many famous Chinese intellectuals. In the late Qing Dynasty and the early Republic of China, there were both classical Chinese and vernacular Chinese translations, and the classical Chinese translations were more than the vernacular ones, but basically the two languages co-existed peacefully. In the process of translation, the needs of the audience should be considered. The same translator can translate in both vernacular and classical Chinese. The same foreign novel may have both classical and vernacular translations.It was not until after the New Culture Movement that the vernacular style gradually occupied the main position in written language. After the 1920s, the translated works in China were mainly in vernacular. For the development of modern Chinese vernacular, it can be said that the impact of translation is extremely far-reaching. Chinese vernacular can be divided into "traditional vernacular" and "modern vernacular".The traditional vernacular is based on a Dream of Red Mansions.
The vernacular of China represented by such vernacular classics as Water Margin, which is not influenced by western language. The "modern vernacular" is based on the traditional vernacular, influenced by oral and ancient prose and with the color of European, that is, the May 4th Movement advocated vernacular, namely the so-called European vernacular.It is worth noting that this Kind of European vernacular was actually created by western missionaries in China at that time, and the tool of missionaries to create European vernacular is translation. In order to spread religion and western culture smoothly, they translated a large number of Western books, including holy books, and consciously chose words and styles more suitable for ordinary people to read in the process of translation, which was the prototype of vernacular Chinese vigorously advocated by the May Fourth Movement.Similar to the situation in China, the Korean Peninsula in the late 19th and early 20th centuries also had two basic styles, namely, the mixed style of Chinese and Chinese and the pure Style of Chinese. It was only after the 1894-1895 Revolution that the Korean Peninsula's national language began to be widely used. It takes time for any language style to emerge and mature, and the Korean Peninsula's "pure Korean style" is no exception,In 1921, Korean language researchers formed the Korean Language Research Society under the influence of the Zhou Dynasty, which served as an opportunity for the further establishment of the modern Korean language. Before this, mixed Chinese and Korean language played an important role in the written language of the Korean Peninsula for a long time.In fact, the so-called mixed Chinese characters are based on Chinese characters, sometimes using Korean characters. The difference is that some mark Korean characters on Chinese characters, and some do not even mark Korean characters, but only Chinese characters. There is another special case, that is, the pure Chinese style with Korean auxiliary words and endings, such as the "hanging out Chinese style" used by Shen Caihao in the translation of the Biography of the Three Heroes of the Foundation of Itri.It is worth mentioning that it was also western missionaries who initially carried out translation activities in Korean. In order to preach, they carried out translation activities mainly aimed at the "Bible" in the Korean Peninsula, using the Korean language, which was not popular and was not valued by the Korean intellectuals at that time. The purpose of using The Korean language was to make the translated holy book easier for more ordinary people to accept. Kim Byeong-cheol holds that it is the translation of sacred books in the native Korean language that gave birth to the main form of modern literature on the Korean Peninsula, namely the "new novel", and thus promoted the "unity of language and language" and the emergence of modern literature in Korea.In general, the influence of translation on the development of Chinese and Korean characters and literature is far more than that. It can be said that the expansion of sentence structure, the change of style, the enrichment of vocabulary, the improvement of expressive force and the perfection of grammar system of the two languages are all inseparable from translation. In a word, translation has played an indispensable role in the unification of language and language in the history of Chinese and English literature. In addition to its role in language, translation also has a profound influence on the development of modern literature in both countries. As is known to all, the translation and introduction of a large number of foreign novels not only brought strong shock and impact to the literary circles of the two countries at that time, but also provided a lot of reference for the realization of the literary transformation of the two countries.It can be said that in the process of the collision, integration and evolution of eastern and western literature, literary translation plays a decisive external role in the transformation of Chinese and Korean literature from classical form to modern form, and has a great impact on the literary concept, literary type, narrative mode and expression mode. In this regard, researchers in China and South Korea have given positive descriptions.
==4. conclusion==
There are many similarities between China and South Korea in modern times. Under the environment of western learning spreading to the east, both of them were knocked out of the country by the West, suffered the invasion of western powers and Japan successively, and passively started the journey of modernization. Under the circumstance of deepening national crisis of domestic and foreign invasion, the enlightened intellectuals of the two countries have carried out the exploration of saving the nation from extinction, and translation is an important means for them to achieve this goal. To be specific, the historical context of the spreading of Western learning from the end of the 19th century endowed the two countries with unique historical characteristics. Due to the similarity of historical, cultural and political background and mainstream ideology, the translation of modern and contemporary literature in the two countries also presents many similarities and even intersecting points. As analyzed above, the most obvious common point in the modern translation history of China and Korea is ideology Influence throughout. For China and Korea at that time, one of the mainstream ideologies was "modernization transformation", and translation was the driving force for the modernization transformation process of the two countries. Therefore, utilitarianism and purposefulness run through the development of modern translation in both countries. In addition to the mainstream social ideology, the translator's personal ideology also has a great influence on literary translation in both countries.For example, the early translation phenomenon led by Western missionaries and the later translation activities led by intellectuals of the two countries were all carried out by translators for their personal purposes under the influence of the general environment at that time. It can be said that it is because of the influence of the subliminal form of the western learning spreading to the east that the modern and modern translations of the two countries show many similarities or similarities. Comparing the literary translation of the two countries in terms of specific content, we can find many similarities in details. For example, western missionaries played an important role at the beginning. After entering the 20th century, the translation of both countries was deeply influenced by Japan. The translation groups of the two countries were the best intellectuals and representatives of the new culture at that time. When they translated foreign works, they also carried out various discussions and even debates about translation. Translation activities have broadened the horizons of the people of the two countries and enriched their languages, literature and even culture.

It is worth mentioning that cultural exchanges between the two countries have also been continued through translation. Of course, due to the differences in specific situations, there are some differences in literary translation between the two countries while showing common features. The author believes that the biggest difference lies in the scale of translation. To be specific, from the number of translated works and translators, the discussion and construction of translation theories, the importance attached to translation, and the influence and status of translation in the history of national literature, Chinese modern translation is obviously higher. The main reason is that the translation environment and background of the two countries at that time are different, that is, the difference between complete colonies and semi-colonies. Although the Qing Dynasty fell under the background of the competition of western powers, China did not completely become a colony of any power, so it was relatively free and independent in political and cultural development. However, because Korea was annexed and ruled by Japan, it was difficult to develop modernization independently. The whole society was highly dependent on Japan, and it was also greatly restricted and influenced by Japan in terms of ideology. Translation activities were no exception.

As mentioned above, the purpose of the author's comparative study of Chinese and Korean contemporary literature translation is to restore the contemporary and contemporary literary exchanges between the two countries, and at the same time to provide necessary background for the mutual translation and introduction of the contemporary and contemporary literature of the two countries. However, the study of Chinese and Korean modern literature translation is a polyphonic and polysemy subject with a very wide range of coverage. Due to the limited space and author's ability, this paper only generalizes and arranges the subject from a macro perspective, and many details are not developed in depth. Translated works by the capacity of, for example, the sources of the related works and so on, for more exist in the two countries pay fork points to explore, in the evaluation of literature translation of words between the two countries and the specific influence of literature, especially under the background of their literary translation between the two countries the properties and significance of literary translation, etc, if you can carry out further discussion and exploration of the content, The research results will be more rich and three-dimensional.

There were many similarities between China and South Korea in modern times. Under the environment of western learning spreading to the East, both of them were knocked out of the country by the West, suffered the invasion of western powers and Japan successively, and passively started the journey of modernization. Under the circumstance of deepening national crisis of domestic and foreign invasion, the enlightened intellectuals of the two countries had carried out the exploration of saving the nation from extinction.Translation was an important means for them to achieve this goal. To be specific, the historical context of the spreading of Western learning from the end of the 19th century endowed the two countries with unique historical characteristics. Due to the similarity of historical, cultural and political background and mainstream ideology, the translation of literature in the two countries also presented many similarities and even intersecting points. As analyzed above, the most obvious common point was ideology influence. For China and Korea at that time, one of the mainstream ideologies was "modernization transformation",for which translation was the driving force. Therefore, utilitarianism and purposefulness ran through the development of modern translation in both countries. In addition to the mainstream social ideology, the translator's personal ideology also has a great influence on literary translation in both countries.For example,the early translation phenomenon led by Western missionaries and the later translation activities led by intellectuals of the two countries were all carried out by translators for their personal purposes under the influence of the general environment at that time. Without doubt, the influence of the subliminal form of the western learning spreading to the east constituted similarities between the two countries.Comparing the literary translation of the two countries in terms of specific content,we found many similarities in details. For example, western missionaries played an important role at the beginning. After entering the 20th century, the translation of both countries was deeply influenced by Japan. The translation groups of the two countries were the best intellectuals and representatives of the new culture at that time. When they translated foreign works, they also carried out various discussions and even debates about translation. Translation activities had broadened the horizons of the people and enriched their languages, literature and even culture.

It is worth mentioning that cultural exchanges between the two countries have also been continued through translation. Of course, due to the differences in specific situations, there are some differences in literary translation between the two countries while showing common features. The author believes that the biggest difference lies in the scale of translation. To be specific, from the number of translated works and translators, the discussion and construction of translation theories, the importance attached to translation to the influence and status of translation in the history of national literature, Chinese modern translation was obviously higher. The main reason was that the translation environment and background of the two countries at that time were different, that is, the difference between complete colonies and semi-colonies. Although the Qing dynasty fell under the background of the competition of western powers, China did not completely become a colony of any power, so it was relatively free and independent in political and cultural development. However, because Korea was annexed and ruled by Japan, it was difficult to develop modernization independently. The whole society was highly dependent on Japan, and it was also greatly restricted and influenced by Japan in terms of ideology. Translation activities were no exception.

As mentioned above, the purpose of the author's comparative study of Chinese and Korean contemporary literature translation is to restore the literary exchanges between the two countries, and at the same time to provide necessary background for the two countries. However, the study of Chinese and Korean modern literature translation is a polyphonic and polysemy subject with a very wide range of coverage. Due to the limited space and author's ability, this paper only generalized and arranged the subject from a macro perspective, and many details were not developed in depth, such as the sources of the related works,the evaluation of literature translation of words, the properties and significance of literary translation and so on. This paper will be more rich and three-dimensional with further discussion and exploration of the content.--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 07:59, 11 December 2021 (UTC)

==References==
*金秉哲[韩]: 《韩国近代翻译文学史研究》，首尔: 乙酉文化社，1975。130-160页
*金鹤哲: 《1949 年以前韩国文学汉译和意识形态因素》，《中国比较文学》2009 年第 4 期，第 66 页。
*金旭东[韩]: 《翻译与韩国的近代》，首尔: 小明出版社，2010，第25~28页。
*王秉钦、王颉: 《20世纪中国翻译思想史》，南开大学出版社，2004，第31页。
*许钧: 《面向中西交流的翻译史研究》，《解放军外国语学院学报》2014 年第 5 期，第 140 页。
*许钧、袁筱一编著《当代法国翻译理论》，南京大学出版社，1998，第 128 页。
*朱一凡: 《翻译与现代汉语的变迁 ( 1905 ~ 1936) 》，外语教学与研究出版社，2011，第 72 页。

=刘沛婷 Western Translation history in Renaissance)=

刘沛婷 Liu Peiting, Hunan Normal University, China

==Abstract==
The Renaissance is not only an important period in the history of literature and technology, but also a turning point in the history of western translation. During this period, the translation of religious and literary works gradually flourished, and translators constantly put forward new translation concepts and tried translation practices.The soaring of national consciousness and national languages contributed to the characteristic ideas of translation in the Renaissance. Especially France, Britain and Germany had made outstanding contributions to the evolution and progress of the entire translation history during this period.This chapter is to have a brief introduction to the translation history in Renaissance, conduct a detailed explaination from the three countries of France, Britan and Germany respectively and illustrate some representative translators and translation theories with the hope to show the magnificent translation achievements in Renaisance and the evolvement of human translation history.

==Key words==
Translation history; renaissance; France; Britain; Germany

Translation history; Renaissance; France; Britain; Germany--[[User:Liu Wei|Liu Wei]] ([[User talk:Liu Wei|talk]]) 12:44, 14 December 2021 (UTC)Liu Wei

==Introduction==

The period from around the fourteenth until the mid-seventeenth century has conventionally been designated as the Renaissance,referring to the rediscovery and revitalization of the literature, art and science of ancient Greece and Rome. The term was devised by Italian humanists who sought to reaffirm their own continuity with the classical humanist heritage after an interlude of Middle Ages (Habib 2011：79).It was a great revolution in intellect and culture. It is also “the greatest progressive revolution that mankind has so far experienced, a time which called for giants and produced giants”.Renaissance takes spreading humanism thought as one of the main forms of expression, involving all aspects of the cultural field, including the ancient Greek, Roman works and contemporary European works. In the process of studying and reviving classical culture, as well as developing and spreading new ideas, translation obviously plays an important role. The magnificent Renaissance itself included and depended on an unprecedented scale of translation activities. Therefore, it marks not only a great development in literature, art and science, but also an important milestone in the history of translation.(Engels 1972：445)

Originated in Italy in the 15th century, and in the 16th century Renaissance swept Europe, (especially Western European countries) and gradually formed a climax. At that time, western society was filled with a spirit of seeking and conquering the objective world. When this spirit was reflected in the translation field, translators were full of ambition and spared no effort to constantly discover new literary styles, excavate new cultural heritages and transplant new ideas to their motherland. Many translators translated classic works related to politics, philosophy, social system, literature and art of past glorious countries into their national languages as reference for the development of their own countries. All achievements in translation were compared to "trophies" in literature and knowledge. Next, we are to have a review on translations history of France, Britain and Germany, three major Western European countries in the high tide of Renaissance.

From the 14th century to the middle of the 17th century, it is the Renaissance, which refers to the rediscovery and Renaissance of ancient Greek and Roman literature, art and science. The word "Renaissance" was designed by Italian Humanists who tried to reaffirm their continuity with the heritage of classical humanism, which was a great intellectual and cultural revolution. This is also "the greatest progressive revolution that mankind has experienced so far, an era that needs giants and produces giants".

The Renaissance takes the dissemination of humanism as one of the main forms of expression, involving all aspects of the cultural field, including ancient Greek, Roman and contemporary European works. Translation obviously plays an important role in the study and revival of classical culture and the development and dissemination of new ideas. The brilliant renaissance itself included and relied on unprecedented translation activities. Therefore, it not only marks the great development of literature, art and science, but also an important milestone in the history of translation. (Engels 1972:445)

The Renaissance originated in Italy in the 15th century, The 16th century swept Europe (especially in Western European countries) and gradually reached a climax. At that time, western society was full of the spirit of pursuing and conquering the objective world. When this spirit was reflected in the field of translation, translators were full of ambition, spared no effort to constantly discover new styles, excavate new cultural heritage and transplant new ideas to their motherland. Many translators put the politics of past brilliant countries into practice , philosophy, social system, literature and art are translated into their own national language as a reference for their own development. All translation achievements are compared to "trophies" of literature and knowledge. Next, we will review the translation history of France, Britain and Germany in the climax of the Renaissance. --[[User:Liu Wei|Liu Wei]] ([[User talk:Liu Wei|talk]]) 12:52, 14 December 2021 (UTC)Liu Wei

==1.History of Translation in France==

In France, during this period, the wind of restoring ancient styles began to prevail, ancient languages were valued, and ancient writers were respected. A large number of literary works of Italian humanists, such as Dante, Petrarch and Boccaccio, were introduced to France, which opened people's eyes and promoted the development of French humanist movement. Therefore, the focus of translation in France shifted from religious works to Italian classical literature works. The increasingly translation activities constituted a climax of translation history in France.Translators generally believed that translating literary works was much more difficult than translating religious works. Although translation began to reach a new climax, most of the translations were the "by-products" of literary creation, with low quality and little influence. However, in the climax of translation in France in the 16th century, there were two outstanding contributors , one is Jacques Amyot and the other is Etienne Dolet.(Tan Zaixi,2000:21)

Jacques Amyot was considered the king of translation in France. His first translation, Heliodoros’ ''Aethiopica'', was completed in 1547. Later, he translated Diodorus Siculus’s ''Bibliotheca Historica'' and, in 1559 he translated Ploutarchos’s ''Vies des Hommes illustrus'', which was Amyot’s most famous work. Amyot advocated translators’ thorough understanding of the original text and plain expressions without embellishment. He emphasized the unity of content and form, free translation and literal translation. In his translation, he borrowed words from Greek and Latin and simultaneously created a large number of words in politics, philosophy, science, literature, music and so on. He fused common people language and academic language, and therefore formed an independent style of translation and greatly enriched the French vocabulary. At that time, the French language is still in a state of confusion, Amyot and other humanists made tremendous contributions to unify the French national language.

Another great man in translation history of France was Etienne Dolet. As a famous translation theorist, Dolet advocated targeted texts’ faithfulness to the original work, which is the fundamental and indispensable principle in translation. Dolet believed that an excellent translator must be proficient in both source language and target language. He was aware of the weakness of word-by-word translation and emphasized that the translation should be consistent with the original text in style through various rhetorical devices. Ballard,a French translation theorist, argued that dolet’ translation principles constituted the rudiment of the French translation theory. What he proposed was the universal principles for translation.(Xu Jun and Yuan Xiaoyi,1998:284)

Jacques Amyot set an example for the following translation works in France in the 16th century; Etienne Dolet’s translation theories were of great significance and were the first systematic principles of translation, which were ahead of those of Germany and Britain and advanced translation studies into a higher level. Thanks to their efforts, France had earned a place in translation history during Renaissance period.

==2. History of Translation in Britain==

In Britain, the Renaissance came later than in the main countries of continental Europe, but Britain gradually kept up with others countries. During this period, the British capitalist economy developed rapidly, productivity improved greatly, and the country became increasingly prosperous , which has laid a solid material foundation for the development of literature and translation. Especially since Elizabeth came to the throne in the mid-16th century by the early 17th century, translation was flourishing. On the one hand, religious translation is in the ascendant, on the other hand, a great deal of literature from Greece, Rome and other contemporary countries was translated into English, which made English translation activities in this period one of the peaks of translation activities in Europe and even the world. Literary translation ranged from history and philosophy to poetry and drama, with the occurrence of a large number of excellent translators,who introduced ancient ingenuity to Britain, offering serious lessons not only to the Queen and politicians, but also plots and materials for dramatists and readers with the purpose of serving their country. At that time, many translators were not scholars, they were not bound by any strict translation theory, they could translate what they had at their own will. Many translations are not directly from the original texts, but from the translations or even the translation of the translation. Therefore, the scope and quantity of translation are unprecedented in Britain.In the aspect of religious translation, the translator was also influenced by humanism and the Reformation, a new understanding of the Bible arose, as well as a new attitude and a new way of dealing with the translation of the Bible. People advocated accurate translation in religious works, while for literature, the unbridled freedom of traditional translation methods persisted throughout the Elizabethan era.(Tan Zaixi,2004:71)

In Britain, the Renaissance began later than the major countries in continental Europe, but Britain developed rapidly and produced many achievements.

During this period, the British capitalist economy developed rapidly, the productivity increased greatly, and the country prospered day by day, which laid a solid material foundation for the development of literature and translation. Especially since Elizabeth ascended the throne in the middle of the 16th century and the beginning of the 17th century, translation has developed vigorously. On the one hand, religious translation is in the ascendant. On the other hand, a large number of literary works from contemporary countries such as Greece and Rome have been translated into English, which makes English translation activities in this period one of the peaks of translation activities in Europe and even the world. Literary translation ranges from history and philosophy to poetry and drama. A large number of excellent translators have emerged. They introduced the originality of ancient times into Britain, which not only provided serious lessons for the queen and politicians, but also provided plot and materials for playwrights and readers, in order to serve the country. At that time, many translators were not scholars. They were not bound by any strict translation theory. They could translate what they had at will. Many translations are not directly from the original text, but from the translation, or even the translation of the translation. Therefore, the scope and quantity of translation are unprecedented in the UK. In religious translation, the translator has also been influenced by humanism and religious reform, has a new understanding of the Bible, and has a new attitude and method to the translation of the Bible. People advocate accurate translation in religious works, while in literary works, the unbridled freedom of traditional translation methods continued throughout the Elizabethan era. (Tan Zaixi, 2004:71) --[[User:Liu Wei|Liu Wei]] ([[User talk:Liu Wei|talk]]) 12:59, 14 December 2021 (UTC)Liu Wei

====2.1 Translation of Douglas and Cheke====

Gavin Douglas (1475-1522), a famous Scottish poet and translator, published his translation of Virgil’s epic Poem ''The Aeneid'' in the early 16th century. He began his preface with a eulogy of Virgil and then launched into a serious critique of the overly liberal medieval translation. He criticized Caxton's French translation as unfaithful, as far from Virgil's original work, and "as different from the devil as st. Austin" . Douglass did not translate word by word, but freely translated. He said that if translator encountered difficult words, sentences, rhymes, one had to deviate from the original text. Douglass had added new content and new meaning to translation principles, and thus had a certain value (Amos,1920:129)

Towards the middle of the 16th century, an important figure in translation was John Cheke (1514-1557). He was a humanist and supporter of the Reformation, as well as a polyglot authority on Greek at the time and served as Principal Regent Chair Professor at Cambridge university. As a result of his popularity, Cambridge became one of the academic centers in Britain, and its students were well versed in translation and language studies.Cheke was a tireless translator,who had translated many Greek works and the Bible. Characteristically, he used only pure English words or words of Saxon origin in any case, and did not adopt any foreign words. He thought the English language was rich enough without borrowing foreign words. Because of his insist on pure English words and expressions in his translation, he sometimes had to use vulgar, old and remote words, so that the style of his translation was sometimes forced and stiff.
Cheke's theory had a great influence on contemporary translators. Many other translators often mentioned Cheke's translation views in their own translations. At that time, the main criterion for evaluating a translated work was whether it was authentic and easy to be understood by compatriots. At the same time, the study of foreign grammar and contrastive vocabulary also appeared in language studies. The translator aimed to turn the translation into a textbook for students of language and translation to imitate. Some translators also use word-for-word translation to provide guidance to students. Abraham Fleming, for example, translated Virgil's Poems "according to grammatical rules." He "used plain and understandable words so as to accommodate those who are slow in comprehension, since the translator's aim is to use straightforward language structures to ease the difficulties of those whose grammatical concepts are vague, rather than to devise ways to satisfy the desires of grander humanists" (Amos,1920:109).

====2.2 Translation from Thomas North to Georga Chapman====

However, in the translation of classical masterpieces, translators tended to shift from one extreme to another. In order to avoid word-for-word translation, translators adopted excessively free translation, which was not only for the expression of words but also for the treatment of the substance of the content. Nicholas Udall(1505-1556) created the first British comedy ''Ralph Roister Doister''. In 1542 he translated Erasmus's ''Book of Proverbs'', and later presided over Erasmus's Latin translation, including the Gospel of Luke, which was published in 1548. In the preface to the translation of the ''New Testament'', he discussed various issues related to translation: the treatment of translators, the expansion of English vocabulary, the treatment of sentence structure of the translation, Erasmus's style and the stylistic characteristics of different authors. In his opinion, translation should not follow rigid rules. He advocated the use of liberal translation without deviation from the original meaning, and the translation should be readable and understandable to the general readers.

The most famous translation work of the whole Elizabethan period was the English version of ''The live of the Noble Grecians and Romans'' by translator Thomas North (1535-1601).He studied at Cambridge University in his early years, and later worked in London, where he met many translation lovers and gradually became interested in translation. In 1557 he translated ''Diall of Princes'' from a French translation and later he translated an oriental allegory from an Italian translated version in 1601. ''The live of the Noble Grecians and Romans'' was translated in 1579. This translation was not from the original Greek version, but from Amyot's French translation. However, it was still considered as an excellent epoch-making translation. North did not express any unique views on translation, but he was famous for his excellent translation in the western translation circle with three main characteristics:(1)because it is not from the original Greek, the style of the translation is different from Plutarch's style; The original text is elegant while his translation is plain. (2) North's style is also different from that of Amio in the French translation, which he used as a model. He not only changes the wording of the French translation, but also its spirit. Like Amio's French translation, North's is another masterpiece based on Plutarch's original subject. (3) Though he knew little of the classical language, North was a master of The English language, and his translations were so simple and fluent, so elegant and idiomatic, that readers might have taken them for the original if they had not read the plot. North's translation was praised by Shakespeare, who drew his inspirations from this translated works and cited its expressions, which can be considered a terrific contribution of translation to literature. The prose style adopted by ''The live of the Noble Grecians and Romans'' is novel and elegant, neither rigid nor grotesque, and hence it has become an enduring model in the history of English translation.(Tan Zaixi, 2004:76)

Philemon Holland (1552-1637) was the most outstanding English translator of the 16th century, whose works outnumbered those of his contemporaries. He had been a surgeon and headmaster of Coventry General School. He was a learned translator and scholar, fluent in Greek and Latin, proficient in ancient writing and proverbs, as well as rhetoric. His classical works were not translated but directly from the Original Greek and Latin texts, and the subject matter was also varied. He translated Livy's Romane Historie in 1600 and Pliny's Natural Historie in 1601, Plutarch's Moralia in 1603, and translated Zitonius's The Historie of The Twelve Caesars in 1606. Hollander is better known in British translation circles than North or Florio, known as the Elizabethan "translator general" who truly understood "the secret of translation." Holland's translation has two main characteristics :(1) translation must serve the reality; (2) Translation must be stylistic. In the preface to his translation of Natural History, he emphasized, "the practicality of the content of the translation, which should be suitable not only for learned people, but also for the uncivilized peasants in the countryside and for the industrious craftsmen in the cities”. Hollander was particular about the style of his translation. Like other translators of his time, he used a slow prose style, and the translation was always longer than the original. In his translation he tried to be authentic, not foreign. He does not use artificial language, but popular style. Like Cheke before him, he also preferred archaic words to foreign ones out of love for the language of his own country. What’s more, he believed that the style of the original work must be reflected in the translation, and that different works must adopt different styles without adding differences. Hollander had left behind more than just translations, but a series of works with distinctive stylistic characteristics that could withstand even the rigors of modern stylist analysis and provide the modern reader with great pleasure.(Amos,1920:86)

Georga Chapman (1559-1634) was another outstanding translator, whose greatest contribution is that his translations serve as a bridge between the 16th and 17th centuries. He spent his early years as a student at Oxford University before writing poetry and plays. But it was mainly his translations that made him famous in the literary world. He translated the first seven books of the Iliad in 1598, completed the epic in 1611, and the Odyssey in 1616. The translator's profound attainments and outstanding achievements made his translation a literary masterpiece of the time. Chapman adopted two different styles to translate the same poetic style of the original work, that is, he translated Iliad in sonnet and Odyssey in heroic couplet. In contrast, the former is more appropriate and decent than the latter. In his translation, Chapman made extensive use of mythological dictionaries, referred to early reviews of Homer's work. However, both in content and style, the translation is not completely consistent with the original work. It has transformed the characters in the poem, and added elements of moral preaching to the value of wisdom and the expression and restraint of feelings. Chapman is unblemished as a translator. As a poet, however, he was blameless. His translation has achieved great success mainly because of his extraordinary creative ability as a poet and superb ability to control language.
Chapman also made some contributions to the theoretical issues of translation. In the preface of his translation, he clearly put forward the principles guiding the translation of poetry, thus filling some gaps in translation theory in the 16th century, especially in the later period. In principle, he was against too much strictness as well as too much freedom. He said, "I despise the translators for being trapped in the mire of word-for-word translation, losing the living soul of their native language and blackening the original author with stiff language. At the same time, I abhors the use of complicated language to express the meaning” (Amos,1920:130) . Of all that he opposed, the first was word for word translation,which was considered the most unnatural and absurd. According to the views of translation theories such as Horace, who had insight and a prudent attitude that the translator should not follow the original number of words and word order, but follow its material composition and sentences, carefully weigh sentences, and then use the most appropriate expressions and form to express and decorate the translation. Chapman believed that word-by-word translation was a common fault of translators, and even he himself was inevitable. But those mistakes could be overcome. Although the expression of meaning and language style of Greek and English are different, the translator could compare the translation with the original text in meaning and style as long as he carefully identified, understood the spirit of the original text and had a thorough understanding of its grammar and vocabulary and thus approximately achieved "formal correspondence". Chapman's theory was carried on by many translators of the 17th and 18th centuries. This was obviously because he opposed both extremes, and it was easier to argue for a compromise.(Catford,1965:32)

====2.3 Translation of Tyndale and Fulke====

In the 16th century, the translation of the English Bible also flourished. Since the introduction of ethnic translation in the Middle Ages, the Bible had been increasingly read. It had the same appeal for all classes of people, which prompted translators to combine the accuracy required by scholars with the intelligibility required by ordinary people, thus promoting the overall development of translation art and theory. In this respect, religious translation in England in the 16th century was more effective than literary translation. Tyndale and Fulke were the main representatives of bible translation.

William Tyndale (1494-1536) was an erudite humanist and protestant reformist. In 1523, his translation of the New Testament from Greek from a Protestant standpoint was opposed and persecuted by the English church authorities and was not allowed to be published. He fled to Germany in 1524 and, after many twists and turns, had his translation first published in 1525. In 1526, he smuggled the translation back to England against the will of the Church, trying to spread Protestant ideas through the new translation of the Bible and convert The English people to Protestants. The church authorities immediately took measures to lay siege. The Bishop of London claimed to have found 2,000 errors in Tyndale's translation. Thomas More, a famous humanist, attacked his translation very unkindly, and the priests bought all the copies they could get and burned them to prevent their proliferation. Uncompromising, Tyndale continued to translate the Bible in his own way: he translated the first book of the Old Testament in 1530, completed The Book of Jonah in 1531, and published the revised New Testament in 1534. The church authorities had no choice but to burn Tyndale in 1536 for heresy.
Tyndale's translation, however, had not disappeared but was republished after Tyndale's martyrdom and became increasingly influential, serving as the main reference version and as the model for all English translations for centuries to come. The greatest achievement of Tyndale's translation is that it takes into account the needs of academe, conciseness and literariness, and integrates these three elements into the style of English translation of the Bible. Tyndale paid special attention to the popularity of the translation, trying to use the authentic English vocabulary and ordinary narrative expressions of vivid and specific expressions, which makes his text simple and natural without being pedantic.(Tan Zaixi,2004:80)

If Tyndale made a special contribution to the practical translation of the Bible in the 16th century, then it was William Fulke (1538-1589)who made the greatest achievements in the theoretical study of bible translation. Fulke was a scholar of The Bible with humanistic thoughts. Without translating the Bible completely, he had great views on translation theory. In 1589 he published a book entitled in Defence of the Sincere and True Translation of the Holy Scriptures into the English Tongue. It must be pointed out that Fulke did not systematically discuss the universal principles of translation as Dolet did. Instead, he only talked about the facts and refuted Gregory Martin's views, and expounded the theoretical issues in a rather chaotic manner. To sum up, there were mainly two aspects as follows:
(1)Translation can have nothing to do with faith. Fulke, influenced by Erasmus's linguistic approach, disagreed with Martin's assertion of theological authority over scientific scholarship. Translators, he believed, must be fluent in many languages so that they could make accurate judgments about the teachings of the saints without blindly following them. The power of a translator lies in his solid linguistic ability, not in his belief in God. He said, The translator cannot be called an unfaithful heretic as long as the translation conforms to the language and meaning of the original text, even if the motive is not good (Amos,1920:71). Fulke never accepted Martin's strict translation formulas, nor did he submit to unproven authoritative theories, even from the leaders of his own faction. Fulke’s point of view is obviously a challenge to the theological authority of Augustine with its purpose to liberate the Bible translation from the narrow theological tradition and win the right for ordinary people to translate and interpret the Bible.
(2)The Translation of the Bible must respect linguistic habits. If the translator has difficulty in understanding the original text, he/she should turn to the language habits of ancient non-religious writers, while one encounters difficulties in diction, translator should refer to the language habits of contemporary secular writers and the general public. Fulke added: "We are not lords dictating the way people speak. If we were, we would teach them how to use language better. Since we cannot change the way people speak, we have to follow Aristotle's instructions and use the language of ordinary people." Therefore, religious usage should give way to common usage if it is in conflict with common usage. In translation, words and expressions that are most easily understood must be used so that those who do not know their etymological meaning can understand them. At the same time, if words have been misused over a long period of time, with meanings that do not correspond to the original meaning of the words, or have been misused to increase the ambiguity of the words, the translator should not follow blindly, but should look to the root and choose the words according to their original meaning, that is, according to the meaning used in the time when the Bible was written. In translating the Bible into English, Fulke did not advocate excessive borrowing of foreign words but tapping the expressive potential of English itself and paying attention to the use of expressions in line with English habits. Fulke acknowledged that English had a small vocabulary compared with older languages, but argued that this could not be compensated for by making up words, but by using Old English words again.
Clearly, some of Mr Fulke's views are limited and conservative. Many of the foreign words he objects to have been adopted as part of the English vocabulary. But many of his criticisms of Martin are convincing, and his work has been generally praised by the translators of the Bible. Some of his observations on language are so incisive that they are still of great reference value to the study of modern English.(Amos,1920:72)

==3.History of Translation in Germany==

In Germany, the national self-consciousness was further strengthened, and the trend of mechanical imitation of Latin gradually disappeared in the 15th century.

====3.1 Dominant Ideas in German Translation====

Linguists realized the unique style and expressive ability of German, and hence shifted the focus of translation from the original language to the target language. Free translation took the place of word-to-word translation and occupied the dominant position. The only reason for translators to object literal translation is its convenience for readers to understand word-by-word translation.
Gradually, scholars recognized that Hebrew, Greek, and Latin all have distinct features, especially in terms of idiomatic expressions. Similarly, since German is an independent language, it also has its own unique expressions that cannot be translated word by word into other languages, nor can expressions in other languages be translated word by word into German. Based an an understanding of the nature and differences of languages as well as a growing sense of nationality and desire to develop the national language, more and more historians and scholars have begun to use German idiomatic expressions rather than imitate Latin.
Against the background of this trend of thought, the free translators gradually changed their inferiority in the debates with the literal translators in the 15th century, and rightly put forward another profound reason against literal translation: German is an independent language with its own rules that must be respected; German has its own language style, which cannot be destroyed by imitation of other languages. This was the dominant idea in German translation throughout the 16th century.

====3.2 Translation of Reuchlin, Erasmus and Luther====

Johannes Reuchlin(1455-1522) aroused great academic interest in Hebrew. In 1515, he wrote Epistolae Obscurorum Virorum, exposing the narrow-mouthing ignorance of the scholars and monks, which led to a fierce debate between the reformers and conservatives in the church. At the same time, he was also very knowledgeable about translation theory. He mainly translated two works, ''Batrachom Yomachia'' (1510) and ''Septem Psalmos Poenitentiales'' (1512), using word-for-word translation. This contradicts his own remarks about translation.
However, its actual content and general principles could not be compared to those of the literal translation school in the 15th century. The literatrists of the 15th century only emphasized the imitation of certain rhetorical forms of the text, while Reuchlin understood the value of rhythm and the difference between the text and the translation. He believed that the form of the original was so closely integrated with the original that it could not be preserved in the target language. Just like Homer's works alive only in Greek, it would detract from the aesthetic value of literature when translated into any other language. The purpose of literal translation was not to ask the translator to imitate the style of the original text, but to make readers pay attention to the style of the original text and appreciate its literary value.(Tan Zaixi,2004:56)

Another outstanding representatives of a new approach to literary study and new insights into translation theory in the 16th century was Desiderius Erasmus (1466-1536), who was born in a priest's family in Rotterdam, Netherlands. His early education was influenced by The Canon of Augustine. After studying in Paris, he lived successively in Britain, Germany, Italy and Switzerland, accepting humanism and opposing scholasticism. He was knowledgeable, good at language studies, and had profound attainments in Greek and Latin literature, especially his incisive treatises on literature and style.
Erasmus advocated that the original work must be respected. Before Erasmus, the Translation of the Bible in Various European countries was in a state of confusion. Erasmus bitterly pointed out that the translation and commentary of the Bible must be faithful to the original text, because no translation can fully translate the "language of God" as the Bible itself. Early theologians did not understand Hebrew or Greek and could not understand the original text of the Bible, so the truth of the Bible was covered up, distorted, or ossified into dogma. To uncover this truth, we must go back to the source. It is truth, not authority, that should be respected. What’s more, he claimed that translator must have a rich knowledge of language. He believed that to interpret the ''New Testament'' correctly it was necessary to learn ancient Greek; Anyone who wished to pursue theological studies must first be able to read the classics and learn Greek semantics, meanings, and rhetoric. Also, he realized the great importance of style in translation and attached great importance to readers’ requirements. There is no doubt that Erasmus' translation theory is the result of his humanistic thought, his mastery of multiple languages as well as his appreciation of literary styles. His translation principles and methods have exerted great influence on both contemporary and later translators.

Martin Luther (149-146) was the founder of the European Religious Reform movement and the Protestant Church reformer. Luther translated the Bible, known as “the first bible of common people” in the history by using the people's language, which played a great role in unifying the German language and laid a foundation for the formation and development of modern German.
He also proposed that translation should adopt common people language and only appropriate free translation can bring the original enlightening thoughts of Bible into light. (Luther,1530:124) Grammatical correction and semantic coherence were of great value during translation. Translation was so challenging that it requires collective wisdom and repeatedly revisions.
Luther had also put forward seven rules for translation: the word order of the original text can be changed; modal particles can be used reasonably; necessary conjunctions can be added; words in the original text that do not have an equivalent can be omitted; phrases can be used to translate individual words; figurative usage and non-figurative usage can be changed flexibly; the accuracy of variant forms and explanations should be strengthened. Although Luther’s translation practice received a great deal of criticism, his translation of Bible his was considered to be the earliest written language in German and opened a new era in the development of modern German. It endowed him with the highest reputation and the most profound influence in Germany.(Xie Tianzhen,2009:23)

==Conclusion==
It could be seen from the above sections that one of the biggest characteristics of Western translation during the Renaissance was the parallel and independent development of the translation of western European national languages. The use of Latin, though still having some market, was a tributary in both writing and translation. Before the Renaissance, especially before the middle ages, when we talked about western translation, we mostly meant translation in Latin. Since the Renaissance, with the gradual formation and consolidation of national states and the development of national languages, western translation had turned to national languages,especially French, English and German.The translation activities in the Renaissance period were basically devoid of disciplinary consciousness, and the theories were fragmentary and unsystematic. Most of the authors were translation practitioners, and most of the theories were empirical. Thanks to the translators in these three countries who were devoted themselves to the study of translation principles and the transmission of classic works, their consistant and pain-staking efforts had pushed the translation theory to anew level and left countlessly valueable translated works.Therefore, the Renaissance could be said to be a turning point in the history of western translation. In short, the Renaissance marks that the translation of national languages has been firmly on the historical stage, and that translation practice and theory have broken away from the dark Middle Ages.It also laid a solid foundation for the contemporary translation. (Pan Wenguo,2002:23)

As can be seen from the above chapters, in the Renaissance, the greatest feature of western translation theory was the parallel and independent development of Western European national language translation. Although before the Renaissance, especially before the middle ages, when we talk about western translation, we mainly refer to Latin translation. However, since the Renaissance, with the gradual formation and consolidation of the nation-state and the development of national languages, western translation has turned to national languages, especially French, English and German.

However, we have to pay attention to the shortcomings of translation activities in the Renaissance. First, translators' translation theories are scattered and fragmented, lacking discipline consciousness and systematicness. Second, most translators are empirical, and the quality of their works is uneven.

Because the translators of these three countries are committed to the study of translation principles and the dissemination of classical works, their unremitting efforts have pushed translation theory to a new height and left countless valuable translation works. Therefore, the Renaissance can be said to be a turning point in the history of western translation. In short, the Renaissance marks that the translation of national languages has been firmly on the historical stage, and the translation practice and theory have been separated from the dark middle ages. This has also laid a solid foundation for contemporary translation. (Pan Wenguo, 2002:23) --[[User:Liu Wei|Liu Wei]] ([[User talk:Liu Wei|talk]]) 13:11, 14 December 2021 (UTC)Liu Wei

==References==
Amos, F. R. (1920). Early Theories of Translation[M]. New York: Columbia University Press.

Benjamin, Andrew. (1989). Translation and the Nature of Philosophy: A New Theory of Words[M]. London and New York: Routledge.

Catford,J.C.(1965) A Linguistic Theory of Translation[M].New York: Oxford University Press.

Dolet, Etienne. (1540). How to Translate Well from One Language to Another[M]. Robinson.

Frederick Engels. (1883) The Dialects of Nature[M]. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

Luther, Martin. (1530). Sendbrief vom Dolmetschen[M]. Stoerig.

M.A.R. Habib. (2011) Literary Criticism from Plato to the Present: An Introduction[M]. New Jersey: Wiley-Blackwell Publishing.

Munday, Jeremy. (2001). Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications[M]. London and New York: Routledge.

Pan Wenguo 潘文国.(2002) 当代西方的翻译学研究[J] Contemporary Translation Studies in the West.中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal,31-34.

Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2000). 翻译学[M] Translation Studies. 武汉：湖北教育出版社 Wuhan: Hubei Educational Press.

Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2004).西方翻译简史[M] A Short History of Translation in the West. 北京：商务印书馆 Beijing: The Commercial Press.

Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2003). 翻译研究新视野[M] New Perspective for Translation Studies. 青岛：青岛出版社 Qingdao: Qingdao Publishing.

Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2009).中西翻译简史[M] A Brief History of Translation in China and the West.北京:北京外语教学与研究出版社 Beijing:Foreign Language Teachinng and Research Press.

Xu Jun, Yuan Xiaoyi 许钧，袁筱一. (1998). 当代法国翻译理论[M] Contemporary Translation Thoery in France.南京：南京大学出版社 Nanjing: Nanjing University.

=刘薇 Contemporary American Translation History)=

Liu Wei 刘薇 Hunan Normal University, China

==Abstract==
The United States is an important part of the "West", so when we talk about the conception of "West", it is impossible not to include the United States.Therefore, this chapter combs the development of contemporary American translation by introducing a series of theories of American Translators.

The United States is an important part of the "West", so when we talk about the conception of "West", it is impossible to exclude the United States.Therefore, this chapter recapitulates the development of contemporary American translation by introducing a series of theories of American Translators. (corrected by--[[User:Zhou Junhui|Zhou Junhui]] ([[User talk:Zhou Junhui|talk]]) 08:48, 14 December 2021 (UTC))

==Key words==
translation theory of American, Eugene Nida,Robert Boogrand.

==Introduction==

In the field of translation studies, the situation in the United States is very special.Since the history of the United States itself is not long, we can not expect to talk about "ancient American translation theory", "medieval American translation theory", or even "modern American translation theory".American translation theory is mainly the "contemporary translation theory", which is developed after World War II (Guo Jianzhong, [introduction]: 2).Although the development of American translation theory is relatively short, there are still many influential translation theorists, such as Eugene Nida, Robert Boogrand, Andre Leverville, Lawrence Venudi, Edwin Gentzler and so on. They are constantly innovating and developing new theories in the field of translation.

In the field of translation studies, the situation in the United States is very special.Since the history of the United States itself is not long, we can not expect to talk about "ancient American translation theory", "medieval American translation theory", or even "modern American translation theory".American translation theory is mainly the "contemporary translation theory", which is developed after World War II (Guo Jianzhong, [introduction]: 2).Although the development of American translation theory is relatively short, there are still many influential translation theorists, such as Eugene Nida, Robert Boogrand, Andre Leverville, Lawrence Venudi, Edwin Gentzler and so on. They are constantly innovating and developing new theories in the field of translation. (corrected by --[[User:Zhou Junhui|Zhou Junhui]] ([[User talk:Zhou Junhui|talk]]) 08:48, 14 December 2021 (UTC))

==Chapter1 Characteristics of the local American translation theory ==

The development of contemporary American translation theory has three main characteristics: first, it inherits the tradition of European translation theory in terms of overall research methods;Second, the early studies were mostly influenced by the schools of American structural linguistics;Third, there is a tendency to catch up in research results.These characteristics are discussed one by one below.(Tan Zaixi,1999:237)

On the first point, the inheritance of European tradition in the overall research method of American translation theory is due to its unique language and cultural tradition.As an integral part of the whole culture, translation culture naturally presents the basic characteristics of the development of the whole culture.Since the American culture with English as the national language is mainly inherited from European culture, the development of American translation culture, as an integral part of American culture, also inherits European translation culture.Especially in the early stage of the development of American translation theory, many influential people engaged in translation studies were immigrants from Europe or descendants of recent European immigrants.

Take Thorman as an example: his translation theory work the art of translation published in 1901 is one of the earliest published works in the field of American translation theory, but the contents and discussion methods involved in the book have no obvious "American characteristics".On the contrary, it is more like a work belonging to Europe, especially the British translation tradition. Even the examples in the book are similar to the European, especially the British translation tradition.

The second characteristic of the tradition of American translation theory is that the early studies were greatly influenced by the schools of American structural linguistics, which can be said to be a more distinctive "American characteristic" in American translation studies.

American linguistic studies are at the forefront of the West in many aspects. There have been many linguistic schools, such as human language school, structuralism school, transformational generative school and so on. All kinds of schools have also had various direct or indirect effects on American translation studies.

The representative of American structuralist language school is Bloomfield. He adopts the method of behaviorism and believes that everything about language can be studied scientifically and objectively.He put forward a behaviorist semantic analysis method, which holds that meaning is the relationship between stimulus and language response.In 1950s, Chomsky's transformational generative theory replaced Bloomfield's theory and occupied the dominant position in American linguistics theory and occupied the dominant position in American linguistics.The influence of Chomsky's theory on translation studies mainly lies in his discussion of surface structure and deep structure.The concept of "deep" has led to large-scale semantic research. Because semantics is closely related to translation research, Chomsky's theory has promoted the development of translation theory in the United States and even the whole west.(Xie Tianzhen ,2003:200)

Therefore, under the influence of various linguistic theories, many people try to put forward new translation concepts and research methods. These people can be collectively referred to as the structural School of American translation theory.Among them, the main characters include Wojilin, Bolinger, Katz, Quinn and Eugene Nida.

Take Wojilin as an example. He is a human linguist.His greatest contribution is to put forward a multi-step translation method (also known as step-by-step translation method).The biggest advantage of his multi-step translation method is that the steps are clear, flexible and easy to master.

Using Chomsky's transformational generative theory, Boringer puts forward a concept of structural translation as opposed to lexical translation.Based on structural linguistics, Katz makes a profound analysis of the translatability of language and the philosophical problems in language and translation.Based on the discussion of strange language, Quinn expounds some basic problems of translation from the perspective of philosophy, which has aroused great repercussions in the field of western translation theory.(Tan Zaixi,1999:250)

The third characteristic of the development of American translation theory is that it has a tendency to catch up with others in research results.One of the most prominent scholars is Eugene Nida. Although he is an outstanding linguist, his views on "translation is science", "translation is communication", "translation must pay attention to reader response" and other aspects are an innovation and breakthrough to the previous views. In addition, after Eugene Nida, many scholars have put forward many new views because of their existence,It was only after World War II that American translation theory continued to catch up.

Therefore, we will focus on him in the next chapter.

On the first point, the inheritance of European tradition in the overall research method of American translation theory is due to its unique language and cultural tradition.As an integral part of the whole culture, translation culture naturally presents the basic characteristics of the development of the whole culture.Since the American culture with English as the national language is mainly inherited from European culture, the development of American translation culture, as an integral part of American culture, also inherits European translation culture.Especially in the early stage of the development of American translation theory, many influential people engaged in translation studies were immigrants from Europe or descendants of recent European immigrants.(corrected by --[[User:Zhou Junhui|Zhou Junhui]] ([[User talk:Zhou Junhui|talk]]) 08:48, 14 December 2021 (UTC))

==Chapter2 Eugene Nida's translation theory==

Eugene Albert Nida (1914 -) was born in Oklahoma City in the south central United States. He graduated from the University of California, Los Angeles in 1936. In 1943, he worked in Bloomfield and fries (Charles fries received his doctorate in linguistics under the guidance of two famous scholars. As the leading translation theory figure in contemporary America, Nida has also engaged in research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology and communication engineering. Before his retirement in the 1980s, he worked in the Translation Department of the American Holy Bible Association and served as the executive secretary of the translation department for a long time. He is mainly engaged in the Bible Organization of translation and revision of translations and the Bible Training and theoretical guidance for translators. He is proficient in many languages and has investigated and studied more than 100 languages, especially some small languages in Africa and Latin America. In 1968, he served as the president of the American language society. Although he does not take teaching as his career, he has extremely rich experience in Translation training and lecturing. In addition to a long-term part-time job, he speaks linguistics in the famous American summer In addition to teaching linguistics and translation courses in the Institute, he also served as a guest lecturer and professor in many American universities. He was often invited to give short-term lectures in Europe, Latin America, Africa and Asia, and won several honorary doctorates. In order to recognize his contribution to translation research, especially in the field of Bible translation research, the American Bible Association named the Institute after him in 2001 In particular, Nida has deep feelings for China. Since 1982, he has been invited to give lectures in China more than ten times, and has maintained close academic contacts and exchanges with many schools and academic colleagues in China for a long time.(Tan Zaixi,2000:247)

Nida is a prolific language and translation theorist. From 1945 to 2004, he published more than 200 articles and more than 40 works (including works cooperated and edited with others). Among them, there are more than 20 works on language and translation theory, and a collection of papers has been published.

His research achievements include "Toward a Science of Translating" published in 1964, "The Theory and Practice of Translation" Co authored with Charles Taber in 1969, "Com ponential Analysis of Meaning " published in 1975 and "language structure and Translation" . Nida's anthology "Language Structure and Translation : Essays by Eugene A. Nida，ed. by Anwar S. Dil" , "From One Language to Another" , co authored with de warrd in 1986, "The Sociolinguistics of Interlingual Communication" , published in 1996 and published in 2001 "Language and Culture :Contertsin Translating" .(Xie Tianzhen.2003:212)

Throughout Nida's translation thought, we can divide it into three main development stages: the linguistic stage with obvious American structuralism in the early stage, the stage of translation science and translation communication in the middle stage, and the stage of social semiotics.

The first major stage is the linguistic stage, from 1943 when he wrote his doctoral thesis "a summary of English syntax" to 1959 when he published "principles of translation from biblical translation".At this stage, he tries to clarify the structural nature of language through the description of syntax, morphology and language translation.In his early days, he was greatly influenced by American structuralist Bloomfield and human linguist Sapir, and paid attention to the collection and analysis of language materials in language research.Through the opportunity to visit and contact different languages all over the world, many examples of speech differences are collected.However, he does not regard speech differences as insurmountable obstacles between languages, but as different phenomena of the same essence.

The second development stage of Nida's translation thought is the stage of translation science and translation communication. It took 10 years from the publication of "principles of translation from biblical translation" in 1959 to the publication of "translation theory and practice" in 1969.The research achievements at this stage have played a key role in establishing Nida's authoritative position in the whole western translation theory circle.
By summarizing this main development period, the main contents of the following five aspects can be summarized:

（一）Translation science.Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill, but also a science.The so-called science here means that translation problems can be handled by "scientific approaches to language structure, semantic analysis and information theory", that is, a linguistic and descriptive method can be adopted to explain the translation process.If the principles and procedures of translation seem to be normative, it is only because they are generally considered to be the most useful in a specific scope of translation.Nida's view that "translation is science" has had great repercussions in the field of western linguistics and translation theory.

（二） Translation communication theory. Nida applies communication theory and information theory to translation studies and holds that translation is communication. After World War II, not only advertisers, politicians and businessmen attached great importance to the intelligibility of language, but also scholars, writers, editors, publishers and translators realized that any information would be worthless if it could not play a communicative role. Therefore, to judge whether a translation is successful, we must first see whether it can be immediately understood by the recipient and whether it can play a role in the communication of ideas, information and feelings. Therefore, in the field of translation research, various names and statements such as "communicative translation", "functional translation" and related "equal response theory", "equal effect theory", "equal role theory" and "equal power theory" have sprung up one after another. Nida's "translation is communication" and his "reader response theory" and "dynamic equivalence" discussed below“ "Functional equivalence" has become an important representative of the communicative school in the field of western translation studies.

Nida's theory of "translation is communication" is based on the theory of language commonality. Nida, like Jacobson, believes that all languages in the world have the same expression ability, which can enable native speakers of the language to express ideas, describe the world and carry out social communication. His argument is based on the same "identity" For example, in countries with relatively developed productive forces, many scientific and technological words will appear in their languages, while in countries with less developed or very low productive forces, there may be a lack of scientific and technological words in their languages. However, this does not mean that the latter has the same expressive ability as the former, but only shows that people have different requirements for languages in different languages, It is not because the language cannot produce scientific and technological vocabulary, but because the speakers of the language do not have or temporarily do not have the requirement to use scientific and technological vocabulary. Once there is such a requirement, there will be corresponding vocabulary in the language, or "native" scientific and technological vocabulary, or "foreign" vocabulary transplanted from foreign words. In short, the expression efficiency of various languages is the same.

Nida believes that the primary task of translation is to make it clear to the readers at a glance after reading the translation. That is to say, the translation should be fluent and natural, and the readers can understand it without the knowledge of the cultural background of the source language. This requires that rigid foreign words should be used as little as possible in translation, and expressions belonging to the receiving language should be used as much as possible. For example, in a Sudanese language, for If the expression "repent and reform" is translated directly, it will make people feel at a loss, and it should be translated into the local familiar "spitting on the ground in front of someone". For example, in the language without "Snow", white as snow may be puzzling, but it should be said "white as frost" or "white as egret hair" Another example is that in the ancient West, the habit of people meeting and greeting each other was "sacred kiss", but now it should become "very warm handshake".(Nida·Eugene,1996:234）

In a sense, the theory of translation communication is not only one of the main symbols of Nida's second development stage of translation thought, but also one of the biggest characteristics of his whole ideological system.Especially after the publication of translation theory and practice, Nida's translation communication theory has had a great impact on the western translation circles, including those in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union.

（三） Dynamic equivalence theory.The so-called dynamic equivalence translation is actually translation under the guidance of translation communication theory. Specifically, it refers to "reproducing the source language information with the closest (original) natural equivalence in the receiving language from semantics to style".In this definition, there are three key points: one is "nature", which means that the translation cannot have a translation cavity;The second is "close", which refers to selecting the translation with the closest meaning to the original text on the basis of "nature";The third is "equivalence", which is the core.Both "nature" and "close" serve to find equivalents.

（四） Translation function theory.From the perspective of sociolinguistics and language communicative function, Nida believes that translation must serve the reader.To judge whether a translation is correct or not, we must take the reader's response as the criterion.If the response of the target readers is basically the same as that of the original readers, the translation can be considered successful.

（五） Four step model.This refers to the translation process.Nida puts forward that the process of translation is: analysis, transfer (transfer the meaning obtained from the analysis from the source language to the receiving language), reorganization (reorganize the translation according to the rules of the receiving language), and inspection (detect the target text against the source text).Among these four steps, "analysis" is the most complex and key, which is the focus of Nida's translation research.The focus of the analysis is semantics. He distinguishes four parts of speech from the perspective of semantics: object words, activity words, abstract words and relational words.In semantic analysis, he introduced three methods: linear analysis, hierarchical analysis and component analysis.In the specific analysis of semantics, he focuses on grammatical meaning, referential meaning and connotative meaning (or emotional meaning and associative meaning).These distinction theories are of great significance to understand his translation thought.

Nida's research achievements in the 1980s can be regarded as the third stage of translation thought.He has made a series of modifications and supplements to his translation theory.He did not completely abandon the theory of the original communicative school, but further developed on the original basis and incorporated the useful elements of the original theory into a new model, which is the social semiotics model in the third development stage translation thought.

Compared with previous works, Eugene Nida has the following four changes and developments in from one language to another: first, based on the translation theory of social semiotics, he emphasizes that everything in the text has meaning, including speech form, so form cannot be easily sacrificed.That is to say, form is also meaningful. Sacrificing form means sacrificing meaning.Secondly, it points out that the rhetorical features of language play an important role in language communication, so we must pay attention to these features in translation.Third, the theory of "dynamic equivalence" is no longer used, but replaced by "functional equivalence", which is intended to make the meaning of the term clearer and easier to understand.Fourth, instead of using the distinction of grammatical meaning, referential meaning and associative meaning, meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, and all kinds of meaning are divided into referential meaning and associative meaning.From the whole historical process of the development of translation theory, it should be said that these changes are basically positive.(Nida·Eugene,1996:222）

Of course, his theory and works are not perfect.First, his theory focuses too much on solving the problems of communicative and intelligibility of translation, so its scope of application is limited.It is natural to emphasize the intelligibility of the translation in the field of Bible translation, but if the intelligibility of the translation is always put in the first place in the translation of secular literary works, it will inevitably lead to the simplification and even non literariness of the translated language.

Second, he no longer completely negates "formal correspondence", but believes that the expression form of the original text cannot be broken at will in translation.In order to expand the scope of application of his theory, he also added rhetoric.However, despite his amendments, he failed to elaborate more deeply on his new views.

Thirdly, Eugene Nida once put forward the proposition that "translation is science", and then basically abandoned this proposition.Whether he put forward or gave up, he did not put forward sufficient and convincing arguments, which can not be said to be a major defect.

Of course, Nida's theory and works are not perfect. Firstly, his theory focuses too much on solving the problems of communicative and intelligibility of translation, so its scope of application is limited. It is natural to emphasize the intelligibility of the translation in the field of Bible translation, but if the intelligibility of the translation is always put in the first place in the translation of secular literary works, it will inevitably lead to the simplification and even non literariness of the translated language. Newmark, a British translation theorist, once pointed out: "if we delete all the metaphors in the Bible that Doneda believes readers cannot understand, it will inevitably lead to a large loss of meaning." . an important feature of literary works is that they use more metaphorical and novel language. The author's real intention may have to taste and capture between the lines. If all the metaphorical images in the original work are deleted and all the associative meanings are clearly stated, the result will be that the translation is easy to understand, but it is dull and can't reach To the purpose of literature. In recent years, Nida has become more and more aware of this, and has constantly revised and improved some of his past views. For example, he later no longer focused on the intelligibility of the translation, but advocated a "three nature principle", that is, the principle of paying equal attention to comprehensibility, readability and acceptability. In addition, he no longer completely denied "formal correspondence" In order to expand the scope of application of his theory, he especially added rhetoric. However, despite Nida's amendments, he failed to make a more profound exposition of his new views; he was only aware of the existence of the problem rather than successfully solving the relevant problems Besides, Nida once put forward the proposition that "translation is science", and then basically gave up this proposition. Whether he put forward or gave up, he did not put forward sufficient and convincing arguments, which is a major defect.

Of course, flaws do not hide the jade. Looking at Nida's lifelong contributions, he is one of the most outstanding theoretical figures in the field of contemporary translation studies in the United States and even the whole west. The historical theory of the development of western translation theory should give him a heavy pen.(Tan Zaixi,2000:257)

==Chapter3 Robert Boogrand's translation theory==

Since the 1970s, more voices outside the structural language school and the communicative school have gradually emerged in the field of translation studies in the United States, especially the voice of discourse linguistics theory and discourse analysis represented by Robert Boogrand.
Boogrand teaches in the English Department of the University of Florida and is engaged in the study of literary discourse rhetoric and grammatical structure.In 1978, he published a book called "elements of translation theory of poetry"), which was listed as one of the Translation Studies Series edited by Holmes and attracted extensive attention.(Xie Tianzhen,2003:56)

Boogrand's view is: 1. The unit of translation is not a single word or sentence, but the whole text.2. Translation is a process of interaction among authors, translators and readers.3. What is worth studying is not the characteristics of the article itself, but the skills of language use reflected in these characteristics.

After the publication of the above translation theory works guided by the thought of discourse linguistics in 1978, Boogrand continued to engage in the research of language and translation along the same line, and more than ten relevant works (including Works CO authored and co edited with others) have been published successively, mainly including discourse, discourse and process: multidisciplinary discourse science exploration Linguistic Theory: Discourse of basic works, introduction to discourse linguistics, language discourse, Western and Middle East translation Boogrand has always expounded language and translation from the perspective of discourse linguistics, thus establishing his important position as the leader of discourse linguistics in the field of British and American translation studies. Boogrand's contribution as one of the pioneers of discourse analysis and discourse linguistics in translation studies is very important and worthy of full recognition.(Tan Zaixi,2000:256)

==Chapter4 Andre Lefevere's translation theory==

With the development of the times, translation studies in the United States, like other parts of the west, have been continuously improved in theoretical depth. By the 1990s, the focus of theorists' discussion on translation has gradually separated from the previous specific translation processes and methods, and turned more to the fundamental nature of translation, translation and ideology, translation and culture. This chapter introduces Andre Leverville's translation theory.
Andre Leverville, a professor of translation and comparative literature at the University of Texas at Austin, originally from Belgium, is a very important theoretical figure in the field of Contemporary Western comparative literature and translation research. We can discuss his main ideas from the following two aspects.(Tan Zaixi,2000:276)

(一)The cultural turn in translation studies. It is a common feature of all cultural schools to turn the focus of translation studies from the language structure and language form correspondence that language schools are most concerned about to the meaning and function of the target text and the source text in their respective cultural systems. He believes that any literature must survive in a certain social and cultural environment, and its meaning and value Value, as well as its interpretation and acceptance, will always be affected and restricted by a series of interrelated and mutually referenced factors, including both internal and external factors of literature. Therefore, as far as translation research is concerned, the goal of the research is far from limited to exploring the equivalence or equivalence of the two texts in language forms, but to explore at the same time.Study various cultural issues directly or indirectly related to translation activities.

（二） The concept of manipulation in translation. When talking about and describing the basic characteristics of the cultural school, we often can not do without using the word "manipulation". Here, "manipulation"It is not emotional, but a special term representing the concept of neutrality. According to the translation operation of Andre Leverville and others, the core meaning is that in the process of processing the source text and generating the target text, the translator has the right and will rewrite the text in order to achieve a certain purpose. Andre Leverville believes that translation is a reflection of the image of the text.Other literary forms such as literary criticism, biography, literary history, drama, film, fiction and so on are also the rewriting of the text image, and rewriting is the manipulation of the text.

（三） Obviously, the manipulative rewriting in Lefevere and his cultural school theory is not simply equivalent to "Rewriting" in the general sense, because in his view, all translation is rewriting, even the "most faithful"Translation is also a form of rewriting. As a translation manipulator, this rewriting or manipulation should be regarded as a cultural necessity in essence. In the process of translation, the translator is bound to be affected and restricted by various social and cultural factors. In addition to considering all the characteristics related to the source text, such as the original author's intention, the context of the source text and so on, the more important thing is toIt is necessary to consider a series of factors related to the target or receiving culture, such as the purpose of translation, the function of the target text, the expectations and reactions of readers, the requirements of clients and sponsors, and the review of the publishing and distribution organization of the work. The existence of these factors and the degree of constraints imposed by the translator on them vary from person to person constitute the inevitable "manipulation" condition of the translator on the text.(Lefevere·André,1980:100).

For "manipulation" in this sense, we can not judge it by moral value words such as "legitimate" or "improper", but only by the "appropriateness" criteria such as whether the target text has achieved the purpose of translation, whether it meets the expectations of the audience, and whether it can be accepted by the accepted culture.

==Chapter5 Lawrence Venudi's translation theory==

It is precisely because the cultural school or manipulation school, and even the polysystem school, in translation studies have established a relationship with the theory of domestication and Foreignization in translation, that a new group of scholars and viewpoints have emerged. In the field of American translation studies, Lawrence Wenudi is the most vocal theoretical figure on the issues of "domestication" and "Foreignization".
As an English professor at Temple University in Philadelphia, winudi is one of the most active and influential figures in the field of American translation theory since the 1990s. Winudi belongs to the deconstruction school in translation studies, that is, what genzler calls the "post structuralism school"In his works on translation studies, Venuti advocates that literary translation should not aim at eliminating alien features, but should try to show cultural differences in the target text.(Tan Zaixi,2000:278)

Venuti's main view is that it is wrong to require the translator to be invisible in translation; the translator should not be invisible in the translation, but should be visible. That is to say, translation should adopt the principle and strategy of "alienation" to keep the translation exotic and exotic, and read like the translation, rather than "domestication"So that the translation can be transformed completely in accordance with the ideology and creative norms of the target culture. It doesn't read like foreign works, but the original of the target language.(Xie Tianzhen,2003:278).

However, translation has never been carried out in an unaffected way. Foreignization translation and domestication translation are actually the products of translation activities affected. From the perspective of translation ethics, it is difficult to assert which is good or which is bad, because translation reality shows that the two play irreplaceable roles in the target language and culture and complete their respective missions.Therefore, the two kinds of translation will always coexist and complement each other.(Tan Zaixi,2000:279)

==Chapter6 Edwin Gensler's translation theory==

Edwin Genzler is the director of the translation center of Amherst University of Massachusetts, doctor of comparative literature and professor of translation. His famous translation work is contemporary translation theory published in 1993 and reprinted in 2001.(Xie Tianzhen,2003:290).

Genzler's contribution to translation theory is mainly reflected in the following three aspects:
First, it comprehensively combs the contemporary western translation theories, so as to clarify people's understanding of various western translation theory schools since World War II, and thus arouse the research interest in all kinds of contemporary western translation theories in the field of translation studies (including China's Translation Studies).In contemporary translation theory, Genzler studies translation from different perspectives such as scientific theory, polysystem theory and deconstruction. By exploring the "political reality" outside translation (literary translation practice), he outlines the outline of contemporary western translation research and guides readers to rethink a series of theoretical issues such as the definition and classification of translation.(Tan Zaixi,2000:300)

Secondly, on the basis of comprehensively and systematically combing various contemporary western translation thoughts and theories, Genzler puts forward a multi-channel cooperative translation research view of "fair treatment of all systems".He believes that contemporary translation theory, like literary theory, originates from structuralist theory.All these structuralist or post structuralist theories have been confined to their respective academic circles for a long time.Various schools have very special requirements for the terms used in this system, and the terms are limited;Their pursuit of "correctness" or "objectivity" of theory tends to be one-sided, and they all try to gain universal recognition in the academic circles at the expense of other perspectives.The result is only the continuous conflict between theories, but there is no due cooperation and exchange between theories, which leads to the marginalization of academic research.(Xie Tianzhen,2003:293)

Thirdly, Genzler puts forward a post structuralist interpretation model of the essence of translation.In translation, post structuralism and power, he analyzes the deconstruction (post structuralism) thoughts of Derrida, Spivak and others, as well as the translation thoughts of translation theorists such as Wenudi, Levin and Robinson under the influence of their deconstruction thoughts, and points out that the new translation interpretation model can no longer follow the past tradition and simply define translation as"The transformation from a single language to another single language", but it should be regarded as the transformation between a multicultural form environment and another equally multicultural form environment.

==Conclusion==

In addition to the above-mentioned important theoretical figures in the field of contemporary American translation studies, many others, such as Roberto Tradu, Daniel Shaw, Burton Raphael and so on, have also made achievements in translation theory. However, due to space constraints, they cannot be discussed in detail here.

Generally speaking, due to the historical origin and the influence of the subject's immigrant culture, the initial development of American translation studies depends on the inheritance and promotion of the tradition of European translation theory. With the evolution of the times, American translation studies catch up with each other in many aspects with rapid development and fruitful achievements, and walk in the forefront of western translation studies, becoming the driving force of contemporary western translation theory. On an important force for forward development.(Tan Zaixi,2000:301)

In addition to the above-mentioned important theoretical figures in the field of contemporary American translation studies, many others, such as Roberto Tradu, Daniel Shaw, Burton Raphael and so on, have also made achievements in translation theory. However, due to space constraints, they cannot be discussed in detail here.

Generally speaking, due to the historical origin and the influence of the subject's immigrant culture, the initial development of American translation studies depends on the inheritance and promotion of the tradition of European translation theory. With the evolution of the times, American translation studies catch up with each other in many aspects with rapid development and fruitful achievements, and walk in the forefront of western translation studies, becoming the driving force of contemporary western translation theory. On an important force for forward development.(corrected by--[[User:Zhou Junhui|Zhou Junhui]] ([[User talk:Zhou Junhui|talk]]) 08:48, 14 December 2021 (UTC))

==reference==

Lefevere·André. (1980). Translating literature [M]. New York:Clarendon Press.

Newmark·Peter. （1978）.The theory and the craft of translation [M].London:Rountledge Press.

Nida·Eugene.（1996）.The Sociolinguistics of Interlingual Communication [M]. Brussels:Editions du Hazard.

Katz·Jerrold J. （1966）.The Philosophy of Language [M]. New York:Harper and Row.

Pound，E. 1917. Notes on Elizabethan classicists [M]. New York:Clarendon Press.

Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (1999).《新编奈达论翻译》[M] New Nida on Translation. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司 Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.

Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2000).《翻译学》[M] Translatology. 武汉:湖北教育出版社 Wuhan: Hubei Education Press.

Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2003).《翻译研究新视野》[M].New perspectives in Translation Studies. 青岛:青岛出版社 Qingdao: Qingdao Press.

中国对外翻译出版公司（编).(1983).《翻译理论与翻译技巧论文集》[M].Collection of Papers on Translation Theory and Translation Skills. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.

中国对外翻译出版公司（编).(1983).《国外翻译理论评介文集》[M].A Review of Foreign Translation Theories. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司 Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.

--[[User:Liu Wei|Liu Wei]] ([[User talk:Liu Wei|talk]]) 16:11, 8 December 2021 (UTC)Liu Wei

=周俊辉Translation of Science and Technology in Late Qing Dynasty and Early Republic of China=
[[Hist_Trans_EN_10]]

=周玖Translation of Science and Technology in Ancient China=
[[Hist_Trans_EN_11]]

=钟雨露Western Translation History in the Old Ages=
[[Hist_Trans_EN_12]]

=钟义菲: The Chinese Translation History in Mordern Age=
[[Hist_Trans_EN_13]]

=魏楚璇: Western translation history in the Modern and Contemporary Ages=
[[Hist_Trans_EN_14]]

=Chapter 15Mahzad Heydarian: Where Persian Language Meets Translation=
[[Hist_Trans_EN_15]]

Mahzad Sadat Heydarian,Hunan Normal University,China

=Akira Jantarat： History of Chinese-Thai literature Translation in 19th century=
[[Hist_Trans_EN_16]]

=Jawad Ahmad; History of Translation=

[[Hist_Trans_EN_17]]

=Benjamin Wellsand; Bible Translation in Christian History=

[[Hist_Trans_EN_18]]

History of Translations

2021-12-15T05:03:46Z

Li Xichang: /* Academic Research: Chinese Part */

[[History_of_Translations|Overview Page of History of Translation]]

30 Chapters（0/30)

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[[Book_projects|Back to translation project overview]] [[DCG-To-Do|Zur To-Do-Liste]]

=chapter 1 Rouabah Soumaya: History of translation in the Middle Ages=
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== Abstract==
The history of translation is seen variously as examining the role of translation in historical episodes through decades or investigating the phenomenon or understanding of translation itself historically. These different historiographical perspectives involve potentially different research aims, approaches, concepts, methods and scholarly interlocutors. The paper focuses on this question of disciplinary commensurability in historical studies, and draws parallels between the history of translation and translation in the middle ages. Themes addressed include the bible translation as , established historiographical norms and alternative, interdisciplinary approaches. It is argued that both the history of translation started with the translation of the Bible in the early BC comes, towards a reflexive, transnational history that seeks productive modes of engagement with other historical disciplines. By bringing to the attention of translation scholars some of the key debates in the history of translation and by identifying commonalities, this paper hopes to present an overall view of translation in the middle ages with slight knowledge of Bible translation in the early centuries of the middle ages, which starts from th5 to the 15 century.

== Keywords==
History of Translation , Bible Translation, Translation in the Middle Ages
medieval translation, medieval translator, translation and culture

== Introduction ==
This paper aims at a general review of the history of translation studies and the prevalent approaches from antiquity to the present in the west, in the form of a historical survey in which key theoretical developments are taken into account, focusing on approaches that have been developed during the twentieth century. Without a doubt, It is James Holme's seminal paper "the name and nature of translation studies" that draws up a disciplinary map for translation studies and serves as a springboard for researchers with its binary division of Translation Studies into two branches: "pure" and "applied." Its growth as a discipline goes back to the 1980s. As time elapses, translation studies, by achieving a certain institutional authority and coalescing with many a resurging disciplines and trends as cultural studies, linguistics, literary theory and criticism, brings a renewed aspect to translation theory.

In addition, this paper argues that English medieval translation can be considered as part of a cultural project in that the medieval translator is concerned more with the role and the function of translation in the target culture. Medieval translation theory derives from the classical theories of translation, however, prefaces to translations indicate that medieval translator appropriates the classical translation theory and uses it to serve the cultural and ideological objectives of translation in the middle Ages.

Key words: medieval translation, medieval translator, translation and culture, translation theory.
The pioneering work of Jeannette Beer and Roger Ellis has decidedly promoted medieval translation as a significant area, and has established medieval translation as the work of culturally responsible, academically oriented people of learning.

1 Susan
* Assist. Prof. Dr., Hacettepe University, Department of English Language and Literature
1 The problematic situation of Medieval translation in the academia is discussed by Ruth Evans in "Translating
Past Cultures?" in The Medieval Translator /Vied. Roger Ellis and Ruth Evans, the University of Exeter Press,
Medieval Translation and Cultural Transformation

== Early History of Translation==
The word ‘translation’ comes from a Latin term which means, “To bring or carry across”. Another relevant term comes from the Ancient Greek word of ‘metaphrasis’ which means, “To speak across” and from this, the term ‘metaphrase’ was born, which means a “word-for-word translation”. These terms have been at the heart of theories relating to translation throughout history and have given insight into when and where translation have been used throughout the ages.

It is known that translation was carried out as early as the Mesopotamian era when the Sumerian poem, Gilgamesh, was translated into Asian languages. This dates back to around the second millennium BC. Other ancient translated works include those carried out by Buddhist monks who translated Indian documents into Chinese. In later periods, Ancient Greek texts were also translated by Roman poets and were adapted to create developed literary works for entertainment. It is known that translation services were utilised in Rome by Cicero and Horace and that these uses were continued through to the 17th century, where newer practices were developed.

The history of translation has been a topic that has long been debated by scholars and historians, though it is widely accepted that translation pre-dates the bible. The bible tells of different languages as well as giving insight to the interaction of speakers from different areas. The need for translation has been apparent since the earliest days of human interaction, whether it be for emotional, trade or survival purposes.

The demand for translation services has continued to develop and is now more vital than ever, with businesses acknowledging the inability to expand internationally or succeed in penetrating foreign markets without translating marketing material and business documents.

It is significant to review the history of translation in different languages. There are divisions of period made by scholars like George Steiner. According to Steiner, the history of translation is divided into four periods. Starting from the Roman translators Cicero and Horace to Alexander Fraser Tytler is the first period; the second period extends up to Valery and from Valery to 1960s becomes the third period and the fourth period 1960s onwards. The history of translation is stressed out from 3000 B.C. Rosetta Stone is considered the most ancient work of Translation belonged to the second century B.C. Livius Andronicus translated Homer’s Odyssey named Odusia into Latin in 240 B.C. All that survives is parts of 46 scattered lines from 17 books of the Greek 24-book epic. In some lines, he translates literally, though in others more freely. His translation of the Odyssey had a great historical importance. Before then, the Mesopotamians and Egyptians had translated judicial and religious texts, but no one had yet translated a literary work written in a foreign language until the Roman Empire. Livius’ translation made this fundamental Greek text accessible to Romans, and advanced literary culture in Latin. This project was one of the best examples of translation as artistic process. The work was to be enjoyed on its own, and Livius strove to preserve the artistic quality of original. Since there was no tradition of epic in Italy before him, Livius must have faced enormous problems. For example, he used archaizing forms to make his language more solemn and intense. Barnstone Willis. The Poetics of Translation: History, Theory and Practice. London: Yale University Press, 1993. Print. Bassnett, Susan and Lefevere, Andre (Eds.). Translation, History and Culture. London: Pinter, 1990. Print.

When we talk about the history of translation, we should think of the theories and names that e merged at its different periods. In fact, each era is characterized by specific changes in translation history, but these changes differ from one place to another. For example, the developments of translation in the western world are not the same as those in the Arab world, as each nation knew particular incidents that led to the birth of particular theories. So, what marked the western translation? .By Marouane Zakhir English translator University of Soultan Moulay Slimane, Morocco

== Translation in the Western World==
For centuries, people believed in the relation between translation and the story of the tower of Babel in the Book of Genesis. According to the Bible, the descendants of Noah decided, after the great flood, to settle down in a plain in the land of Shinar. There, they committed a great sin. Instead of setting up a society that fits God's will, they decided to challenge His authority and build a tower that could reach Heaven. However, this plan was not completed, as God, recognizing their wish, regained control over them through a linguistic stratagem. He caused them to speak different languages so as not to understand each other. Then, he scattered them all over the earth. After that incident, the number of languages increased through diversion, and people started to look for ways to communicate, hence the birth of translation (Abdessalam Benabdelali, 2006) (1).

Actually, with the birth of translation studies and the increase of research in the domain, people started to get away from this story of Babel, and they began to look for specific dates and figures that mark the periods of translation history.

Researchers mention that writings on translation go back to the Romans. Eric Jacobson claims that translating is a Roman invention (see McGuire: 1980) (2). Cicero and Horace (first century BC) were the first theorists who distinguished between word-for-word translation and sense-for-sense translation. Their comments on translation practice influenced the following generations of translation up to the twentieth century.

Another period that knew a changing step in translation development was marked by St Jerome (fourth century CE). "His approach to translating the Greek Septuagint Bible into Latin would affect later translations of the scriptures." (Munday, 2001) (3)

The first important translation in the West was that of the Septuagint, a collection of Jewish Scriptures translated into early Koine Greek in Alexandria between the 3rd and "1st centuries B C E The dispersed Jews had forgotten their ancestral language and Throughout the .middle Ages, /Latin was the lingua franca of the western learned world. -Wikipedia .org/wiki/

The 9th1century Alfred the Great, king of Wessex in England, was far ahead of his time in commissioning 'vernacular Anglo -Saxon translations of Bede’s Ecclesiastical History and Boethius « Consolation of Philosophy ) meanwhile, the Christian church frowned on even partial adaptations of St . Jerome ‘s Vulgate of CA 384 CE, the Latin Bible . -Wikipedia .org/wiki/

The broad historic trends in Western translation practice may be illustrated on the example of translation into the English language .

The first fine translations into English were made in the "the century by Geoffrey Chaucer, who adapted from the Italian of Giovanni Boccaccio in his own Knight's Tal e and Troilus and Criseyde ; began a translation of the French -language Roman de la Rose 7 and completed a translation of Boethius from the Latin . Chaucer bounded an English poetic tradition on adaptations and translations from those earlier established literary languages . -Wikipedia .org/wiki/

The first great English translation was the Wycliffe (CA 1382), which showed the weaknesses of an under developed English prose . only at the end of the "15th century did the great age to English prose translation begin with Thomas Malory ‘s "le Morte D arthur”- Ban adaptation of Arthurian romances so free that it can, in fact, hardly be called a true translation . The first great Tudor translations are, accordingly, the Tyndale new Testament ( 1525), which influenced the Authorized Version (1611), and Lord Berners version of jean Froissart’s Chronicles ( 1523- 25) . - Wikipedia .org/wiki/

== History of Translation in the Middle Ages==
In the history of Europe, the middle Ages or medieval period lasted approximately from the Fifth to the late 15th centuries, similarly to the Post-classical period of global history. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and transitioned into the Renaissance and the Age of Discovery. The middle Ages is the middle period of the three traditional divisions of Western history: classical antiquity, the medieval period, and the modern period. The medieval period is itself subdivided into the Early, High, and Late Middle Ages.

This article is about medieval Europe. For a global history of the period between the 5th and 15th centuries, see Post-classical history. For other uses, see middle Ages (disambiguation).

"Medieval times" redirects here. For the dinner theatre, see Medieval Times.

Latin was the lingua franca of the Western learned world throughout the middle Ages, with few translations of Latin works into vernacular languages. In the 9th century, Alfred the Great, King of Wessex in England, was far ahead of his time in commissioning vernacular translations from Latin into English of Bede’s “Ecclesiastical History”and Boethius's “The Consolation of Philosophy”, which contributed to improve the underdeveloped English prose of that time.

It is argued that the knowledge and findings of Greek academics was developed and understood so widely thanks to the translation work of Arabic scholars. When the Greeks were conquered, Arabic scholars, who translated them and created their own versions of the scientific, entertainment and philosophical understandings took in their works. These Arabic versions were later translated into Latin, during the middle Ages, mostly throughout Spain and the resulting works provided the foundations of Renaissance academics.

Medieval times in human history – also referred to as the “Middles Ages” – was the time period that fell roughly between the fall of the Roman Empire in 476 CE and the 14th century. However, these years bear another moniker as well: the Dark Ages. There are valid reasons for that term. In the eyes of many historians, people during this age made little to no significant advancements that benefitted humankind. In addition, most notably, this was the period when the “Black Death” (the bubonic plague) killed an estimated 30 percent of the population of Europe.

However, the middle Ages were not completely “dark.” In fact, modern historians are taking a second look at this period with a more objective – and perhaps more generous – perspective. There is no doubt, for example, that religion flourished during this time. The Catholic Church came to prominence throughout Europe, and the rise of Islam was occurring simultaneously in the Middle East. It was there – particularly in urban centres such a Baghdad, Damascus and Cairo – that an extremely vibrant culture and intellectual society thrived.

The art of translation also made great strides during the middle Ages. Thanks to Alfred the Great (the king of England during the 9th century), The Consolation of Philosophy by Boethius and Ecclesiastical History by Bede were translated from Latin to English – a major feat that would have a great impact on the overall advancement of English prose during this period. Later, during the 12th and 13th centuries, the Toledo School of Translators (“Escuela de Traductores de Toledo”) worked on a wide variety of translations, including religious, scientific, philosophical and medical works. The original texts were created in Arabic, Hebrew and Greek, and all were translated into Castilian – and that formed the basis for the formation of the Spanish language. Also during the 13th century, English linguist Roger Bacon postulated the concept that a translator not only needed to be fully fluent in both the source and target languages of the work being translated, but also that a translator should be fully versed in the topic of the work to be translated – a tenet that still holds true in the language arts to this day.

One of the most notable translators during the middle Ages was also one of the most accomplished authors and poets – Geoffrey Chaucer. In fact, those historians who still maintain that the Dark Ages produced little to no significant contributions to humankind might do well to remember the works of Chaucer. In a lifetime that spanned some 60 years (from the 1340s until 1400), Chaucer earned the reputation as the “father of English literature.” However, that description only scratched the surface of Chaucer’s accomplishments. He was also a noted astronomer and philosopher, as well as a diplomat, bureaucrat and parliament member. Chaucer’s contributions to the language arts were no less significant; his use of Middle English (as opposed to Latin or French, which were the two most commonly used languages of the day) quite literally brought English into mainstream usage, as did his translations of numerous works from Italian, French and Latin into English.

It can truly be said that historians have given medieval times somewhat of a bad rap over the centuries. And while there’s no doubt that the accomplishments of linguists and others during the Middle Ages can’t come close to comparing with those of the Renaissance or later time periods, the contributions made during the “Dark Ages” should not be overlooked. In fact, from a linguistic point of view, this was an extremely crucial time. Not only were the basic principles of translation developed during the middle Ages, but also English itself began to take shape as a language of import for future years.

Studies on the theory and practice of medieval translation reveal therefore that the translation principles and the issues of translation theory in the Middle Ages derive from a long established tradition of translation theory developed by the classical authors. In practice, Roger Ellis states, medieval translation is heterogeneous; "every instance of practice that we may be tempted to erect into a principle has its answering opposite, sometimes in the same work (quoted in Evans, 1994: 27). Evidently, not only the critical approaches to translation in the Middle Ages but also theory and practice of translation of the period vary considerably. However, it seems that medieval translation utilises the translation and writing theories inherited from the classical authors to adopt a translational approach that recognises translation's vital role in the cultural transformation of the middle Ages. Page 96

This paper argues therefore that the medieval interest in translation can be considered as a cultural and political interest since the 1994. pp. 20-45. See Jeanette Beer, Medieval Translators and Their Craft.1989 and Roger Ellis (ed) assisted by Jocelyn Price, Stephen Medcalf and Peter Meredith. The Medieval Translator: The Theory and Practice of Translation in the Middle Ages: Papers Read at a Conference Held 20-23 August 1987 at the University of Wales Conference Centre, Gregynog //a//.Woodbridge, Suffolk: D.S. Brewer, 1989.

Rita Copeland, Rhetoric, Hermeneutics, and Translation in the Middle Ages: Academic Traditions and
Vernacular Texts. Cambridge, 1991. See particularly A. J. Minnis and A. B. Scots (eds) Medieval Literary
Theory and Criticism c.l 100-1375 The Commentary Tradition. Oxford, 1988.

Translations of the period are introduced as potential projects for cultural transformation. The formative role of translation in the middle Ages can be observed in medieval culture's awareness of the significance of cultural interaction. Medieval culture is a highly bookish culture, which contributed to the development of a vigorous translation activity in the Middle Ages. The recognition of the authority of the books seems to have led to the utilisation of the potential in translation for cultural education and transformation. As there was little or no difference between translation and original composition in the Middle Ages, translation was often considered in association with the pragmatic function of the book (Barratt, 1992:13-14).

In Geoffrey Chaucer's The Prologue to the Legend of Good Women, the fictional dialogue concerning the translations of the narrator provides an instructive interaction concerning translation activity as an integral part of cultural re-construction in the middle Ages.

The god of Love presents two works of Chaucer, the Troilus and Criseyde and the Romance of the Rose, as translations and questions the narrator's motives in choosing to translate works undermining the doctrine of Love (322-335). This fictional questioning introduces, in fact, the main attitude to translation in the middle Ages as it recognises the transformative role of translation on the target audience as an important issue the medieval translator recognises and aims at as the ultimate target of translation. Similarly, the narrator in Chaucer's Prologue to the Legend of Good Women argues that he wanted to teach the reader the true conduct in love through the experience of the lovers in the books he translated (471-474).

The translator in this fictional debate introduces the main objective of translation as making the works of foreign languages available to the linguistically disadvantaged audience for their cultural improvement. This rather pragmatic translational paradigm, moreover, introduces another important issue of medieval translation addressed by theoretical tradition of translation in the middle Ages. In fact, the translator accused of mistranslation in Chaucer's Prologue to the Legend of Good Women is also a writer, his accuser does not make a distinction between his role as a translator and his role as a writer.3 many of the medieval translators were also writers, and translation and interpretation were considered as important strategies in medieval composition. Moreover, most of the medieval translation activity from Latin into the vernacular involved a transfer of the past works into the vernacular by re-writing.
As Douglas Kelly argues, "such re-writing is 'translation' as literary invention, using pre-
existent source material. It is a variety of translation study « (1997: 48). Medieval reception of the translation theory of the classical antiquity as a principle governing creative activity led to a special sense of translation, that is, translation as "an 3 See the Prologue to the Legend of Good Women, lines 322-35 and 362-370. 97

".. And other bokes took me ...To reed upon ": Medieval Translation and Cultural Transformation 'unfaithful' yet artful interpretation or reinterpretation"(Kelly, 1997: 55), or "secondary translation" to put it in Copeland's words.

Identifying the important status of translation in the Middle Ages as a branch of writing reveals that the Middle Ages was not totally oblivious to the legacy of rhetorical and hermeneutic traditions of the classical antiquity. More importantly, it testifies to the significant function translation is given in the cultural transformation. As stated above, a theoretical understanding of translation in the middle Ages was largely dependent on the classical ideas of translation. Rita Copeland argues for the necessity of recognising the medieval awareness of the classical tradition as the strong theoretical foundation of Medieval translation.

==Translation in middle Ages (The Philological Perspective)==

Middle Ages epoch roughly represents the time between late fifth century and the fifteenth century A.D.in Europe. Middle Ages, however, continue until the advent of European Colonialism (about eighteenth century) in the 'Oriental' and African countries. With the spread of Christianity, translation takes a new role of disseminating the word of God. How to translate the divine words faithfully was a serious issue because of dogmatic and political concerns. “St. Jerome claims that he follows sense for sense approach rather than word for word approach when translating the New Testament in AD 384.”18 Since the aim of the divine text is to provide understanding and guidance, it seems logical to follow sense for sense approach. Thence, there is a possibility of intentional or unintentional change of meaning and the context; for these reasons, some scholars emphasize on the word for word translation approach. The first translation of the complete Bible into English was the Wycliffe Bible is which was produced between 1380 and 1384; “Wycliffe believes man should have direct contact with God and thus the Bible should be translated into language that man can understand, i.e. in the vernacular. Purvey believes translator should translate “after sentence (meaning),” not only after words. Martin Luther says, “... the meaning and subject matter must be considered, not the grammar, for the grammar should not rule over the meaning;”19 Criticism on sense for sense was widespread because it minimized the power of the church authorities, “while literal translation was bound up with the Bible and other religious and philosophical works, says Jeremy Monday; non-literal or non-accepted translation came to be seen and used as a weapon against the Church.”20“In the Western Europe this word-for-word versus sense-for-sense debate continued in one form or another until the twentieth century. The centrality of Bible to translation also explains the enduring theoretical questions about accuracy and fidelity to fixed source.”21 In the eighth and ninth century A.D., a large number of translations from Greek into Arabic gave rise to Arabic learning. “Scholars from Syria, a part of the Roman Empire (during 64B.C.-636A.D) came to Baghdad and translated Greek works of Physician Hippocrates (460-360 B.C.), philosophers Plato (427-327 B.C.) and Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) into Arabic during the eighth and ninth century A.D. Baghdad continued to be a centre of translations of Greek classics into Arabic even in the twentieth century A.D.”22 The dominance of religion is prominent in the Translation Era of Middle Ages. In this era, both the trends of Antiquity period can be seen in action, yet emphasis is again on the sense for sense approach.

==Translation In the middle Ages between the 12th and the 15 centuries;==

In the 12th and 13th centuries, the Toledo School of Translators (Escuela de Traductores de Toledo) became a meeting point for European scholars who — attracted by the high wages they were offered — came and settled down in Toledo, Spain, to translate major philosophical, religious, scientific and medical works from Arabic, Greek and Hebrew into Latin and Castilian. Toledo was a city of libraries offering a number of manuscripts, and one of the few places in medieval Europe where a Christian could be exposed to Arabic language and culture.

The Toledo School of Translators went through two distinct periods. Archbishop Raymond de Toledo, who advocated the translation of philosophical and religious works, led the first period (in the 12th century) mainly from classical Arabic into Latin. These Latin translations helped advance European Scholasticism, and thus European science and culture. King Alfonso X of Castile himself led the second period (in the 13th century). On top of philosophical and religious works, the scholars also translated scientific and medical works. Castilian — instead of Latin — became the final language, thus resulting in establishing the foundations of the modern Spanish language.

The translations of works on different sciences (astronomy, astrology, algebra, medicine) acted as a magnet for numerous scholars, who came from all over Europe to Toledo to learn first-hand about the contents of all those Arab, Greek and Hebrew works, before going back home to disseminate the acquired knowledge in European universities. While some Toledo translations of physical and cosmological works were accepted in most European universities in the early 1200s, the works of Aristotle and Arab philosophers were often banned, for example at the Sorbonne University in Paris.

Roger Bacon was a 13th-century English scholar heralded for his early exposition of a “universal grammar” (the concept that the ability to learn grammar is hard-wired into the brain). He was the first linguist to assess that a translator should know well both the source language and the target language to produce a good translation, and that the translator should be well versed in the discipline of the work he was translating. According to legend, after finding out that few translators did, Roger Bacon decided to do away with translation and translators altogether. However, his decision did not last long. He relied on many Toledo translations from Arabic into Latin to make major contributions in the fields of optics, astronomy, natural sciences, chemistry and mathematics.

Geoffrey Chaucer produced the first fine translations into English in the 14th century. Chaucer translated the “Roman de la Rose” from French, and Boethius’s works from Latin. He also adapted some works of the Italian humanist Giovanni Boccaccio to produce his own “Knight’s Tale” and “Troilus and Criseyde” (c.1385) in English. Chaucer is regarded as the founder of an English poetic tradition based on translations and adaptations of literary works in languages that were more “established” than English was at the time, beginning with Latin and Italian. The finest religious translation of that time was the “Wycliffe’s Bible” (1382-84), named after John Wycliffe, an English theologian who translated the Bible from Latin to English.

In the 15th century : Byzantine scholar Gemistus Pletho’s trip to Florence, Italy, pioneered the revival of Greek learning in Western Europe. Gemistus Pletho reintroduced Plato’s thought during the 1438-39 Council of Florence, in a failed attempt to reconcile the East-West schism (a 11th-century schism between the Eastern Orthodox and Catholic churches). During this Council, Pletho met Cosimo de Medici, the politician ruling Florence and a great patron of learning and the arts, and influenced him to found a Platonic Academy. Led by the Italian scholar and translator Marsilio Ficino, the Platonic Academy took over the translation into Latin of all Plato’s works, the “Enneads” of Plotinus and other Neo-Platonist works. Marsilio Ficino’s work — and Erasmus’ Latin edition of the New Testament — led to a new attitude to translation. For the first time, readers demanded rigor of rendering, as philosophical and religious beliefs depended on the exact words of Plato and Jesus (and Aristotle and others).

The great age of English prose translation began in the late 15th century with Thomas Malory’s “Le Morte d’Arthur” (1485), a free translation/adaptation of Arthurian romances about the legendary King Arthur, as well as Guinevere, Lancelot, Merlin and the Knights of the Round Table. Thomas Malory “interpreted” existing French and English stories about these figures while adding original material, e.g. the “Gareth” story about one of the Knights of the Round Table.4

== An Overview of Bible Translations in The Middle Ages==
The most significant turn in the history of translation came with the Bible translations. The efforts of translating the Bible from its original languages into over 2,000 others have spanned more than two millennia. Partial translation of the Bible into languages of English people can be stressed back to the end of the seventh century, including translations into Old English and Middle English. Over 450 versions have been created overtime.
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© 2012 ACADEMY PUBLISHER Manufactured in Finland.
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Bible translations in the Middle Ages discussions are in contrast to Late Antiquity, when the Bibles available to most Christians were in the local vernacular. In a process seen in many other religions, as languages changed, and in Western Europe, languages with no tradition of being written down became dominant, the prevailing vernacular translations remained in place, despite gradually becoming sacred languages, incomprehensible to the majority of the population in many places. In Western Europe, the Latin Vulgate, itself originally a translation into the vernacular, was the standard text of the Bible, and full or partial translations into a vernacular language were uncommon until the Late Middle Ages and the Early Modern Period. A page from the luxury illuminated manuscript Wenceslas Bible, a German translation of the 1390s.[1] From Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia

During the Migration Period Christianity spread to various peoples who had not been part of the old Roman Empire, and whose languages had yet no written form, or only a very simple one, like runes. Typically, the Church itself was the first to attempt to capture these languages in written form, and Bible translations are often the oldest surviving texts in these newly written-down languages. Meanwhile, Latin was evolving into new distinct regional forms, the early versions of the Romance languages, for which new translations eventually became necessary. However, the Vulgate remained the authoritative text, used universally in the West for scholarship and the liturgy since the early development of the Romance languages had not come to full fruition, matching its continued use for other purposes such as religious literature and most secular books and documents. In the early middle Ages, anyone who could read at all could often read Latin, even in Anglo-Saxon England, where writing in the vernacular (Old English) was more common than elsewhere. A number of pre-reformation Old English Bible translations survive, as do many instances of glosses in the vernacular, especially in the Gospels and the Psalms.[4] Over time, biblical translations and adaptations were produced both within and outside the church, some as personal copies for religious or lay nobility, and others for liturgical or pedagogical purposes.[5][6] From Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia

The Bible was translated into various languages in late antiquity; the most important of these translations are those in the Syriac dialect of Aramaic (including the Peshitta and the Diatessaron gospel harmony), the Ge'ez language of Ethiopia, and, in Western Europe, Latin. The earliest Latin translations are collectively known as the Vetus Latina, but in the late fourth century, Jerome re-translated the Hebrew and Greek texts into the normal vernacular Latin of his day, in a version known as the Vulgate (Biblia vulgata) (meaning "common version", in the sense of "popular"). Jerome's translation gradually replaced most of the older Latin texts, and gradually ceased to be a vernacular version as the Latin language developed and divided. The earliest surviving complete manuscript of the entire Latin Bible is the Codex Amiatinus, produced in eighth century England at the double monastery of Wearmouth-Jarrow. By the end of late, antiquity the Bible was therefore available and used in all the major written languages then spoken by Christians. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia

== Conclusion ==
The history of translation studies and the resurgence and genesis of the approaches to this emerging discipline was marked by the first century (BCE) commentator Cicero and then St. Jerome whose word-for-word and sense-for-sense approaches to translation was a springboard for other approaches and trends to thrive. From the medieval ages until now, each decade was marked by a dominant concept such as translatability, equivalence etc. Whilst before the twentieth century translation was an element of language learning, the study of the field developed into an academic discipline only in the second half of the twentieth century, when this field achieved a certain institutional authority and developed as a distinct discipline. As this discipline moved towards the present, the level of sophistication and inventiveness did in fact soared and new concepts, methods, and research projects were developed which interacted with this discipline. The brief review here, albeit incomplete, reflects the current fragmentation of the field into subspecialties, some empirically oriented, some hermeneutic and literary and some influenced by various forms of linguistics and cultural studies which have culminated in productive syntheses. In short, translation studies is now a field which brings together approaches from a wide language and cultural studies, that for its own use, modifies them and develops new models specific to its own requirements.
SSN 1799-2591 Theory and Practice in Language Studies, Vol. 2, No. 1, pp. 77-85, January 2012
© 2012 ACADEMY PUBLISHER Manufactured in Finland.
doi:10.4304/tpls.2.1.77-85

== References ==
-A page from the luxury illuminated manuscript Wenceslas Bible, a German translation of the 1390s.[1] From Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia

-Barnstone Willis. The Poetics of Translation: History, Theory and Practice. London: Yale University Press, 1993. Print. Bassnett, Susan and Lefevere, Andre (Eds.). Translation, History and Culture. London: Pinter, 1990. Print. 2- Barnstone Willis. The Poetics of Translation: History, Theory and Practice. London: Yale University Press, 1993. Print. Bassnett, Susan and Lefevere, Andre (Eds.). Translation, History and Culture. London: Pinter, 1990. Print.

-Early history of translation .By Marouane Zakhir English translator University of Soultan Moulay Slimane, Morocco

-From Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia

-https//www.tandfonline.com// 5- https//www.tandfonline.com//

-Prologue to the Legend of Good Women, lines 322-35 and 362-370. 97 ".. And other bokes took me ...To reed upon ": Medieval Translation and Cultural Transformation 'unfaithful' yet artful interpretation or reinterpretation"(Kelly, 1997: 55), or "secondary translation" to put it in Copeland's words.

-Susan * Assist. Prof. Dr., Hacettepe University, Department of English Language and Literature The problematic situation of Medieval translation in the academia is discussed by Ruth Evans in "Translating Past Cultures?" in The Medieval Translator /Vied. Roger Ellis and Ruth Evans, the University of Exeter Press, Medieval Translation and Cultural Transformation .

-SSN 1799-2591 Theory and Practice in Language Studies, Vol. 2, No. 1, pp. 77-85, January 2012 © 2012 ACADEMY PUBLISHER Manufactured in Finland. doi:10.4304/tpls.2.1.77-85.

-This article is about medieval Europe. For a global history of the period between the 5th and 15th centuries, see Post-classical history. For other uses, see middle Ages (disambiguation). "Medieval times" redirects here. For the dinner theatre, see Medieval Times.

-the 1994. pp. 20-45. See Jeanette Beer, Medieval Translators and Their Craft.1989 and Roger Ellis (ed) assisted by Jocelyn Price, Stephen Medcalf and Peter Meredith. The Medieval Translator: The Theory and Practice of Translation in the Middle Ages: Papers Read at a Conference Held 20-23 August 1987 at the University of Wales Conference Centre, Gregynog //a//.Woodbridge, Suffolk: D.S. Brewer, 1989.

^ Rita Copeland, Rhetoric, Hermeneutics, and Translation in the Middle Ages: Academic Traditions and Vernacular Texts. Cambridge, 1991. See particularly A. J. Minnis and A. B. Scots (eds) Medieval Literary Theory and Criticism c.l 100-1375 The Commentary Tradition. Oxford, 1988.

-Wikipedia .org/wiki/

=Chapter 2 History of Modern and Contemporary Chinese Translation=
“中国现当代翻译史”

[[Hist_Trans_EN_2]]

Li Xichang, 李习长, Hunan Normal University, China

=Chapter 3 The Translation of Buddihist Sutra in Chinese Translation History=
“佛经翻译”

[[Hist_Trans_EN_3]]

Huang Zhuliang 黄柱梁 Hunan Normal University, China

=王镇隆 The Brief History of Bible's Chinese Translation=
== Abstract==
Bible is the only Christian classic. Many Bible translation versions in the territory of China, including the Chinese characters and the languages of ethnic minorities, are not only the important events and modern history publication with the largest circulation, translated versions of books in the modern translation history, but also the close relationship with the modern transformation of Chinese characters and the creation of minority languages. Three aspects of Bible translation history, information, research and outlook are described in this paper.

== 摘要==
圣经是基督教的唯一经典，圣经翻译则是中国近代翻译史上的重要事件。当时的中国境内，出现了包括汉语汉字和少数民族语言文字的众多圣经译本，这不仅使圣经成为中国近代史上出版发行量最大、翻译版本最多的书籍，而且对中国的汉语汉字的近代转型和少数民族文字创制产生了重要影响。本文从 3 个方面对圣经中译的历史、资料、研究及展望进行了叙述。

== Key Words==
History of the Bible translation；Research review;Academic outlook

== 关键词==
圣经中译史；研究回顾；学术展望

== The Overall Introduction of Bible Translation==
“Bible” translation has a pivotal position in the history of Western translation. From the beginning of the era to today, the translation of the “Bible” has never stopped. The range of languages involved, the number of translations, and the frequency of use of translations,etc., are unmatched by the translation of any other work. A birds-eye view of the history of “Bible” translation has the following important milestones: the first is the “Seventy Sons Greek Text” before the Era, the second is the “Popular Latin Text Bible” from the 4th to 5th centuries, and the later the national languages of the early Middle Ages. The ancient texts (such as Old German, Old French translations), modern texts since the 16th century Reformation Movement (such as the Lutheran version of Germany, the King James version, etc.) and various modern texts. All these translations have made indelible contributions to the spread and development of Christianity in the West, as well as the prosperity and development of the languages and cultures of various nations.(Gu Changsheng,1991)

The “Bible” is the holy book of Christianity, including the “Old Testament” and “New Testament.” The Old Testament was written in BC. It is a classic of Judaism. It was inherited by Christianity from Judaism. The original text was in Hebrew. The New Testament was written in the second half of the first to second centuries, and the original text is in Greek. Throughout human history, language translation is almost as old as the language itself. Therefore, from the beginning of the era to today, the translation of the “Bible” has never stopped. The range of languages involved, the number of translations, and the frequency of use of the translations, etc., are unmatched by the translation of any other work. The translation of the "Bible" is mainly to spread the doctrine, so that people are influenced and accepted by the views. According to the “New Testament Acts” Chapter Two, Section One: The saints gathered on Pentecost, and they were all filled with the Holy Spirit, and spoke the words of other countries according to the eloquence given by the Holy Spirit. However, the translation at that time was mainly “interprete” or “interpretation.” Among them, St. Paul himself is a multilingual believer. He preached in Jerusalem, Athens and Rome in Hebrew, Greek and Italian respectively. The Bible was first translated from Hebrew into Greek, then into Latin, and then into Romanian, Portuguese, Spanish, Italian, and Walloon (wal-lon), German, French, Romance languages. English was then translated into various languages in the world, and the translations of its various texts were repeatedly revised by experts in the translation of the classics, which lasted more than ten centuries.

In the history of the translation of the Bible, it has gone through several milestone stages: the first is the “Seventy Sons Greek Text” before the era, the second is the “Popular Latin Text Bible” from the 4th to 5th centuries, and later it is the national languages of the early Middle Ages. Ancient texts (such as Old German, Old French translations), modern texts since the 16th century Reformation Movement (such as Luther, Casio Dorobin in Spain, King James Version in English, Nikon in Russia) and All kinds of modern texts (such as “American Standard Text” in English, “New English Bible” and “English Today”, etc.). “The Bible Old Testament” is the first important and earliest translation in ancient times in the West, and it was translated into Greek. The Old Testament was originally the official classic of Judaism, originally in Hebrew. The Jews have been scattered around for a long time and drifted overseas. Over time, they have forgotten the language of their ancestors and spoke foreign languages such as Arabic and Greek. Among them, Greek speakers accounted for the majority. In ancient times, the city of Alexandria in Egypt was the cultural and trade center of the eastern Mediterranean. The Jews living here accounted for two-fifths of the city’s total population. In the third century BC, in order to meet the increasingly urgent needs of these Greek-speaking Jews, the church decided to translate the Hebrew text of the Old Testament into a Greek text. In the second century BC, an unknown Jew once wrote an epistle article, which was later named “Letter of Aristeas” (“Letter of Aristeas”), which records that in the third century BC, Jerusalem At the request of Egyptian King Ptolemy II Feiradelphis (308-246 BC), Bishop Elizar sent translators to Alexandria to undertake the translation of the Old Testament. In this way, according to Ptolemy II's will, between 285 and 249 BC, 72 “noble” Jewish scholars gathered in the Library of Alexandria, Egypt, to perform this translation. According to legend, the 72 scholars came from 12 different Israeli tribes, with 6 from each tribe. After they came to the Library of Alexandria, they worked in pairs in 36 locations and translated them into 36 translations that were very similar to each other. Finally, 72 translators gathered together to compare and check the 36 translation manuscripts, and reached a consensus on the wording of the final version, and called it the “Seventy Son Text” or “Seventy Magi Translation”, that is, “Septuagint” (“Septuagint”), has since opened a precedent for collective translation in the history of translation. Soon after the translation of the “Seventy Sons”, the priests held a joint meeting with the Jewish leaders and pointed out: “This translation is well translated, pious, and very accurate. (Marshall Broomhall,1934,P.2)

Therefore, it must be kept as it is and cannot be changed.” We also regarded it as the classic translation. In fact, this Greek translation became the “second original”, and sometimes even replaced the Hebrew text and ascended to the throne of the “first original”. Many of the translations of the Bible in languages such as ancient Latin, Slavic, and Arabic are not based on the original Hebrew but on the Greek translation.

== Multilingualism in the Chinese version of the Bible==
According to the report of the World Union Bible Association in 2006, the new and Old Testament of the Bible has been translated into 301 different languages. If regional dialects and partial translations are included, the translated languages of the Bible have exceeded 2287 different languages. The Bible is the most widely circulated and translated book in the world.

If someone says that in Chinese history, the Bible has the largest number of translated versions, the largest number of Chinese language forms, both vernacular and classical Chinese, and the largest number of Chinese dialect forms. It has not only created nearly 10 ethnic minority languages, but also nearly 20 ethnic minority language translation books, but also the largest publication and circulation in modern history, There must be many people who don't believe it.(William Canton,1904,1910)

But this is the fact of history. The Chinese version of the Bible does have many historical “best”, which is related to the super pronunciation and super dialect nature of Chinese language and characters, the reform and cultural transformation of Chinese language and culture in the late Qing Dynasty and the early Republic of China, and the fact that most ethnic minorities in Southwest China have only language but no words. The period of the late Qing Dynasty and the beginning of the Republic of China, that is, the 1860s to the 1930s, was the period of the most drastic changes in Chinese language and characters, the period of the transformation of ancient Chinese and its culture into vernacular, the period of the widespread voice and hard practice of Chinese Latinization, the most active period of language and character reform, and the transformation and reform of Chinese language and characters, A variety of transitional writing methods have emerged due to text reform and stylistic changes. However, the reform and expression methods of multiple languages and characters in the late Qing Dynasty and the early Republic of China, some of which are even very short-lived transitional writing methods. The Bible has published translated versions in this text form. This can be best confirmed by many translations of the Bible, such as classical Chinese, half written and half spoken, vernacular, dialect Chinese characters, dialect church Roman characters, Wang Zhao Mandarin phonetic alphabets, Mandarin phonetic alphabets, Mandarin Roman characters, weituoma Pinyin, kuaizi, a variety of ethnic minority characters, blind characters and so on.(Li Kuanshu,1998)

The large-scale cultural exchange and interaction between China and the west is an important historical phenomenon in the modern world. This cultural relationship has not only changed the cultural and political pattern all over the world, but also greatly affected the development of Chinese culture and society. Language contact is not only an important part of cultural relations, but also an important prerequisite for all other exchanges. The large-scale and multilingual cross-cultural in-depth language and cultural exchange is a modern cultural phenomenon gradually formed all over the world after the great discovery of geography. It is also a prominent manifestation in the history of China's modern foreign cultural relations, which is particularly different from previous dynasties.

The language and cultural exchange in modern China began with the arrival of Christian missionaries in China. As the only classic of Christian religion, the Bible inevitably involves the problems of how to translate into China’s local language, how to adapt to and influence the local ideology and culture in the historical process of Christian communication and translation.

The earliest translation of the Bible in China can be extended to the Tang Dynasty, which has a long history of thousands of years. Although the Bible translation activities have been interrupted, they continue to this day. In Taiwan and Hong Kong, the Bible translation is still not over.

== Bible Translation from Different Perspectives==
From the perspective of language, Bible translation can be divided into Chinese language and minority language. In addition to the Chinese translation (the Chinese translation is described in detail below), in the process of Bible translation, the missionaries took advantage of the Pinyin advantages of their Latin mother tongue and combined with the pronunciation of local minority languages to create Pinyin characters in the form of Latin letters for those southwest minorities who only have spoken language but no words, that is, bagri Miao Language (old Miao Language) in Northeast Yunnan Frame format: East Lisu, Funeng Renxi Lisu (old Lisu), Jingpo, Zawa, Lahu, Buyi, WA, etc. It also borrowed Chinese phonetic alphabets and modified and created Hu Zhizhong’s Miao language. They translated and published the complete Scriptures or section translations of Jingpo language, Zaiwa language, East Lisu language, West Lisu language, Yi language, Nuosu language and Gepo language, Lahu language, WA language, Naxi language, Dehong Dai language, Xishuangbanna Dai language, Huayao Dai language, Huamiao language, Chuanmiao language, heimiao language, Buyi language and other languages. Among them, Jingpo, Funeng Renxi Lisu and bagri Miao are still widely used in society, and Hu Zhizhong Miao is still used among religious believers in Kaili, Guizhou. These characters not only ended the history of these nationalities without characters, but also provided great reference and Enlightenment for the large-scale creation of characters for ethnic minorities in New China. In the northern minority languages, the missionaries also translated and published Bible translations in Mongolian (karmec Mongolian, kalka Mongolian, Buryat Mongolian), Tibetan (Tibetan Classical Chinese, Tibetan Ladakh dialect, Tibetan Lahore dialect), Manchu, Kazakh and Korean. In Taiwan, missionaries and today’s Taiwan Christian Church have also created Pinyin characters in the form of Latin letters for the Paiwan, Taiya, AMI, Taroko, Yamei, Bunun, Lukai, Dawu and other indigenous peoples, translated and published biblical translations, which are still in use today.(Wang Zhixin,2004)

From the perspective of Chinese style, Chinese versions of the Bible can be divided into three categories:

1. Classical Chinese translation, that is, the translation of deep arts and Sciences: in history, there have been yangmano's direct interpretation of the Bible, daysun's translation, masman's translation, Morrison's translation, Guo Shili's translation, commissioned translation (or representative translation), bizhiwen / kebicun translation, Gaode translation, the printed version of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom, lianweiren translation, and Heshen's translation of Arts and Sciences.

2. Half written and half white translation, i.e. shallow liberal arts translation: in history, there have been Yang Ge's non shallow liberal arts translation, Shi Joseph's shallow liberal arts translation, Bao John / Ke Bicun translation and hehe shallow liberal arts translation.

3. Vernacular translation: China is a country with many dialects. Six of China's seven dialects have Bible translations. Among them, nine branches of five dialects, including Wu, min, Guangdong, Hakka and Mandarin, have biblical Chinese characters. They are Nanjing dialect translation, Beijing dialect translation, Hankou dialect translation, Tianjin dialect translation, Shanghai dialect translation, Ningbo Dialect translation, Suzhou dialect translation, Hangzhou dialect translation, Fuzhou dialect translation, Xiamen dialect translation, Shantou dialect translation, Guangzhou dialect translation, Hakka dialect translation Hakka Sanjiang dialect translation. In 1919, the vernacular intensive cost and official script appeared, which is the Bible translation used by the Christian Church of China.

From the perspective of Chinese text form, Bible translation can be basically divided into seven categories:

1. Chinese Character Edition: in history, there were classical Chinese character edition and vernacular Chinese Character Edition (including dialect Chinese Character Edition);

2. Roman script of church Dialect: missionaries spell the words of local dialects according to the Latin alphabet. There are 15 branches of the six dialects, including Nanjing dialect translation, Beijing dialect translation, Shandong dialect translation, Shanghai dialect translation, Ningbo Dialect translation, Hangzhou dialect translation, Wenzhou dialect translation, Jinhua dialect translation, Taizhou dialect translation, Fuzhou dialect translation Bible translations of Xiamen dialect, Shantou dialect, Xinghua dialect, Jianyang dialect, Shaowu dialect, Hainan dialect, Guangzhou dialect, Hakka Guangdong and Taiwan dialect, Hakka Wujingfu dialect, Hakka Tingzhou dialect and Hakka Jianning dialect;

3. Wang Zhao Mandarin phonetic alphabet: the Bible is spelled with Wang Zhao Mandarin phonetic alphabet. There have been Bible translations of Tianjin dialect, Hankou dialect, Hebei dialect and Jiaodong dialect;

4. Mandarin phonetic alphabet: there have been Bible translations of Fuzhou dialect and Jiaodong dialect;

5. Braille script；

6. Quick script: that is, the Bible translation of early sketch;

7. Weituoma Pinyin book.

In terms of publication forms, there are many kinds of publications, such as Chinese character edition, Chinese character and foreign language comparison edition, Chinese character and Mandarin phonetic alphabet comparison edition, Chinese character and Wang Zhao Mandarin phonetic alphabet comparison edition, Chinese character and church Roman character comparison edition, church Roman character and Mandarin phonetic alphabet comparison edition, etc. As far as the editions are concerned, there are single volume edition, multi volume edition, the New Testament, the Old Testament, the New Testament with psalms, the new and Old Testament, etc., with a total number of more than 1000. Based on the American Bible Society, the British Bible Society and the Scottish Bible Society, which had the greatest influence in old China and published and sold various versions of the Bible, a total of 225 million copies were sold from 1814 to 1934; From 1814 to 1950, 279351752 copies were sold.(Chen Yugang,1992)
After the founding of new China, the Chinese Christian Church basically took the heheguan vernacular Version (later called hehehe vernacular version, hereinafter referred to as hehe version) as the Bible translation dedicated to the church, and no other Chinese classical Chinese or dialect versions of the Bible were published. As of December 2007, the Christian Church of China has printed and distributed 50 million copies of Hehe vernacular books. China has become one of the countries with the largest number of printed Bibles in the world.

== Writings and Work Records of Biblical Translators==
As the only classic of Christian religion, the meaning of the Bible is different. Since the Christian foreign missionaries came to China in the 19th century, they have been translating the Bible continuously, and published many documents and works at the same time. Most of these archives and works are the reports and introductions of Christian sects to publicize and introduce their own work achievements, which are limited to the publicity of their own sects without academic and serious research.

The earliest works related to the translation and recording of Bible translation were written by personnel and institutions related to Christian religion. The first documentary about the Chinese Bible translation is the Bible in China by Alexander Wylie, a missionary who once served as the director of the British Bible Society. This article records the earliest Bible translation in China, which is the work report of Alexander Wylie.

Among the records of missionaries on Bible translation, the Bible in China written by Marshall Broomhall, a missionary of the mainland church, is the most concentrated and representative. Hainbo is the director general of the headquarters of the mainland Association in London and is responsible for editing China's million, the most important publication of the mainland Association, for 20 years.

Another book about Bible translation is the Chinese versions of the Bible (1934) written by A. J. Garnier, a missionary of the British Baptist Church. His book is more often seen in its Chinese translation, which is compiled by George Milligan.

History of the spread of the New Testament (Guangzhou society, 1934). These two books are not long, about 100000 words. They describe the general situation of Bible translation from ancient times to now. They are basically the working records and introduction of Bible translation. The recording time is up to the three combined versions of the main translations of missionaries in 1919. The early Catholic translation, the Christian minority language translation in the late Qing Dynasty and the early Republic of China, and the Chinese dialect translation are too vague and too brief to cover, including the Chinese translation and the Catholic sigo translation. They can not be called academic research works. The Bible translation of missionaries is mostly missionary encouragement and publicity, which belongs to the missionary works of the church.(Yang Senfu,1968)

In modern Chinese history, foreign institutions or individuals have many publishing and sales institutions in China, among which the Bible has a certain nature of exclusive translation, monopoly and sales. The Chinese translation of the Bible is basically undertaken by the Bible Societies of various countries in China. Among the Foreign Bible Societies in China, the American Bible Society, the British Bible Society and the Scottish bible society are mainly responsible for the dissemination of the Chinese Bible, including the organization and arrangement of Bible translation, financial support, the formulation of translation principles, the selection and determination of translators, the publication and reprint of the Bible, the sales of the Bible, and almost all the leading work of Bible translation. The most detailed work on the history of the British bible society so far is a history of the British and Foreign Bible Society written by William Canton, which introduces the work of the British Bible Society in the 19th century. The more important work in recent years is the cheap Bibles: Nineteen Century Publishing and the British and Foreign Bible Society written by Leslie Howsam, but its history and content are still dominated by the 19th century. For the history of the British Bible Society in the first half of the 20th century, please refer to a history of the British and Foreign Bible Society, 1900-1954 written by James M. roe. As for the historical works of the American Bible Society, what is important is the centennial history of the American Bible Society written by Henry O. Dwight, which introduces the work progress of the American Bible Society around the world in the 19th century. Chinese Bible translation is only a small part of it. In the same year, translations of the scripts into the languages of China and her dependencies [10], written by John R. hykes, director general of the American Bible Society in China, specifically described the Bible translation work of the American Bible Society in China. These monographs introduced the missionary work of various Bible Societies in China, especially the printing and distribution of the Bible.(Chloe Starr,2008)

In the Chinese recorder edited by missionaries, there are scattered information about the translation and publication of various versions of Bible translation written by missionaries in different times, or missionaries' discussions on various affairs and research of Bible translation. Educational administration magazine is an English magazine sponsored by missionaries in China for more than 100 years.

== Catalogue of Biblical Editions==
In addition to the reports of the Bible guild and missionaries, there are some catalogues of Biblical translations that can be viewed as data. Alexander Wylie, a British missionary, has been acting for the British Bible Association since 1863. He catalogued all kinds of Christian books and periodicals published at that time and published the biographies and works of missionaries who came to China in 1867 （Memorials of Protestant Missionaries to the Chinese Given a List of Their Publications and Obituary Notices of the Deceased, with Copious Indexes） The book records the life stories, catalogues and abstracts of early missionaries in China, and is the most complete bibliography of religious translation in the period of the Republic of China. However, according to the author's comparative verification of the original Bible translations collected by the National Library, it is found that the catalogue misjudges some of the Bible translations, or some translations do not judge the translations, so it is necessary to judge them according to each library Up to now, the catalogue of Chinese versions of the Bible published abroad is more detailed than the collection, introduction and description of the collection information and records of the mainland edition catalogue.

== Academic Research: Western Part==
Thor strandenaes graduated from Uppsala University in Sweden in 1987. His doctoral thesis principles of Chinese Bible translation is the earliest doctoral thesis focusing on the Chinese Bible. He is particularly inclined to compare different Chinese versions of the Bible. From the perspective of translatology and Christian theological interpretation, he analyzes the translation principles of five Bible versions, including Morrison's version of Shen Wenli, the Commission's version of Shen Wenli, the vernacular hehe version, the Catholic SIKO Bible version and the modern Chinese version of Taiwan. He believes that Bible translation has strong inheritance and mutual influence, But at the same time, Catholicism and Christianity have formed their own translation style and vocabulary system. Shi Fulai is a priest, so his research especially emphasizes the theological factors and influence of Bible translation . Jost zetzsche graduated from the University of Hamburg, Germany, in 1999. His doctoral dissertation the Bible in China: the history of the union version or the cultivation of Bible missionary Bible translation in China is a masterpiece in recent years. From the perspective of Christian theological theory and church use, he also discussed the Bible and the combined version, which has the greatest influence, the largest circulation and is still used by the Christian Church, and came to the conclusion that the combined version is the greatest achievement of Bible translation. Both English Monographs discuss the attitude and evolution of missionaries towards Bible translation, the role of Bible translation in the spread of Christianity in China, the scale of Bible distribution, the evolution of Bible translation and sales institutions from the perspective of church position and theology. The paper has a certain historical overview of various early versions, especially the deep arts and science versions, but it does not involve the dialect Bible versions and ethnic minority Bible versions, nor does it discuss the significance and role of the Bible as a Christian classic. (Eugene A.Nida,1972)

This paper studies one of dozens of translations of the Bible - the translation of different stylistic versions of heheben, as well as the theological basis and theological disputes of the translated Heben. Both of these doctoral theses give full play to the author's expertise in Western mother tongue, and focus on one aspect with the archives of the Christian missionary church, including work reports and letters, work records and the archives of the Bible Association as the main data sources.

Including the discussion of individual translations or translators. Thor strantenaes's paper anonymous Bible translators: native language and the translation of the Bible into Chinese (1817-1917) discusses the role of Chinese people in Chinese Bible translation. Due to the cultural arrogance of missionaries, The contribution and role of Chinese scholars in Bible translation has been buried. Reading Christian scripts in China, edited by chole Starr, is a collection of multiple papers to explore the translation of the Chinese Bible in the 19th century and its impact on the final synthesizer and integration of the Bible.

== Academic Research: Chinese Part==
So far, the Chinese world has not carried out in-depth and systematic historical investigation and academic research on the Bible translation. Only in the history of Chinese Christianity, the history of modern Chinese printing and the history of modern Chinese translation can we see some brief introductions, such as Gu Changsheng's missionaries and modern China (page 16); Yang Senfu's history of Christianity in China (12 pages); A brief history of Christianity in China by Li kuanshu (5 pages); Wang Zhixin's outline of the history of Christianity in China (4 pages); Chen Yugang's historical manuscript of Chinese literary translation (5 pages).

The more in-depth discussions basically point to the theoretical discussion of Chinese Bible translation. The most important thing is the discussion on "term question", sometimes called "holy number problem". This problem involves how to use Chinese to call Hebrew "YHWH" and "Elohim", Greek "theos", Latin "Deus" or English "God", and how to translate theological names such as "Holy Spirit", "an - gel" or "baptism". How to translate holy names into Chinese is not only a linguistic and theological problem, but also involves the connotation of Chinese religious beliefs, but also involves how one language and culture is translated into another language and culture of heterogeneous paganism. This is a long-standing and controversial topic on translation in the history of Chinese Christian religion. Until today, there is still no final conclusion within Christianity. Zhao Weiben's "debate on the translation of the Chinese Bible: Shenhu? Dihu" is an early academic paper on the dispute over the translation of the Chinese Bible; Li Chi Chang, editor in chief, compiled more than 60 debates on the translation of "God" and "God" published by Chinese Christians in the communique of nations from 1877 to 1878. It pays close attention to the opinions and responses of Chinese Christians, It is a significant revision of the tendency of many works and historical materials to only pay attention to missionaries and forget the Chinese people. Zhao Xiaoyang's translation and introduction of local culture and foreign religions in regeneration: from the perspective of the Chinese translation of God and God discusses the fierce debate between Catholicism and Christianity on the "translation problem" for 300 years. Under the interpretation of Western religious ideas, the traditional Chinese words "God" and "God" have been gradually Christianized, lost the connotation of their original local religion, and regenerated into new words symbolizing western culture. This paper goes beyond the narrow theological scope of discussing the translation of names within the church in the past, and discusses this cultural problem from a broader perspective. Cheng Xiaojuan's doctoral thesis, discussion and acceptance of "God" in Chinese Bible translation, comprehensively examines the discussion of Western missionaries on the translation of "God" and the history of Chinese acceptance of "God", hoping to form a horizontal investigation of the complete cultural exchange system of "dissemination acceptance", Vertically, it shows their historical changes in different historical situations and cultural exchange stages.(Leslie Howsam,1991)

Cai Jintu's doctoral thesis, the orientation and problems of commissioned Chinese Bible translation, specially discusses one of many deep arts and science translations - commissioned translation, its translatological principles, translation activities, sales, assistance of Chinese assistants, etc., focusing on the theological theory of Bible translation, And the influence of these theological theories on Chinese Bible translation and the development of Christian Church. Ren Dongsheng's doctoral thesis, a study on the culture of Bible Chinese translation, discusses the thematic changes of Bible literature, history and theology from the perspective of translatology.

At present, the academic research on the Chinese version of the Bible is still insufficient. So far, only Ma min's mahiman, Rasha and the early Chinese translation of the Bible has achieved a high level of academic research results; Wu Yixiong's the dispute over translation names and the Chinese translation of the early Bible; Zhao Xiaoyang's research on the relationship between the two horse Bible versions and the daysun Bible versions, an analysis of the origin of the printed Bible base in the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom, Chiang Kai Shek and Bible translation during the war of resistance against Japan, and a historical overview of the Centennial Ministry of the American Chinese Bible Society. Based on the discovery of new materials in Chinese and English, these Chinese papers textual research and analyze the basic historical facts of the Bible translation and Foreign Bible Societies, and describe the work contents of Bible translation, personnel changes, Bible sales, version identification and textual research, disputes and focus during translation in each period. These research papers only involve the earliest translation of Christian missionaries or the Bible translation of Chiang Kai Shek, a famous political figure in modern history.(Hubert W.Spillett,1975)

== Conclusion==
But up to now, due to the differences and opposites between Catholicism and Christianity, there are differences and estrangements among many sects in Christianity; Under the influence of social and political ideology, academic circles have neglected and lacked this field intentionally or unintentionally in the past; The objective difficulties in the study of Chinese versions of the Bible, such as the vast majority of archival materials and various versions are kept abroad, and the majority of foreign materials; There is still no academic research monograph on the historical investigation of the whole Chinese translation of the Bible. The existing in-depth research on Chinese Bible translation is also limited to the most famous versions of the Bible in the history of Chinese Bible translation, such as the marsmian version, the Morrison version, the Guo Shili version, the commissioned version and so on. There is no dialect translation and minority language translation of the Bible, no Roman Bible translation of many churches, and no Chinese translation in the post missionary era. Special studies on the impact, response and reference of Chinese Bible translation on Chinese language, language reform, social culture, new literature and new words, the impact of Chinese Bible translation on the spread and development of Chinese Christian religion, the impact and response of Chinese Bible translation on Chinese traditional ideology and culture, and the impact and significance of Chinese Bible translation on the history of Chinese translation, It is even more rare to pay. The research on the translation and influence of the Bible is a blank spot that needs to be developed. It is worth us to devote ourselves to it and make a difference.

== References==

Marshall Broomhall, The Bible in China, London: British and Foreign Bible Society, 1934, p.2.

William Canton, A History of the British and Foreign Bible Society，London: John Murray, 1904, 1910.

Leslie Howsam, Cheap Bibles: Nineteenth-Century Publishing and the British and Foreign Bible Society,Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991.

Henry O. Dwight, The Centennial History of the American Bible Society, New York: Macmillan, 1916.

Hubert W. Spillett, A Catalogue of Scriptures in the Languages of China and the Republic of China, Hong Kong: British and Foreign Bible Society,1975.

Eugene A. Nida, The Book of A Thousand Tongues, New York: United Bible Societies, 1972.

Chloe Starr edit, Reading Christian Scriptures in China,London: T&T Clark, 2008.

Tony 汤因. 中国基督教圣经事业史料简编 A compendium of historical materials on the cause of Chinese Christian Bible [J] 协进 Xie Jin, 1953 (9): 48

Gu Changsheng 顾长声.传教士与近代中国 Missionaries and modern China [M] 上海：上海人民出版社 Shanghai: Shanghai People's publishing house,1991

Yang Senfu 杨森富.中国基督教史 History of Christianity in China [M] 台北：商务印书馆 Taipei: Commercial Press, 1968

Li kuanshu 李宽淑.中国基督教史略 A brief history of Christianity in China [M] 北京：社会科学文献出版社 Beijing: Social Science Literature Press,,1998

Wang Zhixin 王治心.中国基督教史纲 Outline of Chinese Christian history [M] 上海：上海古籍出版社 Shanghai: Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House,2004

1Chen Yugang 陈玉刚.中国文学翻译史稿 History of Chinese literary translation [M] 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司，Beijing: China translation and Publishing Corporation, 1992

== 叶维杰 Medieval Arabic Translation Movement=
中世纪阿拉伯翻译运动
Ye Weijie 叶维杰 Hunan Normal University, China

== Abstract==
The Medieval Arabic Translation Movement(The Harakah al—Tarjamah) is also called the Translation Movement. It was a large-scale organized academic activity carried out by the Arab Empire in the Middle Ages to translate and introduce ancient Greek and Eastern scientific and cultural classics. The Abbasid Caliphate implemented a diversified and inclusive cultural policy, vigorously advocated and sponsored the translation of academic classics from ancient Greece, Rome, Persia, India and other countries into Arabic to absorb advanced cultural heritage. The Arabic translation movement preserved the natural sciences and humanities in ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and played an extremely important role in promoting the cultural revival of European political and cultural conditions in the late Middle Ages. The Hundred-Year Arab Translation Movement lasted for more than two hundred years, spanning the vast regions of Asia, Africa, and Europe, and blending ancient Eastern and Western cultures such as Persia, India, Greece, Rome, and Arabia. There are not many translation activities in the history of world civilization. Analyzing its causes, processes, results, and impacts is of great academic value for studying the phased development of human civilization and the commonality of human wisdom, and it is also of great help to deeply understand the Arab Islamic philosophy and culture.

== Key words==
Harakah al—Tarjamah, translation movement, Western culture, Islamic culture，Middle Ages

== 摘要 ==
中世纪的阿拉伯语翻译运动（The Harakah al-Tarjamah）也叫百年翻译运动。它是中世纪阿拉伯帝国为翻译和介绍古希腊和东方科学文化经典而进行的有组织的大型学术活动。阿拔斯王朝哈里发推行多元包容的文化政策，大力倡导和赞助将古希腊、罗马、波斯、印度等国的学术经典译成阿拉伯文，吸收先进的文化遗产。阿拉伯语翻译运动保存了古希腊罗马文化中的自然科学和人文学科，对中世纪晚期欧洲政治文化状况的文化复兴起到了极其重要的推动作用。阿拉伯百年翻译运动持续了两百多年，横跨亚非欧广大地区，融合了波斯、印度、希腊、罗马、阿拉伯等古老的东西方文化。世界文明史上的翻译活动并不多。分析其成因、过程、结果和影响，对于研究人类文明的阶段性发展和人类智慧的共性具有重要的学术价值，对于深入了解阿拉伯伊斯兰哲学和文化也有很大帮助。

== 关键词 ==
阿拉伯百年翻译运动，翻译运动，西方文化，伊斯兰文化，中世纪

== Introduction==
The Harakah al—Tarjamah is also called the Translation Movement. The Centennial Arab Translation Movement lasted for more than two hundred years. The content of translation involved cultural achievements such as ancient Greek and Roman culture, Persian Mesopotamian culture, and ancient Indian culture. It spanned three continents and five seas in space and was the most extensive in human history. One of the major events. The Arab translation movement in the middle of the eighth century to the end of the tenth century not only changed the backward state of the Arab nation, but also gave birth to a strong Arab-Islamic culture; and its document translation was extremely important to the Renaissance movement in the later political and cultural state of Europe.The Arab Empire in the Middle Ages carried out large-scale and organized academic activities that translated and introduced ancient Greek and Eastern scientific and cultural classics. The Abbasid Caliphate implemented a diversified and inclusive cultural policy, vigorously advocated and sponsored the translation of academic classics from ancient Greece, Rome, Persia, India and other countries into Arabic to absorb advanced cultural heritage. The Arabic translation movement preserved the natural sciences and humanities in ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and played an extremely important role in promoting the cultural revival of European political and cultural conditions in the late Middle Ages. The Hundred-Year Arab Translation Movement lasted for more than two hundred years, spanning the vast regions of Asia, Africa, and Europe, and blending ancient Eastern and Western cultures such as Persia, India, Greece, Rome, and Arabia. There are not many translation activities in the history of world civilization. Analyzing its causes, processes, results, and impacts is of great academic value for studying the phased development of human civilization and the commonality of human wisdom, and it is also of great help to deeply understand the Arab Islamic philosophy and culture.

The Arabic translation movement can be divided into three periods: the first period is from the middle and late 8th century to the late 9th century. Translation activities in this period were mainly carried out with the support of the famous Caliph Mansour and Harun Rashid. The translated books are mainly Persian works, and the content mostly revolves around astronomy and medicine. The second period was from the early 9th century to the middle and late 9th century. The Caliph Maimon strongly supported this matter and achieved the golden age of the 100-year translation movement. The content involved ancient Greek philosophy, natural sciences, etc.; the last period was from the middle and late 9th century to the early 10th century. During this period, the support of the Caliphate and the pace of translation declined, and a lot of work was retranslation and revision of previous translations. At this time, the translation movement has also entered its end. The century-old translation movement with a history of more than 200 years changed the backwardness of the Arab nation and gave birth to Arab-Islamic culture, which had a significant impact on Arab society. This movement promoted the exchange of various cultures while preserving classics and ancient books. Rongtong has added an important heritage to the world cultural treasure house, and has had a positive and valuable impact on the development of world culture. This article will give a more systematic introduction to the movement, divided into the following three parts: the reasons for the translation movement, the Baghdad Translation Center of the translation movement, and the influence of the translation movement.

== The Background and Cause of Translation Movement ==

During the Umayyad dynasty, Arab Muslims were fully aware of the importance of absorbing the highly developed spiritual culture of foreign nations. In order to adapt to the actual needs of society, Khalid bin Yazid organized a group of people who were proficient in Syriac, Greek or Persian scholars, focusing on the translation of ancient books in medicine and pharmacology and chemistry, and have conducted translation explorations in a broader academic field. The beginning of the Arabic translation movement and its subsequent 200-year glorious achievements are mainly due to the following four factors:

1.Geographical factors:

Since Mansour, the second caliph of the Abbasid dynasty, established its capital in Baghdad, the important position of Baghdad as the political, economic and cultural center of the dynasty has been highlighted. Baghdad is located in the two rivers basin of West Asia and is located in the main traffic arteries between the East and the West. Throughout the history of civilizations in the world, rivers and civilizations have accompanied each other. The superior geographical location has created good conditions for cultural exchanges, accelerated the circulation of classics from various countries, and provided large-scale translation activities. Provides a wealth of source text.

Damascus, the capital of the former Umayyad dynasty, was handed over to Muslim rule after several regime changes. Prior to this, Damascus was an important center of Greco-Roman culture, with Greek as the official language, while the new capital of the Abbasid dynasty, Baghdad, was close to Persia. Ctesiphon, the old capital of the Sassanid Dynasty, was influenced by Persian culture before Islamic cultural rule. Therefore, during the translation movement at that time, a considerable number of Persian translators participated in the translation, and a large number of Persian classics were translated into Arabic and retained . "The Persian influence set back the original life of the Arabians, and paved the way for a new era characterized by the development of science and academic research." By translating classic works of other ethnic groups, cultural exchanges between different ethnic groups can be realized. Translation Played an important role as a bridge. At the same time, the Persian aristocracy made great contributions to the establishment of the Abbasid dynasty and was quite influential in the regime. The caliph also urgently needed the support of this force to promote cultural integration and identity identification among different ethnic groups. Therefore, geopolitical factors are undoubtedly one of the important driving forces for the vigorous development of the Abbasid dynasty translation movement.

2.Religious factors:

In the early days of the Umayyad dynasty, the domestic political situation was basically stable, but there were still some political opponents and religious scholars dissatisfied with the rule. The influence of Christianity still exists. Islam, as a relatively young faith, has impacted on different religions and cultures. Make efforts to gain a firm foundation. In the early days of the rise of Islam, the spread of teachings could only be done through word of mouth, and academic interpretation was mainly based on the Koran. Except for Arabic and Islam, the early Muslims failed to import advanced culture or science and technology into the conquered areas, and only focused on consolidating the rule of Islam in the Arab region. The purpose of early translation activities was limited to promoting the dissemination of Islamic culture. For religious purposes, the original intent of religious works was greatly changed during the translation process. Although this practice can play a certain missionary role, it violates the basic principles of translation, fails to accurately convey the original information, and loses the inheritance significance of the original.

After the establishment of the Abbasid dynasty, the Islamization of the empire further deepened, and at the same time a batch of fresh religious and cultural blood was injected. The Quran is more tolerant towards foreign denominations such as Judaism and Christianity. Especially for Christians, the Quran calls them “the closest people to Muslims”. Under the guidance of this doctrine, “The Abbasid Empire has become an Islamic empire instead of a Umayyad-style “Arab Empire”. A large number of infidels and Muslims intermarried, reducing the ideological gap between various ethnic groups. Translator The religious structure of the group has been substantially adjusted. The converts filtered by Islamic ideology brought an active academic atmosphere and non-Islamic theological concepts, and multidisciplinary systems such as linguistics, literature, law, philosophy, and mathematics were gradually formed.

Islamic culture was further enriched in the Abbasid dynasty. The spirit of advocating knowledge and scholarship became the spiritual source of the translation movement during this period. The increasingly diversified inner religious spirit became the source of the translation movement, and promoted the translators of different religions. Translation behavior and multiple beliefs collide with each other, the scale of translation continues to expand, and the types and content of translations are also enriched by the tolerance of religious and cultural attitudes. The prosperity of the translation movement was promoted by many factors. At the religious and cultural level, the acceptance of various religious beliefs is a prerequisite for the vigorous development of the translation movement. If Muslims completely reject paganism and force other believers to convert to Islam, the participation of Christians or Jews in translation activities will be greatly reduced, the diversity of translator groups will be combated, and the perspective of translation research will inevitably be affected.

3.Science and technology factors:

In terms of science and technology, two factors have jointly promoted the development of translation, one is the foundation of early document translation, and the other is the introduction of papermaking.

The Prophet Muhammad said: “Learning is divided into two categories: religious learning and physical learning (medicine).” Translators of the Umayyad Dynasty followed this precept and performed sporadic translations of works on medicine, philosophy, and chemistry. , Pave the way for the emergence of the golden age of the translation movement in the later dynasties. "As for the natural sciences such as medicine, logic, and mathematics of the Islamic nation, it has been systematic from the beginning. Because partial research on it has already been carried out in Greece, India, Persia and other countries, and it has been sorted and recorded. It’s the stage of analysis and analysis. In the Abbasid era, these subjects were completely translated into Arabic without starting from scratch. Perhaps, when the writers of the paraphrasing subjects saw the rigorous system of natural science, they copied their practices. Some styles that they think are good have been added.” The scientific inquiry and translations of works in early Islam facilitated the prosperity of the translation movement, and Abbasid translators only needed to review the documents based on the collated documents. Or retranslation, which greatly improves the accuracy of translation.

The status of the development of emerging technologies in the Arab translation movement is undeniable, but technological development is equally important to the spread of early civilizations and is not unique to the Abbasid dynasty, so it cannot be used as a unique motivation for the emergence of large-scale translation activities in the Abbasid dynasty. However, the introduction of papermaking technology did make an indelible contribution to the cultural heritage of the empire. The first paper mill in the empire was located in Samarkand on the Silk Road in Central Asia. In the centuries before it was conquered by Islam, this city was already one of the most prosperous cities in the Persian Empire, and it was the academic center of Persia until the Middle Ages. The smooth flow of Eastern Commercial Road brought papermaking technology to Muslim countries. The introduction of papermaking has obvious influence on the translation movement. The Arabs replaced expensive parchment with relatively inexpensive paper, which made writing records and book circulation more convenient and expanded. People's demand for academic works has promoted the large-scale emergence of translation movement.

4.Translation ability factor：

Maimon, the seventh caliph of the Abbasid dynasty, established a "wisdom palace" on the basis of the Mansour Royal Library to recruit academic elites from all walks of life for translation work. The historian Yakubi once described the academic style in Baghdad: "Scholars in Baghdad have a higher education level, where experts are more knowledgeable in tradition, grammarians are more reliable in syntax... Logicians think more clearly Missionaries are also more eloquent.” Although the translators of this period were not true translators, they all had received strict philosophical and logical training. Some Syrian Christians specially returned to Greece to study in order to improve their language skills. They used Syriac as their mother tongue as a translation agency and played an important role in the translation movement. The translators in the Abbasid period built bridges between different languages and cultures with their outstanding professional ability, serious translation attitude and unlimited enthusiasm for science, which became another important driving force for the vigorous development of translation movement.

With the popularization of academic knowledge and the dissemination of various books, the scientific and cultural literacy of translators has also been comprehensively improved. The increase in knowledge reserves in astronomy, medicine, philosophy, etc. makes translation activities not only at the level of mechanical code switching. , But based on understanding and even proficiency in the meaning of the text, improving the level of translation in terms of translation quality and translation speed.

== Baghdad Translation Center ==

Baghdad Translation Center:

Before the Arab conquest, there was a tradition of studying ancient Greek cultural classics and translating them into Syriac. With the expansion of Islamic countries and the spread of religion, Arabic was popularized as an official language. At that time, there were many Syrians, Persians, Egyptians, Jews, Bebers, Spanish, Sicilians, and even Italians have become Muslims, and the Arabic language has been greatly popularized. During the reign of the Caliph dynasty, due to its rulers' enthusiasm for academic research and translation, under the impetus of the rulers, the Arab region in the Middle Ages became the center of science and translation.

Baghdad was the capital of the Abbasid Caliph dynasty. The rulers of the dynasty strongly supported the translation and paid the translators a very substantial compensation. With the support of the caliph ruler, a large number of Syrian, ancient Persian and Sanskrit texts were translated. At that time, they were most interested in medicine and philosophy. The choice of translation work text was not only political and cultural, but the personal interests of the current caliph and courtiers were also important factors. The Arab world attaches great importance to astronomy and calendar, mainly for the service of its religion. They used astronomy and calendar to accurately calculate the exact time of the five prayers, so that they could give the correct latitude and longitude coordinates facing the holy city of Mecca in any Islamic mosque for pilgrimage and prayer, and accurately calculated the time of fasting The exact number of days of the period. Therefore, many caliphs of the Abbasid dynasty paid great attention to the translation of astronomy and calendar classics. During the reign of the third-generation caliph Harun Al-Rashid (Harun Al-Rashid, said to be the prototype of the protagonist in the story of "The Thousand and One Nights"), the "Treasury of Knowledge" library was Established, it contains a large number of trophies of Greek literature and science obtained by defeating Byzantium. By the time of the fourth caliph Al-Mamun (reigned 813-833), Mamun was built in Baghdad in 830 AD The “House of Wisdom” (House of Wisdom), which is larger than the “Treasure House of Knowledge”, aims to translate the scientific and philosophical works of ancient Greece into Arabic. A large number of ancient Syriac, ancient Persian, and texts can be obtained here. In addition to translation, it is worth mentioning that during this period, many ancient Greek texts were translated into Arabic and preserved. In the 9th and 10th centuries AD, the city of Baghdad was the center of a vast translation project whose goal was to translate ancient Greek scientific and philosophical works into Arabic. This event had a profound impact on the development of science and philosophy in the entire Arab world, and directly brought about the dramatic changes in the culture and ideas of the region at that time. At that time, Hunayn Ibn Ishaq was in charge of the translation work. He and his more than 90 people translated a large number of Plato and Aristotle's works: Plato's Dialogues and "The Utopia", Aristotle's Logic Essays Set The Organon, including Categories, On Interpretation, Pior Analytics, Posterior Analytics, Topics, On Sophistical Refutations, The Metaphysics.

In addition to noting the translations of the original authors, the Arab scientists of this period also contained translational elements in their own works. Al-Razi (865-925), the author of the most important medicinal work at the time, was a student of Hunayn’s disciple. His most famous "Medical Integration" actually had a lot of content compiled, and the book collected All the medical knowledge of ancient Greece, India and the Middle East that was known at that time.

Alchemy also emerged in Arab countries during this period. It was initiated by the "mystic" Jabir Ibn Hayyan. He put forward a doctrine in his legacy writings that all things, especially metals, are based on mercury and Formed by the interaction of sulfur. The alchemy of China and Alexandria also had the seeds of this doctrine. Arab alchemists adopted the four-element theory of ancient Greece and imagined that by changing the amount of the elements that make up a metal, one metal can be transformed into another metal.

In the Arab world in the Middle Ages, like other ancient civilizations, encyclopedic scholars also appeared. The most representative one is Omar Khayyam (1048-1131). He was proficient in calendar reforms and algebraic studies, but his " Quartet" made him famous soon after him. His Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam is popular all over the world, and there have been hundreds of versions so far. His poems are recognized as the treasure of world literature and become the pride of ancient Persian literature.

During this period, Al-Khwarizmi (?-835) introduced Indian numbers and Indian algorithms to Arab countries, and later spread them to the world through Europe, which is what we now call "Arabic numbers".

The "Palace of Wisdom" established in 830 AD was the result of Arab absorbing the cultural wealth of China, India, Persia, and ancient Greece. A large number of translation activities continued until the decline of the empire in the 13th century. Translation has had a profound impact on the development of science and philosophy throughout the Arab world. For translators in Baghdad, the translation works play the role of raw materials, and the translated text is not the goal, but the catalyst that stimulates the original ideas and products of knowledge. Therefore, translators regard translation as a creative process, and the translation is often accompanied by comments, summaries or explanatory notes to make the original text easier to understand. Translators are often experts in the field of their translation. In translation, they not only exert their own understanding and comprehensive ability, but also practice their own creativity. A new ideological system was established with the help of translation and became the basis of Arab-Muslim culture. In this context, the prosperous Arab astronomy took the lead in blooming flowers from here, forming the so-called "Baghdad School" of later generations. The works of Alaba during this period were translated into Latin by later European academic circles, which in turn influenced the entire Western civilization.

== The Influence of the Arabic Translation Movement ==

The Influence of the Translation Movement

The Abbasid dynasty was the golden age of the Arab translation movement. The academic research and cultural activities carried out on the basis of translation completely changed the early material and spiritual scarcity of the Arab nation, promoted the development of natural sciences in the Middle Ages, and gave birth to Arab- Islamic culture.

1.Promotion of the development of natural sciences:

In the golden age of the translation movement of the Abbasid dynasty, a large number of natural science and medical works from Persia and Greece were translated into Arabic. Translators learn astronomy and geography in the translation process, digest the source text and perform creative translation, use Arabic to annotate and explain the unclear or obscure meanings of the original text, and then use the target language that is easy for Muslims to output, which enhances The universality of the text promoted the popularization of Muslim science and culture. "In the eighty years after the establishment of the Abbasid dynasty, the cultural essence of the above-mentioned peoples has been recorded in Arabic. I didn’t know anything about arithmetic, geometry, medicine and other terms, and I knew Aristotle’s logic. Arabs who have never heard of philosophy can use Arabic to express Euclid’s most refined theories, express the law of sines in Indian mathematics, and express Aristotle’s Materialism, Ptolemy’s principles of astronomy, Galen’s medicine, Bizley’s motto, and the politics of the Persian king.” By studying translations, the Arabs built an Islamic medical system on the basis of native medicine. From theory to clinical practice, it has corrected and made up for the medical gap before the Abbasid dynasty. During the Abbasid period, medical achievements have been fruitful and have attracted worldwide attention. At the same time, research in the fields of pharmacology, botany, mathematics, and physics has gradually deepened, and many authoritative works have been published, which have made inestimable contributions to the development of modern science in China, the Arab world, and Europe, and even the development of human civilization. contribute.

Whether it is for the caliph’s personal preferences or serving in religious ceremonies, the translation of astrological and astronomical works has promoted the development of modern Arab science and technology. Some translators became astronomers or scientists by translating classics, thus realizing the transformation of their identities. After reading the translated works, many Arabs developed a keen interest in astronomy and mathematics, and then continued to translate. The main works of Euclid and Ptolemy were also translated into Arabic during this period. The translation of classics and scientific development promoted each other, and academic atmosphere became popular for a time.

2.The formation of Arab-Islamic culture:

While the natural sciences are developing vigorously, from the perspective of ideological and cultural analysis, the translation movement gave birth to Arab-Islamic culture. With the expansion of the Abbasid Empire, Islamic civilization was also brought to the vast conquered areas. Islam in the Umayyad period only existed as a foreign religion in the conquered areas. Christianity still has a profound influence there, and the beliefs of residents have not changed much. With the influence of various factors such as intermarriage and political dependence, the Islamization of the Arab empire has gradually advanced in the ruled areas and merged with the local culture into a splendid and complex Arab-Islamic culture. "After the 7th century, Islamic culture rose to become the mainstream culture of the Mediterranean. The Arab Empire became an important center of world culture at that time, and it radiated strongly outward."

The unification of language helps resolve ideological contradictions and promote national cultural identity. During the translation movement, the further popularization of Arabic became the official language of the empire, the civilization of neighboring countries gradually declined, and the status of Arab-Islamic culture gradually took shape. Without the prosperity of the Abbasid translation movement, there would be no new cultural construction of Islamic civilization. Since then, Arab-Islamic culture has shined in Spain. During the Arab rule of the Iberian Peninsula, it had a significant impact on the formation of Spanish national culture and language, and it also left a deep Arab imprint in the formation of European civilization. Although the Arab Empire fell apart due to religious and political struggles, the Arab-Islamic civilization left behind by the translation movement is still shining.

3.Having Promoted the Renaissance in Europe:

In the history of modern science, the Western Middle Ages has been given the image of a "dark age". In the Middle Ages from 500 to 1500 AD, because European countries pursued a religious theology and idealistic view of nature, the priests of the Roman Church only knew that they adhered to the dogma of their church. Religion seriously hindered the development of science. Therefore, Western science was here. The stage of development is unusually slow. The Christian churches in the West had brutally attacked the ancient Greek heritage and regarded this as a heritage related to idolatry that was harmful to the Christian faith. Christians were forbidden to learn more. At that time, the writings of most Greek philosophers and writers were despised. . The Byzantine emperor Constantine even closed the philosophical school in Athens in 529 AD, and this hostile attitude towards Greek heritage continued for centuries. Muslim scholars saved the Greek heritage by studying and in-depth annotations of the writings of Aristotle, Gran, and Ptolemy. It was through the labor of these Muslim scholars that the European countries that were shrouded in the dark age at that time realized their true and forgotten traditions of Greek science and philosophy. It is precisely because of the Arab world's translation of ancient Greek and Roman scientific and philosophical works that the natural and human sciences in ancient Greek and Roman cultures were preserved, so that the translation of Arabic documents in Europe in the late Middle Ages promoted European politics In this regard, the cultural revival is indispensable for the contribution of the Arab Translation Movement.

== Conclusion==

The Abbasid dynasty was the second hereditary dynasty of the Arab Empire, which lasted for more than five hundred years. The translation movement that flourished in this era pushed Arab-Islamic culture to its peak under the multiple combined forces. Although the power of the Arab empire in the second half of the 9th century was declining and the Caliphate came to an end, its cultural influence has never diminished. With the advancement of international cultural exchanges between countries, the Arab translation movement still has important practical significance:

First of all, cultural exchanges between countries in the world are becoming more and more frequent. Translation disciplines are no longer limited to the language field. Interdisciplinary translation has become a future trend. It is a new type of challenge;

secondly, a good academic environment is a prerequisite for promoting knowledge progress and achieving academic innovation. During the Abbasid dynasty, translation activities were organized and carried out on a large scale under the call of the state, focusing on and rewarding academic activities, and setting up academic institutions. The academic atmosphere of the entire Baghdad city was strong, and the natural sciences and social sciences had been developed by leaps and bounds. This provides a reference for the further construction of the academic environment of other countries.

Furthermore, the development of science and technology has closely linked the countries of the world, and the collision of multiculturalism has become the theme of the development of civilization in the world today. The reason for the success of the Arab translation movement is that Muslims' tolerance towards other religions and foreign cultures is a crucial part. This is also the main reason why Arab-Islamic culture has absorbed the millennium culture of ancient Greece and Rome in a century. In summary, the Abbasid dynasty’s open and inclusive attitude towards academic activities led the Arab translation movement into a golden age. The vigorous development of the translation movement during this period promoted the progress of the natural sciences of the Arab Empire, and laid a solid academic foundation for the early inheritance of science and culture, as well as the exchanges and mutual learning between Eastern and Western civilizations. Despite the decline of the Arab empire, the characteristics of Arab-Islamic culture will continue in new ways. In the contemporary era, the Abbasid dynasty translation movement provides the world with a deeper historical perspective, and provides a useful reference for the training of translators and cultural exchanges in various countries around the world.

Although the vigorous Arab translation movement for a century has been obliterated in the long river of history, the impact of the Arab-Islamic culture produced is far-reaching. Throughout the long history, one can still hear the voices of many Muslims and non-Muslim scholars struggling to translate manuscripts in the "Wisdom Hall", as well as their clamor for truth and academic culture; you can still hear the Arab Muslims in "for Allah" Under the slogan of "War", the screams of expansion riding on a war horse; I can still imagine the amazing scenes of Arab merchants traveling thousands of miles and sailing merchant ships to China and Scandinavia. Under the influence of the strong Arab-Islamic culture, the people of the Arab empire have discarded national and racial differences and formed a spirit of "Muslim brothers and sisters" psychologically. This strong culture and common psychological cognition give Arab-Islamic culture a tenacious vitality, and it still arouses echoes from time to time in Arab countries and the Islamic world.

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= Brief history of French translation =
李怡 Li Yi ,Hunan Normal University ,China
== Abstract==
The purpose of this article is to make a brief introduction to the translation history of France. The history of French translation began in the Middle Ages: with the development of Christianity and nationalism, the royal family hired translators to translate the Bible. The Renaissance in the 16th century, as well as economic and educational development, increased the demand for reading and writing, thus promoting the development of translation, most of the translated works are classical works. Then two religious films appeared in France: Jansenists and Jesuit, which had a great influence on the translation schools of that time. During the Enlightenment in the 18th century, France was deeply influenced by Britain, so most of the works in this period were British progressive thoughts and literature. The Industrial Revolution in the second half of the 18th century increased French scientific and technological translation. With the progress of the French Revolution, French translators are more inclined to the economic and political and judicial fields. After the Second World War, the translation industry in France recovered and developed vigorously. France even set up ESIT（École Supérieure d'Interprètes et de Traducteurs）to train senior translators. In the 20th century, there appeared many translation theorists in France, which promoted the professionalization of translation.
== Key words==
Renaissance, French translation, contemporary, French Revolution
== Introduction==
As a developed country in the west, France has a very long translation history. Translators and translation theories emerge in endlessly, which can not be ignored in the history of translation. At the same time, with the development of globalization, translation theories in various countries learn from and integrate with each other. Among them, French translation theory also plays a very important role. Therefore, it is necessary to comb the history of French translation and study the translators of relevant times and their relevant theories.
==1.Medieval French translation based on Bible Translation==
In the middle ages, translation in various countries was deeply influenced by religion, especially the translation of the Bible, which greatly promoted the development of translation. In France, the royal family specially hired translators to translate various Latin and Greek works for the imperial court. The most prominent court interpreter was Nicholas Oresme of the Charles V Dynasty. Aristotle's works translated by him in 1377 had a great impact on the French translation and philosophy circles at that time. Jean de Vigne translated the Latin Bible in French in 1340. In addition, Jean de malkaraume, J argyropylos and others translated the works of Virgil, Ovid, Aristotle, Plato and contemporary writers at the same time.
==2.Renaissance: the development of French translation==
The Renaissance is the development period of French translation theory. The main representatives are Dolet and Jacques Amyot, especially the former. In the 16th century, there was an upsurge of translation in France. During this period, the focus of translation shifted from religious translation such as the Bible to classical literature translation. Religious translation abides by the translation principle of "word to word" . Its purpose is to follow the will of God and avoid blasphemy. This is irrefutable, so there are not many translation theories to speak of. However, as a new genre, the translation of literary works is different from the previous religious translation. Translators face many new problems, so translation theory came into being. Dolet and amyot are the most prominent representatives of translation theory in this period. They are both translators and translation theorists, and the latter wins especially by translation. Both their translation theories come from translation practice, so they are persuasive. Dolet is famous for his "five principles of translation". "Five principles of translation" comes from his paper on how to translate well published in 1540 ,La manière de bien traduire d’une langue à l’autre. 1. the translator must fully understand the content of the translated work; 2.The translator must be familiar with the target language and the target language; 3.The translator must avoid word by word translation; 4.The translator must adopt the popular language form; 5.The translator must select words and adjust word order to make the translation produce the effect of appropriate tone. (Tan Zaixi,2004:71)These five principles involve the criterion of "faithfulness" in translation, the translator's bilingual ability, translation methods, style and style of translation. Amyot is one of the greatest translators in the history of French translation. He is known as the "king of translation". His translation has had a great impact on that time and future generations. He follows two principles in Translation: 1. The translator must understand the original text and make great efforts in the translation of content; 2.The translation must be simple and natural without any decoration. The first involves the standard of faithfulness in translation, and the second involves the style of translation. These two principles are similar to the first and fifth of Dolet's five translation principles.

==3.The 17th century: the climax of French translation and various translation schools==
After the Renaissance, classicism deeply influenced France. In the translation circle at that time, people were engaged in the translation of classical works on a large scale. Translation has launched a magnificent "dispute between ancient and modern" around the translation methods of classical works. Some translators pay more attention to the past than the present: they pay attention to the imitation of words with sentences, and praise the so-called accurate translation method. Some translators prefer to use the opposite translation method.
In the 17th century, the most famous French translator was Perrot d’Ablancourt,, His translation is sophisticated and elegant, both meaningful and beautiful, and easy to understand. There are no words that need to be explained in order to clarify the meaning in the translation, and there are no annoying cliches. Therefore, he has a great reputation for a long time. His characteristic is to take an original work and grasp the main idea. No matter what the original style is, as long as the translation is literary and readable and can make contemporary readers love and welcome, he will do whatever he can to add or delete the content at any cost, and modify it if he can, regardless of the accuracy of the translation. At that time, this literary and beautiful translation method attracted many followers, but it was also criticized by many people as "beautiful but unfaithful".By the end of the 17th century, those who advocated free translation were overwhelmingly in favor, while those who really advocated accurate translation were few and far between. The earliest theorist to advocate accurate translation was Bachet de Méziriac in the mid-17th century. In December 1635, he published an essay entitled "on translation" at the French academy, stating that translators must observe three principles :1.do not stuff the original work with personal goods; 2.The original work shall not be abridged; 3.No alteration may be made detrimental to the original intention.
As one of the most influential translators in France in the 17th century, Daniel Huet, worshipped classical literature and clearly advocated accurate translation. He criticized both post-modern translators and unfaithful translators abranguel. He believes that the best translation method is: the translator first closely follows the original author's meaning; Secondly, if possible, stick to his words; Finally, try to reproduce his character as much as possible; The translator must carefully study the character of the original author, not delete, weaken, add and expand, and faithfully make it complete as the original. His translation principles are: the only goal of translation is to be accurate. Only by accurately imitating the original in language can it be possible to accurately convey the original author's meaning; The translator has no right to choose words or change word order arbitrarily, because "Deviation" from the original text will lead to deviation from the original meaning. His translation theory has been praised by many people, but due to the lack of practice, his theory is not attractive to translators.
In the 17th century, there were also two representatives from inaccurate translation to accurate translation,François Maucroix and Jacques de Tourreil.
François Maucroix is regarded by contemporary and later critics as one of the most outstanding French translators in the 17th century and the first person to translate demesne in the 17th century. In addition to demesne, he also translated the works of Plato and others. Maucroix received the education of the Jesuit Church in his early years, was greatly influenced by the Jesuit Church, loved debating literature, and paid attention to ingenious expression and beautiful language style.
His early translations were inaccurate in content, style or written expression. He liked to modernize ancient terms and expressions. In 1685, his style changed, and his translation became more accurate, which seemed to have completely corrected the defects of procrastination and weakness in his early translation. The reason can be seen from his letters with Boileau in the last decade of the 17th century. He regarded Boileau not only as the most important representative of classical literature, but also as an authority on translation theory. Therefore, he always sent the translation to Boileau for revision. Boileau read the manuscript carefully, criticized some paragraphs and put forward better translation methods. In his reply, Maucroix said that Poirot's criticism of some of his inaccurate translations was pertinent, and his opinions on the revision were also very good. He admitted that the inaccurate translation was a mistake and must be completely corrected. He finally realized that translators must adhere to the principle of accurate translation if they want to become real classicists.
Jacques de Tourreil also experienced a change from inaccurate translation to accurate translation, which is reflected in his translation of three different versions of Demosthenes. In 1691, he published his first translation, which was influenced by the education of the Jesuit and paid attention to elegant style rather than accurate content. Tourreil processed the original work in the most ingenious way to modernize the ancients. After the translation was published, it was immediately severely criticized by Racine. After being criticized, Tourreil published a revised version in 1710, but the revised version actually only made detailed changes to the original translation, and the guiding principle of translation remains unchanged, that is, we must "make the characteristics of the original work conform to the characteristics of our nation". The new translation has received various comments. On the one hand, the ancient school refers to Tourreil 's attempt to impose new ideas on Demosthenes, believing that he not only did not beautify the original work, but distorted and vilified the original work. On the other hand, the present school believes that Tourreil's unfaithful translation of the original is better than the original, which is worth applauding. Tourreil himself is an ancient school. Naturally, he doesn't appreciate the present school's praise and thinks that this praise is "the most severe criticism to the translator". After that, he revised the translation for the third time, which is very different from the first two versions. It was not only a rare and accurate translation at that time, but also extremely beautiful. The translator translates in strict accordance with the original work, neither adding or subtracting nor making changes. By this time Tourreil had fundamentally changed his point of view.
Discussing the history of French translation from the 17th century to the 18th century is bound to involve the influence of Jesuit and Jansenists. The main reason is that the people engaged in education at that time were members of these two schools. They had direct or indirect contact with each translation school through their own translation practice and teaching.
The Jesuit believes that classical literature is worth studying and learning only in the aspect that it provides moral education or guides people how to learn eloquence. The excavation of classical works is not because their contents are of great value, but because of their beautiful forms. Teachers believe that the purpose of teaching is not so much to enable students to obtain substantive knowledge as to enable them to obtain formal learning identity.
The works translated by Jesuit teachers or students generally have an obvious sign, that is, they do not pay much attention to the spiritual essence of the original work, but only pay attention to the expression of the original thought and the beauty of the translation style. In order to achieve this, translators often sacrifice the content, even misinterpret the original meaning, and religiously turn classical literary works. Therefore, the origin of inaccurate translation in the 17th century is often influenced by Jesuit thought.
Jansenists is the second school that directly or indirectly affects translation principles. They believe that once students can read and write, they should read these translations in order to obtain basic knowledge about the original author and facilitate more and better reading of the original works in the future. In the early days, the views of the janssenian translators and the Jesuit translators were basically the same. Later, the translators of Jansenists believed that the practice of style for style in translation was also dangerous. However, towards the middle of the 17th century, their views changed and they believed that the style of ancient Greek and Latin writers, especially the style of ancient Greek writers, was worth learning. They really appreciate classical works more than the Jesuits. They admit that the language style of the ancients is superior to that of the present, but the present enjoys more inspiration from God, so the present surpasses the ancients in terms of thought and morality. In this way, no matter from which perspective, their views are completely consistent with those of ancient school. But the translation of Jansenists is far less elegant and beautiful than that of the Jesuits.
==4.The decline of French translation in the 18th century and the translator Charles Batteux==
In the 18th century, France was not as powerful as in the 16th and 17th centuries, nor was it culturally complacent. So she began to look at other countries' literature, first of all England. For example, the novels of the contemporary British sentimentalist writer Richard Were translated into French, which had a great influence on the development of French sentimentalist literature. In particular, the Chinese culture, which had been introduced to Europe for a long time, became more active in France in the 18th century. Although the number of translations is large, the quality is often not high.
Charles Batteux was one of the most important translators in France in the 18th century. He was one of the most influential literary and translation theorists in France and the whole Europe in the 18th century. He edited and published a variety of translation books, translated aristoteles, Horace and many other classical works of ancient Greece and Rome, wrote Principes de Litterature, Cours de Belles-Lettres and other works. Batteux elaborated his thoughts and views on translation in The Principles of Treatise. His original views and excellent exposition made this book an important milestone in the development of translation theory in the 18th century.
The fifth part of Principes de Litterature deals with translation problems.The theory of Charles Batteux obviously has the characteristics of philosophers, linguists, philology and translation. In other words, Charles Batteux discusses the principles of translation mainly from the perspective of general linguistic skills, rather than literary creation. He proposed the following 12 rules for dealing with word order in translation: 1. We must not alter the order of what the original says, either as fact or inference. 2. We should also preserve the order of ideas in the original text. 3. No matter how long the original sentence is, it should be kept intact in the translation, for a sentence is a thought in which the different elements are related to each other, and their correlation constitutes a kind of harmony. 4.All the conjunctions in the original text should be preserved. It is these conjunctions, so to speak, that hold the sentence elements together. 5. All adverbs should be placed either before or after the verb, depending on the harmony and momentum of the sentence. 6.Symmetrical sentences should be translated into symmetrical sentences. 7. Colorful ideas should be expressed in as much space as possible in the translation so as to maintain the same brilliance. 8. Rhetorical devices and forms of speech used to express ideas must be preserved in the translation. 9. We must translate short and pithy sayings that people like, or translate them into words that are natural and can be used as proverbs. 10. Interpretation is incorrect and incomplete because it is no longer a translation but a commentary. However, if there is no other way to convey the meaning of the original text, the translator has no choice but to use interpretation. 11. For the sake of meaning, we must abandon all forms of expression in order to make ourselves intelligible; Abandon emotion in exchange for a lively translation; Give up harmony for the pleasure of translation. 12. The idea of the original text can be expressed in different forms, combined or broken up by the words used to express it, and expressed by verbs, adjectives, nouns and adverbs, as long as its essence remains unchanged（Tan Zaixi,2004:98）.

==5.The revival of French translation in the 19th century and its rich translators==
Another high tide of French translation came in the 19th century, when a large number of English, German, Italian, Spanish and Latin literary works were translated, such as Shakespeare, Milton, Byron, Shelley in England, Goethe and Schiller in Germany, Dante in Italy, and Spanish folk songs. The most prominent remains the translation of Shakespeare's works. If the 18th century was Shakespeare's Silver age in France, the 19th was the golden age. In the 19th century, people not only worshiped Shakespeare's works, but also worshipped him, and Shakespeare fever spread throughout France. From 1800 to 1910, at least eight different translations of Shakespeare's complete works were produced in France, of which francois-Victor Hugo is the best. Hugo's father was Victor Hugo, a great writer. With Hugo's assistance and cooperation, the complete works of Shakespeare were translated between 1859 and 1867. This translation has faithfully retained the unique rhythm of the play, so it has been praised by critics as the second milestone in the history of French translation of Shakespeare's plays, even more important than Letourne's famous translation in the late 18th century.
Famous French translators in the 19th century included Francoise-René de Chateaubriand, Gérard de Nerval, and Charles Baudelaire. Chateaubriand is another epoch-making translator in France after Amio. His translation is faithful and beautiful. His literal translation of Milton's Paradise Lost is one of the outstanding French translations with its melodious and poetic tone. Nerval is best known for his translation of Goethe's Faust in prose style. In 1830 Goethe saw Nerval's translation and praised it as better than his original. Baudelaire, another famous poet of this period, was one of the earliest French translators of American literature and the first translator of Allan Poe. For 13 years from 1852 to 1865, he wrote, translated and commented on the complete works of Allan Poe. Baudelaire found what he was pursuing in Allan Poe's works, and believed that he and the author were in the same spirit, so that the translation could be in touch with the author. The translation was smooth and natural, just like the French creation, and was listed as an excellent classic of French prose.
==6.The specialization of French translation in the 20th century and the maturity of translation theory==
The 20th century has been the heyday of French translation theory. The characteristics of French translation in this period are: since the end of the Second World War, due to practical needs, commercial, diplomatic, scientific and technological aspects of the translation boom(Chen Shunyi,2014:6), its momentum even more than literary translation, thus forming a major content of the development of modern western translation; The study of translation theory is unprecedented and has produced translation theorists who have an important influence on the history of translation in the world. Before the First World War, the two countries used the language of power in business transactions, and French, which was considered the language of diplomacy at international conferences and other diplomatic occasions, did not have much problem in translation. However, after the end of the First World War, French lost its dominance, and English rose to take the lead with French, forming a situation in which French and English were used together. The Paris Peace Conference of 1919 was the beginning of this situation. Later, the European Union has 24 official languages, which means that translation has become an indispensable part of daily work, whether it is communication between countries in other regions or between western countries. With the increase of cooperation between countries, the need for translators is increasing. To meet this need, a number of schools specializing in training translators have been set up. One of the most prominent is ESIT（École Supérieure d'Interprètes et de Traducteurs）.
ESIT was founded in 1957, set up the department of Oral translation and pen translation, initially only opened several European languages, since 1972 added Chinese, now a total of English, Chinese, Russian, Arabic, French, German, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, Danish, Swedish, Icelandic and other languages translation courses. Later, on the basis of the original two departments, the School added a department of Translation Studies, specializing in the study of language and translation theory, with the right to confer doctoral degrees. After graduation, most of the students apply for translation departments of international institutions, and some graduates apply for the work license of free translators to relevant institutions of various countries in order to work freely and not apply for the work license of free translators to international institutions. Over the years, ESIT has trained a number of senior translators for the foreign affairs departments of the United Nations, the European Community (EU) and western countries.
Another characteristic of modern French translation is that French translators are organized in large numbers, setting up various translation associations and establishing various translation publications. Each association has its own purpose and purpose to carry out its work effectively. There are two major translation associations in France: the Association of French Translators and the Association of French Literary Translators. The Association of French Literary Translators was founded in 1973 as a splinter from the Association of Translators. Its entry requirements are the most stringent of any of its kind. Only highly qualified translators are eligible to join. Applicants must have at least one translation, which is carefully reviewed against the original work by a special selection committee. The aims of the association are :1.to improve the quality of French literature and literary translation publications; 2.To protect the rights and interests of members in respect of copyright, remuneration and working conditions of translated works; 3.Do not participate in any political activities. Since its establishment, the association has held many lectures and lectures, and its members have published many articles on translation in such authoritative publications as le Monde and New Literature. Through this series of business activities, it has become the most distinctive and vocal translation organization in France.
In the first half of the 20th century, the French translation theorist J.Marouzeau is worth a book. He is a professor at the University of Paris and editor in chief of Année Philologique. In 1931, he published a pamphlet called La Traduction du Latin. The theory is as follows:1.Translation is, first of all, a skill. Maruzzo does not deny that translation is an art and a science, and that it is more of a skill. To master it, we mainly rely on rich practical experience, solid language knowledge and flexible translation methods. 2.In order to reach as many readers as possible, the translator's primary task, like linguists, educators and exegetists, is to reveal to the reader what the source text is, not what it covers. 3.The purpose of using a dictionary is not to translate, but to understand. It is a puzzling view, but it is not hard to discern the truth in it. He points out that translators must learn to use dictionaries, but must first understand what problems they are using them to solve. Latin, for example, is very different from French, he said. Latin words are not related to each other, and there is no strict word order, which must be added to a French translation to make the translation smooth. Dictionaries don't help in this respect. They define a particular word in inverse proportion to its simplicity, thus leaving the translator in a difficult position to choose between many different translations. Therefore, the main purpose of using a dictionary is not to find ready-made words, but to understand the meaning of the original text, to explain the text of the original text, and then produce a translation on this basis. At the same time, Marouzeau points out that words from different sources must be interpreted differently. 4.Translation is not guesswork. This is especially important. When encountering difficulties, the translator must carefully consider and avoid any "preconceived ideas", because in translation, the first thought of meaning or expression is often not the most correct or best. 5.Translation must be in living language. This was a popular idea in England in the 17th and 18th centuries. Marouzeau said that to translate Latin into French, if you need to introduce an old expression, you have to turn to a living language so that the translation is alive. That is to say, the translator must ask: if the original author were alive today and writing in French, how would he express the same thing? But Marouzeau also points out that this is not a generalization, and that for some passages, especially those of Ovid, "a bit of antiquity is most appropriate in French translation".
The following is an introduction to Georges Mounin, a famous French translation theorist in the second half of the 20th century. He devoted his life to the teaching and research of linguistics and translation theory with outstanding achievements. He is regarded as the founder and most important representative of linguistic theory in contemporary French translation studies. Major theoretical works include Le belles infidèles , Les problèmes théorique de la traduction, La machine à traduire: Histoire des problèmes linguistiques, Linguistique et traduction, Semiotic praxis, etc. Among them, Les problèmes théorique de la traduction is the most praised by contemporary Western translation theorists. As mentioned above, this book uses the basic theories and methods of modern linguistics to explain translation, and sets up the first clear-cut flag of linguistic school in the field of Translation studies in France.
The core idea of Mounin 's book is that he thinks translation belongs to linguistics, so it should be studied, understood and explained by means of modern linguistics. To establish an effective translation theory, it has to for translation and the translation of basic problems related to make a scientific understanding of these problems include the nature of translation, translation and the meaning of vocabulary, grammatical structure, the relationship between translation and the objective world, the world's image), the relationship between translation and language universals and language features, the relationship between the processing of language features in translation, and so on. Mounin 's discussion of translation theory revolves around these questions.
What exactly is a translation? What kind of discipline should translation studies belong to and what kind of methods should be adopted? And so on. Such problems have always been the most concerned by translation researchers but have not been properly explained. Mounin believes that translation is a special and universal language activity, which naturally belongs to the scope of linguistics research, and the research results of language science can be applied to the study of translation problems. Mounin admit that the translation of poetry, the literature such as drama, movies, many factors other than language and paralanguage does play an important role, but the basis of translation activity is mainly to the original and the translation of linguistic analysis, and applied linguistics is more than any other skilled experience can provide accurate and reliable. Of course, from another point of view, especially from the perspective of the development of translation studies as an independent discipline since the 1980s, the practice of classifying translation studies as linguistics has been outdated. However, even if translatology is regarded as an independent discipline, its independence is only relative. Since translation (interlingual and intralingual translation) necessarily involves language, translation studies should not and cannot be completely free from the influence of linguistics at any time. In this sense, Mounin's view of linguistic translation has always been positive.
Since the 1970s and 1980s, the interpretive school represented by Seleskovitch or the Paris School has emerged in the field of Translation studies in France and become the most remarkable and French characteristic in the post-modern period, thus forming the second major feature of the development of contemporary French translation theory. It should be said that this school does not negate the basic idea of the school of linguistics to study linguistic phenomena, but only opposes the pure linguistic orientation of the school of linguistics and focuses on the research method of form. Interpretive theory holds that translation is a linguistic act, but it requires the participation of extralinguistic knowledge. Whether it is diachronic linguistics in the 19th century, synchronic descriptive linguistics and contrastive structural linguistics in the 20th century, or the later transformational generative grammar theory, it ignores the pragmatic context as the main component of language communication, so it cannot reasonably explain translation problems. Based on practice, the theory of interpretation studies translation as a linguistic act, and interprets and conveys the meaning of language from linguistic factors, cultural factors, and extralinguistic factors, so as to give a scientific and reasonable explanation to the reality of translation.
An important feature of interpretive translation theory is to reveal the essence of translation as communicative behavior from practice. Interpretivism holds that translation is a kind of linguistic act, which, like language use, must be supported by non-linguistic knowledge. However, as an act, the object of translation is not language, but meaning, which is the communicative meaning of the text. The output of meaning requires the combination of nonverbal thoughts and signs, and the reception of meaning requires the conscious behavior of the addressee. The arrangement of words is only a means of meaning formation for the originator of words. The understanding and grasp of meaning need to get rid of the original language form. The acquisition of meaning is instantaneous, not staged. Meaning is not the sum of words, but an organic whole, and the comprehension of meaning is completed at the level of discourse.
According to the interpretive theory, language and thought are separated in the translation of translators. Language and thought are not exactly the same thing, but there is a constant two-way communication between them. Thought waves can be transformed into language, and language can be transformed into thought waves. Human knowledge and experience do not reside in the brain in the form of words.
Interpretive theory also holds that understanding requires the participation of cognitive knowledge; The process of comprehension is the process of interpretation. Interpretation is the prerequisite of translation, and translation cannot be carried out without interpretation. Translation, on the other hand, is interpretation. Interpretive translation is a translation of meaning equivalence, which is established between texts. If a translation is to be successful, it is necessary to seek the overall meaning equivalence between the source text and the target text, and the meaning equivalence needs to achieve cognitive and emotional equivalence. Translators use their own abilities to organically combine the cognitive content and emotional content of the source text into an indivisible whole, and then successfully express it. Only in this way can the equivalence of meaning be achieved, which is the essence of the interpretive theory.
The interpretive theory also focuses on fidelity. The translator cannot interpret at will, and his interpretation and understanding can only be faithful to the actual content of the speaker. Although the interpreter interprets in his own words, he conveys the meaning of the speaker and imitates the speaker's style. The interpreter should understand the overall style of the speech, and tend to be consistent with the speaker, should be as far as possible to get rid of the constraints of words, in order to accurately reflect the original style.
== Conclusion==
There may be many deficiencies and omissions in the simple combing of French translation history, but as a powerful and long-standing western developed country, France's translation process and theory have great research and reference significance for China and the world. The world is still developing, so is translation. With the development of modern science and technology, people explore translation more deeply, and new theories are constantly put forward. Therefore, we should seize the trend of the times, base ourselves on China, look at the world and seriously study these excellent theories.
== References==
[1]Chen Shunyi陈顺意（2014）.法国翻译理论源流Sources and schools of French translation theory.法国研究The French Study.
[2]Tan Zaixi谭载喜（2004）.西方翻译简史A Short History of Translation in the West.商务印书馆The Commercial Press.
[3]Xu Jun许均,Yuan Xiao一袁筱一(1998).当代法国翻译理论Contemporary Translation Study in France .湖北教育出版社Hubei Education Press.
[4]Liu Mingjiu柳鸣九,Zheng Kelu郑克鲁,Zhang Yinglun张英伦(1979).法国文学史History of French Literature,人民文学出版社People's Literature Publishing House
[5]Xie Tianzhen谢天振（2009）.中西翻译简史A brief history of Chinese and Western translation,外语教育与研究出版社Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.

=李新星A Comparative Study on The Translation history of Modern Chinese and Korean Literature under the Background of "Western Learning" (1894~1949) =
==Abstract==
The spreading of Western learning to the east is an extensive and far-reaching influence of modern Western culture on eastern civilization, which started from translation as a means of cultural communication.Scholars in China and Korea have always recognized the influence of the eastward spread of Western learning on the development of translation in their countries.However, most studies on modern and contemporary translation take the country as the boundary and rarely talk about the comparison and exchange between the two countries.In fact, although there are some individual differences between Chinese and Korean translation in modern times due to different national conditions, there are also many similarities and connections worthy of attention and research.From the perspective of translation history, this paper will explore the history of literary translation in China and Korea under the trend of western learning to the east, compare the commonness and individuality of the two countries' literary translation practices, explore the historical information behind the translation practices, and finally achieve the purpose of restoring the history of cultural (literary) exchanges between the two countries.

The spreading of western culture to the East was an extensive and far-reaching influence of modern Western culture on Eastern civilization, resulted from translation as a means of cultural communication.Scholars in China and Korea had always recognized the influence of the eastward spread of Western learning on the development of translation in their countries. However, most studies on modern and contemporary translation take the country as the boundary and rarely talk about the comparison and exchange between the two countries.In fact, regardless of some individual differences between Chinese and Korean translation in modern times due to different national conditions, there are also many similarities and connections worthy of attention and research.From the perspective of translation history, this paper will explore the history of literary translation in China and Korea under the trend of western learning to the East, compare the commonness and individuality of the two countries' literary translation practices, dig out the historical information behind the practices, and finally achieve the purpose of restoring the history of cultural exchanges between the two.--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 07:23, 11 December 2021 (UTC)

==Key words==
History of literary translation；“Western Learning”;China;Korea

==摘要==
西学东渐是近代西方文化对东方文明的一次广泛而深远的影响，而这影响首先是从作为文化交流的手段———翻译开始的。一直以来，中韩两国学者都认同西学东渐对本国翻译发展的影响，但现有的研究在探讨近现代翻译时大多以本国为界，很少谈及两国比较和交流。而实际上，虽然因为国情不同，中国与朝鲜半岛的近现代翻译存在一定的个体差异，但同时也有很多相似点和联系点值得关注和研究。本文将从翻译史视角出发，窥探西学东渐时代潮流下中韩两国文学翻译史的面貌，比较两国文学翻译实践的共性和个性，发掘翻译实践背后的历史信息，最终达到还原两国文化 (文学) 交流史的目的。

==关键词==
文学翻译史；“西学东渐”；中国；朝鲜（韩国）

==1.Introduction==
The spreading of Western learning to the east is an extensive and far-reaching influence of modern Western culture on Eastern civilization.Late 19th century to early 20th century,When the West had modernized and gradually replaced the East as the world's dominant power,The three East Asian countries ( China, Japan and Korea), which had been sleeping for a long time, were gradually awakened and embarked on the "journey" of modernization.Among them, In order to achieve a rich country and a strong army, Japan left Asia and entered Europe,Take the lead in taking a series of measures to actively learn from the West and introduce advanced ideas and culture.The main measure is to develop the translation of western literature.Under the influence of such a large environment, the translation of overseas literature in China and the Korean Peninsula has also set off a boom.It can be said that the influence of the eastward spreading of Western learning on the modernization of East Asia began with translation as a means of cultural exchange.
Some scholars have pointed out that in the process of modernization in East Asia represented by Japan,Translation plays an important role.Without translation, East Asia would not have been able to open the door to modernization.This is also true in modern China and the Korean Peninsula.It can be said that after entering the modern society, the cultural exchanges between the two countries were continued through translation --"A history of translation is not only a history of cultural exchange, but also a history of the dissemination of ideas".As we all know, the study of translation history is a "basic project" in the construction of translation discipline.Behrman, a famous translator and translation theorist, once pointed out that "the composition of translation history is the first task of modern translation theory, and self-reflection is the establishment of itself" .The history of literary translation is an important part of the study of translation history and an indispensable factor in the investigation of a country's literature and even the whole cultural background in a particular period.
In view of the above analysis, the author believes that in order to have a macro and in-depth understanding of the cultural exchanges between China and Korea in modern times.It is necessary for us to make a comparative study of literary translation between the two countries during this period (1894 ~ 1949).Writers believe that only by putting literary translation activities into a larger social and historical context can we have a clearer understanding of the translation practices of the two countries at that time.Therefore, from the perspective of translation history, this paper will explore the history of literary translation in China and Korea under the trend of western learning to the east, compare the commonness and individuality of the two countries'literary translation practices, explore the historical information behind the translation practices, and finally achieve the purpose of restoring the history of cultural (literary) exchanges between the two countries.

The spreading of Western learning to the east exerted an extensive and far-reaching influence on Eastern civilization.In the late 19th century to early 20th century,when the West had modernized and gradually replaced the East as the world's dominant power,the three East Asian countries (China,Japan and Korea),which had been sleeping for a long time, were gradually awakened and embarked on the "journey" of modernization. In order to attain prosperity, Japan left Asia and entered Europe, taking a series of measures to actively learn from the West and introduce advanced ideas and culture through the media of translation.Under the influence of such a univerasl situation, the translation of overseas literature in China and the Korean Peninsula had also set off a boom.It could be said that the influence of the eastward spreading of western learning on the modernization of East Asia began with translation as a means of cultural exchange.
Some scholars have pointed out that translation plays an important role in the process of modernization in East Asia represented by Japan.Without translation,East Asia would not have been able to open the door to modernization.This is also true in modern China and the Korean Peninsula.It can be said that after entering the modern society, the cultural exchanges between the two countries were continued through translation --"A history of translation is not only a history of cultural exchange, but also a history of the dissemination of ideas".As we all know, the study of translation history is a "basic project" in the construction of translation discipline.Behrman, a famous translator and translation theorist, once pointed out that "the composition of translation history is the first task of modern translation theory, and self-reflection is the establishment of itself".The history of literary translation is an important part of the study of translation history and an indispensable factor in the investigation of a country's literature and even the whole cultural background in a particular period.
In view of the above analysis, the author believes that in order to have a macro and in-depth understanding of the cultural exchanges between China and Korea in modern times.It is necessary for us to make a comparative study of literary translation between the two countries from 1894 to 1949. Only by putting literary translation activities into a larger social and historical context can we have a clearer understanding of the translation practices of the two countries at that time.Therefore, from the perspective of translation history, this paper will explore the history of literary translation in China and Korea under the trend of western learning to the East, compare the commonness and individuality of the two countries' literary translation practices, explore the historical information behind the practices, and finally achieve the purpose of restoring the history of cultural (literary) exchanges between the two countries.--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 07:34, 11 December 2021 (UTC)

==2. The origin and development of modern translation in both countries ==
After being opened to the outside world, western civilization flooded in. China and North Korea, which had been pursuing the policy of "closing the door to the outside world", began to "open their eyes to the world".From the government to the people, there has been an upsurge in the introduction of advanced Western civilization.Translation plays an important, even decisive role in this process.
====2.1The historical evolution of Modern Translation in China====
As is known to all, Among the three East Asian countries, China is the first to pay attention to the West and understand and learn the West through translation.In the 1860s, after the Westernization Movement, a climax of modern Chinese translation began slowly.Strictly speaking, this translation period can be further divided into two stages, namely, with the Sino-Japanese War of 1894 as the dividing line, the early stage was the translation period dominated by westernization school, and the later stage was the translation period dominated by reformists.If the translation during the Westernization Movement was the primary stage of modern Western learning translation in China, there were still many problems, then the translation activities led by reformists such as Kang Youwei, Liang Qichao and Yan Fu had a greater development in terms of scale, significance and function.From the perspective of translation history, they set up translation institutes and translated western books widely(Especially those that had a great influence on Meiji Restoration in Japan.)Training translation talents, etc.Its scale, breadth of subjects, quantity and quality are unmatched by translation in the Westernization period.It should be noted that since the 1880s, China's interest in learning from the West has shifted from science to politics, education system and so on.In the late Qing Dynasty and early period, literary works gradually became the main object of translation activities.In the minds of the Vixinists represented by Liang Qichao, novels have become the most appropriate tool for political reform, popular enlightenment and the modernization of the country.Thus, beginning in the late 19th and early 20th centuries,Foreign literature has been widely translated into China, and communication channels include not only modern media such as newspapers and magazines, but also single-line books and large-scale translation literature series, which have also produced a series of arguments and discussions on translation methods and techniques.Modern Chinese translation has also entered a new period, that is, from the Ming and Qing period of scientific and technological translation as the mainstream gradually to culture / literature / literary translation as the core of the translation activities period.Overall, the translation of modern foreign literature in China from the end of the 19th century to the period 1949 can be broken down into the following three stages.
The first stage was from the late Qing Dynasty and the early Republic of China to the May 4th Movement in 1919.In December 1898, Liang Qichao translated The Japanese political novel The Adventure of The Beautiful Woman in Qingyi Daily. In 1900, Zhou translated one of the most influential works in Japanese political fiction, Yano Ryuki's "On The Classics of America".Since then, many Japanese political novels have been translated and introduced to China.After a more concentrated translation of political novels, other genres, such as history, science and the popular detective novels, have also been introduced.After 1907, a variety of modern literary magazines sprang up, and a large number of translated novels were published in these magazines in serial form, among which the serialized translated novels in magazines such as "Novel Forest" and "New Novel Cluster" even occupied absolute space, forming the first climax of foreign novel translation.However, it should be emphasized that the translation of literary works in this period was still in the exploratory stage,Although there are a large number of works, there are problems in the selection of works, translation skills and strategies.
The second period is 1916 to 1936. This period can be further subdivided into the May Fourth Movement period and the Left Coalition Period.With the development of the New literature movement, Chinese literary translation has entered the most glorious period in the history of translation.Compared with the late Qing Dynasty, literary translation in this period was larger in scale, higher in quantity and quality, and its influence was unprecedented.It is worth emphasizing that almost all the heavyweights in the history of modern Chinese literature have participated in the translation and introduction.In addition to translation works, they also introduced various literary and artistic thoughts, and actively explored and discussed translation methods and theories.Especially with their active advocacy and hard work, The translation industry in China has been closely integrated with the struggle against imperialism and feudalism.It completely changed the chaotic and unprincipled state of translation circles before the May 4th Movement.In addition, it was from this time that China's translation of Soviet/Russian literature gradually reached its peak.It can be said that the mainstream of Chinese literature translation in the 1930s was Marxist literary trend of thought and progressive literature (especially Soviet/Russian literature).Of course, in addition to Russian/Soviet literature, this period has translated the literature of Britain, The United States, Japan, France, Germany and southeast Northern Europe and Asia.
The third period is from 1937 to 1949. After the war of Resistance against Japan broke out.The translation community, like the rest of the country, has concentrated all its efforts on the cause of saving the nation from extinction and striving for liberation.Therefore, the pace of development of Translation in China slowed down during this period.In spite of this, Chinese writers and translators have overcome various difficulties and translated and published many excellent foreign literary works.During this period, there was a wide range of translations, ranging from western European classical literature to war literature at that time, and even ancient Greek literature and Jewish literature.In terms of genres, there are novels, poems, plays, prose and even some academic works on literary history.A number of famous translators in the history of Chinese translation literature, such as Zhu Shenghao, Ge Baoquan, Fu Lei, Liang Shiqiu, Lin Yutang and so on, are active in literary translation.Of course, the biggest characteristic of this period was the translation of the Soviet Union and other countries anti-fascist war works, in particular, the establishment of the revolutionary translation group "Times Press", published the revolutionary translation publication "Soviet Literature", a large number of Soviet literary and artistic works.

====2.2 The situation of modern and contemporary Translation on the Korean Peninsula and the Influence of China==
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From the end of the 19th century, western civilization began to flow into East Asia on a large scale, and Korea was further plunged into the situation of internal troubles and foreign aggression. Faced with the complicated situation at home and abroad, the enlightened intellectuals of Korea further realized that translating Western books was an important task at that time. As early as 1886, The "Seoul Weekly" published by Powen Bureau had a column specially emphasizing the importance of translation, and proposed to establish a special translation agency to translate foreign books. And six years later, another important newspaper of the day 《Huangcheng News 》also commented, stressing that translation is an important means to enrich the country and strengthen the army and realize modern civilization. We call for the establishment of specialized translation institutions under the guidance of the government "to strengthen the guidance and management of translation. On behalf of this, not only all kinds of news media actively propagated, but also some intellectuals at that time called for the realization of civilization and the prosperity of the country and the strength of the army by translating overseas literature and learning advanced western experience. As a result, the Korean Peninsula at that time set off a boom in the translation of overseas works, especially literary works. Of course, as in China, one of the preconditions for translating Western books in the Korean Peninsula was the development of modern media, which provided a platform for the dissemination of written works at that time. After the 1895-1895 revolution, modern schools were established one after another, and special language schools were set up, which played a positive role in understanding overseas and spreading Western culture, and reserved talents for the translation and introduction of foreign literature.
Generally speaking, the history of translation of foreign works on the Korean Peninsula from 1895 to 1949 can be divided into the following five stages: Patriotic enlightenment period (1895-1910), translation literature awakening period (1911-1919), translation into the proper period (1920-1935), dark Period (1936-1945), Regeneration period (1945 ~1949). We can refer to Kim Byung-chul's Studies on the History of Modern Korean Translation Literature, the earliest and only work on the history of modern Korean Translation literature. However, it is worth noting that Kim Byung-chul's pioneering work has carefully combed and studied the translation history of modern Korean literature from both macro and micro perspectives. However, there is no introduction to the translation of Chinese and Japanese literature. In fact, in the whole modern and modern period, although the communication between China and South Korea seems not as active and close as that in ancient times, the spiritual, political and cultural ties that have connected the two countries for thousands of years have not disappeared overnight. This point can be seen from the early stage of The History of Korean translated literature with China as the medium of translation activities and the late continuous translation of Modern Chinese literature.
The first stage (1895-1910) is the period of patriotic enlightenment，The main function of translation in this period was "enlightenment of civilization, independence, social and political enlightenment", and the translation activities inevitably had obvious purpose and utility. The patriotic enlighteners represented by Xuan CAI, Zhang Zhiyuan, Shen Caihao and Zhou Shijing received Chinese education from childhood and were deeply influenced by Confucian culture. Most of the works translated from The Korean Peninsula during this period were biographies of great men, history of the war, history of independence and geographical history. Almost all the translated works are from Chinese and Japanese versions. According to statistics, there were about 37 separate editions of such works translated in the Korean Peninsula before 1910, among which 16 were based on Chinese translations, not including those published in newspapers and magazines. In particular, it is worth emphasizing the important works in the early history of Korean literature, such as The History of The Fall of Vietnam, the Biography of the Three Masters of the Founding of Italy, and so on.The Biography of the Patriotic Lady was introduced to the Korean Peninsula based on the Chinese version. In addition, the Japanese Ryoki Yano's Korean single version of The Book On The Nation and the United States (1908, Translated by Hyun Gonglian) was based on zhou Kui's Chinese version in 1907. It is also highly likely that The first western literary work to be officially translated into Korea, Robin Sun Crusoe (1908, translated by Kim Chan), was translated into Chinese. In a word, China's influence cannot be ignored in the history of translated literature during the Korean civilization period.
The second stage (1910 ~ 1919) is called "the Awakening period of Translated literature". The translation activities of this period did have many characteristics different from those of the previous period. For example, many translations clearly identify the original author and translator; There appeared some literary magazines that paid attention to translation, such as Youth, New Star, Youth, Light of Learning and New Wenjie.“Three Lights", and "Tai Xi Literature and Art News" founded in 1918 with the main purpose of translating foreign literary works; At the beginning, it was consciously emphasized that translation should be based on the original text rather than through a third language. Translation methods also began to emphasize the separation from the earlier simple emphasis on the transmission of content translation, summary translation, abbreviated translation, etc. It puts forward the importance of respecting the original text and being faithful to the original text, and actively practices it. Kim Il and other important figures in the history of Korean translation literature have officially started their translation activities. And so on. All these indicate that the translation activities on the Korean Peninsula have "awakened" and are ready for further progress on the right track.
Generally speaking, since 1908, when Juvenile was first published，The Translated literature of the Korean Peninsula further broke away from the original utilitarian and purist nature and began to enter the era of "pure literature and art" translation. Since then, a great deal of Western literature has been translated into The Korean peninsula, and the quality of translation in this period is significantly higher than that of the Patriotic Enlightenment period. In addition to new novelists such as Lee Sang-hyup, Lee Hae-jo and Ahn Guk-seon, the translators also include famous figures in the history of literature such as Choi Nam-seon, Hong Myung-hee and Lee Kwang-soo, as well as some publishers and media workers. It is worth noting that some scholars believe that literary exchanges between China and Korea ended after Japan annexed the Korean Peninsula in 1910. This view is obviously somewhat arbitrary. According to incomplete statistics, at least 20 Chinese translations were introduced to the Korean Peninsula through the medium of Chinese translations, although the translation activities based on Chinese translations were not as active as in the Enlightenment period. These works include not only reprints of Chinese vernacular novels in Ming and Qing Dynasties, but also western novels based on Chinese translations. Among these Chinese translations of western novels, 8 are from the large western literature translation series "Shuobo Congshu", which was planned and published by the Shanghai Commercial Press in 1903. Choi Chan-sik, a famous writer of new novels at the time, recalled that recalled that he began writing a new novel after translating a book in the "Shaobo Series" published in Shanghai, China. These data show that even at a time when Japan's control over the Korean Peninsula was increasing, China's translation and media activities still have a certain influence on Korean intellectuals. In other words, under the new historical conditions, the cultural exchanges between the two countries are still struggling to continue in a new form.
The third stage (1920-1935) marked the beginning of joseon's translation literature. According to Kim byung-chul's statistics, at least 600 foreign literary works have been translated to the Korean Peninsula in various forms since the 1920s, Genres include fiction, poetry, drama, essays, fairy tales, and some literary criticism, Countries involved Britain, the United States, Germany, France, Russia, India and so on. Of course, this statistic does not include the translation of Chinese literature. In fact, after the 1920s, one of the biggest changes in the history of Sino-Korean translation was the movement that was then in China and the new literary works began to be translated and introduced to the Korean Peninsula. According to incomplete statistics, about 30 kinds of modern Chinese literary works including novels were translated and translated in the Korean Peninsula during the colonial period (In addition to the only collection of Chinese Short Stories during the colonial period), 16 plays, 41 poems, 3 essays, 1 fairy tale, etc., and more than a dozen literary criticism. If we add the Chinese classical literature translated in this period, we can say that after 1920, the translation of Chinese literature in the Korean Peninsula is relatively comprehensive and continuous, which should not be excluded from the history of Korean translated literature.
The fourth stage (1936-1945) was a dark period for the entire Korean Peninsula. In terms of translated literature, Japan has strengthened its control over public opinion and media by strengthening its policy of suppressing national language, The flood of Japanese books, coupled with the growing economic collapse on the Korean peninsula, has put pressure on the publishing industry and reduced the number of magazines, Access to foreign books has also been blocked, resulting in a huge blow to translation activities on the Korean Peninsula. This was the darkest period in the history of Translated literature on the Korean Peninsula. Although there were sporadic translations of Chinese literary works, they only catered to the political needs of the Japanese colonial government and chose some works that were irrelevant to politics and even covered up and beautified its militarist ambitions. In 1940, for example, Three Thousand Miles magazine ran a special collection of "New Chinese literature,"The content of the works is either daily life, love or traditional art, which has nothing to do with politics, and the original translations are entirely dependent on Japanese translations. The content of the works is either daily life, love or traditional art, which has nothing to do with politics, and the original translations are entirely dependent on Japanese translations.
In the fifth stage (1945-1949), the Korean Peninsula was finally liberated from Japanese colonial rule. The country was in ruins and all walks of life seemed to be full of hope, but at the same time, it was in a sudden chaos. At this time, translation has gradually entered the recovery period. From the point of view of countries, the United States and the Soviet Union were the most translated works, which obviously reflected the political situation and ideology at that time. However, the translation and study of modern Chinese literature also ushered in a brief bright period. Many researchers from academic schools joined the ranks of translation, and the translation of their works also moved toward specialization and systematization, with the emergence of selected Modern Chinese Short Stories (1946), Short Stories of Lu Xun (1946), Selected Modern Chinese Poems (1947) and other individual editions. He even published the history of Modern Chinese Literature (1949), the first book of Chinese studies in Korea. Compared with the colonial period, translation at this time was no longer subject to many restrictions, and further got rid of the early enlightenment and utilitarian color in nature. It began to attempt to approach modern Chinese literary works from the perspective of aesthetics and pure literature and carried out systematic and professional research. Translators seem to want to make up for the many regrets of the colonial period and are eager to translate and study modern Chinese literature in an all-round way. Unfortunately, this boom came to an abrupt end after the outbreak of the war in 1950, and The cause of Chinese literary translation fell into recession again.

==3. Differences and Similarities in the translation history of Modern Chinese and Korean literature==
Differences and similarities in the translation history of Modern Chinese and Korean literature
As is known to all, since the 1970s, translation studies have achieved a "cultural" shift, and the scope of research has expanded from the purely linguistic category to the non-linguistic category of culture, ideology, power relations, politics and so on.The literariness and thinking of literary works determine that literary translation has the dual orientation of ideology and poetics.Therefore, the study of literary translation should be connected with the socio-historical background and the poetic background so as to analyze and explain the important translation phenomena in depth.Throughout the history of modern literary translation in China and South Korea, we will find that the biggest similarity is that the "cultural political practice" (Venuti) of translation has always been controlled by ideology.Under the environment of western learning spreading eastward, one of the main social ideologies in East Asia was"Modern transformation".As an important means of modernization transformation, translation not only has an impact on the political and economic development of China and Korea, but also plays an important role in the two countries' acceptance of Western civilization, dissemination of new knowledge, formation of new culture, and the development of their own language and literature.In the process of sorting out the translation history of modern Chinese and Korean literature, we can clearly find that there are many similarities and intersections, and of course there are individual differences.Whether similarities or differences arise, some of them are related to the social ideology of the two countries, and some are related to the influence of the translator's personal ideology.It can be said that ideology permeates all aspects of modern translation in both countries, especially the change and development of social ideology plays a significant role in the evolution of translation.Below, this paper will compare and analyze the similarities and differences of literary translation between the two countries from several aspects.
(1) The nature and motivation of translation
In terms of the nature of translation, the modern translation activities in China and South Korea have obvious utilitarian, effective and political characteristics.Before the formal launch of literary translation, China had gone through a long stage of translating and introducing western scientific and technological books for the purpose of learning from the West, strengthening industrial development and achieving a prosperous country and a strong army.After the failure of the Reform movement of 1898, the development of Chinese foreign literature translation was in fact based on the translation of novels.One of the reasons is that Liang Qichao, the leader of the Reformists, put forward the slogan of "novel revolution" and advocated the translation of political novels, blowing the horn of literary translation. At the same time, a group of literary translators represented by Lin Shu actively engaged in translation practice, which also promoted the development of literary translation at that time.At that time, the purpose of literary translation was also to enlightening the people, reforming the society and giving play to the unique role of literary thought in shaping the "consciousness of the world".After the May 4th Movement, political demands still played a leading role in the selection of translators despite literary factors.On the other hand, the Korean Peninsula, because of the late opening of port and the depth of the country's internal troubles and foreign aggression, had no time to translate western literature as China and Japan did in terms of promoting industrial development and enriching the country and strengthening its armed forces.For them, translation is first of all a means of understanding the outside world, and its direct purpose is to get rid of the control of foreign forces and achieve independence.Therefore, the modern translation of the Korean Peninsula did not go through the stage of large-scale scientific translation, but from the very beginning, a part of social science translation and a large number of literary translation, including political novels, biographies of great men and so on.In particular, the translation of literary works has always occupied an important position in the modern translation of the Korean Peninsula.It is worth mentioning that liang Qichao had a great influence on literary translation during the Period of Korean Civilization.It was under his influence that a large number of political novels were translated and introduced to the Korean Peninsula, and played an important role in the transformation of thoughts and concepts in the Korean Peninsula in the modern period and the emergence and development of modern literature.Of course, after entering the period of colonial rule, the Translation of the Korean Peninsula became more colonial,In many ways, it is more influenced and restricted by Japan. Although there is also the pursuit of literature, the final translation inevitably has a strong political nature.In a word, the translation activities in the first half of the 20th century in both countries are determined by both literary factors and social ideology, but in the final analysis, the latter always plays a dominant role.Due to the special historical environment and similar fate, translation in both countries has strong utilitarian, utility and political characteristics to a large extent, which are the manifestation of the "manipulation" of translation by the ideological form.
(2) The source of the translation
There is no doubt that in all stages of modern translation history, the sources of translated works in the two countries are closely related to Japan, but there are differences in the specific range of sources and degree of dependence on Japan.In fact, before the late Qing Dynasty, a large number of Western scientific and technological books translated in China were basically based on the original Western language.In the translation period dominated by the Reformists, due to the vigorous development of Japanese translation and the characteristics of easy learning and understanding of Japanese, Liang Qichao and Kang Youwei advocated the translation of foreign works from Japanese. It was not until then that A large number of Japanese translations were carried out in China.
After the May 4th Movement, Translation in China flourished, with translators of various languages appearing in large numbers and many intellectuals participating in translation activities.At this time, the original versions of Chinese translations are also varied, including Japanese and English versions, and many are directly translated from the original.On the other hand, due to the influence of history, during the whole period of the Korean Peninsula, the translation of foreign books mainly consisted of Japanese and Chinese versions, and few of them were directly translated from the original.After entering the period of colonial rule, due to Japan's rule and influence on the Korean Peninsula in various fields, there were fewer and fewer translation cases based on The Chinese version, and the Japanese version took the dominant position.However, due to the increasing number of intellectuals focusing on Western language and literature (such as the emergence of the "Overseas Literature School" in 1926), the call for translation based on the original text became stronger and stronger.After all, most of the Korean intellectuals of the "overseas literary school" studied in Japan,Therefore, although they put forward the slogan of "translation from the original text", their translation activities are still directly or indirectly influenced by the Japanese knowledge system.In short, if the modern times of East Asia are "modern times of translation", as a bridge of translation in East Asia, Japanese translation is based on the original text or English.In China, there are both literal translation of the original text and retranslation of English and Japanese versions. On the other hand, Korean translation sources are a little bit unitary, basically retranslating some Chinese and most Japanese versions.However, from another point of view, the translation path of the Korean Peninsula at that time was the most complicated among the three countries, which could be the path of "Japanese → Korean", "Western → Chinese → Korean" or even "Western → Japanese → Chinese → Korean".
At that time, many Korean intellectuals were fluent in both Chinese and Japanese, so it was difficult to refer to only one source in the translation process.For example, The book On The Classics and The United States (1908), marked with the "translation" of Xuan Gonglian, was published with reference to both the Japanese and Chinese versions.Kim Kyo-je, a famous writer of new novels in the early modern period, translated or reprinted 11 novels at least four were translated to the Korean Peninsula through the path of "Western → Chinese → Korean";While Li Haichao translated Iron World (1908), the translation path is "Western → Japanese → Chinese → Korean" .
In Korea at that time, this kind of double, triple or even multiple retranslation is very common. For this reason, the modern Korean Peninsula is also called "retranslated modern times" by scholars.
(3) Topic selection and content of the translated work
Corresponding to the nature, motivation and characteristics of translation, there are not only similarities and intersecting points, but also their own characteristics in the topic selection of translated works.For example, the pilgrim's Progress, a religious novel by English novelist John Bunyan (1628-1688), was among the first western literary works translated in both countries.
This fact reflects the important role of western missionaries in the translation history of the two countries.Aesop's Fables is also one of the earliest and most frequently translated western literary works in both countries.Aesop's Fables was translated many times in both countries and included in the textbooks of the time as a children's book.After entering the modern and contemporary period, both countries highly respected historical and biographical works and political novels, and had a period of concentrated translation.For example, political novels such as "A Journey with the Wind", "Jingguo Meiyu" and "Iron World" have been translated into Chinese and English respectively.In addition, many historical and biographical works (especially the history of subjugations) were translated into The Korean Peninsula through Chinese media at that time, such as The Founding of Switzerland and Fifteen Little Heroes. As well as liang Qichao's writings or translations of the hundred Days' Coup, The History of the Fall of Vietnam, the biography of the three Heroes of the Founding of Italia, The biography of Madame Roland, and the biography of Hungarian patriot Gasus, etc.History books such as A New History of Tai Xi, a Brief History of Russia, A War in the Middle East and modern History of Egypt were also translated from Chinese versions. In the whole period of civilization, the Korean Peninsula concentrated on the translation of history, biographical works and political novels, although there is no lack of Japanese influence, but obviously The Influence of China can not be ignored.Due to reasons such as politics, current affairs and the market, the two countries in politics, history and biography of before and after the translation in the first decade of the 20th century gradually into the low tide, and other types of novels, such as science fiction, detective novels, western pure literary fiction and gradually be translated a lot, at the same time, poetry translation have greater development.It is worth mentioning that translation in both countries reached a new climax after the late decade of the first decade of the 20th century.In terms of the number and diversity of genres, China is far more diverse than The Korean Peninsula, but there are some interesting intersections in the literary translation topics of the two countries, such as Shakespeare, Hardy, Stevenson and Conan Doyle in The UK, Tolstoy, Gorky and Chekov in Russia, Tagore in India,Norway's Ibsen and other works have had a great influence in both countries.It is worth mentioning that there are obvious differences between the two countries in the topic selection of translated works as follows. The first is the translation of Japanese literature
The problem. As we all know, Japanese literature plays a very important role in the history of Chinese translation of foreign literature in the 20th century.On the Korean Peninsula, although the influence of Japanese literature is beyond doubt, and the translation of Japanese literature in the first half of the 20th century can be said to run through the whole modern translation activities of the Korean Peninsula, but the translation of Japanese literature in the Korean Peninsula itself is very few.
The reasons are mainly related to the special political and historical background of the Korean Peninsula and the control and infiltration of Japanese language in the Korean Peninsula after entering the colonial period, as well as the role of national emotional factors.Secondly, the translation and introduction of the other side's literature. In the first half of the 20th century, the literature of the two countries was not the main target of translation in each other's country, but this does not mean that there is no overlap between them. On the whole, the Korean Peninsula paid more and deeper attention to Chinese literature than China did to Korean literature during this period.After entering the modern society, under the extremely complicated and difficult cultural environment, the Korean Peninsula continued to translate Chinese vernacular novels and some classical poems in the Ming and Qing dynasties, and at the same time carried out a relatively concentrated translation of Liang Qichao, the pioneer of Chinese novel revolution. However, what is more noteworthy is his continuous translation and introduction of New Chinese literature, which started in the second half of the 1910s.Due to the special historical and geographical relationship, Korea is the first country in the world to notice China's new cultural movement except Japan. At that time, many magazines and newspapers on the Korean Peninsula introduced and reported the New Chinese literature. Some Korean intellectuals had deep feelings about the innovative atmosphere in The Chinese literary circle and hoped to provide necessary reference for the improvement and innovation of their own literature through the translation and introduction of The new Chinese literature.In a word, during the Period of Japanese rule, the Translation and introduction of modern Chinese literature in The Korean Peninsula was quite comprehensive, and many famous writers and works in the history of Chinese literature were involved in the topic selection, which played an important role in the study of Chinese literature in Korea. On the contrary, China's translation of Korean literature at that time was very limited, mainly due to the concern of "weak and weak ethnic literature", and also influenced by the war ideology of anti-japanese and national salvation, nationalism. However, in the huge history of modern Chinese literature translation, the translation of Korean literature is just a drop in the ocean and has not received enough attention. All in all, the depth and breadth of the translation of each other's works is extremely unbalanced.
(4) The translator's main body, translation strategies and methods
There are also similarities between the two countries on the subject of translators in the history of modern translation literature. In the early stage of translation activities, western missionaries played a great role. Later, famous intellectuals, social activists and literary scholars of the two countries realized the importance of translation, actively participated in translation activities, and became the leading leaders of modern translation in the two countries.For example, yan Fu, Liang Qichao and Lin Shu were active translators in early China, while xuan CAI, Pu Yinzhi, Shen Caihao and other famous scholars, thinkers and social activists led the translation during the Korean Peninsula's enlightenment period. After entering the decade of the 20th century, the translation of the two countries gradually entered the climax.Many Chinese writers, including Lu Xun, Guo Moruo and Zhou Zuoren, actively translated while writing. Choi Nam-sun and Lee Kwang-soo, leaders of Korean literature in the first decade of the 20th century, also actively translated their works.In addition, famous writers of new novels such as Lee Hae-jo, Ahn Guk-seon, and Choi Chan-sik were motivated and motivated by translation activities. With the development of translation, a number of specialized literary translators have emerged in both countries. In addition, some new women at that time also participated in the translation, such as Bing Xin from China and Kim Myung-soon from Korea.In terms of translation strategies or ways, early modern translation system is far from mature, highly standard translation way, utilitarian purpose, color thick, many translators from themselves and the needs of the audience, or excerpts and delete any reduction of the original (AD, Jane), or add their own opinions and comments in the process of translation, the tai shang ganying pian), Or in the form of translation only summarize the general idea (synopsis), for example, liang Qichao and Cui Nanshan's translation to a large extent are abridged, synopsis or translation.Generally speaking, the forms and methods of translation at that time were characterized by diversity and hybridity, which were similar in China and Korea. The reason is related to the mainstream ideology of the translation leaders who hoped to enlighten the people, enrich the country and strengthen the army through translation as soon as possible.
(5) Disputes on "Literary translation"
After literary translation gradually got on the right track and became the mainstream of translation works in the two countries, translators in the two countries gained further insights on the application, methods and techniques of translation and gradually began to express their own views on translation, whose discussions cover all aspects of translation. Such as translation methods, translation skills, translation and the status of translators, the role of translation. The opinions of different translators are bound to be different. Therefore, in the modern and contemporary period, both China and South Korea had debates on translation (literary translation). The focus and theme of the debate are similar, such as "translatable or untranslatable", "literal translation versus free translation" and so on.It is well known that in the history of modern Chinese translation, especially in the May Fourth Movement period, many writers began their literary career by translating foreign literature, and most of them published discussions on translation. The differences between different translators and groups have led to several famous debates in the history of Chinese translation. For example, lu Xun and Zhou Zuoren proposed Literal translation and related debates are typical examples. In addition, in the history of modern Chinese translation, there are also debates on "translated names", "translatable or not translatable literary works", translation methods such as mistranlation, hard translation and dead translation, and translation paths such as literal translation or retranslation.The 1920s was a period when the history of modern and contemporary translation in Korea was on the right track. Many newspapers and magazines published discussions on translation and related debates. In the history of modern translation on the Korean Peninsula, one of the most famous disputes about translation is the dispute between Jin Yi and Liang Zhudong about "literal translation" and "free translation" in poetry translation. Liang zhudong believes that poetry is untranslatable and should be literal compared with free translation. Jin Yi believes that although poetry is untranslatable, if translators exert their own subjective initiative, it can completely improve the value of translated poetry and even become a new creation. However, it is interesting that although Liang zhudong praised the method of "literal translation", he criticized the "overseas literature school" that focused on foreign literature at that time for being too rigid in the way of literal translation, and believed that "literal translation" should be organically combined with "free translation".In fact, the debate between literal translation and free translation, or "domestication" and "foreignization", is closely related to ideology.
The debate between translators in the two countries over these issues is actually carried out at the ideological level. According to venuti, a famous translation theorist of deconstruction school, the choice of translation strategy is determined by ideology.
(6) The influence of translation on the languages and literature of the two countries
In fact, the greatest influence of modern literary translation on China and South Korea is reflected in the development of characters and literature. First of all, translation must be carried out with language as the carrier. Under normal circumstances, the translated language is naturally the lingua franca of a country and a nation, but for China and South Korea in the late 19th and 20th centuries, a common problem emerged in the process of translation in terms of language carrier: At that time, both countries had two parallel language systems, which coincided with the social and cultural transition, so language translation became a very interesting topic.As we all know, in the late 19th century and the early 20th century, There were two languages in China: Classical Chinese and vernacular Chinese. Vernacular Chinese was still in the ascendant, while classical Chinese still played an important role in written and literary translation. Of course, the classical Chinese at this time refers to the late Qing Dynasty and the early Republic of China common "shallow classical Chinese", it is different from the past obscure ancient prose, but in classical Chinese mixed with common sayings, is a kind of literary language between ancient Classical Chinese and vernacular.For example, Lin Shu, a great modern translator, translated foreign literature in classical Chinese. His translation was not only welcomed by readers at that time, but also had a great influence on many famous Chinese intellectuals. In the late Qing Dynasty and the early Republic of China, there were both classical Chinese and vernacular Chinese translations, and the classical Chinese translations were more than the vernacular ones, but basically the two languages co-existed peacefully. In the process of translation, the needs of the audience should be considered. The same translator can translate in both vernacular and classical Chinese. The same foreign novel may have both classical and vernacular translations.It was not until after the New Culture Movement that the vernacular style gradually occupied the main position in written language. After the 1920s, the translated works in China were mainly in vernacular. For the development of modern Chinese vernacular, it can be said that the impact of translation is extremely far-reaching. Chinese vernacular can be divided into "traditional vernacular" and "modern vernacular".The traditional vernacular is based on a Dream of Red Mansions.
The vernacular of China represented by such vernacular classics as Water Margin, which is not influenced by western language. The "modern vernacular" is based on the traditional vernacular, influenced by oral and ancient prose and with the color of European, that is, the May 4th Movement advocated vernacular, namely the so-called European vernacular.It is worth noting that this Kind of European vernacular was actually created by western missionaries in China at that time, and the tool of missionaries to create European vernacular is translation. In order to spread religion and western culture smoothly, they translated a large number of Western books, including holy books, and consciously chose words and styles more suitable for ordinary people to read in the process of translation, which was the prototype of vernacular Chinese vigorously advocated by the May Fourth Movement.Similar to the situation in China, the Korean Peninsula in the late 19th and early 20th centuries also had two basic styles, namely, the mixed style of Chinese and Chinese and the pure Style of Chinese. It was only after the 1894-1895 Revolution that the Korean Peninsula's national language began to be widely used. It takes time for any language style to emerge and mature, and the Korean Peninsula's "pure Korean style" is no exception,In 1921, Korean language researchers formed the Korean Language Research Society under the influence of the Zhou Dynasty, which served as an opportunity for the further establishment of the modern Korean language. Before this, mixed Chinese and Korean language played an important role in the written language of the Korean Peninsula for a long time.In fact, the so-called mixed Chinese characters are based on Chinese characters, sometimes using Korean characters. The difference is that some mark Korean characters on Chinese characters, and some do not even mark Korean characters, but only Chinese characters. There is another special case, that is, the pure Chinese style with Korean auxiliary words and endings, such as the "hanging out Chinese style" used by Shen Caihao in the translation of the Biography of the Three Heroes of the Foundation of Itri.It is worth mentioning that it was also western missionaries who initially carried out translation activities in Korean. In order to preach, they carried out translation activities mainly aimed at the "Bible" in the Korean Peninsula, using the Korean language, which was not popular and was not valued by the Korean intellectuals at that time. The purpose of using The Korean language was to make the translated holy book easier for more ordinary people to accept. Kim Byeong-cheol holds that it is the translation of sacred books in the native Korean language that gave birth to the main form of modern literature on the Korean Peninsula, namely the "new novel", and thus promoted the "unity of language and language" and the emergence of modern literature in Korea.In general, the influence of translation on the development of Chinese and Korean characters and literature is far more than that. It can be said that the expansion of sentence structure, the change of style, the enrichment of vocabulary, the improvement of expressive force and the perfection of grammar system of the two languages are all inseparable from translation. In a word, translation has played an indispensable role in the unification of language and language in the history of Chinese and English literature. In addition to its role in language, translation also has a profound influence on the development of modern literature in both countries. As is known to all, the translation and introduction of a large number of foreign novels not only brought strong shock and impact to the literary circles of the two countries at that time, but also provided a lot of reference for the realization of the literary transformation of the two countries.It can be said that in the process of the collision, integration and evolution of eastern and western literature, literary translation plays a decisive external role in the transformation of Chinese and Korean literature from classical form to modern form, and has a great impact on the literary concept, literary type, narrative mode and expression mode. In this regard, researchers in China and South Korea have given positive descriptions.
==4. conclusion==
There are many similarities between China and South Korea in modern times. Under the environment of western learning spreading to the east, both of them were knocked out of the country by the West, suffered the invasion of western powers and Japan successively, and passively started the journey of modernization. Under the circumstance of deepening national crisis of domestic and foreign invasion, the enlightened intellectuals of the two countries have carried out the exploration of saving the nation from extinction, and translation is an important means for them to achieve this goal. To be specific, the historical context of the spreading of Western learning from the end of the 19th century endowed the two countries with unique historical characteristics. Due to the similarity of historical, cultural and political background and mainstream ideology, the translation of modern and contemporary literature in the two countries also presents many similarities and even intersecting points. As analyzed above, the most obvious common point in the modern translation history of China and Korea is ideology Influence throughout. For China and Korea at that time, one of the mainstream ideologies was "modernization transformation", and translation was the driving force for the modernization transformation process of the two countries. Therefore, utilitarianism and purposefulness run through the development of modern translation in both countries. In addition to the mainstream social ideology, the translator's personal ideology also has a great influence on literary translation in both countries.For example, the early translation phenomenon led by Western missionaries and the later translation activities led by intellectuals of the two countries were all carried out by translators for their personal purposes under the influence of the general environment at that time. It can be said that it is because of the influence of the subliminal form of the western learning spreading to the east that the modern and modern translations of the two countries show many similarities or similarities. Comparing the literary translation of the two countries in terms of specific content, we can find many similarities in details. For example, western missionaries played an important role at the beginning. After entering the 20th century, the translation of both countries was deeply influenced by Japan. The translation groups of the two countries were the best intellectuals and representatives of the new culture at that time. When they translated foreign works, they also carried out various discussions and even debates about translation. Translation activities have broadened the horizons of the people of the two countries and enriched their languages, literature and even culture.

It is worth mentioning that cultural exchanges between the two countries have also been continued through translation. Of course, due to the differences in specific situations, there are some differences in literary translation between the two countries while showing common features. The author believes that the biggest difference lies in the scale of translation. To be specific, from the number of translated works and translators, the discussion and construction of translation theories, the importance attached to translation, and the influence and status of translation in the history of national literature, Chinese modern translation is obviously higher. The main reason is that the translation environment and background of the two countries at that time are different, that is, the difference between complete colonies and semi-colonies. Although the Qing Dynasty fell under the background of the competition of western powers, China did not completely become a colony of any power, so it was relatively free and independent in political and cultural development. However, because Korea was annexed and ruled by Japan, it was difficult to develop modernization independently. The whole society was highly dependent on Japan, and it was also greatly restricted and influenced by Japan in terms of ideology. Translation activities were no exception.

As mentioned above, the purpose of the author's comparative study of Chinese and Korean contemporary literature translation is to restore the contemporary and contemporary literary exchanges between the two countries, and at the same time to provide necessary background for the mutual translation and introduction of the contemporary and contemporary literature of the two countries. However, the study of Chinese and Korean modern literature translation is a polyphonic and polysemy subject with a very wide range of coverage. Due to the limited space and author's ability, this paper only generalizes and arranges the subject from a macro perspective, and many details are not developed in depth. Translated works by the capacity of, for example, the sources of the related works and so on, for more exist in the two countries pay fork points to explore, in the evaluation of literature translation of words between the two countries and the specific influence of literature, especially under the background of their literary translation between the two countries the properties and significance of literary translation, etc, if you can carry out further discussion and exploration of the content, The research results will be more rich and three-dimensional.

There were many similarities between China and South Korea in modern times. Under the environment of western learning spreading to the East, both of them were knocked out of the country by the West, suffered the invasion of western powers and Japan successively, and passively started the journey of modernization. Under the circumstance of deepening national crisis of domestic and foreign invasion, the enlightened intellectuals of the two countries had carried out the exploration of saving the nation from extinction.Translation was an important means for them to achieve this goal. To be specific, the historical context of the spreading of Western learning from the end of the 19th century endowed the two countries with unique historical characteristics. Due to the similarity of historical, cultural and political background and mainstream ideology, the translation of literature in the two countries also presented many similarities and even intersecting points. As analyzed above, the most obvious common point was ideology influence. For China and Korea at that time, one of the mainstream ideologies was "modernization transformation",for which translation was the driving force. Therefore, utilitarianism and purposefulness ran through the development of modern translation in both countries. In addition to the mainstream social ideology, the translator's personal ideology also has a great influence on literary translation in both countries.For example,the early translation phenomenon led by Western missionaries and the later translation activities led by intellectuals of the two countries were all carried out by translators for their personal purposes under the influence of the general environment at that time. Without doubt, the influence of the subliminal form of the western learning spreading to the east constituted similarities between the two countries.Comparing the literary translation of the two countries in terms of specific content,we found many similarities in details. For example, western missionaries played an important role at the beginning. After entering the 20th century, the translation of both countries was deeply influenced by Japan. The translation groups of the two countries were the best intellectuals and representatives of the new culture at that time. When they translated foreign works, they also carried out various discussions and even debates about translation. Translation activities had broadened the horizons of the people and enriched their languages, literature and even culture.

It is worth mentioning that cultural exchanges between the two countries have also been continued through translation. Of course, due to the differences in specific situations, there are some differences in literary translation between the two countries while showing common features. The author believes that the biggest difference lies in the scale of translation. To be specific, from the number of translated works and translators, the discussion and construction of translation theories, the importance attached to translation to the influence and status of translation in the history of national literature, Chinese modern translation was obviously higher. The main reason was that the translation environment and background of the two countries at that time were different, that is, the difference between complete colonies and semi-colonies. Although the Qing dynasty fell under the background of the competition of western powers, China did not completely become a colony of any power, so it was relatively free and independent in political and cultural development. However, because Korea was annexed and ruled by Japan, it was difficult to develop modernization independently. The whole society was highly dependent on Japan, and it was also greatly restricted and influenced by Japan in terms of ideology. Translation activities were no exception.

As mentioned above, the purpose of the author's comparative study of Chinese and Korean contemporary literature translation is to restore the literary exchanges between the two countries, and at the same time to provide necessary background for the two countries. However, the study of Chinese and Korean modern literature translation is a polyphonic and polysemy subject with a very wide range of coverage. Due to the limited space and author's ability, this paper only generalized and arranged the subject from a macro perspective, and many details were not developed in depth, such as the sources of the related works,the evaluation of literature translation of words, the properties and significance of literary translation and so on. This paper will be more rich and three-dimensional with further discussion and exploration of the content.--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 07:59, 11 December 2021 (UTC)

==References==
*金秉哲[韩]: 《韩国近代翻译文学史研究》，首尔: 乙酉文化社，1975。130-160页
*金鹤哲: 《1949 年以前韩国文学汉译和意识形态因素》，《中国比较文学》2009 年第 4 期，第 66 页。
*金旭东[韩]: 《翻译与韩国的近代》，首尔: 小明出版社，2010，第25~28页。
*王秉钦、王颉: 《20世纪中国翻译思想史》，南开大学出版社，2004，第31页。
*许钧: 《面向中西交流的翻译史研究》，《解放军外国语学院学报》2014 年第 5 期，第 140 页。
*许钧、袁筱一编著《当代法国翻译理论》，南京大学出版社，1998，第 128 页。
*朱一凡: 《翻译与现代汉语的变迁 ( 1905 ~ 1936) 》，外语教学与研究出版社，2011，第 72 页。

=刘沛婷 Western Translation history in Renaissance)=

刘沛婷 Liu Peiting, Hunan Normal University, China

==Abstract==
The Renaissance is not only an important period in the history of literature and technology, but also a turning point in the history of western translation. During this period, the translation of religious and literary works gradually flourished, and translators constantly put forward new translation concepts and tried translation practices.The soaring of national consciousness and national languages contributed to the characteristic ideas of translation in the Renaissance. Especially France, Britain and Germany had made outstanding contributions to the evolution and progress of the entire translation history during this period.This chapter is to have a brief introduction to the translation history in Renaissance, conduct a detailed explaination from the three countries of France, Britan and Germany respectively and illustrate some representative translators and translation theories with the hope to show the magnificent translation achievements in Renaisance and the evolvement of human translation history.

==Key words==
Translation history; renaissance; France; Britain; Germany

Translation history; Renaissance; France; Britain; Germany--[[User:Liu Wei|Liu Wei]] ([[User talk:Liu Wei|talk]]) 12:44, 14 December 2021 (UTC)Liu Wei

==Introduction==

The period from around the fourteenth until the mid-seventeenth century has conventionally been designated as the Renaissance,referring to the rediscovery and revitalization of the literature, art and science of ancient Greece and Rome. The term was devised by Italian humanists who sought to reaffirm their own continuity with the classical humanist heritage after an interlude of Middle Ages (Habib 2011：79).It was a great revolution in intellect and culture. It is also “the greatest progressive revolution that mankind has so far experienced, a time which called for giants and produced giants”.Renaissance takes spreading humanism thought as one of the main forms of expression, involving all aspects of the cultural field, including the ancient Greek, Roman works and contemporary European works. In the process of studying and reviving classical culture, as well as developing and spreading new ideas, translation obviously plays an important role. The magnificent Renaissance itself included and depended on an unprecedented scale of translation activities. Therefore, it marks not only a great development in literature, art and science, but also an important milestone in the history of translation.(Engels 1972：445)

Originated in Italy in the 15th century, and in the 16th century Renaissance swept Europe, (especially Western European countries) and gradually formed a climax. At that time, western society was filled with a spirit of seeking and conquering the objective world. When this spirit was reflected in the translation field, translators were full of ambition and spared no effort to constantly discover new literary styles, excavate new cultural heritages and transplant new ideas to their motherland. Many translators translated classic works related to politics, philosophy, social system, literature and art of past glorious countries into their national languages as reference for the development of their own countries. All achievements in translation were compared to "trophies" in literature and knowledge. Next, we are to have a review on translations history of France, Britain and Germany, three major Western European countries in the high tide of Renaissance.

From the 14th century to the middle of the 17th century, it is the Renaissance, which refers to the rediscovery and Renaissance of ancient Greek and Roman literature, art and science. The word "Renaissance" was designed by Italian Humanists who tried to reaffirm their continuity with the heritage of classical humanism, which was a great intellectual and cultural revolution. This is also "the greatest progressive revolution that mankind has experienced so far, an era that needs giants and produces giants".

The Renaissance takes the dissemination of humanism as one of the main forms of expression, involving all aspects of the cultural field, including ancient Greek, Roman and contemporary European works. Translation obviously plays an important role in the study and revival of classical culture and the development and dissemination of new ideas. The brilliant renaissance itself included and relied on unprecedented translation activities. Therefore, it not only marks the great development of literature, art and science, but also an important milestone in the history of translation. (Engels 1972:445)

The Renaissance originated in Italy in the 15th century, The 16th century swept Europe (especially in Western European countries) and gradually reached a climax. At that time, western society was full of the spirit of pursuing and conquering the objective world. When this spirit was reflected in the field of translation, translators were full of ambition, spared no effort to constantly discover new styles, excavate new cultural heritage and transplant new ideas to their motherland. Many translators put the politics of past brilliant countries into practice , philosophy, social system, literature and art are translated into their own national language as a reference for their own development. All translation achievements are compared to "trophies" of literature and knowledge. Next, we will review the translation history of France, Britain and Germany in the climax of the Renaissance. --[[User:Liu Wei|Liu Wei]] ([[User talk:Liu Wei|talk]]) 12:52, 14 December 2021 (UTC)Liu Wei

==1.History of Translation in France==

In France, during this period, the wind of restoring ancient styles began to prevail, ancient languages were valued, and ancient writers were respected. A large number of literary works of Italian humanists, such as Dante, Petrarch and Boccaccio, were introduced to France, which opened people's eyes and promoted the development of French humanist movement. Therefore, the focus of translation in France shifted from religious works to Italian classical literature works. The increasingly translation activities constituted a climax of translation history in France.Translators generally believed that translating literary works was much more difficult than translating religious works. Although translation began to reach a new climax, most of the translations were the "by-products" of literary creation, with low quality and little influence. However, in the climax of translation in France in the 16th century, there were two outstanding contributors , one is Jacques Amyot and the other is Etienne Dolet.(Tan Zaixi,2000:21)

Jacques Amyot was considered the king of translation in France. His first translation, Heliodoros’ ''Aethiopica'', was completed in 1547. Later, he translated Diodorus Siculus’s ''Bibliotheca Historica'' and, in 1559 he translated Ploutarchos’s ''Vies des Hommes illustrus'', which was Amyot’s most famous work. Amyot advocated translators’ thorough understanding of the original text and plain expressions without embellishment. He emphasized the unity of content and form, free translation and literal translation. In his translation, he borrowed words from Greek and Latin and simultaneously created a large number of words in politics, philosophy, science, literature, music and so on. He fused common people language and academic language, and therefore formed an independent style of translation and greatly enriched the French vocabulary. At that time, the French language is still in a state of confusion, Amyot and other humanists made tremendous contributions to unify the French national language.

Another great man in translation history of France was Etienne Dolet. As a famous translation theorist, Dolet advocated targeted texts’ faithfulness to the original work, which is the fundamental and indispensable principle in translation. Dolet believed that an excellent translator must be proficient in both source language and target language. He was aware of the weakness of word-by-word translation and emphasized that the translation should be consistent with the original text in style through various rhetorical devices. Ballard,a French translation theorist, argued that dolet’ translation principles constituted the rudiment of the French translation theory. What he proposed was the universal principles for translation.(Xu Jun and Yuan Xiaoyi,1998:284)

Jacques Amyot set an example for the following translation works in France in the 16th century; Etienne Dolet’s translation theories were of great significance and were the first systematic principles of translation, which were ahead of those of Germany and Britain and advanced translation studies into a higher level. Thanks to their efforts, France had earned a place in translation history during Renaissance period.

==2. History of Translation in Britain==

In Britain, the Renaissance came later than in the main countries of continental Europe, but Britain gradually kept up with others countries. During this period, the British capitalist economy developed rapidly, productivity improved greatly, and the country became increasingly prosperous , which has laid a solid material foundation for the development of literature and translation. Especially since Elizabeth came to the throne in the mid-16th century by the early 17th century, translation was flourishing. On the one hand, religious translation is in the ascendant, on the other hand, a great deal of literature from Greece, Rome and other contemporary countries was translated into English, which made English translation activities in this period one of the peaks of translation activities in Europe and even the world. Literary translation ranged from history and philosophy to poetry and drama, with the occurrence of a large number of excellent translators,who introduced ancient ingenuity to Britain, offering serious lessons not only to the Queen and politicians, but also plots and materials for dramatists and readers with the purpose of serving their country. At that time, many translators were not scholars, they were not bound by any strict translation theory, they could translate what they had at their own will. Many translations are not directly from the original texts, but from the translations or even the translation of the translation. Therefore, the scope and quantity of translation are unprecedented in Britain.In the aspect of religious translation, the translator was also influenced by humanism and the Reformation, a new understanding of the Bible arose, as well as a new attitude and a new way of dealing with the translation of the Bible. People advocated accurate translation in religious works, while for literature, the unbridled freedom of traditional translation methods persisted throughout the Elizabethan era.(Tan Zaixi,2004:71)

In Britain, the Renaissance began later than the major countries in continental Europe, but Britain developed rapidly and produced many achievements.

During this period, the British capitalist economy developed rapidly, the productivity increased greatly, and the country prospered day by day, which laid a solid material foundation for the development of literature and translation. Especially since Elizabeth ascended the throne in the middle of the 16th century and the beginning of the 17th century, translation has developed vigorously. On the one hand, religious translation is in the ascendant. On the other hand, a large number of literary works from contemporary countries such as Greece and Rome have been translated into English, which makes English translation activities in this period one of the peaks of translation activities in Europe and even the world. Literary translation ranges from history and philosophy to poetry and drama. A large number of excellent translators have emerged. They introduced the originality of ancient times into Britain, which not only provided serious lessons for the queen and politicians, but also provided plot and materials for playwrights and readers, in order to serve the country. At that time, many translators were not scholars. They were not bound by any strict translation theory. They could translate what they had at will. Many translations are not directly from the original text, but from the translation, or even the translation of the translation. Therefore, the scope and quantity of translation are unprecedented in the UK. In religious translation, the translator has also been influenced by humanism and religious reform, has a new understanding of the Bible, and has a new attitude and method to the translation of the Bible. People advocate accurate translation in religious works, while in literary works, the unbridled freedom of traditional translation methods continued throughout the Elizabethan era. (Tan Zaixi, 2004:71) --[[User:Liu Wei|Liu Wei]] ([[User talk:Liu Wei|talk]]) 12:59, 14 December 2021 (UTC)Liu Wei

====2.1 Translation of Douglas and Cheke====

Gavin Douglas (1475-1522), a famous Scottish poet and translator, published his translation of Virgil’s epic Poem ''The Aeneid'' in the early 16th century. He began his preface with a eulogy of Virgil and then launched into a serious critique of the overly liberal medieval translation. He criticized Caxton's French translation as unfaithful, as far from Virgil's original work, and "as different from the devil as st. Austin" . Douglass did not translate word by word, but freely translated. He said that if translator encountered difficult words, sentences, rhymes, one had to deviate from the original text. Douglass had added new content and new meaning to translation principles, and thus had a certain value (Amos,1920:129)

Towards the middle of the 16th century, an important figure in translation was John Cheke (1514-1557). He was a humanist and supporter of the Reformation, as well as a polyglot authority on Greek at the time and served as Principal Regent Chair Professor at Cambridge university. As a result of his popularity, Cambridge became one of the academic centers in Britain, and its students were well versed in translation and language studies.Cheke was a tireless translator,who had translated many Greek works and the Bible. Characteristically, he used only pure English words or words of Saxon origin in any case, and did not adopt any foreign words. He thought the English language was rich enough without borrowing foreign words. Because of his insist on pure English words and expressions in his translation, he sometimes had to use vulgar, old and remote words, so that the style of his translation was sometimes forced and stiff.
Cheke's theory had a great influence on contemporary translators. Many other translators often mentioned Cheke's translation views in their own translations. At that time, the main criterion for evaluating a translated work was whether it was authentic and easy to be understood by compatriots. At the same time, the study of foreign grammar and contrastive vocabulary also appeared in language studies. The translator aimed to turn the translation into a textbook for students of language and translation to imitate. Some translators also use word-for-word translation to provide guidance to students. Abraham Fleming, for example, translated Virgil's Poems "according to grammatical rules." He "used plain and understandable words so as to accommodate those who are slow in comprehension, since the translator's aim is to use straightforward language structures to ease the difficulties of those whose grammatical concepts are vague, rather than to devise ways to satisfy the desires of grander humanists" (Amos,1920:109).

====2.2 Translation from Thomas North to Georga Chapman====

However, in the translation of classical masterpieces, translators tended to shift from one extreme to another. In order to avoid word-for-word translation, translators adopted excessively free translation, which was not only for the expression of words but also for the treatment of the substance of the content. Nicholas Udall(1505-1556) created the first British comedy ''Ralph Roister Doister''. In 1542 he translated Erasmus's ''Book of Proverbs'', and later presided over Erasmus's Latin translation, including the Gospel of Luke, which was published in 1548. In the preface to the translation of the ''New Testament'', he discussed various issues related to translation: the treatment of translators, the expansion of English vocabulary, the treatment of sentence structure of the translation, Erasmus's style and the stylistic characteristics of different authors. In his opinion, translation should not follow rigid rules. He advocated the use of liberal translation without deviation from the original meaning, and the translation should be readable and understandable to the general readers.

The most famous translation work of the whole Elizabethan period was the English version of ''The live of the Noble Grecians and Romans'' by translator Thomas North (1535-1601).He studied at Cambridge University in his early years, and later worked in London, where he met many translation lovers and gradually became interested in translation. In 1557 he translated ''Diall of Princes'' from a French translation and later he translated an oriental allegory from an Italian translated version in 1601. ''The live of the Noble Grecians and Romans'' was translated in 1579. This translation was not from the original Greek version, but from Amyot's French translation. However, it was still considered as an excellent epoch-making translation. North did not express any unique views on translation, but he was famous for his excellent translation in the western translation circle with three main characteristics:(1)because it is not from the original Greek, the style of the translation is different from Plutarch's style; The original text is elegant while his translation is plain. (2) North's style is also different from that of Amio in the French translation, which he used as a model. He not only changes the wording of the French translation, but also its spirit. Like Amio's French translation, North's is another masterpiece based on Plutarch's original subject. (3) Though he knew little of the classical language, North was a master of The English language, and his translations were so simple and fluent, so elegant and idiomatic, that readers might have taken them for the original if they had not read the plot. North's translation was praised by Shakespeare, who drew his inspirations from this translated works and cited its expressions, which can be considered a terrific contribution of translation to literature. The prose style adopted by ''The live of the Noble Grecians and Romans'' is novel and elegant, neither rigid nor grotesque, and hence it has become an enduring model in the history of English translation.(Tan Zaixi, 2004:76)

Philemon Holland (1552-1637) was the most outstanding English translator of the 16th century, whose works outnumbered those of his contemporaries. He had been a surgeon and headmaster of Coventry General School. He was a learned translator and scholar, fluent in Greek and Latin, proficient in ancient writing and proverbs, as well as rhetoric. His classical works were not translated but directly from the Original Greek and Latin texts, and the subject matter was also varied. He translated Livy's Romane Historie in 1600 and Pliny's Natural Historie in 1601, Plutarch's Moralia in 1603, and translated Zitonius's The Historie of The Twelve Caesars in 1606. Hollander is better known in British translation circles than North or Florio, known as the Elizabethan "translator general" who truly understood "the secret of translation." Holland's translation has two main characteristics :(1) translation must serve the reality; (2) Translation must be stylistic. In the preface to his translation of Natural History, he emphasized, "the practicality of the content of the translation, which should be suitable not only for learned people, but also for the uncivilized peasants in the countryside and for the industrious craftsmen in the cities”. Hollander was particular about the style of his translation. Like other translators of his time, he used a slow prose style, and the translation was always longer than the original. In his translation he tried to be authentic, not foreign. He does not use artificial language, but popular style. Like Cheke before him, he also preferred archaic words to foreign ones out of love for the language of his own country. What’s more, he believed that the style of the original work must be reflected in the translation, and that different works must adopt different styles without adding differences. Hollander had left behind more than just translations, but a series of works with distinctive stylistic characteristics that could withstand even the rigors of modern stylist analysis and provide the modern reader with great pleasure.(Amos,1920:86)

Georga Chapman (1559-1634) was another outstanding translator, whose greatest contribution is that his translations serve as a bridge between the 16th and 17th centuries. He spent his early years as a student at Oxford University before writing poetry and plays. But it was mainly his translations that made him famous in the literary world. He translated the first seven books of the Iliad in 1598, completed the epic in 1611, and the Odyssey in 1616. The translator's profound attainments and outstanding achievements made his translation a literary masterpiece of the time. Chapman adopted two different styles to translate the same poetic style of the original work, that is, he translated Iliad in sonnet and Odyssey in heroic couplet. In contrast, the former is more appropriate and decent than the latter. In his translation, Chapman made extensive use of mythological dictionaries, referred to early reviews of Homer's work. However, both in content and style, the translation is not completely consistent with the original work. It has transformed the characters in the poem, and added elements of moral preaching to the value of wisdom and the expression and restraint of feelings. Chapman is unblemished as a translator. As a poet, however, he was blameless. His translation has achieved great success mainly because of his extraordinary creative ability as a poet and superb ability to control language.
Chapman also made some contributions to the theoretical issues of translation. In the preface of his translation, he clearly put forward the principles guiding the translation of poetry, thus filling some gaps in translation theory in the 16th century, especially in the later period. In principle, he was against too much strictness as well as too much freedom. He said, "I despise the translators for being trapped in the mire of word-for-word translation, losing the living soul of their native language and blackening the original author with stiff language. At the same time, I abhors the use of complicated language to express the meaning” (Amos,1920:130) . Of all that he opposed, the first was word for word translation,which was considered the most unnatural and absurd. According to the views of translation theories such as Horace, who had insight and a prudent attitude that the translator should not follow the original number of words and word order, but follow its material composition and sentences, carefully weigh sentences, and then use the most appropriate expressions and form to express and decorate the translation. Chapman believed that word-by-word translation was a common fault of translators, and even he himself was inevitable. But those mistakes could be overcome. Although the expression of meaning and language style of Greek and English are different, the translator could compare the translation with the original text in meaning and style as long as he carefully identified, understood the spirit of the original text and had a thorough understanding of its grammar and vocabulary and thus approximately achieved "formal correspondence". Chapman's theory was carried on by many translators of the 17th and 18th centuries. This was obviously because he opposed both extremes, and it was easier to argue for a compromise.(Catford,1965:32)

====2.3 Translation of Tyndale and Fulke====

In the 16th century, the translation of the English Bible also flourished. Since the introduction of ethnic translation in the Middle Ages, the Bible had been increasingly read. It had the same appeal for all classes of people, which prompted translators to combine the accuracy required by scholars with the intelligibility required by ordinary people, thus promoting the overall development of translation art and theory. In this respect, religious translation in England in the 16th century was more effective than literary translation. Tyndale and Fulke were the main representatives of bible translation.

William Tyndale (1494-1536) was an erudite humanist and protestant reformist. In 1523, his translation of the New Testament from Greek from a Protestant standpoint was opposed and persecuted by the English church authorities and was not allowed to be published. He fled to Germany in 1524 and, after many twists and turns, had his translation first published in 1525. In 1526, he smuggled the translation back to England against the will of the Church, trying to spread Protestant ideas through the new translation of the Bible and convert The English people to Protestants. The church authorities immediately took measures to lay siege. The Bishop of London claimed to have found 2,000 errors in Tyndale's translation. Thomas More, a famous humanist, attacked his translation very unkindly, and the priests bought all the copies they could get and burned them to prevent their proliferation. Uncompromising, Tyndale continued to translate the Bible in his own way: he translated the first book of the Old Testament in 1530, completed The Book of Jonah in 1531, and published the revised New Testament in 1534. The church authorities had no choice but to burn Tyndale in 1536 for heresy.
Tyndale's translation, however, had not disappeared but was republished after Tyndale's martyrdom and became increasingly influential, serving as the main reference version and as the model for all English translations for centuries to come. The greatest achievement of Tyndale's translation is that it takes into account the needs of academe, conciseness and literariness, and integrates these three elements into the style of English translation of the Bible. Tyndale paid special attention to the popularity of the translation, trying to use the authentic English vocabulary and ordinary narrative expressions of vivid and specific expressions, which makes his text simple and natural without being pedantic.(Tan Zaixi,2004:80)

If Tyndale made a special contribution to the practical translation of the Bible in the 16th century, then it was William Fulke (1538-1589)who made the greatest achievements in the theoretical study of bible translation. Fulke was a scholar of The Bible with humanistic thoughts. Without translating the Bible completely, he had great views on translation theory. In 1589 he published a book entitled in Defence of the Sincere and True Translation of the Holy Scriptures into the English Tongue. It must be pointed out that Fulke did not systematically discuss the universal principles of translation as Dolet did. Instead, he only talked about the facts and refuted Gregory Martin's views, and expounded the theoretical issues in a rather chaotic manner. To sum up, there were mainly two aspects as follows:
(1)Translation can have nothing to do with faith. Fulke, influenced by Erasmus's linguistic approach, disagreed with Martin's assertion of theological authority over scientific scholarship. Translators, he believed, must be fluent in many languages so that they could make accurate judgments about the teachings of the saints without blindly following them. The power of a translator lies in his solid linguistic ability, not in his belief in God. He said, The translator cannot be called an unfaithful heretic as long as the translation conforms to the language and meaning of the original text, even if the motive is not good (Amos,1920:71). Fulke never accepted Martin's strict translation formulas, nor did he submit to unproven authoritative theories, even from the leaders of his own faction. Fulke’s point of view is obviously a challenge to the theological authority of Augustine with its purpose to liberate the Bible translation from the narrow theological tradition and win the right for ordinary people to translate and interpret the Bible.
(2)The Translation of the Bible must respect linguistic habits. If the translator has difficulty in understanding the original text, he/she should turn to the language habits of ancient non-religious writers, while one encounters difficulties in diction, translator should refer to the language habits of contemporary secular writers and the general public. Fulke added: "We are not lords dictating the way people speak. If we were, we would teach them how to use language better. Since we cannot change the way people speak, we have to follow Aristotle's instructions and use the language of ordinary people." Therefore, religious usage should give way to common usage if it is in conflict with common usage. In translation, words and expressions that are most easily understood must be used so that those who do not know their etymological meaning can understand them. At the same time, if words have been misused over a long period of time, with meanings that do not correspond to the original meaning of the words, or have been misused to increase the ambiguity of the words, the translator should not follow blindly, but should look to the root and choose the words according to their original meaning, that is, according to the meaning used in the time when the Bible was written. In translating the Bible into English, Fulke did not advocate excessive borrowing of foreign words but tapping the expressive potential of English itself and paying attention to the use of expressions in line with English habits. Fulke acknowledged that English had a small vocabulary compared with older languages, but argued that this could not be compensated for by making up words, but by using Old English words again.
Clearly, some of Mr Fulke's views are limited and conservative. Many of the foreign words he objects to have been adopted as part of the English vocabulary. But many of his criticisms of Martin are convincing, and his work has been generally praised by the translators of the Bible. Some of his observations on language are so incisive that they are still of great reference value to the study of modern English.(Amos,1920:72)

==3.History of Translation in Germany==

In Germany, the national self-consciousness was further strengthened, and the trend of mechanical imitation of Latin gradually disappeared in the 15th century.

====3.1 Dominant Ideas in German Translation====

Linguists realized the unique style and expressive ability of German, and hence shifted the focus of translation from the original language to the target language. Free translation took the place of word-to-word translation and occupied the dominant position. The only reason for translators to object literal translation is its convenience for readers to understand word-by-word translation.
Gradually, scholars recognized that Hebrew, Greek, and Latin all have distinct features, especially in terms of idiomatic expressions. Similarly, since German is an independent language, it also has its own unique expressions that cannot be translated word by word into other languages, nor can expressions in other languages be translated word by word into German. Based an an understanding of the nature and differences of languages as well as a growing sense of nationality and desire to develop the national language, more and more historians and scholars have begun to use German idiomatic expressions rather than imitate Latin.
Against the background of this trend of thought, the free translators gradually changed their inferiority in the debates with the literal translators in the 15th century, and rightly put forward another profound reason against literal translation: German is an independent language with its own rules that must be respected; German has its own language style, which cannot be destroyed by imitation of other languages. This was the dominant idea in German translation throughout the 16th century.

====3.2 Translation of Reuchlin, Erasmus and Luther====

Johannes Reuchlin(1455-1522) aroused great academic interest in Hebrew. In 1515, he wrote Epistolae Obscurorum Virorum, exposing the narrow-mouthing ignorance of the scholars and monks, which led to a fierce debate between the reformers and conservatives in the church. At the same time, he was also very knowledgeable about translation theory. He mainly translated two works, ''Batrachom Yomachia'' (1510) and ''Septem Psalmos Poenitentiales'' (1512), using word-for-word translation. This contradicts his own remarks about translation.
However, its actual content and general principles could not be compared to those of the literal translation school in the 15th century. The literatrists of the 15th century only emphasized the imitation of certain rhetorical forms of the text, while Reuchlin understood the value of rhythm and the difference between the text and the translation. He believed that the form of the original was so closely integrated with the original that it could not be preserved in the target language. Just like Homer's works alive only in Greek, it would detract from the aesthetic value of literature when translated into any other language. The purpose of literal translation was not to ask the translator to imitate the style of the original text, but to make readers pay attention to the style of the original text and appreciate its literary value.(Tan Zaixi,2004:56)

Another outstanding representatives of a new approach to literary study and new insights into translation theory in the 16th century was Desiderius Erasmus (1466-1536), who was born in a priest's family in Rotterdam, Netherlands. His early education was influenced by The Canon of Augustine. After studying in Paris, he lived successively in Britain, Germany, Italy and Switzerland, accepting humanism and opposing scholasticism. He was knowledgeable, good at language studies, and had profound attainments in Greek and Latin literature, especially his incisive treatises on literature and style.
Erasmus advocated that the original work must be respected. Before Erasmus, the Translation of the Bible in Various European countries was in a state of confusion. Erasmus bitterly pointed out that the translation and commentary of the Bible must be faithful to the original text, because no translation can fully translate the "language of God" as the Bible itself. Early theologians did not understand Hebrew or Greek and could not understand the original text of the Bible, so the truth of the Bible was covered up, distorted, or ossified into dogma. To uncover this truth, we must go back to the source. It is truth, not authority, that should be respected. What’s more, he claimed that translator must have a rich knowledge of language. He believed that to interpret the ''New Testament'' correctly it was necessary to learn ancient Greek; Anyone who wished to pursue theological studies must first be able to read the classics and learn Greek semantics, meanings, and rhetoric. Also, he realized the great importance of style in translation and attached great importance to readers’ requirements. There is no doubt that Erasmus' translation theory is the result of his humanistic thought, his mastery of multiple languages as well as his appreciation of literary styles. His translation principles and methods have exerted great influence on both contemporary and later translators.

Martin Luther (149-146) was the founder of the European Religious Reform movement and the Protestant Church reformer. Luther translated the Bible, known as “the first bible of common people” in the history by using the people's language, which played a great role in unifying the German language and laid a foundation for the formation and development of modern German.
He also proposed that translation should adopt common people language and only appropriate free translation can bring the original enlightening thoughts of Bible into light. (Luther,1530:124) Grammatical correction and semantic coherence were of great value during translation. Translation was so challenging that it requires collective wisdom and repeatedly revisions.
Luther had also put forward seven rules for translation: the word order of the original text can be changed; modal particles can be used reasonably; necessary conjunctions can be added; words in the original text that do not have an equivalent can be omitted; phrases can be used to translate individual words; figurative usage and non-figurative usage can be changed flexibly; the accuracy of variant forms and explanations should be strengthened. Although Luther’s translation practice received a great deal of criticism, his translation of Bible his was considered to be the earliest written language in German and opened a new era in the development of modern German. It endowed him with the highest reputation and the most profound influence in Germany.(Xie Tianzhen,2009:23)

==Conclusion==
It could be seen from the above sections that one of the biggest characteristics of Western translation during the Renaissance was the parallel and independent development of the translation of western European national languages. The use of Latin, though still having some market, was a tributary in both writing and translation. Before the Renaissance, especially before the middle ages, when we talked about western translation, we mostly meant translation in Latin. Since the Renaissance, with the gradual formation and consolidation of national states and the development of national languages, western translation had turned to national languages,especially French, English and German.The translation activities in the Renaissance period were basically devoid of disciplinary consciousness, and the theories were fragmentary and unsystematic. Most of the authors were translation practitioners, and most of the theories were empirical. Thanks to the translators in these three countries who were devoted themselves to the study of translation principles and the transmission of classic works, their consistant and pain-staking efforts had pushed the translation theory to anew level and left countlessly valueable translated works.Therefore, the Renaissance could be said to be a turning point in the history of western translation. In short, the Renaissance marks that the translation of national languages has been firmly on the historical stage, and that translation practice and theory have broken away from the dark Middle Ages.It also laid a solid foundation for the contemporary translation. (Pan Wenguo,2002:23)

As can be seen from the above chapters, in the Renaissance, the greatest feature of western translation theory was the parallel and independent development of Western European national language translation. Although before the Renaissance, especially before the middle ages, when we talk about western translation, we mainly refer to Latin translation. However, since the Renaissance, with the gradual formation and consolidation of the nation-state and the development of national languages, western translation has turned to national languages, especially French, English and German.

However, we have to pay attention to the shortcomings of translation activities in the Renaissance. First, translators' translation theories are scattered and fragmented, lacking discipline consciousness and systematicness. Second, most translators are empirical, and the quality of their works is uneven.

Because the translators of these three countries are committed to the study of translation principles and the dissemination of classical works, their unremitting efforts have pushed translation theory to a new height and left countless valuable translation works. Therefore, the Renaissance can be said to be a turning point in the history of western translation. In short, the Renaissance marks that the translation of national languages has been firmly on the historical stage, and the translation practice and theory have been separated from the dark middle ages. This has also laid a solid foundation for contemporary translation. (Pan Wenguo, 2002:23) --[[User:Liu Wei|Liu Wei]] ([[User talk:Liu Wei|talk]]) 13:11, 14 December 2021 (UTC)Liu Wei

==References==
Amos, F. R. (1920). Early Theories of Translation[M]. New York: Columbia University Press.

Benjamin, Andrew. (1989). Translation and the Nature of Philosophy: A New Theory of Words[M]. London and New York: Routledge.

Catford,J.C.(1965) A Linguistic Theory of Translation[M].New York: Oxford University Press.

Dolet, Etienne. (1540). How to Translate Well from One Language to Another[M]. Robinson.

Frederick Engels. (1883) The Dialects of Nature[M]. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

Luther, Martin. (1530). Sendbrief vom Dolmetschen[M]. Stoerig.

M.A.R. Habib. (2011) Literary Criticism from Plato to the Present: An Introduction[M]. New Jersey: Wiley-Blackwell Publishing.

Munday, Jeremy. (2001). Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications[M]. London and New York: Routledge.

Pan Wenguo 潘文国.(2002) 当代西方的翻译学研究[J] Contemporary Translation Studies in the West.中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal,31-34.

Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2000). 翻译学[M] Translation Studies. 武汉：湖北教育出版社 Wuhan: Hubei Educational Press.

Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2004).西方翻译简史[M] A Short History of Translation in the West. 北京：商务印书馆 Beijing: The Commercial Press.

Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2003). 翻译研究新视野[M] New Perspective for Translation Studies. 青岛：青岛出版社 Qingdao: Qingdao Publishing.

Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2009).中西翻译简史[M] A Brief History of Translation in China and the West.北京:北京外语教学与研究出版社 Beijing:Foreign Language Teachinng and Research Press.

Xu Jun, Yuan Xiaoyi 许钧，袁筱一. (1998). 当代法国翻译理论[M] Contemporary Translation Thoery in France.南京：南京大学出版社 Nanjing: Nanjing University.

=刘薇 Contemporary American Translation History)=

Liu Wei 刘薇 Hunan Normal University, China

==Abstract==
The United States is an important part of the "West", so when we talk about the conception of "West", it is impossible not to include the United States.Therefore, this chapter combs the development of contemporary American translation by introducing a series of theories of American Translators.

The United States is an important part of the "West", so when we talk about the conception of "West", it is impossible to exclude the United States.Therefore, this chapter recapitulates the development of contemporary American translation by introducing a series of theories of American Translators. (corrected by--[[User:Zhou Junhui|Zhou Junhui]] ([[User talk:Zhou Junhui|talk]]) 08:48, 14 December 2021 (UTC))

==Key words==
translation theory of American, Eugene Nida,Robert Boogrand.

==Introduction==

In the field of translation studies, the situation in the United States is very special.Since the history of the United States itself is not long, we can not expect to talk about "ancient American translation theory", "medieval American translation theory", or even "modern American translation theory".American translation theory is mainly the "contemporary translation theory", which is developed after World War II (Guo Jianzhong, [introduction]: 2).Although the development of American translation theory is relatively short, there are still many influential translation theorists, such as Eugene Nida, Robert Boogrand, Andre Leverville, Lawrence Venudi, Edwin Gentzler and so on. They are constantly innovating and developing new theories in the field of translation.

In the field of translation studies, the situation in the United States is very special.Since the history of the United States itself is not long, we can not expect to talk about "ancient American translation theory", "medieval American translation theory", or even "modern American translation theory".American translation theory is mainly the "contemporary translation theory", which is developed after World War II (Guo Jianzhong, [introduction]: 2).Although the development of American translation theory is relatively short, there are still many influential translation theorists, such as Eugene Nida, Robert Boogrand, Andre Leverville, Lawrence Venudi, Edwin Gentzler and so on. They are constantly innovating and developing new theories in the field of translation. (corrected by --[[User:Zhou Junhui|Zhou Junhui]] ([[User talk:Zhou Junhui|talk]]) 08:48, 14 December 2021 (UTC))

==Chapter1 Characteristics of the local American translation theory ==

The development of contemporary American translation theory has three main characteristics: first, it inherits the tradition of European translation theory in terms of overall research methods;Second, the early studies were mostly influenced by the schools of American structural linguistics;Third, there is a tendency to catch up in research results.These characteristics are discussed one by one below.(Tan Zaixi,1999:237)

On the first point, the inheritance of European tradition in the overall research method of American translation theory is due to its unique language and cultural tradition.As an integral part of the whole culture, translation culture naturally presents the basic characteristics of the development of the whole culture.Since the American culture with English as the national language is mainly inherited from European culture, the development of American translation culture, as an integral part of American culture, also inherits European translation culture.Especially in the early stage of the development of American translation theory, many influential people engaged in translation studies were immigrants from Europe or descendants of recent European immigrants.

Take Thorman as an example: his translation theory work the art of translation published in 1901 is one of the earliest published works in the field of American translation theory, but the contents and discussion methods involved in the book have no obvious "American characteristics".On the contrary, it is more like a work belonging to Europe, especially the British translation tradition. Even the examples in the book are similar to the European, especially the British translation tradition.

The second characteristic of the tradition of American translation theory is that the early studies were greatly influenced by the schools of American structural linguistics, which can be said to be a more distinctive "American characteristic" in American translation studies.

American linguistic studies are at the forefront of the West in many aspects. There have been many linguistic schools, such as human language school, structuralism school, transformational generative school and so on. All kinds of schools have also had various direct or indirect effects on American translation studies.

The representative of American structuralist language school is Bloomfield. He adopts the method of behaviorism and believes that everything about language can be studied scientifically and objectively.He put forward a behaviorist semantic analysis method, which holds that meaning is the relationship between stimulus and language response.In 1950s, Chomsky's transformational generative theory replaced Bloomfield's theory and occupied the dominant position in American linguistics theory and occupied the dominant position in American linguistics.The influence of Chomsky's theory on translation studies mainly lies in his discussion of surface structure and deep structure.The concept of "deep" has led to large-scale semantic research. Because semantics is closely related to translation research, Chomsky's theory has promoted the development of translation theory in the United States and even the whole west.(Xie Tianzhen ,2003:200)

Therefore, under the influence of various linguistic theories, many people try to put forward new translation concepts and research methods. These people can be collectively referred to as the structural School of American translation theory.Among them, the main characters include Wojilin, Bolinger, Katz, Quinn and Eugene Nida.

Take Wojilin as an example. He is a human linguist.His greatest contribution is to put forward a multi-step translation method (also known as step-by-step translation method).The biggest advantage of his multi-step translation method is that the steps are clear, flexible and easy to master.

Using Chomsky's transformational generative theory, Boringer puts forward a concept of structural translation as opposed to lexical translation.Based on structural linguistics, Katz makes a profound analysis of the translatability of language and the philosophical problems in language and translation.Based on the discussion of strange language, Quinn expounds some basic problems of translation from the perspective of philosophy, which has aroused great repercussions in the field of western translation theory.(Tan Zaixi,1999:250)

The third characteristic of the development of American translation theory is that it has a tendency to catch up with others in research results.One of the most prominent scholars is Eugene Nida. Although he is an outstanding linguist, his views on "translation is science", "translation is communication", "translation must pay attention to reader response" and other aspects are an innovation and breakthrough to the previous views. In addition, after Eugene Nida, many scholars have put forward many new views because of their existence,It was only after World War II that American translation theory continued to catch up.

Therefore, we will focus on him in the next chapter.

On the first point, the inheritance of European tradition in the overall research method of American translation theory is due to its unique language and cultural tradition.As an integral part of the whole culture, translation culture naturally presents the basic characteristics of the development of the whole culture.Since the American culture with English as the national language is mainly inherited from European culture, the development of American translation culture, as an integral part of American culture, also inherits European translation culture.Especially in the early stage of the development of American translation theory, many influential people engaged in translation studies were immigrants from Europe or descendants of recent European immigrants.(corrected by --[[User:Zhou Junhui|Zhou Junhui]] ([[User talk:Zhou Junhui|talk]]) 08:48, 14 December 2021 (UTC))

==Chapter2 Eugene Nida's translation theory==

Eugene Albert Nida (1914 -) was born in Oklahoma City in the south central United States. He graduated from the University of California, Los Angeles in 1936. In 1943, he worked in Bloomfield and fries (Charles fries received his doctorate in linguistics under the guidance of two famous scholars. As the leading translation theory figure in contemporary America, Nida has also engaged in research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology and communication engineering. Before his retirement in the 1980s, he worked in the Translation Department of the American Holy Bible Association and served as the executive secretary of the translation department for a long time. He is mainly engaged in the Bible Organization of translation and revision of translations and the Bible Training and theoretical guidance for translators. He is proficient in many languages and has investigated and studied more than 100 languages, especially some small languages in Africa and Latin America. In 1968, he served as the president of the American language society. Although he does not take teaching as his career, he has extremely rich experience in Translation training and lecturing. In addition to a long-term part-time job, he speaks linguistics in the famous American summer In addition to teaching linguistics and translation courses in the Institute, he also served as a guest lecturer and professor in many American universities. He was often invited to give short-term lectures in Europe, Latin America, Africa and Asia, and won several honorary doctorates. In order to recognize his contribution to translation research, especially in the field of Bible translation research, the American Bible Association named the Institute after him in 2001 In particular, Nida has deep feelings for China. Since 1982, he has been invited to give lectures in China more than ten times, and has maintained close academic contacts and exchanges with many schools and academic colleagues in China for a long time.(Tan Zaixi,2000:247)

Nida is a prolific language and translation theorist. From 1945 to 2004, he published more than 200 articles and more than 40 works (including works cooperated and edited with others). Among them, there are more than 20 works on language and translation theory, and a collection of papers has been published.

His research achievements include "Toward a Science of Translating" published in 1964, "The Theory and Practice of Translation" Co authored with Charles Taber in 1969, "Com ponential Analysis of Meaning " published in 1975 and "language structure and Translation" . Nida's anthology "Language Structure and Translation : Essays by Eugene A. Nida，ed. by Anwar S. Dil" , "From One Language to Another" , co authored with de warrd in 1986, "The Sociolinguistics of Interlingual Communication" , published in 1996 and published in 2001 "Language and Culture :Contertsin Translating" .(Xie Tianzhen.2003:212)

Throughout Nida's translation thought, we can divide it into three main development stages: the linguistic stage with obvious American structuralism in the early stage, the stage of translation science and translation communication in the middle stage, and the stage of social semiotics.

The first major stage is the linguistic stage, from 1943 when he wrote his doctoral thesis "a summary of English syntax" to 1959 when he published "principles of translation from biblical translation".At this stage, he tries to clarify the structural nature of language through the description of syntax, morphology and language translation.In his early days, he was greatly influenced by American structuralist Bloomfield and human linguist Sapir, and paid attention to the collection and analysis of language materials in language research.Through the opportunity to visit and contact different languages all over the world, many examples of speech differences are collected.However, he does not regard speech differences as insurmountable obstacles between languages, but as different phenomena of the same essence.

The second development stage of Nida's translation thought is the stage of translation science and translation communication. It took 10 years from the publication of "principles of translation from biblical translation" in 1959 to the publication of "translation theory and practice" in 1969.The research achievements at this stage have played a key role in establishing Nida's authoritative position in the whole western translation theory circle.
By summarizing this main development period, the main contents of the following five aspects can be summarized:

（一）Translation science.Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill, but also a science.The so-called science here means that translation problems can be handled by "scientific approaches to language structure, semantic analysis and information theory", that is, a linguistic and descriptive method can be adopted to explain the translation process.If the principles and procedures of translation seem to be normative, it is only because they are generally considered to be the most useful in a specific scope of translation.Nida's view that "translation is science" has had great repercussions in the field of western linguistics and translation theory.

（二） Translation communication theory. Nida applies communication theory and information theory to translation studies and holds that translation is communication. After World War II, not only advertisers, politicians and businessmen attached great importance to the intelligibility of language, but also scholars, writers, editors, publishers and translators realized that any information would be worthless if it could not play a communicative role. Therefore, to judge whether a translation is successful, we must first see whether it can be immediately understood by the recipient and whether it can play a role in the communication of ideas, information and feelings. Therefore, in the field of translation research, various names and statements such as "communicative translation", "functional translation" and related "equal response theory", "equal effect theory", "equal role theory" and "equal power theory" have sprung up one after another. Nida's "translation is communication" and his "reader response theory" and "dynamic equivalence" discussed below“ "Functional equivalence" has become an important representative of the communicative school in the field of western translation studies.

Nida's theory of "translation is communication" is based on the theory of language commonality. Nida, like Jacobson, believes that all languages in the world have the same expression ability, which can enable native speakers of the language to express ideas, describe the world and carry out social communication. His argument is based on the same "identity" For example, in countries with relatively developed productive forces, many scientific and technological words will appear in their languages, while in countries with less developed or very low productive forces, there may be a lack of scientific and technological words in their languages. However, this does not mean that the latter has the same expressive ability as the former, but only shows that people have different requirements for languages in different languages, It is not because the language cannot produce scientific and technological vocabulary, but because the speakers of the language do not have or temporarily do not have the requirement to use scientific and technological vocabulary. Once there is such a requirement, there will be corresponding vocabulary in the language, or "native" scientific and technological vocabulary, or "foreign" vocabulary transplanted from foreign words. In short, the expression efficiency of various languages is the same.

Nida believes that the primary task of translation is to make it clear to the readers at a glance after reading the translation. That is to say, the translation should be fluent and natural, and the readers can understand it without the knowledge of the cultural background of the source language. This requires that rigid foreign words should be used as little as possible in translation, and expressions belonging to the receiving language should be used as much as possible. For example, in a Sudanese language, for If the expression "repent and reform" is translated directly, it will make people feel at a loss, and it should be translated into the local familiar "spitting on the ground in front of someone". For example, in the language without "Snow", white as snow may be puzzling, but it should be said "white as frost" or "white as egret hair" Another example is that in the ancient West, the habit of people meeting and greeting each other was "sacred kiss", but now it should become "very warm handshake".(Nida·Eugene,1996:234）

In a sense, the theory of translation communication is not only one of the main symbols of Nida's second development stage of translation thought, but also one of the biggest characteristics of his whole ideological system.Especially after the publication of translation theory and practice, Nida's translation communication theory has had a great impact on the western translation circles, including those in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union.

（三） Dynamic equivalence theory.The so-called dynamic equivalence translation is actually translation under the guidance of translation communication theory. Specifically, it refers to "reproducing the source language information with the closest (original) natural equivalence in the receiving language from semantics to style".In this definition, there are three key points: one is "nature", which means that the translation cannot have a translation cavity;The second is "close", which refers to selecting the translation with the closest meaning to the original text on the basis of "nature";The third is "equivalence", which is the core.Both "nature" and "close" serve to find equivalents.

（四） Translation function theory.From the perspective of sociolinguistics and language communicative function, Nida believes that translation must serve the reader.To judge whether a translation is correct or not, we must take the reader's response as the criterion.If the response of the target readers is basically the same as that of the original readers, the translation can be considered successful.

（五） Four step model.This refers to the translation process.Nida puts forward that the process of translation is: analysis, transfer (transfer the meaning obtained from the analysis from the source language to the receiving language), reorganization (reorganize the translation according to the rules of the receiving language), and inspection (detect the target text against the source text).Among these four steps, "analysis" is the most complex and key, which is the focus of Nida's translation research.The focus of the analysis is semantics. He distinguishes four parts of speech from the perspective of semantics: object words, activity words, abstract words and relational words.In semantic analysis, he introduced three methods: linear analysis, hierarchical analysis and component analysis.In the specific analysis of semantics, he focuses on grammatical meaning, referential meaning and connotative meaning (or emotional meaning and associative meaning).These distinction theories are of great significance to understand his translation thought.

Nida's research achievements in the 1980s can be regarded as the third stage of translation thought.He has made a series of modifications and supplements to his translation theory.He did not completely abandon the theory of the original communicative school, but further developed on the original basis and incorporated the useful elements of the original theory into a new model, which is the social semiotics model in the third development stage translation thought.

Compared with previous works, Eugene Nida has the following four changes and developments in from one language to another: first, based on the translation theory of social semiotics, he emphasizes that everything in the text has meaning, including speech form, so form cannot be easily sacrificed.That is to say, form is also meaningful. Sacrificing form means sacrificing meaning.Secondly, it points out that the rhetorical features of language play an important role in language communication, so we must pay attention to these features in translation.Third, the theory of "dynamic equivalence" is no longer used, but replaced by "functional equivalence", which is intended to make the meaning of the term clearer and easier to understand.Fourth, instead of using the distinction of grammatical meaning, referential meaning and associative meaning, meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, and all kinds of meaning are divided into referential meaning and associative meaning.From the whole historical process of the development of translation theory, it should be said that these changes are basically positive.(Nida·Eugene,1996:222）

Of course, his theory and works are not perfect.First, his theory focuses too much on solving the problems of communicative and intelligibility of translation, so its scope of application is limited.It is natural to emphasize the intelligibility of the translation in the field of Bible translation, but if the intelligibility of the translation is always put in the first place in the translation of secular literary works, it will inevitably lead to the simplification and even non literariness of the translated language.

Second, he no longer completely negates "formal correspondence", but believes that the expression form of the original text cannot be broken at will in translation.In order to expand the scope of application of his theory, he also added rhetoric.However, despite his amendments, he failed to elaborate more deeply on his new views.

Thirdly, Eugene Nida once put forward the proposition that "translation is science", and then basically abandoned this proposition.Whether he put forward or gave up, he did not put forward sufficient and convincing arguments, which can not be said to be a major defect.

Of course, Nida's theory and works are not perfect. Firstly, his theory focuses too much on solving the problems of communicative and intelligibility of translation, so its scope of application is limited. It is natural to emphasize the intelligibility of the translation in the field of Bible translation, but if the intelligibility of the translation is always put in the first place in the translation of secular literary works, it will inevitably lead to the simplification and even non literariness of the translated language. Newmark, a British translation theorist, once pointed out: "if we delete all the metaphors in the Bible that Doneda believes readers cannot understand, it will inevitably lead to a large loss of meaning." . an important feature of literary works is that they use more metaphorical and novel language. The author's real intention may have to taste and capture between the lines. If all the metaphorical images in the original work are deleted and all the associative meanings are clearly stated, the result will be that the translation is easy to understand, but it is dull and can't reach To the purpose of literature. In recent years, Nida has become more and more aware of this, and has constantly revised and improved some of his past views. For example, he later no longer focused on the intelligibility of the translation, but advocated a "three nature principle", that is, the principle of paying equal attention to comprehensibility, readability and acceptability. In addition, he no longer completely denied "formal correspondence" In order to expand the scope of application of his theory, he especially added rhetoric. However, despite Nida's amendments, he failed to make a more profound exposition of his new views; he was only aware of the existence of the problem rather than successfully solving the relevant problems Besides, Nida once put forward the proposition that "translation is science", and then basically gave up this proposition. Whether he put forward or gave up, he did not put forward sufficient and convincing arguments, which is a major defect.

Of course, flaws do not hide the jade. Looking at Nida's lifelong contributions, he is one of the most outstanding theoretical figures in the field of contemporary translation studies in the United States and even the whole west. The historical theory of the development of western translation theory should give him a heavy pen.(Tan Zaixi,2000:257)

==Chapter3 Robert Boogrand's translation theory==

Since the 1970s, more voices outside the structural language school and the communicative school have gradually emerged in the field of translation studies in the United States, especially the voice of discourse linguistics theory and discourse analysis represented by Robert Boogrand.
Boogrand teaches in the English Department of the University of Florida and is engaged in the study of literary discourse rhetoric and grammatical structure.In 1978, he published a book called "elements of translation theory of poetry"), which was listed as one of the Translation Studies Series edited by Holmes and attracted extensive attention.(Xie Tianzhen,2003:56)

Boogrand's view is: 1. The unit of translation is not a single word or sentence, but the whole text.2. Translation is a process of interaction among authors, translators and readers.3. What is worth studying is not the characteristics of the article itself, but the skills of language use reflected in these characteristics.

After the publication of the above translation theory works guided by the thought of discourse linguistics in 1978, Boogrand continued to engage in the research of language and translation along the same line, and more than ten relevant works (including Works CO authored and co edited with others) have been published successively, mainly including discourse, discourse and process: multidisciplinary discourse science exploration Linguistic Theory: Discourse of basic works, introduction to discourse linguistics, language discourse, Western and Middle East translation Boogrand has always expounded language and translation from the perspective of discourse linguistics, thus establishing his important position as the leader of discourse linguistics in the field of British and American translation studies. Boogrand's contribution as one of the pioneers of discourse analysis and discourse linguistics in translation studies is very important and worthy of full recognition.(Tan Zaixi,2000:256)

==Chapter4 Andre Lefevere's translation theory==

With the development of the times, translation studies in the United States, like other parts of the west, have been continuously improved in theoretical depth. By the 1990s, the focus of theorists' discussion on translation has gradually separated from the previous specific translation processes and methods, and turned more to the fundamental nature of translation, translation and ideology, translation and culture. This chapter introduces Andre Leverville's translation theory.
Andre Leverville, a professor of translation and comparative literature at the University of Texas at Austin, originally from Belgium, is a very important theoretical figure in the field of Contemporary Western comparative literature and translation research. We can discuss his main ideas from the following two aspects.(Tan Zaixi,2000:276)

(一)The cultural turn in translation studies. It is a common feature of all cultural schools to turn the focus of translation studies from the language structure and language form correspondence that language schools are most concerned about to the meaning and function of the target text and the source text in their respective cultural systems. He believes that any literature must survive in a certain social and cultural environment, and its meaning and value Value, as well as its interpretation and acceptance, will always be affected and restricted by a series of interrelated and mutually referenced factors, including both internal and external factors of literature. Therefore, as far as translation research is concerned, the goal of the research is far from limited to exploring the equivalence or equivalence of the two texts in language forms, but to explore at the same time.Study various cultural issues directly or indirectly related to translation activities.

（二） The concept of manipulation in translation. When talking about and describing the basic characteristics of the cultural school, we often can not do without using the word "manipulation". Here, "manipulation"It is not emotional, but a special term representing the concept of neutrality. According to the translation operation of Andre Leverville and others, the core meaning is that in the process of processing the source text and generating the target text, the translator has the right and will rewrite the text in order to achieve a certain purpose. Andre Leverville believes that translation is a reflection of the image of the text.Other literary forms such as literary criticism, biography, literary history, drama, film, fiction and so on are also the rewriting of the text image, and rewriting is the manipulation of the text.

（三） Obviously, the manipulative rewriting in Lefevere and his cultural school theory is not simply equivalent to "Rewriting" in the general sense, because in his view, all translation is rewriting, even the "most faithful"Translation is also a form of rewriting. As a translation manipulator, this rewriting or manipulation should be regarded as a cultural necessity in essence. In the process of translation, the translator is bound to be affected and restricted by various social and cultural factors. In addition to considering all the characteristics related to the source text, such as the original author's intention, the context of the source text and so on, the more important thing is toIt is necessary to consider a series of factors related to the target or receiving culture, such as the purpose of translation, the function of the target text, the expectations and reactions of readers, the requirements of clients and sponsors, and the review of the publishing and distribution organization of the work. The existence of these factors and the degree of constraints imposed by the translator on them vary from person to person constitute the inevitable "manipulation" condition of the translator on the text.(Lefevere·André,1980:100).

For "manipulation" in this sense, we can not judge it by moral value words such as "legitimate" or "improper", but only by the "appropriateness" criteria such as whether the target text has achieved the purpose of translation, whether it meets the expectations of the audience, and whether it can be accepted by the accepted culture.

==Chapter5 Lawrence Venudi's translation theory==

It is precisely because the cultural school or manipulation school, and even the polysystem school, in translation studies have established a relationship with the theory of domestication and Foreignization in translation, that a new group of scholars and viewpoints have emerged. In the field of American translation studies, Lawrence Wenudi is the most vocal theoretical figure on the issues of "domestication" and "Foreignization".
As an English professor at Temple University in Philadelphia, winudi is one of the most active and influential figures in the field of American translation theory since the 1990s. Winudi belongs to the deconstruction school in translation studies, that is, what genzler calls the "post structuralism school"In his works on translation studies, Venuti advocates that literary translation should not aim at eliminating alien features, but should try to show cultural differences in the target text.(Tan Zaixi,2000:278)

Venuti's main view is that it is wrong to require the translator to be invisible in translation; the translator should not be invisible in the translation, but should be visible. That is to say, translation should adopt the principle and strategy of "alienation" to keep the translation exotic and exotic, and read like the translation, rather than "domestication"So that the translation can be transformed completely in accordance with the ideology and creative norms of the target culture. It doesn't read like foreign works, but the original of the target language.(Xie Tianzhen,2003:278).

However, translation has never been carried out in an unaffected way. Foreignization translation and domestication translation are actually the products of translation activities affected. From the perspective of translation ethics, it is difficult to assert which is good or which is bad, because translation reality shows that the two play irreplaceable roles in the target language and culture and complete their respective missions.Therefore, the two kinds of translation will always coexist and complement each other.(Tan Zaixi,2000:279)

==Chapter6 Edwin Gensler's translation theory==

Edwin Genzler is the director of the translation center of Amherst University of Massachusetts, doctor of comparative literature and professor of translation. His famous translation work is contemporary translation theory published in 1993 and reprinted in 2001.(Xie Tianzhen,2003:290).

Genzler's contribution to translation theory is mainly reflected in the following three aspects:
First, it comprehensively combs the contemporary western translation theories, so as to clarify people's understanding of various western translation theory schools since World War II, and thus arouse the research interest in all kinds of contemporary western translation theories in the field of translation studies (including China's Translation Studies).In contemporary translation theory, Genzler studies translation from different perspectives such as scientific theory, polysystem theory and deconstruction. By exploring the "political reality" outside translation (literary translation practice), he outlines the outline of contemporary western translation research and guides readers to rethink a series of theoretical issues such as the definition and classification of translation.(Tan Zaixi,2000:300)

Secondly, on the basis of comprehensively and systematically combing various contemporary western translation thoughts and theories, Genzler puts forward a multi-channel cooperative translation research view of "fair treatment of all systems".He believes that contemporary translation theory, like literary theory, originates from structuralist theory.All these structuralist or post structuralist theories have been confined to their respective academic circles for a long time.Various schools have very special requirements for the terms used in this system, and the terms are limited;Their pursuit of "correctness" or "objectivity" of theory tends to be one-sided, and they all try to gain universal recognition in the academic circles at the expense of other perspectives.The result is only the continuous conflict between theories, but there is no due cooperation and exchange between theories, which leads to the marginalization of academic research.(Xie Tianzhen,2003:293)

Thirdly, Genzler puts forward a post structuralist interpretation model of the essence of translation.In translation, post structuralism and power, he analyzes the deconstruction (post structuralism) thoughts of Derrida, Spivak and others, as well as the translation thoughts of translation theorists such as Wenudi, Levin and Robinson under the influence of their deconstruction thoughts, and points out that the new translation interpretation model can no longer follow the past tradition and simply define translation as"The transformation from a single language to another single language", but it should be regarded as the transformation between a multicultural form environment and another equally multicultural form environment.

==Conclusion==

In addition to the above-mentioned important theoretical figures in the field of contemporary American translation studies, many others, such as Roberto Tradu, Daniel Shaw, Burton Raphael and so on, have also made achievements in translation theory. However, due to space constraints, they cannot be discussed in detail here.

Generally speaking, due to the historical origin and the influence of the subject's immigrant culture, the initial development of American translation studies depends on the inheritance and promotion of the tradition of European translation theory. With the evolution of the times, American translation studies catch up with each other in many aspects with rapid development and fruitful achievements, and walk in the forefront of western translation studies, becoming the driving force of contemporary western translation theory. On an important force for forward development.(Tan Zaixi,2000:301)

In addition to the above-mentioned important theoretical figures in the field of contemporary American translation studies, many others, such as Roberto Tradu, Daniel Shaw, Burton Raphael and so on, have also made achievements in translation theory. However, due to space constraints, they cannot be discussed in detail here.

Generally speaking, due to the historical origin and the influence of the subject's immigrant culture, the initial development of American translation studies depends on the inheritance and promotion of the tradition of European translation theory. With the evolution of the times, American translation studies catch up with each other in many aspects with rapid development and fruitful achievements, and walk in the forefront of western translation studies, becoming the driving force of contemporary western translation theory. On an important force for forward development.(corrected by--[[User:Zhou Junhui|Zhou Junhui]] ([[User talk:Zhou Junhui|talk]]) 08:48, 14 December 2021 (UTC))

==reference==

Lefevere·André. (1980). Translating literature [M]. New York:Clarendon Press.

Newmark·Peter. （1978）.The theory and the craft of translation [M].London:Rountledge Press.

Nida·Eugene.（1996）.The Sociolinguistics of Interlingual Communication [M]. Brussels:Editions du Hazard.

Katz·Jerrold J. （1966）.The Philosophy of Language [M]. New York:Harper and Row.

Pound，E. 1917. Notes on Elizabethan classicists [M]. New York:Clarendon Press.

Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (1999).《新编奈达论翻译》[M] New Nida on Translation. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司 Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.

Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2000).《翻译学》[M] Translatology. 武汉:湖北教育出版社 Wuhan: Hubei Education Press.

Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2003).《翻译研究新视野》[M].New perspectives in Translation Studies. 青岛:青岛出版社 Qingdao: Qingdao Press.

中国对外翻译出版公司（编).(1983).《翻译理论与翻译技巧论文集》[M].Collection of Papers on Translation Theory and Translation Skills. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.

中国对外翻译出版公司（编).(1983).《国外翻译理论评介文集》[M].A Review of Foreign Translation Theories. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司 Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.

--[[User:Liu Wei|Liu Wei]] ([[User talk:Liu Wei|talk]]) 16:11, 8 December 2021 (UTC)Liu Wei

=周俊辉Translation of Science and Technology in Late Qing Dynasty and Early Republic of China=
[[Hist_Trans_EN_10]]

=周玖Translation of Science and Technology in Ancient China=
[[Hist_Trans_EN_11]]

=钟雨露Western Translation History in the Old Ages=
[[Hist_Trans_EN_12]]

=钟义菲: The Chinese Translation History in Mordern Age=
[[Hist_Trans_EN_13]]

=魏楚璇: Western translation history in the Modern and Contemporary Ages=
[[Hist_Trans_EN_14]]

=Chapter 15Mahzad Heydarian: Where Persian Language Meets Translation=
[[Hist_Trans_EN_15]]

Mahzad Sadat Heydarian,Hunan Normal University,China

=Akira Jantarat： History of Chinese-Thai literature Translation in 19th century=
[[Hist_Trans_EN_16]]

=Jawad Ahmad; History of Translation=

[[Hist_Trans_EN_17]]

=Benjamin Wellsand; Bible Translation in Christian History=

[[Hist_Trans_EN_18]]

History of Translations

2021-12-15T05:01:47Z

Li Xichang: /* Academic Research: Western Part */

[[History_of_Translations|Overview Page of History of Translation]]

30 Chapters（0/30)

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[[Book_projects|Back to translation project overview]] [[DCG-To-Do|Zur To-Do-Liste]]

=chapter 1 Rouabah Soumaya: History of translation in the Middle Ages=
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== Abstract==
The history of translation is seen variously as examining the role of translation in historical episodes through decades or investigating the phenomenon or understanding of translation itself historically. These different historiographical perspectives involve potentially different research aims, approaches, concepts, methods and scholarly interlocutors. The paper focuses on this question of disciplinary commensurability in historical studies, and draws parallels between the history of translation and translation in the middle ages. Themes addressed include the bible translation as , established historiographical norms and alternative, interdisciplinary approaches. It is argued that both the history of translation started with the translation of the Bible in the early BC comes, towards a reflexive, transnational history that seeks productive modes of engagement with other historical disciplines. By bringing to the attention of translation scholars some of the key debates in the history of translation and by identifying commonalities, this paper hopes to present an overall view of translation in the middle ages with slight knowledge of Bible translation in the early centuries of the middle ages, which starts from th5 to the 15 century.

== Keywords==
History of Translation , Bible Translation, Translation in the Middle Ages
medieval translation, medieval translator, translation and culture

== Introduction ==
This paper aims at a general review of the history of translation studies and the prevalent approaches from antiquity to the present in the west, in the form of a historical survey in which key theoretical developments are taken into account, focusing on approaches that have been developed during the twentieth century. Without a doubt, It is James Holme's seminal paper "the name and nature of translation studies" that draws up a disciplinary map for translation studies and serves as a springboard for researchers with its binary division of Translation Studies into two branches: "pure" and "applied." Its growth as a discipline goes back to the 1980s. As time elapses, translation studies, by achieving a certain institutional authority and coalescing with many a resurging disciplines and trends as cultural studies, linguistics, literary theory and criticism, brings a renewed aspect to translation theory.

In addition, this paper argues that English medieval translation can be considered as part of a cultural project in that the medieval translator is concerned more with the role and the function of translation in the target culture. Medieval translation theory derives from the classical theories of translation, however, prefaces to translations indicate that medieval translator appropriates the classical translation theory and uses it to serve the cultural and ideological objectives of translation in the middle Ages.

Key words: medieval translation, medieval translator, translation and culture, translation theory.
The pioneering work of Jeannette Beer and Roger Ellis has decidedly promoted medieval translation as a significant area, and has established medieval translation as the work of culturally responsible, academically oriented people of learning.

1 Susan
* Assist. Prof. Dr., Hacettepe University, Department of English Language and Literature
1 The problematic situation of Medieval translation in the academia is discussed by Ruth Evans in "Translating
Past Cultures?" in The Medieval Translator /Vied. Roger Ellis and Ruth Evans, the University of Exeter Press,
Medieval Translation and Cultural Transformation

== Early History of Translation==
The word ‘translation’ comes from a Latin term which means, “To bring or carry across”. Another relevant term comes from the Ancient Greek word of ‘metaphrasis’ which means, “To speak across” and from this, the term ‘metaphrase’ was born, which means a “word-for-word translation”. These terms have been at the heart of theories relating to translation throughout history and have given insight into when and where translation have been used throughout the ages.

It is known that translation was carried out as early as the Mesopotamian era when the Sumerian poem, Gilgamesh, was translated into Asian languages. This dates back to around the second millennium BC. Other ancient translated works include those carried out by Buddhist monks who translated Indian documents into Chinese. In later periods, Ancient Greek texts were also translated by Roman poets and were adapted to create developed literary works for entertainment. It is known that translation services were utilised in Rome by Cicero and Horace and that these uses were continued through to the 17th century, where newer practices were developed.

The history of translation has been a topic that has long been debated by scholars and historians, though it is widely accepted that translation pre-dates the bible. The bible tells of different languages as well as giving insight to the interaction of speakers from different areas. The need for translation has been apparent since the earliest days of human interaction, whether it be for emotional, trade or survival purposes.

The demand for translation services has continued to develop and is now more vital than ever, with businesses acknowledging the inability to expand internationally or succeed in penetrating foreign markets without translating marketing material and business documents.

It is significant to review the history of translation in different languages. There are divisions of period made by scholars like George Steiner. According to Steiner, the history of translation is divided into four periods. Starting from the Roman translators Cicero and Horace to Alexander Fraser Tytler is the first period; the second period extends up to Valery and from Valery to 1960s becomes the third period and the fourth period 1960s onwards. The history of translation is stressed out from 3000 B.C. Rosetta Stone is considered the most ancient work of Translation belonged to the second century B.C. Livius Andronicus translated Homer’s Odyssey named Odusia into Latin in 240 B.C. All that survives is parts of 46 scattered lines from 17 books of the Greek 24-book epic. In some lines, he translates literally, though in others more freely. His translation of the Odyssey had a great historical importance. Before then, the Mesopotamians and Egyptians had translated judicial and religious texts, but no one had yet translated a literary work written in a foreign language until the Roman Empire. Livius’ translation made this fundamental Greek text accessible to Romans, and advanced literary culture in Latin. This project was one of the best examples of translation as artistic process. The work was to be enjoyed on its own, and Livius strove to preserve the artistic quality of original. Since there was no tradition of epic in Italy before him, Livius must have faced enormous problems. For example, he used archaizing forms to make his language more solemn and intense. Barnstone Willis. The Poetics of Translation: History, Theory and Practice. London: Yale University Press, 1993. Print. Bassnett, Susan and Lefevere, Andre (Eds.). Translation, History and Culture. London: Pinter, 1990. Print.

When we talk about the history of translation, we should think of the theories and names that e merged at its different periods. In fact, each era is characterized by specific changes in translation history, but these changes differ from one place to another. For example, the developments of translation in the western world are not the same as those in the Arab world, as each nation knew particular incidents that led to the birth of particular theories. So, what marked the western translation? .By Marouane Zakhir English translator University of Soultan Moulay Slimane, Morocco

== Translation in the Western World==
For centuries, people believed in the relation between translation and the story of the tower of Babel in the Book of Genesis. According to the Bible, the descendants of Noah decided, after the great flood, to settle down in a plain in the land of Shinar. There, they committed a great sin. Instead of setting up a society that fits God's will, they decided to challenge His authority and build a tower that could reach Heaven. However, this plan was not completed, as God, recognizing their wish, regained control over them through a linguistic stratagem. He caused them to speak different languages so as not to understand each other. Then, he scattered them all over the earth. After that incident, the number of languages increased through diversion, and people started to look for ways to communicate, hence the birth of translation (Abdessalam Benabdelali, 2006) (1).

Actually, with the birth of translation studies and the increase of research in the domain, people started to get away from this story of Babel, and they began to look for specific dates and figures that mark the periods of translation history.

Researchers mention that writings on translation go back to the Romans. Eric Jacobson claims that translating is a Roman invention (see McGuire: 1980) (2). Cicero and Horace (first century BC) were the first theorists who distinguished between word-for-word translation and sense-for-sense translation. Their comments on translation practice influenced the following generations of translation up to the twentieth century.

Another period that knew a changing step in translation development was marked by St Jerome (fourth century CE). "His approach to translating the Greek Septuagint Bible into Latin would affect later translations of the scriptures." (Munday, 2001) (3)

The first important translation in the West was that of the Septuagint, a collection of Jewish Scriptures translated into early Koine Greek in Alexandria between the 3rd and "1st centuries B C E The dispersed Jews had forgotten their ancestral language and Throughout the .middle Ages, /Latin was the lingua franca of the western learned world. -Wikipedia .org/wiki/

The 9th1century Alfred the Great, king of Wessex in England, was far ahead of his time in commissioning 'vernacular Anglo -Saxon translations of Bede’s Ecclesiastical History and Boethius « Consolation of Philosophy ) meanwhile, the Christian church frowned on even partial adaptations of St . Jerome ‘s Vulgate of CA 384 CE, the Latin Bible . -Wikipedia .org/wiki/

The broad historic trends in Western translation practice may be illustrated on the example of translation into the English language .

The first fine translations into English were made in the "the century by Geoffrey Chaucer, who adapted from the Italian of Giovanni Boccaccio in his own Knight's Tal e and Troilus and Criseyde ; began a translation of the French -language Roman de la Rose 7 and completed a translation of Boethius from the Latin . Chaucer bounded an English poetic tradition on adaptations and translations from those earlier established literary languages . -Wikipedia .org/wiki/

The first great English translation was the Wycliffe (CA 1382), which showed the weaknesses of an under developed English prose . only at the end of the "15th century did the great age to English prose translation begin with Thomas Malory ‘s "le Morte D arthur”- Ban adaptation of Arthurian romances so free that it can, in fact, hardly be called a true translation . The first great Tudor translations are, accordingly, the Tyndale new Testament ( 1525), which influenced the Authorized Version (1611), and Lord Berners version of jean Froissart’s Chronicles ( 1523- 25) . - Wikipedia .org/wiki/

== History of Translation in the Middle Ages==
In the history of Europe, the middle Ages or medieval period lasted approximately from the Fifth to the late 15th centuries, similarly to the Post-classical period of global history. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and transitioned into the Renaissance and the Age of Discovery. The middle Ages is the middle period of the three traditional divisions of Western history: classical antiquity, the medieval period, and the modern period. The medieval period is itself subdivided into the Early, High, and Late Middle Ages.

This article is about medieval Europe. For a global history of the period between the 5th and 15th centuries, see Post-classical history. For other uses, see middle Ages (disambiguation).

"Medieval times" redirects here. For the dinner theatre, see Medieval Times.

Latin was the lingua franca of the Western learned world throughout the middle Ages, with few translations of Latin works into vernacular languages. In the 9th century, Alfred the Great, King of Wessex in England, was far ahead of his time in commissioning vernacular translations from Latin into English of Bede’s “Ecclesiastical History”and Boethius's “The Consolation of Philosophy”, which contributed to improve the underdeveloped English prose of that time.

It is argued that the knowledge and findings of Greek academics was developed and understood so widely thanks to the translation work of Arabic scholars. When the Greeks were conquered, Arabic scholars, who translated them and created their own versions of the scientific, entertainment and philosophical understandings took in their works. These Arabic versions were later translated into Latin, during the middle Ages, mostly throughout Spain and the resulting works provided the foundations of Renaissance academics.

Medieval times in human history – also referred to as the “Middles Ages” – was the time period that fell roughly between the fall of the Roman Empire in 476 CE and the 14th century. However, these years bear another moniker as well: the Dark Ages. There are valid reasons for that term. In the eyes of many historians, people during this age made little to no significant advancements that benefitted humankind. In addition, most notably, this was the period when the “Black Death” (the bubonic plague) killed an estimated 30 percent of the population of Europe.

However, the middle Ages were not completely “dark.” In fact, modern historians are taking a second look at this period with a more objective – and perhaps more generous – perspective. There is no doubt, for example, that religion flourished during this time. The Catholic Church came to prominence throughout Europe, and the rise of Islam was occurring simultaneously in the Middle East. It was there – particularly in urban centres such a Baghdad, Damascus and Cairo – that an extremely vibrant culture and intellectual society thrived.

The art of translation also made great strides during the middle Ages. Thanks to Alfred the Great (the king of England during the 9th century), The Consolation of Philosophy by Boethius and Ecclesiastical History by Bede were translated from Latin to English – a major feat that would have a great impact on the overall advancement of English prose during this period. Later, during the 12th and 13th centuries, the Toledo School of Translators (“Escuela de Traductores de Toledo”) worked on a wide variety of translations, including religious, scientific, philosophical and medical works. The original texts were created in Arabic, Hebrew and Greek, and all were translated into Castilian – and that formed the basis for the formation of the Spanish language. Also during the 13th century, English linguist Roger Bacon postulated the concept that a translator not only needed to be fully fluent in both the source and target languages of the work being translated, but also that a translator should be fully versed in the topic of the work to be translated – a tenet that still holds true in the language arts to this day.

One of the most notable translators during the middle Ages was also one of the most accomplished authors and poets – Geoffrey Chaucer. In fact, those historians who still maintain that the Dark Ages produced little to no significant contributions to humankind might do well to remember the works of Chaucer. In a lifetime that spanned some 60 years (from the 1340s until 1400), Chaucer earned the reputation as the “father of English literature.” However, that description only scratched the surface of Chaucer’s accomplishments. He was also a noted astronomer and philosopher, as well as a diplomat, bureaucrat and parliament member. Chaucer’s contributions to the language arts were no less significant; his use of Middle English (as opposed to Latin or French, which were the two most commonly used languages of the day) quite literally brought English into mainstream usage, as did his translations of numerous works from Italian, French and Latin into English.

It can truly be said that historians have given medieval times somewhat of a bad rap over the centuries. And while there’s no doubt that the accomplishments of linguists and others during the Middle Ages can’t come close to comparing with those of the Renaissance or later time periods, the contributions made during the “Dark Ages” should not be overlooked. In fact, from a linguistic point of view, this was an extremely crucial time. Not only were the basic principles of translation developed during the middle Ages, but also English itself began to take shape as a language of import for future years.

Studies on the theory and practice of medieval translation reveal therefore that the translation principles and the issues of translation theory in the Middle Ages derive from a long established tradition of translation theory developed by the classical authors. In practice, Roger Ellis states, medieval translation is heterogeneous; "every instance of practice that we may be tempted to erect into a principle has its answering opposite, sometimes in the same work (quoted in Evans, 1994: 27). Evidently, not only the critical approaches to translation in the Middle Ages but also theory and practice of translation of the period vary considerably. However, it seems that medieval translation utilises the translation and writing theories inherited from the classical authors to adopt a translational approach that recognises translation's vital role in the cultural transformation of the middle Ages. Page 96

This paper argues therefore that the medieval interest in translation can be considered as a cultural and political interest since the 1994. pp. 20-45. See Jeanette Beer, Medieval Translators and Their Craft.1989 and Roger Ellis (ed) assisted by Jocelyn Price, Stephen Medcalf and Peter Meredith. The Medieval Translator: The Theory and Practice of Translation in the Middle Ages: Papers Read at a Conference Held 20-23 August 1987 at the University of Wales Conference Centre, Gregynog //a//.Woodbridge, Suffolk: D.S. Brewer, 1989.

Rita Copeland, Rhetoric, Hermeneutics, and Translation in the Middle Ages: Academic Traditions and
Vernacular Texts. Cambridge, 1991. See particularly A. J. Minnis and A. B. Scots (eds) Medieval Literary
Theory and Criticism c.l 100-1375 The Commentary Tradition. Oxford, 1988.

Translations of the period are introduced as potential projects for cultural transformation. The formative role of translation in the middle Ages can be observed in medieval culture's awareness of the significance of cultural interaction. Medieval culture is a highly bookish culture, which contributed to the development of a vigorous translation activity in the Middle Ages. The recognition of the authority of the books seems to have led to the utilisation of the potential in translation for cultural education and transformation. As there was little or no difference between translation and original composition in the Middle Ages, translation was often considered in association with the pragmatic function of the book (Barratt, 1992:13-14).

In Geoffrey Chaucer's The Prologue to the Legend of Good Women, the fictional dialogue concerning the translations of the narrator provides an instructive interaction concerning translation activity as an integral part of cultural re-construction in the middle Ages.

The god of Love presents two works of Chaucer, the Troilus and Criseyde and the Romance of the Rose, as translations and questions the narrator's motives in choosing to translate works undermining the doctrine of Love (322-335). This fictional questioning introduces, in fact, the main attitude to translation in the middle Ages as it recognises the transformative role of translation on the target audience as an important issue the medieval translator recognises and aims at as the ultimate target of translation. Similarly, the narrator in Chaucer's Prologue to the Legend of Good Women argues that he wanted to teach the reader the true conduct in love through the experience of the lovers in the books he translated (471-474).

The translator in this fictional debate introduces the main objective of translation as making the works of foreign languages available to the linguistically disadvantaged audience for their cultural improvement. This rather pragmatic translational paradigm, moreover, introduces another important issue of medieval translation addressed by theoretical tradition of translation in the middle Ages. In fact, the translator accused of mistranslation in Chaucer's Prologue to the Legend of Good Women is also a writer, his accuser does not make a distinction between his role as a translator and his role as a writer.3 many of the medieval translators were also writers, and translation and interpretation were considered as important strategies in medieval composition. Moreover, most of the medieval translation activity from Latin into the vernacular involved a transfer of the past works into the vernacular by re-writing.
As Douglas Kelly argues, "such re-writing is 'translation' as literary invention, using pre-
existent source material. It is a variety of translation study « (1997: 48). Medieval reception of the translation theory of the classical antiquity as a principle governing creative activity led to a special sense of translation, that is, translation as "an 3 See the Prologue to the Legend of Good Women, lines 322-35 and 362-370. 97

".. And other bokes took me ...To reed upon ": Medieval Translation and Cultural Transformation 'unfaithful' yet artful interpretation or reinterpretation"(Kelly, 1997: 55), or "secondary translation" to put it in Copeland's words.

Identifying the important status of translation in the Middle Ages as a branch of writing reveals that the Middle Ages was not totally oblivious to the legacy of rhetorical and hermeneutic traditions of the classical antiquity. More importantly, it testifies to the significant function translation is given in the cultural transformation. As stated above, a theoretical understanding of translation in the middle Ages was largely dependent on the classical ideas of translation. Rita Copeland argues for the necessity of recognising the medieval awareness of the classical tradition as the strong theoretical foundation of Medieval translation.

==Translation in middle Ages (The Philological Perspective)==

Middle Ages epoch roughly represents the time between late fifth century and the fifteenth century A.D.in Europe. Middle Ages, however, continue until the advent of European Colonialism (about eighteenth century) in the 'Oriental' and African countries. With the spread of Christianity, translation takes a new role of disseminating the word of God. How to translate the divine words faithfully was a serious issue because of dogmatic and political concerns. “St. Jerome claims that he follows sense for sense approach rather than word for word approach when translating the New Testament in AD 384.”18 Since the aim of the divine text is to provide understanding and guidance, it seems logical to follow sense for sense approach. Thence, there is a possibility of intentional or unintentional change of meaning and the context; for these reasons, some scholars emphasize on the word for word translation approach. The first translation of the complete Bible into English was the Wycliffe Bible is which was produced between 1380 and 1384; “Wycliffe believes man should have direct contact with God and thus the Bible should be translated into language that man can understand, i.e. in the vernacular. Purvey believes translator should translate “after sentence (meaning),” not only after words. Martin Luther says, “... the meaning and subject matter must be considered, not the grammar, for the grammar should not rule over the meaning;”19 Criticism on sense for sense was widespread because it minimized the power of the church authorities, “while literal translation was bound up with the Bible and other religious and philosophical works, says Jeremy Monday; non-literal or non-accepted translation came to be seen and used as a weapon against the Church.”20“In the Western Europe this word-for-word versus sense-for-sense debate continued in one form or another until the twentieth century. The centrality of Bible to translation also explains the enduring theoretical questions about accuracy and fidelity to fixed source.”21 In the eighth and ninth century A.D., a large number of translations from Greek into Arabic gave rise to Arabic learning. “Scholars from Syria, a part of the Roman Empire (during 64B.C.-636A.D) came to Baghdad and translated Greek works of Physician Hippocrates (460-360 B.C.), philosophers Plato (427-327 B.C.) and Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) into Arabic during the eighth and ninth century A.D. Baghdad continued to be a centre of translations of Greek classics into Arabic even in the twentieth century A.D.”22 The dominance of religion is prominent in the Translation Era of Middle Ages. In this era, both the trends of Antiquity period can be seen in action, yet emphasis is again on the sense for sense approach.

==Translation In the middle Ages between the 12th and the 15 centuries;==

In the 12th and 13th centuries, the Toledo School of Translators (Escuela de Traductores de Toledo) became a meeting point for European scholars who — attracted by the high wages they were offered — came and settled down in Toledo, Spain, to translate major philosophical, religious, scientific and medical works from Arabic, Greek and Hebrew into Latin and Castilian. Toledo was a city of libraries offering a number of manuscripts, and one of the few places in medieval Europe where a Christian could be exposed to Arabic language and culture.

The Toledo School of Translators went through two distinct periods. Archbishop Raymond de Toledo, who advocated the translation of philosophical and religious works, led the first period (in the 12th century) mainly from classical Arabic into Latin. These Latin translations helped advance European Scholasticism, and thus European science and culture. King Alfonso X of Castile himself led the second period (in the 13th century). On top of philosophical and religious works, the scholars also translated scientific and medical works. Castilian — instead of Latin — became the final language, thus resulting in establishing the foundations of the modern Spanish language.

The translations of works on different sciences (astronomy, astrology, algebra, medicine) acted as a magnet for numerous scholars, who came from all over Europe to Toledo to learn first-hand about the contents of all those Arab, Greek and Hebrew works, before going back home to disseminate the acquired knowledge in European universities. While some Toledo translations of physical and cosmological works were accepted in most European universities in the early 1200s, the works of Aristotle and Arab philosophers were often banned, for example at the Sorbonne University in Paris.

Roger Bacon was a 13th-century English scholar heralded for his early exposition of a “universal grammar” (the concept that the ability to learn grammar is hard-wired into the brain). He was the first linguist to assess that a translator should know well both the source language and the target language to produce a good translation, and that the translator should be well versed in the discipline of the work he was translating. According to legend, after finding out that few translators did, Roger Bacon decided to do away with translation and translators altogether. However, his decision did not last long. He relied on many Toledo translations from Arabic into Latin to make major contributions in the fields of optics, astronomy, natural sciences, chemistry and mathematics.

Geoffrey Chaucer produced the first fine translations into English in the 14th century. Chaucer translated the “Roman de la Rose” from French, and Boethius’s works from Latin. He also adapted some works of the Italian humanist Giovanni Boccaccio to produce his own “Knight’s Tale” and “Troilus and Criseyde” (c.1385) in English. Chaucer is regarded as the founder of an English poetic tradition based on translations and adaptations of literary works in languages that were more “established” than English was at the time, beginning with Latin and Italian. The finest religious translation of that time was the “Wycliffe’s Bible” (1382-84), named after John Wycliffe, an English theologian who translated the Bible from Latin to English.

In the 15th century : Byzantine scholar Gemistus Pletho’s trip to Florence, Italy, pioneered the revival of Greek learning in Western Europe. Gemistus Pletho reintroduced Plato’s thought during the 1438-39 Council of Florence, in a failed attempt to reconcile the East-West schism (a 11th-century schism between the Eastern Orthodox and Catholic churches). During this Council, Pletho met Cosimo de Medici, the politician ruling Florence and a great patron of learning and the arts, and influenced him to found a Platonic Academy. Led by the Italian scholar and translator Marsilio Ficino, the Platonic Academy took over the translation into Latin of all Plato’s works, the “Enneads” of Plotinus and other Neo-Platonist works. Marsilio Ficino’s work — and Erasmus’ Latin edition of the New Testament — led to a new attitude to translation. For the first time, readers demanded rigor of rendering, as philosophical and religious beliefs depended on the exact words of Plato and Jesus (and Aristotle and others).

The great age of English prose translation began in the late 15th century with Thomas Malory’s “Le Morte d’Arthur” (1485), a free translation/adaptation of Arthurian romances about the legendary King Arthur, as well as Guinevere, Lancelot, Merlin and the Knights of the Round Table. Thomas Malory “interpreted” existing French and English stories about these figures while adding original material, e.g. the “Gareth” story about one of the Knights of the Round Table.4

== An Overview of Bible Translations in The Middle Ages==
The most significant turn in the history of translation came with the Bible translations. The efforts of translating the Bible from its original languages into over 2,000 others have spanned more than two millennia. Partial translation of the Bible into languages of English people can be stressed back to the end of the seventh century, including translations into Old English and Middle English. Over 450 versions have been created overtime.
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Bible translations in the Middle Ages discussions are in contrast to Late Antiquity, when the Bibles available to most Christians were in the local vernacular. In a process seen in many other religions, as languages changed, and in Western Europe, languages with no tradition of being written down became dominant, the prevailing vernacular translations remained in place, despite gradually becoming sacred languages, incomprehensible to the majority of the population in many places. In Western Europe, the Latin Vulgate, itself originally a translation into the vernacular, was the standard text of the Bible, and full or partial translations into a vernacular language were uncommon until the Late Middle Ages and the Early Modern Period. A page from the luxury illuminated manuscript Wenceslas Bible, a German translation of the 1390s.[1] From Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia

During the Migration Period Christianity spread to various peoples who had not been part of the old Roman Empire, and whose languages had yet no written form, or only a very simple one, like runes. Typically, the Church itself was the first to attempt to capture these languages in written form, and Bible translations are often the oldest surviving texts in these newly written-down languages. Meanwhile, Latin was evolving into new distinct regional forms, the early versions of the Romance languages, for which new translations eventually became necessary. However, the Vulgate remained the authoritative text, used universally in the West for scholarship and the liturgy since the early development of the Romance languages had not come to full fruition, matching its continued use for other purposes such as religious literature and most secular books and documents. In the early middle Ages, anyone who could read at all could often read Latin, even in Anglo-Saxon England, where writing in the vernacular (Old English) was more common than elsewhere. A number of pre-reformation Old English Bible translations survive, as do many instances of glosses in the vernacular, especially in the Gospels and the Psalms.[4] Over time, biblical translations and adaptations were produced both within and outside the church, some as personal copies for religious or lay nobility, and others for liturgical or pedagogical purposes.[5][6] From Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia

The Bible was translated into various languages in late antiquity; the most important of these translations are those in the Syriac dialect of Aramaic (including the Peshitta and the Diatessaron gospel harmony), the Ge'ez language of Ethiopia, and, in Western Europe, Latin. The earliest Latin translations are collectively known as the Vetus Latina, but in the late fourth century, Jerome re-translated the Hebrew and Greek texts into the normal vernacular Latin of his day, in a version known as the Vulgate (Biblia vulgata) (meaning "common version", in the sense of "popular"). Jerome's translation gradually replaced most of the older Latin texts, and gradually ceased to be a vernacular version as the Latin language developed and divided. The earliest surviving complete manuscript of the entire Latin Bible is the Codex Amiatinus, produced in eighth century England at the double monastery of Wearmouth-Jarrow. By the end of late, antiquity the Bible was therefore available and used in all the major written languages then spoken by Christians. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia

== Conclusion ==
The history of translation studies and the resurgence and genesis of the approaches to this emerging discipline was marked by the first century (BCE) commentator Cicero and then St. Jerome whose word-for-word and sense-for-sense approaches to translation was a springboard for other approaches and trends to thrive. From the medieval ages until now, each decade was marked by a dominant concept such as translatability, equivalence etc. Whilst before the twentieth century translation was an element of language learning, the study of the field developed into an academic discipline only in the second half of the twentieth century, when this field achieved a certain institutional authority and developed as a distinct discipline. As this discipline moved towards the present, the level of sophistication and inventiveness did in fact soared and new concepts, methods, and research projects were developed which interacted with this discipline. The brief review here, albeit incomplete, reflects the current fragmentation of the field into subspecialties, some empirically oriented, some hermeneutic and literary and some influenced by various forms of linguistics and cultural studies which have culminated in productive syntheses. In short, translation studies is now a field which brings together approaches from a wide language and cultural studies, that for its own use, modifies them and develops new models specific to its own requirements.
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© 2012 ACADEMY PUBLISHER Manufactured in Finland.
doi:10.4304/tpls.2.1.77-85

== References ==
-A page from the luxury illuminated manuscript Wenceslas Bible, a German translation of the 1390s.[1] From Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia

-Barnstone Willis. The Poetics of Translation: History, Theory and Practice. London: Yale University Press, 1993. Print. Bassnett, Susan and Lefevere, Andre (Eds.). Translation, History and Culture. London: Pinter, 1990. Print. 2- Barnstone Willis. The Poetics of Translation: History, Theory and Practice. London: Yale University Press, 1993. Print. Bassnett, Susan and Lefevere, Andre (Eds.). Translation, History and Culture. London: Pinter, 1990. Print.

-Early history of translation .By Marouane Zakhir English translator University of Soultan Moulay Slimane, Morocco

-From Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia

-https//www.tandfonline.com// 5- https//www.tandfonline.com//

-Prologue to the Legend of Good Women, lines 322-35 and 362-370. 97 ".. And other bokes took me ...To reed upon ": Medieval Translation and Cultural Transformation 'unfaithful' yet artful interpretation or reinterpretation"(Kelly, 1997: 55), or "secondary translation" to put it in Copeland's words.

-Susan * Assist. Prof. Dr., Hacettepe University, Department of English Language and Literature The problematic situation of Medieval translation in the academia is discussed by Ruth Evans in "Translating Past Cultures?" in The Medieval Translator /Vied. Roger Ellis and Ruth Evans, the University of Exeter Press, Medieval Translation and Cultural Transformation .

-SSN 1799-2591 Theory and Practice in Language Studies, Vol. 2, No. 1, pp. 77-85, January 2012 © 2012 ACADEMY PUBLISHER Manufactured in Finland. doi:10.4304/tpls.2.1.77-85.

-This article is about medieval Europe. For a global history of the period between the 5th and 15th centuries, see Post-classical history. For other uses, see middle Ages (disambiguation). "Medieval times" redirects here. For the dinner theatre, see Medieval Times.

-the 1994. pp. 20-45. See Jeanette Beer, Medieval Translators and Their Craft.1989 and Roger Ellis (ed) assisted by Jocelyn Price, Stephen Medcalf and Peter Meredith. The Medieval Translator: The Theory and Practice of Translation in the Middle Ages: Papers Read at a Conference Held 20-23 August 1987 at the University of Wales Conference Centre, Gregynog //a//.Woodbridge, Suffolk: D.S. Brewer, 1989.

^ Rita Copeland, Rhetoric, Hermeneutics, and Translation in the Middle Ages: Academic Traditions and Vernacular Texts. Cambridge, 1991. See particularly A. J. Minnis and A. B. Scots (eds) Medieval Literary Theory and Criticism c.l 100-1375 The Commentary Tradition. Oxford, 1988.

-Wikipedia .org/wiki/

=Chapter 2 History of Modern and Contemporary Chinese Translation=
“中国现当代翻译史”

[[Hist_Trans_EN_2]]

Li Xichang, 李习长, Hunan Normal University, China

=Chapter 3 The Translation of Buddihist Sutra in Chinese Translation History=
“佛经翻译”

[[Hist_Trans_EN_3]]

Huang Zhuliang 黄柱梁 Hunan Normal University, China

=王镇隆 The Brief History of Bible's Chinese Translation=
== Abstract==
Bible is the only Christian classic. Many Bible translation versions in the territory of China, including the Chinese characters and the languages of ethnic minorities, are not only the important events and modern history publication with the largest circulation, translated versions of books in the modern translation history, but also the close relationship with the modern transformation of Chinese characters and the creation of minority languages. Three aspects of Bible translation history, information, research and outlook are described in this paper.

== 摘要==
圣经是基督教的唯一经典，圣经翻译则是中国近代翻译史上的重要事件。当时的中国境内，出现了包括汉语汉字和少数民族语言文字的众多圣经译本，这不仅使圣经成为中国近代史上出版发行量最大、翻译版本最多的书籍，而且对中国的汉语汉字的近代转型和少数民族文字创制产生了重要影响。本文从 3 个方面对圣经中译的历史、资料、研究及展望进行了叙述。

== Key Words==
History of the Bible translation；Research review;Academic outlook

== 关键词==
圣经中译史；研究回顾；学术展望

== The Overall Introduction of Bible Translation==
“Bible” translation has a pivotal position in the history of Western translation. From the beginning of the era to today, the translation of the “Bible” has never stopped. The range of languages involved, the number of translations, and the frequency of use of translations,etc., are unmatched by the translation of any other work. A birds-eye view of the history of “Bible” translation has the following important milestones: the first is the “Seventy Sons Greek Text” before the Era, the second is the “Popular Latin Text Bible” from the 4th to 5th centuries, and the later the national languages of the early Middle Ages. The ancient texts (such as Old German, Old French translations), modern texts since the 16th century Reformation Movement (such as the Lutheran version of Germany, the King James version, etc.) and various modern texts. All these translations have made indelible contributions to the spread and development of Christianity in the West, as well as the prosperity and development of the languages and cultures of various nations.(Gu Changsheng,1991)

The “Bible” is the holy book of Christianity, including the “Old Testament” and “New Testament.” The Old Testament was written in BC. It is a classic of Judaism. It was inherited by Christianity from Judaism. The original text was in Hebrew. The New Testament was written in the second half of the first to second centuries, and the original text is in Greek. Throughout human history, language translation is almost as old as the language itself. Therefore, from the beginning of the era to today, the translation of the “Bible” has never stopped. The range of languages involved, the number of translations, and the frequency of use of the translations, etc., are unmatched by the translation of any other work. The translation of the "Bible" is mainly to spread the doctrine, so that people are influenced and accepted by the views. According to the “New Testament Acts” Chapter Two, Section One: The saints gathered on Pentecost, and they were all filled with the Holy Spirit, and spoke the words of other countries according to the eloquence given by the Holy Spirit. However, the translation at that time was mainly “interprete” or “interpretation.” Among them, St. Paul himself is a multilingual believer. He preached in Jerusalem, Athens and Rome in Hebrew, Greek and Italian respectively. The Bible was first translated from Hebrew into Greek, then into Latin, and then into Romanian, Portuguese, Spanish, Italian, and Walloon (wal-lon), German, French, Romance languages. English was then translated into various languages in the world, and the translations of its various texts were repeatedly revised by experts in the translation of the classics, which lasted more than ten centuries.

In the history of the translation of the Bible, it has gone through several milestone stages: the first is the “Seventy Sons Greek Text” before the era, the second is the “Popular Latin Text Bible” from the 4th to 5th centuries, and later it is the national languages of the early Middle Ages. Ancient texts (such as Old German, Old French translations), modern texts since the 16th century Reformation Movement (such as Luther, Casio Dorobin in Spain, King James Version in English, Nikon in Russia) and All kinds of modern texts (such as “American Standard Text” in English, “New English Bible” and “English Today”, etc.). “The Bible Old Testament” is the first important and earliest translation in ancient times in the West, and it was translated into Greek. The Old Testament was originally the official classic of Judaism, originally in Hebrew. The Jews have been scattered around for a long time and drifted overseas. Over time, they have forgotten the language of their ancestors and spoke foreign languages such as Arabic and Greek. Among them, Greek speakers accounted for the majority. In ancient times, the city of Alexandria in Egypt was the cultural and trade center of the eastern Mediterranean. The Jews living here accounted for two-fifths of the city’s total population. In the third century BC, in order to meet the increasingly urgent needs of these Greek-speaking Jews, the church decided to translate the Hebrew text of the Old Testament into a Greek text. In the second century BC, an unknown Jew once wrote an epistle article, which was later named “Letter of Aristeas” (“Letter of Aristeas”), which records that in the third century BC, Jerusalem At the request of Egyptian King Ptolemy II Feiradelphis (308-246 BC), Bishop Elizar sent translators to Alexandria to undertake the translation of the Old Testament. In this way, according to Ptolemy II's will, between 285 and 249 BC, 72 “noble” Jewish scholars gathered in the Library of Alexandria, Egypt, to perform this translation. According to legend, the 72 scholars came from 12 different Israeli tribes, with 6 from each tribe. After they came to the Library of Alexandria, they worked in pairs in 36 locations and translated them into 36 translations that were very similar to each other. Finally, 72 translators gathered together to compare and check the 36 translation manuscripts, and reached a consensus on the wording of the final version, and called it the “Seventy Son Text” or “Seventy Magi Translation”, that is, “Septuagint” (“Septuagint”), has since opened a precedent for collective translation in the history of translation. Soon after the translation of the “Seventy Sons”, the priests held a joint meeting with the Jewish leaders and pointed out: “This translation is well translated, pious, and very accurate. (Marshall Broomhall,1934,P.2)

Therefore, it must be kept as it is and cannot be changed.” We also regarded it as the classic translation. In fact, this Greek translation became the “second original”, and sometimes even replaced the Hebrew text and ascended to the throne of the “first original”. Many of the translations of the Bible in languages such as ancient Latin, Slavic, and Arabic are not based on the original Hebrew but on the Greek translation.

== Multilingualism in the Chinese version of the Bible==
According to the report of the World Union Bible Association in 2006, the new and Old Testament of the Bible has been translated into 301 different languages. If regional dialects and partial translations are included, the translated languages of the Bible have exceeded 2287 different languages. The Bible is the most widely circulated and translated book in the world.

If someone says that in Chinese history, the Bible has the largest number of translated versions, the largest number of Chinese language forms, both vernacular and classical Chinese, and the largest number of Chinese dialect forms. It has not only created nearly 10 ethnic minority languages, but also nearly 20 ethnic minority language translation books, but also the largest publication and circulation in modern history, There must be many people who don't believe it.(William Canton,1904,1910)

But this is the fact of history. The Chinese version of the Bible does have many historical “best”, which is related to the super pronunciation and super dialect nature of Chinese language and characters, the reform and cultural transformation of Chinese language and culture in the late Qing Dynasty and the early Republic of China, and the fact that most ethnic minorities in Southwest China have only language but no words. The period of the late Qing Dynasty and the beginning of the Republic of China, that is, the 1860s to the 1930s, was the period of the most drastic changes in Chinese language and characters, the period of the transformation of ancient Chinese and its culture into vernacular, the period of the widespread voice and hard practice of Chinese Latinization, the most active period of language and character reform, and the transformation and reform of Chinese language and characters, A variety of transitional writing methods have emerged due to text reform and stylistic changes. However, the reform and expression methods of multiple languages and characters in the late Qing Dynasty and the early Republic of China, some of which are even very short-lived transitional writing methods. The Bible has published translated versions in this text form. This can be best confirmed by many translations of the Bible, such as classical Chinese, half written and half spoken, vernacular, dialect Chinese characters, dialect church Roman characters, Wang Zhao Mandarin phonetic alphabets, Mandarin phonetic alphabets, Mandarin Roman characters, weituoma Pinyin, kuaizi, a variety of ethnic minority characters, blind characters and so on.(Li Kuanshu,1998)

The large-scale cultural exchange and interaction between China and the west is an important historical phenomenon in the modern world. This cultural relationship has not only changed the cultural and political pattern all over the world, but also greatly affected the development of Chinese culture and society. Language contact is not only an important part of cultural relations, but also an important prerequisite for all other exchanges. The large-scale and multilingual cross-cultural in-depth language and cultural exchange is a modern cultural phenomenon gradually formed all over the world after the great discovery of geography. It is also a prominent manifestation in the history of China's modern foreign cultural relations, which is particularly different from previous dynasties.

The language and cultural exchange in modern China began with the arrival of Christian missionaries in China. As the only classic of Christian religion, the Bible inevitably involves the problems of how to translate into China’s local language, how to adapt to and influence the local ideology and culture in the historical process of Christian communication and translation.

The earliest translation of the Bible in China can be extended to the Tang Dynasty, which has a long history of thousands of years. Although the Bible translation activities have been interrupted, they continue to this day. In Taiwan and Hong Kong, the Bible translation is still not over.

== Bible Translation from Different Perspectives==
From the perspective of language, Bible translation can be divided into Chinese language and minority language. In addition to the Chinese translation (the Chinese translation is described in detail below), in the process of Bible translation, the missionaries took advantage of the Pinyin advantages of their Latin mother tongue and combined with the pronunciation of local minority languages to create Pinyin characters in the form of Latin letters for those southwest minorities who only have spoken language but no words, that is, bagri Miao Language (old Miao Language) in Northeast Yunnan Frame format: East Lisu, Funeng Renxi Lisu (old Lisu), Jingpo, Zawa, Lahu, Buyi, WA, etc. It also borrowed Chinese phonetic alphabets and modified and created Hu Zhizhong’s Miao language. They translated and published the complete Scriptures or section translations of Jingpo language, Zaiwa language, East Lisu language, West Lisu language, Yi language, Nuosu language and Gepo language, Lahu language, WA language, Naxi language, Dehong Dai language, Xishuangbanna Dai language, Huayao Dai language, Huamiao language, Chuanmiao language, heimiao language, Buyi language and other languages. Among them, Jingpo, Funeng Renxi Lisu and bagri Miao are still widely used in society, and Hu Zhizhong Miao is still used among religious believers in Kaili, Guizhou. These characters not only ended the history of these nationalities without characters, but also provided great reference and Enlightenment for the large-scale creation of characters for ethnic minorities in New China. In the northern minority languages, the missionaries also translated and published Bible translations in Mongolian (karmec Mongolian, kalka Mongolian, Buryat Mongolian), Tibetan (Tibetan Classical Chinese, Tibetan Ladakh dialect, Tibetan Lahore dialect), Manchu, Kazakh and Korean. In Taiwan, missionaries and today’s Taiwan Christian Church have also created Pinyin characters in the form of Latin letters for the Paiwan, Taiya, AMI, Taroko, Yamei, Bunun, Lukai, Dawu and other indigenous peoples, translated and published biblical translations, which are still in use today.(Wang Zhixin,2004)

From the perspective of Chinese style, Chinese versions of the Bible can be divided into three categories:

1. Classical Chinese translation, that is, the translation of deep arts and Sciences: in history, there have been yangmano's direct interpretation of the Bible, daysun's translation, masman's translation, Morrison's translation, Guo Shili's translation, commissioned translation (or representative translation), bizhiwen / kebicun translation, Gaode translation, the printed version of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom, lianweiren translation, and Heshen's translation of Arts and Sciences.

2. Half written and half white translation, i.e. shallow liberal arts translation: in history, there have been Yang Ge's non shallow liberal arts translation, Shi Joseph's shallow liberal arts translation, Bao John / Ke Bicun translation and hehe shallow liberal arts translation.

3. Vernacular translation: China is a country with many dialects. Six of China's seven dialects have Bible translations. Among them, nine branches of five dialects, including Wu, min, Guangdong, Hakka and Mandarin, have biblical Chinese characters. They are Nanjing dialect translation, Beijing dialect translation, Hankou dialect translation, Tianjin dialect translation, Shanghai dialect translation, Ningbo Dialect translation, Suzhou dialect translation, Hangzhou dialect translation, Fuzhou dialect translation, Xiamen dialect translation, Shantou dialect translation, Guangzhou dialect translation, Hakka dialect translation Hakka Sanjiang dialect translation. In 1919, the vernacular intensive cost and official script appeared, which is the Bible translation used by the Christian Church of China.

From the perspective of Chinese text form, Bible translation can be basically divided into seven categories:

1. Chinese Character Edition: in history, there were classical Chinese character edition and vernacular Chinese Character Edition (including dialect Chinese Character Edition);

2. Roman script of church Dialect: missionaries spell the words of local dialects according to the Latin alphabet. There are 15 branches of the six dialects, including Nanjing dialect translation, Beijing dialect translation, Shandong dialect translation, Shanghai dialect translation, Ningbo Dialect translation, Hangzhou dialect translation, Wenzhou dialect translation, Jinhua dialect translation, Taizhou dialect translation, Fuzhou dialect translation Bible translations of Xiamen dialect, Shantou dialect, Xinghua dialect, Jianyang dialect, Shaowu dialect, Hainan dialect, Guangzhou dialect, Hakka Guangdong and Taiwan dialect, Hakka Wujingfu dialect, Hakka Tingzhou dialect and Hakka Jianning dialect;

3. Wang Zhao Mandarin phonetic alphabet: the Bible is spelled with Wang Zhao Mandarin phonetic alphabet. There have been Bible translations of Tianjin dialect, Hankou dialect, Hebei dialect and Jiaodong dialect;

4. Mandarin phonetic alphabet: there have been Bible translations of Fuzhou dialect and Jiaodong dialect;

5. Braille script；

6. Quick script: that is, the Bible translation of early sketch;

7. Weituoma Pinyin book.

In terms of publication forms, there are many kinds of publications, such as Chinese character edition, Chinese character and foreign language comparison edition, Chinese character and Mandarin phonetic alphabet comparison edition, Chinese character and Wang Zhao Mandarin phonetic alphabet comparison edition, Chinese character and church Roman character comparison edition, church Roman character and Mandarin phonetic alphabet comparison edition, etc. As far as the editions are concerned, there are single volume edition, multi volume edition, the New Testament, the Old Testament, the New Testament with psalms, the new and Old Testament, etc., with a total number of more than 1000. Based on the American Bible Society, the British Bible Society and the Scottish Bible Society, which had the greatest influence in old China and published and sold various versions of the Bible, a total of 225 million copies were sold from 1814 to 1934; From 1814 to 1950, 279351752 copies were sold.(Chen Yugang,1992)
After the founding of new China, the Chinese Christian Church basically took the heheguan vernacular Version (later called hehehe vernacular version, hereinafter referred to as hehe version) as the Bible translation dedicated to the church, and no other Chinese classical Chinese or dialect versions of the Bible were published. As of December 2007, the Christian Church of China has printed and distributed 50 million copies of Hehe vernacular books. China has become one of the countries with the largest number of printed Bibles in the world.

== Writings and Work Records of Biblical Translators==
As the only classic of Christian religion, the meaning of the Bible is different. Since the Christian foreign missionaries came to China in the 19th century, they have been translating the Bible continuously, and published many documents and works at the same time. Most of these archives and works are the reports and introductions of Christian sects to publicize and introduce their own work achievements, which are limited to the publicity of their own sects without academic and serious research.

The earliest works related to the translation and recording of Bible translation were written by personnel and institutions related to Christian religion. The first documentary about the Chinese Bible translation is the Bible in China by Alexander Wylie, a missionary who once served as the director of the British Bible Society. This article records the earliest Bible translation in China, which is the work report of Alexander Wylie.

Among the records of missionaries on Bible translation, the Bible in China written by Marshall Broomhall, a missionary of the mainland church, is the most concentrated and representative. Hainbo is the director general of the headquarters of the mainland Association in London and is responsible for editing China's million, the most important publication of the mainland Association, for 20 years.

Another book about Bible translation is the Chinese versions of the Bible (1934) written by A. J. Garnier, a missionary of the British Baptist Church. His book is more often seen in its Chinese translation, which is compiled by George Milligan.

History of the spread of the New Testament (Guangzhou society, 1934). These two books are not long, about 100000 words. They describe the general situation of Bible translation from ancient times to now. They are basically the working records and introduction of Bible translation. The recording time is up to the three combined versions of the main translations of missionaries in 1919. The early Catholic translation, the Christian minority language translation in the late Qing Dynasty and the early Republic of China, and the Chinese dialect translation are too vague and too brief to cover, including the Chinese translation and the Catholic sigo translation. They can not be called academic research works. The Bible translation of missionaries is mostly missionary encouragement and publicity, which belongs to the missionary works of the church.(Yang Senfu,1968)

In modern Chinese history, foreign institutions or individuals have many publishing and sales institutions in China, among which the Bible has a certain nature of exclusive translation, monopoly and sales. The Chinese translation of the Bible is basically undertaken by the Bible Societies of various countries in China. Among the Foreign Bible Societies in China, the American Bible Society, the British Bible Society and the Scottish bible society are mainly responsible for the dissemination of the Chinese Bible, including the organization and arrangement of Bible translation, financial support, the formulation of translation principles, the selection and determination of translators, the publication and reprint of the Bible, the sales of the Bible, and almost all the leading work of Bible translation. The most detailed work on the history of the British bible society so far is a history of the British and Foreign Bible Society written by William Canton, which introduces the work of the British Bible Society in the 19th century. The more important work in recent years is the cheap Bibles: Nineteen Century Publishing and the British and Foreign Bible Society written by Leslie Howsam, but its history and content are still dominated by the 19th century. For the history of the British Bible Society in the first half of the 20th century, please refer to a history of the British and Foreign Bible Society, 1900-1954 written by James M. roe. As for the historical works of the American Bible Society, what is important is the centennial history of the American Bible Society written by Henry O. Dwight, which introduces the work progress of the American Bible Society around the world in the 19th century. Chinese Bible translation is only a small part of it. In the same year, translations of the scripts into the languages of China and her dependencies [10], written by John R. hykes, director general of the American Bible Society in China, specifically described the Bible translation work of the American Bible Society in China. These monographs introduced the missionary work of various Bible Societies in China, especially the printing and distribution of the Bible.(Chloe Starr,2008)

In the Chinese recorder edited by missionaries, there are scattered information about the translation and publication of various versions of Bible translation written by missionaries in different times, or missionaries' discussions on various affairs and research of Bible translation. Educational administration magazine is an English magazine sponsored by missionaries in China for more than 100 years.

== Catalogue of Biblical Editions==
In addition to the reports of the Bible guild and missionaries, there are some catalogues of Biblical translations that can be viewed as data. Alexander Wylie, a British missionary, has been acting for the British Bible Association since 1863. He catalogued all kinds of Christian books and periodicals published at that time and published the biographies and works of missionaries who came to China in 1867 （Memorials of Protestant Missionaries to the Chinese Given a List of Their Publications and Obituary Notices of the Deceased, with Copious Indexes） The book records the life stories, catalogues and abstracts of early missionaries in China, and is the most complete bibliography of religious translation in the period of the Republic of China. However, according to the author's comparative verification of the original Bible translations collected by the National Library, it is found that the catalogue misjudges some of the Bible translations, or some translations do not judge the translations, so it is necessary to judge them according to each library Up to now, the catalogue of Chinese versions of the Bible published abroad is more detailed than the collection, introduction and description of the collection information and records of the mainland edition catalogue.

== Academic Research: Western Part==
Thor strandenaes graduated from Uppsala University in Sweden in 1987. His doctoral thesis principles of Chinese Bible translation is the earliest doctoral thesis focusing on the Chinese Bible. He is particularly inclined to compare different Chinese versions of the Bible. From the perspective of translatology and Christian theological interpretation, he analyzes the translation principles of five Bible versions, including Morrison's version of Shen Wenli, the Commission's version of Shen Wenli, the vernacular hehe version, the Catholic SIKO Bible version and the modern Chinese version of Taiwan. He believes that Bible translation has strong inheritance and mutual influence, But at the same time, Catholicism and Christianity have formed their own translation style and vocabulary system. Shi Fulai is a priest, so his research especially emphasizes the theological factors and influence of Bible translation . Jost zetzsche graduated from the University of Hamburg, Germany, in 1999. His doctoral dissertation the Bible in China: the history of the union version or the cultivation of Bible missionary Bible translation in China is a masterpiece in recent years. From the perspective of Christian theological theory and church use, he also discussed the Bible and the combined version, which has the greatest influence, the largest circulation and is still used by the Christian Church, and came to the conclusion that the combined version is the greatest achievement of Bible translation. Both English Monographs discuss the attitude and evolution of missionaries towards Bible translation, the role of Bible translation in the spread of Christianity in China, the scale of Bible distribution, the evolution of Bible translation and sales institutions from the perspective of church position and theology. The paper has a certain historical overview of various early versions, especially the deep arts and science versions, but it does not involve the dialect Bible versions and ethnic minority Bible versions, nor does it discuss the significance and role of the Bible as a Christian classic. (Eugene A.Nida,1972)

This paper studies one of dozens of translations of the Bible - the translation of different stylistic versions of heheben, as well as the theological basis and theological disputes of the translated Heben. Both of these doctoral theses give full play to the author's expertise in Western mother tongue, and focus on one aspect with the archives of the Christian missionary church, including work reports and letters, work records and the archives of the Bible Association as the main data sources.

Including the discussion of individual translations or translators. Thor strantenaes's paper anonymous Bible translators: native language and the translation of the Bible into Chinese (1817-1917) discusses the role of Chinese people in Chinese Bible translation. Due to the cultural arrogance of missionaries, The contribution and role of Chinese scholars in Bible translation has been buried. Reading Christian scripts in China, edited by chole Starr, is a collection of multiple papers to explore the translation of the Chinese Bible in the 19th century and its impact on the final synthesizer and integration of the Bible.

== Academic Research: Chinese Part==
So far, the Chinese world has not carried out in-depth and systematic historical investigation and academic research on the Bible translation. Only in the history of Chinese Christianity, the history of modern Chinese printing and the history of modern Chinese translation can we see some brief introductions, such as Gu Changsheng's missionaries and modern China (page 16); Yang Senfu's history of Christianity in China (12 pages); A brief history of Christianity in China by Li kuanshu (5 pages); Wang Zhixin's outline of the history of Christianity in China (4 pages); Chen Yugang's historical manuscript of Chinese literary translation (5 pages).
The more in-depth discussions basically point to the theoretical discussion of Chinese Bible translation. The most important thing is the discussion on "term question", sometimes called "holy number problem". This problem involves how to use Chinese to call Hebrew "YHWH" and "Elohim", Greek "theos", Latin "Deus" or English "God", and how to translate theological names such as "Holy Spirit", "an - gel" or "baptism". How to translate holy names into Chinese is not only a linguistic and theological problem, but also involves the connotation of Chinese religious beliefs, but also involves how one language and culture is translated into another language and culture of heterogeneous paganism. This is a long-standing and controversial topic on translation in the history of Chinese Christian religion. Until today, there is still no final conclusion within Christianity. Zhao Weiben's "debate on the translation of the Chinese Bible: Shenhu? Dihu" is an early academic paper on the dispute over the translation of the Chinese Bible; Li Chi Chang, editor in chief, compiled more than 60 debates on the translation of "God" and "God" published by Chinese Christians in the communique of nations from 1877 to 1878. It pays close attention to the opinions and responses of Chinese Christians, It is a significant revision of the tendency of many works and historical materials to only pay attention to missionaries and forget the Chinese people. Zhao Xiaoyang's translation and introduction of local culture and foreign religions in regeneration: from the perspective of the Chinese translation of God and God discusses the fierce debate between Catholicism and Christianity on the "translation problem" for 300 years. Under the interpretation of Western religious ideas, the traditional Chinese words "God" and "God" have been gradually Christianized, lost the connotation of their original local religion, and regenerated into new words symbolizing western culture. This paper goes beyond the narrow theological scope of discussing the translation of names within the church in the past, and discusses this cultural problem from a broader perspective. Cheng Xiaojuan's doctoral thesis, discussion and acceptance of "God" in Chinese Bible translation, comprehensively examines the discussion of Western missionaries on the translation of "God" and the history of Chinese acceptance of "God", hoping to form a horizontal investigation of the complete cultural exchange system of "dissemination acceptance", Vertically, it shows their historical changes in different historical situations and cultural exchange stages.
Cai Jintu's doctoral thesis, the orientation and problems of commissioned Chinese Bible translation, specially discusses one of many deep arts and science translations - commissioned translation, its translatological principles, translation activities, sales, assistance of Chinese assistants, etc., focusing on the theological theory of Bible translation, And the influence of these theological theories on Chinese Bible translation and the development of Christian Church. Ren Dongsheng's doctoral thesis, a study on the culture of Bible Chinese translation, discusses the thematic changes of Bible literature, history and theology from the perspective of translatology.

At present, the academic research on the Chinese version of the Bible is still insufficient. So far, only Ma min's mahiman, Rasha and the early Chinese translation of the Bible has achieved a high level of academic research results; Wu Yixiong's the dispute over translation names and the Chinese translation of the early Bible; Zhao Xiaoyang's research on the relationship between the two horse Bible versions and the daysun Bible versions, an analysis of the origin of the printed Bible base in the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom, Chiang Kai Shek and Bible translation during the war of resistance against Japan, and a historical overview of the Centennial Ministry of the American Chinese Bible Society. Based on the discovery of new materials in Chinese and English, these Chinese papers textual research and analyze the basic historical facts of the Bible translation and Foreign Bible Societies, and describe the work contents of Bible translation, personnel changes, Bible sales, version identification and textual research, disputes and focus during translation in each period. These research papers only involve the earliest translation of Christian missionaries or the Bible translation of Chiang Kai Shek, a famous political figure in modern history.
== Conclusion==
But up to now, due to the differences and opposites between Catholicism and Christianity, there are differences and estrangements among many sects in Christianity; Under the influence of social and political ideology, academic circles have neglected and lacked this field intentionally or unintentionally in the past; The objective difficulties in the study of Chinese versions of the Bible, such as the vast majority of archival materials and various versions are kept abroad, and the majority of foreign materials; There is still no academic research monograph on the historical investigation of the whole Chinese translation of the Bible. The existing in-depth research on Chinese Bible translation is also limited to the most famous versions of the Bible in the history of Chinese Bible translation, such as the marsmian version, the Morrison version, the Guo Shili version, the commissioned version and so on. There is no dialect translation and minority language translation of the Bible, no Roman Bible translation of many churches, and no Chinese translation in the post missionary era. Special studies on the impact, response and reference of Chinese Bible translation on Chinese language, language reform, social culture, new literature and new words, the impact of Chinese Bible translation on the spread and development of Chinese Christian religion, the impact and response of Chinese Bible translation on Chinese traditional ideology and culture, and the impact and significance of Chinese Bible translation on the history of Chinese translation, It is even more rare to pay. The research on the translation and influence of the Bible is a blank spot that needs to be developed. It is worth us to devote ourselves to it and make a difference.

== References==

Marshall Broomhall, The Bible in China, London: British and Foreign Bible Society, 1934, p.2.

William Canton, A History of the British and Foreign Bible Society，London: John Murray, 1904, 1910.

Leslie Howsam, Cheap Bibles: Nineteenth-Century Publishing and the British and Foreign Bible Society,Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991.

Henry O. Dwight, The Centennial History of the American Bible Society, New York: Macmillan, 1916.

Hubert W. Spillett, A Catalogue of Scriptures in the Languages of China and the Republic of China, Hong Kong: British and Foreign Bible Society,1975.

Eugene A. Nida, The Book of A Thousand Tongues, New York: United Bible Societies, 1972.

Chloe Starr edit, Reading Christian Scriptures in China,London: T&T Clark, 2008.

Tony 汤因. 中国基督教圣经事业史料简编 A compendium of historical materials on the cause of Chinese Christian Bible [J] 协进 Xie Jin, 1953 (9): 48

Gu Changsheng 顾长声.传教士与近代中国 Missionaries and modern China [M] 上海：上海人民出版社 Shanghai: Shanghai People's publishing house,1991

Yang Senfu 杨森富.中国基督教史 History of Christianity in China [M] 台北：商务印书馆 Taipei: Commercial Press, 1968

Li kuanshu 李宽淑.中国基督教史略 A brief history of Christianity in China [M] 北京：社会科学文献出版社 Beijing: Social Science Literature Press,,1998

Wang Zhixin 王治心.中国基督教史纲 Outline of Chinese Christian history [M] 上海：上海古籍出版社 Shanghai: Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House,2004

1Chen Yugang 陈玉刚.中国文学翻译史稿 History of Chinese literary translation [M] 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司，Beijing: China translation and Publishing Corporation, 1992

== 叶维杰 Medieval Arabic Translation Movement=
中世纪阿拉伯翻译运动
Ye Weijie 叶维杰 Hunan Normal University, China

== Abstract==
The Medieval Arabic Translation Movement(The Harakah al—Tarjamah) is also called the Translation Movement. It was a large-scale organized academic activity carried out by the Arab Empire in the Middle Ages to translate and introduce ancient Greek and Eastern scientific and cultural classics. The Abbasid Caliphate implemented a diversified and inclusive cultural policy, vigorously advocated and sponsored the translation of academic classics from ancient Greece, Rome, Persia, India and other countries into Arabic to absorb advanced cultural heritage. The Arabic translation movement preserved the natural sciences and humanities in ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and played an extremely important role in promoting the cultural revival of European political and cultural conditions in the late Middle Ages. The Hundred-Year Arab Translation Movement lasted for more than two hundred years, spanning the vast regions of Asia, Africa, and Europe, and blending ancient Eastern and Western cultures such as Persia, India, Greece, Rome, and Arabia. There are not many translation activities in the history of world civilization. Analyzing its causes, processes, results, and impacts is of great academic value for studying the phased development of human civilization and the commonality of human wisdom, and it is also of great help to deeply understand the Arab Islamic philosophy and culture.

== Key words==
Harakah al—Tarjamah, translation movement, Western culture, Islamic culture，Middle Ages

== 摘要 ==
中世纪的阿拉伯语翻译运动（The Harakah al-Tarjamah）也叫百年翻译运动。它是中世纪阿拉伯帝国为翻译和介绍古希腊和东方科学文化经典而进行的有组织的大型学术活动。阿拔斯王朝哈里发推行多元包容的文化政策，大力倡导和赞助将古希腊、罗马、波斯、印度等国的学术经典译成阿拉伯文，吸收先进的文化遗产。阿拉伯语翻译运动保存了古希腊罗马文化中的自然科学和人文学科，对中世纪晚期欧洲政治文化状况的文化复兴起到了极其重要的推动作用。阿拉伯百年翻译运动持续了两百多年，横跨亚非欧广大地区，融合了波斯、印度、希腊、罗马、阿拉伯等古老的东西方文化。世界文明史上的翻译活动并不多。分析其成因、过程、结果和影响，对于研究人类文明的阶段性发展和人类智慧的共性具有重要的学术价值，对于深入了解阿拉伯伊斯兰哲学和文化也有很大帮助。

== 关键词 ==
阿拉伯百年翻译运动，翻译运动，西方文化，伊斯兰文化，中世纪

== Introduction==
The Harakah al—Tarjamah is also called the Translation Movement. The Centennial Arab Translation Movement lasted for more than two hundred years. The content of translation involved cultural achievements such as ancient Greek and Roman culture, Persian Mesopotamian culture, and ancient Indian culture. It spanned three continents and five seas in space and was the most extensive in human history. One of the major events. The Arab translation movement in the middle of the eighth century to the end of the tenth century not only changed the backward state of the Arab nation, but also gave birth to a strong Arab-Islamic culture; and its document translation was extremely important to the Renaissance movement in the later political and cultural state of Europe.The Arab Empire in the Middle Ages carried out large-scale and organized academic activities that translated and introduced ancient Greek and Eastern scientific and cultural classics. The Abbasid Caliphate implemented a diversified and inclusive cultural policy, vigorously advocated and sponsored the translation of academic classics from ancient Greece, Rome, Persia, India and other countries into Arabic to absorb advanced cultural heritage. The Arabic translation movement preserved the natural sciences and humanities in ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and played an extremely important role in promoting the cultural revival of European political and cultural conditions in the late Middle Ages. The Hundred-Year Arab Translation Movement lasted for more than two hundred years, spanning the vast regions of Asia, Africa, and Europe, and blending ancient Eastern and Western cultures such as Persia, India, Greece, Rome, and Arabia. There are not many translation activities in the history of world civilization. Analyzing its causes, processes, results, and impacts is of great academic value for studying the phased development of human civilization and the commonality of human wisdom, and it is also of great help to deeply understand the Arab Islamic philosophy and culture.

The Arabic translation movement can be divided into three periods: the first period is from the middle and late 8th century to the late 9th century. Translation activities in this period were mainly carried out with the support of the famous Caliph Mansour and Harun Rashid. The translated books are mainly Persian works, and the content mostly revolves around astronomy and medicine. The second period was from the early 9th century to the middle and late 9th century. The Caliph Maimon strongly supported this matter and achieved the golden age of the 100-year translation movement. The content involved ancient Greek philosophy, natural sciences, etc.; the last period was from the middle and late 9th century to the early 10th century. During this period, the support of the Caliphate and the pace of translation declined, and a lot of work was retranslation and revision of previous translations. At this time, the translation movement has also entered its end. The century-old translation movement with a history of more than 200 years changed the backwardness of the Arab nation and gave birth to Arab-Islamic culture, which had a significant impact on Arab society. This movement promoted the exchange of various cultures while preserving classics and ancient books. Rongtong has added an important heritage to the world cultural treasure house, and has had a positive and valuable impact on the development of world culture. This article will give a more systematic introduction to the movement, divided into the following three parts: the reasons for the translation movement, the Baghdad Translation Center of the translation movement, and the influence of the translation movement.

== The Background and Cause of Translation Movement ==

During the Umayyad dynasty, Arab Muslims were fully aware of the importance of absorbing the highly developed spiritual culture of foreign nations. In order to adapt to the actual needs of society, Khalid bin Yazid organized a group of people who were proficient in Syriac, Greek or Persian scholars, focusing on the translation of ancient books in medicine and pharmacology and chemistry, and have conducted translation explorations in a broader academic field. The beginning of the Arabic translation movement and its subsequent 200-year glorious achievements are mainly due to the following four factors:

1.Geographical factors:

Since Mansour, the second caliph of the Abbasid dynasty, established its capital in Baghdad, the important position of Baghdad as the political, economic and cultural center of the dynasty has been highlighted. Baghdad is located in the two rivers basin of West Asia and is located in the main traffic arteries between the East and the West. Throughout the history of civilizations in the world, rivers and civilizations have accompanied each other. The superior geographical location has created good conditions for cultural exchanges, accelerated the circulation of classics from various countries, and provided large-scale translation activities. Provides a wealth of source text.

Damascus, the capital of the former Umayyad dynasty, was handed over to Muslim rule after several regime changes. Prior to this, Damascus was an important center of Greco-Roman culture, with Greek as the official language, while the new capital of the Abbasid dynasty, Baghdad, was close to Persia. Ctesiphon, the old capital of the Sassanid Dynasty, was influenced by Persian culture before Islamic cultural rule. Therefore, during the translation movement at that time, a considerable number of Persian translators participated in the translation, and a large number of Persian classics were translated into Arabic and retained . "The Persian influence set back the original life of the Arabians, and paved the way for a new era characterized by the development of science and academic research." By translating classic works of other ethnic groups, cultural exchanges between different ethnic groups can be realized. Translation Played an important role as a bridge. At the same time, the Persian aristocracy made great contributions to the establishment of the Abbasid dynasty and was quite influential in the regime. The caliph also urgently needed the support of this force to promote cultural integration and identity identification among different ethnic groups. Therefore, geopolitical factors are undoubtedly one of the important driving forces for the vigorous development of the Abbasid dynasty translation movement.

2.Religious factors:

In the early days of the Umayyad dynasty, the domestic political situation was basically stable, but there were still some political opponents and religious scholars dissatisfied with the rule. The influence of Christianity still exists. Islam, as a relatively young faith, has impacted on different religions and cultures. Make efforts to gain a firm foundation. In the early days of the rise of Islam, the spread of teachings could only be done through word of mouth, and academic interpretation was mainly based on the Koran. Except for Arabic and Islam, the early Muslims failed to import advanced culture or science and technology into the conquered areas, and only focused on consolidating the rule of Islam in the Arab region. The purpose of early translation activities was limited to promoting the dissemination of Islamic culture. For religious purposes, the original intent of religious works was greatly changed during the translation process. Although this practice can play a certain missionary role, it violates the basic principles of translation, fails to accurately convey the original information, and loses the inheritance significance of the original.

After the establishment of the Abbasid dynasty, the Islamization of the empire further deepened, and at the same time a batch of fresh religious and cultural blood was injected. The Quran is more tolerant towards foreign denominations such as Judaism and Christianity. Especially for Christians, the Quran calls them “the closest people to Muslims”. Under the guidance of this doctrine, “The Abbasid Empire has become an Islamic empire instead of a Umayyad-style “Arab Empire”. A large number of infidels and Muslims intermarried, reducing the ideological gap between various ethnic groups. Translator The religious structure of the group has been substantially adjusted. The converts filtered by Islamic ideology brought an active academic atmosphere and non-Islamic theological concepts, and multidisciplinary systems such as linguistics, literature, law, philosophy, and mathematics were gradually formed.

Islamic culture was further enriched in the Abbasid dynasty. The spirit of advocating knowledge and scholarship became the spiritual source of the translation movement during this period. The increasingly diversified inner religious spirit became the source of the translation movement, and promoted the translators of different religions. Translation behavior and multiple beliefs collide with each other, the scale of translation continues to expand, and the types and content of translations are also enriched by the tolerance of religious and cultural attitudes. The prosperity of the translation movement was promoted by many factors. At the religious and cultural level, the acceptance of various religious beliefs is a prerequisite for the vigorous development of the translation movement. If Muslims completely reject paganism and force other believers to convert to Islam, the participation of Christians or Jews in translation activities will be greatly reduced, the diversity of translator groups will be combated, and the perspective of translation research will inevitably be affected.

3.Science and technology factors:

In terms of science and technology, two factors have jointly promoted the development of translation, one is the foundation of early document translation, and the other is the introduction of papermaking.

The Prophet Muhammad said: “Learning is divided into two categories: religious learning and physical learning (medicine).” Translators of the Umayyad Dynasty followed this precept and performed sporadic translations of works on medicine, philosophy, and chemistry. , Pave the way for the emergence of the golden age of the translation movement in the later dynasties. "As for the natural sciences such as medicine, logic, and mathematics of the Islamic nation, it has been systematic from the beginning. Because partial research on it has already been carried out in Greece, India, Persia and other countries, and it has been sorted and recorded. It’s the stage of analysis and analysis. In the Abbasid era, these subjects were completely translated into Arabic without starting from scratch. Perhaps, when the writers of the paraphrasing subjects saw the rigorous system of natural science, they copied their practices. Some styles that they think are good have been added.” The scientific inquiry and translations of works in early Islam facilitated the prosperity of the translation movement, and Abbasid translators only needed to review the documents based on the collated documents. Or retranslation, which greatly improves the accuracy of translation.

The status of the development of emerging technologies in the Arab translation movement is undeniable, but technological development is equally important to the spread of early civilizations and is not unique to the Abbasid dynasty, so it cannot be used as a unique motivation for the emergence of large-scale translation activities in the Abbasid dynasty. However, the introduction of papermaking technology did make an indelible contribution to the cultural heritage of the empire. The first paper mill in the empire was located in Samarkand on the Silk Road in Central Asia. In the centuries before it was conquered by Islam, this city was already one of the most prosperous cities in the Persian Empire, and it was the academic center of Persia until the Middle Ages. The smooth flow of Eastern Commercial Road brought papermaking technology to Muslim countries. The introduction of papermaking has obvious influence on the translation movement. The Arabs replaced expensive parchment with relatively inexpensive paper, which made writing records and book circulation more convenient and expanded. People's demand for academic works has promoted the large-scale emergence of translation movement.

4.Translation ability factor：

Maimon, the seventh caliph of the Abbasid dynasty, established a "wisdom palace" on the basis of the Mansour Royal Library to recruit academic elites from all walks of life for translation work. The historian Yakubi once described the academic style in Baghdad: "Scholars in Baghdad have a higher education level, where experts are more knowledgeable in tradition, grammarians are more reliable in syntax... Logicians think more clearly Missionaries are also more eloquent.” Although the translators of this period were not true translators, they all had received strict philosophical and logical training. Some Syrian Christians specially returned to Greece to study in order to improve their language skills. They used Syriac as their mother tongue as a translation agency and played an important role in the translation movement. The translators in the Abbasid period built bridges between different languages and cultures with their outstanding professional ability, serious translation attitude and unlimited enthusiasm for science, which became another important driving force for the vigorous development of translation movement.

With the popularization of academic knowledge and the dissemination of various books, the scientific and cultural literacy of translators has also been comprehensively improved. The increase in knowledge reserves in astronomy, medicine, philosophy, etc. makes translation activities not only at the level of mechanical code switching. , But based on understanding and even proficiency in the meaning of the text, improving the level of translation in terms of translation quality and translation speed.

== Baghdad Translation Center ==

Baghdad Translation Center:

Before the Arab conquest, there was a tradition of studying ancient Greek cultural classics and translating them into Syriac. With the expansion of Islamic countries and the spread of religion, Arabic was popularized as an official language. At that time, there were many Syrians, Persians, Egyptians, Jews, Bebers, Spanish, Sicilians, and even Italians have become Muslims, and the Arabic language has been greatly popularized. During the reign of the Caliph dynasty, due to its rulers' enthusiasm for academic research and translation, under the impetus of the rulers, the Arab region in the Middle Ages became the center of science and translation.

Baghdad was the capital of the Abbasid Caliph dynasty. The rulers of the dynasty strongly supported the translation and paid the translators a very substantial compensation. With the support of the caliph ruler, a large number of Syrian, ancient Persian and Sanskrit texts were translated. At that time, they were most interested in medicine and philosophy. The choice of translation work text was not only political and cultural, but the personal interests of the current caliph and courtiers were also important factors. The Arab world attaches great importance to astronomy and calendar, mainly for the service of its religion. They used astronomy and calendar to accurately calculate the exact time of the five prayers, so that they could give the correct latitude and longitude coordinates facing the holy city of Mecca in any Islamic mosque for pilgrimage and prayer, and accurately calculated the time of fasting The exact number of days of the period. Therefore, many caliphs of the Abbasid dynasty paid great attention to the translation of astronomy and calendar classics. During the reign of the third-generation caliph Harun Al-Rashid (Harun Al-Rashid, said to be the prototype of the protagonist in the story of "The Thousand and One Nights"), the "Treasury of Knowledge" library was Established, it contains a large number of trophies of Greek literature and science obtained by defeating Byzantium. By the time of the fourth caliph Al-Mamun (reigned 813-833), Mamun was built in Baghdad in 830 AD The “House of Wisdom” (House of Wisdom), which is larger than the “Treasure House of Knowledge”, aims to translate the scientific and philosophical works of ancient Greece into Arabic. A large number of ancient Syriac, ancient Persian, and texts can be obtained here. In addition to translation, it is worth mentioning that during this period, many ancient Greek texts were translated into Arabic and preserved. In the 9th and 10th centuries AD, the city of Baghdad was the center of a vast translation project whose goal was to translate ancient Greek scientific and philosophical works into Arabic. This event had a profound impact on the development of science and philosophy in the entire Arab world, and directly brought about the dramatic changes in the culture and ideas of the region at that time. At that time, Hunayn Ibn Ishaq was in charge of the translation work. He and his more than 90 people translated a large number of Plato and Aristotle's works: Plato's Dialogues and "The Utopia", Aristotle's Logic Essays Set The Organon, including Categories, On Interpretation, Pior Analytics, Posterior Analytics, Topics, On Sophistical Refutations, The Metaphysics.

In addition to noting the translations of the original authors, the Arab scientists of this period also contained translational elements in their own works. Al-Razi (865-925), the author of the most important medicinal work at the time, was a student of Hunayn’s disciple. His most famous "Medical Integration" actually had a lot of content compiled, and the book collected All the medical knowledge of ancient Greece, India and the Middle East that was known at that time.

Alchemy also emerged in Arab countries during this period. It was initiated by the "mystic" Jabir Ibn Hayyan. He put forward a doctrine in his legacy writings that all things, especially metals, are based on mercury and Formed by the interaction of sulfur. The alchemy of China and Alexandria also had the seeds of this doctrine. Arab alchemists adopted the four-element theory of ancient Greece and imagined that by changing the amount of the elements that make up a metal, one metal can be transformed into another metal.

In the Arab world in the Middle Ages, like other ancient civilizations, encyclopedic scholars also appeared. The most representative one is Omar Khayyam (1048-1131). He was proficient in calendar reforms and algebraic studies, but his " Quartet" made him famous soon after him. His Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam is popular all over the world, and there have been hundreds of versions so far. His poems are recognized as the treasure of world literature and become the pride of ancient Persian literature.

During this period, Al-Khwarizmi (?-835) introduced Indian numbers and Indian algorithms to Arab countries, and later spread them to the world through Europe, which is what we now call "Arabic numbers".

The "Palace of Wisdom" established in 830 AD was the result of Arab absorbing the cultural wealth of China, India, Persia, and ancient Greece. A large number of translation activities continued until the decline of the empire in the 13th century. Translation has had a profound impact on the development of science and philosophy throughout the Arab world. For translators in Baghdad, the translation works play the role of raw materials, and the translated text is not the goal, but the catalyst that stimulates the original ideas and products of knowledge. Therefore, translators regard translation as a creative process, and the translation is often accompanied by comments, summaries or explanatory notes to make the original text easier to understand. Translators are often experts in the field of their translation. In translation, they not only exert their own understanding and comprehensive ability, but also practice their own creativity. A new ideological system was established with the help of translation and became the basis of Arab-Muslim culture. In this context, the prosperous Arab astronomy took the lead in blooming flowers from here, forming the so-called "Baghdad School" of later generations. The works of Alaba during this period were translated into Latin by later European academic circles, which in turn influenced the entire Western civilization.

== The Influence of the Arabic Translation Movement ==

The Influence of the Translation Movement

The Abbasid dynasty was the golden age of the Arab translation movement. The academic research and cultural activities carried out on the basis of translation completely changed the early material and spiritual scarcity of the Arab nation, promoted the development of natural sciences in the Middle Ages, and gave birth to Arab- Islamic culture.

1.Promotion of the development of natural sciences:

In the golden age of the translation movement of the Abbasid dynasty, a large number of natural science and medical works from Persia and Greece were translated into Arabic. Translators learn astronomy and geography in the translation process, digest the source text and perform creative translation, use Arabic to annotate and explain the unclear or obscure meanings of the original text, and then use the target language that is easy for Muslims to output, which enhances The universality of the text promoted the popularization of Muslim science and culture. "In the eighty years after the establishment of the Abbasid dynasty, the cultural essence of the above-mentioned peoples has been recorded in Arabic. I didn’t know anything about arithmetic, geometry, medicine and other terms, and I knew Aristotle’s logic. Arabs who have never heard of philosophy can use Arabic to express Euclid’s most refined theories, express the law of sines in Indian mathematics, and express Aristotle’s Materialism, Ptolemy’s principles of astronomy, Galen’s medicine, Bizley’s motto, and the politics of the Persian king.” By studying translations, the Arabs built an Islamic medical system on the basis of native medicine. From theory to clinical practice, it has corrected and made up for the medical gap before the Abbasid dynasty. During the Abbasid period, medical achievements have been fruitful and have attracted worldwide attention. At the same time, research in the fields of pharmacology, botany, mathematics, and physics has gradually deepened, and many authoritative works have been published, which have made inestimable contributions to the development of modern science in China, the Arab world, and Europe, and even the development of human civilization. contribute.

Whether it is for the caliph’s personal preferences or serving in religious ceremonies, the translation of astrological and astronomical works has promoted the development of modern Arab science and technology. Some translators became astronomers or scientists by translating classics, thus realizing the transformation of their identities. After reading the translated works, many Arabs developed a keen interest in astronomy and mathematics, and then continued to translate. The main works of Euclid and Ptolemy were also translated into Arabic during this period. The translation of classics and scientific development promoted each other, and academic atmosphere became popular for a time.

2.The formation of Arab-Islamic culture:

While the natural sciences are developing vigorously, from the perspective of ideological and cultural analysis, the translation movement gave birth to Arab-Islamic culture. With the expansion of the Abbasid Empire, Islamic civilization was also brought to the vast conquered areas. Islam in the Umayyad period only existed as a foreign religion in the conquered areas. Christianity still has a profound influence there, and the beliefs of residents have not changed much. With the influence of various factors such as intermarriage and political dependence, the Islamization of the Arab empire has gradually advanced in the ruled areas and merged with the local culture into a splendid and complex Arab-Islamic culture. "After the 7th century, Islamic culture rose to become the mainstream culture of the Mediterranean. The Arab Empire became an important center of world culture at that time, and it radiated strongly outward."

The unification of language helps resolve ideological contradictions and promote national cultural identity. During the translation movement, the further popularization of Arabic became the official language of the empire, the civilization of neighboring countries gradually declined, and the status of Arab-Islamic culture gradually took shape. Without the prosperity of the Abbasid translation movement, there would be no new cultural construction of Islamic civilization. Since then, Arab-Islamic culture has shined in Spain. During the Arab rule of the Iberian Peninsula, it had a significant impact on the formation of Spanish national culture and language, and it also left a deep Arab imprint in the formation of European civilization. Although the Arab Empire fell apart due to religious and political struggles, the Arab-Islamic civilization left behind by the translation movement is still shining.

3.Having Promoted the Renaissance in Europe:

In the history of modern science, the Western Middle Ages has been given the image of a "dark age". In the Middle Ages from 500 to 1500 AD, because European countries pursued a religious theology and idealistic view of nature, the priests of the Roman Church only knew that they adhered to the dogma of their church. Religion seriously hindered the development of science. Therefore, Western science was here. The stage of development is unusually slow. The Christian churches in the West had brutally attacked the ancient Greek heritage and regarded this as a heritage related to idolatry that was harmful to the Christian faith. Christians were forbidden to learn more. At that time, the writings of most Greek philosophers and writers were despised. . The Byzantine emperor Constantine even closed the philosophical school in Athens in 529 AD, and this hostile attitude towards Greek heritage continued for centuries. Muslim scholars saved the Greek heritage by studying and in-depth annotations of the writings of Aristotle, Gran, and Ptolemy. It was through the labor of these Muslim scholars that the European countries that were shrouded in the dark age at that time realized their true and forgotten traditions of Greek science and philosophy. It is precisely because of the Arab world's translation of ancient Greek and Roman scientific and philosophical works that the natural and human sciences in ancient Greek and Roman cultures were preserved, so that the translation of Arabic documents in Europe in the late Middle Ages promoted European politics In this regard, the cultural revival is indispensable for the contribution of the Arab Translation Movement.

== Conclusion==

The Abbasid dynasty was the second hereditary dynasty of the Arab Empire, which lasted for more than five hundred years. The translation movement that flourished in this era pushed Arab-Islamic culture to its peak under the multiple combined forces. Although the power of the Arab empire in the second half of the 9th century was declining and the Caliphate came to an end, its cultural influence has never diminished. With the advancement of international cultural exchanges between countries, the Arab translation movement still has important practical significance:

First of all, cultural exchanges between countries in the world are becoming more and more frequent. Translation disciplines are no longer limited to the language field. Interdisciplinary translation has become a future trend. It is a new type of challenge;

secondly, a good academic environment is a prerequisite for promoting knowledge progress and achieving academic innovation. During the Abbasid dynasty, translation activities were organized and carried out on a large scale under the call of the state, focusing on and rewarding academic activities, and setting up academic institutions. The academic atmosphere of the entire Baghdad city was strong, and the natural sciences and social sciences had been developed by leaps and bounds. This provides a reference for the further construction of the academic environment of other countries.

Furthermore, the development of science and technology has closely linked the countries of the world, and the collision of multiculturalism has become the theme of the development of civilization in the world today. The reason for the success of the Arab translation movement is that Muslims' tolerance towards other religions and foreign cultures is a crucial part. This is also the main reason why Arab-Islamic culture has absorbed the millennium culture of ancient Greece and Rome in a century. In summary, the Abbasid dynasty’s open and inclusive attitude towards academic activities led the Arab translation movement into a golden age. The vigorous development of the translation movement during this period promoted the progress of the natural sciences of the Arab Empire, and laid a solid academic foundation for the early inheritance of science and culture, as well as the exchanges and mutual learning between Eastern and Western civilizations. Despite the decline of the Arab empire, the characteristics of Arab-Islamic culture will continue in new ways. In the contemporary era, the Abbasid dynasty translation movement provides the world with a deeper historical perspective, and provides a useful reference for the training of translators and cultural exchanges in various countries around the world.

Although the vigorous Arab translation movement for a century has been obliterated in the long river of history, the impact of the Arab-Islamic culture produced is far-reaching. Throughout the long history, one can still hear the voices of many Muslims and non-Muslim scholars struggling to translate manuscripts in the "Wisdom Hall", as well as their clamor for truth and academic culture; you can still hear the Arab Muslims in "for Allah" Under the slogan of "War", the screams of expansion riding on a war horse; I can still imagine the amazing scenes of Arab merchants traveling thousands of miles and sailing merchant ships to China and Scandinavia. Under the influence of the strong Arab-Islamic culture, the people of the Arab empire have discarded national and racial differences and formed a spirit of "Muslim brothers and sisters" psychologically. This strong culture and common psychological cognition give Arab-Islamic culture a tenacious vitality, and it still arouses echoes from time to time in Arab countries and the Islamic world.

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= Brief history of French translation =
李怡 Li Yi ,Hunan Normal University ,China
== Abstract==
The purpose of this article is to make a brief introduction to the translation history of France. The history of French translation began in the Middle Ages: with the development of Christianity and nationalism, the royal family hired translators to translate the Bible. The Renaissance in the 16th century, as well as economic and educational development, increased the demand for reading and writing, thus promoting the development of translation, most of the translated works are classical works. Then two religious films appeared in France: Jansenists and Jesuit, which had a great influence on the translation schools of that time. During the Enlightenment in the 18th century, France was deeply influenced by Britain, so most of the works in this period were British progressive thoughts and literature. The Industrial Revolution in the second half of the 18th century increased French scientific and technological translation. With the progress of the French Revolution, French translators are more inclined to the economic and political and judicial fields. After the Second World War, the translation industry in France recovered and developed vigorously. France even set up ESIT（École Supérieure d'Interprètes et de Traducteurs）to train senior translators. In the 20th century, there appeared many translation theorists in France, which promoted the professionalization of translation.
== Key words==
Renaissance, French translation, contemporary, French Revolution
== Introduction==
As a developed country in the west, France has a very long translation history. Translators and translation theories emerge in endlessly, which can not be ignored in the history of translation. At the same time, with the development of globalization, translation theories in various countries learn from and integrate with each other. Among them, French translation theory also plays a very important role. Therefore, it is necessary to comb the history of French translation and study the translators of relevant times and their relevant theories.
==1.Medieval French translation based on Bible Translation==
In the middle ages, translation in various countries was deeply influenced by religion, especially the translation of the Bible, which greatly promoted the development of translation. In France, the royal family specially hired translators to translate various Latin and Greek works for the imperial court. The most prominent court interpreter was Nicholas Oresme of the Charles V Dynasty. Aristotle's works translated by him in 1377 had a great impact on the French translation and philosophy circles at that time. Jean de Vigne translated the Latin Bible in French in 1340. In addition, Jean de malkaraume, J argyropylos and others translated the works of Virgil, Ovid, Aristotle, Plato and contemporary writers at the same time.
==2.Renaissance: the development of French translation==
The Renaissance is the development period of French translation theory. The main representatives are Dolet and Jacques Amyot, especially the former. In the 16th century, there was an upsurge of translation in France. During this period, the focus of translation shifted from religious translation such as the Bible to classical literature translation. Religious translation abides by the translation principle of "word to word" . Its purpose is to follow the will of God and avoid blasphemy. This is irrefutable, so there are not many translation theories to speak of. However, as a new genre, the translation of literary works is different from the previous religious translation. Translators face many new problems, so translation theory came into being. Dolet and amyot are the most prominent representatives of translation theory in this period. They are both translators and translation theorists, and the latter wins especially by translation. Both their translation theories come from translation practice, so they are persuasive. Dolet is famous for his "five principles of translation". "Five principles of translation" comes from his paper on how to translate well published in 1540 ,La manière de bien traduire d’une langue à l’autre. 1. the translator must fully understand the content of the translated work; 2.The translator must be familiar with the target language and the target language; 3.The translator must avoid word by word translation; 4.The translator must adopt the popular language form; 5.The translator must select words and adjust word order to make the translation produce the effect of appropriate tone. (Tan Zaixi,2004:71)These five principles involve the criterion of "faithfulness" in translation, the translator's bilingual ability, translation methods, style and style of translation. Amyot is one of the greatest translators in the history of French translation. He is known as the "king of translation". His translation has had a great impact on that time and future generations. He follows two principles in Translation: 1. The translator must understand the original text and make great efforts in the translation of content; 2.The translation must be simple and natural without any decoration. The first involves the standard of faithfulness in translation, and the second involves the style of translation. These two principles are similar to the first and fifth of Dolet's five translation principles.

==3.The 17th century: the climax of French translation and various translation schools==
After the Renaissance, classicism deeply influenced France. In the translation circle at that time, people were engaged in the translation of classical works on a large scale. Translation has launched a magnificent "dispute between ancient and modern" around the translation methods of classical works. Some translators pay more attention to the past than the present: they pay attention to the imitation of words with sentences, and praise the so-called accurate translation method. Some translators prefer to use the opposite translation method.
In the 17th century, the most famous French translator was Perrot d’Ablancourt,, His translation is sophisticated and elegant, both meaningful and beautiful, and easy to understand. There are no words that need to be explained in order to clarify the meaning in the translation, and there are no annoying cliches. Therefore, he has a great reputation for a long time. His characteristic is to take an original work and grasp the main idea. No matter what the original style is, as long as the translation is literary and readable and can make contemporary readers love and welcome, he will do whatever he can to add or delete the content at any cost, and modify it if he can, regardless of the accuracy of the translation. At that time, this literary and beautiful translation method attracted many followers, but it was also criticized by many people as "beautiful but unfaithful".By the end of the 17th century, those who advocated free translation were overwhelmingly in favor, while those who really advocated accurate translation were few and far between. The earliest theorist to advocate accurate translation was Bachet de Méziriac in the mid-17th century. In December 1635, he published an essay entitled "on translation" at the French academy, stating that translators must observe three principles :1.do not stuff the original work with personal goods; 2.The original work shall not be abridged; 3.No alteration may be made detrimental to the original intention.
As one of the most influential translators in France in the 17th century, Daniel Huet, worshipped classical literature and clearly advocated accurate translation. He criticized both post-modern translators and unfaithful translators abranguel. He believes that the best translation method is: the translator first closely follows the original author's meaning; Secondly, if possible, stick to his words; Finally, try to reproduce his character as much as possible; The translator must carefully study the character of the original author, not delete, weaken, add and expand, and faithfully make it complete as the original. His translation principles are: the only goal of translation is to be accurate. Only by accurately imitating the original in language can it be possible to accurately convey the original author's meaning; The translator has no right to choose words or change word order arbitrarily, because "Deviation" from the original text will lead to deviation from the original meaning. His translation theory has been praised by many people, but due to the lack of practice, his theory is not attractive to translators.
In the 17th century, there were also two representatives from inaccurate translation to accurate translation,François Maucroix and Jacques de Tourreil.
François Maucroix is regarded by contemporary and later critics as one of the most outstanding French translators in the 17th century and the first person to translate demesne in the 17th century. In addition to demesne, he also translated the works of Plato and others. Maucroix received the education of the Jesuit Church in his early years, was greatly influenced by the Jesuit Church, loved debating literature, and paid attention to ingenious expression and beautiful language style.
His early translations were inaccurate in content, style or written expression. He liked to modernize ancient terms and expressions. In 1685, his style changed, and his translation became more accurate, which seemed to have completely corrected the defects of procrastination and weakness in his early translation. The reason can be seen from his letters with Boileau in the last decade of the 17th century. He regarded Boileau not only as the most important representative of classical literature, but also as an authority on translation theory. Therefore, he always sent the translation to Boileau for revision. Boileau read the manuscript carefully, criticized some paragraphs and put forward better translation methods. In his reply, Maucroix said that Poirot's criticism of some of his inaccurate translations was pertinent, and his opinions on the revision were also very good. He admitted that the inaccurate translation was a mistake and must be completely corrected. He finally realized that translators must adhere to the principle of accurate translation if they want to become real classicists.
Jacques de Tourreil also experienced a change from inaccurate translation to accurate translation, which is reflected in his translation of three different versions of Demosthenes. In 1691, he published his first translation, which was influenced by the education of the Jesuit and paid attention to elegant style rather than accurate content. Tourreil processed the original work in the most ingenious way to modernize the ancients. After the translation was published, it was immediately severely criticized by Racine. After being criticized, Tourreil published a revised version in 1710, but the revised version actually only made detailed changes to the original translation, and the guiding principle of translation remains unchanged, that is, we must "make the characteristics of the original work conform to the characteristics of our nation". The new translation has received various comments. On the one hand, the ancient school refers to Tourreil 's attempt to impose new ideas on Demosthenes, believing that he not only did not beautify the original work, but distorted and vilified the original work. On the other hand, the present school believes that Tourreil's unfaithful translation of the original is better than the original, which is worth applauding. Tourreil himself is an ancient school. Naturally, he doesn't appreciate the present school's praise and thinks that this praise is "the most severe criticism to the translator". After that, he revised the translation for the third time, which is very different from the first two versions. It was not only a rare and accurate translation at that time, but also extremely beautiful. The translator translates in strict accordance with the original work, neither adding or subtracting nor making changes. By this time Tourreil had fundamentally changed his point of view.
Discussing the history of French translation from the 17th century to the 18th century is bound to involve the influence of Jesuit and Jansenists. The main reason is that the people engaged in education at that time were members of these two schools. They had direct or indirect contact with each translation school through their own translation practice and teaching.
The Jesuit believes that classical literature is worth studying and learning only in the aspect that it provides moral education or guides people how to learn eloquence. The excavation of classical works is not because their contents are of great value, but because of their beautiful forms. Teachers believe that the purpose of teaching is not so much to enable students to obtain substantive knowledge as to enable them to obtain formal learning identity.
The works translated by Jesuit teachers or students generally have an obvious sign, that is, they do not pay much attention to the spiritual essence of the original work, but only pay attention to the expression of the original thought and the beauty of the translation style. In order to achieve this, translators often sacrifice the content, even misinterpret the original meaning, and religiously turn classical literary works. Therefore, the origin of inaccurate translation in the 17th century is often influenced by Jesuit thought.
Jansenists is the second school that directly or indirectly affects translation principles. They believe that once students can read and write, they should read these translations in order to obtain basic knowledge about the original author and facilitate more and better reading of the original works in the future. In the early days, the views of the janssenian translators and the Jesuit translators were basically the same. Later, the translators of Jansenists believed that the practice of style for style in translation was also dangerous. However, towards the middle of the 17th century, their views changed and they believed that the style of ancient Greek and Latin writers, especially the style of ancient Greek writers, was worth learning. They really appreciate classical works more than the Jesuits. They admit that the language style of the ancients is superior to that of the present, but the present enjoys more inspiration from God, so the present surpasses the ancients in terms of thought and morality. In this way, no matter from which perspective, their views are completely consistent with those of ancient school. But the translation of Jansenists is far less elegant and beautiful than that of the Jesuits.
==4.The decline of French translation in the 18th century and the translator Charles Batteux==
In the 18th century, France was not as powerful as in the 16th and 17th centuries, nor was it culturally complacent. So she began to look at other countries' literature, first of all England. For example, the novels of the contemporary British sentimentalist writer Richard Were translated into French, which had a great influence on the development of French sentimentalist literature. In particular, the Chinese culture, which had been introduced to Europe for a long time, became more active in France in the 18th century. Although the number of translations is large, the quality is often not high.
Charles Batteux was one of the most important translators in France in the 18th century. He was one of the most influential literary and translation theorists in France and the whole Europe in the 18th century. He edited and published a variety of translation books, translated aristoteles, Horace and many other classical works of ancient Greece and Rome, wrote Principes de Litterature, Cours de Belles-Lettres and other works. Batteux elaborated his thoughts and views on translation in The Principles of Treatise. His original views and excellent exposition made this book an important milestone in the development of translation theory in the 18th century.
The fifth part of Principes de Litterature deals with translation problems.The theory of Charles Batteux obviously has the characteristics of philosophers, linguists, philology and translation. In other words, Charles Batteux discusses the principles of translation mainly from the perspective of general linguistic skills, rather than literary creation. He proposed the following 12 rules for dealing with word order in translation: 1. We must not alter the order of what the original says, either as fact or inference. 2. We should also preserve the order of ideas in the original text. 3. No matter how long the original sentence is, it should be kept intact in the translation, for a sentence is a thought in which the different elements are related to each other, and their correlation constitutes a kind of harmony. 4.All the conjunctions in the original text should be preserved. It is these conjunctions, so to speak, that hold the sentence elements together. 5. All adverbs should be placed either before or after the verb, depending on the harmony and momentum of the sentence. 6.Symmetrical sentences should be translated into symmetrical sentences. 7. Colorful ideas should be expressed in as much space as possible in the translation so as to maintain the same brilliance. 8. Rhetorical devices and forms of speech used to express ideas must be preserved in the translation. 9. We must translate short and pithy sayings that people like, or translate them into words that are natural and can be used as proverbs. 10. Interpretation is incorrect and incomplete because it is no longer a translation but a commentary. However, if there is no other way to convey the meaning of the original text, the translator has no choice but to use interpretation. 11. For the sake of meaning, we must abandon all forms of expression in order to make ourselves intelligible; Abandon emotion in exchange for a lively translation; Give up harmony for the pleasure of translation. 12. The idea of the original text can be expressed in different forms, combined or broken up by the words used to express it, and expressed by verbs, adjectives, nouns and adverbs, as long as its essence remains unchanged（Tan Zaixi,2004:98）.

==5.The revival of French translation in the 19th century and its rich translators==
Another high tide of French translation came in the 19th century, when a large number of English, German, Italian, Spanish and Latin literary works were translated, such as Shakespeare, Milton, Byron, Shelley in England, Goethe and Schiller in Germany, Dante in Italy, and Spanish folk songs. The most prominent remains the translation of Shakespeare's works. If the 18th century was Shakespeare's Silver age in France, the 19th was the golden age. In the 19th century, people not only worshiped Shakespeare's works, but also worshipped him, and Shakespeare fever spread throughout France. From 1800 to 1910, at least eight different translations of Shakespeare's complete works were produced in France, of which francois-Victor Hugo is the best. Hugo's father was Victor Hugo, a great writer. With Hugo's assistance and cooperation, the complete works of Shakespeare were translated between 1859 and 1867. This translation has faithfully retained the unique rhythm of the play, so it has been praised by critics as the second milestone in the history of French translation of Shakespeare's plays, even more important than Letourne's famous translation in the late 18th century.
Famous French translators in the 19th century included Francoise-René de Chateaubriand, Gérard de Nerval, and Charles Baudelaire. Chateaubriand is another epoch-making translator in France after Amio. His translation is faithful and beautiful. His literal translation of Milton's Paradise Lost is one of the outstanding French translations with its melodious and poetic tone. Nerval is best known for his translation of Goethe's Faust in prose style. In 1830 Goethe saw Nerval's translation and praised it as better than his original. Baudelaire, another famous poet of this period, was one of the earliest French translators of American literature and the first translator of Allan Poe. For 13 years from 1852 to 1865, he wrote, translated and commented on the complete works of Allan Poe. Baudelaire found what he was pursuing in Allan Poe's works, and believed that he and the author were in the same spirit, so that the translation could be in touch with the author. The translation was smooth and natural, just like the French creation, and was listed as an excellent classic of French prose.
==6.The specialization of French translation in the 20th century and the maturity of translation theory==
The 20th century has been the heyday of French translation theory. The characteristics of French translation in this period are: since the end of the Second World War, due to practical needs, commercial, diplomatic, scientific and technological aspects of the translation boom(Chen Shunyi,2014:6), its momentum even more than literary translation, thus forming a major content of the development of modern western translation; The study of translation theory is unprecedented and has produced translation theorists who have an important influence on the history of translation in the world. Before the First World War, the two countries used the language of power in business transactions, and French, which was considered the language of diplomacy at international conferences and other diplomatic occasions, did not have much problem in translation. However, after the end of the First World War, French lost its dominance, and English rose to take the lead with French, forming a situation in which French and English were used together. The Paris Peace Conference of 1919 was the beginning of this situation. Later, the European Union has 24 official languages, which means that translation has become an indispensable part of daily work, whether it is communication between countries in other regions or between western countries. With the increase of cooperation between countries, the need for translators is increasing. To meet this need, a number of schools specializing in training translators have been set up. One of the most prominent is ESIT（École Supérieure d'Interprètes et de Traducteurs）.
ESIT was founded in 1957, set up the department of Oral translation and pen translation, initially only opened several European languages, since 1972 added Chinese, now a total of English, Chinese, Russian, Arabic, French, German, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, Danish, Swedish, Icelandic and other languages translation courses. Later, on the basis of the original two departments, the School added a department of Translation Studies, specializing in the study of language and translation theory, with the right to confer doctoral degrees. After graduation, most of the students apply for translation departments of international institutions, and some graduates apply for the work license of free translators to relevant institutions of various countries in order to work freely and not apply for the work license of free translators to international institutions. Over the years, ESIT has trained a number of senior translators for the foreign affairs departments of the United Nations, the European Community (EU) and western countries.
Another characteristic of modern French translation is that French translators are organized in large numbers, setting up various translation associations and establishing various translation publications. Each association has its own purpose and purpose to carry out its work effectively. There are two major translation associations in France: the Association of French Translators and the Association of French Literary Translators. The Association of French Literary Translators was founded in 1973 as a splinter from the Association of Translators. Its entry requirements are the most stringent of any of its kind. Only highly qualified translators are eligible to join. Applicants must have at least one translation, which is carefully reviewed against the original work by a special selection committee. The aims of the association are :1.to improve the quality of French literature and literary translation publications; 2.To protect the rights and interests of members in respect of copyright, remuneration and working conditions of translated works; 3.Do not participate in any political activities. Since its establishment, the association has held many lectures and lectures, and its members have published many articles on translation in such authoritative publications as le Monde and New Literature. Through this series of business activities, it has become the most distinctive and vocal translation organization in France.
In the first half of the 20th century, the French translation theorist J.Marouzeau is worth a book. He is a professor at the University of Paris and editor in chief of Année Philologique. In 1931, he published a pamphlet called La Traduction du Latin. The theory is as follows:1.Translation is, first of all, a skill. Maruzzo does not deny that translation is an art and a science, and that it is more of a skill. To master it, we mainly rely on rich practical experience, solid language knowledge and flexible translation methods. 2.In order to reach as many readers as possible, the translator's primary task, like linguists, educators and exegetists, is to reveal to the reader what the source text is, not what it covers. 3.The purpose of using a dictionary is not to translate, but to understand. It is a puzzling view, but it is not hard to discern the truth in it. He points out that translators must learn to use dictionaries, but must first understand what problems they are using them to solve. Latin, for example, is very different from French, he said. Latin words are not related to each other, and there is no strict word order, which must be added to a French translation to make the translation smooth. Dictionaries don't help in this respect. They define a particular word in inverse proportion to its simplicity, thus leaving the translator in a difficult position to choose between many different translations. Therefore, the main purpose of using a dictionary is not to find ready-made words, but to understand the meaning of the original text, to explain the text of the original text, and then produce a translation on this basis. At the same time, Marouzeau points out that words from different sources must be interpreted differently. 4.Translation is not guesswork. This is especially important. When encountering difficulties, the translator must carefully consider and avoid any "preconceived ideas", because in translation, the first thought of meaning or expression is often not the most correct or best. 5.Translation must be in living language. This was a popular idea in England in the 17th and 18th centuries. Marouzeau said that to translate Latin into French, if you need to introduce an old expression, you have to turn to a living language so that the translation is alive. That is to say, the translator must ask: if the original author were alive today and writing in French, how would he express the same thing? But Marouzeau also points out that this is not a generalization, and that for some passages, especially those of Ovid, "a bit of antiquity is most appropriate in French translation".
The following is an introduction to Georges Mounin, a famous French translation theorist in the second half of the 20th century. He devoted his life to the teaching and research of linguistics and translation theory with outstanding achievements. He is regarded as the founder and most important representative of linguistic theory in contemporary French translation studies. Major theoretical works include Le belles infidèles , Les problèmes théorique de la traduction, La machine à traduire: Histoire des problèmes linguistiques, Linguistique et traduction, Semiotic praxis, etc. Among them, Les problèmes théorique de la traduction is the most praised by contemporary Western translation theorists. As mentioned above, this book uses the basic theories and methods of modern linguistics to explain translation, and sets up the first clear-cut flag of linguistic school in the field of Translation studies in France.
The core idea of Mounin 's book is that he thinks translation belongs to linguistics, so it should be studied, understood and explained by means of modern linguistics. To establish an effective translation theory, it has to for translation and the translation of basic problems related to make a scientific understanding of these problems include the nature of translation, translation and the meaning of vocabulary, grammatical structure, the relationship between translation and the objective world, the world's image), the relationship between translation and language universals and language features, the relationship between the processing of language features in translation, and so on. Mounin 's discussion of translation theory revolves around these questions.
What exactly is a translation? What kind of discipline should translation studies belong to and what kind of methods should be adopted? And so on. Such problems have always been the most concerned by translation researchers but have not been properly explained. Mounin believes that translation is a special and universal language activity, which naturally belongs to the scope of linguistics research, and the research results of language science can be applied to the study of translation problems. Mounin admit that the translation of poetry, the literature such as drama, movies, many factors other than language and paralanguage does play an important role, but the basis of translation activity is mainly to the original and the translation of linguistic analysis, and applied linguistics is more than any other skilled experience can provide accurate and reliable. Of course, from another point of view, especially from the perspective of the development of translation studies as an independent discipline since the 1980s, the practice of classifying translation studies as linguistics has been outdated. However, even if translatology is regarded as an independent discipline, its independence is only relative. Since translation (interlingual and intralingual translation) necessarily involves language, translation studies should not and cannot be completely free from the influence of linguistics at any time. In this sense, Mounin's view of linguistic translation has always been positive.
Since the 1970s and 1980s, the interpretive school represented by Seleskovitch or the Paris School has emerged in the field of Translation studies in France and become the most remarkable and French characteristic in the post-modern period, thus forming the second major feature of the development of contemporary French translation theory. It should be said that this school does not negate the basic idea of the school of linguistics to study linguistic phenomena, but only opposes the pure linguistic orientation of the school of linguistics and focuses on the research method of form. Interpretive theory holds that translation is a linguistic act, but it requires the participation of extralinguistic knowledge. Whether it is diachronic linguistics in the 19th century, synchronic descriptive linguistics and contrastive structural linguistics in the 20th century, or the later transformational generative grammar theory, it ignores the pragmatic context as the main component of language communication, so it cannot reasonably explain translation problems. Based on practice, the theory of interpretation studies translation as a linguistic act, and interprets and conveys the meaning of language from linguistic factors, cultural factors, and extralinguistic factors, so as to give a scientific and reasonable explanation to the reality of translation.
An important feature of interpretive translation theory is to reveal the essence of translation as communicative behavior from practice. Interpretivism holds that translation is a kind of linguistic act, which, like language use, must be supported by non-linguistic knowledge. However, as an act, the object of translation is not language, but meaning, which is the communicative meaning of the text. The output of meaning requires the combination of nonverbal thoughts and signs, and the reception of meaning requires the conscious behavior of the addressee. The arrangement of words is only a means of meaning formation for the originator of words. The understanding and grasp of meaning need to get rid of the original language form. The acquisition of meaning is instantaneous, not staged. Meaning is not the sum of words, but an organic whole, and the comprehension of meaning is completed at the level of discourse.
According to the interpretive theory, language and thought are separated in the translation of translators. Language and thought are not exactly the same thing, but there is a constant two-way communication between them. Thought waves can be transformed into language, and language can be transformed into thought waves. Human knowledge and experience do not reside in the brain in the form of words.
Interpretive theory also holds that understanding requires the participation of cognitive knowledge; The process of comprehension is the process of interpretation. Interpretation is the prerequisite of translation, and translation cannot be carried out without interpretation. Translation, on the other hand, is interpretation. Interpretive translation is a translation of meaning equivalence, which is established between texts. If a translation is to be successful, it is necessary to seek the overall meaning equivalence between the source text and the target text, and the meaning equivalence needs to achieve cognitive and emotional equivalence. Translators use their own abilities to organically combine the cognitive content and emotional content of the source text into an indivisible whole, and then successfully express it. Only in this way can the equivalence of meaning be achieved, which is the essence of the interpretive theory.
The interpretive theory also focuses on fidelity. The translator cannot interpret at will, and his interpretation and understanding can only be faithful to the actual content of the speaker. Although the interpreter interprets in his own words, he conveys the meaning of the speaker and imitates the speaker's style. The interpreter should understand the overall style of the speech, and tend to be consistent with the speaker, should be as far as possible to get rid of the constraints of words, in order to accurately reflect the original style.
== Conclusion==
There may be many deficiencies and omissions in the simple combing of French translation history, but as a powerful and long-standing western developed country, France's translation process and theory have great research and reference significance for China and the world. The world is still developing, so is translation. With the development of modern science and technology, people explore translation more deeply, and new theories are constantly put forward. Therefore, we should seize the trend of the times, base ourselves on China, look at the world and seriously study these excellent theories.
== References==
[1]Chen Shunyi陈顺意（2014）.法国翻译理论源流Sources and schools of French translation theory.法国研究The French Study.
[2]Tan Zaixi谭载喜（2004）.西方翻译简史A Short History of Translation in the West.商务印书馆The Commercial Press.
[3]Xu Jun许均,Yuan Xiao一袁筱一(1998).当代法国翻译理论Contemporary Translation Study in France .湖北教育出版社Hubei Education Press.
[4]Liu Mingjiu柳鸣九,Zheng Kelu郑克鲁,Zhang Yinglun张英伦(1979).法国文学史History of French Literature,人民文学出版社People's Literature Publishing House
[5]Xie Tianzhen谢天振（2009）.中西翻译简史A brief history of Chinese and Western translation,外语教育与研究出版社Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.

=李新星A Comparative Study on The Translation history of Modern Chinese and Korean Literature under the Background of "Western Learning" (1894~1949) =
==Abstract==
The spreading of Western learning to the east is an extensive and far-reaching influence of modern Western culture on eastern civilization, which started from translation as a means of cultural communication.Scholars in China and Korea have always recognized the influence of the eastward spread of Western learning on the development of translation in their countries.However, most studies on modern and contemporary translation take the country as the boundary and rarely talk about the comparison and exchange between the two countries.In fact, although there are some individual differences between Chinese and Korean translation in modern times due to different national conditions, there are also many similarities and connections worthy of attention and research.From the perspective of translation history, this paper will explore the history of literary translation in China and Korea under the trend of western learning to the east, compare the commonness and individuality of the two countries' literary translation practices, explore the historical information behind the translation practices, and finally achieve the purpose of restoring the history of cultural (literary) exchanges between the two countries.

The spreading of western culture to the East was an extensive and far-reaching influence of modern Western culture on Eastern civilization, resulted from translation as a means of cultural communication.Scholars in China and Korea had always recognized the influence of the eastward spread of Western learning on the development of translation in their countries. However, most studies on modern and contemporary translation take the country as the boundary and rarely talk about the comparison and exchange between the two countries.In fact, regardless of some individual differences between Chinese and Korean translation in modern times due to different national conditions, there are also many similarities and connections worthy of attention and research.From the perspective of translation history, this paper will explore the history of literary translation in China and Korea under the trend of western learning to the East, compare the commonness and individuality of the two countries' literary translation practices, dig out the historical information behind the practices, and finally achieve the purpose of restoring the history of cultural exchanges between the two.--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 07:23, 11 December 2021 (UTC)

==Key words==
History of literary translation；“Western Learning”;China;Korea

==摘要==
西学东渐是近代西方文化对东方文明的一次广泛而深远的影响，而这影响首先是从作为文化交流的手段———翻译开始的。一直以来，中韩两国学者都认同西学东渐对本国翻译发展的影响，但现有的研究在探讨近现代翻译时大多以本国为界，很少谈及两国比较和交流。而实际上，虽然因为国情不同，中国与朝鲜半岛的近现代翻译存在一定的个体差异，但同时也有很多相似点和联系点值得关注和研究。本文将从翻译史视角出发，窥探西学东渐时代潮流下中韩两国文学翻译史的面貌，比较两国文学翻译实践的共性和个性，发掘翻译实践背后的历史信息，最终达到还原两国文化 (文学) 交流史的目的。

==关键词==
文学翻译史；“西学东渐”；中国；朝鲜（韩国）

==1.Introduction==
The spreading of Western learning to the east is an extensive and far-reaching influence of modern Western culture on Eastern civilization.Late 19th century to early 20th century,When the West had modernized and gradually replaced the East as the world's dominant power,The three East Asian countries ( China, Japan and Korea), which had been sleeping for a long time, were gradually awakened and embarked on the "journey" of modernization.Among them, In order to achieve a rich country and a strong army, Japan left Asia and entered Europe,Take the lead in taking a series of measures to actively learn from the West and introduce advanced ideas and culture.The main measure is to develop the translation of western literature.Under the influence of such a large environment, the translation of overseas literature in China and the Korean Peninsula has also set off a boom.It can be said that the influence of the eastward spreading of Western learning on the modernization of East Asia began with translation as a means of cultural exchange.
Some scholars have pointed out that in the process of modernization in East Asia represented by Japan,Translation plays an important role.Without translation, East Asia would not have been able to open the door to modernization.This is also true in modern China and the Korean Peninsula.It can be said that after entering the modern society, the cultural exchanges between the two countries were continued through translation --"A history of translation is not only a history of cultural exchange, but also a history of the dissemination of ideas".As we all know, the study of translation history is a "basic project" in the construction of translation discipline.Behrman, a famous translator and translation theorist, once pointed out that "the composition of translation history is the first task of modern translation theory, and self-reflection is the establishment of itself" .The history of literary translation is an important part of the study of translation history and an indispensable factor in the investigation of a country's literature and even the whole cultural background in a particular period.
In view of the above analysis, the author believes that in order to have a macro and in-depth understanding of the cultural exchanges between China and Korea in modern times.It is necessary for us to make a comparative study of literary translation between the two countries during this period (1894 ~ 1949).Writers believe that only by putting literary translation activities into a larger social and historical context can we have a clearer understanding of the translation practices of the two countries at that time.Therefore, from the perspective of translation history, this paper will explore the history of literary translation in China and Korea under the trend of western learning to the east, compare the commonness and individuality of the two countries'literary translation practices, explore the historical information behind the translation practices, and finally achieve the purpose of restoring the history of cultural (literary) exchanges between the two countries.

The spreading of Western learning to the east exerted an extensive and far-reaching influence on Eastern civilization.In the late 19th century to early 20th century,when the West had modernized and gradually replaced the East as the world's dominant power,the three East Asian countries (China,Japan and Korea),which had been sleeping for a long time, were gradually awakened and embarked on the "journey" of modernization. In order to attain prosperity, Japan left Asia and entered Europe, taking a series of measures to actively learn from the West and introduce advanced ideas and culture through the media of translation.Under the influence of such a univerasl situation, the translation of overseas literature in China and the Korean Peninsula had also set off a boom.It could be said that the influence of the eastward spreading of western learning on the modernization of East Asia began with translation as a means of cultural exchange.
Some scholars have pointed out that translation plays an important role in the process of modernization in East Asia represented by Japan.Without translation,East Asia would not have been able to open the door to modernization.This is also true in modern China and the Korean Peninsula.It can be said that after entering the modern society, the cultural exchanges between the two countries were continued through translation --"A history of translation is not only a history of cultural exchange, but also a history of the dissemination of ideas".As we all know, the study of translation history is a "basic project" in the construction of translation discipline.Behrman, a famous translator and translation theorist, once pointed out that "the composition of translation history is the first task of modern translation theory, and self-reflection is the establishment of itself".The history of literary translation is an important part of the study of translation history and an indispensable factor in the investigation of a country's literature and even the whole cultural background in a particular period.
In view of the above analysis, the author believes that in order to have a macro and in-depth understanding of the cultural exchanges between China and Korea in modern times.It is necessary for us to make a comparative study of literary translation between the two countries from 1894 to 1949. Only by putting literary translation activities into a larger social and historical context can we have a clearer understanding of the translation practices of the two countries at that time.Therefore, from the perspective of translation history, this paper will explore the history of literary translation in China and Korea under the trend of western learning to the East, compare the commonness and individuality of the two countries' literary translation practices, explore the historical information behind the practices, and finally achieve the purpose of restoring the history of cultural (literary) exchanges between the two countries.--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 07:34, 11 December 2021 (UTC)

==2. The origin and development of modern translation in both countries ==
After being opened to the outside world, western civilization flooded in. China and North Korea, which had been pursuing the policy of "closing the door to the outside world", began to "open their eyes to the world".From the government to the people, there has been an upsurge in the introduction of advanced Western civilization.Translation plays an important, even decisive role in this process.
====2.1The historical evolution of Modern Translation in China====
As is known to all, Among the three East Asian countries, China is the first to pay attention to the West and understand and learn the West through translation.In the 1860s, after the Westernization Movement, a climax of modern Chinese translation began slowly.Strictly speaking, this translation period can be further divided into two stages, namely, with the Sino-Japanese War of 1894 as the dividing line, the early stage was the translation period dominated by westernization school, and the later stage was the translation period dominated by reformists.If the translation during the Westernization Movement was the primary stage of modern Western learning translation in China, there were still many problems, then the translation activities led by reformists such as Kang Youwei, Liang Qichao and Yan Fu had a greater development in terms of scale, significance and function.From the perspective of translation history, they set up translation institutes and translated western books widely(Especially those that had a great influence on Meiji Restoration in Japan.)Training translation talents, etc.Its scale, breadth of subjects, quantity and quality are unmatched by translation in the Westernization period.It should be noted that since the 1880s, China's interest in learning from the West has shifted from science to politics, education system and so on.In the late Qing Dynasty and early period, literary works gradually became the main object of translation activities.In the minds of the Vixinists represented by Liang Qichao, novels have become the most appropriate tool for political reform, popular enlightenment and the modernization of the country.Thus, beginning in the late 19th and early 20th centuries,Foreign literature has been widely translated into China, and communication channels include not only modern media such as newspapers and magazines, but also single-line books and large-scale translation literature series, which have also produced a series of arguments and discussions on translation methods and techniques.Modern Chinese translation has also entered a new period, that is, from the Ming and Qing period of scientific and technological translation as the mainstream gradually to culture / literature / literary translation as the core of the translation activities period.Overall, the translation of modern foreign literature in China from the end of the 19th century to the period 1949 can be broken down into the following three stages.
The first stage was from the late Qing Dynasty and the early Republic of China to the May 4th Movement in 1919.In December 1898, Liang Qichao translated The Japanese political novel The Adventure of The Beautiful Woman in Qingyi Daily. In 1900, Zhou translated one of the most influential works in Japanese political fiction, Yano Ryuki's "On The Classics of America".Since then, many Japanese political novels have been translated and introduced to China.After a more concentrated translation of political novels, other genres, such as history, science and the popular detective novels, have also been introduced.After 1907, a variety of modern literary magazines sprang up, and a large number of translated novels were published in these magazines in serial form, among which the serialized translated novels in magazines such as "Novel Forest" and "New Novel Cluster" even occupied absolute space, forming the first climax of foreign novel translation.However, it should be emphasized that the translation of literary works in this period was still in the exploratory stage,Although there are a large number of works, there are problems in the selection of works, translation skills and strategies.
The second period is 1916 to 1936. This period can be further subdivided into the May Fourth Movement period and the Left Coalition Period.With the development of the New literature movement, Chinese literary translation has entered the most glorious period in the history of translation.Compared with the late Qing Dynasty, literary translation in this period was larger in scale, higher in quantity and quality, and its influence was unprecedented.It is worth emphasizing that almost all the heavyweights in the history of modern Chinese literature have participated in the translation and introduction.In addition to translation works, they also introduced various literary and artistic thoughts, and actively explored and discussed translation methods and theories.Especially with their active advocacy and hard work, The translation industry in China has been closely integrated with the struggle against imperialism and feudalism.It completely changed the chaotic and unprincipled state of translation circles before the May 4th Movement.In addition, it was from this time that China's translation of Soviet/Russian literature gradually reached its peak.It can be said that the mainstream of Chinese literature translation in the 1930s was Marxist literary trend of thought and progressive literature (especially Soviet/Russian literature).Of course, in addition to Russian/Soviet literature, this period has translated the literature of Britain, The United States, Japan, France, Germany and southeast Northern Europe and Asia.
The third period is from 1937 to 1949. After the war of Resistance against Japan broke out.The translation community, like the rest of the country, has concentrated all its efforts on the cause of saving the nation from extinction and striving for liberation.Therefore, the pace of development of Translation in China slowed down during this period.In spite of this, Chinese writers and translators have overcome various difficulties and translated and published many excellent foreign literary works.During this period, there was a wide range of translations, ranging from western European classical literature to war literature at that time, and even ancient Greek literature and Jewish literature.In terms of genres, there are novels, poems, plays, prose and even some academic works on literary history.A number of famous translators in the history of Chinese translation literature, such as Zhu Shenghao, Ge Baoquan, Fu Lei, Liang Shiqiu, Lin Yutang and so on, are active in literary translation.Of course, the biggest characteristic of this period was the translation of the Soviet Union and other countries anti-fascist war works, in particular, the establishment of the revolutionary translation group "Times Press", published the revolutionary translation publication "Soviet Literature", a large number of Soviet literary and artistic works.

====2.2 The situation of modern and contemporary Translation on the Korean Peninsula and the Influence of China==
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From the end of the 19th century, western civilization began to flow into East Asia on a large scale, and Korea was further plunged into the situation of internal troubles and foreign aggression. Faced with the complicated situation at home and abroad, the enlightened intellectuals of Korea further realized that translating Western books was an important task at that time. As early as 1886, The "Seoul Weekly" published by Powen Bureau had a column specially emphasizing the importance of translation, and proposed to establish a special translation agency to translate foreign books. And six years later, another important newspaper of the day 《Huangcheng News 》also commented, stressing that translation is an important means to enrich the country and strengthen the army and realize modern civilization. We call for the establishment of specialized translation institutions under the guidance of the government "to strengthen the guidance and management of translation. On behalf of this, not only all kinds of news media actively propagated, but also some intellectuals at that time called for the realization of civilization and the prosperity of the country and the strength of the army by translating overseas literature and learning advanced western experience. As a result, the Korean Peninsula at that time set off a boom in the translation of overseas works, especially literary works. Of course, as in China, one of the preconditions for translating Western books in the Korean Peninsula was the development of modern media, which provided a platform for the dissemination of written works at that time. After the 1895-1895 revolution, modern schools were established one after another, and special language schools were set up, which played a positive role in understanding overseas and spreading Western culture, and reserved talents for the translation and introduction of foreign literature.
Generally speaking, the history of translation of foreign works on the Korean Peninsula from 1895 to 1949 can be divided into the following five stages: Patriotic enlightenment period (1895-1910), translation literature awakening period (1911-1919), translation into the proper period (1920-1935), dark Period (1936-1945), Regeneration period (1945 ~1949). We can refer to Kim Byung-chul's Studies on the History of Modern Korean Translation Literature, the earliest and only work on the history of modern Korean Translation literature. However, it is worth noting that Kim Byung-chul's pioneering work has carefully combed and studied the translation history of modern Korean literature from both macro and micro perspectives. However, there is no introduction to the translation of Chinese and Japanese literature. In fact, in the whole modern and modern period, although the communication between China and South Korea seems not as active and close as that in ancient times, the spiritual, political and cultural ties that have connected the two countries for thousands of years have not disappeared overnight. This point can be seen from the early stage of The History of Korean translated literature with China as the medium of translation activities and the late continuous translation of Modern Chinese literature.
The first stage (1895-1910) is the period of patriotic enlightenment，The main function of translation in this period was "enlightenment of civilization, independence, social and political enlightenment", and the translation activities inevitably had obvious purpose and utility. The patriotic enlighteners represented by Xuan CAI, Zhang Zhiyuan, Shen Caihao and Zhou Shijing received Chinese education from childhood and were deeply influenced by Confucian culture. Most of the works translated from The Korean Peninsula during this period were biographies of great men, history of the war, history of independence and geographical history. Almost all the translated works are from Chinese and Japanese versions. According to statistics, there were about 37 separate editions of such works translated in the Korean Peninsula before 1910, among which 16 were based on Chinese translations, not including those published in newspapers and magazines. In particular, it is worth emphasizing the important works in the early history of Korean literature, such as The History of The Fall of Vietnam, the Biography of the Three Masters of the Founding of Italy, and so on.The Biography of the Patriotic Lady was introduced to the Korean Peninsula based on the Chinese version. In addition, the Japanese Ryoki Yano's Korean single version of The Book On The Nation and the United States (1908, Translated by Hyun Gonglian) was based on zhou Kui's Chinese version in 1907. It is also highly likely that The first western literary work to be officially translated into Korea, Robin Sun Crusoe (1908, translated by Kim Chan), was translated into Chinese. In a word, China's influence cannot be ignored in the history of translated literature during the Korean civilization period.
The second stage (1910 ~ 1919) is called "the Awakening period of Translated literature". The translation activities of this period did have many characteristics different from those of the previous period. For example, many translations clearly identify the original author and translator; There appeared some literary magazines that paid attention to translation, such as Youth, New Star, Youth, Light of Learning and New Wenjie.“Three Lights", and "Tai Xi Literature and Art News" founded in 1918 with the main purpose of translating foreign literary works; At the beginning, it was consciously emphasized that translation should be based on the original text rather than through a third language. Translation methods also began to emphasize the separation from the earlier simple emphasis on the transmission of content translation, summary translation, abbreviated translation, etc. It puts forward the importance of respecting the original text and being faithful to the original text, and actively practices it. Kim Il and other important figures in the history of Korean translation literature have officially started their translation activities. And so on. All these indicate that the translation activities on the Korean Peninsula have "awakened" and are ready for further progress on the right track.
Generally speaking, since 1908, when Juvenile was first published，The Translated literature of the Korean Peninsula further broke away from the original utilitarian and purist nature and began to enter the era of "pure literature and art" translation. Since then, a great deal of Western literature has been translated into The Korean peninsula, and the quality of translation in this period is significantly higher than that of the Patriotic Enlightenment period. In addition to new novelists such as Lee Sang-hyup, Lee Hae-jo and Ahn Guk-seon, the translators also include famous figures in the history of literature such as Choi Nam-seon, Hong Myung-hee and Lee Kwang-soo, as well as some publishers and media workers. It is worth noting that some scholars believe that literary exchanges between China and Korea ended after Japan annexed the Korean Peninsula in 1910. This view is obviously somewhat arbitrary. According to incomplete statistics, at least 20 Chinese translations were introduced to the Korean Peninsula through the medium of Chinese translations, although the translation activities based on Chinese translations were not as active as in the Enlightenment period. These works include not only reprints of Chinese vernacular novels in Ming and Qing Dynasties, but also western novels based on Chinese translations. Among these Chinese translations of western novels, 8 are from the large western literature translation series "Shuobo Congshu", which was planned and published by the Shanghai Commercial Press in 1903. Choi Chan-sik, a famous writer of new novels at the time, recalled that recalled that he began writing a new novel after translating a book in the "Shaobo Series" published in Shanghai, China. These data show that even at a time when Japan's control over the Korean Peninsula was increasing, China's translation and media activities still have a certain influence on Korean intellectuals. In other words, under the new historical conditions, the cultural exchanges between the two countries are still struggling to continue in a new form.
The third stage (1920-1935) marked the beginning of joseon's translation literature. According to Kim byung-chul's statistics, at least 600 foreign literary works have been translated to the Korean Peninsula in various forms since the 1920s, Genres include fiction, poetry, drama, essays, fairy tales, and some literary criticism, Countries involved Britain, the United States, Germany, France, Russia, India and so on. Of course, this statistic does not include the translation of Chinese literature. In fact, after the 1920s, one of the biggest changes in the history of Sino-Korean translation was the movement that was then in China and the new literary works began to be translated and introduced to the Korean Peninsula. According to incomplete statistics, about 30 kinds of modern Chinese literary works including novels were translated and translated in the Korean Peninsula during the colonial period (In addition to the only collection of Chinese Short Stories during the colonial period), 16 plays, 41 poems, 3 essays, 1 fairy tale, etc., and more than a dozen literary criticism. If we add the Chinese classical literature translated in this period, we can say that after 1920, the translation of Chinese literature in the Korean Peninsula is relatively comprehensive and continuous, which should not be excluded from the history of Korean translated literature.
The fourth stage (1936-1945) was a dark period for the entire Korean Peninsula. In terms of translated literature, Japan has strengthened its control over public opinion and media by strengthening its policy of suppressing national language, The flood of Japanese books, coupled with the growing economic collapse on the Korean peninsula, has put pressure on the publishing industry and reduced the number of magazines, Access to foreign books has also been blocked, resulting in a huge blow to translation activities on the Korean Peninsula. This was the darkest period in the history of Translated literature on the Korean Peninsula. Although there were sporadic translations of Chinese literary works, they only catered to the political needs of the Japanese colonial government and chose some works that were irrelevant to politics and even covered up and beautified its militarist ambitions. In 1940, for example, Three Thousand Miles magazine ran a special collection of "New Chinese literature,"The content of the works is either daily life, love or traditional art, which has nothing to do with politics, and the original translations are entirely dependent on Japanese translations. The content of the works is either daily life, love or traditional art, which has nothing to do with politics, and the original translations are entirely dependent on Japanese translations.
In the fifth stage (1945-1949), the Korean Peninsula was finally liberated from Japanese colonial rule. The country was in ruins and all walks of life seemed to be full of hope, but at the same time, it was in a sudden chaos. At this time, translation has gradually entered the recovery period. From the point of view of countries, the United States and the Soviet Union were the most translated works, which obviously reflected the political situation and ideology at that time. However, the translation and study of modern Chinese literature also ushered in a brief bright period. Many researchers from academic schools joined the ranks of translation, and the translation of their works also moved toward specialization and systematization, with the emergence of selected Modern Chinese Short Stories (1946), Short Stories of Lu Xun (1946), Selected Modern Chinese Poems (1947) and other individual editions. He even published the history of Modern Chinese Literature (1949), the first book of Chinese studies in Korea. Compared with the colonial period, translation at this time was no longer subject to many restrictions, and further got rid of the early enlightenment and utilitarian color in nature. It began to attempt to approach modern Chinese literary works from the perspective of aesthetics and pure literature and carried out systematic and professional research. Translators seem to want to make up for the many regrets of the colonial period and are eager to translate and study modern Chinese literature in an all-round way. Unfortunately, this boom came to an abrupt end after the outbreak of the war in 1950, and The cause of Chinese literary translation fell into recession again.

==3. Differences and Similarities in the translation history of Modern Chinese and Korean literature==
Differences and similarities in the translation history of Modern Chinese and Korean literature
As is known to all, since the 1970s, translation studies have achieved a "cultural" shift, and the scope of research has expanded from the purely linguistic category to the non-linguistic category of culture, ideology, power relations, politics and so on.The literariness and thinking of literary works determine that literary translation has the dual orientation of ideology and poetics.Therefore, the study of literary translation should be connected with the socio-historical background and the poetic background so as to analyze and explain the important translation phenomena in depth.Throughout the history of modern literary translation in China and South Korea, we will find that the biggest similarity is that the "cultural political practice" (Venuti) of translation has always been controlled by ideology.Under the environment of western learning spreading eastward, one of the main social ideologies in East Asia was"Modern transformation".As an important means of modernization transformation, translation not only has an impact on the political and economic development of China and Korea, but also plays an important role in the two countries' acceptance of Western civilization, dissemination of new knowledge, formation of new culture, and the development of their own language and literature.In the process of sorting out the translation history of modern Chinese and Korean literature, we can clearly find that there are many similarities and intersections, and of course there are individual differences.Whether similarities or differences arise, some of them are related to the social ideology of the two countries, and some are related to the influence of the translator's personal ideology.It can be said that ideology permeates all aspects of modern translation in both countries, especially the change and development of social ideology plays a significant role in the evolution of translation.Below, this paper will compare and analyze the similarities and differences of literary translation between the two countries from several aspects.
(1) The nature and motivation of translation
In terms of the nature of translation, the modern translation activities in China and South Korea have obvious utilitarian, effective and political characteristics.Before the formal launch of literary translation, China had gone through a long stage of translating and introducing western scientific and technological books for the purpose of learning from the West, strengthening industrial development and achieving a prosperous country and a strong army.After the failure of the Reform movement of 1898, the development of Chinese foreign literature translation was in fact based on the translation of novels.One of the reasons is that Liang Qichao, the leader of the Reformists, put forward the slogan of "novel revolution" and advocated the translation of political novels, blowing the horn of literary translation. At the same time, a group of literary translators represented by Lin Shu actively engaged in translation practice, which also promoted the development of literary translation at that time.At that time, the purpose of literary translation was also to enlightening the people, reforming the society and giving play to the unique role of literary thought in shaping the "consciousness of the world".After the May 4th Movement, political demands still played a leading role in the selection of translators despite literary factors.On the other hand, the Korean Peninsula, because of the late opening of port and the depth of the country's internal troubles and foreign aggression, had no time to translate western literature as China and Japan did in terms of promoting industrial development and enriching the country and strengthening its armed forces.For them, translation is first of all a means of understanding the outside world, and its direct purpose is to get rid of the control of foreign forces and achieve independence.Therefore, the modern translation of the Korean Peninsula did not go through the stage of large-scale scientific translation, but from the very beginning, a part of social science translation and a large number of literary translation, including political novels, biographies of great men and so on.In particular, the translation of literary works has always occupied an important position in the modern translation of the Korean Peninsula.It is worth mentioning that liang Qichao had a great influence on literary translation during the Period of Korean Civilization.It was under his influence that a large number of political novels were translated and introduced to the Korean Peninsula, and played an important role in the transformation of thoughts and concepts in the Korean Peninsula in the modern period and the emergence and development of modern literature.Of course, after entering the period of colonial rule, the Translation of the Korean Peninsula became more colonial,In many ways, it is more influenced and restricted by Japan. Although there is also the pursuit of literature, the final translation inevitably has a strong political nature.In a word, the translation activities in the first half of the 20th century in both countries are determined by both literary factors and social ideology, but in the final analysis, the latter always plays a dominant role.Due to the special historical environment and similar fate, translation in both countries has strong utilitarian, utility and political characteristics to a large extent, which are the manifestation of the "manipulation" of translation by the ideological form.
(2) The source of the translation
There is no doubt that in all stages of modern translation history, the sources of translated works in the two countries are closely related to Japan, but there are differences in the specific range of sources and degree of dependence on Japan.In fact, before the late Qing Dynasty, a large number of Western scientific and technological books translated in China were basically based on the original Western language.In the translation period dominated by the Reformists, due to the vigorous development of Japanese translation and the characteristics of easy learning and understanding of Japanese, Liang Qichao and Kang Youwei advocated the translation of foreign works from Japanese. It was not until then that A large number of Japanese translations were carried out in China.
After the May 4th Movement, Translation in China flourished, with translators of various languages appearing in large numbers and many intellectuals participating in translation activities.At this time, the original versions of Chinese translations are also varied, including Japanese and English versions, and many are directly translated from the original.On the other hand, due to the influence of history, during the whole period of the Korean Peninsula, the translation of foreign books mainly consisted of Japanese and Chinese versions, and few of them were directly translated from the original.After entering the period of colonial rule, due to Japan's rule and influence on the Korean Peninsula in various fields, there were fewer and fewer translation cases based on The Chinese version, and the Japanese version took the dominant position.However, due to the increasing number of intellectuals focusing on Western language and literature (such as the emergence of the "Overseas Literature School" in 1926), the call for translation based on the original text became stronger and stronger.After all, most of the Korean intellectuals of the "overseas literary school" studied in Japan,Therefore, although they put forward the slogan of "translation from the original text", their translation activities are still directly or indirectly influenced by the Japanese knowledge system.In short, if the modern times of East Asia are "modern times of translation", as a bridge of translation in East Asia, Japanese translation is based on the original text or English.In China, there are both literal translation of the original text and retranslation of English and Japanese versions. On the other hand, Korean translation sources are a little bit unitary, basically retranslating some Chinese and most Japanese versions.However, from another point of view, the translation path of the Korean Peninsula at that time was the most complicated among the three countries, which could be the path of "Japanese → Korean", "Western → Chinese → Korean" or even "Western → Japanese → Chinese → Korean".
At that time, many Korean intellectuals were fluent in both Chinese and Japanese, so it was difficult to refer to only one source in the translation process.For example, The book On The Classics and The United States (1908), marked with the "translation" of Xuan Gonglian, was published with reference to both the Japanese and Chinese versions.Kim Kyo-je, a famous writer of new novels in the early modern period, translated or reprinted 11 novels at least four were translated to the Korean Peninsula through the path of "Western → Chinese → Korean";While Li Haichao translated Iron World (1908), the translation path is "Western → Japanese → Chinese → Korean" .
In Korea at that time, this kind of double, triple or even multiple retranslation is very common. For this reason, the modern Korean Peninsula is also called "retranslated modern times" by scholars.
(3) Topic selection and content of the translated work
Corresponding to the nature, motivation and characteristics of translation, there are not only similarities and intersecting points, but also their own characteristics in the topic selection of translated works.For example, the pilgrim's Progress, a religious novel by English novelist John Bunyan (1628-1688), was among the first western literary works translated in both countries.
This fact reflects the important role of western missionaries in the translation history of the two countries.Aesop's Fables is also one of the earliest and most frequently translated western literary works in both countries.Aesop's Fables was translated many times in both countries and included in the textbooks of the time as a children's book.After entering the modern and contemporary period, both countries highly respected historical and biographical works and political novels, and had a period of concentrated translation.For example, political novels such as "A Journey with the Wind", "Jingguo Meiyu" and "Iron World" have been translated into Chinese and English respectively.In addition, many historical and biographical works (especially the history of subjugations) were translated into The Korean Peninsula through Chinese media at that time, such as The Founding of Switzerland and Fifteen Little Heroes. As well as liang Qichao's writings or translations of the hundred Days' Coup, The History of the Fall of Vietnam, the biography of the three Heroes of the Founding of Italia, The biography of Madame Roland, and the biography of Hungarian patriot Gasus, etc.History books such as A New History of Tai Xi, a Brief History of Russia, A War in the Middle East and modern History of Egypt were also translated from Chinese versions. In the whole period of civilization, the Korean Peninsula concentrated on the translation of history, biographical works and political novels, although there is no lack of Japanese influence, but obviously The Influence of China can not be ignored.Due to reasons such as politics, current affairs and the market, the two countries in politics, history and biography of before and after the translation in the first decade of the 20th century gradually into the low tide, and other types of novels, such as science fiction, detective novels, western pure literary fiction and gradually be translated a lot, at the same time, poetry translation have greater development.It is worth mentioning that translation in both countries reached a new climax after the late decade of the first decade of the 20th century.In terms of the number and diversity of genres, China is far more diverse than The Korean Peninsula, but there are some interesting intersections in the literary translation topics of the two countries, such as Shakespeare, Hardy, Stevenson and Conan Doyle in The UK, Tolstoy, Gorky and Chekov in Russia, Tagore in India,Norway's Ibsen and other works have had a great influence in both countries.It is worth mentioning that there are obvious differences between the two countries in the topic selection of translated works as follows. The first is the translation of Japanese literature
The problem. As we all know, Japanese literature plays a very important role in the history of Chinese translation of foreign literature in the 20th century.On the Korean Peninsula, although the influence of Japanese literature is beyond doubt, and the translation of Japanese literature in the first half of the 20th century can be said to run through the whole modern translation activities of the Korean Peninsula, but the translation of Japanese literature in the Korean Peninsula itself is very few.
The reasons are mainly related to the special political and historical background of the Korean Peninsula and the control and infiltration of Japanese language in the Korean Peninsula after entering the colonial period, as well as the role of national emotional factors.Secondly, the translation and introduction of the other side's literature. In the first half of the 20th century, the literature of the two countries was not the main target of translation in each other's country, but this does not mean that there is no overlap between them. On the whole, the Korean Peninsula paid more and deeper attention to Chinese literature than China did to Korean literature during this period.After entering the modern society, under the extremely complicated and difficult cultural environment, the Korean Peninsula continued to translate Chinese vernacular novels and some classical poems in the Ming and Qing dynasties, and at the same time carried out a relatively concentrated translation of Liang Qichao, the pioneer of Chinese novel revolution. However, what is more noteworthy is his continuous translation and introduction of New Chinese literature, which started in the second half of the 1910s.Due to the special historical and geographical relationship, Korea is the first country in the world to notice China's new cultural movement except Japan. At that time, many magazines and newspapers on the Korean Peninsula introduced and reported the New Chinese literature. Some Korean intellectuals had deep feelings about the innovative atmosphere in The Chinese literary circle and hoped to provide necessary reference for the improvement and innovation of their own literature through the translation and introduction of The new Chinese literature.In a word, during the Period of Japanese rule, the Translation and introduction of modern Chinese literature in The Korean Peninsula was quite comprehensive, and many famous writers and works in the history of Chinese literature were involved in the topic selection, which played an important role in the study of Chinese literature in Korea. On the contrary, China's translation of Korean literature at that time was very limited, mainly due to the concern of "weak and weak ethnic literature", and also influenced by the war ideology of anti-japanese and national salvation, nationalism. However, in the huge history of modern Chinese literature translation, the translation of Korean literature is just a drop in the ocean and has not received enough attention. All in all, the depth and breadth of the translation of each other's works is extremely unbalanced.
(4) The translator's main body, translation strategies and methods
There are also similarities between the two countries on the subject of translators in the history of modern translation literature. In the early stage of translation activities, western missionaries played a great role. Later, famous intellectuals, social activists and literary scholars of the two countries realized the importance of translation, actively participated in translation activities, and became the leading leaders of modern translation in the two countries.For example, yan Fu, Liang Qichao and Lin Shu were active translators in early China, while xuan CAI, Pu Yinzhi, Shen Caihao and other famous scholars, thinkers and social activists led the translation during the Korean Peninsula's enlightenment period. After entering the decade of the 20th century, the translation of the two countries gradually entered the climax.Many Chinese writers, including Lu Xun, Guo Moruo and Zhou Zuoren, actively translated while writing. Choi Nam-sun and Lee Kwang-soo, leaders of Korean literature in the first decade of the 20th century, also actively translated their works.In addition, famous writers of new novels such as Lee Hae-jo, Ahn Guk-seon, and Choi Chan-sik were motivated and motivated by translation activities. With the development of translation, a number of specialized literary translators have emerged in both countries. In addition, some new women at that time also participated in the translation, such as Bing Xin from China and Kim Myung-soon from Korea.In terms of translation strategies or ways, early modern translation system is far from mature, highly standard translation way, utilitarian purpose, color thick, many translators from themselves and the needs of the audience, or excerpts and delete any reduction of the original (AD, Jane), or add their own opinions and comments in the process of translation, the tai shang ganying pian), Or in the form of translation only summarize the general idea (synopsis), for example, liang Qichao and Cui Nanshan's translation to a large extent are abridged, synopsis or translation.Generally speaking, the forms and methods of translation at that time were characterized by diversity and hybridity, which were similar in China and Korea. The reason is related to the mainstream ideology of the translation leaders who hoped to enlighten the people, enrich the country and strengthen the army through translation as soon as possible.
(5) Disputes on "Literary translation"
After literary translation gradually got on the right track and became the mainstream of translation works in the two countries, translators in the two countries gained further insights on the application, methods and techniques of translation and gradually began to express their own views on translation, whose discussions cover all aspects of translation. Such as translation methods, translation skills, translation and the status of translators, the role of translation. The opinions of different translators are bound to be different. Therefore, in the modern and contemporary period, both China and South Korea had debates on translation (literary translation). The focus and theme of the debate are similar, such as "translatable or untranslatable", "literal translation versus free translation" and so on.It is well known that in the history of modern Chinese translation, especially in the May Fourth Movement period, many writers began their literary career by translating foreign literature, and most of them published discussions on translation. The differences between different translators and groups have led to several famous debates in the history of Chinese translation. For example, lu Xun and Zhou Zuoren proposed Literal translation and related debates are typical examples. In addition, in the history of modern Chinese translation, there are also debates on "translated names", "translatable or not translatable literary works", translation methods such as mistranlation, hard translation and dead translation, and translation paths such as literal translation or retranslation.The 1920s was a period when the history of modern and contemporary translation in Korea was on the right track. Many newspapers and magazines published discussions on translation and related debates. In the history of modern translation on the Korean Peninsula, one of the most famous disputes about translation is the dispute between Jin Yi and Liang Zhudong about "literal translation" and "free translation" in poetry translation. Liang zhudong believes that poetry is untranslatable and should be literal compared with free translation. Jin Yi believes that although poetry is untranslatable, if translators exert their own subjective initiative, it can completely improve the value of translated poetry and even become a new creation. However, it is interesting that although Liang zhudong praised the method of "literal translation", he criticized the "overseas literature school" that focused on foreign literature at that time for being too rigid in the way of literal translation, and believed that "literal translation" should be organically combined with "free translation".In fact, the debate between literal translation and free translation, or "domestication" and "foreignization", is closely related to ideology.
The debate between translators in the two countries over these issues is actually carried out at the ideological level. According to venuti, a famous translation theorist of deconstruction school, the choice of translation strategy is determined by ideology.
(6) The influence of translation on the languages and literature of the two countries
In fact, the greatest influence of modern literary translation on China and South Korea is reflected in the development of characters and literature. First of all, translation must be carried out with language as the carrier. Under normal circumstances, the translated language is naturally the lingua franca of a country and a nation, but for China and South Korea in the late 19th and 20th centuries, a common problem emerged in the process of translation in terms of language carrier: At that time, both countries had two parallel language systems, which coincided with the social and cultural transition, so language translation became a very interesting topic.As we all know, in the late 19th century and the early 20th century, There were two languages in China: Classical Chinese and vernacular Chinese. Vernacular Chinese was still in the ascendant, while classical Chinese still played an important role in written and literary translation. Of course, the classical Chinese at this time refers to the late Qing Dynasty and the early Republic of China common "shallow classical Chinese", it is different from the past obscure ancient prose, but in classical Chinese mixed with common sayings, is a kind of literary language between ancient Classical Chinese and vernacular.For example, Lin Shu, a great modern translator, translated foreign literature in classical Chinese. His translation was not only welcomed by readers at that time, but also had a great influence on many famous Chinese intellectuals. In the late Qing Dynasty and the early Republic of China, there were both classical Chinese and vernacular Chinese translations, and the classical Chinese translations were more than the vernacular ones, but basically the two languages co-existed peacefully. In the process of translation, the needs of the audience should be considered. The same translator can translate in both vernacular and classical Chinese. The same foreign novel may have both classical and vernacular translations.It was not until after the New Culture Movement that the vernacular style gradually occupied the main position in written language. After the 1920s, the translated works in China were mainly in vernacular. For the development of modern Chinese vernacular, it can be said that the impact of translation is extremely far-reaching. Chinese vernacular can be divided into "traditional vernacular" and "modern vernacular".The traditional vernacular is based on a Dream of Red Mansions.
The vernacular of China represented by such vernacular classics as Water Margin, which is not influenced by western language. The "modern vernacular" is based on the traditional vernacular, influenced by oral and ancient prose and with the color of European, that is, the May 4th Movement advocated vernacular, namely the so-called European vernacular.It is worth noting that this Kind of European vernacular was actually created by western missionaries in China at that time, and the tool of missionaries to create European vernacular is translation. In order to spread religion and western culture smoothly, they translated a large number of Western books, including holy books, and consciously chose words and styles more suitable for ordinary people to read in the process of translation, which was the prototype of vernacular Chinese vigorously advocated by the May Fourth Movement.Similar to the situation in China, the Korean Peninsula in the late 19th and early 20th centuries also had two basic styles, namely, the mixed style of Chinese and Chinese and the pure Style of Chinese. It was only after the 1894-1895 Revolution that the Korean Peninsula's national language began to be widely used. It takes time for any language style to emerge and mature, and the Korean Peninsula's "pure Korean style" is no exception,In 1921, Korean language researchers formed the Korean Language Research Society under the influence of the Zhou Dynasty, which served as an opportunity for the further establishment of the modern Korean language. Before this, mixed Chinese and Korean language played an important role in the written language of the Korean Peninsula for a long time.In fact, the so-called mixed Chinese characters are based on Chinese characters, sometimes using Korean characters. The difference is that some mark Korean characters on Chinese characters, and some do not even mark Korean characters, but only Chinese characters. There is another special case, that is, the pure Chinese style with Korean auxiliary words and endings, such as the "hanging out Chinese style" used by Shen Caihao in the translation of the Biography of the Three Heroes of the Foundation of Itri.It is worth mentioning that it was also western missionaries who initially carried out translation activities in Korean. In order to preach, they carried out translation activities mainly aimed at the "Bible" in the Korean Peninsula, using the Korean language, which was not popular and was not valued by the Korean intellectuals at that time. The purpose of using The Korean language was to make the translated holy book easier for more ordinary people to accept. Kim Byeong-cheol holds that it is the translation of sacred books in the native Korean language that gave birth to the main form of modern literature on the Korean Peninsula, namely the "new novel", and thus promoted the "unity of language and language" and the emergence of modern literature in Korea.In general, the influence of translation on the development of Chinese and Korean characters and literature is far more than that. It can be said that the expansion of sentence structure, the change of style, the enrichment of vocabulary, the improvement of expressive force and the perfection of grammar system of the two languages are all inseparable from translation. In a word, translation has played an indispensable role in the unification of language and language in the history of Chinese and English literature. In addition to its role in language, translation also has a profound influence on the development of modern literature in both countries. As is known to all, the translation and introduction of a large number of foreign novels not only brought strong shock and impact to the literary circles of the two countries at that time, but also provided a lot of reference for the realization of the literary transformation of the two countries.It can be said that in the process of the collision, integration and evolution of eastern and western literature, literary translation plays a decisive external role in the transformation of Chinese and Korean literature from classical form to modern form, and has a great impact on the literary concept, literary type, narrative mode and expression mode. In this regard, researchers in China and South Korea have given positive descriptions.
==4. conclusion==
There are many similarities between China and South Korea in modern times. Under the environment of western learning spreading to the east, both of them were knocked out of the country by the West, suffered the invasion of western powers and Japan successively, and passively started the journey of modernization. Under the circumstance of deepening national crisis of domestic and foreign invasion, the enlightened intellectuals of the two countries have carried out the exploration of saving the nation from extinction, and translation is an important means for them to achieve this goal. To be specific, the historical context of the spreading of Western learning from the end of the 19th century endowed the two countries with unique historical characteristics. Due to the similarity of historical, cultural and political background and mainstream ideology, the translation of modern and contemporary literature in the two countries also presents many similarities and even intersecting points. As analyzed above, the most obvious common point in the modern translation history of China and Korea is ideology Influence throughout. For China and Korea at that time, one of the mainstream ideologies was "modernization transformation", and translation was the driving force for the modernization transformation process of the two countries. Therefore, utilitarianism and purposefulness run through the development of modern translation in both countries. In addition to the mainstream social ideology, the translator's personal ideology also has a great influence on literary translation in both countries.For example, the early translation phenomenon led by Western missionaries and the later translation activities led by intellectuals of the two countries were all carried out by translators for their personal purposes under the influence of the general environment at that time. It can be said that it is because of the influence of the subliminal form of the western learning spreading to the east that the modern and modern translations of the two countries show many similarities or similarities. Comparing the literary translation of the two countries in terms of specific content, we can find many similarities in details. For example, western missionaries played an important role at the beginning. After entering the 20th century, the translation of both countries was deeply influenced by Japan. The translation groups of the two countries were the best intellectuals and representatives of the new culture at that time. When they translated foreign works, they also carried out various discussions and even debates about translation. Translation activities have broadened the horizons of the people of the two countries and enriched their languages, literature and even culture.

It is worth mentioning that cultural exchanges between the two countries have also been continued through translation. Of course, due to the differences in specific situations, there are some differences in literary translation between the two countries while showing common features. The author believes that the biggest difference lies in the scale of translation. To be specific, from the number of translated works and translators, the discussion and construction of translation theories, the importance attached to translation, and the influence and status of translation in the history of national literature, Chinese modern translation is obviously higher. The main reason is that the translation environment and background of the two countries at that time are different, that is, the difference between complete colonies and semi-colonies. Although the Qing Dynasty fell under the background of the competition of western powers, China did not completely become a colony of any power, so it was relatively free and independent in political and cultural development. However, because Korea was annexed and ruled by Japan, it was difficult to develop modernization independently. The whole society was highly dependent on Japan, and it was also greatly restricted and influenced by Japan in terms of ideology. Translation activities were no exception.

As mentioned above, the purpose of the author's comparative study of Chinese and Korean contemporary literature translation is to restore the contemporary and contemporary literary exchanges between the two countries, and at the same time to provide necessary background for the mutual translation and introduction of the contemporary and contemporary literature of the two countries. However, the study of Chinese and Korean modern literature translation is a polyphonic and polysemy subject with a very wide range of coverage. Due to the limited space and author's ability, this paper only generalizes and arranges the subject from a macro perspective, and many details are not developed in depth. Translated works by the capacity of, for example, the sources of the related works and so on, for more exist in the two countries pay fork points to explore, in the evaluation of literature translation of words between the two countries and the specific influence of literature, especially under the background of their literary translation between the two countries the properties and significance of literary translation, etc, if you can carry out further discussion and exploration of the content, The research results will be more rich and three-dimensional.

There were many similarities between China and South Korea in modern times. Under the environment of western learning spreading to the East, both of them were knocked out of the country by the West, suffered the invasion of western powers and Japan successively, and passively started the journey of modernization. Under the circumstance of deepening national crisis of domestic and foreign invasion, the enlightened intellectuals of the two countries had carried out the exploration of saving the nation from extinction.Translation was an important means for them to achieve this goal. To be specific, the historical context of the spreading of Western learning from the end of the 19th century endowed the two countries with unique historical characteristics. Due to the similarity of historical, cultural and political background and mainstream ideology, the translation of literature in the two countries also presented many similarities and even intersecting points. As analyzed above, the most obvious common point was ideology influence. For China and Korea at that time, one of the mainstream ideologies was "modernization transformation",for which translation was the driving force. Therefore, utilitarianism and purposefulness ran through the development of modern translation in both countries. In addition to the mainstream social ideology, the translator's personal ideology also has a great influence on literary translation in both countries.For example,the early translation phenomenon led by Western missionaries and the later translation activities led by intellectuals of the two countries were all carried out by translators for their personal purposes under the influence of the general environment at that time. Without doubt, the influence of the subliminal form of the western learning spreading to the east constituted similarities between the two countries.Comparing the literary translation of the two countries in terms of specific content,we found many similarities in details. For example, western missionaries played an important role at the beginning. After entering the 20th century, the translation of both countries was deeply influenced by Japan. The translation groups of the two countries were the best intellectuals and representatives of the new culture at that time. When they translated foreign works, they also carried out various discussions and even debates about translation. Translation activities had broadened the horizons of the people and enriched their languages, literature and even culture.

It is worth mentioning that cultural exchanges between the two countries have also been continued through translation. Of course, due to the differences in specific situations, there are some differences in literary translation between the two countries while showing common features. The author believes that the biggest difference lies in the scale of translation. To be specific, from the number of translated works and translators, the discussion and construction of translation theories, the importance attached to translation to the influence and status of translation in the history of national literature, Chinese modern translation was obviously higher. The main reason was that the translation environment and background of the two countries at that time were different, that is, the difference between complete colonies and semi-colonies. Although the Qing dynasty fell under the background of the competition of western powers, China did not completely become a colony of any power, so it was relatively free and independent in political and cultural development. However, because Korea was annexed and ruled by Japan, it was difficult to develop modernization independently. The whole society was highly dependent on Japan, and it was also greatly restricted and influenced by Japan in terms of ideology. Translation activities were no exception.

As mentioned above, the purpose of the author's comparative study of Chinese and Korean contemporary literature translation is to restore the literary exchanges between the two countries, and at the same time to provide necessary background for the two countries. However, the study of Chinese and Korean modern literature translation is a polyphonic and polysemy subject with a very wide range of coverage. Due to the limited space and author's ability, this paper only generalized and arranged the subject from a macro perspective, and many details were not developed in depth, such as the sources of the related works,the evaluation of literature translation of words, the properties and significance of literary translation and so on. This paper will be more rich and three-dimensional with further discussion and exploration of the content.--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 07:59, 11 December 2021 (UTC)

==References==
*金秉哲[韩]: 《韩国近代翻译文学史研究》，首尔: 乙酉文化社，1975。130-160页
*金鹤哲: 《1949 年以前韩国文学汉译和意识形态因素》，《中国比较文学》2009 年第 4 期，第 66 页。
*金旭东[韩]: 《翻译与韩国的近代》，首尔: 小明出版社，2010，第25~28页。
*王秉钦、王颉: 《20世纪中国翻译思想史》，南开大学出版社，2004，第31页。
*许钧: 《面向中西交流的翻译史研究》，《解放军外国语学院学报》2014 年第 5 期，第 140 页。
*许钧、袁筱一编著《当代法国翻译理论》，南京大学出版社，1998，第 128 页。
*朱一凡: 《翻译与现代汉语的变迁 ( 1905 ~ 1936) 》，外语教学与研究出版社，2011，第 72 页。

=刘沛婷 Western Translation history in Renaissance)=

刘沛婷 Liu Peiting, Hunan Normal University, China

==Abstract==
The Renaissance is not only an important period in the history of literature and technology, but also a turning point in the history of western translation. During this period, the translation of religious and literary works gradually flourished, and translators constantly put forward new translation concepts and tried translation practices.The soaring of national consciousness and national languages contributed to the characteristic ideas of translation in the Renaissance. Especially France, Britain and Germany had made outstanding contributions to the evolution and progress of the entire translation history during this period.This chapter is to have a brief introduction to the translation history in Renaissance, conduct a detailed explaination from the three countries of France, Britan and Germany respectively and illustrate some representative translators and translation theories with the hope to show the magnificent translation achievements in Renaisance and the evolvement of human translation history.

==Key words==
Translation history; renaissance; France; Britain; Germany

Translation history; Renaissance; France; Britain; Germany--[[User:Liu Wei|Liu Wei]] ([[User talk:Liu Wei|talk]]) 12:44, 14 December 2021 (UTC)Liu Wei

==Introduction==

The period from around the fourteenth until the mid-seventeenth century has conventionally been designated as the Renaissance,referring to the rediscovery and revitalization of the literature, art and science of ancient Greece and Rome. The term was devised by Italian humanists who sought to reaffirm their own continuity with the classical humanist heritage after an interlude of Middle Ages (Habib 2011：79).It was a great revolution in intellect and culture. It is also “the greatest progressive revolution that mankind has so far experienced, a time which called for giants and produced giants”.Renaissance takes spreading humanism thought as one of the main forms of expression, involving all aspects of the cultural field, including the ancient Greek, Roman works and contemporary European works. In the process of studying and reviving classical culture, as well as developing and spreading new ideas, translation obviously plays an important role. The magnificent Renaissance itself included and depended on an unprecedented scale of translation activities. Therefore, it marks not only a great development in literature, art and science, but also an important milestone in the history of translation.(Engels 1972：445)

Originated in Italy in the 15th century, and in the 16th century Renaissance swept Europe, (especially Western European countries) and gradually formed a climax. At that time, western society was filled with a spirit of seeking and conquering the objective world. When this spirit was reflected in the translation field, translators were full of ambition and spared no effort to constantly discover new literary styles, excavate new cultural heritages and transplant new ideas to their motherland. Many translators translated classic works related to politics, philosophy, social system, literature and art of past glorious countries into their national languages as reference for the development of their own countries. All achievements in translation were compared to "trophies" in literature and knowledge. Next, we are to have a review on translations history of France, Britain and Germany, three major Western European countries in the high tide of Renaissance.

From the 14th century to the middle of the 17th century, it is the Renaissance, which refers to the rediscovery and Renaissance of ancient Greek and Roman literature, art and science. The word "Renaissance" was designed by Italian Humanists who tried to reaffirm their continuity with the heritage of classical humanism, which was a great intellectual and cultural revolution. This is also "the greatest progressive revolution that mankind has experienced so far, an era that needs giants and produces giants".

The Renaissance takes the dissemination of humanism as one of the main forms of expression, involving all aspects of the cultural field, including ancient Greek, Roman and contemporary European works. Translation obviously plays an important role in the study and revival of classical culture and the development and dissemination of new ideas. The brilliant renaissance itself included and relied on unprecedented translation activities. Therefore, it not only marks the great development of literature, art and science, but also an important milestone in the history of translation. (Engels 1972:445)

The Renaissance originated in Italy in the 15th century, The 16th century swept Europe (especially in Western European countries) and gradually reached a climax. At that time, western society was full of the spirit of pursuing and conquering the objective world. When this spirit was reflected in the field of translation, translators were full of ambition, spared no effort to constantly discover new styles, excavate new cultural heritage and transplant new ideas to their motherland. Many translators put the politics of past brilliant countries into practice , philosophy, social system, literature and art are translated into their own national language as a reference for their own development. All translation achievements are compared to "trophies" of literature and knowledge. Next, we will review the translation history of France, Britain and Germany in the climax of the Renaissance. --[[User:Liu Wei|Liu Wei]] ([[User talk:Liu Wei|talk]]) 12:52, 14 December 2021 (UTC)Liu Wei

==1.History of Translation in France==

In France, during this period, the wind of restoring ancient styles began to prevail, ancient languages were valued, and ancient writers were respected. A large number of literary works of Italian humanists, such as Dante, Petrarch and Boccaccio, were introduced to France, which opened people's eyes and promoted the development of French humanist movement. Therefore, the focus of translation in France shifted from religious works to Italian classical literature works. The increasingly translation activities constituted a climax of translation history in France.Translators generally believed that translating literary works was much more difficult than translating religious works. Although translation began to reach a new climax, most of the translations were the "by-products" of literary creation, with low quality and little influence. However, in the climax of translation in France in the 16th century, there were two outstanding contributors , one is Jacques Amyot and the other is Etienne Dolet.(Tan Zaixi,2000:21)

Jacques Amyot was considered the king of translation in France. His first translation, Heliodoros’ ''Aethiopica'', was completed in 1547. Later, he translated Diodorus Siculus’s ''Bibliotheca Historica'' and, in 1559 he translated Ploutarchos’s ''Vies des Hommes illustrus'', which was Amyot’s most famous work. Amyot advocated translators’ thorough understanding of the original text and plain expressions without embellishment. He emphasized the unity of content and form, free translation and literal translation. In his translation, he borrowed words from Greek and Latin and simultaneously created a large number of words in politics, philosophy, science, literature, music and so on. He fused common people language and academic language, and therefore formed an independent style of translation and greatly enriched the French vocabulary. At that time, the French language is still in a state of confusion, Amyot and other humanists made tremendous contributions to unify the French national language.

Another great man in translation history of France was Etienne Dolet. As a famous translation theorist, Dolet advocated targeted texts’ faithfulness to the original work, which is the fundamental and indispensable principle in translation. Dolet believed that an excellent translator must be proficient in both source language and target language. He was aware of the weakness of word-by-word translation and emphasized that the translation should be consistent with the original text in style through various rhetorical devices. Ballard,a French translation theorist, argued that dolet’ translation principles constituted the rudiment of the French translation theory. What he proposed was the universal principles for translation.(Xu Jun and Yuan Xiaoyi,1998:284)

Jacques Amyot set an example for the following translation works in France in the 16th century; Etienne Dolet’s translation theories were of great significance and were the first systematic principles of translation, which were ahead of those of Germany and Britain and advanced translation studies into a higher level. Thanks to their efforts, France had earned a place in translation history during Renaissance period.

==2. History of Translation in Britain==

In Britain, the Renaissance came later than in the main countries of continental Europe, but Britain gradually kept up with others countries. During this period, the British capitalist economy developed rapidly, productivity improved greatly, and the country became increasingly prosperous , which has laid a solid material foundation for the development of literature and translation. Especially since Elizabeth came to the throne in the mid-16th century by the early 17th century, translation was flourishing. On the one hand, religious translation is in the ascendant, on the other hand, a great deal of literature from Greece, Rome and other contemporary countries was translated into English, which made English translation activities in this period one of the peaks of translation activities in Europe and even the world. Literary translation ranged from history and philosophy to poetry and drama, with the occurrence of a large number of excellent translators,who introduced ancient ingenuity to Britain, offering serious lessons not only to the Queen and politicians, but also plots and materials for dramatists and readers with the purpose of serving their country. At that time, many translators were not scholars, they were not bound by any strict translation theory, they could translate what they had at their own will. Many translations are not directly from the original texts, but from the translations or even the translation of the translation. Therefore, the scope and quantity of translation are unprecedented in Britain.In the aspect of religious translation, the translator was also influenced by humanism and the Reformation, a new understanding of the Bible arose, as well as a new attitude and a new way of dealing with the translation of the Bible. People advocated accurate translation in religious works, while for literature, the unbridled freedom of traditional translation methods persisted throughout the Elizabethan era.(Tan Zaixi,2004:71)

In Britain, the Renaissance began later than the major countries in continental Europe, but Britain developed rapidly and produced many achievements.

During this period, the British capitalist economy developed rapidly, the productivity increased greatly, and the country prospered day by day, which laid a solid material foundation for the development of literature and translation. Especially since Elizabeth ascended the throne in the middle of the 16th century and the beginning of the 17th century, translation has developed vigorously. On the one hand, religious translation is in the ascendant. On the other hand, a large number of literary works from contemporary countries such as Greece and Rome have been translated into English, which makes English translation activities in this period one of the peaks of translation activities in Europe and even the world. Literary translation ranges from history and philosophy to poetry and drama. A large number of excellent translators have emerged. They introduced the originality of ancient times into Britain, which not only provided serious lessons for the queen and politicians, but also provided plot and materials for playwrights and readers, in order to serve the country. At that time, many translators were not scholars. They were not bound by any strict translation theory. They could translate what they had at will. Many translations are not directly from the original text, but from the translation, or even the translation of the translation. Therefore, the scope and quantity of translation are unprecedented in the UK. In religious translation, the translator has also been influenced by humanism and religious reform, has a new understanding of the Bible, and has a new attitude and method to the translation of the Bible. People advocate accurate translation in religious works, while in literary works, the unbridled freedom of traditional translation methods continued throughout the Elizabethan era. (Tan Zaixi, 2004:71) --[[User:Liu Wei|Liu Wei]] ([[User talk:Liu Wei|talk]]) 12:59, 14 December 2021 (UTC)Liu Wei

====2.1 Translation of Douglas and Cheke====

Gavin Douglas (1475-1522), a famous Scottish poet and translator, published his translation of Virgil’s epic Poem ''The Aeneid'' in the early 16th century. He began his preface with a eulogy of Virgil and then launched into a serious critique of the overly liberal medieval translation. He criticized Caxton's French translation as unfaithful, as far from Virgil's original work, and "as different from the devil as st. Austin" . Douglass did not translate word by word, but freely translated. He said that if translator encountered difficult words, sentences, rhymes, one had to deviate from the original text. Douglass had added new content and new meaning to translation principles, and thus had a certain value (Amos,1920:129)

Towards the middle of the 16th century, an important figure in translation was John Cheke (1514-1557). He was a humanist and supporter of the Reformation, as well as a polyglot authority on Greek at the time and served as Principal Regent Chair Professor at Cambridge university. As a result of his popularity, Cambridge became one of the academic centers in Britain, and its students were well versed in translation and language studies.Cheke was a tireless translator,who had translated many Greek works and the Bible. Characteristically, he used only pure English words or words of Saxon origin in any case, and did not adopt any foreign words. He thought the English language was rich enough without borrowing foreign words. Because of his insist on pure English words and expressions in his translation, he sometimes had to use vulgar, old and remote words, so that the style of his translation was sometimes forced and stiff.
Cheke's theory had a great influence on contemporary translators. Many other translators often mentioned Cheke's translation views in their own translations. At that time, the main criterion for evaluating a translated work was whether it was authentic and easy to be understood by compatriots. At the same time, the study of foreign grammar and contrastive vocabulary also appeared in language studies. The translator aimed to turn the translation into a textbook for students of language and translation to imitate. Some translators also use word-for-word translation to provide guidance to students. Abraham Fleming, for example, translated Virgil's Poems "according to grammatical rules." He "used plain and understandable words so as to accommodate those who are slow in comprehension, since the translator's aim is to use straightforward language structures to ease the difficulties of those whose grammatical concepts are vague, rather than to devise ways to satisfy the desires of grander humanists" (Amos,1920:109).

====2.2 Translation from Thomas North to Georga Chapman====

However, in the translation of classical masterpieces, translators tended to shift from one extreme to another. In order to avoid word-for-word translation, translators adopted excessively free translation, which was not only for the expression of words but also for the treatment of the substance of the content. Nicholas Udall(1505-1556) created the first British comedy ''Ralph Roister Doister''. In 1542 he translated Erasmus's ''Book of Proverbs'', and later presided over Erasmus's Latin translation, including the Gospel of Luke, which was published in 1548. In the preface to the translation of the ''New Testament'', he discussed various issues related to translation: the treatment of translators, the expansion of English vocabulary, the treatment of sentence structure of the translation, Erasmus's style and the stylistic characteristics of different authors. In his opinion, translation should not follow rigid rules. He advocated the use of liberal translation without deviation from the original meaning, and the translation should be readable and understandable to the general readers.

The most famous translation work of the whole Elizabethan period was the English version of ''The live of the Noble Grecians and Romans'' by translator Thomas North (1535-1601).He studied at Cambridge University in his early years, and later worked in London, where he met many translation lovers and gradually became interested in translation. In 1557 he translated ''Diall of Princes'' from a French translation and later he translated an oriental allegory from an Italian translated version in 1601. ''The live of the Noble Grecians and Romans'' was translated in 1579. This translation was not from the original Greek version, but from Amyot's French translation. However, it was still considered as an excellent epoch-making translation. North did not express any unique views on translation, but he was famous for his excellent translation in the western translation circle with three main characteristics:(1)because it is not from the original Greek, the style of the translation is different from Plutarch's style; The original text is elegant while his translation is plain. (2) North's style is also different from that of Amio in the French translation, which he used as a model. He not only changes the wording of the French translation, but also its spirit. Like Amio's French translation, North's is another masterpiece based on Plutarch's original subject. (3) Though he knew little of the classical language, North was a master of The English language, and his translations were so simple and fluent, so elegant and idiomatic, that readers might have taken them for the original if they had not read the plot. North's translation was praised by Shakespeare, who drew his inspirations from this translated works and cited its expressions, which can be considered a terrific contribution of translation to literature. The prose style adopted by ''The live of the Noble Grecians and Romans'' is novel and elegant, neither rigid nor grotesque, and hence it has become an enduring model in the history of English translation.(Tan Zaixi, 2004:76)

Philemon Holland (1552-1637) was the most outstanding English translator of the 16th century, whose works outnumbered those of his contemporaries. He had been a surgeon and headmaster of Coventry General School. He was a learned translator and scholar, fluent in Greek and Latin, proficient in ancient writing and proverbs, as well as rhetoric. His classical works were not translated but directly from the Original Greek and Latin texts, and the subject matter was also varied. He translated Livy's Romane Historie in 1600 and Pliny's Natural Historie in 1601, Plutarch's Moralia in 1603, and translated Zitonius's The Historie of The Twelve Caesars in 1606. Hollander is better known in British translation circles than North or Florio, known as the Elizabethan "translator general" who truly understood "the secret of translation." Holland's translation has two main characteristics :(1) translation must serve the reality; (2) Translation must be stylistic. In the preface to his translation of Natural History, he emphasized, "the practicality of the content of the translation, which should be suitable not only for learned people, but also for the uncivilized peasants in the countryside and for the industrious craftsmen in the cities”. Hollander was particular about the style of his translation. Like other translators of his time, he used a slow prose style, and the translation was always longer than the original. In his translation he tried to be authentic, not foreign. He does not use artificial language, but popular style. Like Cheke before him, he also preferred archaic words to foreign ones out of love for the language of his own country. What’s more, he believed that the style of the original work must be reflected in the translation, and that different works must adopt different styles without adding differences. Hollander had left behind more than just translations, but a series of works with distinctive stylistic characteristics that could withstand even the rigors of modern stylist analysis and provide the modern reader with great pleasure.(Amos,1920:86)

Georga Chapman (1559-1634) was another outstanding translator, whose greatest contribution is that his translations serve as a bridge between the 16th and 17th centuries. He spent his early years as a student at Oxford University before writing poetry and plays. But it was mainly his translations that made him famous in the literary world. He translated the first seven books of the Iliad in 1598, completed the epic in 1611, and the Odyssey in 1616. The translator's profound attainments and outstanding achievements made his translation a literary masterpiece of the time. Chapman adopted two different styles to translate the same poetic style of the original work, that is, he translated Iliad in sonnet and Odyssey in heroic couplet. In contrast, the former is more appropriate and decent than the latter. In his translation, Chapman made extensive use of mythological dictionaries, referred to early reviews of Homer's work. However, both in content and style, the translation is not completely consistent with the original work. It has transformed the characters in the poem, and added elements of moral preaching to the value of wisdom and the expression and restraint of feelings. Chapman is unblemished as a translator. As a poet, however, he was blameless. His translation has achieved great success mainly because of his extraordinary creative ability as a poet and superb ability to control language.
Chapman also made some contributions to the theoretical issues of translation. In the preface of his translation, he clearly put forward the principles guiding the translation of poetry, thus filling some gaps in translation theory in the 16th century, especially in the later period. In principle, he was against too much strictness as well as too much freedom. He said, "I despise the translators for being trapped in the mire of word-for-word translation, losing the living soul of their native language and blackening the original author with stiff language. At the same time, I abhors the use of complicated language to express the meaning” (Amos,1920:130) . Of all that he opposed, the first was word for word translation,which was considered the most unnatural and absurd. According to the views of translation theories such as Horace, who had insight and a prudent attitude that the translator should not follow the original number of words and word order, but follow its material composition and sentences, carefully weigh sentences, and then use the most appropriate expressions and form to express and decorate the translation. Chapman believed that word-by-word translation was a common fault of translators, and even he himself was inevitable. But those mistakes could be overcome. Although the expression of meaning and language style of Greek and English are different, the translator could compare the translation with the original text in meaning and style as long as he carefully identified, understood the spirit of the original text and had a thorough understanding of its grammar and vocabulary and thus approximately achieved "formal correspondence". Chapman's theory was carried on by many translators of the 17th and 18th centuries. This was obviously because he opposed both extremes, and it was easier to argue for a compromise.(Catford,1965:32)

====2.3 Translation of Tyndale and Fulke====

In the 16th century, the translation of the English Bible also flourished. Since the introduction of ethnic translation in the Middle Ages, the Bible had been increasingly read. It had the same appeal for all classes of people, which prompted translators to combine the accuracy required by scholars with the intelligibility required by ordinary people, thus promoting the overall development of translation art and theory. In this respect, religious translation in England in the 16th century was more effective than literary translation. Tyndale and Fulke were the main representatives of bible translation.

William Tyndale (1494-1536) was an erudite humanist and protestant reformist. In 1523, his translation of the New Testament from Greek from a Protestant standpoint was opposed and persecuted by the English church authorities and was not allowed to be published. He fled to Germany in 1524 and, after many twists and turns, had his translation first published in 1525. In 1526, he smuggled the translation back to England against the will of the Church, trying to spread Protestant ideas through the new translation of the Bible and convert The English people to Protestants. The church authorities immediately took measures to lay siege. The Bishop of London claimed to have found 2,000 errors in Tyndale's translation. Thomas More, a famous humanist, attacked his translation very unkindly, and the priests bought all the copies they could get and burned them to prevent their proliferation. Uncompromising, Tyndale continued to translate the Bible in his own way: he translated the first book of the Old Testament in 1530, completed The Book of Jonah in 1531, and published the revised New Testament in 1534. The church authorities had no choice but to burn Tyndale in 1536 for heresy.
Tyndale's translation, however, had not disappeared but was republished after Tyndale's martyrdom and became increasingly influential, serving as the main reference version and as the model for all English translations for centuries to come. The greatest achievement of Tyndale's translation is that it takes into account the needs of academe, conciseness and literariness, and integrates these three elements into the style of English translation of the Bible. Tyndale paid special attention to the popularity of the translation, trying to use the authentic English vocabulary and ordinary narrative expressions of vivid and specific expressions, which makes his text simple and natural without being pedantic.(Tan Zaixi,2004:80)

If Tyndale made a special contribution to the practical translation of the Bible in the 16th century, then it was William Fulke (1538-1589)who made the greatest achievements in the theoretical study of bible translation. Fulke was a scholar of The Bible with humanistic thoughts. Without translating the Bible completely, he had great views on translation theory. In 1589 he published a book entitled in Defence of the Sincere and True Translation of the Holy Scriptures into the English Tongue. It must be pointed out that Fulke did not systematically discuss the universal principles of translation as Dolet did. Instead, he only talked about the facts and refuted Gregory Martin's views, and expounded the theoretical issues in a rather chaotic manner. To sum up, there were mainly two aspects as follows:
(1)Translation can have nothing to do with faith. Fulke, influenced by Erasmus's linguistic approach, disagreed with Martin's assertion of theological authority over scientific scholarship. Translators, he believed, must be fluent in many languages so that they could make accurate judgments about the teachings of the saints without blindly following them. The power of a translator lies in his solid linguistic ability, not in his belief in God. He said, The translator cannot be called an unfaithful heretic as long as the translation conforms to the language and meaning of the original text, even if the motive is not good (Amos,1920:71). Fulke never accepted Martin's strict translation formulas, nor did he submit to unproven authoritative theories, even from the leaders of his own faction. Fulke’s point of view is obviously a challenge to the theological authority of Augustine with its purpose to liberate the Bible translation from the narrow theological tradition and win the right for ordinary people to translate and interpret the Bible.
(2)The Translation of the Bible must respect linguistic habits. If the translator has difficulty in understanding the original text, he/she should turn to the language habits of ancient non-religious writers, while one encounters difficulties in diction, translator should refer to the language habits of contemporary secular writers and the general public. Fulke added: "We are not lords dictating the way people speak. If we were, we would teach them how to use language better. Since we cannot change the way people speak, we have to follow Aristotle's instructions and use the language of ordinary people." Therefore, religious usage should give way to common usage if it is in conflict with common usage. In translation, words and expressions that are most easily understood must be used so that those who do not know their etymological meaning can understand them. At the same time, if words have been misused over a long period of time, with meanings that do not correspond to the original meaning of the words, or have been misused to increase the ambiguity of the words, the translator should not follow blindly, but should look to the root and choose the words according to their original meaning, that is, according to the meaning used in the time when the Bible was written. In translating the Bible into English, Fulke did not advocate excessive borrowing of foreign words but tapping the expressive potential of English itself and paying attention to the use of expressions in line with English habits. Fulke acknowledged that English had a small vocabulary compared with older languages, but argued that this could not be compensated for by making up words, but by using Old English words again.
Clearly, some of Mr Fulke's views are limited and conservative. Many of the foreign words he objects to have been adopted as part of the English vocabulary. But many of his criticisms of Martin are convincing, and his work has been generally praised by the translators of the Bible. Some of his observations on language are so incisive that they are still of great reference value to the study of modern English.(Amos,1920:72)

==3.History of Translation in Germany==

In Germany, the national self-consciousness was further strengthened, and the trend of mechanical imitation of Latin gradually disappeared in the 15th century.

====3.1 Dominant Ideas in German Translation====

Linguists realized the unique style and expressive ability of German, and hence shifted the focus of translation from the original language to the target language. Free translation took the place of word-to-word translation and occupied the dominant position. The only reason for translators to object literal translation is its convenience for readers to understand word-by-word translation.
Gradually, scholars recognized that Hebrew, Greek, and Latin all have distinct features, especially in terms of idiomatic expressions. Similarly, since German is an independent language, it also has its own unique expressions that cannot be translated word by word into other languages, nor can expressions in other languages be translated word by word into German. Based an an understanding of the nature and differences of languages as well as a growing sense of nationality and desire to develop the national language, more and more historians and scholars have begun to use German idiomatic expressions rather than imitate Latin.
Against the background of this trend of thought, the free translators gradually changed their inferiority in the debates with the literal translators in the 15th century, and rightly put forward another profound reason against literal translation: German is an independent language with its own rules that must be respected; German has its own language style, which cannot be destroyed by imitation of other languages. This was the dominant idea in German translation throughout the 16th century.

====3.2 Translation of Reuchlin, Erasmus and Luther====

Johannes Reuchlin(1455-1522) aroused great academic interest in Hebrew. In 1515, he wrote Epistolae Obscurorum Virorum, exposing the narrow-mouthing ignorance of the scholars and monks, which led to a fierce debate between the reformers and conservatives in the church. At the same time, he was also very knowledgeable about translation theory. He mainly translated two works, ''Batrachom Yomachia'' (1510) and ''Septem Psalmos Poenitentiales'' (1512), using word-for-word translation. This contradicts his own remarks about translation.
However, its actual content and general principles could not be compared to those of the literal translation school in the 15th century. The literatrists of the 15th century only emphasized the imitation of certain rhetorical forms of the text, while Reuchlin understood the value of rhythm and the difference between the text and the translation. He believed that the form of the original was so closely integrated with the original that it could not be preserved in the target language. Just like Homer's works alive only in Greek, it would detract from the aesthetic value of literature when translated into any other language. The purpose of literal translation was not to ask the translator to imitate the style of the original text, but to make readers pay attention to the style of the original text and appreciate its literary value.(Tan Zaixi,2004:56)

Another outstanding representatives of a new approach to literary study and new insights into translation theory in the 16th century was Desiderius Erasmus (1466-1536), who was born in a priest's family in Rotterdam, Netherlands. His early education was influenced by The Canon of Augustine. After studying in Paris, he lived successively in Britain, Germany, Italy and Switzerland, accepting humanism and opposing scholasticism. He was knowledgeable, good at language studies, and had profound attainments in Greek and Latin literature, especially his incisive treatises on literature and style.
Erasmus advocated that the original work must be respected. Before Erasmus, the Translation of the Bible in Various European countries was in a state of confusion. Erasmus bitterly pointed out that the translation and commentary of the Bible must be faithful to the original text, because no translation can fully translate the "language of God" as the Bible itself. Early theologians did not understand Hebrew or Greek and could not understand the original text of the Bible, so the truth of the Bible was covered up, distorted, or ossified into dogma. To uncover this truth, we must go back to the source. It is truth, not authority, that should be respected. What’s more, he claimed that translator must have a rich knowledge of language. He believed that to interpret the ''New Testament'' correctly it was necessary to learn ancient Greek; Anyone who wished to pursue theological studies must first be able to read the classics and learn Greek semantics, meanings, and rhetoric. Also, he realized the great importance of style in translation and attached great importance to readers’ requirements. There is no doubt that Erasmus' translation theory is the result of his humanistic thought, his mastery of multiple languages as well as his appreciation of literary styles. His translation principles and methods have exerted great influence on both contemporary and later translators.

Martin Luther (149-146) was the founder of the European Religious Reform movement and the Protestant Church reformer. Luther translated the Bible, known as “the first bible of common people” in the history by using the people's language, which played a great role in unifying the German language and laid a foundation for the formation and development of modern German.
He also proposed that translation should adopt common people language and only appropriate free translation can bring the original enlightening thoughts of Bible into light. (Luther,1530:124) Grammatical correction and semantic coherence were of great value during translation. Translation was so challenging that it requires collective wisdom and repeatedly revisions.
Luther had also put forward seven rules for translation: the word order of the original text can be changed; modal particles can be used reasonably; necessary conjunctions can be added; words in the original text that do not have an equivalent can be omitted; phrases can be used to translate individual words; figurative usage and non-figurative usage can be changed flexibly; the accuracy of variant forms and explanations should be strengthened. Although Luther’s translation practice received a great deal of criticism, his translation of Bible his was considered to be the earliest written language in German and opened a new era in the development of modern German. It endowed him with the highest reputation and the most profound influence in Germany.(Xie Tianzhen,2009:23)

==Conclusion==
It could be seen from the above sections that one of the biggest characteristics of Western translation during the Renaissance was the parallel and independent development of the translation of western European national languages. The use of Latin, though still having some market, was a tributary in both writing and translation. Before the Renaissance, especially before the middle ages, when we talked about western translation, we mostly meant translation in Latin. Since the Renaissance, with the gradual formation and consolidation of national states and the development of national languages, western translation had turned to national languages,especially French, English and German.The translation activities in the Renaissance period were basically devoid of disciplinary consciousness, and the theories were fragmentary and unsystematic. Most of the authors were translation practitioners, and most of the theories were empirical. Thanks to the translators in these three countries who were devoted themselves to the study of translation principles and the transmission of classic works, their consistant and pain-staking efforts had pushed the translation theory to anew level and left countlessly valueable translated works.Therefore, the Renaissance could be said to be a turning point in the history of western translation. In short, the Renaissance marks that the translation of national languages has been firmly on the historical stage, and that translation practice and theory have broken away from the dark Middle Ages.It also laid a solid foundation for the contemporary translation. (Pan Wenguo,2002:23)

As can be seen from the above chapters, in the Renaissance, the greatest feature of western translation theory was the parallel and independent development of Western European national language translation. Although before the Renaissance, especially before the middle ages, when we talk about western translation, we mainly refer to Latin translation. However, since the Renaissance, with the gradual formation and consolidation of the nation-state and the development of national languages, western translation has turned to national languages, especially French, English and German.

However, we have to pay attention to the shortcomings of translation activities in the Renaissance. First, translators' translation theories are scattered and fragmented, lacking discipline consciousness and systematicness. Second, most translators are empirical, and the quality of their works is uneven.

Because the translators of these three countries are committed to the study of translation principles and the dissemination of classical works, their unremitting efforts have pushed translation theory to a new height and left countless valuable translation works. Therefore, the Renaissance can be said to be a turning point in the history of western translation. In short, the Renaissance marks that the translation of national languages has been firmly on the historical stage, and the translation practice and theory have been separated from the dark middle ages. This has also laid a solid foundation for contemporary translation. (Pan Wenguo, 2002:23) --[[User:Liu Wei|Liu Wei]] ([[User talk:Liu Wei|talk]]) 13:11, 14 December 2021 (UTC)Liu Wei

==References==
Amos, F. R. (1920). Early Theories of Translation[M]. New York: Columbia University Press.

Benjamin, Andrew. (1989). Translation and the Nature of Philosophy: A New Theory of Words[M]. London and New York: Routledge.

Catford,J.C.(1965) A Linguistic Theory of Translation[M].New York: Oxford University Press.

Dolet, Etienne. (1540). How to Translate Well from One Language to Another[M]. Robinson.

Frederick Engels. (1883) The Dialects of Nature[M]. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

Luther, Martin. (1530). Sendbrief vom Dolmetschen[M]. Stoerig.

M.A.R. Habib. (2011) Literary Criticism from Plato to the Present: An Introduction[M]. New Jersey: Wiley-Blackwell Publishing.

Munday, Jeremy. (2001). Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications[M]. London and New York: Routledge.

Pan Wenguo 潘文国.(2002) 当代西方的翻译学研究[J] Contemporary Translation Studies in the West.中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal,31-34.

Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2000). 翻译学[M] Translation Studies. 武汉：湖北教育出版社 Wuhan: Hubei Educational Press.

Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2004).西方翻译简史[M] A Short History of Translation in the West. 北京：商务印书馆 Beijing: The Commercial Press.

Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2003). 翻译研究新视野[M] New Perspective for Translation Studies. 青岛：青岛出版社 Qingdao: Qingdao Publishing.

Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2009).中西翻译简史[M] A Brief History of Translation in China and the West.北京:北京外语教学与研究出版社 Beijing:Foreign Language Teachinng and Research Press.

Xu Jun, Yuan Xiaoyi 许钧，袁筱一. (1998). 当代法国翻译理论[M] Contemporary Translation Thoery in France.南京：南京大学出版社 Nanjing: Nanjing University.

=刘薇 Contemporary American Translation History)=

Liu Wei 刘薇 Hunan Normal University, China

==Abstract==
The United States is an important part of the "West", so when we talk about the conception of "West", it is impossible not to include the United States.Therefore, this chapter combs the development of contemporary American translation by introducing a series of theories of American Translators.

The United States is an important part of the "West", so when we talk about the conception of "West", it is impossible to exclude the United States.Therefore, this chapter recapitulates the development of contemporary American translation by introducing a series of theories of American Translators. (corrected by--[[User:Zhou Junhui|Zhou Junhui]] ([[User talk:Zhou Junhui|talk]]) 08:48, 14 December 2021 (UTC))

==Key words==
translation theory of American, Eugene Nida,Robert Boogrand.

==Introduction==

In the field of translation studies, the situation in the United States is very special.Since the history of the United States itself is not long, we can not expect to talk about "ancient American translation theory", "medieval American translation theory", or even "modern American translation theory".American translation theory is mainly the "contemporary translation theory", which is developed after World War II (Guo Jianzhong, [introduction]: 2).Although the development of American translation theory is relatively short, there are still many influential translation theorists, such as Eugene Nida, Robert Boogrand, Andre Leverville, Lawrence Venudi, Edwin Gentzler and so on. They are constantly innovating and developing new theories in the field of translation.

In the field of translation studies, the situation in the United States is very special.Since the history of the United States itself is not long, we can not expect to talk about "ancient American translation theory", "medieval American translation theory", or even "modern American translation theory".American translation theory is mainly the "contemporary translation theory", which is developed after World War II (Guo Jianzhong, [introduction]: 2).Although the development of American translation theory is relatively short, there are still many influential translation theorists, such as Eugene Nida, Robert Boogrand, Andre Leverville, Lawrence Venudi, Edwin Gentzler and so on. They are constantly innovating and developing new theories in the field of translation. (corrected by --[[User:Zhou Junhui|Zhou Junhui]] ([[User talk:Zhou Junhui|talk]]) 08:48, 14 December 2021 (UTC))

==Chapter1 Characteristics of the local American translation theory ==

The development of contemporary American translation theory has three main characteristics: first, it inherits the tradition of European translation theory in terms of overall research methods;Second, the early studies were mostly influenced by the schools of American structural linguistics;Third, there is a tendency to catch up in research results.These characteristics are discussed one by one below.(Tan Zaixi,1999:237)

On the first point, the inheritance of European tradition in the overall research method of American translation theory is due to its unique language and cultural tradition.As an integral part of the whole culture, translation culture naturally presents the basic characteristics of the development of the whole culture.Since the American culture with English as the national language is mainly inherited from European culture, the development of American translation culture, as an integral part of American culture, also inherits European translation culture.Especially in the early stage of the development of American translation theory, many influential people engaged in translation studies were immigrants from Europe or descendants of recent European immigrants.

Take Thorman as an example: his translation theory work the art of translation published in 1901 is one of the earliest published works in the field of American translation theory, but the contents and discussion methods involved in the book have no obvious "American characteristics".On the contrary, it is more like a work belonging to Europe, especially the British translation tradition. Even the examples in the book are similar to the European, especially the British translation tradition.

The second characteristic of the tradition of American translation theory is that the early studies were greatly influenced by the schools of American structural linguistics, which can be said to be a more distinctive "American characteristic" in American translation studies.

American linguistic studies are at the forefront of the West in many aspects. There have been many linguistic schools, such as human language school, structuralism school, transformational generative school and so on. All kinds of schools have also had various direct or indirect effects on American translation studies.

The representative of American structuralist language school is Bloomfield. He adopts the method of behaviorism and believes that everything about language can be studied scientifically and objectively.He put forward a behaviorist semantic analysis method, which holds that meaning is the relationship between stimulus and language response.In 1950s, Chomsky's transformational generative theory replaced Bloomfield's theory and occupied the dominant position in American linguistics theory and occupied the dominant position in American linguistics.The influence of Chomsky's theory on translation studies mainly lies in his discussion of surface structure and deep structure.The concept of "deep" has led to large-scale semantic research. Because semantics is closely related to translation research, Chomsky's theory has promoted the development of translation theory in the United States and even the whole west.(Xie Tianzhen ,2003:200)

Therefore, under the influence of various linguistic theories, many people try to put forward new translation concepts and research methods. These people can be collectively referred to as the structural School of American translation theory.Among them, the main characters include Wojilin, Bolinger, Katz, Quinn and Eugene Nida.

Take Wojilin as an example. He is a human linguist.His greatest contribution is to put forward a multi-step translation method (also known as step-by-step translation method).The biggest advantage of his multi-step translation method is that the steps are clear, flexible and easy to master.

Using Chomsky's transformational generative theory, Boringer puts forward a concept of structural translation as opposed to lexical translation.Based on structural linguistics, Katz makes a profound analysis of the translatability of language and the philosophical problems in language and translation.Based on the discussion of strange language, Quinn expounds some basic problems of translation from the perspective of philosophy, which has aroused great repercussions in the field of western translation theory.(Tan Zaixi,1999:250)

The third characteristic of the development of American translation theory is that it has a tendency to catch up with others in research results.One of the most prominent scholars is Eugene Nida. Although he is an outstanding linguist, his views on "translation is science", "translation is communication", "translation must pay attention to reader response" and other aspects are an innovation and breakthrough to the previous views. In addition, after Eugene Nida, many scholars have put forward many new views because of their existence,It was only after World War II that American translation theory continued to catch up.

Therefore, we will focus on him in the next chapter.

On the first point, the inheritance of European tradition in the overall research method of American translation theory is due to its unique language and cultural tradition.As an integral part of the whole culture, translation culture naturally presents the basic characteristics of the development of the whole culture.Since the American culture with English as the national language is mainly inherited from European culture, the development of American translation culture, as an integral part of American culture, also inherits European translation culture.Especially in the early stage of the development of American translation theory, many influential people engaged in translation studies were immigrants from Europe or descendants of recent European immigrants.(corrected by --[[User:Zhou Junhui|Zhou Junhui]] ([[User talk:Zhou Junhui|talk]]) 08:48, 14 December 2021 (UTC))

==Chapter2 Eugene Nida's translation theory==

Eugene Albert Nida (1914 -) was born in Oklahoma City in the south central United States. He graduated from the University of California, Los Angeles in 1936. In 1943, he worked in Bloomfield and fries (Charles fries received his doctorate in linguistics under the guidance of two famous scholars. As the leading translation theory figure in contemporary America, Nida has also engaged in research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology and communication engineering. Before his retirement in the 1980s, he worked in the Translation Department of the American Holy Bible Association and served as the executive secretary of the translation department for a long time. He is mainly engaged in the Bible Organization of translation and revision of translations and the Bible Training and theoretical guidance for translators. He is proficient in many languages and has investigated and studied more than 100 languages, especially some small languages in Africa and Latin America. In 1968, he served as the president of the American language society. Although he does not take teaching as his career, he has extremely rich experience in Translation training and lecturing. In addition to a long-term part-time job, he speaks linguistics in the famous American summer In addition to teaching linguistics and translation courses in the Institute, he also served as a guest lecturer and professor in many American universities. He was often invited to give short-term lectures in Europe, Latin America, Africa and Asia, and won several honorary doctorates. In order to recognize his contribution to translation research, especially in the field of Bible translation research, the American Bible Association named the Institute after him in 2001 In particular, Nida has deep feelings for China. Since 1982, he has been invited to give lectures in China more than ten times, and has maintained close academic contacts and exchanges with many schools and academic colleagues in China for a long time.(Tan Zaixi,2000:247)

Nida is a prolific language and translation theorist. From 1945 to 2004, he published more than 200 articles and more than 40 works (including works cooperated and edited with others). Among them, there are more than 20 works on language and translation theory, and a collection of papers has been published.

His research achievements include "Toward a Science of Translating" published in 1964, "The Theory and Practice of Translation" Co authored with Charles Taber in 1969, "Com ponential Analysis of Meaning " published in 1975 and "language structure and Translation" . Nida's anthology "Language Structure and Translation : Essays by Eugene A. Nida，ed. by Anwar S. Dil" , "From One Language to Another" , co authored with de warrd in 1986, "The Sociolinguistics of Interlingual Communication" , published in 1996 and published in 2001 "Language and Culture :Contertsin Translating" .(Xie Tianzhen.2003:212)

Throughout Nida's translation thought, we can divide it into three main development stages: the linguistic stage with obvious American structuralism in the early stage, the stage of translation science and translation communication in the middle stage, and the stage of social semiotics.

The first major stage is the linguistic stage, from 1943 when he wrote his doctoral thesis "a summary of English syntax" to 1959 when he published "principles of translation from biblical translation".At this stage, he tries to clarify the structural nature of language through the description of syntax, morphology and language translation.In his early days, he was greatly influenced by American structuralist Bloomfield and human linguist Sapir, and paid attention to the collection and analysis of language materials in language research.Through the opportunity to visit and contact different languages all over the world, many examples of speech differences are collected.However, he does not regard speech differences as insurmountable obstacles between languages, but as different phenomena of the same essence.

The second development stage of Nida's translation thought is the stage of translation science and translation communication. It took 10 years from the publication of "principles of translation from biblical translation" in 1959 to the publication of "translation theory and practice" in 1969.The research achievements at this stage have played a key role in establishing Nida's authoritative position in the whole western translation theory circle.
By summarizing this main development period, the main contents of the following five aspects can be summarized:

（一）Translation science.Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill, but also a science.The so-called science here means that translation problems can be handled by "scientific approaches to language structure, semantic analysis and information theory", that is, a linguistic and descriptive method can be adopted to explain the translation process.If the principles and procedures of translation seem to be normative, it is only because they are generally considered to be the most useful in a specific scope of translation.Nida's view that "translation is science" has had great repercussions in the field of western linguistics and translation theory.

（二） Translation communication theory. Nida applies communication theory and information theory to translation studies and holds that translation is communication. After World War II, not only advertisers, politicians and businessmen attached great importance to the intelligibility of language, but also scholars, writers, editors, publishers and translators realized that any information would be worthless if it could not play a communicative role. Therefore, to judge whether a translation is successful, we must first see whether it can be immediately understood by the recipient and whether it can play a role in the communication of ideas, information and feelings. Therefore, in the field of translation research, various names and statements such as "communicative translation", "functional translation" and related "equal response theory", "equal effect theory", "equal role theory" and "equal power theory" have sprung up one after another. Nida's "translation is communication" and his "reader response theory" and "dynamic equivalence" discussed below“ "Functional equivalence" has become an important representative of the communicative school in the field of western translation studies.

Nida's theory of "translation is communication" is based on the theory of language commonality. Nida, like Jacobson, believes that all languages in the world have the same expression ability, which can enable native speakers of the language to express ideas, describe the world and carry out social communication. His argument is based on the same "identity" For example, in countries with relatively developed productive forces, many scientific and technological words will appear in their languages, while in countries with less developed or very low productive forces, there may be a lack of scientific and technological words in their languages. However, this does not mean that the latter has the same expressive ability as the former, but only shows that people have different requirements for languages in different languages, It is not because the language cannot produce scientific and technological vocabulary, but because the speakers of the language do not have or temporarily do not have the requirement to use scientific and technological vocabulary. Once there is such a requirement, there will be corresponding vocabulary in the language, or "native" scientific and technological vocabulary, or "foreign" vocabulary transplanted from foreign words. In short, the expression efficiency of various languages is the same.

Nida believes that the primary task of translation is to make it clear to the readers at a glance after reading the translation. That is to say, the translation should be fluent and natural, and the readers can understand it without the knowledge of the cultural background of the source language. This requires that rigid foreign words should be used as little as possible in translation, and expressions belonging to the receiving language should be used as much as possible. For example, in a Sudanese language, for If the expression "repent and reform" is translated directly, it will make people feel at a loss, and it should be translated into the local familiar "spitting on the ground in front of someone". For example, in the language without "Snow", white as snow may be puzzling, but it should be said "white as frost" or "white as egret hair" Another example is that in the ancient West, the habit of people meeting and greeting each other was "sacred kiss", but now it should become "very warm handshake".(Nida·Eugene,1996:234）

In a sense, the theory of translation communication is not only one of the main symbols of Nida's second development stage of translation thought, but also one of the biggest characteristics of his whole ideological system.Especially after the publication of translation theory and practice, Nida's translation communication theory has had a great impact on the western translation circles, including those in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union.

（三） Dynamic equivalence theory.The so-called dynamic equivalence translation is actually translation under the guidance of translation communication theory. Specifically, it refers to "reproducing the source language information with the closest (original) natural equivalence in the receiving language from semantics to style".In this definition, there are three key points: one is "nature", which means that the translation cannot have a translation cavity;The second is "close", which refers to selecting the translation with the closest meaning to the original text on the basis of "nature";The third is "equivalence", which is the core.Both "nature" and "close" serve to find equivalents.

（四） Translation function theory.From the perspective of sociolinguistics and language communicative function, Nida believes that translation must serve the reader.To judge whether a translation is correct or not, we must take the reader's response as the criterion.If the response of the target readers is basically the same as that of the original readers, the translation can be considered successful.

（五） Four step model.This refers to the translation process.Nida puts forward that the process of translation is: analysis, transfer (transfer the meaning obtained from the analysis from the source language to the receiving language), reorganization (reorganize the translation according to the rules of the receiving language), and inspection (detect the target text against the source text).Among these four steps, "analysis" is the most complex and key, which is the focus of Nida's translation research.The focus of the analysis is semantics. He distinguishes four parts of speech from the perspective of semantics: object words, activity words, abstract words and relational words.In semantic analysis, he introduced three methods: linear analysis, hierarchical analysis and component analysis.In the specific analysis of semantics, he focuses on grammatical meaning, referential meaning and connotative meaning (or emotional meaning and associative meaning).These distinction theories are of great significance to understand his translation thought.

Nida's research achievements in the 1980s can be regarded as the third stage of translation thought.He has made a series of modifications and supplements to his translation theory.He did not completely abandon the theory of the original communicative school, but further developed on the original basis and incorporated the useful elements of the original theory into a new model, which is the social semiotics model in the third development stage translation thought.

Compared with previous works, Eugene Nida has the following four changes and developments in from one language to another: first, based on the translation theory of social semiotics, he emphasizes that everything in the text has meaning, including speech form, so form cannot be easily sacrificed.That is to say, form is also meaningful. Sacrificing form means sacrificing meaning.Secondly, it points out that the rhetorical features of language play an important role in language communication, so we must pay attention to these features in translation.Third, the theory of "dynamic equivalence" is no longer used, but replaced by "functional equivalence", which is intended to make the meaning of the term clearer and easier to understand.Fourth, instead of using the distinction of grammatical meaning, referential meaning and associative meaning, meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, and all kinds of meaning are divided into referential meaning and associative meaning.From the whole historical process of the development of translation theory, it should be said that these changes are basically positive.(Nida·Eugene,1996:222）

Of course, his theory and works are not perfect.First, his theory focuses too much on solving the problems of communicative and intelligibility of translation, so its scope of application is limited.It is natural to emphasize the intelligibility of the translation in the field of Bible translation, but if the intelligibility of the translation is always put in the first place in the translation of secular literary works, it will inevitably lead to the simplification and even non literariness of the translated language.

Second, he no longer completely negates "formal correspondence", but believes that the expression form of the original text cannot be broken at will in translation.In order to expand the scope of application of his theory, he also added rhetoric.However, despite his amendments, he failed to elaborate more deeply on his new views.

Thirdly, Eugene Nida once put forward the proposition that "translation is science", and then basically abandoned this proposition.Whether he put forward or gave up, he did not put forward sufficient and convincing arguments, which can not be said to be a major defect.

Of course, Nida's theory and works are not perfect. Firstly, his theory focuses too much on solving the problems of communicative and intelligibility of translation, so its scope of application is limited. It is natural to emphasize the intelligibility of the translation in the field of Bible translation, but if the intelligibility of the translation is always put in the first place in the translation of secular literary works, it will inevitably lead to the simplification and even non literariness of the translated language. Newmark, a British translation theorist, once pointed out: "if we delete all the metaphors in the Bible that Doneda believes readers cannot understand, it will inevitably lead to a large loss of meaning." . an important feature of literary works is that they use more metaphorical and novel language. The author's real intention may have to taste and capture between the lines. If all the metaphorical images in the original work are deleted and all the associative meanings are clearly stated, the result will be that the translation is easy to understand, but it is dull and can't reach To the purpose of literature. In recent years, Nida has become more and more aware of this, and has constantly revised and improved some of his past views. For example, he later no longer focused on the intelligibility of the translation, but advocated a "three nature principle", that is, the principle of paying equal attention to comprehensibility, readability and acceptability. In addition, he no longer completely denied "formal correspondence" In order to expand the scope of application of his theory, he especially added rhetoric. However, despite Nida's amendments, he failed to make a more profound exposition of his new views; he was only aware of the existence of the problem rather than successfully solving the relevant problems Besides, Nida once put forward the proposition that "translation is science", and then basically gave up this proposition. Whether he put forward or gave up, he did not put forward sufficient and convincing arguments, which is a major defect.

Of course, flaws do not hide the jade. Looking at Nida's lifelong contributions, he is one of the most outstanding theoretical figures in the field of contemporary translation studies in the United States and even the whole west. The historical theory of the development of western translation theory should give him a heavy pen.(Tan Zaixi,2000:257)

==Chapter3 Robert Boogrand's translation theory==

Since the 1970s, more voices outside the structural language school and the communicative school have gradually emerged in the field of translation studies in the United States, especially the voice of discourse linguistics theory and discourse analysis represented by Robert Boogrand.
Boogrand teaches in the English Department of the University of Florida and is engaged in the study of literary discourse rhetoric and grammatical structure.In 1978, he published a book called "elements of translation theory of poetry"), which was listed as one of the Translation Studies Series edited by Holmes and attracted extensive attention.(Xie Tianzhen,2003:56)

Boogrand's view is: 1. The unit of translation is not a single word or sentence, but the whole text.2. Translation is a process of interaction among authors, translators and readers.3. What is worth studying is not the characteristics of the article itself, but the skills of language use reflected in these characteristics.

After the publication of the above translation theory works guided by the thought of discourse linguistics in 1978, Boogrand continued to engage in the research of language and translation along the same line, and more than ten relevant works (including Works CO authored and co edited with others) have been published successively, mainly including discourse, discourse and process: multidisciplinary discourse science exploration Linguistic Theory: Discourse of basic works, introduction to discourse linguistics, language discourse, Western and Middle East translation Boogrand has always expounded language and translation from the perspective of discourse linguistics, thus establishing his important position as the leader of discourse linguistics in the field of British and American translation studies. Boogrand's contribution as one of the pioneers of discourse analysis and discourse linguistics in translation studies is very important and worthy of full recognition.(Tan Zaixi,2000:256)

==Chapter4 Andre Lefevere's translation theory==

With the development of the times, translation studies in the United States, like other parts of the west, have been continuously improved in theoretical depth. By the 1990s, the focus of theorists' discussion on translation has gradually separated from the previous specific translation processes and methods, and turned more to the fundamental nature of translation, translation and ideology, translation and culture. This chapter introduces Andre Leverville's translation theory.
Andre Leverville, a professor of translation and comparative literature at the University of Texas at Austin, originally from Belgium, is a very important theoretical figure in the field of Contemporary Western comparative literature and translation research. We can discuss his main ideas from the following two aspects.(Tan Zaixi,2000:276)

(一)The cultural turn in translation studies. It is a common feature of all cultural schools to turn the focus of translation studies from the language structure and language form correspondence that language schools are most concerned about to the meaning and function of the target text and the source text in their respective cultural systems. He believes that any literature must survive in a certain social and cultural environment, and its meaning and value Value, as well as its interpretation and acceptance, will always be affected and restricted by a series of interrelated and mutually referenced factors, including both internal and external factors of literature. Therefore, as far as translation research is concerned, the goal of the research is far from limited to exploring the equivalence or equivalence of the two texts in language forms, but to explore at the same time.Study various cultural issues directly or indirectly related to translation activities.

（二） The concept of manipulation in translation. When talking about and describing the basic characteristics of the cultural school, we often can not do without using the word "manipulation". Here, "manipulation"It is not emotional, but a special term representing the concept of neutrality. According to the translation operation of Andre Leverville and others, the core meaning is that in the process of processing the source text and generating the target text, the translator has the right and will rewrite the text in order to achieve a certain purpose. Andre Leverville believes that translation is a reflection of the image of the text.Other literary forms such as literary criticism, biography, literary history, drama, film, fiction and so on are also the rewriting of the text image, and rewriting is the manipulation of the text.

（三） Obviously, the manipulative rewriting in Lefevere and his cultural school theory is not simply equivalent to "Rewriting" in the general sense, because in his view, all translation is rewriting, even the "most faithful"Translation is also a form of rewriting. As a translation manipulator, this rewriting or manipulation should be regarded as a cultural necessity in essence. In the process of translation, the translator is bound to be affected and restricted by various social and cultural factors. In addition to considering all the characteristics related to the source text, such as the original author's intention, the context of the source text and so on, the more important thing is toIt is necessary to consider a series of factors related to the target or receiving culture, such as the purpose of translation, the function of the target text, the expectations and reactions of readers, the requirements of clients and sponsors, and the review of the publishing and distribution organization of the work. The existence of these factors and the degree of constraints imposed by the translator on them vary from person to person constitute the inevitable "manipulation" condition of the translator on the text.(Lefevere·André,1980:100).

For "manipulation" in this sense, we can not judge it by moral value words such as "legitimate" or "improper", but only by the "appropriateness" criteria such as whether the target text has achieved the purpose of translation, whether it meets the expectations of the audience, and whether it can be accepted by the accepted culture.

==Chapter5 Lawrence Venudi's translation theory==

It is precisely because the cultural school or manipulation school, and even the polysystem school, in translation studies have established a relationship with the theory of domestication and Foreignization in translation, that a new group of scholars and viewpoints have emerged. In the field of American translation studies, Lawrence Wenudi is the most vocal theoretical figure on the issues of "domestication" and "Foreignization".
As an English professor at Temple University in Philadelphia, winudi is one of the most active and influential figures in the field of American translation theory since the 1990s. Winudi belongs to the deconstruction school in translation studies, that is, what genzler calls the "post structuralism school"In his works on translation studies, Venuti advocates that literary translation should not aim at eliminating alien features, but should try to show cultural differences in the target text.(Tan Zaixi,2000:278)

Venuti's main view is that it is wrong to require the translator to be invisible in translation; the translator should not be invisible in the translation, but should be visible. That is to say, translation should adopt the principle and strategy of "alienation" to keep the translation exotic and exotic, and read like the translation, rather than "domestication"So that the translation can be transformed completely in accordance with the ideology and creative norms of the target culture. It doesn't read like foreign works, but the original of the target language.(Xie Tianzhen,2003:278).

However, translation has never been carried out in an unaffected way. Foreignization translation and domestication translation are actually the products of translation activities affected. From the perspective of translation ethics, it is difficult to assert which is good or which is bad, because translation reality shows that the two play irreplaceable roles in the target language and culture and complete their respective missions.Therefore, the two kinds of translation will always coexist and complement each other.(Tan Zaixi,2000:279)

==Chapter6 Edwin Gensler's translation theory==

Edwin Genzler is the director of the translation center of Amherst University of Massachusetts, doctor of comparative literature and professor of translation. His famous translation work is contemporary translation theory published in 1993 and reprinted in 2001.(Xie Tianzhen,2003:290).

Genzler's contribution to translation theory is mainly reflected in the following three aspects:
First, it comprehensively combs the contemporary western translation theories, so as to clarify people's understanding of various western translation theory schools since World War II, and thus arouse the research interest in all kinds of contemporary western translation theories in the field of translation studies (including China's Translation Studies).In contemporary translation theory, Genzler studies translation from different perspectives such as scientific theory, polysystem theory and deconstruction. By exploring the "political reality" outside translation (literary translation practice), he outlines the outline of contemporary western translation research and guides readers to rethink a series of theoretical issues such as the definition and classification of translation.(Tan Zaixi,2000:300)

Secondly, on the basis of comprehensively and systematically combing various contemporary western translation thoughts and theories, Genzler puts forward a multi-channel cooperative translation research view of "fair treatment of all systems".He believes that contemporary translation theory, like literary theory, originates from structuralist theory.All these structuralist or post structuralist theories have been confined to their respective academic circles for a long time.Various schools have very special requirements for the terms used in this system, and the terms are limited;Their pursuit of "correctness" or "objectivity" of theory tends to be one-sided, and they all try to gain universal recognition in the academic circles at the expense of other perspectives.The result is only the continuous conflict between theories, but there is no due cooperation and exchange between theories, which leads to the marginalization of academic research.(Xie Tianzhen,2003:293)

Thirdly, Genzler puts forward a post structuralist interpretation model of the essence of translation.In translation, post structuralism and power, he analyzes the deconstruction (post structuralism) thoughts of Derrida, Spivak and others, as well as the translation thoughts of translation theorists such as Wenudi, Levin and Robinson under the influence of their deconstruction thoughts, and points out that the new translation interpretation model can no longer follow the past tradition and simply define translation as"The transformation from a single language to another single language", but it should be regarded as the transformation between a multicultural form environment and another equally multicultural form environment.

==Conclusion==

In addition to the above-mentioned important theoretical figures in the field of contemporary American translation studies, many others, such as Roberto Tradu, Daniel Shaw, Burton Raphael and so on, have also made achievements in translation theory. However, due to space constraints, they cannot be discussed in detail here.

Generally speaking, due to the historical origin and the influence of the subject's immigrant culture, the initial development of American translation studies depends on the inheritance and promotion of the tradition of European translation theory. With the evolution of the times, American translation studies catch up with each other in many aspects with rapid development and fruitful achievements, and walk in the forefront of western translation studies, becoming the driving force of contemporary western translation theory. On an important force for forward development.(Tan Zaixi,2000:301)

In addition to the above-mentioned important theoretical figures in the field of contemporary American translation studies, many others, such as Roberto Tradu, Daniel Shaw, Burton Raphael and so on, have also made achievements in translation theory. However, due to space constraints, they cannot be discussed in detail here.

Generally speaking, due to the historical origin and the influence of the subject's immigrant culture, the initial development of American translation studies depends on the inheritance and promotion of the tradition of European translation theory. With the evolution of the times, American translation studies catch up with each other in many aspects with rapid development and fruitful achievements, and walk in the forefront of western translation studies, becoming the driving force of contemporary western translation theory. On an important force for forward development.(corrected by--[[User:Zhou Junhui|Zhou Junhui]] ([[User talk:Zhou Junhui|talk]]) 08:48, 14 December 2021 (UTC))

==reference==

Lefevere·André. (1980). Translating literature [M]. New York:Clarendon Press.

Newmark·Peter. （1978）.The theory and the craft of translation [M].London:Rountledge Press.

Nida·Eugene.（1996）.The Sociolinguistics of Interlingual Communication [M]. Brussels:Editions du Hazard.

Katz·Jerrold J. （1966）.The Philosophy of Language [M]. New York:Harper and Row.

Pound，E. 1917. Notes on Elizabethan classicists [M]. New York:Clarendon Press.

Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (1999).《新编奈达论翻译》[M] New Nida on Translation. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司 Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.

Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2000).《翻译学》[M] Translatology. 武汉:湖北教育出版社 Wuhan: Hubei Education Press.

Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2003).《翻译研究新视野》[M].New perspectives in Translation Studies. 青岛:青岛出版社 Qingdao: Qingdao Press.

中国对外翻译出版公司（编).(1983).《翻译理论与翻译技巧论文集》[M].Collection of Papers on Translation Theory and Translation Skills. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.

中国对外翻译出版公司（编).(1983).《国外翻译理论评介文集》[M].A Review of Foreign Translation Theories. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司 Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.

--[[User:Liu Wei|Liu Wei]] ([[User talk:Liu Wei|talk]]) 16:11, 8 December 2021 (UTC)Liu Wei

=周俊辉Translation of Science and Technology in Late Qing Dynasty and Early Republic of China=
[[Hist_Trans_EN_10]]

=周玖Translation of Science and Technology in Ancient China=
[[Hist_Trans_EN_11]]

=钟雨露Western Translation History in the Old Ages=
[[Hist_Trans_EN_12]]

=钟义菲: The Chinese Translation History in Mordern Age=
[[Hist_Trans_EN_13]]

=魏楚璇: Western translation history in the Modern and Contemporary Ages=
[[Hist_Trans_EN_14]]

=Chapter 15Mahzad Heydarian: Where Persian Language Meets Translation=
[[Hist_Trans_EN_15]]

Mahzad Sadat Heydarian,Hunan Normal University,China

=Akira Jantarat： History of Chinese-Thai literature Translation in 19th century=
[[Hist_Trans_EN_16]]

=Jawad Ahmad; History of Translation=

[[Hist_Trans_EN_17]]

=Benjamin Wellsand; Bible Translation in Christian History=

[[Hist_Trans_EN_18]]

History of Translations

2021-12-15T05:00:09Z

Li Xichang: /* Writings and Work Records of Biblical Translators */

[[History_of_Translations|Overview Page of History of Translation]]

30 Chapters（0/30)

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[[Book_projects|Back to translation project overview]] [[DCG-To-Do|Zur To-Do-Liste]]

=chapter 1 Rouabah Soumaya: History of translation in the Middle Ages=
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== Abstract==
The history of translation is seen variously as examining the role of translation in historical episodes through decades or investigating the phenomenon or understanding of translation itself historically. These different historiographical perspectives involve potentially different research aims, approaches, concepts, methods and scholarly interlocutors. The paper focuses on this question of disciplinary commensurability in historical studies, and draws parallels between the history of translation and translation in the middle ages. Themes addressed include the bible translation as , established historiographical norms and alternative, interdisciplinary approaches. It is argued that both the history of translation started with the translation of the Bible in the early BC comes, towards a reflexive, transnational history that seeks productive modes of engagement with other historical disciplines. By bringing to the attention of translation scholars some of the key debates in the history of translation and by identifying commonalities, this paper hopes to present an overall view of translation in the middle ages with slight knowledge of Bible translation in the early centuries of the middle ages, which starts from th5 to the 15 century.

== Keywords==
History of Translation , Bible Translation, Translation in the Middle Ages
medieval translation, medieval translator, translation and culture

== Introduction ==
This paper aims at a general review of the history of translation studies and the prevalent approaches from antiquity to the present in the west, in the form of a historical survey in which key theoretical developments are taken into account, focusing on approaches that have been developed during the twentieth century. Without a doubt, It is James Holme's seminal paper "the name and nature of translation studies" that draws up a disciplinary map for translation studies and serves as a springboard for researchers with its binary division of Translation Studies into two branches: "pure" and "applied." Its growth as a discipline goes back to the 1980s. As time elapses, translation studies, by achieving a certain institutional authority and coalescing with many a resurging disciplines and trends as cultural studies, linguistics, literary theory and criticism, brings a renewed aspect to translation theory.

In addition, this paper argues that English medieval translation can be considered as part of a cultural project in that the medieval translator is concerned more with the role and the function of translation in the target culture. Medieval translation theory derives from the classical theories of translation, however, prefaces to translations indicate that medieval translator appropriates the classical translation theory and uses it to serve the cultural and ideological objectives of translation in the middle Ages.

Key words: medieval translation, medieval translator, translation and culture, translation theory.
The pioneering work of Jeannette Beer and Roger Ellis has decidedly promoted medieval translation as a significant area, and has established medieval translation as the work of culturally responsible, academically oriented people of learning.

1 Susan
* Assist. Prof. Dr., Hacettepe University, Department of English Language and Literature
1 The problematic situation of Medieval translation in the academia is discussed by Ruth Evans in "Translating
Past Cultures?" in The Medieval Translator /Vied. Roger Ellis and Ruth Evans, the University of Exeter Press,
Medieval Translation and Cultural Transformation

== Early History of Translation==
The word ‘translation’ comes from a Latin term which means, “To bring or carry across”. Another relevant term comes from the Ancient Greek word of ‘metaphrasis’ which means, “To speak across” and from this, the term ‘metaphrase’ was born, which means a “word-for-word translation”. These terms have been at the heart of theories relating to translation throughout history and have given insight into when and where translation have been used throughout the ages.

It is known that translation was carried out as early as the Mesopotamian era when the Sumerian poem, Gilgamesh, was translated into Asian languages. This dates back to around the second millennium BC. Other ancient translated works include those carried out by Buddhist monks who translated Indian documents into Chinese. In later periods, Ancient Greek texts were also translated by Roman poets and were adapted to create developed literary works for entertainment. It is known that translation services were utilised in Rome by Cicero and Horace and that these uses were continued through to the 17th century, where newer practices were developed.

The history of translation has been a topic that has long been debated by scholars and historians, though it is widely accepted that translation pre-dates the bible. The bible tells of different languages as well as giving insight to the interaction of speakers from different areas. The need for translation has been apparent since the earliest days of human interaction, whether it be for emotional, trade or survival purposes.

The demand for translation services has continued to develop and is now more vital than ever, with businesses acknowledging the inability to expand internationally or succeed in penetrating foreign markets without translating marketing material and business documents.

It is significant to review the history of translation in different languages. There are divisions of period made by scholars like George Steiner. According to Steiner, the history of translation is divided into four periods. Starting from the Roman translators Cicero and Horace to Alexander Fraser Tytler is the first period; the second period extends up to Valery and from Valery to 1960s becomes the third period and the fourth period 1960s onwards. The history of translation is stressed out from 3000 B.C. Rosetta Stone is considered the most ancient work of Translation belonged to the second century B.C. Livius Andronicus translated Homer’s Odyssey named Odusia into Latin in 240 B.C. All that survives is parts of 46 scattered lines from 17 books of the Greek 24-book epic. In some lines, he translates literally, though in others more freely. His translation of the Odyssey had a great historical importance. Before then, the Mesopotamians and Egyptians had translated judicial and religious texts, but no one had yet translated a literary work written in a foreign language until the Roman Empire. Livius’ translation made this fundamental Greek text accessible to Romans, and advanced literary culture in Latin. This project was one of the best examples of translation as artistic process. The work was to be enjoyed on its own, and Livius strove to preserve the artistic quality of original. Since there was no tradition of epic in Italy before him, Livius must have faced enormous problems. For example, he used archaizing forms to make his language more solemn and intense. Barnstone Willis. The Poetics of Translation: History, Theory and Practice. London: Yale University Press, 1993. Print. Bassnett, Susan and Lefevere, Andre (Eds.). Translation, History and Culture. London: Pinter, 1990. Print.

When we talk about the history of translation, we should think of the theories and names that e merged at its different periods. In fact, each era is characterized by specific changes in translation history, but these changes differ from one place to another. For example, the developments of translation in the western world are not the same as those in the Arab world, as each nation knew particular incidents that led to the birth of particular theories. So, what marked the western translation? .By Marouane Zakhir English translator University of Soultan Moulay Slimane, Morocco

== Translation in the Western World==
For centuries, people believed in the relation between translation and the story of the tower of Babel in the Book of Genesis. According to the Bible, the descendants of Noah decided, after the great flood, to settle down in a plain in the land of Shinar. There, they committed a great sin. Instead of setting up a society that fits God's will, they decided to challenge His authority and build a tower that could reach Heaven. However, this plan was not completed, as God, recognizing their wish, regained control over them through a linguistic stratagem. He caused them to speak different languages so as not to understand each other. Then, he scattered them all over the earth. After that incident, the number of languages increased through diversion, and people started to look for ways to communicate, hence the birth of translation (Abdessalam Benabdelali, 2006) (1).

Actually, with the birth of translation studies and the increase of research in the domain, people started to get away from this story of Babel, and they began to look for specific dates and figures that mark the periods of translation history.

Researchers mention that writings on translation go back to the Romans. Eric Jacobson claims that translating is a Roman invention (see McGuire: 1980) (2). Cicero and Horace (first century BC) were the first theorists who distinguished between word-for-word translation and sense-for-sense translation. Their comments on translation practice influenced the following generations of translation up to the twentieth century.

Another period that knew a changing step in translation development was marked by St Jerome (fourth century CE). "His approach to translating the Greek Septuagint Bible into Latin would affect later translations of the scriptures." (Munday, 2001) (3)

The first important translation in the West was that of the Septuagint, a collection of Jewish Scriptures translated into early Koine Greek in Alexandria between the 3rd and "1st centuries B C E The dispersed Jews had forgotten their ancestral language and Throughout the .middle Ages, /Latin was the lingua franca of the western learned world. -Wikipedia .org/wiki/

The 9th1century Alfred the Great, king of Wessex in England, was far ahead of his time in commissioning 'vernacular Anglo -Saxon translations of Bede’s Ecclesiastical History and Boethius « Consolation of Philosophy ) meanwhile, the Christian church frowned on even partial adaptations of St . Jerome ‘s Vulgate of CA 384 CE, the Latin Bible . -Wikipedia .org/wiki/

The broad historic trends in Western translation practice may be illustrated on the example of translation into the English language .

The first fine translations into English were made in the "the century by Geoffrey Chaucer, who adapted from the Italian of Giovanni Boccaccio in his own Knight's Tal e and Troilus and Criseyde ; began a translation of the French -language Roman de la Rose 7 and completed a translation of Boethius from the Latin . Chaucer bounded an English poetic tradition on adaptations and translations from those earlier established literary languages . -Wikipedia .org/wiki/

The first great English translation was the Wycliffe (CA 1382), which showed the weaknesses of an under developed English prose . only at the end of the "15th century did the great age to English prose translation begin with Thomas Malory ‘s "le Morte D arthur”- Ban adaptation of Arthurian romances so free that it can, in fact, hardly be called a true translation . The first great Tudor translations are, accordingly, the Tyndale new Testament ( 1525), which influenced the Authorized Version (1611), and Lord Berners version of jean Froissart’s Chronicles ( 1523- 25) . - Wikipedia .org/wiki/

== History of Translation in the Middle Ages==
In the history of Europe, the middle Ages or medieval period lasted approximately from the Fifth to the late 15th centuries, similarly to the Post-classical period of global history. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and transitioned into the Renaissance and the Age of Discovery. The middle Ages is the middle period of the three traditional divisions of Western history: classical antiquity, the medieval period, and the modern period. The medieval period is itself subdivided into the Early, High, and Late Middle Ages.

This article is about medieval Europe. For a global history of the period between the 5th and 15th centuries, see Post-classical history. For other uses, see middle Ages (disambiguation).

"Medieval times" redirects here. For the dinner theatre, see Medieval Times.

Latin was the lingua franca of the Western learned world throughout the middle Ages, with few translations of Latin works into vernacular languages. In the 9th century, Alfred the Great, King of Wessex in England, was far ahead of his time in commissioning vernacular translations from Latin into English of Bede’s “Ecclesiastical History”and Boethius's “The Consolation of Philosophy”, which contributed to improve the underdeveloped English prose of that time.

It is argued that the knowledge and findings of Greek academics was developed and understood so widely thanks to the translation work of Arabic scholars. When the Greeks were conquered, Arabic scholars, who translated them and created their own versions of the scientific, entertainment and philosophical understandings took in their works. These Arabic versions were later translated into Latin, during the middle Ages, mostly throughout Spain and the resulting works provided the foundations of Renaissance academics.

Medieval times in human history – also referred to as the “Middles Ages” – was the time period that fell roughly between the fall of the Roman Empire in 476 CE and the 14th century. However, these years bear another moniker as well: the Dark Ages. There are valid reasons for that term. In the eyes of many historians, people during this age made little to no significant advancements that benefitted humankind. In addition, most notably, this was the period when the “Black Death” (the bubonic plague) killed an estimated 30 percent of the population of Europe.

However, the middle Ages were not completely “dark.” In fact, modern historians are taking a second look at this period with a more objective – and perhaps more generous – perspective. There is no doubt, for example, that religion flourished during this time. The Catholic Church came to prominence throughout Europe, and the rise of Islam was occurring simultaneously in the Middle East. It was there – particularly in urban centres such a Baghdad, Damascus and Cairo – that an extremely vibrant culture and intellectual society thrived.

The art of translation also made great strides during the middle Ages. Thanks to Alfred the Great (the king of England during the 9th century), The Consolation of Philosophy by Boethius and Ecclesiastical History by Bede were translated from Latin to English – a major feat that would have a great impact on the overall advancement of English prose during this period. Later, during the 12th and 13th centuries, the Toledo School of Translators (“Escuela de Traductores de Toledo”) worked on a wide variety of translations, including religious, scientific, philosophical and medical works. The original texts were created in Arabic, Hebrew and Greek, and all were translated into Castilian – and that formed the basis for the formation of the Spanish language. Also during the 13th century, English linguist Roger Bacon postulated the concept that a translator not only needed to be fully fluent in both the source and target languages of the work being translated, but also that a translator should be fully versed in the topic of the work to be translated – a tenet that still holds true in the language arts to this day.

One of the most notable translators during the middle Ages was also one of the most accomplished authors and poets – Geoffrey Chaucer. In fact, those historians who still maintain that the Dark Ages produced little to no significant contributions to humankind might do well to remember the works of Chaucer. In a lifetime that spanned some 60 years (from the 1340s until 1400), Chaucer earned the reputation as the “father of English literature.” However, that description only scratched the surface of Chaucer’s accomplishments. He was also a noted astronomer and philosopher, as well as a diplomat, bureaucrat and parliament member. Chaucer’s contributions to the language arts were no less significant; his use of Middle English (as opposed to Latin or French, which were the two most commonly used languages of the day) quite literally brought English into mainstream usage, as did his translations of numerous works from Italian, French and Latin into English.

It can truly be said that historians have given medieval times somewhat of a bad rap over the centuries. And while there’s no doubt that the accomplishments of linguists and others during the Middle Ages can’t come close to comparing with those of the Renaissance or later time periods, the contributions made during the “Dark Ages” should not be overlooked. In fact, from a linguistic point of view, this was an extremely crucial time. Not only were the basic principles of translation developed during the middle Ages, but also English itself began to take shape as a language of import for future years.

Studies on the theory and practice of medieval translation reveal therefore that the translation principles and the issues of translation theory in the Middle Ages derive from a long established tradition of translation theory developed by the classical authors. In practice, Roger Ellis states, medieval translation is heterogeneous; "every instance of practice that we may be tempted to erect into a principle has its answering opposite, sometimes in the same work (quoted in Evans, 1994: 27). Evidently, not only the critical approaches to translation in the Middle Ages but also theory and practice of translation of the period vary considerably. However, it seems that medieval translation utilises the translation and writing theories inherited from the classical authors to adopt a translational approach that recognises translation's vital role in the cultural transformation of the middle Ages. Page 96

This paper argues therefore that the medieval interest in translation can be considered as a cultural and political interest since the 1994. pp. 20-45. See Jeanette Beer, Medieval Translators and Their Craft.1989 and Roger Ellis (ed) assisted by Jocelyn Price, Stephen Medcalf and Peter Meredith. The Medieval Translator: The Theory and Practice of Translation in the Middle Ages: Papers Read at a Conference Held 20-23 August 1987 at the University of Wales Conference Centre, Gregynog //a//.Woodbridge, Suffolk: D.S. Brewer, 1989.

Rita Copeland, Rhetoric, Hermeneutics, and Translation in the Middle Ages: Academic Traditions and
Vernacular Texts. Cambridge, 1991. See particularly A. J. Minnis and A. B. Scots (eds) Medieval Literary
Theory and Criticism c.l 100-1375 The Commentary Tradition. Oxford, 1988.

Translations of the period are introduced as potential projects for cultural transformation. The formative role of translation in the middle Ages can be observed in medieval culture's awareness of the significance of cultural interaction. Medieval culture is a highly bookish culture, which contributed to the development of a vigorous translation activity in the Middle Ages. The recognition of the authority of the books seems to have led to the utilisation of the potential in translation for cultural education and transformation. As there was little or no difference between translation and original composition in the Middle Ages, translation was often considered in association with the pragmatic function of the book (Barratt, 1992:13-14).

In Geoffrey Chaucer's The Prologue to the Legend of Good Women, the fictional dialogue concerning the translations of the narrator provides an instructive interaction concerning translation activity as an integral part of cultural re-construction in the middle Ages.

The god of Love presents two works of Chaucer, the Troilus and Criseyde and the Romance of the Rose, as translations and questions the narrator's motives in choosing to translate works undermining the doctrine of Love (322-335). This fictional questioning introduces, in fact, the main attitude to translation in the middle Ages as it recognises the transformative role of translation on the target audience as an important issue the medieval translator recognises and aims at as the ultimate target of translation. Similarly, the narrator in Chaucer's Prologue to the Legend of Good Women argues that he wanted to teach the reader the true conduct in love through the experience of the lovers in the books he translated (471-474).

The translator in this fictional debate introduces the main objective of translation as making the works of foreign languages available to the linguistically disadvantaged audience for their cultural improvement. This rather pragmatic translational paradigm, moreover, introduces another important issue of medieval translation addressed by theoretical tradition of translation in the middle Ages. In fact, the translator accused of mistranslation in Chaucer's Prologue to the Legend of Good Women is also a writer, his accuser does not make a distinction between his role as a translator and his role as a writer.3 many of the medieval translators were also writers, and translation and interpretation were considered as important strategies in medieval composition. Moreover, most of the medieval translation activity from Latin into the vernacular involved a transfer of the past works into the vernacular by re-writing.
As Douglas Kelly argues, "such re-writing is 'translation' as literary invention, using pre-
existent source material. It is a variety of translation study « (1997: 48). Medieval reception of the translation theory of the classical antiquity as a principle governing creative activity led to a special sense of translation, that is, translation as "an 3 See the Prologue to the Legend of Good Women, lines 322-35 and 362-370. 97

".. And other bokes took me ...To reed upon ": Medieval Translation and Cultural Transformation 'unfaithful' yet artful interpretation or reinterpretation"(Kelly, 1997: 55), or "secondary translation" to put it in Copeland's words.

Identifying the important status of translation in the Middle Ages as a branch of writing reveals that the Middle Ages was not totally oblivious to the legacy of rhetorical and hermeneutic traditions of the classical antiquity. More importantly, it testifies to the significant function translation is given in the cultural transformation. As stated above, a theoretical understanding of translation in the middle Ages was largely dependent on the classical ideas of translation. Rita Copeland argues for the necessity of recognising the medieval awareness of the classical tradition as the strong theoretical foundation of Medieval translation.

==Translation in middle Ages (The Philological Perspective)==

Middle Ages epoch roughly represents the time between late fifth century and the fifteenth century A.D.in Europe. Middle Ages, however, continue until the advent of European Colonialism (about eighteenth century) in the 'Oriental' and African countries. With the spread of Christianity, translation takes a new role of disseminating the word of God. How to translate the divine words faithfully was a serious issue because of dogmatic and political concerns. “St. Jerome claims that he follows sense for sense approach rather than word for word approach when translating the New Testament in AD 384.”18 Since the aim of the divine text is to provide understanding and guidance, it seems logical to follow sense for sense approach. Thence, there is a possibility of intentional or unintentional change of meaning and the context; for these reasons, some scholars emphasize on the word for word translation approach. The first translation of the complete Bible into English was the Wycliffe Bible is which was produced between 1380 and 1384; “Wycliffe believes man should have direct contact with God and thus the Bible should be translated into language that man can understand, i.e. in the vernacular. Purvey believes translator should translate “after sentence (meaning),” not only after words. Martin Luther says, “... the meaning and subject matter must be considered, not the grammar, for the grammar should not rule over the meaning;”19 Criticism on sense for sense was widespread because it minimized the power of the church authorities, “while literal translation was bound up with the Bible and other religious and philosophical works, says Jeremy Monday; non-literal or non-accepted translation came to be seen and used as a weapon against the Church.”20“In the Western Europe this word-for-word versus sense-for-sense debate continued in one form or another until the twentieth century. The centrality of Bible to translation also explains the enduring theoretical questions about accuracy and fidelity to fixed source.”21 In the eighth and ninth century A.D., a large number of translations from Greek into Arabic gave rise to Arabic learning. “Scholars from Syria, a part of the Roman Empire (during 64B.C.-636A.D) came to Baghdad and translated Greek works of Physician Hippocrates (460-360 B.C.), philosophers Plato (427-327 B.C.) and Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) into Arabic during the eighth and ninth century A.D. Baghdad continued to be a centre of translations of Greek classics into Arabic even in the twentieth century A.D.”22 The dominance of religion is prominent in the Translation Era of Middle Ages. In this era, both the trends of Antiquity period can be seen in action, yet emphasis is again on the sense for sense approach.

==Translation In the middle Ages between the 12th and the 15 centuries;==

In the 12th and 13th centuries, the Toledo School of Translators (Escuela de Traductores de Toledo) became a meeting point for European scholars who — attracted by the high wages they were offered — came and settled down in Toledo, Spain, to translate major philosophical, religious, scientific and medical works from Arabic, Greek and Hebrew into Latin and Castilian. Toledo was a city of libraries offering a number of manuscripts, and one of the few places in medieval Europe where a Christian could be exposed to Arabic language and culture.

The Toledo School of Translators went through two distinct periods. Archbishop Raymond de Toledo, who advocated the translation of philosophical and religious works, led the first period (in the 12th century) mainly from classical Arabic into Latin. These Latin translations helped advance European Scholasticism, and thus European science and culture. King Alfonso X of Castile himself led the second period (in the 13th century). On top of philosophical and religious works, the scholars also translated scientific and medical works. Castilian — instead of Latin — became the final language, thus resulting in establishing the foundations of the modern Spanish language.

The translations of works on different sciences (astronomy, astrology, algebra, medicine) acted as a magnet for numerous scholars, who came from all over Europe to Toledo to learn first-hand about the contents of all those Arab, Greek and Hebrew works, before going back home to disseminate the acquired knowledge in European universities. While some Toledo translations of physical and cosmological works were accepted in most European universities in the early 1200s, the works of Aristotle and Arab philosophers were often banned, for example at the Sorbonne University in Paris.

Roger Bacon was a 13th-century English scholar heralded for his early exposition of a “universal grammar” (the concept that the ability to learn grammar is hard-wired into the brain). He was the first linguist to assess that a translator should know well both the source language and the target language to produce a good translation, and that the translator should be well versed in the discipline of the work he was translating. According to legend, after finding out that few translators did, Roger Bacon decided to do away with translation and translators altogether. However, his decision did not last long. He relied on many Toledo translations from Arabic into Latin to make major contributions in the fields of optics, astronomy, natural sciences, chemistry and mathematics.

Geoffrey Chaucer produced the first fine translations into English in the 14th century. Chaucer translated the “Roman de la Rose” from French, and Boethius’s works from Latin. He also adapted some works of the Italian humanist Giovanni Boccaccio to produce his own “Knight’s Tale” and “Troilus and Criseyde” (c.1385) in English. Chaucer is regarded as the founder of an English poetic tradition based on translations and adaptations of literary works in languages that were more “established” than English was at the time, beginning with Latin and Italian. The finest religious translation of that time was the “Wycliffe’s Bible” (1382-84), named after John Wycliffe, an English theologian who translated the Bible from Latin to English.

In the 15th century : Byzantine scholar Gemistus Pletho’s trip to Florence, Italy, pioneered the revival of Greek learning in Western Europe. Gemistus Pletho reintroduced Plato’s thought during the 1438-39 Council of Florence, in a failed attempt to reconcile the East-West schism (a 11th-century schism between the Eastern Orthodox and Catholic churches). During this Council, Pletho met Cosimo de Medici, the politician ruling Florence and a great patron of learning and the arts, and influenced him to found a Platonic Academy. Led by the Italian scholar and translator Marsilio Ficino, the Platonic Academy took over the translation into Latin of all Plato’s works, the “Enneads” of Plotinus and other Neo-Platonist works. Marsilio Ficino’s work — and Erasmus’ Latin edition of the New Testament — led to a new attitude to translation. For the first time, readers demanded rigor of rendering, as philosophical and religious beliefs depended on the exact words of Plato and Jesus (and Aristotle and others).

The great age of English prose translation began in the late 15th century with Thomas Malory’s “Le Morte d’Arthur” (1485), a free translation/adaptation of Arthurian romances about the legendary King Arthur, as well as Guinevere, Lancelot, Merlin and the Knights of the Round Table. Thomas Malory “interpreted” existing French and English stories about these figures while adding original material, e.g. the “Gareth” story about one of the Knights of the Round Table.4

== An Overview of Bible Translations in The Middle Ages==
The most significant turn in the history of translation came with the Bible translations. The efforts of translating the Bible from its original languages into over 2,000 others have spanned more than two millennia. Partial translation of the Bible into languages of English people can be stressed back to the end of the seventh century, including translations into Old English and Middle English. Over 450 versions have been created overtime.
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Bible translations in the Middle Ages discussions are in contrast to Late Antiquity, when the Bibles available to most Christians were in the local vernacular. In a process seen in many other religions, as languages changed, and in Western Europe, languages with no tradition of being written down became dominant, the prevailing vernacular translations remained in place, despite gradually becoming sacred languages, incomprehensible to the majority of the population in many places. In Western Europe, the Latin Vulgate, itself originally a translation into the vernacular, was the standard text of the Bible, and full or partial translations into a vernacular language were uncommon until the Late Middle Ages and the Early Modern Period. A page from the luxury illuminated manuscript Wenceslas Bible, a German translation of the 1390s.[1] From Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia

During the Migration Period Christianity spread to various peoples who had not been part of the old Roman Empire, and whose languages had yet no written form, or only a very simple one, like runes. Typically, the Church itself was the first to attempt to capture these languages in written form, and Bible translations are often the oldest surviving texts in these newly written-down languages. Meanwhile, Latin was evolving into new distinct regional forms, the early versions of the Romance languages, for which new translations eventually became necessary. However, the Vulgate remained the authoritative text, used universally in the West for scholarship and the liturgy since the early development of the Romance languages had not come to full fruition, matching its continued use for other purposes such as religious literature and most secular books and documents. In the early middle Ages, anyone who could read at all could often read Latin, even in Anglo-Saxon England, where writing in the vernacular (Old English) was more common than elsewhere. A number of pre-reformation Old English Bible translations survive, as do many instances of glosses in the vernacular, especially in the Gospels and the Psalms.[4] Over time, biblical translations and adaptations were produced both within and outside the church, some as personal copies for religious or lay nobility, and others for liturgical or pedagogical purposes.[5][6] From Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia

The Bible was translated into various languages in late antiquity; the most important of these translations are those in the Syriac dialect of Aramaic (including the Peshitta and the Diatessaron gospel harmony), the Ge'ez language of Ethiopia, and, in Western Europe, Latin. The earliest Latin translations are collectively known as the Vetus Latina, but in the late fourth century, Jerome re-translated the Hebrew and Greek texts into the normal vernacular Latin of his day, in a version known as the Vulgate (Biblia vulgata) (meaning "common version", in the sense of "popular"). Jerome's translation gradually replaced most of the older Latin texts, and gradually ceased to be a vernacular version as the Latin language developed and divided. The earliest surviving complete manuscript of the entire Latin Bible is the Codex Amiatinus, produced in eighth century England at the double monastery of Wearmouth-Jarrow. By the end of late, antiquity the Bible was therefore available and used in all the major written languages then spoken by Christians. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia

== Conclusion ==
The history of translation studies and the resurgence and genesis of the approaches to this emerging discipline was marked by the first century (BCE) commentator Cicero and then St. Jerome whose word-for-word and sense-for-sense approaches to translation was a springboard for other approaches and trends to thrive. From the medieval ages until now, each decade was marked by a dominant concept such as translatability, equivalence etc. Whilst before the twentieth century translation was an element of language learning, the study of the field developed into an academic discipline only in the second half of the twentieth century, when this field achieved a certain institutional authority and developed as a distinct discipline. As this discipline moved towards the present, the level of sophistication and inventiveness did in fact soared and new concepts, methods, and research projects were developed which interacted with this discipline. The brief review here, albeit incomplete, reflects the current fragmentation of the field into subspecialties, some empirically oriented, some hermeneutic and literary and some influenced by various forms of linguistics and cultural studies which have culminated in productive syntheses. In short, translation studies is now a field which brings together approaches from a wide language and cultural studies, that for its own use, modifies them and develops new models specific to its own requirements.
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© 2012 ACADEMY PUBLISHER Manufactured in Finland.
doi:10.4304/tpls.2.1.77-85

== References ==
-A page from the luxury illuminated manuscript Wenceslas Bible, a German translation of the 1390s.[1] From Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia

-Barnstone Willis. The Poetics of Translation: History, Theory and Practice. London: Yale University Press, 1993. Print. Bassnett, Susan and Lefevere, Andre (Eds.). Translation, History and Culture. London: Pinter, 1990. Print. 2- Barnstone Willis. The Poetics of Translation: History, Theory and Practice. London: Yale University Press, 1993. Print. Bassnett, Susan and Lefevere, Andre (Eds.). Translation, History and Culture. London: Pinter, 1990. Print.

-Early history of translation .By Marouane Zakhir English translator University of Soultan Moulay Slimane, Morocco

-From Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia

-https//www.tandfonline.com// 5- https//www.tandfonline.com//

-Prologue to the Legend of Good Women, lines 322-35 and 362-370. 97 ".. And other bokes took me ...To reed upon ": Medieval Translation and Cultural Transformation 'unfaithful' yet artful interpretation or reinterpretation"(Kelly, 1997: 55), or "secondary translation" to put it in Copeland's words.

-Susan * Assist. Prof. Dr., Hacettepe University, Department of English Language and Literature The problematic situation of Medieval translation in the academia is discussed by Ruth Evans in "Translating Past Cultures?" in The Medieval Translator /Vied. Roger Ellis and Ruth Evans, the University of Exeter Press, Medieval Translation and Cultural Transformation .

-SSN 1799-2591 Theory and Practice in Language Studies, Vol. 2, No. 1, pp. 77-85, January 2012 © 2012 ACADEMY PUBLISHER Manufactured in Finland. doi:10.4304/tpls.2.1.77-85.

-This article is about medieval Europe. For a global history of the period between the 5th and 15th centuries, see Post-classical history. For other uses, see middle Ages (disambiguation). "Medieval times" redirects here. For the dinner theatre, see Medieval Times.

-the 1994. pp. 20-45. See Jeanette Beer, Medieval Translators and Their Craft.1989 and Roger Ellis (ed) assisted by Jocelyn Price, Stephen Medcalf and Peter Meredith. The Medieval Translator: The Theory and Practice of Translation in the Middle Ages: Papers Read at a Conference Held 20-23 August 1987 at the University of Wales Conference Centre, Gregynog //a//.Woodbridge, Suffolk: D.S. Brewer, 1989.

^ Rita Copeland, Rhetoric, Hermeneutics, and Translation in the Middle Ages: Academic Traditions and Vernacular Texts. Cambridge, 1991. See particularly A. J. Minnis and A. B. Scots (eds) Medieval Literary Theory and Criticism c.l 100-1375 The Commentary Tradition. Oxford, 1988.

-Wikipedia .org/wiki/

=Chapter 2 History of Modern and Contemporary Chinese Translation=
“中国现当代翻译史”

[[Hist_Trans_EN_2]]

Li Xichang, 李习长, Hunan Normal University, China

=Chapter 3 The Translation of Buddihist Sutra in Chinese Translation History=
“佛经翻译”

[[Hist_Trans_EN_3]]

Huang Zhuliang 黄柱梁 Hunan Normal University, China

=王镇隆 The Brief History of Bible's Chinese Translation=
== Abstract==
Bible is the only Christian classic. Many Bible translation versions in the territory of China, including the Chinese characters and the languages of ethnic minorities, are not only the important events and modern history publication with the largest circulation, translated versions of books in the modern translation history, but also the close relationship with the modern transformation of Chinese characters and the creation of minority languages. Three aspects of Bible translation history, information, research and outlook are described in this paper.

== 摘要==
圣经是基督教的唯一经典，圣经翻译则是中国近代翻译史上的重要事件。当时的中国境内，出现了包括汉语汉字和少数民族语言文字的众多圣经译本，这不仅使圣经成为中国近代史上出版发行量最大、翻译版本最多的书籍，而且对中国的汉语汉字的近代转型和少数民族文字创制产生了重要影响。本文从 3 个方面对圣经中译的历史、资料、研究及展望进行了叙述。

== Key Words==
History of the Bible translation；Research review;Academic outlook

== 关键词==
圣经中译史；研究回顾；学术展望

== The Overall Introduction of Bible Translation==
“Bible” translation has a pivotal position in the history of Western translation. From the beginning of the era to today, the translation of the “Bible” has never stopped. The range of languages involved, the number of translations, and the frequency of use of translations,etc., are unmatched by the translation of any other work. A birds-eye view of the history of “Bible” translation has the following important milestones: the first is the “Seventy Sons Greek Text” before the Era, the second is the “Popular Latin Text Bible” from the 4th to 5th centuries, and the later the national languages of the early Middle Ages. The ancient texts (such as Old German, Old French translations), modern texts since the 16th century Reformation Movement (such as the Lutheran version of Germany, the King James version, etc.) and various modern texts. All these translations have made indelible contributions to the spread and development of Christianity in the West, as well as the prosperity and development of the languages and cultures of various nations.(Gu Changsheng,1991)

The “Bible” is the holy book of Christianity, including the “Old Testament” and “New Testament.” The Old Testament was written in BC. It is a classic of Judaism. It was inherited by Christianity from Judaism. The original text was in Hebrew. The New Testament was written in the second half of the first to second centuries, and the original text is in Greek. Throughout human history, language translation is almost as old as the language itself. Therefore, from the beginning of the era to today, the translation of the “Bible” has never stopped. The range of languages involved, the number of translations, and the frequency of use of the translations, etc., are unmatched by the translation of any other work. The translation of the "Bible" is mainly to spread the doctrine, so that people are influenced and accepted by the views. According to the “New Testament Acts” Chapter Two, Section One: The saints gathered on Pentecost, and they were all filled with the Holy Spirit, and spoke the words of other countries according to the eloquence given by the Holy Spirit. However, the translation at that time was mainly “interprete” or “interpretation.” Among them, St. Paul himself is a multilingual believer. He preached in Jerusalem, Athens and Rome in Hebrew, Greek and Italian respectively. The Bible was first translated from Hebrew into Greek, then into Latin, and then into Romanian, Portuguese, Spanish, Italian, and Walloon (wal-lon), German, French, Romance languages. English was then translated into various languages in the world, and the translations of its various texts were repeatedly revised by experts in the translation of the classics, which lasted more than ten centuries.

In the history of the translation of the Bible, it has gone through several milestone stages: the first is the “Seventy Sons Greek Text” before the era, the second is the “Popular Latin Text Bible” from the 4th to 5th centuries, and later it is the national languages of the early Middle Ages. Ancient texts (such as Old German, Old French translations), modern texts since the 16th century Reformation Movement (such as Luther, Casio Dorobin in Spain, King James Version in English, Nikon in Russia) and All kinds of modern texts (such as “American Standard Text” in English, “New English Bible” and “English Today”, etc.). “The Bible Old Testament” is the first important and earliest translation in ancient times in the West, and it was translated into Greek. The Old Testament was originally the official classic of Judaism, originally in Hebrew. The Jews have been scattered around for a long time and drifted overseas. Over time, they have forgotten the language of their ancestors and spoke foreign languages such as Arabic and Greek. Among them, Greek speakers accounted for the majority. In ancient times, the city of Alexandria in Egypt was the cultural and trade center of the eastern Mediterranean. The Jews living here accounted for two-fifths of the city’s total population. In the third century BC, in order to meet the increasingly urgent needs of these Greek-speaking Jews, the church decided to translate the Hebrew text of the Old Testament into a Greek text. In the second century BC, an unknown Jew once wrote an epistle article, which was later named “Letter of Aristeas” (“Letter of Aristeas”), which records that in the third century BC, Jerusalem At the request of Egyptian King Ptolemy II Feiradelphis (308-246 BC), Bishop Elizar sent translators to Alexandria to undertake the translation of the Old Testament. In this way, according to Ptolemy II's will, between 285 and 249 BC, 72 “noble” Jewish scholars gathered in the Library of Alexandria, Egypt, to perform this translation. According to legend, the 72 scholars came from 12 different Israeli tribes, with 6 from each tribe. After they came to the Library of Alexandria, they worked in pairs in 36 locations and translated them into 36 translations that were very similar to each other. Finally, 72 translators gathered together to compare and check the 36 translation manuscripts, and reached a consensus on the wording of the final version, and called it the “Seventy Son Text” or “Seventy Magi Translation”, that is, “Septuagint” (“Septuagint”), has since opened a precedent for collective translation in the history of translation. Soon after the translation of the “Seventy Sons”, the priests held a joint meeting with the Jewish leaders and pointed out: “This translation is well translated, pious, and very accurate. (Marshall Broomhall,1934,P.2)

Therefore, it must be kept as it is and cannot be changed.” We also regarded it as the classic translation. In fact, this Greek translation became the “second original”, and sometimes even replaced the Hebrew text and ascended to the throne of the “first original”. Many of the translations of the Bible in languages such as ancient Latin, Slavic, and Arabic are not based on the original Hebrew but on the Greek translation.

== Multilingualism in the Chinese version of the Bible==
According to the report of the World Union Bible Association in 2006, the new and Old Testament of the Bible has been translated into 301 different languages. If regional dialects and partial translations are included, the translated languages of the Bible have exceeded 2287 different languages. The Bible is the most widely circulated and translated book in the world.

If someone says that in Chinese history, the Bible has the largest number of translated versions, the largest number of Chinese language forms, both vernacular and classical Chinese, and the largest number of Chinese dialect forms. It has not only created nearly 10 ethnic minority languages, but also nearly 20 ethnic minority language translation books, but also the largest publication and circulation in modern history, There must be many people who don't believe it.(William Canton,1904,1910)

But this is the fact of history. The Chinese version of the Bible does have many historical “best”, which is related to the super pronunciation and super dialect nature of Chinese language and characters, the reform and cultural transformation of Chinese language and culture in the late Qing Dynasty and the early Republic of China, and the fact that most ethnic minorities in Southwest China have only language but no words. The period of the late Qing Dynasty and the beginning of the Republic of China, that is, the 1860s to the 1930s, was the period of the most drastic changes in Chinese language and characters, the period of the transformation of ancient Chinese and its culture into vernacular, the period of the widespread voice and hard practice of Chinese Latinization, the most active period of language and character reform, and the transformation and reform of Chinese language and characters, A variety of transitional writing methods have emerged due to text reform and stylistic changes. However, the reform and expression methods of multiple languages and characters in the late Qing Dynasty and the early Republic of China, some of which are even very short-lived transitional writing methods. The Bible has published translated versions in this text form. This can be best confirmed by many translations of the Bible, such as classical Chinese, half written and half spoken, vernacular, dialect Chinese characters, dialect church Roman characters, Wang Zhao Mandarin phonetic alphabets, Mandarin phonetic alphabets, Mandarin Roman characters, weituoma Pinyin, kuaizi, a variety of ethnic minority characters, blind characters and so on.(Li Kuanshu,1998)

The large-scale cultural exchange and interaction between China and the west is an important historical phenomenon in the modern world. This cultural relationship has not only changed the cultural and political pattern all over the world, but also greatly affected the development of Chinese culture and society. Language contact is not only an important part of cultural relations, but also an important prerequisite for all other exchanges. The large-scale and multilingual cross-cultural in-depth language and cultural exchange is a modern cultural phenomenon gradually formed all over the world after the great discovery of geography. It is also a prominent manifestation in the history of China's modern foreign cultural relations, which is particularly different from previous dynasties.

The language and cultural exchange in modern China began with the arrival of Christian missionaries in China. As the only classic of Christian religion, the Bible inevitably involves the problems of how to translate into China’s local language, how to adapt to and influence the local ideology and culture in the historical process of Christian communication and translation.

The earliest translation of the Bible in China can be extended to the Tang Dynasty, which has a long history of thousands of years. Although the Bible translation activities have been interrupted, they continue to this day. In Taiwan and Hong Kong, the Bible translation is still not over.

== Bible Translation from Different Perspectives==
From the perspective of language, Bible translation can be divided into Chinese language and minority language. In addition to the Chinese translation (the Chinese translation is described in detail below), in the process of Bible translation, the missionaries took advantage of the Pinyin advantages of their Latin mother tongue and combined with the pronunciation of local minority languages to create Pinyin characters in the form of Latin letters for those southwest minorities who only have spoken language but no words, that is, bagri Miao Language (old Miao Language) in Northeast Yunnan Frame format: East Lisu, Funeng Renxi Lisu (old Lisu), Jingpo, Zawa, Lahu, Buyi, WA, etc. It also borrowed Chinese phonetic alphabets and modified and created Hu Zhizhong’s Miao language. They translated and published the complete Scriptures or section translations of Jingpo language, Zaiwa language, East Lisu language, West Lisu language, Yi language, Nuosu language and Gepo language, Lahu language, WA language, Naxi language, Dehong Dai language, Xishuangbanna Dai language, Huayao Dai language, Huamiao language, Chuanmiao language, heimiao language, Buyi language and other languages. Among them, Jingpo, Funeng Renxi Lisu and bagri Miao are still widely used in society, and Hu Zhizhong Miao is still used among religious believers in Kaili, Guizhou. These characters not only ended the history of these nationalities without characters, but also provided great reference and Enlightenment for the large-scale creation of characters for ethnic minorities in New China. In the northern minority languages, the missionaries also translated and published Bible translations in Mongolian (karmec Mongolian, kalka Mongolian, Buryat Mongolian), Tibetan (Tibetan Classical Chinese, Tibetan Ladakh dialect, Tibetan Lahore dialect), Manchu, Kazakh and Korean. In Taiwan, missionaries and today’s Taiwan Christian Church have also created Pinyin characters in the form of Latin letters for the Paiwan, Taiya, AMI, Taroko, Yamei, Bunun, Lukai, Dawu and other indigenous peoples, translated and published biblical translations, which are still in use today.(Wang Zhixin,2004)

From the perspective of Chinese style, Chinese versions of the Bible can be divided into three categories:

1. Classical Chinese translation, that is, the translation of deep arts and Sciences: in history, there have been yangmano's direct interpretation of the Bible, daysun's translation, masman's translation, Morrison's translation, Guo Shili's translation, commissioned translation (or representative translation), bizhiwen / kebicun translation, Gaode translation, the printed version of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom, lianweiren translation, and Heshen's translation of Arts and Sciences.

2. Half written and half white translation, i.e. shallow liberal arts translation: in history, there have been Yang Ge's non shallow liberal arts translation, Shi Joseph's shallow liberal arts translation, Bao John / Ke Bicun translation and hehe shallow liberal arts translation.

3. Vernacular translation: China is a country with many dialects. Six of China's seven dialects have Bible translations. Among them, nine branches of five dialects, including Wu, min, Guangdong, Hakka and Mandarin, have biblical Chinese characters. They are Nanjing dialect translation, Beijing dialect translation, Hankou dialect translation, Tianjin dialect translation, Shanghai dialect translation, Ningbo Dialect translation, Suzhou dialect translation, Hangzhou dialect translation, Fuzhou dialect translation, Xiamen dialect translation, Shantou dialect translation, Guangzhou dialect translation, Hakka dialect translation Hakka Sanjiang dialect translation. In 1919, the vernacular intensive cost and official script appeared, which is the Bible translation used by the Christian Church of China.

From the perspective of Chinese text form, Bible translation can be basically divided into seven categories:

1. Chinese Character Edition: in history, there were classical Chinese character edition and vernacular Chinese Character Edition (including dialect Chinese Character Edition);

2. Roman script of church Dialect: missionaries spell the words of local dialects according to the Latin alphabet. There are 15 branches of the six dialects, including Nanjing dialect translation, Beijing dialect translation, Shandong dialect translation, Shanghai dialect translation, Ningbo Dialect translation, Hangzhou dialect translation, Wenzhou dialect translation, Jinhua dialect translation, Taizhou dialect translation, Fuzhou dialect translation Bible translations of Xiamen dialect, Shantou dialect, Xinghua dialect, Jianyang dialect, Shaowu dialect, Hainan dialect, Guangzhou dialect, Hakka Guangdong and Taiwan dialect, Hakka Wujingfu dialect, Hakka Tingzhou dialect and Hakka Jianning dialect;

3. Wang Zhao Mandarin phonetic alphabet: the Bible is spelled with Wang Zhao Mandarin phonetic alphabet. There have been Bible translations of Tianjin dialect, Hankou dialect, Hebei dialect and Jiaodong dialect;

4. Mandarin phonetic alphabet: there have been Bible translations of Fuzhou dialect and Jiaodong dialect;

5. Braille script；

6. Quick script: that is, the Bible translation of early sketch;

7. Weituoma Pinyin book.

In terms of publication forms, there are many kinds of publications, such as Chinese character edition, Chinese character and foreign language comparison edition, Chinese character and Mandarin phonetic alphabet comparison edition, Chinese character and Wang Zhao Mandarin phonetic alphabet comparison edition, Chinese character and church Roman character comparison edition, church Roman character and Mandarin phonetic alphabet comparison edition, etc. As far as the editions are concerned, there are single volume edition, multi volume edition, the New Testament, the Old Testament, the New Testament with psalms, the new and Old Testament, etc., with a total number of more than 1000. Based on the American Bible Society, the British Bible Society and the Scottish Bible Society, which had the greatest influence in old China and published and sold various versions of the Bible, a total of 225 million copies were sold from 1814 to 1934; From 1814 to 1950, 279351752 copies were sold.(Chen Yugang,1992)
After the founding of new China, the Chinese Christian Church basically took the heheguan vernacular Version (later called hehehe vernacular version, hereinafter referred to as hehe version) as the Bible translation dedicated to the church, and no other Chinese classical Chinese or dialect versions of the Bible were published. As of December 2007, the Christian Church of China has printed and distributed 50 million copies of Hehe vernacular books. China has become one of the countries with the largest number of printed Bibles in the world.

== Writings and Work Records of Biblical Translators==
As the only classic of Christian religion, the meaning of the Bible is different. Since the Christian foreign missionaries came to China in the 19th century, they have been translating the Bible continuously, and published many documents and works at the same time. Most of these archives and works are the reports and introductions of Christian sects to publicize and introduce their own work achievements, which are limited to the publicity of their own sects without academic and serious research.

The earliest works related to the translation and recording of Bible translation were written by personnel and institutions related to Christian religion. The first documentary about the Chinese Bible translation is the Bible in China by Alexander Wylie, a missionary who once served as the director of the British Bible Society. This article records the earliest Bible translation in China, which is the work report of Alexander Wylie.

Among the records of missionaries on Bible translation, the Bible in China written by Marshall Broomhall, a missionary of the mainland church, is the most concentrated and representative. Hainbo is the director general of the headquarters of the mainland Association in London and is responsible for editing China's million, the most important publication of the mainland Association, for 20 years.

Another book about Bible translation is the Chinese versions of the Bible (1934) written by A. J. Garnier, a missionary of the British Baptist Church. His book is more often seen in its Chinese translation, which is compiled by George Milligan.

History of the spread of the New Testament (Guangzhou society, 1934). These two books are not long, about 100000 words. They describe the general situation of Bible translation from ancient times to now. They are basically the working records and introduction of Bible translation. The recording time is up to the three combined versions of the main translations of missionaries in 1919. The early Catholic translation, the Christian minority language translation in the late Qing Dynasty and the early Republic of China, and the Chinese dialect translation are too vague and too brief to cover, including the Chinese translation and the Catholic sigo translation. They can not be called academic research works. The Bible translation of missionaries is mostly missionary encouragement and publicity, which belongs to the missionary works of the church.(Yang Senfu,1968)

In modern Chinese history, foreign institutions or individuals have many publishing and sales institutions in China, among which the Bible has a certain nature of exclusive translation, monopoly and sales. The Chinese translation of the Bible is basically undertaken by the Bible Societies of various countries in China. Among the Foreign Bible Societies in China, the American Bible Society, the British Bible Society and the Scottish bible society are mainly responsible for the dissemination of the Chinese Bible, including the organization and arrangement of Bible translation, financial support, the formulation of translation principles, the selection and determination of translators, the publication and reprint of the Bible, the sales of the Bible, and almost all the leading work of Bible translation. The most detailed work on the history of the British bible society so far is a history of the British and Foreign Bible Society written by William Canton, which introduces the work of the British Bible Society in the 19th century. The more important work in recent years is the cheap Bibles: Nineteen Century Publishing and the British and Foreign Bible Society written by Leslie Howsam, but its history and content are still dominated by the 19th century. For the history of the British Bible Society in the first half of the 20th century, please refer to a history of the British and Foreign Bible Society, 1900-1954 written by James M. roe. As for the historical works of the American Bible Society, what is important is the centennial history of the American Bible Society written by Henry O. Dwight, which introduces the work progress of the American Bible Society around the world in the 19th century. Chinese Bible translation is only a small part of it. In the same year, translations of the scripts into the languages of China and her dependencies [10], written by John R. hykes, director general of the American Bible Society in China, specifically described the Bible translation work of the American Bible Society in China. These monographs introduced the missionary work of various Bible Societies in China, especially the printing and distribution of the Bible.(Chloe Starr,2008)

In the Chinese recorder edited by missionaries, there are scattered information about the translation and publication of various versions of Bible translation written by missionaries in different times, or missionaries' discussions on various affairs and research of Bible translation. Educational administration magazine is an English magazine sponsored by missionaries in China for more than 100 years.

== Catalogue of Biblical Editions==
In addition to the reports of the Bible guild and missionaries, there are some catalogues of Biblical translations that can be viewed as data. Alexander Wylie, a British missionary, has been acting for the British Bible Association since 1863. He catalogued all kinds of Christian books and periodicals published at that time and published the biographies and works of missionaries who came to China in 1867 （Memorials of Protestant Missionaries to the Chinese Given a List of Their Publications and Obituary Notices of the Deceased, with Copious Indexes） The book records the life stories, catalogues and abstracts of early missionaries in China, and is the most complete bibliography of religious translation in the period of the Republic of China. However, according to the author's comparative verification of the original Bible translations collected by the National Library, it is found that the catalogue misjudges some of the Bible translations, or some translations do not judge the translations, so it is necessary to judge them according to each library Up to now, the catalogue of Chinese versions of the Bible published abroad is more detailed than the collection, introduction and description of the collection information and records of the mainland edition catalogue.

== Academic Research: Western Part==
Thor strandenaes graduated from Uppsala University in Sweden in 1987. His doctoral thesis principles of Chinese Bible translation is the earliest doctoral thesis focusing on the Chinese Bible. He is particularly inclined to compare different Chinese versions of the Bible. From the perspective of translatology and Christian theological interpretation, he analyzes the translation principles of five Bible versions, including Morrison's version of Shen Wenli, the Commission's version of Shen Wenli, the vernacular hehe version, the Catholic SIKO Bible version and the modern Chinese version of Taiwan. He believes that Bible translation has strong inheritance and mutual influence, But at the same time, Catholicism and Christianity have formed their own translation style and vocabulary system. Shi Fulai is a priest, so his research especially emphasizes the theological factors and influence of Bible translation . Jost zetzsche graduated from the University of Hamburg, Germany, in 1999. His doctoral dissertation the Bible in China: the history of the union version or the cultivation of Bible missionary Bible translation in China is a masterpiece in recent years. From the perspective of Christian theological theory and church use, he also discussed the Bible and the combined version, which has the greatest influence, the largest circulation and is still used by the Christian Church, and came to the conclusion that the combined version is the greatest achievement of Bible translation. Both English Monographs discuss the attitude and evolution of missionaries towards Bible translation, the role of Bible translation in the spread of Christianity in China, the scale of Bible distribution, the evolution of Bible translation and sales institutions from the perspective of church position and theology. The paper has a certain historical overview of various early versions, especially the deep arts and science versions, but it does not involve the dialect Bible versions and ethnic minority Bible versions, nor does it discuss the significance and role of the Bible as a Christian classic.
This paper studies one of dozens of translations of the Bible - the translation of different stylistic versions of heheben, as well as the theological basis and theological disputes of the translated Heben. Both of these doctoral theses give full play to the author's expertise in Western mother tongue, and focus on one aspect with the archives of the Christian missionary church, including work reports and letters, work records and the archives of the Bible Association as the main data sources.

Including the discussion of individual translations or translators. Thor strantenaes's paper anonymous Bible translators: native language and the translation of the Bible into Chinese (1817-1917) discusses the role of Chinese people in Chinese Bible translation. Due to the cultural arrogance of missionaries, The contribution and role of Chinese scholars in Bible translation has been buried. Reading Christian scripts in China, edited by chole Starr, is a collection of multiple papers to explore the translation of the Chinese Bible in the 19th century and its impact on the final synthesizer and integration of the Bible.

== Academic Research: Chinese Part==
So far, the Chinese world has not carried out in-depth and systematic historical investigation and academic research on the Bible translation. Only in the history of Chinese Christianity, the history of modern Chinese printing and the history of modern Chinese translation can we see some brief introductions, such as Gu Changsheng's missionaries and modern China (page 16); Yang Senfu's history of Christianity in China (12 pages); A brief history of Christianity in China by Li kuanshu (5 pages); Wang Zhixin's outline of the history of Christianity in China (4 pages); Chen Yugang's historical manuscript of Chinese literary translation (5 pages).
The more in-depth discussions basically point to the theoretical discussion of Chinese Bible translation. The most important thing is the discussion on "term question", sometimes called "holy number problem". This problem involves how to use Chinese to call Hebrew "YHWH" and "Elohim", Greek "theos", Latin "Deus" or English "God", and how to translate theological names such as "Holy Spirit", "an - gel" or "baptism". How to translate holy names into Chinese is not only a linguistic and theological problem, but also involves the connotation of Chinese religious beliefs, but also involves how one language and culture is translated into another language and culture of heterogeneous paganism. This is a long-standing and controversial topic on translation in the history of Chinese Christian religion. Until today, there is still no final conclusion within Christianity. Zhao Weiben's "debate on the translation of the Chinese Bible: Shenhu? Dihu" is an early academic paper on the dispute over the translation of the Chinese Bible; Li Chi Chang, editor in chief, compiled more than 60 debates on the translation of "God" and "God" published by Chinese Christians in the communique of nations from 1877 to 1878. It pays close attention to the opinions and responses of Chinese Christians, It is a significant revision of the tendency of many works and historical materials to only pay attention to missionaries and forget the Chinese people. Zhao Xiaoyang's translation and introduction of local culture and foreign religions in regeneration: from the perspective of the Chinese translation of God and God discusses the fierce debate between Catholicism and Christianity on the "translation problem" for 300 years. Under the interpretation of Western religious ideas, the traditional Chinese words "God" and "God" have been gradually Christianized, lost the connotation of their original local religion, and regenerated into new words symbolizing western culture. This paper goes beyond the narrow theological scope of discussing the translation of names within the church in the past, and discusses this cultural problem from a broader perspective. Cheng Xiaojuan's doctoral thesis, discussion and acceptance of "God" in Chinese Bible translation, comprehensively examines the discussion of Western missionaries on the translation of "God" and the history of Chinese acceptance of "God", hoping to form a horizontal investigation of the complete cultural exchange system of "dissemination acceptance", Vertically, it shows their historical changes in different historical situations and cultural exchange stages.
Cai Jintu's doctoral thesis, the orientation and problems of commissioned Chinese Bible translation, specially discusses one of many deep arts and science translations - commissioned translation, its translatological principles, translation activities, sales, assistance of Chinese assistants, etc., focusing on the theological theory of Bible translation, And the influence of these theological theories on Chinese Bible translation and the development of Christian Church. Ren Dongsheng's doctoral thesis, a study on the culture of Bible Chinese translation, discusses the thematic changes of Bible literature, history and theology from the perspective of translatology.

At present, the academic research on the Chinese version of the Bible is still insufficient. So far, only Ma min's mahiman, Rasha and the early Chinese translation of the Bible has achieved a high level of academic research results; Wu Yixiong's the dispute over translation names and the Chinese translation of the early Bible; Zhao Xiaoyang's research on the relationship between the two horse Bible versions and the daysun Bible versions, an analysis of the origin of the printed Bible base in the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom, Chiang Kai Shek and Bible translation during the war of resistance against Japan, and a historical overview of the Centennial Ministry of the American Chinese Bible Society. Based on the discovery of new materials in Chinese and English, these Chinese papers textual research and analyze the basic historical facts of the Bible translation and Foreign Bible Societies, and describe the work contents of Bible translation, personnel changes, Bible sales, version identification and textual research, disputes and focus during translation in each period. These research papers only involve the earliest translation of Christian missionaries or the Bible translation of Chiang Kai Shek, a famous political figure in modern history.
== Conclusion==
But up to now, due to the differences and opposites between Catholicism and Christianity, there are differences and estrangements among many sects in Christianity; Under the influence of social and political ideology, academic circles have neglected and lacked this field intentionally or unintentionally in the past; The objective difficulties in the study of Chinese versions of the Bible, such as the vast majority of archival materials and various versions are kept abroad, and the majority of foreign materials; There is still no academic research monograph on the historical investigation of the whole Chinese translation of the Bible. The existing in-depth research on Chinese Bible translation is also limited to the most famous versions of the Bible in the history of Chinese Bible translation, such as the marsmian version, the Morrison version, the Guo Shili version, the commissioned version and so on. There is no dialect translation and minority language translation of the Bible, no Roman Bible translation of many churches, and no Chinese translation in the post missionary era. Special studies on the impact, response and reference of Chinese Bible translation on Chinese language, language reform, social culture, new literature and new words, the impact of Chinese Bible translation on the spread and development of Chinese Christian religion, the impact and response of Chinese Bible translation on Chinese traditional ideology and culture, and the impact and significance of Chinese Bible translation on the history of Chinese translation, It is even more rare to pay. The research on the translation and influence of the Bible is a blank spot that needs to be developed. It is worth us to devote ourselves to it and make a difference.

== References==

Marshall Broomhall, The Bible in China, London: British and Foreign Bible Society, 1934, p.2.

William Canton, A History of the British and Foreign Bible Society，London: John Murray, 1904, 1910.

Leslie Howsam, Cheap Bibles: Nineteenth-Century Publishing and the British and Foreign Bible Society,Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991.

Henry O. Dwight, The Centennial History of the American Bible Society, New York: Macmillan, 1916.

Hubert W. Spillett, A Catalogue of Scriptures in the Languages of China and the Republic of China, Hong Kong: British and Foreign Bible Society,1975.

Eugene A. Nida, The Book of A Thousand Tongues, New York: United Bible Societies, 1972.

Chloe Starr edit, Reading Christian Scriptures in China,London: T&T Clark, 2008.

Tony 汤因. 中国基督教圣经事业史料简编 A compendium of historical materials on the cause of Chinese Christian Bible [J] 协进 Xie Jin, 1953 (9): 48

Gu Changsheng 顾长声.传教士与近代中国 Missionaries and modern China [M] 上海：上海人民出版社 Shanghai: Shanghai People's publishing house,1991

Yang Senfu 杨森富.中国基督教史 History of Christianity in China [M] 台北：商务印书馆 Taipei: Commercial Press, 1968

Li kuanshu 李宽淑.中国基督教史略 A brief history of Christianity in China [M] 北京：社会科学文献出版社 Beijing: Social Science Literature Press,,1998

Wang Zhixin 王治心.中国基督教史纲 Outline of Chinese Christian history [M] 上海：上海古籍出版社 Shanghai: Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House,2004

1Chen Yugang 陈玉刚.中国文学翻译史稿 History of Chinese literary translation [M] 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司，Beijing: China translation and Publishing Corporation, 1992

== 叶维杰 Medieval Arabic Translation Movement=
中世纪阿拉伯翻译运动
Ye Weijie 叶维杰 Hunan Normal University, China

== Abstract==
The Medieval Arabic Translation Movement(The Harakah al—Tarjamah) is also called the Translation Movement. It was a large-scale organized academic activity carried out by the Arab Empire in the Middle Ages to translate and introduce ancient Greek and Eastern scientific and cultural classics. The Abbasid Caliphate implemented a diversified and inclusive cultural policy, vigorously advocated and sponsored the translation of academic classics from ancient Greece, Rome, Persia, India and other countries into Arabic to absorb advanced cultural heritage. The Arabic translation movement preserved the natural sciences and humanities in ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and played an extremely important role in promoting the cultural revival of European political and cultural conditions in the late Middle Ages. The Hundred-Year Arab Translation Movement lasted for more than two hundred years, spanning the vast regions of Asia, Africa, and Europe, and blending ancient Eastern and Western cultures such as Persia, India, Greece, Rome, and Arabia. There are not many translation activities in the history of world civilization. Analyzing its causes, processes, results, and impacts is of great academic value for studying the phased development of human civilization and the commonality of human wisdom, and it is also of great help to deeply understand the Arab Islamic philosophy and culture.

== Key words==
Harakah al—Tarjamah, translation movement, Western culture, Islamic culture，Middle Ages

== 摘要 ==
中世纪的阿拉伯语翻译运动（The Harakah al-Tarjamah）也叫百年翻译运动。它是中世纪阿拉伯帝国为翻译和介绍古希腊和东方科学文化经典而进行的有组织的大型学术活动。阿拔斯王朝哈里发推行多元包容的文化政策，大力倡导和赞助将古希腊、罗马、波斯、印度等国的学术经典译成阿拉伯文，吸收先进的文化遗产。阿拉伯语翻译运动保存了古希腊罗马文化中的自然科学和人文学科，对中世纪晚期欧洲政治文化状况的文化复兴起到了极其重要的推动作用。阿拉伯百年翻译运动持续了两百多年，横跨亚非欧广大地区，融合了波斯、印度、希腊、罗马、阿拉伯等古老的东西方文化。世界文明史上的翻译活动并不多。分析其成因、过程、结果和影响，对于研究人类文明的阶段性发展和人类智慧的共性具有重要的学术价值，对于深入了解阿拉伯伊斯兰哲学和文化也有很大帮助。

== 关键词 ==
阿拉伯百年翻译运动，翻译运动，西方文化，伊斯兰文化，中世纪

== Introduction==
The Harakah al—Tarjamah is also called the Translation Movement. The Centennial Arab Translation Movement lasted for more than two hundred years. The content of translation involved cultural achievements such as ancient Greek and Roman culture, Persian Mesopotamian culture, and ancient Indian culture. It spanned three continents and five seas in space and was the most extensive in human history. One of the major events. The Arab translation movement in the middle of the eighth century to the end of the tenth century not only changed the backward state of the Arab nation, but also gave birth to a strong Arab-Islamic culture; and its document translation was extremely important to the Renaissance movement in the later political and cultural state of Europe.The Arab Empire in the Middle Ages carried out large-scale and organized academic activities that translated and introduced ancient Greek and Eastern scientific and cultural classics. The Abbasid Caliphate implemented a diversified and inclusive cultural policy, vigorously advocated and sponsored the translation of academic classics from ancient Greece, Rome, Persia, India and other countries into Arabic to absorb advanced cultural heritage. The Arabic translation movement preserved the natural sciences and humanities in ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and played an extremely important role in promoting the cultural revival of European political and cultural conditions in the late Middle Ages. The Hundred-Year Arab Translation Movement lasted for more than two hundred years, spanning the vast regions of Asia, Africa, and Europe, and blending ancient Eastern and Western cultures such as Persia, India, Greece, Rome, and Arabia. There are not many translation activities in the history of world civilization. Analyzing its causes, processes, results, and impacts is of great academic value for studying the phased development of human civilization and the commonality of human wisdom, and it is also of great help to deeply understand the Arab Islamic philosophy and culture.

The Arabic translation movement can be divided into three periods: the first period is from the middle and late 8th century to the late 9th century. Translation activities in this period were mainly carried out with the support of the famous Caliph Mansour and Harun Rashid. The translated books are mainly Persian works, and the content mostly revolves around astronomy and medicine. The second period was from the early 9th century to the middle and late 9th century. The Caliph Maimon strongly supported this matter and achieved the golden age of the 100-year translation movement. The content involved ancient Greek philosophy, natural sciences, etc.; the last period was from the middle and late 9th century to the early 10th century. During this period, the support of the Caliphate and the pace of translation declined, and a lot of work was retranslation and revision of previous translations. At this time, the translation movement has also entered its end. The century-old translation movement with a history of more than 200 years changed the backwardness of the Arab nation and gave birth to Arab-Islamic culture, which had a significant impact on Arab society. This movement promoted the exchange of various cultures while preserving classics and ancient books. Rongtong has added an important heritage to the world cultural treasure house, and has had a positive and valuable impact on the development of world culture. This article will give a more systematic introduction to the movement, divided into the following three parts: the reasons for the translation movement, the Baghdad Translation Center of the translation movement, and the influence of the translation movement.

== The Background and Cause of Translation Movement ==

During the Umayyad dynasty, Arab Muslims were fully aware of the importance of absorbing the highly developed spiritual culture of foreign nations. In order to adapt to the actual needs of society, Khalid bin Yazid organized a group of people who were proficient in Syriac, Greek or Persian scholars, focusing on the translation of ancient books in medicine and pharmacology and chemistry, and have conducted translation explorations in a broader academic field. The beginning of the Arabic translation movement and its subsequent 200-year glorious achievements are mainly due to the following four factors:

1.Geographical factors:

Since Mansour, the second caliph of the Abbasid dynasty, established its capital in Baghdad, the important position of Baghdad as the political, economic and cultural center of the dynasty has been highlighted. Baghdad is located in the two rivers basin of West Asia and is located in the main traffic arteries between the East and the West. Throughout the history of civilizations in the world, rivers and civilizations have accompanied each other. The superior geographical location has created good conditions for cultural exchanges, accelerated the circulation of classics from various countries, and provided large-scale translation activities. Provides a wealth of source text.

Damascus, the capital of the former Umayyad dynasty, was handed over to Muslim rule after several regime changes. Prior to this, Damascus was an important center of Greco-Roman culture, with Greek as the official language, while the new capital of the Abbasid dynasty, Baghdad, was close to Persia. Ctesiphon, the old capital of the Sassanid Dynasty, was influenced by Persian culture before Islamic cultural rule. Therefore, during the translation movement at that time, a considerable number of Persian translators participated in the translation, and a large number of Persian classics were translated into Arabic and retained . "The Persian influence set back the original life of the Arabians, and paved the way for a new era characterized by the development of science and academic research." By translating classic works of other ethnic groups, cultural exchanges between different ethnic groups can be realized. Translation Played an important role as a bridge. At the same time, the Persian aristocracy made great contributions to the establishment of the Abbasid dynasty and was quite influential in the regime. The caliph also urgently needed the support of this force to promote cultural integration and identity identification among different ethnic groups. Therefore, geopolitical factors are undoubtedly one of the important driving forces for the vigorous development of the Abbasid dynasty translation movement.

2.Religious factors:

In the early days of the Umayyad dynasty, the domestic political situation was basically stable, but there were still some political opponents and religious scholars dissatisfied with the rule. The influence of Christianity still exists. Islam, as a relatively young faith, has impacted on different religions and cultures. Make efforts to gain a firm foundation. In the early days of the rise of Islam, the spread of teachings could only be done through word of mouth, and academic interpretation was mainly based on the Koran. Except for Arabic and Islam, the early Muslims failed to import advanced culture or science and technology into the conquered areas, and only focused on consolidating the rule of Islam in the Arab region. The purpose of early translation activities was limited to promoting the dissemination of Islamic culture. For religious purposes, the original intent of religious works was greatly changed during the translation process. Although this practice can play a certain missionary role, it violates the basic principles of translation, fails to accurately convey the original information, and loses the inheritance significance of the original.

After the establishment of the Abbasid dynasty, the Islamization of the empire further deepened, and at the same time a batch of fresh religious and cultural blood was injected. The Quran is more tolerant towards foreign denominations such as Judaism and Christianity. Especially for Christians, the Quran calls them “the closest people to Muslims”. Under the guidance of this doctrine, “The Abbasid Empire has become an Islamic empire instead of a Umayyad-style “Arab Empire”. A large number of infidels and Muslims intermarried, reducing the ideological gap between various ethnic groups. Translator The religious structure of the group has been substantially adjusted. The converts filtered by Islamic ideology brought an active academic atmosphere and non-Islamic theological concepts, and multidisciplinary systems such as linguistics, literature, law, philosophy, and mathematics were gradually formed.

Islamic culture was further enriched in the Abbasid dynasty. The spirit of advocating knowledge and scholarship became the spiritual source of the translation movement during this period. The increasingly diversified inner religious spirit became the source of the translation movement, and promoted the translators of different religions. Translation behavior and multiple beliefs collide with each other, the scale of translation continues to expand, and the types and content of translations are also enriched by the tolerance of religious and cultural attitudes. The prosperity of the translation movement was promoted by many factors. At the religious and cultural level, the acceptance of various religious beliefs is a prerequisite for the vigorous development of the translation movement. If Muslims completely reject paganism and force other believers to convert to Islam, the participation of Christians or Jews in translation activities will be greatly reduced, the diversity of translator groups will be combated, and the perspective of translation research will inevitably be affected.

3.Science and technology factors:

In terms of science and technology, two factors have jointly promoted the development of translation, one is the foundation of early document translation, and the other is the introduction of papermaking.

The Prophet Muhammad said: “Learning is divided into two categories: religious learning and physical learning (medicine).” Translators of the Umayyad Dynasty followed this precept and performed sporadic translations of works on medicine, philosophy, and chemistry. , Pave the way for the emergence of the golden age of the translation movement in the later dynasties. "As for the natural sciences such as medicine, logic, and mathematics of the Islamic nation, it has been systematic from the beginning. Because partial research on it has already been carried out in Greece, India, Persia and other countries, and it has been sorted and recorded. It’s the stage of analysis and analysis. In the Abbasid era, these subjects were completely translated into Arabic without starting from scratch. Perhaps, when the writers of the paraphrasing subjects saw the rigorous system of natural science, they copied their practices. Some styles that they think are good have been added.” The scientific inquiry and translations of works in early Islam facilitated the prosperity of the translation movement, and Abbasid translators only needed to review the documents based on the collated documents. Or retranslation, which greatly improves the accuracy of translation.

The status of the development of emerging technologies in the Arab translation movement is undeniable, but technological development is equally important to the spread of early civilizations and is not unique to the Abbasid dynasty, so it cannot be used as a unique motivation for the emergence of large-scale translation activities in the Abbasid dynasty. However, the introduction of papermaking technology did make an indelible contribution to the cultural heritage of the empire. The first paper mill in the empire was located in Samarkand on the Silk Road in Central Asia. In the centuries before it was conquered by Islam, this city was already one of the most prosperous cities in the Persian Empire, and it was the academic center of Persia until the Middle Ages. The smooth flow of Eastern Commercial Road brought papermaking technology to Muslim countries. The introduction of papermaking has obvious influence on the translation movement. The Arabs replaced expensive parchment with relatively inexpensive paper, which made writing records and book circulation more convenient and expanded. People's demand for academic works has promoted the large-scale emergence of translation movement.

4.Translation ability factor：

Maimon, the seventh caliph of the Abbasid dynasty, established a "wisdom palace" on the basis of the Mansour Royal Library to recruit academic elites from all walks of life for translation work. The historian Yakubi once described the academic style in Baghdad: "Scholars in Baghdad have a higher education level, where experts are more knowledgeable in tradition, grammarians are more reliable in syntax... Logicians think more clearly Missionaries are also more eloquent.” Although the translators of this period were not true translators, they all had received strict philosophical and logical training. Some Syrian Christians specially returned to Greece to study in order to improve their language skills. They used Syriac as their mother tongue as a translation agency and played an important role in the translation movement. The translators in the Abbasid period built bridges between different languages and cultures with their outstanding professional ability, serious translation attitude and unlimited enthusiasm for science, which became another important driving force for the vigorous development of translation movement.

With the popularization of academic knowledge and the dissemination of various books, the scientific and cultural literacy of translators has also been comprehensively improved. The increase in knowledge reserves in astronomy, medicine, philosophy, etc. makes translation activities not only at the level of mechanical code switching. , But based on understanding and even proficiency in the meaning of the text, improving the level of translation in terms of translation quality and translation speed.

== Baghdad Translation Center ==

Baghdad Translation Center:

Before the Arab conquest, there was a tradition of studying ancient Greek cultural classics and translating them into Syriac. With the expansion of Islamic countries and the spread of religion, Arabic was popularized as an official language. At that time, there were many Syrians, Persians, Egyptians, Jews, Bebers, Spanish, Sicilians, and even Italians have become Muslims, and the Arabic language has been greatly popularized. During the reign of the Caliph dynasty, due to its rulers' enthusiasm for academic research and translation, under the impetus of the rulers, the Arab region in the Middle Ages became the center of science and translation.

Baghdad was the capital of the Abbasid Caliph dynasty. The rulers of the dynasty strongly supported the translation and paid the translators a very substantial compensation. With the support of the caliph ruler, a large number of Syrian, ancient Persian and Sanskrit texts were translated. At that time, they were most interested in medicine and philosophy. The choice of translation work text was not only political and cultural, but the personal interests of the current caliph and courtiers were also important factors. The Arab world attaches great importance to astronomy and calendar, mainly for the service of its religion. They used astronomy and calendar to accurately calculate the exact time of the five prayers, so that they could give the correct latitude and longitude coordinates facing the holy city of Mecca in any Islamic mosque for pilgrimage and prayer, and accurately calculated the time of fasting The exact number of days of the period. Therefore, many caliphs of the Abbasid dynasty paid great attention to the translation of astronomy and calendar classics. During the reign of the third-generation caliph Harun Al-Rashid (Harun Al-Rashid, said to be the prototype of the protagonist in the story of "The Thousand and One Nights"), the "Treasury of Knowledge" library was Established, it contains a large number of trophies of Greek literature and science obtained by defeating Byzantium. By the time of the fourth caliph Al-Mamun (reigned 813-833), Mamun was built in Baghdad in 830 AD The “House of Wisdom” (House of Wisdom), which is larger than the “Treasure House of Knowledge”, aims to translate the scientific and philosophical works of ancient Greece into Arabic. A large number of ancient Syriac, ancient Persian, and texts can be obtained here. In addition to translation, it is worth mentioning that during this period, many ancient Greek texts were translated into Arabic and preserved. In the 9th and 10th centuries AD, the city of Baghdad was the center of a vast translation project whose goal was to translate ancient Greek scientific and philosophical works into Arabic. This event had a profound impact on the development of science and philosophy in the entire Arab world, and directly brought about the dramatic changes in the culture and ideas of the region at that time. At that time, Hunayn Ibn Ishaq was in charge of the translation work. He and his more than 90 people translated a large number of Plato and Aristotle's works: Plato's Dialogues and "The Utopia", Aristotle's Logic Essays Set The Organon, including Categories, On Interpretation, Pior Analytics, Posterior Analytics, Topics, On Sophistical Refutations, The Metaphysics.

In addition to noting the translations of the original authors, the Arab scientists of this period also contained translational elements in their own works. Al-Razi (865-925), the author of the most important medicinal work at the time, was a student of Hunayn’s disciple. His most famous "Medical Integration" actually had a lot of content compiled, and the book collected All the medical knowledge of ancient Greece, India and the Middle East that was known at that time.

Alchemy also emerged in Arab countries during this period. It was initiated by the "mystic" Jabir Ibn Hayyan. He put forward a doctrine in his legacy writings that all things, especially metals, are based on mercury and Formed by the interaction of sulfur. The alchemy of China and Alexandria also had the seeds of this doctrine. Arab alchemists adopted the four-element theory of ancient Greece and imagined that by changing the amount of the elements that make up a metal, one metal can be transformed into another metal.

In the Arab world in the Middle Ages, like other ancient civilizations, encyclopedic scholars also appeared. The most representative one is Omar Khayyam (1048-1131). He was proficient in calendar reforms and algebraic studies, but his " Quartet" made him famous soon after him. His Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam is popular all over the world, and there have been hundreds of versions so far. His poems are recognized as the treasure of world literature and become the pride of ancient Persian literature.

During this period, Al-Khwarizmi (?-835) introduced Indian numbers and Indian algorithms to Arab countries, and later spread them to the world through Europe, which is what we now call "Arabic numbers".

The "Palace of Wisdom" established in 830 AD was the result of Arab absorbing the cultural wealth of China, India, Persia, and ancient Greece. A large number of translation activities continued until the decline of the empire in the 13th century. Translation has had a profound impact on the development of science and philosophy throughout the Arab world. For translators in Baghdad, the translation works play the role of raw materials, and the translated text is not the goal, but the catalyst that stimulates the original ideas and products of knowledge. Therefore, translators regard translation as a creative process, and the translation is often accompanied by comments, summaries or explanatory notes to make the original text easier to understand. Translators are often experts in the field of their translation. In translation, they not only exert their own understanding and comprehensive ability, but also practice their own creativity. A new ideological system was established with the help of translation and became the basis of Arab-Muslim culture. In this context, the prosperous Arab astronomy took the lead in blooming flowers from here, forming the so-called "Baghdad School" of later generations. The works of Alaba during this period were translated into Latin by later European academic circles, which in turn influenced the entire Western civilization.

== The Influence of the Arabic Translation Movement ==

The Influence of the Translation Movement

The Abbasid dynasty was the golden age of the Arab translation movement. The academic research and cultural activities carried out on the basis of translation completely changed the early material and spiritual scarcity of the Arab nation, promoted the development of natural sciences in the Middle Ages, and gave birth to Arab- Islamic culture.

1.Promotion of the development of natural sciences:

In the golden age of the translation movement of the Abbasid dynasty, a large number of natural science and medical works from Persia and Greece were translated into Arabic. Translators learn astronomy and geography in the translation process, digest the source text and perform creative translation, use Arabic to annotate and explain the unclear or obscure meanings of the original text, and then use the target language that is easy for Muslims to output, which enhances The universality of the text promoted the popularization of Muslim science and culture. "In the eighty years after the establishment of the Abbasid dynasty, the cultural essence of the above-mentioned peoples has been recorded in Arabic. I didn’t know anything about arithmetic, geometry, medicine and other terms, and I knew Aristotle’s logic. Arabs who have never heard of philosophy can use Arabic to express Euclid’s most refined theories, express the law of sines in Indian mathematics, and express Aristotle’s Materialism, Ptolemy’s principles of astronomy, Galen’s medicine, Bizley’s motto, and the politics of the Persian king.” By studying translations, the Arabs built an Islamic medical system on the basis of native medicine. From theory to clinical practice, it has corrected and made up for the medical gap before the Abbasid dynasty. During the Abbasid period, medical achievements have been fruitful and have attracted worldwide attention. At the same time, research in the fields of pharmacology, botany, mathematics, and physics has gradually deepened, and many authoritative works have been published, which have made inestimable contributions to the development of modern science in China, the Arab world, and Europe, and even the development of human civilization. contribute.

Whether it is for the caliph’s personal preferences or serving in religious ceremonies, the translation of astrological and astronomical works has promoted the development of modern Arab science and technology. Some translators became astronomers or scientists by translating classics, thus realizing the transformation of their identities. After reading the translated works, many Arabs developed a keen interest in astronomy and mathematics, and then continued to translate. The main works of Euclid and Ptolemy were also translated into Arabic during this period. The translation of classics and scientific development promoted each other, and academic atmosphere became popular for a time.

2.The formation of Arab-Islamic culture:

While the natural sciences are developing vigorously, from the perspective of ideological and cultural analysis, the translation movement gave birth to Arab-Islamic culture. With the expansion of the Abbasid Empire, Islamic civilization was also brought to the vast conquered areas. Islam in the Umayyad period only existed as a foreign religion in the conquered areas. Christianity still has a profound influence there, and the beliefs of residents have not changed much. With the influence of various factors such as intermarriage and political dependence, the Islamization of the Arab empire has gradually advanced in the ruled areas and merged with the local culture into a splendid and complex Arab-Islamic culture. "After the 7th century, Islamic culture rose to become the mainstream culture of the Mediterranean. The Arab Empire became an important center of world culture at that time, and it radiated strongly outward."

The unification of language helps resolve ideological contradictions and promote national cultural identity. During the translation movement, the further popularization of Arabic became the official language of the empire, the civilization of neighboring countries gradually declined, and the status of Arab-Islamic culture gradually took shape. Without the prosperity of the Abbasid translation movement, there would be no new cultural construction of Islamic civilization. Since then, Arab-Islamic culture has shined in Spain. During the Arab rule of the Iberian Peninsula, it had a significant impact on the formation of Spanish national culture and language, and it also left a deep Arab imprint in the formation of European civilization. Although the Arab Empire fell apart due to religious and political struggles, the Arab-Islamic civilization left behind by the translation movement is still shining.

3.Having Promoted the Renaissance in Europe:

In the history of modern science, the Western Middle Ages has been given the image of a "dark age". In the Middle Ages from 500 to 1500 AD, because European countries pursued a religious theology and idealistic view of nature, the priests of the Roman Church only knew that they adhered to the dogma of their church. Religion seriously hindered the development of science. Therefore, Western science was here. The stage of development is unusually slow. The Christian churches in the West had brutally attacked the ancient Greek heritage and regarded this as a heritage related to idolatry that was harmful to the Christian faith. Christians were forbidden to learn more. At that time, the writings of most Greek philosophers and writers were despised. . The Byzantine emperor Constantine even closed the philosophical school in Athens in 529 AD, and this hostile attitude towards Greek heritage continued for centuries. Muslim scholars saved the Greek heritage by studying and in-depth annotations of the writings of Aristotle, Gran, and Ptolemy. It was through the labor of these Muslim scholars that the European countries that were shrouded in the dark age at that time realized their true and forgotten traditions of Greek science and philosophy. It is precisely because of the Arab world's translation of ancient Greek and Roman scientific and philosophical works that the natural and human sciences in ancient Greek and Roman cultures were preserved, so that the translation of Arabic documents in Europe in the late Middle Ages promoted European politics In this regard, the cultural revival is indispensable for the contribution of the Arab Translation Movement.

== Conclusion==

The Abbasid dynasty was the second hereditary dynasty of the Arab Empire, which lasted for more than five hundred years. The translation movement that flourished in this era pushed Arab-Islamic culture to its peak under the multiple combined forces. Although the power of the Arab empire in the second half of the 9th century was declining and the Caliphate came to an end, its cultural influence has never diminished. With the advancement of international cultural exchanges between countries, the Arab translation movement still has important practical significance:

First of all, cultural exchanges between countries in the world are becoming more and more frequent. Translation disciplines are no longer limited to the language field. Interdisciplinary translation has become a future trend. It is a new type of challenge;

secondly, a good academic environment is a prerequisite for promoting knowledge progress and achieving academic innovation. During the Abbasid dynasty, translation activities were organized and carried out on a large scale under the call of the state, focusing on and rewarding academic activities, and setting up academic institutions. The academic atmosphere of the entire Baghdad city was strong, and the natural sciences and social sciences had been developed by leaps and bounds. This provides a reference for the further construction of the academic environment of other countries.

Furthermore, the development of science and technology has closely linked the countries of the world, and the collision of multiculturalism has become the theme of the development of civilization in the world today. The reason for the success of the Arab translation movement is that Muslims' tolerance towards other religions and foreign cultures is a crucial part. This is also the main reason why Arab-Islamic culture has absorbed the millennium culture of ancient Greece and Rome in a century. In summary, the Abbasid dynasty’s open and inclusive attitude towards academic activities led the Arab translation movement into a golden age. The vigorous development of the translation movement during this period promoted the progress of the natural sciences of the Arab Empire, and laid a solid academic foundation for the early inheritance of science and culture, as well as the exchanges and mutual learning between Eastern and Western civilizations. Despite the decline of the Arab empire, the characteristics of Arab-Islamic culture will continue in new ways. In the contemporary era, the Abbasid dynasty translation movement provides the world with a deeper historical perspective, and provides a useful reference for the training of translators and cultural exchanges in various countries around the world.

Although the vigorous Arab translation movement for a century has been obliterated in the long river of history, the impact of the Arab-Islamic culture produced is far-reaching. Throughout the long history, one can still hear the voices of many Muslims and non-Muslim scholars struggling to translate manuscripts in the "Wisdom Hall", as well as their clamor for truth and academic culture; you can still hear the Arab Muslims in "for Allah" Under the slogan of "War", the screams of expansion riding on a war horse; I can still imagine the amazing scenes of Arab merchants traveling thousands of miles and sailing merchant ships to China and Scandinavia. Under the influence of the strong Arab-Islamic culture, the people of the Arab empire have discarded national and racial differences and formed a spirit of "Muslim brothers and sisters" psychologically. This strong culture and common psychological cognition give Arab-Islamic culture a tenacious vitality, and it still arouses echoes from time to time in Arab countries and the Islamic world.

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= Brief history of French translation =
李怡 Li Yi ,Hunan Normal University ,China
== Abstract==
The purpose of this article is to make a brief introduction to the translation history of France. The history of French translation began in the Middle Ages: with the development of Christianity and nationalism, the royal family hired translators to translate the Bible. The Renaissance in the 16th century, as well as economic and educational development, increased the demand for reading and writing, thus promoting the development of translation, most of the translated works are classical works. Then two religious films appeared in France: Jansenists and Jesuit, which had a great influence on the translation schools of that time. During the Enlightenment in the 18th century, France was deeply influenced by Britain, so most of the works in this period were British progressive thoughts and literature. The Industrial Revolution in the second half of the 18th century increased French scientific and technological translation. With the progress of the French Revolution, French translators are more inclined to the economic and political and judicial fields. After the Second World War, the translation industry in France recovered and developed vigorously. France even set up ESIT（École Supérieure d'Interprètes et de Traducteurs）to train senior translators. In the 20th century, there appeared many translation theorists in France, which promoted the professionalization of translation.
== Key words==
Renaissance, French translation, contemporary, French Revolution
== Introduction==
As a developed country in the west, France has a very long translation history. Translators and translation theories emerge in endlessly, which can not be ignored in the history of translation. At the same time, with the development of globalization, translation theories in various countries learn from and integrate with each other. Among them, French translation theory also plays a very important role. Therefore, it is necessary to comb the history of French translation and study the translators of relevant times and their relevant theories.
==1.Medieval French translation based on Bible Translation==
In the middle ages, translation in various countries was deeply influenced by religion, especially the translation of the Bible, which greatly promoted the development of translation. In France, the royal family specially hired translators to translate various Latin and Greek works for the imperial court. The most prominent court interpreter was Nicholas Oresme of the Charles V Dynasty. Aristotle's works translated by him in 1377 had a great impact on the French translation and philosophy circles at that time. Jean de Vigne translated the Latin Bible in French in 1340. In addition, Jean de malkaraume, J argyropylos and others translated the works of Virgil, Ovid, Aristotle, Plato and contemporary writers at the same time.
==2.Renaissance: the development of French translation==
The Renaissance is the development period of French translation theory. The main representatives are Dolet and Jacques Amyot, especially the former. In the 16th century, there was an upsurge of translation in France. During this period, the focus of translation shifted from religious translation such as the Bible to classical literature translation. Religious translation abides by the translation principle of "word to word" . Its purpose is to follow the will of God and avoid blasphemy. This is irrefutable, so there are not many translation theories to speak of. However, as a new genre, the translation of literary works is different from the previous religious translation. Translators face many new problems, so translation theory came into being. Dolet and amyot are the most prominent representatives of translation theory in this period. They are both translators and translation theorists, and the latter wins especially by translation. Both their translation theories come from translation practice, so they are persuasive. Dolet is famous for his "five principles of translation". "Five principles of translation" comes from his paper on how to translate well published in 1540 ,La manière de bien traduire d’une langue à l’autre. 1. the translator must fully understand the content of the translated work; 2.The translator must be familiar with the target language and the target language; 3.The translator must avoid word by word translation; 4.The translator must adopt the popular language form; 5.The translator must select words and adjust word order to make the translation produce the effect of appropriate tone. (Tan Zaixi,2004:71)These five principles involve the criterion of "faithfulness" in translation, the translator's bilingual ability, translation methods, style and style of translation. Amyot is one of the greatest translators in the history of French translation. He is known as the "king of translation". His translation has had a great impact on that time and future generations. He follows two principles in Translation: 1. The translator must understand the original text and make great efforts in the translation of content; 2.The translation must be simple and natural without any decoration. The first involves the standard of faithfulness in translation, and the second involves the style of translation. These two principles are similar to the first and fifth of Dolet's five translation principles.

==3.The 17th century: the climax of French translation and various translation schools==
After the Renaissance, classicism deeply influenced France. In the translation circle at that time, people were engaged in the translation of classical works on a large scale. Translation has launched a magnificent "dispute between ancient and modern" around the translation methods of classical works. Some translators pay more attention to the past than the present: they pay attention to the imitation of words with sentences, and praise the so-called accurate translation method. Some translators prefer to use the opposite translation method.
In the 17th century, the most famous French translator was Perrot d’Ablancourt,, His translation is sophisticated and elegant, both meaningful and beautiful, and easy to understand. There are no words that need to be explained in order to clarify the meaning in the translation, and there are no annoying cliches. Therefore, he has a great reputation for a long time. His characteristic is to take an original work and grasp the main idea. No matter what the original style is, as long as the translation is literary and readable and can make contemporary readers love and welcome, he will do whatever he can to add or delete the content at any cost, and modify it if he can, regardless of the accuracy of the translation. At that time, this literary and beautiful translation method attracted many followers, but it was also criticized by many people as "beautiful but unfaithful".By the end of the 17th century, those who advocated free translation were overwhelmingly in favor, while those who really advocated accurate translation were few and far between. The earliest theorist to advocate accurate translation was Bachet de Méziriac in the mid-17th century. In December 1635, he published an essay entitled "on translation" at the French academy, stating that translators must observe three principles :1.do not stuff the original work with personal goods; 2.The original work shall not be abridged; 3.No alteration may be made detrimental to the original intention.
As one of the most influential translators in France in the 17th century, Daniel Huet, worshipped classical literature and clearly advocated accurate translation. He criticized both post-modern translators and unfaithful translators abranguel. He believes that the best translation method is: the translator first closely follows the original author's meaning; Secondly, if possible, stick to his words; Finally, try to reproduce his character as much as possible; The translator must carefully study the character of the original author, not delete, weaken, add and expand, and faithfully make it complete as the original. His translation principles are: the only goal of translation is to be accurate. Only by accurately imitating the original in language can it be possible to accurately convey the original author's meaning; The translator has no right to choose words or change word order arbitrarily, because "Deviation" from the original text will lead to deviation from the original meaning. His translation theory has been praised by many people, but due to the lack of practice, his theory is not attractive to translators.
In the 17th century, there were also two representatives from inaccurate translation to accurate translation,François Maucroix and Jacques de Tourreil.
François Maucroix is regarded by contemporary and later critics as one of the most outstanding French translators in the 17th century and the first person to translate demesne in the 17th century. In addition to demesne, he also translated the works of Plato and others. Maucroix received the education of the Jesuit Church in his early years, was greatly influenced by the Jesuit Church, loved debating literature, and paid attention to ingenious expression and beautiful language style.
His early translations were inaccurate in content, style or written expression. He liked to modernize ancient terms and expressions. In 1685, his style changed, and his translation became more accurate, which seemed to have completely corrected the defects of procrastination and weakness in his early translation. The reason can be seen from his letters with Boileau in the last decade of the 17th century. He regarded Boileau not only as the most important representative of classical literature, but also as an authority on translation theory. Therefore, he always sent the translation to Boileau for revision. Boileau read the manuscript carefully, criticized some paragraphs and put forward better translation methods. In his reply, Maucroix said that Poirot's criticism of some of his inaccurate translations was pertinent, and his opinions on the revision were also very good. He admitted that the inaccurate translation was a mistake and must be completely corrected. He finally realized that translators must adhere to the principle of accurate translation if they want to become real classicists.
Jacques de Tourreil also experienced a change from inaccurate translation to accurate translation, which is reflected in his translation of three different versions of Demosthenes. In 1691, he published his first translation, which was influenced by the education of the Jesuit and paid attention to elegant style rather than accurate content. Tourreil processed the original work in the most ingenious way to modernize the ancients. After the translation was published, it was immediately severely criticized by Racine. After being criticized, Tourreil published a revised version in 1710, but the revised version actually only made detailed changes to the original translation, and the guiding principle of translation remains unchanged, that is, we must "make the characteristics of the original work conform to the characteristics of our nation". The new translation has received various comments. On the one hand, the ancient school refers to Tourreil 's attempt to impose new ideas on Demosthenes, believing that he not only did not beautify the original work, but distorted and vilified the original work. On the other hand, the present school believes that Tourreil's unfaithful translation of the original is better than the original, which is worth applauding. Tourreil himself is an ancient school. Naturally, he doesn't appreciate the present school's praise and thinks that this praise is "the most severe criticism to the translator". After that, he revised the translation for the third time, which is very different from the first two versions. It was not only a rare and accurate translation at that time, but also extremely beautiful. The translator translates in strict accordance with the original work, neither adding or subtracting nor making changes. By this time Tourreil had fundamentally changed his point of view.
Discussing the history of French translation from the 17th century to the 18th century is bound to involve the influence of Jesuit and Jansenists. The main reason is that the people engaged in education at that time were members of these two schools. They had direct or indirect contact with each translation school through their own translation practice and teaching.
The Jesuit believes that classical literature is worth studying and learning only in the aspect that it provides moral education or guides people how to learn eloquence. The excavation of classical works is not because their contents are of great value, but because of their beautiful forms. Teachers believe that the purpose of teaching is not so much to enable students to obtain substantive knowledge as to enable them to obtain formal learning identity.
The works translated by Jesuit teachers or students generally have an obvious sign, that is, they do not pay much attention to the spiritual essence of the original work, but only pay attention to the expression of the original thought and the beauty of the translation style. In order to achieve this, translators often sacrifice the content, even misinterpret the original meaning, and religiously turn classical literary works. Therefore, the origin of inaccurate translation in the 17th century is often influenced by Jesuit thought.
Jansenists is the second school that directly or indirectly affects translation principles. They believe that once students can read and write, they should read these translations in order to obtain basic knowledge about the original author and facilitate more and better reading of the original works in the future. In the early days, the views of the janssenian translators and the Jesuit translators were basically the same. Later, the translators of Jansenists believed that the practice of style for style in translation was also dangerous. However, towards the middle of the 17th century, their views changed and they believed that the style of ancient Greek and Latin writers, especially the style of ancient Greek writers, was worth learning. They really appreciate classical works more than the Jesuits. They admit that the language style of the ancients is superior to that of the present, but the present enjoys more inspiration from God, so the present surpasses the ancients in terms of thought and morality. In this way, no matter from which perspective, their views are completely consistent with those of ancient school. But the translation of Jansenists is far less elegant and beautiful than that of the Jesuits.
==4.The decline of French translation in the 18th century and the translator Charles Batteux==
In the 18th century, France was not as powerful as in the 16th and 17th centuries, nor was it culturally complacent. So she began to look at other countries' literature, first of all England. For example, the novels of the contemporary British sentimentalist writer Richard Were translated into French, which had a great influence on the development of French sentimentalist literature. In particular, the Chinese culture, which had been introduced to Europe for a long time, became more active in France in the 18th century. Although the number of translations is large, the quality is often not high.
Charles Batteux was one of the most important translators in France in the 18th century. He was one of the most influential literary and translation theorists in France and the whole Europe in the 18th century. He edited and published a variety of translation books, translated aristoteles, Horace and many other classical works of ancient Greece and Rome, wrote Principes de Litterature, Cours de Belles-Lettres and other works. Batteux elaborated his thoughts and views on translation in The Principles of Treatise. His original views and excellent exposition made this book an important milestone in the development of translation theory in the 18th century.
The fifth part of Principes de Litterature deals with translation problems.The theory of Charles Batteux obviously has the characteristics of philosophers, linguists, philology and translation. In other words, Charles Batteux discusses the principles of translation mainly from the perspective of general linguistic skills, rather than literary creation. He proposed the following 12 rules for dealing with word order in translation: 1. We must not alter the order of what the original says, either as fact or inference. 2. We should also preserve the order of ideas in the original text. 3. No matter how long the original sentence is, it should be kept intact in the translation, for a sentence is a thought in which the different elements are related to each other, and their correlation constitutes a kind of harmony. 4.All the conjunctions in the original text should be preserved. It is these conjunctions, so to speak, that hold the sentence elements together. 5. All adverbs should be placed either before or after the verb, depending on the harmony and momentum of the sentence. 6.Symmetrical sentences should be translated into symmetrical sentences. 7. Colorful ideas should be expressed in as much space as possible in the translation so as to maintain the same brilliance. 8. Rhetorical devices and forms of speech used to express ideas must be preserved in the translation. 9. We must translate short and pithy sayings that people like, or translate them into words that are natural and can be used as proverbs. 10. Interpretation is incorrect and incomplete because it is no longer a translation but a commentary. However, if there is no other way to convey the meaning of the original text, the translator has no choice but to use interpretation. 11. For the sake of meaning, we must abandon all forms of expression in order to make ourselves intelligible; Abandon emotion in exchange for a lively translation; Give up harmony for the pleasure of translation. 12. The idea of the original text can be expressed in different forms, combined or broken up by the words used to express it, and expressed by verbs, adjectives, nouns and adverbs, as long as its essence remains unchanged（Tan Zaixi,2004:98）.

==5.The revival of French translation in the 19th century and its rich translators==
Another high tide of French translation came in the 19th century, when a large number of English, German, Italian, Spanish and Latin literary works were translated, such as Shakespeare, Milton, Byron, Shelley in England, Goethe and Schiller in Germany, Dante in Italy, and Spanish folk songs. The most prominent remains the translation of Shakespeare's works. If the 18th century was Shakespeare's Silver age in France, the 19th was the golden age. In the 19th century, people not only worshiped Shakespeare's works, but also worshipped him, and Shakespeare fever spread throughout France. From 1800 to 1910, at least eight different translations of Shakespeare's complete works were produced in France, of which francois-Victor Hugo is the best. Hugo's father was Victor Hugo, a great writer. With Hugo's assistance and cooperation, the complete works of Shakespeare were translated between 1859 and 1867. This translation has faithfully retained the unique rhythm of the play, so it has been praised by critics as the second milestone in the history of French translation of Shakespeare's plays, even more important than Letourne's famous translation in the late 18th century.
Famous French translators in the 19th century included Francoise-René de Chateaubriand, Gérard de Nerval, and Charles Baudelaire. Chateaubriand is another epoch-making translator in France after Amio. His translation is faithful and beautiful. His literal translation of Milton's Paradise Lost is one of the outstanding French translations with its melodious and poetic tone. Nerval is best known for his translation of Goethe's Faust in prose style. In 1830 Goethe saw Nerval's translation and praised it as better than his original. Baudelaire, another famous poet of this period, was one of the earliest French translators of American literature and the first translator of Allan Poe. For 13 years from 1852 to 1865, he wrote, translated and commented on the complete works of Allan Poe. Baudelaire found what he was pursuing in Allan Poe's works, and believed that he and the author were in the same spirit, so that the translation could be in touch with the author. The translation was smooth and natural, just like the French creation, and was listed as an excellent classic of French prose.
==6.The specialization of French translation in the 20th century and the maturity of translation theory==
The 20th century has been the heyday of French translation theory. The characteristics of French translation in this period are: since the end of the Second World War, due to practical needs, commercial, diplomatic, scientific and technological aspects of the translation boom(Chen Shunyi,2014:6), its momentum even more than literary translation, thus forming a major content of the development of modern western translation; The study of translation theory is unprecedented and has produced translation theorists who have an important influence on the history of translation in the world. Before the First World War, the two countries used the language of power in business transactions, and French, which was considered the language of diplomacy at international conferences and other diplomatic occasions, did not have much problem in translation. However, after the end of the First World War, French lost its dominance, and English rose to take the lead with French, forming a situation in which French and English were used together. The Paris Peace Conference of 1919 was the beginning of this situation. Later, the European Union has 24 official languages, which means that translation has become an indispensable part of daily work, whether it is communication between countries in other regions or between western countries. With the increase of cooperation between countries, the need for translators is increasing. To meet this need, a number of schools specializing in training translators have been set up. One of the most prominent is ESIT（École Supérieure d'Interprètes et de Traducteurs）.
ESIT was founded in 1957, set up the department of Oral translation and pen translation, initially only opened several European languages, since 1972 added Chinese, now a total of English, Chinese, Russian, Arabic, French, German, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, Danish, Swedish, Icelandic and other languages translation courses. Later, on the basis of the original two departments, the School added a department of Translation Studies, specializing in the study of language and translation theory, with the right to confer doctoral degrees. After graduation, most of the students apply for translation departments of international institutions, and some graduates apply for the work license of free translators to relevant institutions of various countries in order to work freely and not apply for the work license of free translators to international institutions. Over the years, ESIT has trained a number of senior translators for the foreign affairs departments of the United Nations, the European Community (EU) and western countries.
Another characteristic of modern French translation is that French translators are organized in large numbers, setting up various translation associations and establishing various translation publications. Each association has its own purpose and purpose to carry out its work effectively. There are two major translation associations in France: the Association of French Translators and the Association of French Literary Translators. The Association of French Literary Translators was founded in 1973 as a splinter from the Association of Translators. Its entry requirements are the most stringent of any of its kind. Only highly qualified translators are eligible to join. Applicants must have at least one translation, which is carefully reviewed against the original work by a special selection committee. The aims of the association are :1.to improve the quality of French literature and literary translation publications; 2.To protect the rights and interests of members in respect of copyright, remuneration and working conditions of translated works; 3.Do not participate in any political activities. Since its establishment, the association has held many lectures and lectures, and its members have published many articles on translation in such authoritative publications as le Monde and New Literature. Through this series of business activities, it has become the most distinctive and vocal translation organization in France.
In the first half of the 20th century, the French translation theorist J.Marouzeau is worth a book. He is a professor at the University of Paris and editor in chief of Année Philologique. In 1931, he published a pamphlet called La Traduction du Latin. The theory is as follows:1.Translation is, first of all, a skill. Maruzzo does not deny that translation is an art and a science, and that it is more of a skill. To master it, we mainly rely on rich practical experience, solid language knowledge and flexible translation methods. 2.In order to reach as many readers as possible, the translator's primary task, like linguists, educators and exegetists, is to reveal to the reader what the source text is, not what it covers. 3.The purpose of using a dictionary is not to translate, but to understand. It is a puzzling view, but it is not hard to discern the truth in it. He points out that translators must learn to use dictionaries, but must first understand what problems they are using them to solve. Latin, for example, is very different from French, he said. Latin words are not related to each other, and there is no strict word order, which must be added to a French translation to make the translation smooth. Dictionaries don't help in this respect. They define a particular word in inverse proportion to its simplicity, thus leaving the translator in a difficult position to choose between many different translations. Therefore, the main purpose of using a dictionary is not to find ready-made words, but to understand the meaning of the original text, to explain the text of the original text, and then produce a translation on this basis. At the same time, Marouzeau points out that words from different sources must be interpreted differently. 4.Translation is not guesswork. This is especially important. When encountering difficulties, the translator must carefully consider and avoid any "preconceived ideas", because in translation, the first thought of meaning or expression is often not the most correct or best. 5.Translation must be in living language. This was a popular idea in England in the 17th and 18th centuries. Marouzeau said that to translate Latin into French, if you need to introduce an old expression, you have to turn to a living language so that the translation is alive. That is to say, the translator must ask: if the original author were alive today and writing in French, how would he express the same thing? But Marouzeau also points out that this is not a generalization, and that for some passages, especially those of Ovid, "a bit of antiquity is most appropriate in French translation".
The following is an introduction to Georges Mounin, a famous French translation theorist in the second half of the 20th century. He devoted his life to the teaching and research of linguistics and translation theory with outstanding achievements. He is regarded as the founder and most important representative of linguistic theory in contemporary French translation studies. Major theoretical works include Le belles infidèles , Les problèmes théorique de la traduction, La machine à traduire: Histoire des problèmes linguistiques, Linguistique et traduction, Semiotic praxis, etc. Among them, Les problèmes théorique de la traduction is the most praised by contemporary Western translation theorists. As mentioned above, this book uses the basic theories and methods of modern linguistics to explain translation, and sets up the first clear-cut flag of linguistic school in the field of Translation studies in France.
The core idea of Mounin 's book is that he thinks translation belongs to linguistics, so it should be studied, understood and explained by means of modern linguistics. To establish an effective translation theory, it has to for translation and the translation of basic problems related to make a scientific understanding of these problems include the nature of translation, translation and the meaning of vocabulary, grammatical structure, the relationship between translation and the objective world, the world's image), the relationship between translation and language universals and language features, the relationship between the processing of language features in translation, and so on. Mounin 's discussion of translation theory revolves around these questions.
What exactly is a translation? What kind of discipline should translation studies belong to and what kind of methods should be adopted? And so on. Such problems have always been the most concerned by translation researchers but have not been properly explained. Mounin believes that translation is a special and universal language activity, which naturally belongs to the scope of linguistics research, and the research results of language science can be applied to the study of translation problems. Mounin admit that the translation of poetry, the literature such as drama, movies, many factors other than language and paralanguage does play an important role, but the basis of translation activity is mainly to the original and the translation of linguistic analysis, and applied linguistics is more than any other skilled experience can provide accurate and reliable. Of course, from another point of view, especially from the perspective of the development of translation studies as an independent discipline since the 1980s, the practice of classifying translation studies as linguistics has been outdated. However, even if translatology is regarded as an independent discipline, its independence is only relative. Since translation (interlingual and intralingual translation) necessarily involves language, translation studies should not and cannot be completely free from the influence of linguistics at any time. In this sense, Mounin's view of linguistic translation has always been positive.
Since the 1970s and 1980s, the interpretive school represented by Seleskovitch or the Paris School has emerged in the field of Translation studies in France and become the most remarkable and French characteristic in the post-modern period, thus forming the second major feature of the development of contemporary French translation theory. It should be said that this school does not negate the basic idea of the school of linguistics to study linguistic phenomena, but only opposes the pure linguistic orientation of the school of linguistics and focuses on the research method of form. Interpretive theory holds that translation is a linguistic act, but it requires the participation of extralinguistic knowledge. Whether it is diachronic linguistics in the 19th century, synchronic descriptive linguistics and contrastive structural linguistics in the 20th century, or the later transformational generative grammar theory, it ignores the pragmatic context as the main component of language communication, so it cannot reasonably explain translation problems. Based on practice, the theory of interpretation studies translation as a linguistic act, and interprets and conveys the meaning of language from linguistic factors, cultural factors, and extralinguistic factors, so as to give a scientific and reasonable explanation to the reality of translation.
An important feature of interpretive translation theory is to reveal the essence of translation as communicative behavior from practice. Interpretivism holds that translation is a kind of linguistic act, which, like language use, must be supported by non-linguistic knowledge. However, as an act, the object of translation is not language, but meaning, which is the communicative meaning of the text. The output of meaning requires the combination of nonverbal thoughts and signs, and the reception of meaning requires the conscious behavior of the addressee. The arrangement of words is only a means of meaning formation for the originator of words. The understanding and grasp of meaning need to get rid of the original language form. The acquisition of meaning is instantaneous, not staged. Meaning is not the sum of words, but an organic whole, and the comprehension of meaning is completed at the level of discourse.
According to the interpretive theory, language and thought are separated in the translation of translators. Language and thought are not exactly the same thing, but there is a constant two-way communication between them. Thought waves can be transformed into language, and language can be transformed into thought waves. Human knowledge and experience do not reside in the brain in the form of words.
Interpretive theory also holds that understanding requires the participation of cognitive knowledge; The process of comprehension is the process of interpretation. Interpretation is the prerequisite of translation, and translation cannot be carried out without interpretation. Translation, on the other hand, is interpretation. Interpretive translation is a translation of meaning equivalence, which is established between texts. If a translation is to be successful, it is necessary to seek the overall meaning equivalence between the source text and the target text, and the meaning equivalence needs to achieve cognitive and emotional equivalence. Translators use their own abilities to organically combine the cognitive content and emotional content of the source text into an indivisible whole, and then successfully express it. Only in this way can the equivalence of meaning be achieved, which is the essence of the interpretive theory.
The interpretive theory also focuses on fidelity. The translator cannot interpret at will, and his interpretation and understanding can only be faithful to the actual content of the speaker. Although the interpreter interprets in his own words, he conveys the meaning of the speaker and imitates the speaker's style. The interpreter should understand the overall style of the speech, and tend to be consistent with the speaker, should be as far as possible to get rid of the constraints of words, in order to accurately reflect the original style.
== Conclusion==
There may be many deficiencies and omissions in the simple combing of French translation history, but as a powerful and long-standing western developed country, France's translation process and theory have great research and reference significance for China and the world. The world is still developing, so is translation. With the development of modern science and technology, people explore translation more deeply, and new theories are constantly put forward. Therefore, we should seize the trend of the times, base ourselves on China, look at the world and seriously study these excellent theories.
== References==
[1]Chen Shunyi陈顺意（2014）.法国翻译理论源流Sources and schools of French translation theory.法国研究The French Study.
[2]Tan Zaixi谭载喜（2004）.西方翻译简史A Short History of Translation in the West.商务印书馆The Commercial Press.
[3]Xu Jun许均,Yuan Xiao一袁筱一(1998).当代法国翻译理论Contemporary Translation Study in France .湖北教育出版社Hubei Education Press.
[4]Liu Mingjiu柳鸣九,Zheng Kelu郑克鲁,Zhang Yinglun张英伦(1979).法国文学史History of French Literature,人民文学出版社People's Literature Publishing House
[5]Xie Tianzhen谢天振（2009）.中西翻译简史A brief history of Chinese and Western translation,外语教育与研究出版社Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.

=李新星A Comparative Study on The Translation history of Modern Chinese and Korean Literature under the Background of "Western Learning" (1894~1949) =
==Abstract==
The spreading of Western learning to the east is an extensive and far-reaching influence of modern Western culture on eastern civilization, which started from translation as a means of cultural communication.Scholars in China and Korea have always recognized the influence of the eastward spread of Western learning on the development of translation in their countries.However, most studies on modern and contemporary translation take the country as the boundary and rarely talk about the comparison and exchange between the two countries.In fact, although there are some individual differences between Chinese and Korean translation in modern times due to different national conditions, there are also many similarities and connections worthy of attention and research.From the perspective of translation history, this paper will explore the history of literary translation in China and Korea under the trend of western learning to the east, compare the commonness and individuality of the two countries' literary translation practices, explore the historical information behind the translation practices, and finally achieve the purpose of restoring the history of cultural (literary) exchanges between the two countries.

The spreading of western culture to the East was an extensive and far-reaching influence of modern Western culture on Eastern civilization, resulted from translation as a means of cultural communication.Scholars in China and Korea had always recognized the influence of the eastward spread of Western learning on the development of translation in their countries. However, most studies on modern and contemporary translation take the country as the boundary and rarely talk about the comparison and exchange between the two countries.In fact, regardless of some individual differences between Chinese and Korean translation in modern times due to different national conditions, there are also many similarities and connections worthy of attention and research.From the perspective of translation history, this paper will explore the history of literary translation in China and Korea under the trend of western learning to the East, compare the commonness and individuality of the two countries' literary translation practices, dig out the historical information behind the practices, and finally achieve the purpose of restoring the history of cultural exchanges between the two.--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 07:23, 11 December 2021 (UTC)

==Key words==
History of literary translation；“Western Learning”;China;Korea

==摘要==
西学东渐是近代西方文化对东方文明的一次广泛而深远的影响，而这影响首先是从作为文化交流的手段———翻译开始的。一直以来，中韩两国学者都认同西学东渐对本国翻译发展的影响，但现有的研究在探讨近现代翻译时大多以本国为界，很少谈及两国比较和交流。而实际上，虽然因为国情不同，中国与朝鲜半岛的近现代翻译存在一定的个体差异，但同时也有很多相似点和联系点值得关注和研究。本文将从翻译史视角出发，窥探西学东渐时代潮流下中韩两国文学翻译史的面貌，比较两国文学翻译实践的共性和个性，发掘翻译实践背后的历史信息，最终达到还原两国文化 (文学) 交流史的目的。

==关键词==
文学翻译史；“西学东渐”；中国；朝鲜（韩国）

==1.Introduction==
The spreading of Western learning to the east is an extensive and far-reaching influence of modern Western culture on Eastern civilization.Late 19th century to early 20th century,When the West had modernized and gradually replaced the East as the world's dominant power,The three East Asian countries ( China, Japan and Korea), which had been sleeping for a long time, were gradually awakened and embarked on the "journey" of modernization.Among them, In order to achieve a rich country and a strong army, Japan left Asia and entered Europe,Take the lead in taking a series of measures to actively learn from the West and introduce advanced ideas and culture.The main measure is to develop the translation of western literature.Under the influence of such a large environment, the translation of overseas literature in China and the Korean Peninsula has also set off a boom.It can be said that the influence of the eastward spreading of Western learning on the modernization of East Asia began with translation as a means of cultural exchange.
Some scholars have pointed out that in the process of modernization in East Asia represented by Japan,Translation plays an important role.Without translation, East Asia would not have been able to open the door to modernization.This is also true in modern China and the Korean Peninsula.It can be said that after entering the modern society, the cultural exchanges between the two countries were continued through translation --"A history of translation is not only a history of cultural exchange, but also a history of the dissemination of ideas".As we all know, the study of translation history is a "basic project" in the construction of translation discipline.Behrman, a famous translator and translation theorist, once pointed out that "the composition of translation history is the first task of modern translation theory, and self-reflection is the establishment of itself" .The history of literary translation is an important part of the study of translation history and an indispensable factor in the investigation of a country's literature and even the whole cultural background in a particular period.
In view of the above analysis, the author believes that in order to have a macro and in-depth understanding of the cultural exchanges between China and Korea in modern times.It is necessary for us to make a comparative study of literary translation between the two countries during this period (1894 ~ 1949).Writers believe that only by putting literary translation activities into a larger social and historical context can we have a clearer understanding of the translation practices of the two countries at that time.Therefore, from the perspective of translation history, this paper will explore the history of literary translation in China and Korea under the trend of western learning to the east, compare the commonness and individuality of the two countries'literary translation practices, explore the historical information behind the translation practices, and finally achieve the purpose of restoring the history of cultural (literary) exchanges between the two countries.

The spreading of Western learning to the east exerted an extensive and far-reaching influence on Eastern civilization.In the late 19th century to early 20th century,when the West had modernized and gradually replaced the East as the world's dominant power,the three East Asian countries (China,Japan and Korea),which had been sleeping for a long time, were gradually awakened and embarked on the "journey" of modernization. In order to attain prosperity, Japan left Asia and entered Europe, taking a series of measures to actively learn from the West and introduce advanced ideas and culture through the media of translation.Under the influence of such a univerasl situation, the translation of overseas literature in China and the Korean Peninsula had also set off a boom.It could be said that the influence of the eastward spreading of western learning on the modernization of East Asia began with translation as a means of cultural exchange.
Some scholars have pointed out that translation plays an important role in the process of modernization in East Asia represented by Japan.Without translation,East Asia would not have been able to open the door to modernization.This is also true in modern China and the Korean Peninsula.It can be said that after entering the modern society, the cultural exchanges between the two countries were continued through translation --"A history of translation is not only a history of cultural exchange, but also a history of the dissemination of ideas".As we all know, the study of translation history is a "basic project" in the construction of translation discipline.Behrman, a famous translator and translation theorist, once pointed out that "the composition of translation history is the first task of modern translation theory, and self-reflection is the establishment of itself".The history of literary translation is an important part of the study of translation history and an indispensable factor in the investigation of a country's literature and even the whole cultural background in a particular period.
In view of the above analysis, the author believes that in order to have a macro and in-depth understanding of the cultural exchanges between China and Korea in modern times.It is necessary for us to make a comparative study of literary translation between the two countries from 1894 to 1949. Only by putting literary translation activities into a larger social and historical context can we have a clearer understanding of the translation practices of the two countries at that time.Therefore, from the perspective of translation history, this paper will explore the history of literary translation in China and Korea under the trend of western learning to the East, compare the commonness and individuality of the two countries' literary translation practices, explore the historical information behind the practices, and finally achieve the purpose of restoring the history of cultural (literary) exchanges between the two countries.--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 07:34, 11 December 2021 (UTC)

==2. The origin and development of modern translation in both countries ==
After being opened to the outside world, western civilization flooded in. China and North Korea, which had been pursuing the policy of "closing the door to the outside world", began to "open their eyes to the world".From the government to the people, there has been an upsurge in the introduction of advanced Western civilization.Translation plays an important, even decisive role in this process.
====2.1The historical evolution of Modern Translation in China====
As is known to all, Among the three East Asian countries, China is the first to pay attention to the West and understand and learn the West through translation.In the 1860s, after the Westernization Movement, a climax of modern Chinese translation began slowly.Strictly speaking, this translation period can be further divided into two stages, namely, with the Sino-Japanese War of 1894 as the dividing line, the early stage was the translation period dominated by westernization school, and the later stage was the translation period dominated by reformists.If the translation during the Westernization Movement was the primary stage of modern Western learning translation in China, there were still many problems, then the translation activities led by reformists such as Kang Youwei, Liang Qichao and Yan Fu had a greater development in terms of scale, significance and function.From the perspective of translation history, they set up translation institutes and translated western books widely(Especially those that had a great influence on Meiji Restoration in Japan.)Training translation talents, etc.Its scale, breadth of subjects, quantity and quality are unmatched by translation in the Westernization period.It should be noted that since the 1880s, China's interest in learning from the West has shifted from science to politics, education system and so on.In the late Qing Dynasty and early period, literary works gradually became the main object of translation activities.In the minds of the Vixinists represented by Liang Qichao, novels have become the most appropriate tool for political reform, popular enlightenment and the modernization of the country.Thus, beginning in the late 19th and early 20th centuries,Foreign literature has been widely translated into China, and communication channels include not only modern media such as newspapers and magazines, but also single-line books and large-scale translation literature series, which have also produced a series of arguments and discussions on translation methods and techniques.Modern Chinese translation has also entered a new period, that is, from the Ming and Qing period of scientific and technological translation as the mainstream gradually to culture / literature / literary translation as the core of the translation activities period.Overall, the translation of modern foreign literature in China from the end of the 19th century to the period 1949 can be broken down into the following three stages.
The first stage was from the late Qing Dynasty and the early Republic of China to the May 4th Movement in 1919.In December 1898, Liang Qichao translated The Japanese political novel The Adventure of The Beautiful Woman in Qingyi Daily. In 1900, Zhou translated one of the most influential works in Japanese political fiction, Yano Ryuki's "On The Classics of America".Since then, many Japanese political novels have been translated and introduced to China.After a more concentrated translation of political novels, other genres, such as history, science and the popular detective novels, have also been introduced.After 1907, a variety of modern literary magazines sprang up, and a large number of translated novels were published in these magazines in serial form, among which the serialized translated novels in magazines such as "Novel Forest" and "New Novel Cluster" even occupied absolute space, forming the first climax of foreign novel translation.However, it should be emphasized that the translation of literary works in this period was still in the exploratory stage,Although there are a large number of works, there are problems in the selection of works, translation skills and strategies.
The second period is 1916 to 1936. This period can be further subdivided into the May Fourth Movement period and the Left Coalition Period.With the development of the New literature movement, Chinese literary translation has entered the most glorious period in the history of translation.Compared with the late Qing Dynasty, literary translation in this period was larger in scale, higher in quantity and quality, and its influence was unprecedented.It is worth emphasizing that almost all the heavyweights in the history of modern Chinese literature have participated in the translation and introduction.In addition to translation works, they also introduced various literary and artistic thoughts, and actively explored and discussed translation methods and theories.Especially with their active advocacy and hard work, The translation industry in China has been closely integrated with the struggle against imperialism and feudalism.It completely changed the chaotic and unprincipled state of translation circles before the May 4th Movement.In addition, it was from this time that China's translation of Soviet/Russian literature gradually reached its peak.It can be said that the mainstream of Chinese literature translation in the 1930s was Marxist literary trend of thought and progressive literature (especially Soviet/Russian literature).Of course, in addition to Russian/Soviet literature, this period has translated the literature of Britain, The United States, Japan, France, Germany and southeast Northern Europe and Asia.
The third period is from 1937 to 1949. After the war of Resistance against Japan broke out.The translation community, like the rest of the country, has concentrated all its efforts on the cause of saving the nation from extinction and striving for liberation.Therefore, the pace of development of Translation in China slowed down during this period.In spite of this, Chinese writers and translators have overcome various difficulties and translated and published many excellent foreign literary works.During this period, there was a wide range of translations, ranging from western European classical literature to war literature at that time, and even ancient Greek literature and Jewish literature.In terms of genres, there are novels, poems, plays, prose and even some academic works on literary history.A number of famous translators in the history of Chinese translation literature, such as Zhu Shenghao, Ge Baoquan, Fu Lei, Liang Shiqiu, Lin Yutang and so on, are active in literary translation.Of course, the biggest characteristic of this period was the translation of the Soviet Union and other countries anti-fascist war works, in particular, the establishment of the revolutionary translation group "Times Press", published the revolutionary translation publication "Soviet Literature", a large number of Soviet literary and artistic works.

====2.2 The situation of modern and contemporary Translation on the Korean Peninsula and the Influence of China==
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From the end of the 19th century, western civilization began to flow into East Asia on a large scale, and Korea was further plunged into the situation of internal troubles and foreign aggression. Faced with the complicated situation at home and abroad, the enlightened intellectuals of Korea further realized that translating Western books was an important task at that time. As early as 1886, The "Seoul Weekly" published by Powen Bureau had a column specially emphasizing the importance of translation, and proposed to establish a special translation agency to translate foreign books. And six years later, another important newspaper of the day 《Huangcheng News 》also commented, stressing that translation is an important means to enrich the country and strengthen the army and realize modern civilization. We call for the establishment of specialized translation institutions under the guidance of the government "to strengthen the guidance and management of translation. On behalf of this, not only all kinds of news media actively propagated, but also some intellectuals at that time called for the realization of civilization and the prosperity of the country and the strength of the army by translating overseas literature and learning advanced western experience. As a result, the Korean Peninsula at that time set off a boom in the translation of overseas works, especially literary works. Of course, as in China, one of the preconditions for translating Western books in the Korean Peninsula was the development of modern media, which provided a platform for the dissemination of written works at that time. After the 1895-1895 revolution, modern schools were established one after another, and special language schools were set up, which played a positive role in understanding overseas and spreading Western culture, and reserved talents for the translation and introduction of foreign literature.
Generally speaking, the history of translation of foreign works on the Korean Peninsula from 1895 to 1949 can be divided into the following five stages: Patriotic enlightenment period (1895-1910), translation literature awakening period (1911-1919), translation into the proper period (1920-1935), dark Period (1936-1945), Regeneration period (1945 ~1949). We can refer to Kim Byung-chul's Studies on the History of Modern Korean Translation Literature, the earliest and only work on the history of modern Korean Translation literature. However, it is worth noting that Kim Byung-chul's pioneering work has carefully combed and studied the translation history of modern Korean literature from both macro and micro perspectives. However, there is no introduction to the translation of Chinese and Japanese literature. In fact, in the whole modern and modern period, although the communication between China and South Korea seems not as active and close as that in ancient times, the spiritual, political and cultural ties that have connected the two countries for thousands of years have not disappeared overnight. This point can be seen from the early stage of The History of Korean translated literature with China as the medium of translation activities and the late continuous translation of Modern Chinese literature.
The first stage (1895-1910) is the period of patriotic enlightenment，The main function of translation in this period was "enlightenment of civilization, independence, social and political enlightenment", and the translation activities inevitably had obvious purpose and utility. The patriotic enlighteners represented by Xuan CAI, Zhang Zhiyuan, Shen Caihao and Zhou Shijing received Chinese education from childhood and were deeply influenced by Confucian culture. Most of the works translated from The Korean Peninsula during this period were biographies of great men, history of the war, history of independence and geographical history. Almost all the translated works are from Chinese and Japanese versions. According to statistics, there were about 37 separate editions of such works translated in the Korean Peninsula before 1910, among which 16 were based on Chinese translations, not including those published in newspapers and magazines. In particular, it is worth emphasizing the important works in the early history of Korean literature, such as The History of The Fall of Vietnam, the Biography of the Three Masters of the Founding of Italy, and so on.The Biography of the Patriotic Lady was introduced to the Korean Peninsula based on the Chinese version. In addition, the Japanese Ryoki Yano's Korean single version of The Book On The Nation and the United States (1908, Translated by Hyun Gonglian) was based on zhou Kui's Chinese version in 1907. It is also highly likely that The first western literary work to be officially translated into Korea, Robin Sun Crusoe (1908, translated by Kim Chan), was translated into Chinese. In a word, China's influence cannot be ignored in the history of translated literature during the Korean civilization period.
The second stage (1910 ~ 1919) is called "the Awakening period of Translated literature". The translation activities of this period did have many characteristics different from those of the previous period. For example, many translations clearly identify the original author and translator; There appeared some literary magazines that paid attention to translation, such as Youth, New Star, Youth, Light of Learning and New Wenjie.“Three Lights", and "Tai Xi Literature and Art News" founded in 1918 with the main purpose of translating foreign literary works; At the beginning, it was consciously emphasized that translation should be based on the original text rather than through a third language. Translation methods also began to emphasize the separation from the earlier simple emphasis on the transmission of content translation, summary translation, abbreviated translation, etc. It puts forward the importance of respecting the original text and being faithful to the original text, and actively practices it. Kim Il and other important figures in the history of Korean translation literature have officially started their translation activities. And so on. All these indicate that the translation activities on the Korean Peninsula have "awakened" and are ready for further progress on the right track.
Generally speaking, since 1908, when Juvenile was first published，The Translated literature of the Korean Peninsula further broke away from the original utilitarian and purist nature and began to enter the era of "pure literature and art" translation. Since then, a great deal of Western literature has been translated into The Korean peninsula, and the quality of translation in this period is significantly higher than that of the Patriotic Enlightenment period. In addition to new novelists such as Lee Sang-hyup, Lee Hae-jo and Ahn Guk-seon, the translators also include famous figures in the history of literature such as Choi Nam-seon, Hong Myung-hee and Lee Kwang-soo, as well as some publishers and media workers. It is worth noting that some scholars believe that literary exchanges between China and Korea ended after Japan annexed the Korean Peninsula in 1910. This view is obviously somewhat arbitrary. According to incomplete statistics, at least 20 Chinese translations were introduced to the Korean Peninsula through the medium of Chinese translations, although the translation activities based on Chinese translations were not as active as in the Enlightenment period. These works include not only reprints of Chinese vernacular novels in Ming and Qing Dynasties, but also western novels based on Chinese translations. Among these Chinese translations of western novels, 8 are from the large western literature translation series "Shuobo Congshu", which was planned and published by the Shanghai Commercial Press in 1903. Choi Chan-sik, a famous writer of new novels at the time, recalled that recalled that he began writing a new novel after translating a book in the "Shaobo Series" published in Shanghai, China. These data show that even at a time when Japan's control over the Korean Peninsula was increasing, China's translation and media activities still have a certain influence on Korean intellectuals. In other words, under the new historical conditions, the cultural exchanges between the two countries are still struggling to continue in a new form.
The third stage (1920-1935) marked the beginning of joseon's translation literature. According to Kim byung-chul's statistics, at least 600 foreign literary works have been translated to the Korean Peninsula in various forms since the 1920s, Genres include fiction, poetry, drama, essays, fairy tales, and some literary criticism, Countries involved Britain, the United States, Germany, France, Russia, India and so on. Of course, this statistic does not include the translation of Chinese literature. In fact, after the 1920s, one of the biggest changes in the history of Sino-Korean translation was the movement that was then in China and the new literary works began to be translated and introduced to the Korean Peninsula. According to incomplete statistics, about 30 kinds of modern Chinese literary works including novels were translated and translated in the Korean Peninsula during the colonial period (In addition to the only collection of Chinese Short Stories during the colonial period), 16 plays, 41 poems, 3 essays, 1 fairy tale, etc., and more than a dozen literary criticism. If we add the Chinese classical literature translated in this period, we can say that after 1920, the translation of Chinese literature in the Korean Peninsula is relatively comprehensive and continuous, which should not be excluded from the history of Korean translated literature.
The fourth stage (1936-1945) was a dark period for the entire Korean Peninsula. In terms of translated literature, Japan has strengthened its control over public opinion and media by strengthening its policy of suppressing national language, The flood of Japanese books, coupled with the growing economic collapse on the Korean peninsula, has put pressure on the publishing industry and reduced the number of magazines, Access to foreign books has also been blocked, resulting in a huge blow to translation activities on the Korean Peninsula. This was the darkest period in the history of Translated literature on the Korean Peninsula. Although there were sporadic translations of Chinese literary works, they only catered to the political needs of the Japanese colonial government and chose some works that were irrelevant to politics and even covered up and beautified its militarist ambitions. In 1940, for example, Three Thousand Miles magazine ran a special collection of "New Chinese literature,"The content of the works is either daily life, love or traditional art, which has nothing to do with politics, and the original translations are entirely dependent on Japanese translations. The content of the works is either daily life, love or traditional art, which has nothing to do with politics, and the original translations are entirely dependent on Japanese translations.
In the fifth stage (1945-1949), the Korean Peninsula was finally liberated from Japanese colonial rule. The country was in ruins and all walks of life seemed to be full of hope, but at the same time, it was in a sudden chaos. At this time, translation has gradually entered the recovery period. From the point of view of countries, the United States and the Soviet Union were the most translated works, which obviously reflected the political situation and ideology at that time. However, the translation and study of modern Chinese literature also ushered in a brief bright period. Many researchers from academic schools joined the ranks of translation, and the translation of their works also moved toward specialization and systematization, with the emergence of selected Modern Chinese Short Stories (1946), Short Stories of Lu Xun (1946), Selected Modern Chinese Poems (1947) and other individual editions. He even published the history of Modern Chinese Literature (1949), the first book of Chinese studies in Korea. Compared with the colonial period, translation at this time was no longer subject to many restrictions, and further got rid of the early enlightenment and utilitarian color in nature. It began to attempt to approach modern Chinese literary works from the perspective of aesthetics and pure literature and carried out systematic and professional research. Translators seem to want to make up for the many regrets of the colonial period and are eager to translate and study modern Chinese literature in an all-round way. Unfortunately, this boom came to an abrupt end after the outbreak of the war in 1950, and The cause of Chinese literary translation fell into recession again.

==3. Differences and Similarities in the translation history of Modern Chinese and Korean literature==
Differences and similarities in the translation history of Modern Chinese and Korean literature
As is known to all, since the 1970s, translation studies have achieved a "cultural" shift, and the scope of research has expanded from the purely linguistic category to the non-linguistic category of culture, ideology, power relations, politics and so on.The literariness and thinking of literary works determine that literary translation has the dual orientation of ideology and poetics.Therefore, the study of literary translation should be connected with the socio-historical background and the poetic background so as to analyze and explain the important translation phenomena in depth.Throughout the history of modern literary translation in China and South Korea, we will find that the biggest similarity is that the "cultural political practice" (Venuti) of translation has always been controlled by ideology.Under the environment of western learning spreading eastward, one of the main social ideologies in East Asia was"Modern transformation".As an important means of modernization transformation, translation not only has an impact on the political and economic development of China and Korea, but also plays an important role in the two countries' acceptance of Western civilization, dissemination of new knowledge, formation of new culture, and the development of their own language and literature.In the process of sorting out the translation history of modern Chinese and Korean literature, we can clearly find that there are many similarities and intersections, and of course there are individual differences.Whether similarities or differences arise, some of them are related to the social ideology of the two countries, and some are related to the influence of the translator's personal ideology.It can be said that ideology permeates all aspects of modern translation in both countries, especially the change and development of social ideology plays a significant role in the evolution of translation.Below, this paper will compare and analyze the similarities and differences of literary translation between the two countries from several aspects.
(1) The nature and motivation of translation
In terms of the nature of translation, the modern translation activities in China and South Korea have obvious utilitarian, effective and political characteristics.Before the formal launch of literary translation, China had gone through a long stage of translating and introducing western scientific and technological books for the purpose of learning from the West, strengthening industrial development and achieving a prosperous country and a strong army.After the failure of the Reform movement of 1898, the development of Chinese foreign literature translation was in fact based on the translation of novels.One of the reasons is that Liang Qichao, the leader of the Reformists, put forward the slogan of "novel revolution" and advocated the translation of political novels, blowing the horn of literary translation. At the same time, a group of literary translators represented by Lin Shu actively engaged in translation practice, which also promoted the development of literary translation at that time.At that time, the purpose of literary translation was also to enlightening the people, reforming the society and giving play to the unique role of literary thought in shaping the "consciousness of the world".After the May 4th Movement, political demands still played a leading role in the selection of translators despite literary factors.On the other hand, the Korean Peninsula, because of the late opening of port and the depth of the country's internal troubles and foreign aggression, had no time to translate western literature as China and Japan did in terms of promoting industrial development and enriching the country and strengthening its armed forces.For them, translation is first of all a means of understanding the outside world, and its direct purpose is to get rid of the control of foreign forces and achieve independence.Therefore, the modern translation of the Korean Peninsula did not go through the stage of large-scale scientific translation, but from the very beginning, a part of social science translation and a large number of literary translation, including political novels, biographies of great men and so on.In particular, the translation of literary works has always occupied an important position in the modern translation of the Korean Peninsula.It is worth mentioning that liang Qichao had a great influence on literary translation during the Period of Korean Civilization.It was under his influence that a large number of political novels were translated and introduced to the Korean Peninsula, and played an important role in the transformation of thoughts and concepts in the Korean Peninsula in the modern period and the emergence and development of modern literature.Of course, after entering the period of colonial rule, the Translation of the Korean Peninsula became more colonial,In many ways, it is more influenced and restricted by Japan. Although there is also the pursuit of literature, the final translation inevitably has a strong political nature.In a word, the translation activities in the first half of the 20th century in both countries are determined by both literary factors and social ideology, but in the final analysis, the latter always plays a dominant role.Due to the special historical environment and similar fate, translation in both countries has strong utilitarian, utility and political characteristics to a large extent, which are the manifestation of the "manipulation" of translation by the ideological form.
(2) The source of the translation
There is no doubt that in all stages of modern translation history, the sources of translated works in the two countries are closely related to Japan, but there are differences in the specific range of sources and degree of dependence on Japan.In fact, before the late Qing Dynasty, a large number of Western scientific and technological books translated in China were basically based on the original Western language.In the translation period dominated by the Reformists, due to the vigorous development of Japanese translation and the characteristics of easy learning and understanding of Japanese, Liang Qichao and Kang Youwei advocated the translation of foreign works from Japanese. It was not until then that A large number of Japanese translations were carried out in China.
After the May 4th Movement, Translation in China flourished, with translators of various languages appearing in large numbers and many intellectuals participating in translation activities.At this time, the original versions of Chinese translations are also varied, including Japanese and English versions, and many are directly translated from the original.On the other hand, due to the influence of history, during the whole period of the Korean Peninsula, the translation of foreign books mainly consisted of Japanese and Chinese versions, and few of them were directly translated from the original.After entering the period of colonial rule, due to Japan's rule and influence on the Korean Peninsula in various fields, there were fewer and fewer translation cases based on The Chinese version, and the Japanese version took the dominant position.However, due to the increasing number of intellectuals focusing on Western language and literature (such as the emergence of the "Overseas Literature School" in 1926), the call for translation based on the original text became stronger and stronger.After all, most of the Korean intellectuals of the "overseas literary school" studied in Japan,Therefore, although they put forward the slogan of "translation from the original text", their translation activities are still directly or indirectly influenced by the Japanese knowledge system.In short, if the modern times of East Asia are "modern times of translation", as a bridge of translation in East Asia, Japanese translation is based on the original text or English.In China, there are both literal translation of the original text and retranslation of English and Japanese versions. On the other hand, Korean translation sources are a little bit unitary, basically retranslating some Chinese and most Japanese versions.However, from another point of view, the translation path of the Korean Peninsula at that time was the most complicated among the three countries, which could be the path of "Japanese → Korean", "Western → Chinese → Korean" or even "Western → Japanese → Chinese → Korean".
At that time, many Korean intellectuals were fluent in both Chinese and Japanese, so it was difficult to refer to only one source in the translation process.For example, The book On The Classics and The United States (1908), marked with the "translation" of Xuan Gonglian, was published with reference to both the Japanese and Chinese versions.Kim Kyo-je, a famous writer of new novels in the early modern period, translated or reprinted 11 novels at least four were translated to the Korean Peninsula through the path of "Western → Chinese → Korean";While Li Haichao translated Iron World (1908), the translation path is "Western → Japanese → Chinese → Korean" .
In Korea at that time, this kind of double, triple or even multiple retranslation is very common. For this reason, the modern Korean Peninsula is also called "retranslated modern times" by scholars.
(3) Topic selection and content of the translated work
Corresponding to the nature, motivation and characteristics of translation, there are not only similarities and intersecting points, but also their own characteristics in the topic selection of translated works.For example, the pilgrim's Progress, a religious novel by English novelist John Bunyan (1628-1688), was among the first western literary works translated in both countries.
This fact reflects the important role of western missionaries in the translation history of the two countries.Aesop's Fables is also one of the earliest and most frequently translated western literary works in both countries.Aesop's Fables was translated many times in both countries and included in the textbooks of the time as a children's book.After entering the modern and contemporary period, both countries highly respected historical and biographical works and political novels, and had a period of concentrated translation.For example, political novels such as "A Journey with the Wind", "Jingguo Meiyu" and "Iron World" have been translated into Chinese and English respectively.In addition, many historical and biographical works (especially the history of subjugations) were translated into The Korean Peninsula through Chinese media at that time, such as The Founding of Switzerland and Fifteen Little Heroes. As well as liang Qichao's writings or translations of the hundred Days' Coup, The History of the Fall of Vietnam, the biography of the three Heroes of the Founding of Italia, The biography of Madame Roland, and the biography of Hungarian patriot Gasus, etc.History books such as A New History of Tai Xi, a Brief History of Russia, A War in the Middle East and modern History of Egypt were also translated from Chinese versions. In the whole period of civilization, the Korean Peninsula concentrated on the translation of history, biographical works and political novels, although there is no lack of Japanese influence, but obviously The Influence of China can not be ignored.Due to reasons such as politics, current affairs and the market, the two countries in politics, history and biography of before and after the translation in the first decade of the 20th century gradually into the low tide, and other types of novels, such as science fiction, detective novels, western pure literary fiction and gradually be translated a lot, at the same time, poetry translation have greater development.It is worth mentioning that translation in both countries reached a new climax after the late decade of the first decade of the 20th century.In terms of the number and diversity of genres, China is far more diverse than The Korean Peninsula, but there are some interesting intersections in the literary translation topics of the two countries, such as Shakespeare, Hardy, Stevenson and Conan Doyle in The UK, Tolstoy, Gorky and Chekov in Russia, Tagore in India,Norway's Ibsen and other works have had a great influence in both countries.It is worth mentioning that there are obvious differences between the two countries in the topic selection of translated works as follows. The first is the translation of Japanese literature
The problem. As we all know, Japanese literature plays a very important role in the history of Chinese translation of foreign literature in the 20th century.On the Korean Peninsula, although the influence of Japanese literature is beyond doubt, and the translation of Japanese literature in the first half of the 20th century can be said to run through the whole modern translation activities of the Korean Peninsula, but the translation of Japanese literature in the Korean Peninsula itself is very few.
The reasons are mainly related to the special political and historical background of the Korean Peninsula and the control and infiltration of Japanese language in the Korean Peninsula after entering the colonial period, as well as the role of national emotional factors.Secondly, the translation and introduction of the other side's literature. In the first half of the 20th century, the literature of the two countries was not the main target of translation in each other's country, but this does not mean that there is no overlap between them. On the whole, the Korean Peninsula paid more and deeper attention to Chinese literature than China did to Korean literature during this period.After entering the modern society, under the extremely complicated and difficult cultural environment, the Korean Peninsula continued to translate Chinese vernacular novels and some classical poems in the Ming and Qing dynasties, and at the same time carried out a relatively concentrated translation of Liang Qichao, the pioneer of Chinese novel revolution. However, what is more noteworthy is his continuous translation and introduction of New Chinese literature, which started in the second half of the 1910s.Due to the special historical and geographical relationship, Korea is the first country in the world to notice China's new cultural movement except Japan. At that time, many magazines and newspapers on the Korean Peninsula introduced and reported the New Chinese literature. Some Korean intellectuals had deep feelings about the innovative atmosphere in The Chinese literary circle and hoped to provide necessary reference for the improvement and innovation of their own literature through the translation and introduction of The new Chinese literature.In a word, during the Period of Japanese rule, the Translation and introduction of modern Chinese literature in The Korean Peninsula was quite comprehensive, and many famous writers and works in the history of Chinese literature were involved in the topic selection, which played an important role in the study of Chinese literature in Korea. On the contrary, China's translation of Korean literature at that time was very limited, mainly due to the concern of "weak and weak ethnic literature", and also influenced by the war ideology of anti-japanese and national salvation, nationalism. However, in the huge history of modern Chinese literature translation, the translation of Korean literature is just a drop in the ocean and has not received enough attention. All in all, the depth and breadth of the translation of each other's works is extremely unbalanced.
(4) The translator's main body, translation strategies and methods
There are also similarities between the two countries on the subject of translators in the history of modern translation literature. In the early stage of translation activities, western missionaries played a great role. Later, famous intellectuals, social activists and literary scholars of the two countries realized the importance of translation, actively participated in translation activities, and became the leading leaders of modern translation in the two countries.For example, yan Fu, Liang Qichao and Lin Shu were active translators in early China, while xuan CAI, Pu Yinzhi, Shen Caihao and other famous scholars, thinkers and social activists led the translation during the Korean Peninsula's enlightenment period. After entering the decade of the 20th century, the translation of the two countries gradually entered the climax.Many Chinese writers, including Lu Xun, Guo Moruo and Zhou Zuoren, actively translated while writing. Choi Nam-sun and Lee Kwang-soo, leaders of Korean literature in the first decade of the 20th century, also actively translated their works.In addition, famous writers of new novels such as Lee Hae-jo, Ahn Guk-seon, and Choi Chan-sik were motivated and motivated by translation activities. With the development of translation, a number of specialized literary translators have emerged in both countries. In addition, some new women at that time also participated in the translation, such as Bing Xin from China and Kim Myung-soon from Korea.In terms of translation strategies or ways, early modern translation system is far from mature, highly standard translation way, utilitarian purpose, color thick, many translators from themselves and the needs of the audience, or excerpts and delete any reduction of the original (AD, Jane), or add their own opinions and comments in the process of translation, the tai shang ganying pian), Or in the form of translation only summarize the general idea (synopsis), for example, liang Qichao and Cui Nanshan's translation to a large extent are abridged, synopsis or translation.Generally speaking, the forms and methods of translation at that time were characterized by diversity and hybridity, which were similar in China and Korea. The reason is related to the mainstream ideology of the translation leaders who hoped to enlighten the people, enrich the country and strengthen the army through translation as soon as possible.
(5) Disputes on "Literary translation"
After literary translation gradually got on the right track and became the mainstream of translation works in the two countries, translators in the two countries gained further insights on the application, methods and techniques of translation and gradually began to express their own views on translation, whose discussions cover all aspects of translation. Such as translation methods, translation skills, translation and the status of translators, the role of translation. The opinions of different translators are bound to be different. Therefore, in the modern and contemporary period, both China and South Korea had debates on translation (literary translation). The focus and theme of the debate are similar, such as "translatable or untranslatable", "literal translation versus free translation" and so on.It is well known that in the history of modern Chinese translation, especially in the May Fourth Movement period, many writers began their literary career by translating foreign literature, and most of them published discussions on translation. The differences between different translators and groups have led to several famous debates in the history of Chinese translation. For example, lu Xun and Zhou Zuoren proposed Literal translation and related debates are typical examples. In addition, in the history of modern Chinese translation, there are also debates on "translated names", "translatable or not translatable literary works", translation methods such as mistranlation, hard translation and dead translation, and translation paths such as literal translation or retranslation.The 1920s was a period when the history of modern and contemporary translation in Korea was on the right track. Many newspapers and magazines published discussions on translation and related debates. In the history of modern translation on the Korean Peninsula, one of the most famous disputes about translation is the dispute between Jin Yi and Liang Zhudong about "literal translation" and "free translation" in poetry translation. Liang zhudong believes that poetry is untranslatable and should be literal compared with free translation. Jin Yi believes that although poetry is untranslatable, if translators exert their own subjective initiative, it can completely improve the value of translated poetry and even become a new creation. However, it is interesting that although Liang zhudong praised the method of "literal translation", he criticized the "overseas literature school" that focused on foreign literature at that time for being too rigid in the way of literal translation, and believed that "literal translation" should be organically combined with "free translation".In fact, the debate between literal translation and free translation, or "domestication" and "foreignization", is closely related to ideology.
The debate between translators in the two countries over these issues is actually carried out at the ideological level. According to venuti, a famous translation theorist of deconstruction school, the choice of translation strategy is determined by ideology.
(6) The influence of translation on the languages and literature of the two countries
In fact, the greatest influence of modern literary translation on China and South Korea is reflected in the development of characters and literature. First of all, translation must be carried out with language as the carrier. Under normal circumstances, the translated language is naturally the lingua franca of a country and a nation, but for China and South Korea in the late 19th and 20th centuries, a common problem emerged in the process of translation in terms of language carrier: At that time, both countries had two parallel language systems, which coincided with the social and cultural transition, so language translation became a very interesting topic.As we all know, in the late 19th century and the early 20th century, There were two languages in China: Classical Chinese and vernacular Chinese. Vernacular Chinese was still in the ascendant, while classical Chinese still played an important role in written and literary translation. Of course, the classical Chinese at this time refers to the late Qing Dynasty and the early Republic of China common "shallow classical Chinese", it is different from the past obscure ancient prose, but in classical Chinese mixed with common sayings, is a kind of literary language between ancient Classical Chinese and vernacular.For example, Lin Shu, a great modern translator, translated foreign literature in classical Chinese. His translation was not only welcomed by readers at that time, but also had a great influence on many famous Chinese intellectuals. In the late Qing Dynasty and the early Republic of China, there were both classical Chinese and vernacular Chinese translations, and the classical Chinese translations were more than the vernacular ones, but basically the two languages co-existed peacefully. In the process of translation, the needs of the audience should be considered. The same translator can translate in both vernacular and classical Chinese. The same foreign novel may have both classical and vernacular translations.It was not until after the New Culture Movement that the vernacular style gradually occupied the main position in written language. After the 1920s, the translated works in China were mainly in vernacular. For the development of modern Chinese vernacular, it can be said that the impact of translation is extremely far-reaching. Chinese vernacular can be divided into "traditional vernacular" and "modern vernacular".The traditional vernacular is based on a Dream of Red Mansions.
The vernacular of China represented by such vernacular classics as Water Margin, which is not influenced by western language. The "modern vernacular" is based on the traditional vernacular, influenced by oral and ancient prose and with the color of European, that is, the May 4th Movement advocated vernacular, namely the so-called European vernacular.It is worth noting that this Kind of European vernacular was actually created by western missionaries in China at that time, and the tool of missionaries to create European vernacular is translation. In order to spread religion and western culture smoothly, they translated a large number of Western books, including holy books, and consciously chose words and styles more suitable for ordinary people to read in the process of translation, which was the prototype of vernacular Chinese vigorously advocated by the May Fourth Movement.Similar to the situation in China, the Korean Peninsula in the late 19th and early 20th centuries also had two basic styles, namely, the mixed style of Chinese and Chinese and the pure Style of Chinese. It was only after the 1894-1895 Revolution that the Korean Peninsula's national language began to be widely used. It takes time for any language style to emerge and mature, and the Korean Peninsula's "pure Korean style" is no exception,In 1921, Korean language researchers formed the Korean Language Research Society under the influence of the Zhou Dynasty, which served as an opportunity for the further establishment of the modern Korean language. Before this, mixed Chinese and Korean language played an important role in the written language of the Korean Peninsula for a long time.In fact, the so-called mixed Chinese characters are based on Chinese characters, sometimes using Korean characters. The difference is that some mark Korean characters on Chinese characters, and some do not even mark Korean characters, but only Chinese characters. There is another special case, that is, the pure Chinese style with Korean auxiliary words and endings, such as the "hanging out Chinese style" used by Shen Caihao in the translation of the Biography of the Three Heroes of the Foundation of Itri.It is worth mentioning that it was also western missionaries who initially carried out translation activities in Korean. In order to preach, they carried out translation activities mainly aimed at the "Bible" in the Korean Peninsula, using the Korean language, which was not popular and was not valued by the Korean intellectuals at that time. The purpose of using The Korean language was to make the translated holy book easier for more ordinary people to accept. Kim Byeong-cheol holds that it is the translation of sacred books in the native Korean language that gave birth to the main form of modern literature on the Korean Peninsula, namely the "new novel", and thus promoted the "unity of language and language" and the emergence of modern literature in Korea.In general, the influence of translation on the development of Chinese and Korean characters and literature is far more than that. It can be said that the expansion of sentence structure, the change of style, the enrichment of vocabulary, the improvement of expressive force and the perfection of grammar system of the two languages are all inseparable from translation. In a word, translation has played an indispensable role in the unification of language and language in the history of Chinese and English literature. In addition to its role in language, translation also has a profound influence on the development of modern literature in both countries. As is known to all, the translation and introduction of a large number of foreign novels not only brought strong shock and impact to the literary circles of the two countries at that time, but also provided a lot of reference for the realization of the literary transformation of the two countries.It can be said that in the process of the collision, integration and evolution of eastern and western literature, literary translation plays a decisive external role in the transformation of Chinese and Korean literature from classical form to modern form, and has a great impact on the literary concept, literary type, narrative mode and expression mode. In this regard, researchers in China and South Korea have given positive descriptions.
==4. conclusion==
There are many similarities between China and South Korea in modern times. Under the environment of western learning spreading to the east, both of them were knocked out of the country by the West, suffered the invasion of western powers and Japan successively, and passively started the journey of modernization. Under the circumstance of deepening national crisis of domestic and foreign invasion, the enlightened intellectuals of the two countries have carried out the exploration of saving the nation from extinction, and translation is an important means for them to achieve this goal. To be specific, the historical context of the spreading of Western learning from the end of the 19th century endowed the two countries with unique historical characteristics. Due to the similarity of historical, cultural and political background and mainstream ideology, the translation of modern and contemporary literature in the two countries also presents many similarities and even intersecting points. As analyzed above, the most obvious common point in the modern translation history of China and Korea is ideology Influence throughout. For China and Korea at that time, one of the mainstream ideologies was "modernization transformation", and translation was the driving force for the modernization transformation process of the two countries. Therefore, utilitarianism and purposefulness run through the development of modern translation in both countries. In addition to the mainstream social ideology, the translator's personal ideology also has a great influence on literary translation in both countries.For example, the early translation phenomenon led by Western missionaries and the later translation activities led by intellectuals of the two countries were all carried out by translators for their personal purposes under the influence of the general environment at that time. It can be said that it is because of the influence of the subliminal form of the western learning spreading to the east that the modern and modern translations of the two countries show many similarities or similarities. Comparing the literary translation of the two countries in terms of specific content, we can find many similarities in details. For example, western missionaries played an important role at the beginning. After entering the 20th century, the translation of both countries was deeply influenced by Japan. The translation groups of the two countries were the best intellectuals and representatives of the new culture at that time. When they translated foreign works, they also carried out various discussions and even debates about translation. Translation activities have broadened the horizons of the people of the two countries and enriched their languages, literature and even culture.

It is worth mentioning that cultural exchanges between the two countries have also been continued through translation. Of course, due to the differences in specific situations, there are some differences in literary translation between the two countries while showing common features. The author believes that the biggest difference lies in the scale of translation. To be specific, from the number of translated works and translators, the discussion and construction of translation theories, the importance attached to translation, and the influence and status of translation in the history of national literature, Chinese modern translation is obviously higher. The main reason is that the translation environment and background of the two countries at that time are different, that is, the difference between complete colonies and semi-colonies. Although the Qing Dynasty fell under the background of the competition of western powers, China did not completely become a colony of any power, so it was relatively free and independent in political and cultural development. However, because Korea was annexed and ruled by Japan, it was difficult to develop modernization independently. The whole society was highly dependent on Japan, and it was also greatly restricted and influenced by Japan in terms of ideology. Translation activities were no exception.

As mentioned above, the purpose of the author's comparative study of Chinese and Korean contemporary literature translation is to restore the contemporary and contemporary literary exchanges between the two countries, and at the same time to provide necessary background for the mutual translation and introduction of the contemporary and contemporary literature of the two countries. However, the study of Chinese and Korean modern literature translation is a polyphonic and polysemy subject with a very wide range of coverage. Due to the limited space and author's ability, this paper only generalizes and arranges the subject from a macro perspective, and many details are not developed in depth. Translated works by the capacity of, for example, the sources of the related works and so on, for more exist in the two countries pay fork points to explore, in the evaluation of literature translation of words between the two countries and the specific influence of literature, especially under the background of their literary translation between the two countries the properties and significance of literary translation, etc, if you can carry out further discussion and exploration of the content, The research results will be more rich and three-dimensional.

There were many similarities between China and South Korea in modern times. Under the environment of western learning spreading to the East, both of them were knocked out of the country by the West, suffered the invasion of western powers and Japan successively, and passively started the journey of modernization. Under the circumstance of deepening national crisis of domestic and foreign invasion, the enlightened intellectuals of the two countries had carried out the exploration of saving the nation from extinction.Translation was an important means for them to achieve this goal. To be specific, the historical context of the spreading of Western learning from the end of the 19th century endowed the two countries with unique historical characteristics. Due to the similarity of historical, cultural and political background and mainstream ideology, the translation of literature in the two countries also presented many similarities and even intersecting points. As analyzed above, the most obvious common point was ideology influence. For China and Korea at that time, one of the mainstream ideologies was "modernization transformation",for which translation was the driving force. Therefore, utilitarianism and purposefulness ran through the development of modern translation in both countries. In addition to the mainstream social ideology, the translator's personal ideology also has a great influence on literary translation in both countries.For example,the early translation phenomenon led by Western missionaries and the later translation activities led by intellectuals of the two countries were all carried out by translators for their personal purposes under the influence of the general environment at that time. Without doubt, the influence of the subliminal form of the western learning spreading to the east constituted similarities between the two countries.Comparing the literary translation of the two countries in terms of specific content,we found many similarities in details. For example, western missionaries played an important role at the beginning. After entering the 20th century, the translation of both countries was deeply influenced by Japan. The translation groups of the two countries were the best intellectuals and representatives of the new culture at that time. When they translated foreign works, they also carried out various discussions and even debates about translation. Translation activities had broadened the horizons of the people and enriched their languages, literature and even culture.

It is worth mentioning that cultural exchanges between the two countries have also been continued through translation. Of course, due to the differences in specific situations, there are some differences in literary translation between the two countries while showing common features. The author believes that the biggest difference lies in the scale of translation. To be specific, from the number of translated works and translators, the discussion and construction of translation theories, the importance attached to translation to the influence and status of translation in the history of national literature, Chinese modern translation was obviously higher. The main reason was that the translation environment and background of the two countries at that time were different, that is, the difference between complete colonies and semi-colonies. Although the Qing dynasty fell under the background of the competition of western powers, China did not completely become a colony of any power, so it was relatively free and independent in political and cultural development. However, because Korea was annexed and ruled by Japan, it was difficult to develop modernization independently. The whole society was highly dependent on Japan, and it was also greatly restricted and influenced by Japan in terms of ideology. Translation activities were no exception.

As mentioned above, the purpose of the author's comparative study of Chinese and Korean contemporary literature translation is to restore the literary exchanges between the two countries, and at the same time to provide necessary background for the two countries. However, the study of Chinese and Korean modern literature translation is a polyphonic and polysemy subject with a very wide range of coverage. Due to the limited space and author's ability, this paper only generalized and arranged the subject from a macro perspective, and many details were not developed in depth, such as the sources of the related works,the evaluation of literature translation of words, the properties and significance of literary translation and so on. This paper will be more rich and three-dimensional with further discussion and exploration of the content.--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 07:59, 11 December 2021 (UTC)

==References==
*金秉哲[韩]: 《韩国近代翻译文学史研究》，首尔: 乙酉文化社，1975。130-160页
*金鹤哲: 《1949 年以前韩国文学汉译和意识形态因素》，《中国比较文学》2009 年第 4 期，第 66 页。
*金旭东[韩]: 《翻译与韩国的近代》，首尔: 小明出版社，2010，第25~28页。
*王秉钦、王颉: 《20世纪中国翻译思想史》，南开大学出版社，2004，第31页。
*许钧: 《面向中西交流的翻译史研究》，《解放军外国语学院学报》2014 年第 5 期，第 140 页。
*许钧、袁筱一编著《当代法国翻译理论》，南京大学出版社，1998，第 128 页。
*朱一凡: 《翻译与现代汉语的变迁 ( 1905 ~ 1936) 》，外语教学与研究出版社，2011，第 72 页。

=刘沛婷 Western Translation history in Renaissance)=

刘沛婷 Liu Peiting, Hunan Normal University, China

==Abstract==
The Renaissance is not only an important period in the history of literature and technology, but also a turning point in the history of western translation. During this period, the translation of religious and literary works gradually flourished, and translators constantly put forward new translation concepts and tried translation practices.The soaring of national consciousness and national languages contributed to the characteristic ideas of translation in the Renaissance. Especially France, Britain and Germany had made outstanding contributions to the evolution and progress of the entire translation history during this period.This chapter is to have a brief introduction to the translation history in Renaissance, conduct a detailed explaination from the three countries of France, Britan and Germany respectively and illustrate some representative translators and translation theories with the hope to show the magnificent translation achievements in Renaisance and the evolvement of human translation history.

==Key words==
Translation history; renaissance; France; Britain; Germany

Translation history; Renaissance; France; Britain; Germany--[[User:Liu Wei|Liu Wei]] ([[User talk:Liu Wei|talk]]) 12:44, 14 December 2021 (UTC)Liu Wei

==Introduction==

The period from around the fourteenth until the mid-seventeenth century has conventionally been designated as the Renaissance,referring to the rediscovery and revitalization of the literature, art and science of ancient Greece and Rome. The term was devised by Italian humanists who sought to reaffirm their own continuity with the classical humanist heritage after an interlude of Middle Ages (Habib 2011：79).It was a great revolution in intellect and culture. It is also “the greatest progressive revolution that mankind has so far experienced, a time which called for giants and produced giants”.Renaissance takes spreading humanism thought as one of the main forms of expression, involving all aspects of the cultural field, including the ancient Greek, Roman works and contemporary European works. In the process of studying and reviving classical culture, as well as developing and spreading new ideas, translation obviously plays an important role. The magnificent Renaissance itself included and depended on an unprecedented scale of translation activities. Therefore, it marks not only a great development in literature, art and science, but also an important milestone in the history of translation.(Engels 1972：445)

Originated in Italy in the 15th century, and in the 16th century Renaissance swept Europe, (especially Western European countries) and gradually formed a climax. At that time, western society was filled with a spirit of seeking and conquering the objective world. When this spirit was reflected in the translation field, translators were full of ambition and spared no effort to constantly discover new literary styles, excavate new cultural heritages and transplant new ideas to their motherland. Many translators translated classic works related to politics, philosophy, social system, literature and art of past glorious countries into their national languages as reference for the development of their own countries. All achievements in translation were compared to "trophies" in literature and knowledge. Next, we are to have a review on translations history of France, Britain and Germany, three major Western European countries in the high tide of Renaissance.

From the 14th century to the middle of the 17th century, it is the Renaissance, which refers to the rediscovery and Renaissance of ancient Greek and Roman literature, art and science. The word "Renaissance" was designed by Italian Humanists who tried to reaffirm their continuity with the heritage of classical humanism, which was a great intellectual and cultural revolution. This is also "the greatest progressive revolution that mankind has experienced so far, an era that needs giants and produces giants".

The Renaissance takes the dissemination of humanism as one of the main forms of expression, involving all aspects of the cultural field, including ancient Greek, Roman and contemporary European works. Translation obviously plays an important role in the study and revival of classical culture and the development and dissemination of new ideas. The brilliant renaissance itself included and relied on unprecedented translation activities. Therefore, it not only marks the great development of literature, art and science, but also an important milestone in the history of translation. (Engels 1972:445)

The Renaissance originated in Italy in the 15th century, The 16th century swept Europe (especially in Western European countries) and gradually reached a climax. At that time, western society was full of the spirit of pursuing and conquering the objective world. When this spirit was reflected in the field of translation, translators were full of ambition, spared no effort to constantly discover new styles, excavate new cultural heritage and transplant new ideas to their motherland. Many translators put the politics of past brilliant countries into practice , philosophy, social system, literature and art are translated into their own national language as a reference for their own development. All translation achievements are compared to "trophies" of literature and knowledge. Next, we will review the translation history of France, Britain and Germany in the climax of the Renaissance. --[[User:Liu Wei|Liu Wei]] ([[User talk:Liu Wei|talk]]) 12:52, 14 December 2021 (UTC)Liu Wei

==1.History of Translation in France==

In France, during this period, the wind of restoring ancient styles began to prevail, ancient languages were valued, and ancient writers were respected. A large number of literary works of Italian humanists, such as Dante, Petrarch and Boccaccio, were introduced to France, which opened people's eyes and promoted the development of French humanist movement. Therefore, the focus of translation in France shifted from religious works to Italian classical literature works. The increasingly translation activities constituted a climax of translation history in France.Translators generally believed that translating literary works was much more difficult than translating religious works. Although translation began to reach a new climax, most of the translations were the "by-products" of literary creation, with low quality and little influence. However, in the climax of translation in France in the 16th century, there were two outstanding contributors , one is Jacques Amyot and the other is Etienne Dolet.(Tan Zaixi,2000:21)

Jacques Amyot was considered the king of translation in France. His first translation, Heliodoros’ ''Aethiopica'', was completed in 1547. Later, he translated Diodorus Siculus’s ''Bibliotheca Historica'' and, in 1559 he translated Ploutarchos’s ''Vies des Hommes illustrus'', which was Amyot’s most famous work. Amyot advocated translators’ thorough understanding of the original text and plain expressions without embellishment. He emphasized the unity of content and form, free translation and literal translation. In his translation, he borrowed words from Greek and Latin and simultaneously created a large number of words in politics, philosophy, science, literature, music and so on. He fused common people language and academic language, and therefore formed an independent style of translation and greatly enriched the French vocabulary. At that time, the French language is still in a state of confusion, Amyot and other humanists made tremendous contributions to unify the French national language.

Another great man in translation history of France was Etienne Dolet. As a famous translation theorist, Dolet advocated targeted texts’ faithfulness to the original work, which is the fundamental and indispensable principle in translation. Dolet believed that an excellent translator must be proficient in both source language and target language. He was aware of the weakness of word-by-word translation and emphasized that the translation should be consistent with the original text in style through various rhetorical devices. Ballard,a French translation theorist, argued that dolet’ translation principles constituted the rudiment of the French translation theory. What he proposed was the universal principles for translation.(Xu Jun and Yuan Xiaoyi,1998:284)

Jacques Amyot set an example for the following translation works in France in the 16th century; Etienne Dolet’s translation theories were of great significance and were the first systematic principles of translation, which were ahead of those of Germany and Britain and advanced translation studies into a higher level. Thanks to their efforts, France had earned a place in translation history during Renaissance period.

==2. History of Translation in Britain==

In Britain, the Renaissance came later than in the main countries of continental Europe, but Britain gradually kept up with others countries. During this period, the British capitalist economy developed rapidly, productivity improved greatly, and the country became increasingly prosperous , which has laid a solid material foundation for the development of literature and translation. Especially since Elizabeth came to the throne in the mid-16th century by the early 17th century, translation was flourishing. On the one hand, religious translation is in the ascendant, on the other hand, a great deal of literature from Greece, Rome and other contemporary countries was translated into English, which made English translation activities in this period one of the peaks of translation activities in Europe and even the world. Literary translation ranged from history and philosophy to poetry and drama, with the occurrence of a large number of excellent translators,who introduced ancient ingenuity to Britain, offering serious lessons not only to the Queen and politicians, but also plots and materials for dramatists and readers with the purpose of serving their country. At that time, many translators were not scholars, they were not bound by any strict translation theory, they could translate what they had at their own will. Many translations are not directly from the original texts, but from the translations or even the translation of the translation. Therefore, the scope and quantity of translation are unprecedented in Britain.In the aspect of religious translation, the translator was also influenced by humanism and the Reformation, a new understanding of the Bible arose, as well as a new attitude and a new way of dealing with the translation of the Bible. People advocated accurate translation in religious works, while for literature, the unbridled freedom of traditional translation methods persisted throughout the Elizabethan era.(Tan Zaixi,2004:71)

In Britain, the Renaissance began later than the major countries in continental Europe, but Britain developed rapidly and produced many achievements.

During this period, the British capitalist economy developed rapidly, the productivity increased greatly, and the country prospered day by day, which laid a solid material foundation for the development of literature and translation. Especially since Elizabeth ascended the throne in the middle of the 16th century and the beginning of the 17th century, translation has developed vigorously. On the one hand, religious translation is in the ascendant. On the other hand, a large number of literary works from contemporary countries such as Greece and Rome have been translated into English, which makes English translation activities in this period one of the peaks of translation activities in Europe and even the world. Literary translation ranges from history and philosophy to poetry and drama. A large number of excellent translators have emerged. They introduced the originality of ancient times into Britain, which not only provided serious lessons for the queen and politicians, but also provided plot and materials for playwrights and readers, in order to serve the country. At that time, many translators were not scholars. They were not bound by any strict translation theory. They could translate what they had at will. Many translations are not directly from the original text, but from the translation, or even the translation of the translation. Therefore, the scope and quantity of translation are unprecedented in the UK. In religious translation, the translator has also been influenced by humanism and religious reform, has a new understanding of the Bible, and has a new attitude and method to the translation of the Bible. People advocate accurate translation in religious works, while in literary works, the unbridled freedom of traditional translation methods continued throughout the Elizabethan era. (Tan Zaixi, 2004:71) --[[User:Liu Wei|Liu Wei]] ([[User talk:Liu Wei|talk]]) 12:59, 14 December 2021 (UTC)Liu Wei

====2.1 Translation of Douglas and Cheke====

Gavin Douglas (1475-1522), a famous Scottish poet and translator, published his translation of Virgil’s epic Poem ''The Aeneid'' in the early 16th century. He began his preface with a eulogy of Virgil and then launched into a serious critique of the overly liberal medieval translation. He criticized Caxton's French translation as unfaithful, as far from Virgil's original work, and "as different from the devil as st. Austin" . Douglass did not translate word by word, but freely translated. He said that if translator encountered difficult words, sentences, rhymes, one had to deviate from the original text. Douglass had added new content and new meaning to translation principles, and thus had a certain value (Amos,1920:129)

Towards the middle of the 16th century, an important figure in translation was John Cheke (1514-1557). He was a humanist and supporter of the Reformation, as well as a polyglot authority on Greek at the time and served as Principal Regent Chair Professor at Cambridge university. As a result of his popularity, Cambridge became one of the academic centers in Britain, and its students were well versed in translation and language studies.Cheke was a tireless translator,who had translated many Greek works and the Bible. Characteristically, he used only pure English words or words of Saxon origin in any case, and did not adopt any foreign words. He thought the English language was rich enough without borrowing foreign words. Because of his insist on pure English words and expressions in his translation, he sometimes had to use vulgar, old and remote words, so that the style of his translation was sometimes forced and stiff.
Cheke's theory had a great influence on contemporary translators. Many other translators often mentioned Cheke's translation views in their own translations. At that time, the main criterion for evaluating a translated work was whether it was authentic and easy to be understood by compatriots. At the same time, the study of foreign grammar and contrastive vocabulary also appeared in language studies. The translator aimed to turn the translation into a textbook for students of language and translation to imitate. Some translators also use word-for-word translation to provide guidance to students. Abraham Fleming, for example, translated Virgil's Poems "according to grammatical rules." He "used plain and understandable words so as to accommodate those who are slow in comprehension, since the translator's aim is to use straightforward language structures to ease the difficulties of those whose grammatical concepts are vague, rather than to devise ways to satisfy the desires of grander humanists" (Amos,1920:109).

====2.2 Translation from Thomas North to Georga Chapman====

However, in the translation of classical masterpieces, translators tended to shift from one extreme to another. In order to avoid word-for-word translation, translators adopted excessively free translation, which was not only for the expression of words but also for the treatment of the substance of the content. Nicholas Udall(1505-1556) created the first British comedy ''Ralph Roister Doister''. In 1542 he translated Erasmus's ''Book of Proverbs'', and later presided over Erasmus's Latin translation, including the Gospel of Luke, which was published in 1548. In the preface to the translation of the ''New Testament'', he discussed various issues related to translation: the treatment of translators, the expansion of English vocabulary, the treatment of sentence structure of the translation, Erasmus's style and the stylistic characteristics of different authors. In his opinion, translation should not follow rigid rules. He advocated the use of liberal translation without deviation from the original meaning, and the translation should be readable and understandable to the general readers.

The most famous translation work of the whole Elizabethan period was the English version of ''The live of the Noble Grecians and Romans'' by translator Thomas North (1535-1601).He studied at Cambridge University in his early years, and later worked in London, where he met many translation lovers and gradually became interested in translation. In 1557 he translated ''Diall of Princes'' from a French translation and later he translated an oriental allegory from an Italian translated version in 1601. ''The live of the Noble Grecians and Romans'' was translated in 1579. This translation was not from the original Greek version, but from Amyot's French translation. However, it was still considered as an excellent epoch-making translation. North did not express any unique views on translation, but he was famous for his excellent translation in the western translation circle with three main characteristics:(1)because it is not from the original Greek, the style of the translation is different from Plutarch's style; The original text is elegant while his translation is plain. (2) North's style is also different from that of Amio in the French translation, which he used as a model. He not only changes the wording of the French translation, but also its spirit. Like Amio's French translation, North's is another masterpiece based on Plutarch's original subject. (3) Though he knew little of the classical language, North was a master of The English language, and his translations were so simple and fluent, so elegant and idiomatic, that readers might have taken them for the original if they had not read the plot. North's translation was praised by Shakespeare, who drew his inspirations from this translated works and cited its expressions, which can be considered a terrific contribution of translation to literature. The prose style adopted by ''The live of the Noble Grecians and Romans'' is novel and elegant, neither rigid nor grotesque, and hence it has become an enduring model in the history of English translation.(Tan Zaixi, 2004:76)

Philemon Holland (1552-1637) was the most outstanding English translator of the 16th century, whose works outnumbered those of his contemporaries. He had been a surgeon and headmaster of Coventry General School. He was a learned translator and scholar, fluent in Greek and Latin, proficient in ancient writing and proverbs, as well as rhetoric. His classical works were not translated but directly from the Original Greek and Latin texts, and the subject matter was also varied. He translated Livy's Romane Historie in 1600 and Pliny's Natural Historie in 1601, Plutarch's Moralia in 1603, and translated Zitonius's The Historie of The Twelve Caesars in 1606. Hollander is better known in British translation circles than North or Florio, known as the Elizabethan "translator general" who truly understood "the secret of translation." Holland's translation has two main characteristics :(1) translation must serve the reality; (2) Translation must be stylistic. In the preface to his translation of Natural History, he emphasized, "the practicality of the content of the translation, which should be suitable not only for learned people, but also for the uncivilized peasants in the countryside and for the industrious craftsmen in the cities”. Hollander was particular about the style of his translation. Like other translators of his time, he used a slow prose style, and the translation was always longer than the original. In his translation he tried to be authentic, not foreign. He does not use artificial language, but popular style. Like Cheke before him, he also preferred archaic words to foreign ones out of love for the language of his own country. What’s more, he believed that the style of the original work must be reflected in the translation, and that different works must adopt different styles without adding differences. Hollander had left behind more than just translations, but a series of works with distinctive stylistic characteristics that could withstand even the rigors of modern stylist analysis and provide the modern reader with great pleasure.(Amos,1920:86)

Georga Chapman (1559-1634) was another outstanding translator, whose greatest contribution is that his translations serve as a bridge between the 16th and 17th centuries. He spent his early years as a student at Oxford University before writing poetry and plays. But it was mainly his translations that made him famous in the literary world. He translated the first seven books of the Iliad in 1598, completed the epic in 1611, and the Odyssey in 1616. The translator's profound attainments and outstanding achievements made his translation a literary masterpiece of the time. Chapman adopted two different styles to translate the same poetic style of the original work, that is, he translated Iliad in sonnet and Odyssey in heroic couplet. In contrast, the former is more appropriate and decent than the latter. In his translation, Chapman made extensive use of mythological dictionaries, referred to early reviews of Homer's work. However, both in content and style, the translation is not completely consistent with the original work. It has transformed the characters in the poem, and added elements of moral preaching to the value of wisdom and the expression and restraint of feelings. Chapman is unblemished as a translator. As a poet, however, he was blameless. His translation has achieved great success mainly because of his extraordinary creative ability as a poet and superb ability to control language.
Chapman also made some contributions to the theoretical issues of translation. In the preface of his translation, he clearly put forward the principles guiding the translation of poetry, thus filling some gaps in translation theory in the 16th century, especially in the later period. In principle, he was against too much strictness as well as too much freedom. He said, "I despise the translators for being trapped in the mire of word-for-word translation, losing the living soul of their native language and blackening the original author with stiff language. At the same time, I abhors the use of complicated language to express the meaning” (Amos,1920:130) . Of all that he opposed, the first was word for word translation,which was considered the most unnatural and absurd. According to the views of translation theories such as Horace, who had insight and a prudent attitude that the translator should not follow the original number of words and word order, but follow its material composition and sentences, carefully weigh sentences, and then use the most appropriate expressions and form to express and decorate the translation. Chapman believed that word-by-word translation was a common fault of translators, and even he himself was inevitable. But those mistakes could be overcome. Although the expression of meaning and language style of Greek and English are different, the translator could compare the translation with the original text in meaning and style as long as he carefully identified, understood the spirit of the original text and had a thorough understanding of its grammar and vocabulary and thus approximately achieved "formal correspondence". Chapman's theory was carried on by many translators of the 17th and 18th centuries. This was obviously because he opposed both extremes, and it was easier to argue for a compromise.(Catford,1965:32)

====2.3 Translation of Tyndale and Fulke====

In the 16th century, the translation of the English Bible also flourished. Since the introduction of ethnic translation in the Middle Ages, the Bible had been increasingly read. It had the same appeal for all classes of people, which prompted translators to combine the accuracy required by scholars with the intelligibility required by ordinary people, thus promoting the overall development of translation art and theory. In this respect, religious translation in England in the 16th century was more effective than literary translation. Tyndale and Fulke were the main representatives of bible translation.

William Tyndale (1494-1536) was an erudite humanist and protestant reformist. In 1523, his translation of the New Testament from Greek from a Protestant standpoint was opposed and persecuted by the English church authorities and was not allowed to be published. He fled to Germany in 1524 and, after many twists and turns, had his translation first published in 1525. In 1526, he smuggled the translation back to England against the will of the Church, trying to spread Protestant ideas through the new translation of the Bible and convert The English people to Protestants. The church authorities immediately took measures to lay siege. The Bishop of London claimed to have found 2,000 errors in Tyndale's translation. Thomas More, a famous humanist, attacked his translation very unkindly, and the priests bought all the copies they could get and burned them to prevent their proliferation. Uncompromising, Tyndale continued to translate the Bible in his own way: he translated the first book of the Old Testament in 1530, completed The Book of Jonah in 1531, and published the revised New Testament in 1534. The church authorities had no choice but to burn Tyndale in 1536 for heresy.
Tyndale's translation, however, had not disappeared but was republished after Tyndale's martyrdom and became increasingly influential, serving as the main reference version and as the model for all English translations for centuries to come. The greatest achievement of Tyndale's translation is that it takes into account the needs of academe, conciseness and literariness, and integrates these three elements into the style of English translation of the Bible. Tyndale paid special attention to the popularity of the translation, trying to use the authentic English vocabulary and ordinary narrative expressions of vivid and specific expressions, which makes his text simple and natural without being pedantic.(Tan Zaixi,2004:80)

If Tyndale made a special contribution to the practical translation of the Bible in the 16th century, then it was William Fulke (1538-1589)who made the greatest achievements in the theoretical study of bible translation. Fulke was a scholar of The Bible with humanistic thoughts. Without translating the Bible completely, he had great views on translation theory. In 1589 he published a book entitled in Defence of the Sincere and True Translation of the Holy Scriptures into the English Tongue. It must be pointed out that Fulke did not systematically discuss the universal principles of translation as Dolet did. Instead, he only talked about the facts and refuted Gregory Martin's views, and expounded the theoretical issues in a rather chaotic manner. To sum up, there were mainly two aspects as follows:
(1)Translation can have nothing to do with faith. Fulke, influenced by Erasmus's linguistic approach, disagreed with Martin's assertion of theological authority over scientific scholarship. Translators, he believed, must be fluent in many languages so that they could make accurate judgments about the teachings of the saints without blindly following them. The power of a translator lies in his solid linguistic ability, not in his belief in God. He said, The translator cannot be called an unfaithful heretic as long as the translation conforms to the language and meaning of the original text, even if the motive is not good (Amos,1920:71). Fulke never accepted Martin's strict translation formulas, nor did he submit to unproven authoritative theories, even from the leaders of his own faction. Fulke’s point of view is obviously a challenge to the theological authority of Augustine with its purpose to liberate the Bible translation from the narrow theological tradition and win the right for ordinary people to translate and interpret the Bible.
(2)The Translation of the Bible must respect linguistic habits. If the translator has difficulty in understanding the original text, he/she should turn to the language habits of ancient non-religious writers, while one encounters difficulties in diction, translator should refer to the language habits of contemporary secular writers and the general public. Fulke added: "We are not lords dictating the way people speak. If we were, we would teach them how to use language better. Since we cannot change the way people speak, we have to follow Aristotle's instructions and use the language of ordinary people." Therefore, religious usage should give way to common usage if it is in conflict with common usage. In translation, words and expressions that are most easily understood must be used so that those who do not know their etymological meaning can understand them. At the same time, if words have been misused over a long period of time, with meanings that do not correspond to the original meaning of the words, or have been misused to increase the ambiguity of the words, the translator should not follow blindly, but should look to the root and choose the words according to their original meaning, that is, according to the meaning used in the time when the Bible was written. In translating the Bible into English, Fulke did not advocate excessive borrowing of foreign words but tapping the expressive potential of English itself and paying attention to the use of expressions in line with English habits. Fulke acknowledged that English had a small vocabulary compared with older languages, but argued that this could not be compensated for by making up words, but by using Old English words again.
Clearly, some of Mr Fulke's views are limited and conservative. Many of the foreign words he objects to have been adopted as part of the English vocabulary. But many of his criticisms of Martin are convincing, and his work has been generally praised by the translators of the Bible. Some of his observations on language are so incisive that they are still of great reference value to the study of modern English.(Amos,1920:72)

==3.History of Translation in Germany==

In Germany, the national self-consciousness was further strengthened, and the trend of mechanical imitation of Latin gradually disappeared in the 15th century.

====3.1 Dominant Ideas in German Translation====

Linguists realized the unique style and expressive ability of German, and hence shifted the focus of translation from the original language to the target language. Free translation took the place of word-to-word translation and occupied the dominant position. The only reason for translators to object literal translation is its convenience for readers to understand word-by-word translation.
Gradually, scholars recognized that Hebrew, Greek, and Latin all have distinct features, especially in terms of idiomatic expressions. Similarly, since German is an independent language, it also has its own unique expressions that cannot be translated word by word into other languages, nor can expressions in other languages be translated word by word into German. Based an an understanding of the nature and differences of languages as well as a growing sense of nationality and desire to develop the national language, more and more historians and scholars have begun to use German idiomatic expressions rather than imitate Latin.
Against the background of this trend of thought, the free translators gradually changed their inferiority in the debates with the literal translators in the 15th century, and rightly put forward another profound reason against literal translation: German is an independent language with its own rules that must be respected; German has its own language style, which cannot be destroyed by imitation of other languages. This was the dominant idea in German translation throughout the 16th century.

====3.2 Translation of Reuchlin, Erasmus and Luther====

Johannes Reuchlin(1455-1522) aroused great academic interest in Hebrew. In 1515, he wrote Epistolae Obscurorum Virorum, exposing the narrow-mouthing ignorance of the scholars and monks, which led to a fierce debate between the reformers and conservatives in the church. At the same time, he was also very knowledgeable about translation theory. He mainly translated two works, ''Batrachom Yomachia'' (1510) and ''Septem Psalmos Poenitentiales'' (1512), using word-for-word translation. This contradicts his own remarks about translation.
However, its actual content and general principles could not be compared to those of the literal translation school in the 15th century. The literatrists of the 15th century only emphasized the imitation of certain rhetorical forms of the text, while Reuchlin understood the value of rhythm and the difference between the text and the translation. He believed that the form of the original was so closely integrated with the original that it could not be preserved in the target language. Just like Homer's works alive only in Greek, it would detract from the aesthetic value of literature when translated into any other language. The purpose of literal translation was not to ask the translator to imitate the style of the original text, but to make readers pay attention to the style of the original text and appreciate its literary value.(Tan Zaixi,2004:56)

Another outstanding representatives of a new approach to literary study and new insights into translation theory in the 16th century was Desiderius Erasmus (1466-1536), who was born in a priest's family in Rotterdam, Netherlands. His early education was influenced by The Canon of Augustine. After studying in Paris, he lived successively in Britain, Germany, Italy and Switzerland, accepting humanism and opposing scholasticism. He was knowledgeable, good at language studies, and had profound attainments in Greek and Latin literature, especially his incisive treatises on literature and style.
Erasmus advocated that the original work must be respected. Before Erasmus, the Translation of the Bible in Various European countries was in a state of confusion. Erasmus bitterly pointed out that the translation and commentary of the Bible must be faithful to the original text, because no translation can fully translate the "language of God" as the Bible itself. Early theologians did not understand Hebrew or Greek and could not understand the original text of the Bible, so the truth of the Bible was covered up, distorted, or ossified into dogma. To uncover this truth, we must go back to the source. It is truth, not authority, that should be respected. What’s more, he claimed that translator must have a rich knowledge of language. He believed that to interpret the ''New Testament'' correctly it was necessary to learn ancient Greek; Anyone who wished to pursue theological studies must first be able to read the classics and learn Greek semantics, meanings, and rhetoric. Also, he realized the great importance of style in translation and attached great importance to readers’ requirements. There is no doubt that Erasmus' translation theory is the result of his humanistic thought, his mastery of multiple languages as well as his appreciation of literary styles. His translation principles and methods have exerted great influence on both contemporary and later translators.

Martin Luther (149-146) was the founder of the European Religious Reform movement and the Protestant Church reformer. Luther translated the Bible, known as “the first bible of common people” in the history by using the people's language, which played a great role in unifying the German language and laid a foundation for the formation and development of modern German.
He also proposed that translation should adopt common people language and only appropriate free translation can bring the original enlightening thoughts of Bible into light. (Luther,1530:124) Grammatical correction and semantic coherence were of great value during translation. Translation was so challenging that it requires collective wisdom and repeatedly revisions.
Luther had also put forward seven rules for translation: the word order of the original text can be changed; modal particles can be used reasonably; necessary conjunctions can be added; words in the original text that do not have an equivalent can be omitted; phrases can be used to translate individual words; figurative usage and non-figurative usage can be changed flexibly; the accuracy of variant forms and explanations should be strengthened. Although Luther’s translation practice received a great deal of criticism, his translation of Bible his was considered to be the earliest written language in German and opened a new era in the development of modern German. It endowed him with the highest reputation and the most profound influence in Germany.(Xie Tianzhen,2009:23)

==Conclusion==
It could be seen from the above sections that one of the biggest characteristics of Western translation during the Renaissance was the parallel and independent development of the translation of western European national languages. The use of Latin, though still having some market, was a tributary in both writing and translation. Before the Renaissance, especially before the middle ages, when we talked about western translation, we mostly meant translation in Latin. Since the Renaissance, with the gradual formation and consolidation of national states and the development of national languages, western translation had turned to national languages,especially French, English and German.The translation activities in the Renaissance period were basically devoid of disciplinary consciousness, and the theories were fragmentary and unsystematic. Most of the authors were translation practitioners, and most of the theories were empirical. Thanks to the translators in these three countries who were devoted themselves to the study of translation principles and the transmission of classic works, their consistant and pain-staking efforts had pushed the translation theory to anew level and left countlessly valueable translated works.Therefore, the Renaissance could be said to be a turning point in the history of western translation. In short, the Renaissance marks that the translation of national languages has been firmly on the historical stage, and that translation practice and theory have broken away from the dark Middle Ages.It also laid a solid foundation for the contemporary translation. (Pan Wenguo,2002:23)

As can be seen from the above chapters, in the Renaissance, the greatest feature of western translation theory was the parallel and independent development of Western European national language translation. Although before the Renaissance, especially before the middle ages, when we talk about western translation, we mainly refer to Latin translation. However, since the Renaissance, with the gradual formation and consolidation of the nation-state and the development of national languages, western translation has turned to national languages, especially French, English and German.

However, we have to pay attention to the shortcomings of translation activities in the Renaissance. First, translators' translation theories are scattered and fragmented, lacking discipline consciousness and systematicness. Second, most translators are empirical, and the quality of their works is uneven.

Because the translators of these three countries are committed to the study of translation principles and the dissemination of classical works, their unremitting efforts have pushed translation theory to a new height and left countless valuable translation works. Therefore, the Renaissance can be said to be a turning point in the history of western translation. In short, the Renaissance marks that the translation of national languages has been firmly on the historical stage, and the translation practice and theory have been separated from the dark middle ages. This has also laid a solid foundation for contemporary translation. (Pan Wenguo, 2002:23) --[[User:Liu Wei|Liu Wei]] ([[User talk:Liu Wei|talk]]) 13:11, 14 December 2021 (UTC)Liu Wei

==References==
Amos, F. R. (1920). Early Theories of Translation[M]. New York: Columbia University Press.

Benjamin, Andrew. (1989). Translation and the Nature of Philosophy: A New Theory of Words[M]. London and New York: Routledge.

Catford,J.C.(1965) A Linguistic Theory of Translation[M].New York: Oxford University Press.

Dolet, Etienne. (1540). How to Translate Well from One Language to Another[M]. Robinson.

Frederick Engels. (1883) The Dialects of Nature[M]. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

Luther, Martin. (1530). Sendbrief vom Dolmetschen[M]. Stoerig.

M.A.R. Habib. (2011) Literary Criticism from Plato to the Present: An Introduction[M]. New Jersey: Wiley-Blackwell Publishing.

Munday, Jeremy. (2001). Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications[M]. London and New York: Routledge.

Pan Wenguo 潘文国.(2002) 当代西方的翻译学研究[J] Contemporary Translation Studies in the West.中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal,31-34.

Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2000). 翻译学[M] Translation Studies. 武汉：湖北教育出版社 Wuhan: Hubei Educational Press.

Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2004).西方翻译简史[M] A Short History of Translation in the West. 北京：商务印书馆 Beijing: The Commercial Press.

Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2003). 翻译研究新视野[M] New Perspective for Translation Studies. 青岛：青岛出版社 Qingdao: Qingdao Publishing.

Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2009).中西翻译简史[M] A Brief History of Translation in China and the West.北京:北京外语教学与研究出版社 Beijing:Foreign Language Teachinng and Research Press.

Xu Jun, Yuan Xiaoyi 许钧，袁筱一. (1998). 当代法国翻译理论[M] Contemporary Translation Thoery in France.南京：南京大学出版社 Nanjing: Nanjing University.

=刘薇 Contemporary American Translation History)=

Liu Wei 刘薇 Hunan Normal University, China

==Abstract==
The United States is an important part of the "West", so when we talk about the conception of "West", it is impossible not to include the United States.Therefore, this chapter combs the development of contemporary American translation by introducing a series of theories of American Translators.

The United States is an important part of the "West", so when we talk about the conception of "West", it is impossible to exclude the United States.Therefore, this chapter recapitulates the development of contemporary American translation by introducing a series of theories of American Translators. (corrected by--[[User:Zhou Junhui|Zhou Junhui]] ([[User talk:Zhou Junhui|talk]]) 08:48, 14 December 2021 (UTC))

==Key words==
translation theory of American, Eugene Nida,Robert Boogrand.

==Introduction==

In the field of translation studies, the situation in the United States is very special.Since the history of the United States itself is not long, we can not expect to talk about "ancient American translation theory", "medieval American translation theory", or even "modern American translation theory".American translation theory is mainly the "contemporary translation theory", which is developed after World War II (Guo Jianzhong, [introduction]: 2).Although the development of American translation theory is relatively short, there are still many influential translation theorists, such as Eugene Nida, Robert Boogrand, Andre Leverville, Lawrence Venudi, Edwin Gentzler and so on. They are constantly innovating and developing new theories in the field of translation.

In the field of translation studies, the situation in the United States is very special.Since the history of the United States itself is not long, we can not expect to talk about "ancient American translation theory", "medieval American translation theory", or even "modern American translation theory".American translation theory is mainly the "contemporary translation theory", which is developed after World War II (Guo Jianzhong, [introduction]: 2).Although the development of American translation theory is relatively short, there are still many influential translation theorists, such as Eugene Nida, Robert Boogrand, Andre Leverville, Lawrence Venudi, Edwin Gentzler and so on. They are constantly innovating and developing new theories in the field of translation. (corrected by --[[User:Zhou Junhui|Zhou Junhui]] ([[User talk:Zhou Junhui|talk]]) 08:48, 14 December 2021 (UTC))

==Chapter1 Characteristics of the local American translation theory ==

The development of contemporary American translation theory has three main characteristics: first, it inherits the tradition of European translation theory in terms of overall research methods;Second, the early studies were mostly influenced by the schools of American structural linguistics;Third, there is a tendency to catch up in research results.These characteristics are discussed one by one below.(Tan Zaixi,1999:237)

On the first point, the inheritance of European tradition in the overall research method of American translation theory is due to its unique language and cultural tradition.As an integral part of the whole culture, translation culture naturally presents the basic characteristics of the development of the whole culture.Since the American culture with English as the national language is mainly inherited from European culture, the development of American translation culture, as an integral part of American culture, also inherits European translation culture.Especially in the early stage of the development of American translation theory, many influential people engaged in translation studies were immigrants from Europe or descendants of recent European immigrants.

Take Thorman as an example: his translation theory work the art of translation published in 1901 is one of the earliest published works in the field of American translation theory, but the contents and discussion methods involved in the book have no obvious "American characteristics".On the contrary, it is more like a work belonging to Europe, especially the British translation tradition. Even the examples in the book are similar to the European, especially the British translation tradition.

The second characteristic of the tradition of American translation theory is that the early studies were greatly influenced by the schools of American structural linguistics, which can be said to be a more distinctive "American characteristic" in American translation studies.

American linguistic studies are at the forefront of the West in many aspects. There have been many linguistic schools, such as human language school, structuralism school, transformational generative school and so on. All kinds of schools have also had various direct or indirect effects on American translation studies.

The representative of American structuralist language school is Bloomfield. He adopts the method of behaviorism and believes that everything about language can be studied scientifically and objectively.He put forward a behaviorist semantic analysis method, which holds that meaning is the relationship between stimulus and language response.In 1950s, Chomsky's transformational generative theory replaced Bloomfield's theory and occupied the dominant position in American linguistics theory and occupied the dominant position in American linguistics.The influence of Chomsky's theory on translation studies mainly lies in his discussion of surface structure and deep structure.The concept of "deep" has led to large-scale semantic research. Because semantics is closely related to translation research, Chomsky's theory has promoted the development of translation theory in the United States and even the whole west.(Xie Tianzhen ,2003:200)

Therefore, under the influence of various linguistic theories, many people try to put forward new translation concepts and research methods. These people can be collectively referred to as the structural School of American translation theory.Among them, the main characters include Wojilin, Bolinger, Katz, Quinn and Eugene Nida.

Take Wojilin as an example. He is a human linguist.His greatest contribution is to put forward a multi-step translation method (also known as step-by-step translation method).The biggest advantage of his multi-step translation method is that the steps are clear, flexible and easy to master.

Using Chomsky's transformational generative theory, Boringer puts forward a concept of structural translation as opposed to lexical translation.Based on structural linguistics, Katz makes a profound analysis of the translatability of language and the philosophical problems in language and translation.Based on the discussion of strange language, Quinn expounds some basic problems of translation from the perspective of philosophy, which has aroused great repercussions in the field of western translation theory.(Tan Zaixi,1999:250)

The third characteristic of the development of American translation theory is that it has a tendency to catch up with others in research results.One of the most prominent scholars is Eugene Nida. Although he is an outstanding linguist, his views on "translation is science", "translation is communication", "translation must pay attention to reader response" and other aspects are an innovation and breakthrough to the previous views. In addition, after Eugene Nida, many scholars have put forward many new views because of their existence,It was only after World War II that American translation theory continued to catch up.

Therefore, we will focus on him in the next chapter.

On the first point, the inheritance of European tradition in the overall research method of American translation theory is due to its unique language and cultural tradition.As an integral part of the whole culture, translation culture naturally presents the basic characteristics of the development of the whole culture.Since the American culture with English as the national language is mainly inherited from European culture, the development of American translation culture, as an integral part of American culture, also inherits European translation culture.Especially in the early stage of the development of American translation theory, many influential people engaged in translation studies were immigrants from Europe or descendants of recent European immigrants.(corrected by --[[User:Zhou Junhui|Zhou Junhui]] ([[User talk:Zhou Junhui|talk]]) 08:48, 14 December 2021 (UTC))

==Chapter2 Eugene Nida's translation theory==

Eugene Albert Nida (1914 -) was born in Oklahoma City in the south central United States. He graduated from the University of California, Los Angeles in 1936. In 1943, he worked in Bloomfield and fries (Charles fries received his doctorate in linguistics under the guidance of two famous scholars. As the leading translation theory figure in contemporary America, Nida has also engaged in research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology and communication engineering. Before his retirement in the 1980s, he worked in the Translation Department of the American Holy Bible Association and served as the executive secretary of the translation department for a long time. He is mainly engaged in the Bible Organization of translation and revision of translations and the Bible Training and theoretical guidance for translators. He is proficient in many languages and has investigated and studied more than 100 languages, especially some small languages in Africa and Latin America. In 1968, he served as the president of the American language society. Although he does not take teaching as his career, he has extremely rich experience in Translation training and lecturing. In addition to a long-term part-time job, he speaks linguistics in the famous American summer In addition to teaching linguistics and translation courses in the Institute, he also served as a guest lecturer and professor in many American universities. He was often invited to give short-term lectures in Europe, Latin America, Africa and Asia, and won several honorary doctorates. In order to recognize his contribution to translation research, especially in the field of Bible translation research, the American Bible Association named the Institute after him in 2001 In particular, Nida has deep feelings for China. Since 1982, he has been invited to give lectures in China more than ten times, and has maintained close academic contacts and exchanges with many schools and academic colleagues in China for a long time.(Tan Zaixi,2000:247)

Nida is a prolific language and translation theorist. From 1945 to 2004, he published more than 200 articles and more than 40 works (including works cooperated and edited with others). Among them, there are more than 20 works on language and translation theory, and a collection of papers has been published.

His research achievements include "Toward a Science of Translating" published in 1964, "The Theory and Practice of Translation" Co authored with Charles Taber in 1969, "Com ponential Analysis of Meaning " published in 1975 and "language structure and Translation" . Nida's anthology "Language Structure and Translation : Essays by Eugene A. Nida，ed. by Anwar S. Dil" , "From One Language to Another" , co authored with de warrd in 1986, "The Sociolinguistics of Interlingual Communication" , published in 1996 and published in 2001 "Language and Culture :Contertsin Translating" .(Xie Tianzhen.2003:212)

Throughout Nida's translation thought, we can divide it into three main development stages: the linguistic stage with obvious American structuralism in the early stage, the stage of translation science and translation communication in the middle stage, and the stage of social semiotics.

The first major stage is the linguistic stage, from 1943 when he wrote his doctoral thesis "a summary of English syntax" to 1959 when he published "principles of translation from biblical translation".At this stage, he tries to clarify the structural nature of language through the description of syntax, morphology and language translation.In his early days, he was greatly influenced by American structuralist Bloomfield and human linguist Sapir, and paid attention to the collection and analysis of language materials in language research.Through the opportunity to visit and contact different languages all over the world, many examples of speech differences are collected.However, he does not regard speech differences as insurmountable obstacles between languages, but as different phenomena of the same essence.

The second development stage of Nida's translation thought is the stage of translation science and translation communication. It took 10 years from the publication of "principles of translation from biblical translation" in 1959 to the publication of "translation theory and practice" in 1969.The research achievements at this stage have played a key role in establishing Nida's authoritative position in the whole western translation theory circle.
By summarizing this main development period, the main contents of the following five aspects can be summarized:

（一）Translation science.Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill, but also a science.The so-called science here means that translation problems can be handled by "scientific approaches to language structure, semantic analysis and information theory", that is, a linguistic and descriptive method can be adopted to explain the translation process.If the principles and procedures of translation seem to be normative, it is only because they are generally considered to be the most useful in a specific scope of translation.Nida's view that "translation is science" has had great repercussions in the field of western linguistics and translation theory.

（二） Translation communication theory. Nida applies communication theory and information theory to translation studies and holds that translation is communication. After World War II, not only advertisers, politicians and businessmen attached great importance to the intelligibility of language, but also scholars, writers, editors, publishers and translators realized that any information would be worthless if it could not play a communicative role. Therefore, to judge whether a translation is successful, we must first see whether it can be immediately understood by the recipient and whether it can play a role in the communication of ideas, information and feelings. Therefore, in the field of translation research, various names and statements such as "communicative translation", "functional translation" and related "equal response theory", "equal effect theory", "equal role theory" and "equal power theory" have sprung up one after another. Nida's "translation is communication" and his "reader response theory" and "dynamic equivalence" discussed below“ "Functional equivalence" has become an important representative of the communicative school in the field of western translation studies.

Nida's theory of "translation is communication" is based on the theory of language commonality. Nida, like Jacobson, believes that all languages in the world have the same expression ability, which can enable native speakers of the language to express ideas, describe the world and carry out social communication. His argument is based on the same "identity" For example, in countries with relatively developed productive forces, many scientific and technological words will appear in their languages, while in countries with less developed or very low productive forces, there may be a lack of scientific and technological words in their languages. However, this does not mean that the latter has the same expressive ability as the former, but only shows that people have different requirements for languages in different languages, It is not because the language cannot produce scientific and technological vocabulary, but because the speakers of the language do not have or temporarily do not have the requirement to use scientific and technological vocabulary. Once there is such a requirement, there will be corresponding vocabulary in the language, or "native" scientific and technological vocabulary, or "foreign" vocabulary transplanted from foreign words. In short, the expression efficiency of various languages is the same.

Nida believes that the primary task of translation is to make it clear to the readers at a glance after reading the translation. That is to say, the translation should be fluent and natural, and the readers can understand it without the knowledge of the cultural background of the source language. This requires that rigid foreign words should be used as little as possible in translation, and expressions belonging to the receiving language should be used as much as possible. For example, in a Sudanese language, for If the expression "repent and reform" is translated directly, it will make people feel at a loss, and it should be translated into the local familiar "spitting on the ground in front of someone". For example, in the language without "Snow", white as snow may be puzzling, but it should be said "white as frost" or "white as egret hair" Another example is that in the ancient West, the habit of people meeting and greeting each other was "sacred kiss", but now it should become "very warm handshake".(Nida·Eugene,1996:234）

In a sense, the theory of translation communication is not only one of the main symbols of Nida's second development stage of translation thought, but also one of the biggest characteristics of his whole ideological system.Especially after the publication of translation theory and practice, Nida's translation communication theory has had a great impact on the western translation circles, including those in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union.

（三） Dynamic equivalence theory.The so-called dynamic equivalence translation is actually translation under the guidance of translation communication theory. Specifically, it refers to "reproducing the source language information with the closest (original) natural equivalence in the receiving language from semantics to style".In this definition, there are three key points: one is "nature", which means that the translation cannot have a translation cavity;The second is "close", which refers to selecting the translation with the closest meaning to the original text on the basis of "nature";The third is "equivalence", which is the core.Both "nature" and "close" serve to find equivalents.

（四） Translation function theory.From the perspective of sociolinguistics and language communicative function, Nida believes that translation must serve the reader.To judge whether a translation is correct or not, we must take the reader's response as the criterion.If the response of the target readers is basically the same as that of the original readers, the translation can be considered successful.

（五） Four step model.This refers to the translation process.Nida puts forward that the process of translation is: analysis, transfer (transfer the meaning obtained from the analysis from the source language to the receiving language), reorganization (reorganize the translation according to the rules of the receiving language), and inspection (detect the target text against the source text).Among these four steps, "analysis" is the most complex and key, which is the focus of Nida's translation research.The focus of the analysis is semantics. He distinguishes four parts of speech from the perspective of semantics: object words, activity words, abstract words and relational words.In semantic analysis, he introduced three methods: linear analysis, hierarchical analysis and component analysis.In the specific analysis of semantics, he focuses on grammatical meaning, referential meaning and connotative meaning (or emotional meaning and associative meaning).These distinction theories are of great significance to understand his translation thought.

Nida's research achievements in the 1980s can be regarded as the third stage of translation thought.He has made a series of modifications and supplements to his translation theory.He did not completely abandon the theory of the original communicative school, but further developed on the original basis and incorporated the useful elements of the original theory into a new model, which is the social semiotics model in the third development stage translation thought.

Compared with previous works, Eugene Nida has the following four changes and developments in from one language to another: first, based on the translation theory of social semiotics, he emphasizes that everything in the text has meaning, including speech form, so form cannot be easily sacrificed.That is to say, form is also meaningful. Sacrificing form means sacrificing meaning.Secondly, it points out that the rhetorical features of language play an important role in language communication, so we must pay attention to these features in translation.Third, the theory of "dynamic equivalence" is no longer used, but replaced by "functional equivalence", which is intended to make the meaning of the term clearer and easier to understand.Fourth, instead of using the distinction of grammatical meaning, referential meaning and associative meaning, meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, and all kinds of meaning are divided into referential meaning and associative meaning.From the whole historical process of the development of translation theory, it should be said that these changes are basically positive.(Nida·Eugene,1996:222）

Of course, his theory and works are not perfect.First, his theory focuses too much on solving the problems of communicative and intelligibility of translation, so its scope of application is limited.It is natural to emphasize the intelligibility of the translation in the field of Bible translation, but if the intelligibility of the translation is always put in the first place in the translation of secular literary works, it will inevitably lead to the simplification and even non literariness of the translated language.

Second, he no longer completely negates "formal correspondence", but believes that the expression form of the original text cannot be broken at will in translation.In order to expand the scope of application of his theory, he also added rhetoric.However, despite his amendments, he failed to elaborate more deeply on his new views.

Thirdly, Eugene Nida once put forward the proposition that "translation is science", and then basically abandoned this proposition.Whether he put forward or gave up, he did not put forward sufficient and convincing arguments, which can not be said to be a major defect.

Of course, Nida's theory and works are not perfect. Firstly, his theory focuses too much on solving the problems of communicative and intelligibility of translation, so its scope of application is limited. It is natural to emphasize the intelligibility of the translation in the field of Bible translation, but if the intelligibility of the translation is always put in the first place in the translation of secular literary works, it will inevitably lead to the simplification and even non literariness of the translated language. Newmark, a British translation theorist, once pointed out: "if we delete all the metaphors in the Bible that Doneda believes readers cannot understand, it will inevitably lead to a large loss of meaning." . an important feature of literary works is that they use more metaphorical and novel language. The author's real intention may have to taste and capture between the lines. If all the metaphorical images in the original work are deleted and all the associative meanings are clearly stated, the result will be that the translation is easy to understand, but it is dull and can't reach To the purpose of literature. In recent years, Nida has become more and more aware of this, and has constantly revised and improved some of his past views. For example, he later no longer focused on the intelligibility of the translation, but advocated a "three nature principle", that is, the principle of paying equal attention to comprehensibility, readability and acceptability. In addition, he no longer completely denied "formal correspondence" In order to expand the scope of application of his theory, he especially added rhetoric. However, despite Nida's amendments, he failed to make a more profound exposition of his new views; he was only aware of the existence of the problem rather than successfully solving the relevant problems Besides, Nida once put forward the proposition that "translation is science", and then basically gave up this proposition. Whether he put forward or gave up, he did not put forward sufficient and convincing arguments, which is a major defect.

Of course, flaws do not hide the jade. Looking at Nida's lifelong contributions, he is one of the most outstanding theoretical figures in the field of contemporary translation studies in the United States and even the whole west. The historical theory of the development of western translation theory should give him a heavy pen.(Tan Zaixi,2000:257)

==Chapter3 Robert Boogrand's translation theory==

Since the 1970s, more voices outside the structural language school and the communicative school have gradually emerged in the field of translation studies in the United States, especially the voice of discourse linguistics theory and discourse analysis represented by Robert Boogrand.
Boogrand teaches in the English Department of the University of Florida and is engaged in the study of literary discourse rhetoric and grammatical structure.In 1978, he published a book called "elements of translation theory of poetry"), which was listed as one of the Translation Studies Series edited by Holmes and attracted extensive attention.(Xie Tianzhen,2003:56)

Boogrand's view is: 1. The unit of translation is not a single word or sentence, but the whole text.2. Translation is a process of interaction among authors, translators and readers.3. What is worth studying is not the characteristics of the article itself, but the skills of language use reflected in these characteristics.

After the publication of the above translation theory works guided by the thought of discourse linguistics in 1978, Boogrand continued to engage in the research of language and translation along the same line, and more than ten relevant works (including Works CO authored and co edited with others) have been published successively, mainly including discourse, discourse and process: multidisciplinary discourse science exploration Linguistic Theory: Discourse of basic works, introduction to discourse linguistics, language discourse, Western and Middle East translation Boogrand has always expounded language and translation from the perspective of discourse linguistics, thus establishing his important position as the leader of discourse linguistics in the field of British and American translation studies. Boogrand's contribution as one of the pioneers of discourse analysis and discourse linguistics in translation studies is very important and worthy of full recognition.(Tan Zaixi,2000:256)

==Chapter4 Andre Lefevere's translation theory==

With the development of the times, translation studies in the United States, like other parts of the west, have been continuously improved in theoretical depth. By the 1990s, the focus of theorists' discussion on translation has gradually separated from the previous specific translation processes and methods, and turned more to the fundamental nature of translation, translation and ideology, translation and culture. This chapter introduces Andre Leverville's translation theory.
Andre Leverville, a professor of translation and comparative literature at the University of Texas at Austin, originally from Belgium, is a very important theoretical figure in the field of Contemporary Western comparative literature and translation research. We can discuss his main ideas from the following two aspects.(Tan Zaixi,2000:276)

(一)The cultural turn in translation studies. It is a common feature of all cultural schools to turn the focus of translation studies from the language structure and language form correspondence that language schools are most concerned about to the meaning and function of the target text and the source text in their respective cultural systems. He believes that any literature must survive in a certain social and cultural environment, and its meaning and value Value, as well as its interpretation and acceptance, will always be affected and restricted by a series of interrelated and mutually referenced factors, including both internal and external factors of literature. Therefore, as far as translation research is concerned, the goal of the research is far from limited to exploring the equivalence or equivalence of the two texts in language forms, but to explore at the same time.Study various cultural issues directly or indirectly related to translation activities.

（二） The concept of manipulation in translation. When talking about and describing the basic characteristics of the cultural school, we often can not do without using the word "manipulation". Here, "manipulation"It is not emotional, but a special term representing the concept of neutrality. According to the translation operation of Andre Leverville and others, the core meaning is that in the process of processing the source text and generating the target text, the translator has the right and will rewrite the text in order to achieve a certain purpose. Andre Leverville believes that translation is a reflection of the image of the text.Other literary forms such as literary criticism, biography, literary history, drama, film, fiction and so on are also the rewriting of the text image, and rewriting is the manipulation of the text.

（三） Obviously, the manipulative rewriting in Lefevere and his cultural school theory is not simply equivalent to "Rewriting" in the general sense, because in his view, all translation is rewriting, even the "most faithful"Translation is also a form of rewriting. As a translation manipulator, this rewriting or manipulation should be regarded as a cultural necessity in essence. In the process of translation, the translator is bound to be affected and restricted by various social and cultural factors. In addition to considering all the characteristics related to the source text, such as the original author's intention, the context of the source text and so on, the more important thing is toIt is necessary to consider a series of factors related to the target or receiving culture, such as the purpose of translation, the function of the target text, the expectations and reactions of readers, the requirements of clients and sponsors, and the review of the publishing and distribution organization of the work. The existence of these factors and the degree of constraints imposed by the translator on them vary from person to person constitute the inevitable "manipulation" condition of the translator on the text.(Lefevere·André,1980:100).

For "manipulation" in this sense, we can not judge it by moral value words such as "legitimate" or "improper", but only by the "appropriateness" criteria such as whether the target text has achieved the purpose of translation, whether it meets the expectations of the audience, and whether it can be accepted by the accepted culture.

==Chapter5 Lawrence Venudi's translation theory==

It is precisely because the cultural school or manipulation school, and even the polysystem school, in translation studies have established a relationship with the theory of domestication and Foreignization in translation, that a new group of scholars and viewpoints have emerged. In the field of American translation studies, Lawrence Wenudi is the most vocal theoretical figure on the issues of "domestication" and "Foreignization".
As an English professor at Temple University in Philadelphia, winudi is one of the most active and influential figures in the field of American translation theory since the 1990s. Winudi belongs to the deconstruction school in translation studies, that is, what genzler calls the "post structuralism school"In his works on translation studies, Venuti advocates that literary translation should not aim at eliminating alien features, but should try to show cultural differences in the target text.(Tan Zaixi,2000:278)

Venuti's main view is that it is wrong to require the translator to be invisible in translation; the translator should not be invisible in the translation, but should be visible. That is to say, translation should adopt the principle and strategy of "alienation" to keep the translation exotic and exotic, and read like the translation, rather than "domestication"So that the translation can be transformed completely in accordance with the ideology and creative norms of the target culture. It doesn't read like foreign works, but the original of the target language.(Xie Tianzhen,2003:278).

However, translation has never been carried out in an unaffected way. Foreignization translation and domestication translation are actually the products of translation activities affected. From the perspective of translation ethics, it is difficult to assert which is good or which is bad, because translation reality shows that the two play irreplaceable roles in the target language and culture and complete their respective missions.Therefore, the two kinds of translation will always coexist and complement each other.(Tan Zaixi,2000:279)

==Chapter6 Edwin Gensler's translation theory==

Edwin Genzler is the director of the translation center of Amherst University of Massachusetts, doctor of comparative literature and professor of translation. His famous translation work is contemporary translation theory published in 1993 and reprinted in 2001.(Xie Tianzhen,2003:290).

Genzler's contribution to translation theory is mainly reflected in the following three aspects:
First, it comprehensively combs the contemporary western translation theories, so as to clarify people's understanding of various western translation theory schools since World War II, and thus arouse the research interest in all kinds of contemporary western translation theories in the field of translation studies (including China's Translation Studies).In contemporary translation theory, Genzler studies translation from different perspectives such as scientific theory, polysystem theory and deconstruction. By exploring the "political reality" outside translation (literary translation practice), he outlines the outline of contemporary western translation research and guides readers to rethink a series of theoretical issues such as the definition and classification of translation.(Tan Zaixi,2000:300)

Secondly, on the basis of comprehensively and systematically combing various contemporary western translation thoughts and theories, Genzler puts forward a multi-channel cooperative translation research view of "fair treatment of all systems".He believes that contemporary translation theory, like literary theory, originates from structuralist theory.All these structuralist or post structuralist theories have been confined to their respective academic circles for a long time.Various schools have very special requirements for the terms used in this system, and the terms are limited;Their pursuit of "correctness" or "objectivity" of theory tends to be one-sided, and they all try to gain universal recognition in the academic circles at the expense of other perspectives.The result is only the continuous conflict between theories, but there is no due cooperation and exchange between theories, which leads to the marginalization of academic research.(Xie Tianzhen,2003:293)

Thirdly, Genzler puts forward a post structuralist interpretation model of the essence of translation.In translation, post structuralism and power, he analyzes the deconstruction (post structuralism) thoughts of Derrida, Spivak and others, as well as the translation thoughts of translation theorists such as Wenudi, Levin and Robinson under the influence of their deconstruction thoughts, and points out that the new translation interpretation model can no longer follow the past tradition and simply define translation as"The transformation from a single language to another single language", but it should be regarded as the transformation between a multicultural form environment and another equally multicultural form environment.

==Conclusion==

In addition to the above-mentioned important theoretical figures in the field of contemporary American translation studies, many others, such as Roberto Tradu, Daniel Shaw, Burton Raphael and so on, have also made achievements in translation theory. However, due to space constraints, they cannot be discussed in detail here.

Generally speaking, due to the historical origin and the influence of the subject's immigrant culture, the initial development of American translation studies depends on the inheritance and promotion of the tradition of European translation theory. With the evolution of the times, American translation studies catch up with each other in many aspects with rapid development and fruitful achievements, and walk in the forefront of western translation studies, becoming the driving force of contemporary western translation theory. On an important force for forward development.(Tan Zaixi,2000:301)

In addition to the above-mentioned important theoretical figures in the field of contemporary American translation studies, many others, such as Roberto Tradu, Daniel Shaw, Burton Raphael and so on, have also made achievements in translation theory. However, due to space constraints, they cannot be discussed in detail here.

Generally speaking, due to the historical origin and the influence of the subject's immigrant culture, the initial development of American translation studies depends on the inheritance and promotion of the tradition of European translation theory. With the evolution of the times, American translation studies catch up with each other in many aspects with rapid development and fruitful achievements, and walk in the forefront of western translation studies, becoming the driving force of contemporary western translation theory. On an important force for forward development.(corrected by--[[User:Zhou Junhui|Zhou Junhui]] ([[User talk:Zhou Junhui|talk]]) 08:48, 14 December 2021 (UTC))

==reference==

Lefevere·André. (1980). Translating literature [M]. New York:Clarendon Press.

Newmark·Peter. （1978）.The theory and the craft of translation [M].London:Rountledge Press.

Nida·Eugene.（1996）.The Sociolinguistics of Interlingual Communication [M]. Brussels:Editions du Hazard.

Katz·Jerrold J. （1966）.The Philosophy of Language [M]. New York:Harper and Row.

Pound，E. 1917. Notes on Elizabethan classicists [M]. New York:Clarendon Press.

Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (1999).《新编奈达论翻译》[M] New Nida on Translation. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司 Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.

Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2000).《翻译学》[M] Translatology. 武汉:湖北教育出版社 Wuhan: Hubei Education Press.

Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2003).《翻译研究新视野》[M].New perspectives in Translation Studies. 青岛:青岛出版社 Qingdao: Qingdao Press.

中国对外翻译出版公司（编).(1983).《翻译理论与翻译技巧论文集》[M].Collection of Papers on Translation Theory and Translation Skills. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.

中国对外翻译出版公司（编).(1983).《国外翻译理论评介文集》[M].A Review of Foreign Translation Theories. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司 Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.

--[[User:Liu Wei|Liu Wei]] ([[User talk:Liu Wei|talk]]) 16:11, 8 December 2021 (UTC)Liu Wei

=周俊辉Translation of Science and Technology in Late Qing Dynasty and Early Republic of China=
[[Hist_Trans_EN_10]]

=周玖Translation of Science and Technology in Ancient China=
[[Hist_Trans_EN_11]]

=钟雨露Western Translation History in the Old Ages=
[[Hist_Trans_EN_12]]

=钟义菲: The Chinese Translation History in Mordern Age=
[[Hist_Trans_EN_13]]

=魏楚璇: Western translation history in the Modern and Contemporary Ages=
[[Hist_Trans_EN_14]]

=Chapter 15Mahzad Heydarian: Where Persian Language Meets Translation=
[[Hist_Trans_EN_15]]

Mahzad Sadat Heydarian,Hunan Normal University,China

=Akira Jantarat： History of Chinese-Thai literature Translation in 19th century=
[[Hist_Trans_EN_16]]

=Jawad Ahmad; History of Translation=

[[Hist_Trans_EN_17]]

=Benjamin Wellsand; Bible Translation in Christian History=

[[Hist_Trans_EN_18]]

History of Translations

2021-12-15T04:57:36Z

Li Xichang: /* Bible Translation from Different Perspectives */

[[History_of_Translations|Overview Page of History of Translation]]

30 Chapters（0/30)

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[[Book_projects|Back to translation project overview]] [[DCG-To-Do|Zur To-Do-Liste]]

=chapter 1 Rouabah Soumaya: History of translation in the Middle Ages=
[[Hist_Trans_EN_1]]
== Abstract==
The history of translation is seen variously as examining the role of translation in historical episodes through decades or investigating the phenomenon or understanding of translation itself historically. These different historiographical perspectives involve potentially different research aims, approaches, concepts, methods and scholarly interlocutors. The paper focuses on this question of disciplinary commensurability in historical studies, and draws parallels between the history of translation and translation in the middle ages. Themes addressed include the bible translation as , established historiographical norms and alternative, interdisciplinary approaches. It is argued that both the history of translation started with the translation of the Bible in the early BC comes, towards a reflexive, transnational history that seeks productive modes of engagement with other historical disciplines. By bringing to the attention of translation scholars some of the key debates in the history of translation and by identifying commonalities, this paper hopes to present an overall view of translation in the middle ages with slight knowledge of Bible translation in the early centuries of the middle ages, which starts from th5 to the 15 century.

== Keywords==
History of Translation , Bible Translation, Translation in the Middle Ages
medieval translation, medieval translator, translation and culture

== Introduction ==
This paper aims at a general review of the history of translation studies and the prevalent approaches from antiquity to the present in the west, in the form of a historical survey in which key theoretical developments are taken into account, focusing on approaches that have been developed during the twentieth century. Without a doubt, It is James Holme's seminal paper "the name and nature of translation studies" that draws up a disciplinary map for translation studies and serves as a springboard for researchers with its binary division of Translation Studies into two branches: "pure" and "applied." Its growth as a discipline goes back to the 1980s. As time elapses, translation studies, by achieving a certain institutional authority and coalescing with many a resurging disciplines and trends as cultural studies, linguistics, literary theory and criticism, brings a renewed aspect to translation theory.

In addition, this paper argues that English medieval translation can be considered as part of a cultural project in that the medieval translator is concerned more with the role and the function of translation in the target culture. Medieval translation theory derives from the classical theories of translation, however, prefaces to translations indicate that medieval translator appropriates the classical translation theory and uses it to serve the cultural and ideological objectives of translation in the middle Ages.

Key words: medieval translation, medieval translator, translation and culture, translation theory.
The pioneering work of Jeannette Beer and Roger Ellis has decidedly promoted medieval translation as a significant area, and has established medieval translation as the work of culturally responsible, academically oriented people of learning.

1 Susan
* Assist. Prof. Dr., Hacettepe University, Department of English Language and Literature
1 The problematic situation of Medieval translation in the academia is discussed by Ruth Evans in "Translating
Past Cultures?" in The Medieval Translator /Vied. Roger Ellis and Ruth Evans, the University of Exeter Press,
Medieval Translation and Cultural Transformation

== Early History of Translation==
The word ‘translation’ comes from a Latin term which means, “To bring or carry across”. Another relevant term comes from the Ancient Greek word of ‘metaphrasis’ which means, “To speak across” and from this, the term ‘metaphrase’ was born, which means a “word-for-word translation”. These terms have been at the heart of theories relating to translation throughout history and have given insight into when and where translation have been used throughout the ages.

It is known that translation was carried out as early as the Mesopotamian era when the Sumerian poem, Gilgamesh, was translated into Asian languages. This dates back to around the second millennium BC. Other ancient translated works include those carried out by Buddhist monks who translated Indian documents into Chinese. In later periods, Ancient Greek texts were also translated by Roman poets and were adapted to create developed literary works for entertainment. It is known that translation services were utilised in Rome by Cicero and Horace and that these uses were continued through to the 17th century, where newer practices were developed.

The history of translation has been a topic that has long been debated by scholars and historians, though it is widely accepted that translation pre-dates the bible. The bible tells of different languages as well as giving insight to the interaction of speakers from different areas. The need for translation has been apparent since the earliest days of human interaction, whether it be for emotional, trade or survival purposes.

The demand for translation services has continued to develop and is now more vital than ever, with businesses acknowledging the inability to expand internationally or succeed in penetrating foreign markets without translating marketing material and business documents.

It is significant to review the history of translation in different languages. There are divisions of period made by scholars like George Steiner. According to Steiner, the history of translation is divided into four periods. Starting from the Roman translators Cicero and Horace to Alexander Fraser Tytler is the first period; the second period extends up to Valery and from Valery to 1960s becomes the third period and the fourth period 1960s onwards. The history of translation is stressed out from 3000 B.C. Rosetta Stone is considered the most ancient work of Translation belonged to the second century B.C. Livius Andronicus translated Homer’s Odyssey named Odusia into Latin in 240 B.C. All that survives is parts of 46 scattered lines from 17 books of the Greek 24-book epic. In some lines, he translates literally, though in others more freely. His translation of the Odyssey had a great historical importance. Before then, the Mesopotamians and Egyptians had translated judicial and religious texts, but no one had yet translated a literary work written in a foreign language until the Roman Empire. Livius’ translation made this fundamental Greek text accessible to Romans, and advanced literary culture in Latin. This project was one of the best examples of translation as artistic process. The work was to be enjoyed on its own, and Livius strove to preserve the artistic quality of original. Since there was no tradition of epic in Italy before him, Livius must have faced enormous problems. For example, he used archaizing forms to make his language more solemn and intense. Barnstone Willis. The Poetics of Translation: History, Theory and Practice. London: Yale University Press, 1993. Print. Bassnett, Susan and Lefevere, Andre (Eds.). Translation, History and Culture. London: Pinter, 1990. Print.

When we talk about the history of translation, we should think of the theories and names that e merged at its different periods. In fact, each era is characterized by specific changes in translation history, but these changes differ from one place to another. For example, the developments of translation in the western world are not the same as those in the Arab world, as each nation knew particular incidents that led to the birth of particular theories. So, what marked the western translation? .By Marouane Zakhir English translator University of Soultan Moulay Slimane, Morocco

== Translation in the Western World==
For centuries, people believed in the relation between translation and the story of the tower of Babel in the Book of Genesis. According to the Bible, the descendants of Noah decided, after the great flood, to settle down in a plain in the land of Shinar. There, they committed a great sin. Instead of setting up a society that fits God's will, they decided to challenge His authority and build a tower that could reach Heaven. However, this plan was not completed, as God, recognizing their wish, regained control over them through a linguistic stratagem. He caused them to speak different languages so as not to understand each other. Then, he scattered them all over the earth. After that incident, the number of languages increased through diversion, and people started to look for ways to communicate, hence the birth of translation (Abdessalam Benabdelali, 2006) (1).

Actually, with the birth of translation studies and the increase of research in the domain, people started to get away from this story of Babel, and they began to look for specific dates and figures that mark the periods of translation history.

Researchers mention that writings on translation go back to the Romans. Eric Jacobson claims that translating is a Roman invention (see McGuire: 1980) (2). Cicero and Horace (first century BC) were the first theorists who distinguished between word-for-word translation and sense-for-sense translation. Their comments on translation practice influenced the following generations of translation up to the twentieth century.

Another period that knew a changing step in translation development was marked by St Jerome (fourth century CE). "His approach to translating the Greek Septuagint Bible into Latin would affect later translations of the scriptures." (Munday, 2001) (3)

The first important translation in the West was that of the Septuagint, a collection of Jewish Scriptures translated into early Koine Greek in Alexandria between the 3rd and "1st centuries B C E The dispersed Jews had forgotten their ancestral language and Throughout the .middle Ages, /Latin was the lingua franca of the western learned world. -Wikipedia .org/wiki/

The 9th1century Alfred the Great, king of Wessex in England, was far ahead of his time in commissioning 'vernacular Anglo -Saxon translations of Bede’s Ecclesiastical History and Boethius « Consolation of Philosophy ) meanwhile, the Christian church frowned on even partial adaptations of St . Jerome ‘s Vulgate of CA 384 CE, the Latin Bible . -Wikipedia .org/wiki/

The broad historic trends in Western translation practice may be illustrated on the example of translation into the English language .

The first fine translations into English were made in the "the century by Geoffrey Chaucer, who adapted from the Italian of Giovanni Boccaccio in his own Knight's Tal e and Troilus and Criseyde ; began a translation of the French -language Roman de la Rose 7 and completed a translation of Boethius from the Latin . Chaucer bounded an English poetic tradition on adaptations and translations from those earlier established literary languages . -Wikipedia .org/wiki/

The first great English translation was the Wycliffe (CA 1382), which showed the weaknesses of an under developed English prose . only at the end of the "15th century did the great age to English prose translation begin with Thomas Malory ‘s "le Morte D arthur”- Ban adaptation of Arthurian romances so free that it can, in fact, hardly be called a true translation . The first great Tudor translations are, accordingly, the Tyndale new Testament ( 1525), which influenced the Authorized Version (1611), and Lord Berners version of jean Froissart’s Chronicles ( 1523- 25) . - Wikipedia .org/wiki/

== History of Translation in the Middle Ages==
In the history of Europe, the middle Ages or medieval period lasted approximately from the Fifth to the late 15th centuries, similarly to the Post-classical period of global history. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and transitioned into the Renaissance and the Age of Discovery. The middle Ages is the middle period of the three traditional divisions of Western history: classical antiquity, the medieval period, and the modern period. The medieval period is itself subdivided into the Early, High, and Late Middle Ages.

This article is about medieval Europe. For a global history of the period between the 5th and 15th centuries, see Post-classical history. For other uses, see middle Ages (disambiguation).

"Medieval times" redirects here. For the dinner theatre, see Medieval Times.

Latin was the lingua franca of the Western learned world throughout the middle Ages, with few translations of Latin works into vernacular languages. In the 9th century, Alfred the Great, King of Wessex in England, was far ahead of his time in commissioning vernacular translations from Latin into English of Bede’s “Ecclesiastical History”and Boethius's “The Consolation of Philosophy”, which contributed to improve the underdeveloped English prose of that time.

It is argued that the knowledge and findings of Greek academics was developed and understood so widely thanks to the translation work of Arabic scholars. When the Greeks were conquered, Arabic scholars, who translated them and created their own versions of the scientific, entertainment and philosophical understandings took in their works. These Arabic versions were later translated into Latin, during the middle Ages, mostly throughout Spain and the resulting works provided the foundations of Renaissance academics.

Medieval times in human history – also referred to as the “Middles Ages” – was the time period that fell roughly between the fall of the Roman Empire in 476 CE and the 14th century. However, these years bear another moniker as well: the Dark Ages. There are valid reasons for that term. In the eyes of many historians, people during this age made little to no significant advancements that benefitted humankind. In addition, most notably, this was the period when the “Black Death” (the bubonic plague) killed an estimated 30 percent of the population of Europe.

However, the middle Ages were not completely “dark.” In fact, modern historians are taking a second look at this period with a more objective – and perhaps more generous – perspective. There is no doubt, for example, that religion flourished during this time. The Catholic Church came to prominence throughout Europe, and the rise of Islam was occurring simultaneously in the Middle East. It was there – particularly in urban centres such a Baghdad, Damascus and Cairo – that an extremely vibrant culture and intellectual society thrived.

The art of translation also made great strides during the middle Ages. Thanks to Alfred the Great (the king of England during the 9th century), The Consolation of Philosophy by Boethius and Ecclesiastical History by Bede were translated from Latin to English – a major feat that would have a great impact on the overall advancement of English prose during this period. Later, during the 12th and 13th centuries, the Toledo School of Translators (“Escuela de Traductores de Toledo”) worked on a wide variety of translations, including religious, scientific, philosophical and medical works. The original texts were created in Arabic, Hebrew and Greek, and all were translated into Castilian – and that formed the basis for the formation of the Spanish language. Also during the 13th century, English linguist Roger Bacon postulated the concept that a translator not only needed to be fully fluent in both the source and target languages of the work being translated, but also that a translator should be fully versed in the topic of the work to be translated – a tenet that still holds true in the language arts to this day.

One of the most notable translators during the middle Ages was also one of the most accomplished authors and poets – Geoffrey Chaucer. In fact, those historians who still maintain that the Dark Ages produced little to no significant contributions to humankind might do well to remember the works of Chaucer. In a lifetime that spanned some 60 years (from the 1340s until 1400), Chaucer earned the reputation as the “father of English literature.” However, that description only scratched the surface of Chaucer’s accomplishments. He was also a noted astronomer and philosopher, as well as a diplomat, bureaucrat and parliament member. Chaucer’s contributions to the language arts were no less significant; his use of Middle English (as opposed to Latin or French, which were the two most commonly used languages of the day) quite literally brought English into mainstream usage, as did his translations of numerous works from Italian, French and Latin into English.

It can truly be said that historians have given medieval times somewhat of a bad rap over the centuries. And while there’s no doubt that the accomplishments of linguists and others during the Middle Ages can’t come close to comparing with those of the Renaissance or later time periods, the contributions made during the “Dark Ages” should not be overlooked. In fact, from a linguistic point of view, this was an extremely crucial time. Not only were the basic principles of translation developed during the middle Ages, but also English itself began to take shape as a language of import for future years.

Studies on the theory and practice of medieval translation reveal therefore that the translation principles and the issues of translation theory in the Middle Ages derive from a long established tradition of translation theory developed by the classical authors. In practice, Roger Ellis states, medieval translation is heterogeneous; "every instance of practice that we may be tempted to erect into a principle has its answering opposite, sometimes in the same work (quoted in Evans, 1994: 27). Evidently, not only the critical approaches to translation in the Middle Ages but also theory and practice of translation of the period vary considerably. However, it seems that medieval translation utilises the translation and writing theories inherited from the classical authors to adopt a translational approach that recognises translation's vital role in the cultural transformation of the middle Ages. Page 96

This paper argues therefore that the medieval interest in translation can be considered as a cultural and political interest since the 1994. pp. 20-45. See Jeanette Beer, Medieval Translators and Their Craft.1989 and Roger Ellis (ed) assisted by Jocelyn Price, Stephen Medcalf and Peter Meredith. The Medieval Translator: The Theory and Practice of Translation in the Middle Ages: Papers Read at a Conference Held 20-23 August 1987 at the University of Wales Conference Centre, Gregynog //a//.Woodbridge, Suffolk: D.S. Brewer, 1989.

Rita Copeland, Rhetoric, Hermeneutics, and Translation in the Middle Ages: Academic Traditions and
Vernacular Texts. Cambridge, 1991. See particularly A. J. Minnis and A. B. Scots (eds) Medieval Literary
Theory and Criticism c.l 100-1375 The Commentary Tradition. Oxford, 1988.

Translations of the period are introduced as potential projects for cultural transformation. The formative role of translation in the middle Ages can be observed in medieval culture's awareness of the significance of cultural interaction. Medieval culture is a highly bookish culture, which contributed to the development of a vigorous translation activity in the Middle Ages. The recognition of the authority of the books seems to have led to the utilisation of the potential in translation for cultural education and transformation. As there was little or no difference between translation and original composition in the Middle Ages, translation was often considered in association with the pragmatic function of the book (Barratt, 1992:13-14).

In Geoffrey Chaucer's The Prologue to the Legend of Good Women, the fictional dialogue concerning the translations of the narrator provides an instructive interaction concerning translation activity as an integral part of cultural re-construction in the middle Ages.

The god of Love presents two works of Chaucer, the Troilus and Criseyde and the Romance of the Rose, as translations and questions the narrator's motives in choosing to translate works undermining the doctrine of Love (322-335). This fictional questioning introduces, in fact, the main attitude to translation in the middle Ages as it recognises the transformative role of translation on the target audience as an important issue the medieval translator recognises and aims at as the ultimate target of translation. Similarly, the narrator in Chaucer's Prologue to the Legend of Good Women argues that he wanted to teach the reader the true conduct in love through the experience of the lovers in the books he translated (471-474).

The translator in this fictional debate introduces the main objective of translation as making the works of foreign languages available to the linguistically disadvantaged audience for their cultural improvement. This rather pragmatic translational paradigm, moreover, introduces another important issue of medieval translation addressed by theoretical tradition of translation in the middle Ages. In fact, the translator accused of mistranslation in Chaucer's Prologue to the Legend of Good Women is also a writer, his accuser does not make a distinction between his role as a translator and his role as a writer.3 many of the medieval translators were also writers, and translation and interpretation were considered as important strategies in medieval composition. Moreover, most of the medieval translation activity from Latin into the vernacular involved a transfer of the past works into the vernacular by re-writing.
As Douglas Kelly argues, "such re-writing is 'translation' as literary invention, using pre-
existent source material. It is a variety of translation study « (1997: 48). Medieval reception of the translation theory of the classical antiquity as a principle governing creative activity led to a special sense of translation, that is, translation as "an 3 See the Prologue to the Legend of Good Women, lines 322-35 and 362-370. 97

".. And other bokes took me ...To reed upon ": Medieval Translation and Cultural Transformation 'unfaithful' yet artful interpretation or reinterpretation"(Kelly, 1997: 55), or "secondary translation" to put it in Copeland's words.

Identifying the important status of translation in the Middle Ages as a branch of writing reveals that the Middle Ages was not totally oblivious to the legacy of rhetorical and hermeneutic traditions of the classical antiquity. More importantly, it testifies to the significant function translation is given in the cultural transformation. As stated above, a theoretical understanding of translation in the middle Ages was largely dependent on the classical ideas of translation. Rita Copeland argues for the necessity of recognising the medieval awareness of the classical tradition as the strong theoretical foundation of Medieval translation.

==Translation in middle Ages (The Philological Perspective)==

Middle Ages epoch roughly represents the time between late fifth century and the fifteenth century A.D.in Europe. Middle Ages, however, continue until the advent of European Colonialism (about eighteenth century) in the 'Oriental' and African countries. With the spread of Christianity, translation takes a new role of disseminating the word of God. How to translate the divine words faithfully was a serious issue because of dogmatic and political concerns. “St. Jerome claims that he follows sense for sense approach rather than word for word approach when translating the New Testament in AD 384.”18 Since the aim of the divine text is to provide understanding and guidance, it seems logical to follow sense for sense approach. Thence, there is a possibility of intentional or unintentional change of meaning and the context; for these reasons, some scholars emphasize on the word for word translation approach. The first translation of the complete Bible into English was the Wycliffe Bible is which was produced between 1380 and 1384; “Wycliffe believes man should have direct contact with God and thus the Bible should be translated into language that man can understand, i.e. in the vernacular. Purvey believes translator should translate “after sentence (meaning),” not only after words. Martin Luther says, “... the meaning and subject matter must be considered, not the grammar, for the grammar should not rule over the meaning;”19 Criticism on sense for sense was widespread because it minimized the power of the church authorities, “while literal translation was bound up with the Bible and other religious and philosophical works, says Jeremy Monday; non-literal or non-accepted translation came to be seen and used as a weapon against the Church.”20“In the Western Europe this word-for-word versus sense-for-sense debate continued in one form or another until the twentieth century. The centrality of Bible to translation also explains the enduring theoretical questions about accuracy and fidelity to fixed source.”21 In the eighth and ninth century A.D., a large number of translations from Greek into Arabic gave rise to Arabic learning. “Scholars from Syria, a part of the Roman Empire (during 64B.C.-636A.D) came to Baghdad and translated Greek works of Physician Hippocrates (460-360 B.C.), philosophers Plato (427-327 B.C.) and Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) into Arabic during the eighth and ninth century A.D. Baghdad continued to be a centre of translations of Greek classics into Arabic even in the twentieth century A.D.”22 The dominance of religion is prominent in the Translation Era of Middle Ages. In this era, both the trends of Antiquity period can be seen in action, yet emphasis is again on the sense for sense approach.

==Translation In the middle Ages between the 12th and the 15 centuries;==

In the 12th and 13th centuries, the Toledo School of Translators (Escuela de Traductores de Toledo) became a meeting point for European scholars who — attracted by the high wages they were offered — came and settled down in Toledo, Spain, to translate major philosophical, religious, scientific and medical works from Arabic, Greek and Hebrew into Latin and Castilian. Toledo was a city of libraries offering a number of manuscripts, and one of the few places in medieval Europe where a Christian could be exposed to Arabic language and culture.

The Toledo School of Translators went through two distinct periods. Archbishop Raymond de Toledo, who advocated the translation of philosophical and religious works, led the first period (in the 12th century) mainly from classical Arabic into Latin. These Latin translations helped advance European Scholasticism, and thus European science and culture. King Alfonso X of Castile himself led the second period (in the 13th century). On top of philosophical and religious works, the scholars also translated scientific and medical works. Castilian — instead of Latin — became the final language, thus resulting in establishing the foundations of the modern Spanish language.

The translations of works on different sciences (astronomy, astrology, algebra, medicine) acted as a magnet for numerous scholars, who came from all over Europe to Toledo to learn first-hand about the contents of all those Arab, Greek and Hebrew works, before going back home to disseminate the acquired knowledge in European universities. While some Toledo translations of physical and cosmological works were accepted in most European universities in the early 1200s, the works of Aristotle and Arab philosophers were often banned, for example at the Sorbonne University in Paris.

Roger Bacon was a 13th-century English scholar heralded for his early exposition of a “universal grammar” (the concept that the ability to learn grammar is hard-wired into the brain). He was the first linguist to assess that a translator should know well both the source language and the target language to produce a good translation, and that the translator should be well versed in the discipline of the work he was translating. According to legend, after finding out that few translators did, Roger Bacon decided to do away with translation and translators altogether. However, his decision did not last long. He relied on many Toledo translations from Arabic into Latin to make major contributions in the fields of optics, astronomy, natural sciences, chemistry and mathematics.

Geoffrey Chaucer produced the first fine translations into English in the 14th century. Chaucer translated the “Roman de la Rose” from French, and Boethius’s works from Latin. He also adapted some works of the Italian humanist Giovanni Boccaccio to produce his own “Knight’s Tale” and “Troilus and Criseyde” (c.1385) in English. Chaucer is regarded as the founder of an English poetic tradition based on translations and adaptations of literary works in languages that were more “established” than English was at the time, beginning with Latin and Italian. The finest religious translation of that time was the “Wycliffe’s Bible” (1382-84), named after John Wycliffe, an English theologian who translated the Bible from Latin to English.

In the 15th century : Byzantine scholar Gemistus Pletho’s trip to Florence, Italy, pioneered the revival of Greek learning in Western Europe. Gemistus Pletho reintroduced Plato’s thought during the 1438-39 Council of Florence, in a failed attempt to reconcile the East-West schism (a 11th-century schism between the Eastern Orthodox and Catholic churches). During this Council, Pletho met Cosimo de Medici, the politician ruling Florence and a great patron of learning and the arts, and influenced him to found a Platonic Academy. Led by the Italian scholar and translator Marsilio Ficino, the Platonic Academy took over the translation into Latin of all Plato’s works, the “Enneads” of Plotinus and other Neo-Platonist works. Marsilio Ficino’s work — and Erasmus’ Latin edition of the New Testament — led to a new attitude to translation. For the first time, readers demanded rigor of rendering, as philosophical and religious beliefs depended on the exact words of Plato and Jesus (and Aristotle and others).

The great age of English prose translation began in the late 15th century with Thomas Malory’s “Le Morte d’Arthur” (1485), a free translation/adaptation of Arthurian romances about the legendary King Arthur, as well as Guinevere, Lancelot, Merlin and the Knights of the Round Table. Thomas Malory “interpreted” existing French and English stories about these figures while adding original material, e.g. the “Gareth” story about one of the Knights of the Round Table.4

== An Overview of Bible Translations in The Middle Ages==
The most significant turn in the history of translation came with the Bible translations. The efforts of translating the Bible from its original languages into over 2,000 others have spanned more than two millennia. Partial translation of the Bible into languages of English people can be stressed back to the end of the seventh century, including translations into Old English and Middle English. Over 450 versions have been created overtime.
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Bible translations in the Middle Ages discussions are in contrast to Late Antiquity, when the Bibles available to most Christians were in the local vernacular. In a process seen in many other religions, as languages changed, and in Western Europe, languages with no tradition of being written down became dominant, the prevailing vernacular translations remained in place, despite gradually becoming sacred languages, incomprehensible to the majority of the population in many places. In Western Europe, the Latin Vulgate, itself originally a translation into the vernacular, was the standard text of the Bible, and full or partial translations into a vernacular language were uncommon until the Late Middle Ages and the Early Modern Period. A page from the luxury illuminated manuscript Wenceslas Bible, a German translation of the 1390s.[1] From Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia

During the Migration Period Christianity spread to various peoples who had not been part of the old Roman Empire, and whose languages had yet no written form, or only a very simple one, like runes. Typically, the Church itself was the first to attempt to capture these languages in written form, and Bible translations are often the oldest surviving texts in these newly written-down languages. Meanwhile, Latin was evolving into new distinct regional forms, the early versions of the Romance languages, for which new translations eventually became necessary. However, the Vulgate remained the authoritative text, used universally in the West for scholarship and the liturgy since the early development of the Romance languages had not come to full fruition, matching its continued use for other purposes such as religious literature and most secular books and documents. In the early middle Ages, anyone who could read at all could often read Latin, even in Anglo-Saxon England, where writing in the vernacular (Old English) was more common than elsewhere. A number of pre-reformation Old English Bible translations survive, as do many instances of glosses in the vernacular, especially in the Gospels and the Psalms.[4] Over time, biblical translations and adaptations were produced both within and outside the church, some as personal copies for religious or lay nobility, and others for liturgical or pedagogical purposes.[5][6] From Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia

The Bible was translated into various languages in late antiquity; the most important of these translations are those in the Syriac dialect of Aramaic (including the Peshitta and the Diatessaron gospel harmony), the Ge'ez language of Ethiopia, and, in Western Europe, Latin. The earliest Latin translations are collectively known as the Vetus Latina, but in the late fourth century, Jerome re-translated the Hebrew and Greek texts into the normal vernacular Latin of his day, in a version known as the Vulgate (Biblia vulgata) (meaning "common version", in the sense of "popular"). Jerome's translation gradually replaced most of the older Latin texts, and gradually ceased to be a vernacular version as the Latin language developed and divided. The earliest surviving complete manuscript of the entire Latin Bible is the Codex Amiatinus, produced in eighth century England at the double monastery of Wearmouth-Jarrow. By the end of late, antiquity the Bible was therefore available and used in all the major written languages then spoken by Christians. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia

== Conclusion ==
The history of translation studies and the resurgence and genesis of the approaches to this emerging discipline was marked by the first century (BCE) commentator Cicero and then St. Jerome whose word-for-word and sense-for-sense approaches to translation was a springboard for other approaches and trends to thrive. From the medieval ages until now, each decade was marked by a dominant concept such as translatability, equivalence etc. Whilst before the twentieth century translation was an element of language learning, the study of the field developed into an academic discipline only in the second half of the twentieth century, when this field achieved a certain institutional authority and developed as a distinct discipline. As this discipline moved towards the present, the level of sophistication and inventiveness did in fact soared and new concepts, methods, and research projects were developed which interacted with this discipline. The brief review here, albeit incomplete, reflects the current fragmentation of the field into subspecialties, some empirically oriented, some hermeneutic and literary and some influenced by various forms of linguistics and cultural studies which have culminated in productive syntheses. In short, translation studies is now a field which brings together approaches from a wide language and cultural studies, that for its own use, modifies them and develops new models specific to its own requirements.
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© 2012 ACADEMY PUBLISHER Manufactured in Finland.
doi:10.4304/tpls.2.1.77-85

== References ==
-A page from the luxury illuminated manuscript Wenceslas Bible, a German translation of the 1390s.[1] From Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia

-Barnstone Willis. The Poetics of Translation: History, Theory and Practice. London: Yale University Press, 1993. Print. Bassnett, Susan and Lefevere, Andre (Eds.). Translation, History and Culture. London: Pinter, 1990. Print. 2- Barnstone Willis. The Poetics of Translation: History, Theory and Practice. London: Yale University Press, 1993. Print. Bassnett, Susan and Lefevere, Andre (Eds.). Translation, History and Culture. London: Pinter, 1990. Print.

-Early history of translation .By Marouane Zakhir English translator University of Soultan Moulay Slimane, Morocco

-From Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia

-https//www.tandfonline.com// 5- https//www.tandfonline.com//

-Prologue to the Legend of Good Women, lines 322-35 and 362-370. 97 ".. And other bokes took me ...To reed upon ": Medieval Translation and Cultural Transformation 'unfaithful' yet artful interpretation or reinterpretation"(Kelly, 1997: 55), or "secondary translation" to put it in Copeland's words.

-Susan * Assist. Prof. Dr., Hacettepe University, Department of English Language and Literature The problematic situation of Medieval translation in the academia is discussed by Ruth Evans in "Translating Past Cultures?" in The Medieval Translator /Vied. Roger Ellis and Ruth Evans, the University of Exeter Press, Medieval Translation and Cultural Transformation .

-SSN 1799-2591 Theory and Practice in Language Studies, Vol. 2, No. 1, pp. 77-85, January 2012 © 2012 ACADEMY PUBLISHER Manufactured in Finland. doi:10.4304/tpls.2.1.77-85.

-This article is about medieval Europe. For a global history of the period between the 5th and 15th centuries, see Post-classical history. For other uses, see middle Ages (disambiguation). "Medieval times" redirects here. For the dinner theatre, see Medieval Times.

-the 1994. pp. 20-45. See Jeanette Beer, Medieval Translators and Their Craft.1989 and Roger Ellis (ed) assisted by Jocelyn Price, Stephen Medcalf and Peter Meredith. The Medieval Translator: The Theory and Practice of Translation in the Middle Ages: Papers Read at a Conference Held 20-23 August 1987 at the University of Wales Conference Centre, Gregynog //a//.Woodbridge, Suffolk: D.S. Brewer, 1989.

^ Rita Copeland, Rhetoric, Hermeneutics, and Translation in the Middle Ages: Academic Traditions and Vernacular Texts. Cambridge, 1991. See particularly A. J. Minnis and A. B. Scots (eds) Medieval Literary Theory and Criticism c.l 100-1375 The Commentary Tradition. Oxford, 1988.

-Wikipedia .org/wiki/

=Chapter 2 History of Modern and Contemporary Chinese Translation=
“中国现当代翻译史”

[[Hist_Trans_EN_2]]

Li Xichang, 李习长, Hunan Normal University, China

=Chapter 3 The Translation of Buddihist Sutra in Chinese Translation History=
“佛经翻译”

[[Hist_Trans_EN_3]]

Huang Zhuliang 黄柱梁 Hunan Normal University, China

=王镇隆 The Brief History of Bible's Chinese Translation=
== Abstract==
Bible is the only Christian classic. Many Bible translation versions in the territory of China, including the Chinese characters and the languages of ethnic minorities, are not only the important events and modern history publication with the largest circulation, translated versions of books in the modern translation history, but also the close relationship with the modern transformation of Chinese characters and the creation of minority languages. Three aspects of Bible translation history, information, research and outlook are described in this paper.

== 摘要==
圣经是基督教的唯一经典，圣经翻译则是中国近代翻译史上的重要事件。当时的中国境内，出现了包括汉语汉字和少数民族语言文字的众多圣经译本，这不仅使圣经成为中国近代史上出版发行量最大、翻译版本最多的书籍，而且对中国的汉语汉字的近代转型和少数民族文字创制产生了重要影响。本文从 3 个方面对圣经中译的历史、资料、研究及展望进行了叙述。

== Key Words==
History of the Bible translation；Research review;Academic outlook

== 关键词==
圣经中译史；研究回顾；学术展望

== The Overall Introduction of Bible Translation==
“Bible” translation has a pivotal position in the history of Western translation. From the beginning of the era to today, the translation of the “Bible” has never stopped. The range of languages involved, the number of translations, and the frequency of use of translations,etc., are unmatched by the translation of any other work. A birds-eye view of the history of “Bible” translation has the following important milestones: the first is the “Seventy Sons Greek Text” before the Era, the second is the “Popular Latin Text Bible” from the 4th to 5th centuries, and the later the national languages of the early Middle Ages. The ancient texts (such as Old German, Old French translations), modern texts since the 16th century Reformation Movement (such as the Lutheran version of Germany, the King James version, etc.) and various modern texts. All these translations have made indelible contributions to the spread and development of Christianity in the West, as well as the prosperity and development of the languages and cultures of various nations.(Gu Changsheng,1991)

The “Bible” is the holy book of Christianity, including the “Old Testament” and “New Testament.” The Old Testament was written in BC. It is a classic of Judaism. It was inherited by Christianity from Judaism. The original text was in Hebrew. The New Testament was written in the second half of the first to second centuries, and the original text is in Greek. Throughout human history, language translation is almost as old as the language itself. Therefore, from the beginning of the era to today, the translation of the “Bible” has never stopped. The range of languages involved, the number of translations, and the frequency of use of the translations, etc., are unmatched by the translation of any other work. The translation of the "Bible" is mainly to spread the doctrine, so that people are influenced and accepted by the views. According to the “New Testament Acts” Chapter Two, Section One: The saints gathered on Pentecost, and they were all filled with the Holy Spirit, and spoke the words of other countries according to the eloquence given by the Holy Spirit. However, the translation at that time was mainly “interprete” or “interpretation.” Among them, St. Paul himself is a multilingual believer. He preached in Jerusalem, Athens and Rome in Hebrew, Greek and Italian respectively. The Bible was first translated from Hebrew into Greek, then into Latin, and then into Romanian, Portuguese, Spanish, Italian, and Walloon (wal-lon), German, French, Romance languages. English was then translated into various languages in the world, and the translations of its various texts were repeatedly revised by experts in the translation of the classics, which lasted more than ten centuries.

In the history of the translation of the Bible, it has gone through several milestone stages: the first is the “Seventy Sons Greek Text” before the era, the second is the “Popular Latin Text Bible” from the 4th to 5th centuries, and later it is the national languages of the early Middle Ages. Ancient texts (such as Old German, Old French translations), modern texts since the 16th century Reformation Movement (such as Luther, Casio Dorobin in Spain, King James Version in English, Nikon in Russia) and All kinds of modern texts (such as “American Standard Text” in English, “New English Bible” and “English Today”, etc.). “The Bible Old Testament” is the first important and earliest translation in ancient times in the West, and it was translated into Greek. The Old Testament was originally the official classic of Judaism, originally in Hebrew. The Jews have been scattered around for a long time and drifted overseas. Over time, they have forgotten the language of their ancestors and spoke foreign languages such as Arabic and Greek. Among them, Greek speakers accounted for the majority. In ancient times, the city of Alexandria in Egypt was the cultural and trade center of the eastern Mediterranean. The Jews living here accounted for two-fifths of the city’s total population. In the third century BC, in order to meet the increasingly urgent needs of these Greek-speaking Jews, the church decided to translate the Hebrew text of the Old Testament into a Greek text. In the second century BC, an unknown Jew once wrote an epistle article, which was later named “Letter of Aristeas” (“Letter of Aristeas”), which records that in the third century BC, Jerusalem At the request of Egyptian King Ptolemy II Feiradelphis (308-246 BC), Bishop Elizar sent translators to Alexandria to undertake the translation of the Old Testament. In this way, according to Ptolemy II's will, between 285 and 249 BC, 72 “noble” Jewish scholars gathered in the Library of Alexandria, Egypt, to perform this translation. According to legend, the 72 scholars came from 12 different Israeli tribes, with 6 from each tribe. After they came to the Library of Alexandria, they worked in pairs in 36 locations and translated them into 36 translations that were very similar to each other. Finally, 72 translators gathered together to compare and check the 36 translation manuscripts, and reached a consensus on the wording of the final version, and called it the “Seventy Son Text” or “Seventy Magi Translation”, that is, “Septuagint” (“Septuagint”), has since opened a precedent for collective translation in the history of translation. Soon after the translation of the “Seventy Sons”, the priests held a joint meeting with the Jewish leaders and pointed out: “This translation is well translated, pious, and very accurate. (Marshall Broomhall,1934,P.2)

Therefore, it must be kept as it is and cannot be changed.” We also regarded it as the classic translation. In fact, this Greek translation became the “second original”, and sometimes even replaced the Hebrew text and ascended to the throne of the “first original”. Many of the translations of the Bible in languages such as ancient Latin, Slavic, and Arabic are not based on the original Hebrew but on the Greek translation.

== Multilingualism in the Chinese version of the Bible==
According to the report of the World Union Bible Association in 2006, the new and Old Testament of the Bible has been translated into 301 different languages. If regional dialects and partial translations are included, the translated languages of the Bible have exceeded 2287 different languages. The Bible is the most widely circulated and translated book in the world.

If someone says that in Chinese history, the Bible has the largest number of translated versions, the largest number of Chinese language forms, both vernacular and classical Chinese, and the largest number of Chinese dialect forms. It has not only created nearly 10 ethnic minority languages, but also nearly 20 ethnic minority language translation books, but also the largest publication and circulation in modern history, There must be many people who don't believe it.(William Canton,1904,1910)

But this is the fact of history. The Chinese version of the Bible does have many historical “best”, which is related to the super pronunciation and super dialect nature of Chinese language and characters, the reform and cultural transformation of Chinese language and culture in the late Qing Dynasty and the early Republic of China, and the fact that most ethnic minorities in Southwest China have only language but no words. The period of the late Qing Dynasty and the beginning of the Republic of China, that is, the 1860s to the 1930s, was the period of the most drastic changes in Chinese language and characters, the period of the transformation of ancient Chinese and its culture into vernacular, the period of the widespread voice and hard practice of Chinese Latinization, the most active period of language and character reform, and the transformation and reform of Chinese language and characters, A variety of transitional writing methods have emerged due to text reform and stylistic changes. However, the reform and expression methods of multiple languages and characters in the late Qing Dynasty and the early Republic of China, some of which are even very short-lived transitional writing methods. The Bible has published translated versions in this text form. This can be best confirmed by many translations of the Bible, such as classical Chinese, half written and half spoken, vernacular, dialect Chinese characters, dialect church Roman characters, Wang Zhao Mandarin phonetic alphabets, Mandarin phonetic alphabets, Mandarin Roman characters, weituoma Pinyin, kuaizi, a variety of ethnic minority characters, blind characters and so on.(Li Kuanshu,1998)

The large-scale cultural exchange and interaction between China and the west is an important historical phenomenon in the modern world. This cultural relationship has not only changed the cultural and political pattern all over the world, but also greatly affected the development of Chinese culture and society. Language contact is not only an important part of cultural relations, but also an important prerequisite for all other exchanges. The large-scale and multilingual cross-cultural in-depth language and cultural exchange is a modern cultural phenomenon gradually formed all over the world after the great discovery of geography. It is also a prominent manifestation in the history of China's modern foreign cultural relations, which is particularly different from previous dynasties.

The language and cultural exchange in modern China began with the arrival of Christian missionaries in China. As the only classic of Christian religion, the Bible inevitably involves the problems of how to translate into China’s local language, how to adapt to and influence the local ideology and culture in the historical process of Christian communication and translation.

The earliest translation of the Bible in China can be extended to the Tang Dynasty, which has a long history of thousands of years. Although the Bible translation activities have been interrupted, they continue to this day. In Taiwan and Hong Kong, the Bible translation is still not over.

== Bible Translation from Different Perspectives==
From the perspective of language, Bible translation can be divided into Chinese language and minority language. In addition to the Chinese translation (the Chinese translation is described in detail below), in the process of Bible translation, the missionaries took advantage of the Pinyin advantages of their Latin mother tongue and combined with the pronunciation of local minority languages to create Pinyin characters in the form of Latin letters for those southwest minorities who only have spoken language but no words, that is, bagri Miao Language (old Miao Language) in Northeast Yunnan Frame format: East Lisu, Funeng Renxi Lisu (old Lisu), Jingpo, Zawa, Lahu, Buyi, WA, etc. It also borrowed Chinese phonetic alphabets and modified and created Hu Zhizhong’s Miao language. They translated and published the complete Scriptures or section translations of Jingpo language, Zaiwa language, East Lisu language, West Lisu language, Yi language, Nuosu language and Gepo language, Lahu language, WA language, Naxi language, Dehong Dai language, Xishuangbanna Dai language, Huayao Dai language, Huamiao language, Chuanmiao language, heimiao language, Buyi language and other languages. Among them, Jingpo, Funeng Renxi Lisu and bagri Miao are still widely used in society, and Hu Zhizhong Miao is still used among religious believers in Kaili, Guizhou. These characters not only ended the history of these nationalities without characters, but also provided great reference and Enlightenment for the large-scale creation of characters for ethnic minorities in New China. In the northern minority languages, the missionaries also translated and published Bible translations in Mongolian (karmec Mongolian, kalka Mongolian, Buryat Mongolian), Tibetan (Tibetan Classical Chinese, Tibetan Ladakh dialect, Tibetan Lahore dialect), Manchu, Kazakh and Korean. In Taiwan, missionaries and today’s Taiwan Christian Church have also created Pinyin characters in the form of Latin letters for the Paiwan, Taiya, AMI, Taroko, Yamei, Bunun, Lukai, Dawu and other indigenous peoples, translated and published biblical translations, which are still in use today.(Wang Zhixin,2004)

From the perspective of Chinese style, Chinese versions of the Bible can be divided into three categories:

1. Classical Chinese translation, that is, the translation of deep arts and Sciences: in history, there have been yangmano's direct interpretation of the Bible, daysun's translation, masman's translation, Morrison's translation, Guo Shili's translation, commissioned translation (or representative translation), bizhiwen / kebicun translation, Gaode translation, the printed version of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom, lianweiren translation, and Heshen's translation of Arts and Sciences.

2. Half written and half white translation, i.e. shallow liberal arts translation: in history, there have been Yang Ge's non shallow liberal arts translation, Shi Joseph's shallow liberal arts translation, Bao John / Ke Bicun translation and hehe shallow liberal arts translation.

3. Vernacular translation: China is a country with many dialects. Six of China's seven dialects have Bible translations. Among them, nine branches of five dialects, including Wu, min, Guangdong, Hakka and Mandarin, have biblical Chinese characters. They are Nanjing dialect translation, Beijing dialect translation, Hankou dialect translation, Tianjin dialect translation, Shanghai dialect translation, Ningbo Dialect translation, Suzhou dialect translation, Hangzhou dialect translation, Fuzhou dialect translation, Xiamen dialect translation, Shantou dialect translation, Guangzhou dialect translation, Hakka dialect translation Hakka Sanjiang dialect translation. In 1919, the vernacular intensive cost and official script appeared, which is the Bible translation used by the Christian Church of China.

From the perspective of Chinese text form, Bible translation can be basically divided into seven categories:

1. Chinese Character Edition: in history, there were classical Chinese character edition and vernacular Chinese Character Edition (including dialect Chinese Character Edition);

2. Roman script of church Dialect: missionaries spell the words of local dialects according to the Latin alphabet. There are 15 branches of the six dialects, including Nanjing dialect translation, Beijing dialect translation, Shandong dialect translation, Shanghai dialect translation, Ningbo Dialect translation, Hangzhou dialect translation, Wenzhou dialect translation, Jinhua dialect translation, Taizhou dialect translation, Fuzhou dialect translation Bible translations of Xiamen dialect, Shantou dialect, Xinghua dialect, Jianyang dialect, Shaowu dialect, Hainan dialect, Guangzhou dialect, Hakka Guangdong and Taiwan dialect, Hakka Wujingfu dialect, Hakka Tingzhou dialect and Hakka Jianning dialect;

3. Wang Zhao Mandarin phonetic alphabet: the Bible is spelled with Wang Zhao Mandarin phonetic alphabet. There have been Bible translations of Tianjin dialect, Hankou dialect, Hebei dialect and Jiaodong dialect;

4. Mandarin phonetic alphabet: there have been Bible translations of Fuzhou dialect and Jiaodong dialect;

5. Braille script；

6. Quick script: that is, the Bible translation of early sketch;

7. Weituoma Pinyin book.

In terms of publication forms, there are many kinds of publications, such as Chinese character edition, Chinese character and foreign language comparison edition, Chinese character and Mandarin phonetic alphabet comparison edition, Chinese character and Wang Zhao Mandarin phonetic alphabet comparison edition, Chinese character and church Roman character comparison edition, church Roman character and Mandarin phonetic alphabet comparison edition, etc. As far as the editions are concerned, there are single volume edition, multi volume edition, the New Testament, the Old Testament, the New Testament with psalms, the new and Old Testament, etc., with a total number of more than 1000. Based on the American Bible Society, the British Bible Society and the Scottish Bible Society, which had the greatest influence in old China and published and sold various versions of the Bible, a total of 225 million copies were sold from 1814 to 1934; From 1814 to 1950, 279351752 copies were sold.(Chen Yugang,1992)
After the founding of new China, the Chinese Christian Church basically took the heheguan vernacular Version (later called hehehe vernacular version, hereinafter referred to as hehe version) as the Bible translation dedicated to the church, and no other Chinese classical Chinese or dialect versions of the Bible were published. As of December 2007, the Christian Church of China has printed and distributed 50 million copies of Hehe vernacular books. China has become one of the countries with the largest number of printed Bibles in the world.

== Writings and Work Records of Biblical Translators==
As the only classic of Christian religion, the meaning of the Bible is different. Since the Christian foreign missionaries came to China in the 19th century, they have been translating the Bible continuously, and published many documents and works at the same time. Most of these archives and works are the reports and introductions of Christian sects to publicize and introduce their own work achievements, which are limited to the publicity of their own sects without academic and serious research.

The earliest works related to the translation and recording of Bible translation were written by personnel and institutions related to Christian religion. The first documentary about the Chinese Bible translation is the Bible in China by Alexander Wylie, a missionary who once served as the director of the British Bible Society. This article records the earliest Bible translation in China, which is the work report of Alexander Wylie.

Among the records of missionaries on Bible translation, the Bible in China written by Marshall Broomhall, a missionary of the mainland church, is the most concentrated and representative. Hainbo is the director general of the headquarters of the mainland Association in London and is responsible for editing China's million, the most important publication of the mainland Association, for 20 years.

Another book about Bible translation is the Chinese versions of the Bible (1934) written by A. J. Garnier, a missionary of the British Baptist Church. His book is more often seen in its Chinese translation, which is compiled by George Milligan.

History of the spread of the New Testament (Guangzhou society, 1934). These two books are not long, about 100000 words. They describe the general situation of Bible translation from ancient times to now. They are basically the working records and introduction of Bible translation. The recording time is up to the three combined versions of the main translations of missionaries in 1919. The early Catholic translation, the Christian minority language translation in the late Qing Dynasty and the early Republic of China, and the Chinese dialect translation are too vague and too brief to cover, including the Chinese translation and the Catholic sigo translation. They can not be called academic research works. The Bible translation of missionaries is mostly missionary encouragement and publicity, which belongs to the missionary works of the church.

In modern Chinese history, foreign institutions or individuals have many publishing and sales institutions in China, among which the Bible has a certain nature of exclusive translation, monopoly and sales. The Chinese translation of the Bible is basically undertaken by the Bible Societies of various countries in China. Among the Foreign Bible Societies in China, the American Bible Society, the British Bible Society and the Scottish bible society are mainly responsible for the dissemination of the Chinese Bible, including the organization and arrangement of Bible translation, financial support, the formulation of translation principles, the selection and determination of translators, the publication and reprint of the Bible, the sales of the Bible, and almost all the leading work of Bible translation. The most detailed work on the history of the British bible society so far is a history of the British and Foreign Bible Society written by William Canton, which introduces the work of the British Bible Society in the 19th century. The more important work in recent years is the cheap Bibles: Nineteen Century Publishing and the British and Foreign Bible Society written by Leslie Howsam, but its history and content are still dominated by the 19th century. For the history of the British Bible Society in the first half of the 20th century, please refer to a history of the British and Foreign Bible Society, 1900-1954 written by James M. roe. As for the historical works of the American Bible Society, what is important is the centennial history of the American Bible Society written by Henry O. Dwight, which introduces the work progress of the American Bible Society around the world in the 19th century. Chinese Bible translation is only a small part of it. In the same year, translations of the scripts into the languages of China and her dependencies [10], written by John R. hykes, director general of the American Bible Society in China, specifically described the Bible translation work of the American Bible Society in China. These monographs introduced the missionary work of various Bible Societies in China, especially the printing and distribution of the Bible.

In the Chinese recorder edited by missionaries, there are scattered information about the translation and publication of various versions of Bible translation written by missionaries in different times, or missionaries' discussions on various affairs and research of Bible translation. Educational administration magazine is an English magazine sponsored by missionaries in China for more than 100 years.
== Catalogue of Biblical Editions==
In addition to the reports of the Bible guild and missionaries, there are some catalogues of Biblical translations that can be viewed as data. Alexander Wylie, a British missionary, has been acting for the British Bible Association since 1863. He catalogued all kinds of Christian books and periodicals published at that time and published the biographies and works of missionaries who came to China in 1867 （Memorials of Protestant Missionaries to the Chinese Given a List of Their Publications and Obituary Notices of the Deceased, with Copious Indexes） The book records the life stories, catalogues and abstracts of early missionaries in China, and is the most complete bibliography of religious translation in the period of the Republic of China. However, according to the author's comparative verification of the original Bible translations collected by the National Library, it is found that the catalogue misjudges some of the Bible translations, or some translations do not judge the translations, so it is necessary to judge them according to each library Up to now, the catalogue of Chinese versions of the Bible published abroad is more detailed than the collection, introduction and description of the collection information and records of the mainland edition catalogue.

== Academic Research: Western Part==
Thor strandenaes graduated from Uppsala University in Sweden in 1987. His doctoral thesis principles of Chinese Bible translation is the earliest doctoral thesis focusing on the Chinese Bible. He is particularly inclined to compare different Chinese versions of the Bible. From the perspective of translatology and Christian theological interpretation, he analyzes the translation principles of five Bible versions, including Morrison's version of Shen Wenli, the Commission's version of Shen Wenli, the vernacular hehe version, the Catholic SIKO Bible version and the modern Chinese version of Taiwan. He believes that Bible translation has strong inheritance and mutual influence, But at the same time, Catholicism and Christianity have formed their own translation style and vocabulary system. Shi Fulai is a priest, so his research especially emphasizes the theological factors and influence of Bible translation . Jost zetzsche graduated from the University of Hamburg, Germany, in 1999. His doctoral dissertation the Bible in China: the history of the union version or the cultivation of Bible missionary Bible translation in China is a masterpiece in recent years. From the perspective of Christian theological theory and church use, he also discussed the Bible and the combined version, which has the greatest influence, the largest circulation and is still used by the Christian Church, and came to the conclusion that the combined version is the greatest achievement of Bible translation. Both English Monographs discuss the attitude and evolution of missionaries towards Bible translation, the role of Bible translation in the spread of Christianity in China, the scale of Bible distribution, the evolution of Bible translation and sales institutions from the perspective of church position and theology. The paper has a certain historical overview of various early versions, especially the deep arts and science versions, but it does not involve the dialect Bible versions and ethnic minority Bible versions, nor does it discuss the significance and role of the Bible as a Christian classic.
This paper studies one of dozens of translations of the Bible - the translation of different stylistic versions of heheben, as well as the theological basis and theological disputes of the translated Heben. Both of these doctoral theses give full play to the author's expertise in Western mother tongue, and focus on one aspect with the archives of the Christian missionary church, including work reports and letters, work records and the archives of the Bible Association as the main data sources.

Including the discussion of individual translations or translators. Thor strantenaes's paper anonymous Bible translators: native language and the translation of the Bible into Chinese (1817-1917) discusses the role of Chinese people in Chinese Bible translation. Due to the cultural arrogance of missionaries, The contribution and role of Chinese scholars in Bible translation has been buried. Reading Christian scripts in China, edited by chole Starr, is a collection of multiple papers to explore the translation of the Chinese Bible in the 19th century and its impact on the final synthesizer and integration of the Bible.

== Academic Research: Chinese Part==
So far, the Chinese world has not carried out in-depth and systematic historical investigation and academic research on the Bible translation. Only in the history of Chinese Christianity, the history of modern Chinese printing and the history of modern Chinese translation can we see some brief introductions, such as Gu Changsheng's missionaries and modern China (page 16); Yang Senfu's history of Christianity in China (12 pages); A brief history of Christianity in China by Li kuanshu (5 pages); Wang Zhixin's outline of the history of Christianity in China (4 pages); Chen Yugang's historical manuscript of Chinese literary translation (5 pages).
The more in-depth discussions basically point to the theoretical discussion of Chinese Bible translation. The most important thing is the discussion on "term question", sometimes called "holy number problem". This problem involves how to use Chinese to call Hebrew "YHWH" and "Elohim", Greek "theos", Latin "Deus" or English "God", and how to translate theological names such as "Holy Spirit", "an - gel" or "baptism". How to translate holy names into Chinese is not only a linguistic and theological problem, but also involves the connotation of Chinese religious beliefs, but also involves how one language and culture is translated into another language and culture of heterogeneous paganism. This is a long-standing and controversial topic on translation in the history of Chinese Christian religion. Until today, there is still no final conclusion within Christianity. Zhao Weiben's "debate on the translation of the Chinese Bible: Shenhu? Dihu" is an early academic paper on the dispute over the translation of the Chinese Bible; Li Chi Chang, editor in chief, compiled more than 60 debates on the translation of "God" and "God" published by Chinese Christians in the communique of nations from 1877 to 1878. It pays close attention to the opinions and responses of Chinese Christians, It is a significant revision of the tendency of many works and historical materials to only pay attention to missionaries and forget the Chinese people. Zhao Xiaoyang's translation and introduction of local culture and foreign religions in regeneration: from the perspective of the Chinese translation of God and God discusses the fierce debate between Catholicism and Christianity on the "translation problem" for 300 years. Under the interpretation of Western religious ideas, the traditional Chinese words "God" and "God" have been gradually Christianized, lost the connotation of their original local religion, and regenerated into new words symbolizing western culture. This paper goes beyond the narrow theological scope of discussing the translation of names within the church in the past, and discusses this cultural problem from a broader perspective. Cheng Xiaojuan's doctoral thesis, discussion and acceptance of "God" in Chinese Bible translation, comprehensively examines the discussion of Western missionaries on the translation of "God" and the history of Chinese acceptance of "God", hoping to form a horizontal investigation of the complete cultural exchange system of "dissemination acceptance", Vertically, it shows their historical changes in different historical situations and cultural exchange stages.
Cai Jintu's doctoral thesis, the orientation and problems of commissioned Chinese Bible translation, specially discusses one of many deep arts and science translations - commissioned translation, its translatological principles, translation activities, sales, assistance of Chinese assistants, etc., focusing on the theological theory of Bible translation, And the influence of these theological theories on Chinese Bible translation and the development of Christian Church. Ren Dongsheng's doctoral thesis, a study on the culture of Bible Chinese translation, discusses the thematic changes of Bible literature, history and theology from the perspective of translatology.

At present, the academic research on the Chinese version of the Bible is still insufficient. So far, only Ma min's mahiman, Rasha and the early Chinese translation of the Bible has achieved a high level of academic research results; Wu Yixiong's the dispute over translation names and the Chinese translation of the early Bible; Zhao Xiaoyang's research on the relationship between the two horse Bible versions and the daysun Bible versions, an analysis of the origin of the printed Bible base in the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom, Chiang Kai Shek and Bible translation during the war of resistance against Japan, and a historical overview of the Centennial Ministry of the American Chinese Bible Society. Based on the discovery of new materials in Chinese and English, these Chinese papers textual research and analyze the basic historical facts of the Bible translation and Foreign Bible Societies, and describe the work contents of Bible translation, personnel changes, Bible sales, version identification and textual research, disputes and focus during translation in each period. These research papers only involve the earliest translation of Christian missionaries or the Bible translation of Chiang Kai Shek, a famous political figure in modern history.
== Conclusion==
But up to now, due to the differences and opposites between Catholicism and Christianity, there are differences and estrangements among many sects in Christianity; Under the influence of social and political ideology, academic circles have neglected and lacked this field intentionally or unintentionally in the past; The objective difficulties in the study of Chinese versions of the Bible, such as the vast majority of archival materials and various versions are kept abroad, and the majority of foreign materials; There is still no academic research monograph on the historical investigation of the whole Chinese translation of the Bible. The existing in-depth research on Chinese Bible translation is also limited to the most famous versions of the Bible in the history of Chinese Bible translation, such as the marsmian version, the Morrison version, the Guo Shili version, the commissioned version and so on. There is no dialect translation and minority language translation of the Bible, no Roman Bible translation of many churches, and no Chinese translation in the post missionary era. Special studies on the impact, response and reference of Chinese Bible translation on Chinese language, language reform, social culture, new literature and new words, the impact of Chinese Bible translation on the spread and development of Chinese Christian religion, the impact and response of Chinese Bible translation on Chinese traditional ideology and culture, and the impact and significance of Chinese Bible translation on the history of Chinese translation, It is even more rare to pay. The research on the translation and influence of the Bible is a blank spot that needs to be developed. It is worth us to devote ourselves to it and make a difference.

== References==

Marshall Broomhall, The Bible in China, London: British and Foreign Bible Society, 1934, p.2.

William Canton, A History of the British and Foreign Bible Society，London: John Murray, 1904, 1910.

Leslie Howsam, Cheap Bibles: Nineteenth-Century Publishing and the British and Foreign Bible Society,Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991.

Henry O. Dwight, The Centennial History of the American Bible Society, New York: Macmillan, 1916.

Hubert W. Spillett, A Catalogue of Scriptures in the Languages of China and the Republic of China, Hong Kong: British and Foreign Bible Society,1975.

Eugene A. Nida, The Book of A Thousand Tongues, New York: United Bible Societies, 1972.

Chloe Starr edit, Reading Christian Scriptures in China,London: T&T Clark, 2008.

Tony 汤因. 中国基督教圣经事业史料简编 A compendium of historical materials on the cause of Chinese Christian Bible [J] 协进 Xie Jin, 1953 (9): 48

Gu Changsheng 顾长声.传教士与近代中国 Missionaries and modern China [M] 上海：上海人民出版社 Shanghai: Shanghai People's publishing house,1991

Yang Senfu 杨森富.中国基督教史 History of Christianity in China [M] 台北：商务印书馆 Taipei: Commercial Press, 1968

Li kuanshu 李宽淑.中国基督教史略 A brief history of Christianity in China [M] 北京：社会科学文献出版社 Beijing: Social Science Literature Press,,1998

Wang Zhixin 王治心.中国基督教史纲 Outline of Chinese Christian history [M] 上海：上海古籍出版社 Shanghai: Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House,2004

1Chen Yugang 陈玉刚.中国文学翻译史稿 History of Chinese literary translation [M] 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司，Beijing: China translation and Publishing Corporation, 1992

== 叶维杰 Medieval Arabic Translation Movement=
中世纪阿拉伯翻译运动
Ye Weijie 叶维杰 Hunan Normal University, China

== Abstract==
The Medieval Arabic Translation Movement(The Harakah al—Tarjamah) is also called the Translation Movement. It was a large-scale organized academic activity carried out by the Arab Empire in the Middle Ages to translate and introduce ancient Greek and Eastern scientific and cultural classics. The Abbasid Caliphate implemented a diversified and inclusive cultural policy, vigorously advocated and sponsored the translation of academic classics from ancient Greece, Rome, Persia, India and other countries into Arabic to absorb advanced cultural heritage. The Arabic translation movement preserved the natural sciences and humanities in ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and played an extremely important role in promoting the cultural revival of European political and cultural conditions in the late Middle Ages. The Hundred-Year Arab Translation Movement lasted for more than two hundred years, spanning the vast regions of Asia, Africa, and Europe, and blending ancient Eastern and Western cultures such as Persia, India, Greece, Rome, and Arabia. There are not many translation activities in the history of world civilization. Analyzing its causes, processes, results, and impacts is of great academic value for studying the phased development of human civilization and the commonality of human wisdom, and it is also of great help to deeply understand the Arab Islamic philosophy and culture.

== Key words==
Harakah al—Tarjamah, translation movement, Western culture, Islamic culture，Middle Ages

== 摘要 ==
中世纪的阿拉伯语翻译运动（The Harakah al-Tarjamah）也叫百年翻译运动。它是中世纪阿拉伯帝国为翻译和介绍古希腊和东方科学文化经典而进行的有组织的大型学术活动。阿拔斯王朝哈里发推行多元包容的文化政策，大力倡导和赞助将古希腊、罗马、波斯、印度等国的学术经典译成阿拉伯文，吸收先进的文化遗产。阿拉伯语翻译运动保存了古希腊罗马文化中的自然科学和人文学科，对中世纪晚期欧洲政治文化状况的文化复兴起到了极其重要的推动作用。阿拉伯百年翻译运动持续了两百多年，横跨亚非欧广大地区，融合了波斯、印度、希腊、罗马、阿拉伯等古老的东西方文化。世界文明史上的翻译活动并不多。分析其成因、过程、结果和影响，对于研究人类文明的阶段性发展和人类智慧的共性具有重要的学术价值，对于深入了解阿拉伯伊斯兰哲学和文化也有很大帮助。

== 关键词 ==
阿拉伯百年翻译运动，翻译运动，西方文化，伊斯兰文化，中世纪

== Introduction==
The Harakah al—Tarjamah is also called the Translation Movement. The Centennial Arab Translation Movement lasted for more than two hundred years. The content of translation involved cultural achievements such as ancient Greek and Roman culture, Persian Mesopotamian culture, and ancient Indian culture. It spanned three continents and five seas in space and was the most extensive in human history. One of the major events. The Arab translation movement in the middle of the eighth century to the end of the tenth century not only changed the backward state of the Arab nation, but also gave birth to a strong Arab-Islamic culture; and its document translation was extremely important to the Renaissance movement in the later political and cultural state of Europe.The Arab Empire in the Middle Ages carried out large-scale and organized academic activities that translated and introduced ancient Greek and Eastern scientific and cultural classics. The Abbasid Caliphate implemented a diversified and inclusive cultural policy, vigorously advocated and sponsored the translation of academic classics from ancient Greece, Rome, Persia, India and other countries into Arabic to absorb advanced cultural heritage. The Arabic translation movement preserved the natural sciences and humanities in ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and played an extremely important role in promoting the cultural revival of European political and cultural conditions in the late Middle Ages. The Hundred-Year Arab Translation Movement lasted for more than two hundred years, spanning the vast regions of Asia, Africa, and Europe, and blending ancient Eastern and Western cultures such as Persia, India, Greece, Rome, and Arabia. There are not many translation activities in the history of world civilization. Analyzing its causes, processes, results, and impacts is of great academic value for studying the phased development of human civilization and the commonality of human wisdom, and it is also of great help to deeply understand the Arab Islamic philosophy and culture.

The Arabic translation movement can be divided into three periods: the first period is from the middle and late 8th century to the late 9th century. Translation activities in this period were mainly carried out with the support of the famous Caliph Mansour and Harun Rashid. The translated books are mainly Persian works, and the content mostly revolves around astronomy and medicine. The second period was from the early 9th century to the middle and late 9th century. The Caliph Maimon strongly supported this matter and achieved the golden age of the 100-year translation movement. The content involved ancient Greek philosophy, natural sciences, etc.; the last period was from the middle and late 9th century to the early 10th century. During this period, the support of the Caliphate and the pace of translation declined, and a lot of work was retranslation and revision of previous translations. At this time, the translation movement has also entered its end. The century-old translation movement with a history of more than 200 years changed the backwardness of the Arab nation and gave birth to Arab-Islamic culture, which had a significant impact on Arab society. This movement promoted the exchange of various cultures while preserving classics and ancient books. Rongtong has added an important heritage to the world cultural treasure house, and has had a positive and valuable impact on the development of world culture. This article will give a more systematic introduction to the movement, divided into the following three parts: the reasons for the translation movement, the Baghdad Translation Center of the translation movement, and the influence of the translation movement.

== The Background and Cause of Translation Movement ==

During the Umayyad dynasty, Arab Muslims were fully aware of the importance of absorbing the highly developed spiritual culture of foreign nations. In order to adapt to the actual needs of society, Khalid bin Yazid organized a group of people who were proficient in Syriac, Greek or Persian scholars, focusing on the translation of ancient books in medicine and pharmacology and chemistry, and have conducted translation explorations in a broader academic field. The beginning of the Arabic translation movement and its subsequent 200-year glorious achievements are mainly due to the following four factors:

1.Geographical factors:

Since Mansour, the second caliph of the Abbasid dynasty, established its capital in Baghdad, the important position of Baghdad as the political, economic and cultural center of the dynasty has been highlighted. Baghdad is located in the two rivers basin of West Asia and is located in the main traffic arteries between the East and the West. Throughout the history of civilizations in the world, rivers and civilizations have accompanied each other. The superior geographical location has created good conditions for cultural exchanges, accelerated the circulation of classics from various countries, and provided large-scale translation activities. Provides a wealth of source text.

Damascus, the capital of the former Umayyad dynasty, was handed over to Muslim rule after several regime changes. Prior to this, Damascus was an important center of Greco-Roman culture, with Greek as the official language, while the new capital of the Abbasid dynasty, Baghdad, was close to Persia. Ctesiphon, the old capital of the Sassanid Dynasty, was influenced by Persian culture before Islamic cultural rule. Therefore, during the translation movement at that time, a considerable number of Persian translators participated in the translation, and a large number of Persian classics were translated into Arabic and retained . "The Persian influence set back the original life of the Arabians, and paved the way for a new era characterized by the development of science and academic research." By translating classic works of other ethnic groups, cultural exchanges between different ethnic groups can be realized. Translation Played an important role as a bridge. At the same time, the Persian aristocracy made great contributions to the establishment of the Abbasid dynasty and was quite influential in the regime. The caliph also urgently needed the support of this force to promote cultural integration and identity identification among different ethnic groups. Therefore, geopolitical factors are undoubtedly one of the important driving forces for the vigorous development of the Abbasid dynasty translation movement.

2.Religious factors:

In the early days of the Umayyad dynasty, the domestic political situation was basically stable, but there were still some political opponents and religious scholars dissatisfied with the rule. The influence of Christianity still exists. Islam, as a relatively young faith, has impacted on different religions and cultures. Make efforts to gain a firm foundation. In the early days of the rise of Islam, the spread of teachings could only be done through word of mouth, and academic interpretation was mainly based on the Koran. Except for Arabic and Islam, the early Muslims failed to import advanced culture or science and technology into the conquered areas, and only focused on consolidating the rule of Islam in the Arab region. The purpose of early translation activities was limited to promoting the dissemination of Islamic culture. For religious purposes, the original intent of religious works was greatly changed during the translation process. Although this practice can play a certain missionary role, it violates the basic principles of translation, fails to accurately convey the original information, and loses the inheritance significance of the original.

After the establishment of the Abbasid dynasty, the Islamization of the empire further deepened, and at the same time a batch of fresh religious and cultural blood was injected. The Quran is more tolerant towards foreign denominations such as Judaism and Christianity. Especially for Christians, the Quran calls them “the closest people to Muslims”. Under the guidance of this doctrine, “The Abbasid Empire has become an Islamic empire instead of a Umayyad-style “Arab Empire”. A large number of infidels and Muslims intermarried, reducing the ideological gap between various ethnic groups. Translator The religious structure of the group has been substantially adjusted. The converts filtered by Islamic ideology brought an active academic atmosphere and non-Islamic theological concepts, and multidisciplinary systems such as linguistics, literature, law, philosophy, and mathematics were gradually formed.

Islamic culture was further enriched in the Abbasid dynasty. The spirit of advocating knowledge and scholarship became the spiritual source of the translation movement during this period. The increasingly diversified inner religious spirit became the source of the translation movement, and promoted the translators of different religions. Translation behavior and multiple beliefs collide with each other, the scale of translation continues to expand, and the types and content of translations are also enriched by the tolerance of religious and cultural attitudes. The prosperity of the translation movement was promoted by many factors. At the religious and cultural level, the acceptance of various religious beliefs is a prerequisite for the vigorous development of the translation movement. If Muslims completely reject paganism and force other believers to convert to Islam, the participation of Christians or Jews in translation activities will be greatly reduced, the diversity of translator groups will be combated, and the perspective of translation research will inevitably be affected.

3.Science and technology factors:

In terms of science and technology, two factors have jointly promoted the development of translation, one is the foundation of early document translation, and the other is the introduction of papermaking.

The Prophet Muhammad said: “Learning is divided into two categories: religious learning and physical learning (medicine).” Translators of the Umayyad Dynasty followed this precept and performed sporadic translations of works on medicine, philosophy, and chemistry. , Pave the way for the emergence of the golden age of the translation movement in the later dynasties. "As for the natural sciences such as medicine, logic, and mathematics of the Islamic nation, it has been systematic from the beginning. Because partial research on it has already been carried out in Greece, India, Persia and other countries, and it has been sorted and recorded. It’s the stage of analysis and analysis. In the Abbasid era, these subjects were completely translated into Arabic without starting from scratch. Perhaps, when the writers of the paraphrasing subjects saw the rigorous system of natural science, they copied their practices. Some styles that they think are good have been added.” The scientific inquiry and translations of works in early Islam facilitated the prosperity of the translation movement, and Abbasid translators only needed to review the documents based on the collated documents. Or retranslation, which greatly improves the accuracy of translation.

The status of the development of emerging technologies in the Arab translation movement is undeniable, but technological development is equally important to the spread of early civilizations and is not unique to the Abbasid dynasty, so it cannot be used as a unique motivation for the emergence of large-scale translation activities in the Abbasid dynasty. However, the introduction of papermaking technology did make an indelible contribution to the cultural heritage of the empire. The first paper mill in the empire was located in Samarkand on the Silk Road in Central Asia. In the centuries before it was conquered by Islam, this city was already one of the most prosperous cities in the Persian Empire, and it was the academic center of Persia until the Middle Ages. The smooth flow of Eastern Commercial Road brought papermaking technology to Muslim countries. The introduction of papermaking has obvious influence on the translation movement. The Arabs replaced expensive parchment with relatively inexpensive paper, which made writing records and book circulation more convenient and expanded. People's demand for academic works has promoted the large-scale emergence of translation movement.

4.Translation ability factor：

Maimon, the seventh caliph of the Abbasid dynasty, established a "wisdom palace" on the basis of the Mansour Royal Library to recruit academic elites from all walks of life for translation work. The historian Yakubi once described the academic style in Baghdad: "Scholars in Baghdad have a higher education level, where experts are more knowledgeable in tradition, grammarians are more reliable in syntax... Logicians think more clearly Missionaries are also more eloquent.” Although the translators of this period were not true translators, they all had received strict philosophical and logical training. Some Syrian Christians specially returned to Greece to study in order to improve their language skills. They used Syriac as their mother tongue as a translation agency and played an important role in the translation movement. The translators in the Abbasid period built bridges between different languages and cultures with their outstanding professional ability, serious translation attitude and unlimited enthusiasm for science, which became another important driving force for the vigorous development of translation movement.

With the popularization of academic knowledge and the dissemination of various books, the scientific and cultural literacy of translators has also been comprehensively improved. The increase in knowledge reserves in astronomy, medicine, philosophy, etc. makes translation activities not only at the level of mechanical code switching. , But based on understanding and even proficiency in the meaning of the text, improving the level of translation in terms of translation quality and translation speed.

== Baghdad Translation Center ==

Baghdad Translation Center:

Before the Arab conquest, there was a tradition of studying ancient Greek cultural classics and translating them into Syriac. With the expansion of Islamic countries and the spread of religion, Arabic was popularized as an official language. At that time, there were many Syrians, Persians, Egyptians, Jews, Bebers, Spanish, Sicilians, and even Italians have become Muslims, and the Arabic language has been greatly popularized. During the reign of the Caliph dynasty, due to its rulers' enthusiasm for academic research and translation, under the impetus of the rulers, the Arab region in the Middle Ages became the center of science and translation.

Baghdad was the capital of the Abbasid Caliph dynasty. The rulers of the dynasty strongly supported the translation and paid the translators a very substantial compensation. With the support of the caliph ruler, a large number of Syrian, ancient Persian and Sanskrit texts were translated. At that time, they were most interested in medicine and philosophy. The choice of translation work text was not only political and cultural, but the personal interests of the current caliph and courtiers were also important factors. The Arab world attaches great importance to astronomy and calendar, mainly for the service of its religion. They used astronomy and calendar to accurately calculate the exact time of the five prayers, so that they could give the correct latitude and longitude coordinates facing the holy city of Mecca in any Islamic mosque for pilgrimage and prayer, and accurately calculated the time of fasting The exact number of days of the period. Therefore, many caliphs of the Abbasid dynasty paid great attention to the translation of astronomy and calendar classics. During the reign of the third-generation caliph Harun Al-Rashid (Harun Al-Rashid, said to be the prototype of the protagonist in the story of "The Thousand and One Nights"), the "Treasury of Knowledge" library was Established, it contains a large number of trophies of Greek literature and science obtained by defeating Byzantium. By the time of the fourth caliph Al-Mamun (reigned 813-833), Mamun was built in Baghdad in 830 AD The “House of Wisdom” (House of Wisdom), which is larger than the “Treasure House of Knowledge”, aims to translate the scientific and philosophical works of ancient Greece into Arabic. A large number of ancient Syriac, ancient Persian, and texts can be obtained here. In addition to translation, it is worth mentioning that during this period, many ancient Greek texts were translated into Arabic and preserved. In the 9th and 10th centuries AD, the city of Baghdad was the center of a vast translation project whose goal was to translate ancient Greek scientific and philosophical works into Arabic. This event had a profound impact on the development of science and philosophy in the entire Arab world, and directly brought about the dramatic changes in the culture and ideas of the region at that time. At that time, Hunayn Ibn Ishaq was in charge of the translation work. He and his more than 90 people translated a large number of Plato and Aristotle's works: Plato's Dialogues and "The Utopia", Aristotle's Logic Essays Set The Organon, including Categories, On Interpretation, Pior Analytics, Posterior Analytics, Topics, On Sophistical Refutations, The Metaphysics.

In addition to noting the translations of the original authors, the Arab scientists of this period also contained translational elements in their own works. Al-Razi (865-925), the author of the most important medicinal work at the time, was a student of Hunayn’s disciple. His most famous "Medical Integration" actually had a lot of content compiled, and the book collected All the medical knowledge of ancient Greece, India and the Middle East that was known at that time.

Alchemy also emerged in Arab countries during this period. It was initiated by the "mystic" Jabir Ibn Hayyan. He put forward a doctrine in his legacy writings that all things, especially metals, are based on mercury and Formed by the interaction of sulfur. The alchemy of China and Alexandria also had the seeds of this doctrine. Arab alchemists adopted the four-element theory of ancient Greece and imagined that by changing the amount of the elements that make up a metal, one metal can be transformed into another metal.

In the Arab world in the Middle Ages, like other ancient civilizations, encyclopedic scholars also appeared. The most representative one is Omar Khayyam (1048-1131). He was proficient in calendar reforms and algebraic studies, but his " Quartet" made him famous soon after him. His Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam is popular all over the world, and there have been hundreds of versions so far. His poems are recognized as the treasure of world literature and become the pride of ancient Persian literature.

During this period, Al-Khwarizmi (?-835) introduced Indian numbers and Indian algorithms to Arab countries, and later spread them to the world through Europe, which is what we now call "Arabic numbers".

The "Palace of Wisdom" established in 830 AD was the result of Arab absorbing the cultural wealth of China, India, Persia, and ancient Greece. A large number of translation activities continued until the decline of the empire in the 13th century. Translation has had a profound impact on the development of science and philosophy throughout the Arab world. For translators in Baghdad, the translation works play the role of raw materials, and the translated text is not the goal, but the catalyst that stimulates the original ideas and products of knowledge. Therefore, translators regard translation as a creative process, and the translation is often accompanied by comments, summaries or explanatory notes to make the original text easier to understand. Translators are often experts in the field of their translation. In translation, they not only exert their own understanding and comprehensive ability, but also practice their own creativity. A new ideological system was established with the help of translation and became the basis of Arab-Muslim culture. In this context, the prosperous Arab astronomy took the lead in blooming flowers from here, forming the so-called "Baghdad School" of later generations. The works of Alaba during this period were translated into Latin by later European academic circles, which in turn influenced the entire Western civilization.

== The Influence of the Arabic Translation Movement ==

The Influence of the Translation Movement

The Abbasid dynasty was the golden age of the Arab translation movement. The academic research and cultural activities carried out on the basis of translation completely changed the early material and spiritual scarcity of the Arab nation, promoted the development of natural sciences in the Middle Ages, and gave birth to Arab- Islamic culture.

1.Promotion of the development of natural sciences:

In the golden age of the translation movement of the Abbasid dynasty, a large number of natural science and medical works from Persia and Greece were translated into Arabic. Translators learn astronomy and geography in the translation process, digest the source text and perform creative translation, use Arabic to annotate and explain the unclear or obscure meanings of the original text, and then use the target language that is easy for Muslims to output, which enhances The universality of the text promoted the popularization of Muslim science and culture. "In the eighty years after the establishment of the Abbasid dynasty, the cultural essence of the above-mentioned peoples has been recorded in Arabic. I didn’t know anything about arithmetic, geometry, medicine and other terms, and I knew Aristotle’s logic. Arabs who have never heard of philosophy can use Arabic to express Euclid’s most refined theories, express the law of sines in Indian mathematics, and express Aristotle’s Materialism, Ptolemy’s principles of astronomy, Galen’s medicine, Bizley’s motto, and the politics of the Persian king.” By studying translations, the Arabs built an Islamic medical system on the basis of native medicine. From theory to clinical practice, it has corrected and made up for the medical gap before the Abbasid dynasty. During the Abbasid period, medical achievements have been fruitful and have attracted worldwide attention. At the same time, research in the fields of pharmacology, botany, mathematics, and physics has gradually deepened, and many authoritative works have been published, which have made inestimable contributions to the development of modern science in China, the Arab world, and Europe, and even the development of human civilization. contribute.

Whether it is for the caliph’s personal preferences or serving in religious ceremonies, the translation of astrological and astronomical works has promoted the development of modern Arab science and technology. Some translators became astronomers or scientists by translating classics, thus realizing the transformation of their identities. After reading the translated works, many Arabs developed a keen interest in astronomy and mathematics, and then continued to translate. The main works of Euclid and Ptolemy were also translated into Arabic during this period. The translation of classics and scientific development promoted each other, and academic atmosphere became popular for a time.

2.The formation of Arab-Islamic culture:

While the natural sciences are developing vigorously, from the perspective of ideological and cultural analysis, the translation movement gave birth to Arab-Islamic culture. With the expansion of the Abbasid Empire, Islamic civilization was also brought to the vast conquered areas. Islam in the Umayyad period only existed as a foreign religion in the conquered areas. Christianity still has a profound influence there, and the beliefs of residents have not changed much. With the influence of various factors such as intermarriage and political dependence, the Islamization of the Arab empire has gradually advanced in the ruled areas and merged with the local culture into a splendid and complex Arab-Islamic culture. "After the 7th century, Islamic culture rose to become the mainstream culture of the Mediterranean. The Arab Empire became an important center of world culture at that time, and it radiated strongly outward."

The unification of language helps resolve ideological contradictions and promote national cultural identity. During the translation movement, the further popularization of Arabic became the official language of the empire, the civilization of neighboring countries gradually declined, and the status of Arab-Islamic culture gradually took shape. Without the prosperity of the Abbasid translation movement, there would be no new cultural construction of Islamic civilization. Since then, Arab-Islamic culture has shined in Spain. During the Arab rule of the Iberian Peninsula, it had a significant impact on the formation of Spanish national culture and language, and it also left a deep Arab imprint in the formation of European civilization. Although the Arab Empire fell apart due to religious and political struggles, the Arab-Islamic civilization left behind by the translation movement is still shining.

3.Having Promoted the Renaissance in Europe:

In the history of modern science, the Western Middle Ages has been given the image of a "dark age". In the Middle Ages from 500 to 1500 AD, because European countries pursued a religious theology and idealistic view of nature, the priests of the Roman Church only knew that they adhered to the dogma of their church. Religion seriously hindered the development of science. Therefore, Western science was here. The stage of development is unusually slow. The Christian churches in the West had brutally attacked the ancient Greek heritage and regarded this as a heritage related to idolatry that was harmful to the Christian faith. Christians were forbidden to learn more. At that time, the writings of most Greek philosophers and writers were despised. . The Byzantine emperor Constantine even closed the philosophical school in Athens in 529 AD, and this hostile attitude towards Greek heritage continued for centuries. Muslim scholars saved the Greek heritage by studying and in-depth annotations of the writings of Aristotle, Gran, and Ptolemy. It was through the labor of these Muslim scholars that the European countries that were shrouded in the dark age at that time realized their true and forgotten traditions of Greek science and philosophy. It is precisely because of the Arab world's translation of ancient Greek and Roman scientific and philosophical works that the natural and human sciences in ancient Greek and Roman cultures were preserved, so that the translation of Arabic documents in Europe in the late Middle Ages promoted European politics In this regard, the cultural revival is indispensable for the contribution of the Arab Translation Movement.

== Conclusion==

The Abbasid dynasty was the second hereditary dynasty of the Arab Empire, which lasted for more than five hundred years. The translation movement that flourished in this era pushed Arab-Islamic culture to its peak under the multiple combined forces. Although the power of the Arab empire in the second half of the 9th century was declining and the Caliphate came to an end, its cultural influence has never diminished. With the advancement of international cultural exchanges between countries, the Arab translation movement still has important practical significance:

First of all, cultural exchanges between countries in the world are becoming more and more frequent. Translation disciplines are no longer limited to the language field. Interdisciplinary translation has become a future trend. It is a new type of challenge;

secondly, a good academic environment is a prerequisite for promoting knowledge progress and achieving academic innovation. During the Abbasid dynasty, translation activities were organized and carried out on a large scale under the call of the state, focusing on and rewarding academic activities, and setting up academic institutions. The academic atmosphere of the entire Baghdad city was strong, and the natural sciences and social sciences had been developed by leaps and bounds. This provides a reference for the further construction of the academic environment of other countries.

Furthermore, the development of science and technology has closely linked the countries of the world, and the collision of multiculturalism has become the theme of the development of civilization in the world today. The reason for the success of the Arab translation movement is that Muslims' tolerance towards other religions and foreign cultures is a crucial part. This is also the main reason why Arab-Islamic culture has absorbed the millennium culture of ancient Greece and Rome in a century. In summary, the Abbasid dynasty’s open and inclusive attitude towards academic activities led the Arab translation movement into a golden age. The vigorous development of the translation movement during this period promoted the progress of the natural sciences of the Arab Empire, and laid a solid academic foundation for the early inheritance of science and culture, as well as the exchanges and mutual learning between Eastern and Western civilizations. Despite the decline of the Arab empire, the characteristics of Arab-Islamic culture will continue in new ways. In the contemporary era, the Abbasid dynasty translation movement provides the world with a deeper historical perspective, and provides a useful reference for the training of translators and cultural exchanges in various countries around the world.

Although the vigorous Arab translation movement for a century has been obliterated in the long river of history, the impact of the Arab-Islamic culture produced is far-reaching. Throughout the long history, one can still hear the voices of many Muslims and non-Muslim scholars struggling to translate manuscripts in the "Wisdom Hall", as well as their clamor for truth and academic culture; you can still hear the Arab Muslims in "for Allah" Under the slogan of "War", the screams of expansion riding on a war horse; I can still imagine the amazing scenes of Arab merchants traveling thousands of miles and sailing merchant ships to China and Scandinavia. Under the influence of the strong Arab-Islamic culture, the people of the Arab empire have discarded national and racial differences and formed a spirit of "Muslim brothers and sisters" psychologically. This strong culture and common psychological cognition give Arab-Islamic culture a tenacious vitality, and it still arouses echoes from time to time in Arab countries and the Islamic world.

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= Brief history of French translation =
李怡 Li Yi ,Hunan Normal University ,China
== Abstract==
The purpose of this article is to make a brief introduction to the translation history of France. The history of French translation began in the Middle Ages: with the development of Christianity and nationalism, the royal family hired translators to translate the Bible. The Renaissance in the 16th century, as well as economic and educational development, increased the demand for reading and writing, thus promoting the development of translation, most of the translated works are classical works. Then two religious films appeared in France: Jansenists and Jesuit, which had a great influence on the translation schools of that time. During the Enlightenment in the 18th century, France was deeply influenced by Britain, so most of the works in this period were British progressive thoughts and literature. The Industrial Revolution in the second half of the 18th century increased French scientific and technological translation. With the progress of the French Revolution, French translators are more inclined to the economic and political and judicial fields. After the Second World War, the translation industry in France recovered and developed vigorously. France even set up ESIT（École Supérieure d'Interprètes et de Traducteurs）to train senior translators. In the 20th century, there appeared many translation theorists in France, which promoted the professionalization of translation.
== Key words==
Renaissance, French translation, contemporary, French Revolution
== Introduction==
As a developed country in the west, France has a very long translation history. Translators and translation theories emerge in endlessly, which can not be ignored in the history of translation. At the same time, with the development of globalization, translation theories in various countries learn from and integrate with each other. Among them, French translation theory also plays a very important role. Therefore, it is necessary to comb the history of French translation and study the translators of relevant times and their relevant theories.
==1.Medieval French translation based on Bible Translation==
In the middle ages, translation in various countries was deeply influenced by religion, especially the translation of the Bible, which greatly promoted the development of translation. In France, the royal family specially hired translators to translate various Latin and Greek works for the imperial court. The most prominent court interpreter was Nicholas Oresme of the Charles V Dynasty. Aristotle's works translated by him in 1377 had a great impact on the French translation and philosophy circles at that time. Jean de Vigne translated the Latin Bible in French in 1340. In addition, Jean de malkaraume, J argyropylos and others translated the works of Virgil, Ovid, Aristotle, Plato and contemporary writers at the same time.
==2.Renaissance: the development of French translation==
The Renaissance is the development period of French translation theory. The main representatives are Dolet and Jacques Amyot, especially the former. In the 16th century, there was an upsurge of translation in France. During this period, the focus of translation shifted from religious translation such as the Bible to classical literature translation. Religious translation abides by the translation principle of "word to word" . Its purpose is to follow the will of God and avoid blasphemy. This is irrefutable, so there are not many translation theories to speak of. However, as a new genre, the translation of literary works is different from the previous religious translation. Translators face many new problems, so translation theory came into being. Dolet and amyot are the most prominent representatives of translation theory in this period. They are both translators and translation theorists, and the latter wins especially by translation. Both their translation theories come from translation practice, so they are persuasive. Dolet is famous for his "five principles of translation". "Five principles of translation" comes from his paper on how to translate well published in 1540 ,La manière de bien traduire d’une langue à l’autre. 1. the translator must fully understand the content of the translated work; 2.The translator must be familiar with the target language and the target language; 3.The translator must avoid word by word translation; 4.The translator must adopt the popular language form; 5.The translator must select words and adjust word order to make the translation produce the effect of appropriate tone. (Tan Zaixi,2004:71)These five principles involve the criterion of "faithfulness" in translation, the translator's bilingual ability, translation methods, style and style of translation. Amyot is one of the greatest translators in the history of French translation. He is known as the "king of translation". His translation has had a great impact on that time and future generations. He follows two principles in Translation: 1. The translator must understand the original text and make great efforts in the translation of content; 2.The translation must be simple and natural without any decoration. The first involves the standard of faithfulness in translation, and the second involves the style of translation. These two principles are similar to the first and fifth of Dolet's five translation principles.

==3.The 17th century: the climax of French translation and various translation schools==
After the Renaissance, classicism deeply influenced France. In the translation circle at that time, people were engaged in the translation of classical works on a large scale. Translation has launched a magnificent "dispute between ancient and modern" around the translation methods of classical works. Some translators pay more attention to the past than the present: they pay attention to the imitation of words with sentences, and praise the so-called accurate translation method. Some translators prefer to use the opposite translation method.
In the 17th century, the most famous French translator was Perrot d’Ablancourt,, His translation is sophisticated and elegant, both meaningful and beautiful, and easy to understand. There are no words that need to be explained in order to clarify the meaning in the translation, and there are no annoying cliches. Therefore, he has a great reputation for a long time. His characteristic is to take an original work and grasp the main idea. No matter what the original style is, as long as the translation is literary and readable and can make contemporary readers love and welcome, he will do whatever he can to add or delete the content at any cost, and modify it if he can, regardless of the accuracy of the translation. At that time, this literary and beautiful translation method attracted many followers, but it was also criticized by many people as "beautiful but unfaithful".By the end of the 17th century, those who advocated free translation were overwhelmingly in favor, while those who really advocated accurate translation were few and far between. The earliest theorist to advocate accurate translation was Bachet de Méziriac in the mid-17th century. In December 1635, he published an essay entitled "on translation" at the French academy, stating that translators must observe three principles :1.do not stuff the original work with personal goods; 2.The original work shall not be abridged; 3.No alteration may be made detrimental to the original intention.
As one of the most influential translators in France in the 17th century, Daniel Huet, worshipped classical literature and clearly advocated accurate translation. He criticized both post-modern translators and unfaithful translators abranguel. He believes that the best translation method is: the translator first closely follows the original author's meaning; Secondly, if possible, stick to his words; Finally, try to reproduce his character as much as possible; The translator must carefully study the character of the original author, not delete, weaken, add and expand, and faithfully make it complete as the original. His translation principles are: the only goal of translation is to be accurate. Only by accurately imitating the original in language can it be possible to accurately convey the original author's meaning; The translator has no right to choose words or change word order arbitrarily, because "Deviation" from the original text will lead to deviation from the original meaning. His translation theory has been praised by many people, but due to the lack of practice, his theory is not attractive to translators.
In the 17th century, there were also two representatives from inaccurate translation to accurate translation,François Maucroix and Jacques de Tourreil.
François Maucroix is regarded by contemporary and later critics as one of the most outstanding French translators in the 17th century and the first person to translate demesne in the 17th century. In addition to demesne, he also translated the works of Plato and others. Maucroix received the education of the Jesuit Church in his early years, was greatly influenced by the Jesuit Church, loved debating literature, and paid attention to ingenious expression and beautiful language style.
His early translations were inaccurate in content, style or written expression. He liked to modernize ancient terms and expressions. In 1685, his style changed, and his translation became more accurate, which seemed to have completely corrected the defects of procrastination and weakness in his early translation. The reason can be seen from his letters with Boileau in the last decade of the 17th century. He regarded Boileau not only as the most important representative of classical literature, but also as an authority on translation theory. Therefore, he always sent the translation to Boileau for revision. Boileau read the manuscript carefully, criticized some paragraphs and put forward better translation methods. In his reply, Maucroix said that Poirot's criticism of some of his inaccurate translations was pertinent, and his opinions on the revision were also very good. He admitted that the inaccurate translation was a mistake and must be completely corrected. He finally realized that translators must adhere to the principle of accurate translation if they want to become real classicists.
Jacques de Tourreil also experienced a change from inaccurate translation to accurate translation, which is reflected in his translation of three different versions of Demosthenes. In 1691, he published his first translation, which was influenced by the education of the Jesuit and paid attention to elegant style rather than accurate content. Tourreil processed the original work in the most ingenious way to modernize the ancients. After the translation was published, it was immediately severely criticized by Racine. After being criticized, Tourreil published a revised version in 1710, but the revised version actually only made detailed changes to the original translation, and the guiding principle of translation remains unchanged, that is, we must "make the characteristics of the original work conform to the characteristics of our nation". The new translation has received various comments. On the one hand, the ancient school refers to Tourreil 's attempt to impose new ideas on Demosthenes, believing that he not only did not beautify the original work, but distorted and vilified the original work. On the other hand, the present school believes that Tourreil's unfaithful translation of the original is better than the original, which is worth applauding. Tourreil himself is an ancient school. Naturally, he doesn't appreciate the present school's praise and thinks that this praise is "the most severe criticism to the translator". After that, he revised the translation for the third time, which is very different from the first two versions. It was not only a rare and accurate translation at that time, but also extremely beautiful. The translator translates in strict accordance with the original work, neither adding or subtracting nor making changes. By this time Tourreil had fundamentally changed his point of view.
Discussing the history of French translation from the 17th century to the 18th century is bound to involve the influence of Jesuit and Jansenists. The main reason is that the people engaged in education at that time were members of these two schools. They had direct or indirect contact with each translation school through their own translation practice and teaching.
The Jesuit believes that classical literature is worth studying and learning only in the aspect that it provides moral education or guides people how to learn eloquence. The excavation of classical works is not because their contents are of great value, but because of their beautiful forms. Teachers believe that the purpose of teaching is not so much to enable students to obtain substantive knowledge as to enable them to obtain formal learning identity.
The works translated by Jesuit teachers or students generally have an obvious sign, that is, they do not pay much attention to the spiritual essence of the original work, but only pay attention to the expression of the original thought and the beauty of the translation style. In order to achieve this, translators often sacrifice the content, even misinterpret the original meaning, and religiously turn classical literary works. Therefore, the origin of inaccurate translation in the 17th century is often influenced by Jesuit thought.
Jansenists is the second school that directly or indirectly affects translation principles. They believe that once students can read and write, they should read these translations in order to obtain basic knowledge about the original author and facilitate more and better reading of the original works in the future. In the early days, the views of the janssenian translators and the Jesuit translators were basically the same. Later, the translators of Jansenists believed that the practice of style for style in translation was also dangerous. However, towards the middle of the 17th century, their views changed and they believed that the style of ancient Greek and Latin writers, especially the style of ancient Greek writers, was worth learning. They really appreciate classical works more than the Jesuits. They admit that the language style of the ancients is superior to that of the present, but the present enjoys more inspiration from God, so the present surpasses the ancients in terms of thought and morality. In this way, no matter from which perspective, their views are completely consistent with those of ancient school. But the translation of Jansenists is far less elegant and beautiful than that of the Jesuits.
==4.The decline of French translation in the 18th century and the translator Charles Batteux==
In the 18th century, France was not as powerful as in the 16th and 17th centuries, nor was it culturally complacent. So she began to look at other countries' literature, first of all England. For example, the novels of the contemporary British sentimentalist writer Richard Were translated into French, which had a great influence on the development of French sentimentalist literature. In particular, the Chinese culture, which had been introduced to Europe for a long time, became more active in France in the 18th century. Although the number of translations is large, the quality is often not high.
Charles Batteux was one of the most important translators in France in the 18th century. He was one of the most influential literary and translation theorists in France and the whole Europe in the 18th century. He edited and published a variety of translation books, translated aristoteles, Horace and many other classical works of ancient Greece and Rome, wrote Principes de Litterature, Cours de Belles-Lettres and other works. Batteux elaborated his thoughts and views on translation in The Principles of Treatise. His original views and excellent exposition made this book an important milestone in the development of translation theory in the 18th century.
The fifth part of Principes de Litterature deals with translation problems.The theory of Charles Batteux obviously has the characteristics of philosophers, linguists, philology and translation. In other words, Charles Batteux discusses the principles of translation mainly from the perspective of general linguistic skills, rather than literary creation. He proposed the following 12 rules for dealing with word order in translation: 1. We must not alter the order of what the original says, either as fact or inference. 2. We should also preserve the order of ideas in the original text. 3. No matter how long the original sentence is, it should be kept intact in the translation, for a sentence is a thought in which the different elements are related to each other, and their correlation constitutes a kind of harmony. 4.All the conjunctions in the original text should be preserved. It is these conjunctions, so to speak, that hold the sentence elements together. 5. All adverbs should be placed either before or after the verb, depending on the harmony and momentum of the sentence. 6.Symmetrical sentences should be translated into symmetrical sentences. 7. Colorful ideas should be expressed in as much space as possible in the translation so as to maintain the same brilliance. 8. Rhetorical devices and forms of speech used to express ideas must be preserved in the translation. 9. We must translate short and pithy sayings that people like, or translate them into words that are natural and can be used as proverbs. 10. Interpretation is incorrect and incomplete because it is no longer a translation but a commentary. However, if there is no other way to convey the meaning of the original text, the translator has no choice but to use interpretation. 11. For the sake of meaning, we must abandon all forms of expression in order to make ourselves intelligible; Abandon emotion in exchange for a lively translation; Give up harmony for the pleasure of translation. 12. The idea of the original text can be expressed in different forms, combined or broken up by the words used to express it, and expressed by verbs, adjectives, nouns and adverbs, as long as its essence remains unchanged（Tan Zaixi,2004:98）.

==5.The revival of French translation in the 19th century and its rich translators==
Another high tide of French translation came in the 19th century, when a large number of English, German, Italian, Spanish and Latin literary works were translated, such as Shakespeare, Milton, Byron, Shelley in England, Goethe and Schiller in Germany, Dante in Italy, and Spanish folk songs. The most prominent remains the translation of Shakespeare's works. If the 18th century was Shakespeare's Silver age in France, the 19th was the golden age. In the 19th century, people not only worshiped Shakespeare's works, but also worshipped him, and Shakespeare fever spread throughout France. From 1800 to 1910, at least eight different translations of Shakespeare's complete works were produced in France, of which francois-Victor Hugo is the best. Hugo's father was Victor Hugo, a great writer. With Hugo's assistance and cooperation, the complete works of Shakespeare were translated between 1859 and 1867. This translation has faithfully retained the unique rhythm of the play, so it has been praised by critics as the second milestone in the history of French translation of Shakespeare's plays, even more important than Letourne's famous translation in the late 18th century.
Famous French translators in the 19th century included Francoise-René de Chateaubriand, Gérard de Nerval, and Charles Baudelaire. Chateaubriand is another epoch-making translator in France after Amio. His translation is faithful and beautiful. His literal translation of Milton's Paradise Lost is one of the outstanding French translations with its melodious and poetic tone. Nerval is best known for his translation of Goethe's Faust in prose style. In 1830 Goethe saw Nerval's translation and praised it as better than his original. Baudelaire, another famous poet of this period, was one of the earliest French translators of American literature and the first translator of Allan Poe. For 13 years from 1852 to 1865, he wrote, translated and commented on the complete works of Allan Poe. Baudelaire found what he was pursuing in Allan Poe's works, and believed that he and the author were in the same spirit, so that the translation could be in touch with the author. The translation was smooth and natural, just like the French creation, and was listed as an excellent classic of French prose.
==6.The specialization of French translation in the 20th century and the maturity of translation theory==
The 20th century has been the heyday of French translation theory. The characteristics of French translation in this period are: since the end of the Second World War, due to practical needs, commercial, diplomatic, scientific and technological aspects of the translation boom(Chen Shunyi,2014:6), its momentum even more than literary translation, thus forming a major content of the development of modern western translation; The study of translation theory is unprecedented and has produced translation theorists who have an important influence on the history of translation in the world. Before the First World War, the two countries used the language of power in business transactions, and French, which was considered the language of diplomacy at international conferences and other diplomatic occasions, did not have much problem in translation. However, after the end of the First World War, French lost its dominance, and English rose to take the lead with French, forming a situation in which French and English were used together. The Paris Peace Conference of 1919 was the beginning of this situation. Later, the European Union has 24 official languages, which means that translation has become an indispensable part of daily work, whether it is communication between countries in other regions or between western countries. With the increase of cooperation between countries, the need for translators is increasing. To meet this need, a number of schools specializing in training translators have been set up. One of the most prominent is ESIT（École Supérieure d'Interprètes et de Traducteurs）.
ESIT was founded in 1957, set up the department of Oral translation and pen translation, initially only opened several European languages, since 1972 added Chinese, now a total of English, Chinese, Russian, Arabic, French, German, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, Danish, Swedish, Icelandic and other languages translation courses. Later, on the basis of the original two departments, the School added a department of Translation Studies, specializing in the study of language and translation theory, with the right to confer doctoral degrees. After graduation, most of the students apply for translation departments of international institutions, and some graduates apply for the work license of free translators to relevant institutions of various countries in order to work freely and not apply for the work license of free translators to international institutions. Over the years, ESIT has trained a number of senior translators for the foreign affairs departments of the United Nations, the European Community (EU) and western countries.
Another characteristic of modern French translation is that French translators are organized in large numbers, setting up various translation associations and establishing various translation publications. Each association has its own purpose and purpose to carry out its work effectively. There are two major translation associations in France: the Association of French Translators and the Association of French Literary Translators. The Association of French Literary Translators was founded in 1973 as a splinter from the Association of Translators. Its entry requirements are the most stringent of any of its kind. Only highly qualified translators are eligible to join. Applicants must have at least one translation, which is carefully reviewed against the original work by a special selection committee. The aims of the association are :1.to improve the quality of French literature and literary translation publications; 2.To protect the rights and interests of members in respect of copyright, remuneration and working conditions of translated works; 3.Do not participate in any political activities. Since its establishment, the association has held many lectures and lectures, and its members have published many articles on translation in such authoritative publications as le Monde and New Literature. Through this series of business activities, it has become the most distinctive and vocal translation organization in France.
In the first half of the 20th century, the French translation theorist J.Marouzeau is worth a book. He is a professor at the University of Paris and editor in chief of Année Philologique. In 1931, he published a pamphlet called La Traduction du Latin. The theory is as follows:1.Translation is, first of all, a skill. Maruzzo does not deny that translation is an art and a science, and that it is more of a skill. To master it, we mainly rely on rich practical experience, solid language knowledge and flexible translation methods. 2.In order to reach as many readers as possible, the translator's primary task, like linguists, educators and exegetists, is to reveal to the reader what the source text is, not what it covers. 3.The purpose of using a dictionary is not to translate, but to understand. It is a puzzling view, but it is not hard to discern the truth in it. He points out that translators must learn to use dictionaries, but must first understand what problems they are using them to solve. Latin, for example, is very different from French, he said. Latin words are not related to each other, and there is no strict word order, which must be added to a French translation to make the translation smooth. Dictionaries don't help in this respect. They define a particular word in inverse proportion to its simplicity, thus leaving the translator in a difficult position to choose between many different translations. Therefore, the main purpose of using a dictionary is not to find ready-made words, but to understand the meaning of the original text, to explain the text of the original text, and then produce a translation on this basis. At the same time, Marouzeau points out that words from different sources must be interpreted differently. 4.Translation is not guesswork. This is especially important. When encountering difficulties, the translator must carefully consider and avoid any "preconceived ideas", because in translation, the first thought of meaning or expression is often not the most correct or best. 5.Translation must be in living language. This was a popular idea in England in the 17th and 18th centuries. Marouzeau said that to translate Latin into French, if you need to introduce an old expression, you have to turn to a living language so that the translation is alive. That is to say, the translator must ask: if the original author were alive today and writing in French, how would he express the same thing? But Marouzeau also points out that this is not a generalization, and that for some passages, especially those of Ovid, "a bit of antiquity is most appropriate in French translation".
The following is an introduction to Georges Mounin, a famous French translation theorist in the second half of the 20th century. He devoted his life to the teaching and research of linguistics and translation theory with outstanding achievements. He is regarded as the founder and most important representative of linguistic theory in contemporary French translation studies. Major theoretical works include Le belles infidèles , Les problèmes théorique de la traduction, La machine à traduire: Histoire des problèmes linguistiques, Linguistique et traduction, Semiotic praxis, etc. Among them, Les problèmes théorique de la traduction is the most praised by contemporary Western translation theorists. As mentioned above, this book uses the basic theories and methods of modern linguistics to explain translation, and sets up the first clear-cut flag of linguistic school in the field of Translation studies in France.
The core idea of Mounin 's book is that he thinks translation belongs to linguistics, so it should be studied, understood and explained by means of modern linguistics. To establish an effective translation theory, it has to for translation and the translation of basic problems related to make a scientific understanding of these problems include the nature of translation, translation and the meaning of vocabulary, grammatical structure, the relationship between translation and the objective world, the world's image), the relationship between translation and language universals and language features, the relationship between the processing of language features in translation, and so on. Mounin 's discussion of translation theory revolves around these questions.
What exactly is a translation? What kind of discipline should translation studies belong to and what kind of methods should be adopted? And so on. Such problems have always been the most concerned by translation researchers but have not been properly explained. Mounin believes that translation is a special and universal language activity, which naturally belongs to the scope of linguistics research, and the research results of language science can be applied to the study of translation problems. Mounin admit that the translation of poetry, the literature such as drama, movies, many factors other than language and paralanguage does play an important role, but the basis of translation activity is mainly to the original and the translation of linguistic analysis, and applied linguistics is more than any other skilled experience can provide accurate and reliable. Of course, from another point of view, especially from the perspective of the development of translation studies as an independent discipline since the 1980s, the practice of classifying translation studies as linguistics has been outdated. However, even if translatology is regarded as an independent discipline, its independence is only relative. Since translation (interlingual and intralingual translation) necessarily involves language, translation studies should not and cannot be completely free from the influence of linguistics at any time. In this sense, Mounin's view of linguistic translation has always been positive.
Since the 1970s and 1980s, the interpretive school represented by Seleskovitch or the Paris School has emerged in the field of Translation studies in France and become the most remarkable and French characteristic in the post-modern period, thus forming the second major feature of the development of contemporary French translation theory. It should be said that this school does not negate the basic idea of the school of linguistics to study linguistic phenomena, but only opposes the pure linguistic orientation of the school of linguistics and focuses on the research method of form. Interpretive theory holds that translation is a linguistic act, but it requires the participation of extralinguistic knowledge. Whether it is diachronic linguistics in the 19th century, synchronic descriptive linguistics and contrastive structural linguistics in the 20th century, or the later transformational generative grammar theory, it ignores the pragmatic context as the main component of language communication, so it cannot reasonably explain translation problems. Based on practice, the theory of interpretation studies translation as a linguistic act, and interprets and conveys the meaning of language from linguistic factors, cultural factors, and extralinguistic factors, so as to give a scientific and reasonable explanation to the reality of translation.
An important feature of interpretive translation theory is to reveal the essence of translation as communicative behavior from practice. Interpretivism holds that translation is a kind of linguistic act, which, like language use, must be supported by non-linguistic knowledge. However, as an act, the object of translation is not language, but meaning, which is the communicative meaning of the text. The output of meaning requires the combination of nonverbal thoughts and signs, and the reception of meaning requires the conscious behavior of the addressee. The arrangement of words is only a means of meaning formation for the originator of words. The understanding and grasp of meaning need to get rid of the original language form. The acquisition of meaning is instantaneous, not staged. Meaning is not the sum of words, but an organic whole, and the comprehension of meaning is completed at the level of discourse.
According to the interpretive theory, language and thought are separated in the translation of translators. Language and thought are not exactly the same thing, but there is a constant two-way communication between them. Thought waves can be transformed into language, and language can be transformed into thought waves. Human knowledge and experience do not reside in the brain in the form of words.
Interpretive theory also holds that understanding requires the participation of cognitive knowledge; The process of comprehension is the process of interpretation. Interpretation is the prerequisite of translation, and translation cannot be carried out without interpretation. Translation, on the other hand, is interpretation. Interpretive translation is a translation of meaning equivalence, which is established between texts. If a translation is to be successful, it is necessary to seek the overall meaning equivalence between the source text and the target text, and the meaning equivalence needs to achieve cognitive and emotional equivalence. Translators use their own abilities to organically combine the cognitive content and emotional content of the source text into an indivisible whole, and then successfully express it. Only in this way can the equivalence of meaning be achieved, which is the essence of the interpretive theory.
The interpretive theory also focuses on fidelity. The translator cannot interpret at will, and his interpretation and understanding can only be faithful to the actual content of the speaker. Although the interpreter interprets in his own words, he conveys the meaning of the speaker and imitates the speaker's style. The interpreter should understand the overall style of the speech, and tend to be consistent with the speaker, should be as far as possible to get rid of the constraints of words, in order to accurately reflect the original style.
== Conclusion==
There may be many deficiencies and omissions in the simple combing of French translation history, but as a powerful and long-standing western developed country, France's translation process and theory have great research and reference significance for China and the world. The world is still developing, so is translation. With the development of modern science and technology, people explore translation more deeply, and new theories are constantly put forward. Therefore, we should seize the trend of the times, base ourselves on China, look at the world and seriously study these excellent theories.
== References==
[1]Chen Shunyi陈顺意（2014）.法国翻译理论源流Sources and schools of French translation theory.法国研究The French Study.
[2]Tan Zaixi谭载喜（2004）.西方翻译简史A Short History of Translation in the West.商务印书馆The Commercial Press.
[3]Xu Jun许均,Yuan Xiao一袁筱一(1998).当代法国翻译理论Contemporary Translation Study in France .湖北教育出版社Hubei Education Press.
[4]Liu Mingjiu柳鸣九,Zheng Kelu郑克鲁,Zhang Yinglun张英伦(1979).法国文学史History of French Literature,人民文学出版社People's Literature Publishing House
[5]Xie Tianzhen谢天振（2009）.中西翻译简史A brief history of Chinese and Western translation,外语教育与研究出版社Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.

=李新星A Comparative Study on The Translation history of Modern Chinese and Korean Literature under the Background of "Western Learning" (1894~1949) =
==Abstract==
The spreading of Western learning to the east is an extensive and far-reaching influence of modern Western culture on eastern civilization, which started from translation as a means of cultural communication.Scholars in China and Korea have always recognized the influence of the eastward spread of Western learning on the development of translation in their countries.However, most studies on modern and contemporary translation take the country as the boundary and rarely talk about the comparison and exchange between the two countries.In fact, although there are some individual differences between Chinese and Korean translation in modern times due to different national conditions, there are also many similarities and connections worthy of attention and research.From the perspective of translation history, this paper will explore the history of literary translation in China and Korea under the trend of western learning to the east, compare the commonness and individuality of the two countries' literary translation practices, explore the historical information behind the translation practices, and finally achieve the purpose of restoring the history of cultural (literary) exchanges between the two countries.

The spreading of western culture to the East was an extensive and far-reaching influence of modern Western culture on Eastern civilization, resulted from translation as a means of cultural communication.Scholars in China and Korea had always recognized the influence of the eastward spread of Western learning on the development of translation in their countries. However, most studies on modern and contemporary translation take the country as the boundary and rarely talk about the comparison and exchange between the two countries.In fact, regardless of some individual differences between Chinese and Korean translation in modern times due to different national conditions, there are also many similarities and connections worthy of attention and research.From the perspective of translation history, this paper will explore the history of literary translation in China and Korea under the trend of western learning to the East, compare the commonness and individuality of the two countries' literary translation practices, dig out the historical information behind the practices, and finally achieve the purpose of restoring the history of cultural exchanges between the two.--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 07:23, 11 December 2021 (UTC)

==Key words==
History of literary translation；“Western Learning”;China;Korea

==摘要==
西学东渐是近代西方文化对东方文明的一次广泛而深远的影响，而这影响首先是从作为文化交流的手段———翻译开始的。一直以来，中韩两国学者都认同西学东渐对本国翻译发展的影响，但现有的研究在探讨近现代翻译时大多以本国为界，很少谈及两国比较和交流。而实际上，虽然因为国情不同，中国与朝鲜半岛的近现代翻译存在一定的个体差异，但同时也有很多相似点和联系点值得关注和研究。本文将从翻译史视角出发，窥探西学东渐时代潮流下中韩两国文学翻译史的面貌，比较两国文学翻译实践的共性和个性，发掘翻译实践背后的历史信息，最终达到还原两国文化 (文学) 交流史的目的。

==关键词==
文学翻译史；“西学东渐”；中国；朝鲜（韩国）

==1.Introduction==
The spreading of Western learning to the east is an extensive and far-reaching influence of modern Western culture on Eastern civilization.Late 19th century to early 20th century,When the West had modernized and gradually replaced the East as the world's dominant power,The three East Asian countries ( China, Japan and Korea), which had been sleeping for a long time, were gradually awakened and embarked on the "journey" of modernization.Among them, In order to achieve a rich country and a strong army, Japan left Asia and entered Europe,Take the lead in taking a series of measures to actively learn from the West and introduce advanced ideas and culture.The main measure is to develop the translation of western literature.Under the influence of such a large environment, the translation of overseas literature in China and the Korean Peninsula has also set off a boom.It can be said that the influence of the eastward spreading of Western learning on the modernization of East Asia began with translation as a means of cultural exchange.
Some scholars have pointed out that in the process of modernization in East Asia represented by Japan,Translation plays an important role.Without translation, East Asia would not have been able to open the door to modernization.This is also true in modern China and the Korean Peninsula.It can be said that after entering the modern society, the cultural exchanges between the two countries were continued through translation --"A history of translation is not only a history of cultural exchange, but also a history of the dissemination of ideas".As we all know, the study of translation history is a "basic project" in the construction of translation discipline.Behrman, a famous translator and translation theorist, once pointed out that "the composition of translation history is the first task of modern translation theory, and self-reflection is the establishment of itself" .The history of literary translation is an important part of the study of translation history and an indispensable factor in the investigation of a country's literature and even the whole cultural background in a particular period.
In view of the above analysis, the author believes that in order to have a macro and in-depth understanding of the cultural exchanges between China and Korea in modern times.It is necessary for us to make a comparative study of literary translation between the two countries during this period (1894 ~ 1949).Writers believe that only by putting literary translation activities into a larger social and historical context can we have a clearer understanding of the translation practices of the two countries at that time.Therefore, from the perspective of translation history, this paper will explore the history of literary translation in China and Korea under the trend of western learning to the east, compare the commonness and individuality of the two countries'literary translation practices, explore the historical information behind the translation practices, and finally achieve the purpose of restoring the history of cultural (literary) exchanges between the two countries.

The spreading of Western learning to the east exerted an extensive and far-reaching influence on Eastern civilization.In the late 19th century to early 20th century,when the West had modernized and gradually replaced the East as the world's dominant power,the three East Asian countries (China,Japan and Korea),which had been sleeping for a long time, were gradually awakened and embarked on the "journey" of modernization. In order to attain prosperity, Japan left Asia and entered Europe, taking a series of measures to actively learn from the West and introduce advanced ideas and culture through the media of translation.Under the influence of such a univerasl situation, the translation of overseas literature in China and the Korean Peninsula had also set off a boom.It could be said that the influence of the eastward spreading of western learning on the modernization of East Asia began with translation as a means of cultural exchange.
Some scholars have pointed out that translation plays an important role in the process of modernization in East Asia represented by Japan.Without translation,East Asia would not have been able to open the door to modernization.This is also true in modern China and the Korean Peninsula.It can be said that after entering the modern society, the cultural exchanges between the two countries were continued through translation --"A history of translation is not only a history of cultural exchange, but also a history of the dissemination of ideas".As we all know, the study of translation history is a "basic project" in the construction of translation discipline.Behrman, a famous translator and translation theorist, once pointed out that "the composition of translation history is the first task of modern translation theory, and self-reflection is the establishment of itself".The history of literary translation is an important part of the study of translation history and an indispensable factor in the investigation of a country's literature and even the whole cultural background in a particular period.
In view of the above analysis, the author believes that in order to have a macro and in-depth understanding of the cultural exchanges between China and Korea in modern times.It is necessary for us to make a comparative study of literary translation between the two countries from 1894 to 1949. Only by putting literary translation activities into a larger social and historical context can we have a clearer understanding of the translation practices of the two countries at that time.Therefore, from the perspective of translation history, this paper will explore the history of literary translation in China and Korea under the trend of western learning to the East, compare the commonness and individuality of the two countries' literary translation practices, explore the historical information behind the practices, and finally achieve the purpose of restoring the history of cultural (literary) exchanges between the two countries.--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 07:34, 11 December 2021 (UTC)

==2. The origin and development of modern translation in both countries ==
After being opened to the outside world, western civilization flooded in. China and North Korea, which had been pursuing the policy of "closing the door to the outside world", began to "open their eyes to the world".From the government to the people, there has been an upsurge in the introduction of advanced Western civilization.Translation plays an important, even decisive role in this process.
====2.1The historical evolution of Modern Translation in China====
As is known to all, Among the three East Asian countries, China is the first to pay attention to the West and understand and learn the West through translation.In the 1860s, after the Westernization Movement, a climax of modern Chinese translation began slowly.Strictly speaking, this translation period can be further divided into two stages, namely, with the Sino-Japanese War of 1894 as the dividing line, the early stage was the translation period dominated by westernization school, and the later stage was the translation period dominated by reformists.If the translation during the Westernization Movement was the primary stage of modern Western learning translation in China, there were still many problems, then the translation activities led by reformists such as Kang Youwei, Liang Qichao and Yan Fu had a greater development in terms of scale, significance and function.From the perspective of translation history, they set up translation institutes and translated western books widely(Especially those that had a great influence on Meiji Restoration in Japan.)Training translation talents, etc.Its scale, breadth of subjects, quantity and quality are unmatched by translation in the Westernization period.It should be noted that since the 1880s, China's interest in learning from the West has shifted from science to politics, education system and so on.In the late Qing Dynasty and early period, literary works gradually became the main object of translation activities.In the minds of the Vixinists represented by Liang Qichao, novels have become the most appropriate tool for political reform, popular enlightenment and the modernization of the country.Thus, beginning in the late 19th and early 20th centuries,Foreign literature has been widely translated into China, and communication channels include not only modern media such as newspapers and magazines, but also single-line books and large-scale translation literature series, which have also produced a series of arguments and discussions on translation methods and techniques.Modern Chinese translation has also entered a new period, that is, from the Ming and Qing period of scientific and technological translation as the mainstream gradually to culture / literature / literary translation as the core of the translation activities period.Overall, the translation of modern foreign literature in China from the end of the 19th century to the period 1949 can be broken down into the following three stages.
The first stage was from the late Qing Dynasty and the early Republic of China to the May 4th Movement in 1919.In December 1898, Liang Qichao translated The Japanese political novel The Adventure of The Beautiful Woman in Qingyi Daily. In 1900, Zhou translated one of the most influential works in Japanese political fiction, Yano Ryuki's "On The Classics of America".Since then, many Japanese political novels have been translated and introduced to China.After a more concentrated translation of political novels, other genres, such as history, science and the popular detective novels, have also been introduced.After 1907, a variety of modern literary magazines sprang up, and a large number of translated novels were published in these magazines in serial form, among which the serialized translated novels in magazines such as "Novel Forest" and "New Novel Cluster" even occupied absolute space, forming the first climax of foreign novel translation.However, it should be emphasized that the translation of literary works in this period was still in the exploratory stage,Although there are a large number of works, there are problems in the selection of works, translation skills and strategies.
The second period is 1916 to 1936. This period can be further subdivided into the May Fourth Movement period and the Left Coalition Period.With the development of the New literature movement, Chinese literary translation has entered the most glorious period in the history of translation.Compared with the late Qing Dynasty, literary translation in this period was larger in scale, higher in quantity and quality, and its influence was unprecedented.It is worth emphasizing that almost all the heavyweights in the history of modern Chinese literature have participated in the translation and introduction.In addition to translation works, they also introduced various literary and artistic thoughts, and actively explored and discussed translation methods and theories.Especially with their active advocacy and hard work, The translation industry in China has been closely integrated with the struggle against imperialism and feudalism.It completely changed the chaotic and unprincipled state of translation circles before the May 4th Movement.In addition, it was from this time that China's translation of Soviet/Russian literature gradually reached its peak.It can be said that the mainstream of Chinese literature translation in the 1930s was Marxist literary trend of thought and progressive literature (especially Soviet/Russian literature).Of course, in addition to Russian/Soviet literature, this period has translated the literature of Britain, The United States, Japan, France, Germany and southeast Northern Europe and Asia.
The third period is from 1937 to 1949. After the war of Resistance against Japan broke out.The translation community, like the rest of the country, has concentrated all its efforts on the cause of saving the nation from extinction and striving for liberation.Therefore, the pace of development of Translation in China slowed down during this period.In spite of this, Chinese writers and translators have overcome various difficulties and translated and published many excellent foreign literary works.During this period, there was a wide range of translations, ranging from western European classical literature to war literature at that time, and even ancient Greek literature and Jewish literature.In terms of genres, there are novels, poems, plays, prose and even some academic works on literary history.A number of famous translators in the history of Chinese translation literature, such as Zhu Shenghao, Ge Baoquan, Fu Lei, Liang Shiqiu, Lin Yutang and so on, are active in literary translation.Of course, the biggest characteristic of this period was the translation of the Soviet Union and other countries anti-fascist war works, in particular, the establishment of the revolutionary translation group "Times Press", published the revolutionary translation publication "Soviet Literature", a large number of Soviet literary and artistic works.

====2.2 The situation of modern and contemporary Translation on the Korean Peninsula and the Influence of China==
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From the end of the 19th century, western civilization began to flow into East Asia on a large scale, and Korea was further plunged into the situation of internal troubles and foreign aggression. Faced with the complicated situation at home and abroad, the enlightened intellectuals of Korea further realized that translating Western books was an important task at that time. As early as 1886, The "Seoul Weekly" published by Powen Bureau had a column specially emphasizing the importance of translation, and proposed to establish a special translation agency to translate foreign books. And six years later, another important newspaper of the day 《Huangcheng News 》also commented, stressing that translation is an important means to enrich the country and strengthen the army and realize modern civilization. We call for the establishment of specialized translation institutions under the guidance of the government "to strengthen the guidance and management of translation. On behalf of this, not only all kinds of news media actively propagated, but also some intellectuals at that time called for the realization of civilization and the prosperity of the country and the strength of the army by translating overseas literature and learning advanced western experience. As a result, the Korean Peninsula at that time set off a boom in the translation of overseas works, especially literary works. Of course, as in China, one of the preconditions for translating Western books in the Korean Peninsula was the development of modern media, which provided a platform for the dissemination of written works at that time. After the 1895-1895 revolution, modern schools were established one after another, and special language schools were set up, which played a positive role in understanding overseas and spreading Western culture, and reserved talents for the translation and introduction of foreign literature.
Generally speaking, the history of translation of foreign works on the Korean Peninsula from 1895 to 1949 can be divided into the following five stages: Patriotic enlightenment period (1895-1910), translation literature awakening period (1911-1919), translation into the proper period (1920-1935), dark Period (1936-1945), Regeneration period (1945 ~1949). We can refer to Kim Byung-chul's Studies on the History of Modern Korean Translation Literature, the earliest and only work on the history of modern Korean Translation literature. However, it is worth noting that Kim Byung-chul's pioneering work has carefully combed and studied the translation history of modern Korean literature from both macro and micro perspectives. However, there is no introduction to the translation of Chinese and Japanese literature. In fact, in the whole modern and modern period, although the communication between China and South Korea seems not as active and close as that in ancient times, the spiritual, political and cultural ties that have connected the two countries for thousands of years have not disappeared overnight. This point can be seen from the early stage of The History of Korean translated literature with China as the medium of translation activities and the late continuous translation of Modern Chinese literature.
The first stage (1895-1910) is the period of patriotic enlightenment，The main function of translation in this period was "enlightenment of civilization, independence, social and political enlightenment", and the translation activities inevitably had obvious purpose and utility. The patriotic enlighteners represented by Xuan CAI, Zhang Zhiyuan, Shen Caihao and Zhou Shijing received Chinese education from childhood and were deeply influenced by Confucian culture. Most of the works translated from The Korean Peninsula during this period were biographies of great men, history of the war, history of independence and geographical history. Almost all the translated works are from Chinese and Japanese versions. According to statistics, there were about 37 separate editions of such works translated in the Korean Peninsula before 1910, among which 16 were based on Chinese translations, not including those published in newspapers and magazines. In particular, it is worth emphasizing the important works in the early history of Korean literature, such as The History of The Fall of Vietnam, the Biography of the Three Masters of the Founding of Italy, and so on.The Biography of the Patriotic Lady was introduced to the Korean Peninsula based on the Chinese version. In addition, the Japanese Ryoki Yano's Korean single version of The Book On The Nation and the United States (1908, Translated by Hyun Gonglian) was based on zhou Kui's Chinese version in 1907. It is also highly likely that The first western literary work to be officially translated into Korea, Robin Sun Crusoe (1908, translated by Kim Chan), was translated into Chinese. In a word, China's influence cannot be ignored in the history of translated literature during the Korean civilization period.
The second stage (1910 ~ 1919) is called "the Awakening period of Translated literature". The translation activities of this period did have many characteristics different from those of the previous period. For example, many translations clearly identify the original author and translator; There appeared some literary magazines that paid attention to translation, such as Youth, New Star, Youth, Light of Learning and New Wenjie.“Three Lights", and "Tai Xi Literature and Art News" founded in 1918 with the main purpose of translating foreign literary works; At the beginning, it was consciously emphasized that translation should be based on the original text rather than through a third language. Translation methods also began to emphasize the separation from the earlier simple emphasis on the transmission of content translation, summary translation, abbreviated translation, etc. It puts forward the importance of respecting the original text and being faithful to the original text, and actively practices it. Kim Il and other important figures in the history of Korean translation literature have officially started their translation activities. And so on. All these indicate that the translation activities on the Korean Peninsula have "awakened" and are ready for further progress on the right track.
Generally speaking, since 1908, when Juvenile was first published，The Translated literature of the Korean Peninsula further broke away from the original utilitarian and purist nature and began to enter the era of "pure literature and art" translation. Since then, a great deal of Western literature has been translated into The Korean peninsula, and the quality of translation in this period is significantly higher than that of the Patriotic Enlightenment period. In addition to new novelists such as Lee Sang-hyup, Lee Hae-jo and Ahn Guk-seon, the translators also include famous figures in the history of literature such as Choi Nam-seon, Hong Myung-hee and Lee Kwang-soo, as well as some publishers and media workers. It is worth noting that some scholars believe that literary exchanges between China and Korea ended after Japan annexed the Korean Peninsula in 1910. This view is obviously somewhat arbitrary. According to incomplete statistics, at least 20 Chinese translations were introduced to the Korean Peninsula through the medium of Chinese translations, although the translation activities based on Chinese translations were not as active as in the Enlightenment period. These works include not only reprints of Chinese vernacular novels in Ming and Qing Dynasties, but also western novels based on Chinese translations. Among these Chinese translations of western novels, 8 are from the large western literature translation series "Shuobo Congshu", which was planned and published by the Shanghai Commercial Press in 1903. Choi Chan-sik, a famous writer of new novels at the time, recalled that recalled that he began writing a new novel after translating a book in the "Shaobo Series" published in Shanghai, China. These data show that even at a time when Japan's control over the Korean Peninsula was increasing, China's translation and media activities still have a certain influence on Korean intellectuals. In other words, under the new historical conditions, the cultural exchanges between the two countries are still struggling to continue in a new form.
The third stage (1920-1935) marked the beginning of joseon's translation literature. According to Kim byung-chul's statistics, at least 600 foreign literary works have been translated to the Korean Peninsula in various forms since the 1920s, Genres include fiction, poetry, drama, essays, fairy tales, and some literary criticism, Countries involved Britain, the United States, Germany, France, Russia, India and so on. Of course, this statistic does not include the translation of Chinese literature. In fact, after the 1920s, one of the biggest changes in the history of Sino-Korean translation was the movement that was then in China and the new literary works began to be translated and introduced to the Korean Peninsula. According to incomplete statistics, about 30 kinds of modern Chinese literary works including novels were translated and translated in the Korean Peninsula during the colonial period (In addition to the only collection of Chinese Short Stories during the colonial period), 16 plays, 41 poems, 3 essays, 1 fairy tale, etc., and more than a dozen literary criticism. If we add the Chinese classical literature translated in this period, we can say that after 1920, the translation of Chinese literature in the Korean Peninsula is relatively comprehensive and continuous, which should not be excluded from the history of Korean translated literature.
The fourth stage (1936-1945) was a dark period for the entire Korean Peninsula. In terms of translated literature, Japan has strengthened its control over public opinion and media by strengthening its policy of suppressing national language, The flood of Japanese books, coupled with the growing economic collapse on the Korean peninsula, has put pressure on the publishing industry and reduced the number of magazines, Access to foreign books has also been blocked, resulting in a huge blow to translation activities on the Korean Peninsula. This was the darkest period in the history of Translated literature on the Korean Peninsula. Although there were sporadic translations of Chinese literary works, they only catered to the political needs of the Japanese colonial government and chose some works that were irrelevant to politics and even covered up and beautified its militarist ambitions. In 1940, for example, Three Thousand Miles magazine ran a special collection of "New Chinese literature,"The content of the works is either daily life, love or traditional art, which has nothing to do with politics, and the original translations are entirely dependent on Japanese translations. The content of the works is either daily life, love or traditional art, which has nothing to do with politics, and the original translations are entirely dependent on Japanese translations.
In the fifth stage (1945-1949), the Korean Peninsula was finally liberated from Japanese colonial rule. The country was in ruins and all walks of life seemed to be full of hope, but at the same time, it was in a sudden chaos. At this time, translation has gradually entered the recovery period. From the point of view of countries, the United States and the Soviet Union were the most translated works, which obviously reflected the political situation and ideology at that time. However, the translation and study of modern Chinese literature also ushered in a brief bright period. Many researchers from academic schools joined the ranks of translation, and the translation of their works also moved toward specialization and systematization, with the emergence of selected Modern Chinese Short Stories (1946), Short Stories of Lu Xun (1946), Selected Modern Chinese Poems (1947) and other individual editions. He even published the history of Modern Chinese Literature (1949), the first book of Chinese studies in Korea. Compared with the colonial period, translation at this time was no longer subject to many restrictions, and further got rid of the early enlightenment and utilitarian color in nature. It began to attempt to approach modern Chinese literary works from the perspective of aesthetics and pure literature and carried out systematic and professional research. Translators seem to want to make up for the many regrets of the colonial period and are eager to translate and study modern Chinese literature in an all-round way. Unfortunately, this boom came to an abrupt end after the outbreak of the war in 1950, and The cause of Chinese literary translation fell into recession again.

==3. Differences and Similarities in the translation history of Modern Chinese and Korean literature==
Differences and similarities in the translation history of Modern Chinese and Korean literature
As is known to all, since the 1970s, translation studies have achieved a "cultural" shift, and the scope of research has expanded from the purely linguistic category to the non-linguistic category of culture, ideology, power relations, politics and so on.The literariness and thinking of literary works determine that literary translation has the dual orientation of ideology and poetics.Therefore, the study of literary translation should be connected with the socio-historical background and the poetic background so as to analyze and explain the important translation phenomena in depth.Throughout the history of modern literary translation in China and South Korea, we will find that the biggest similarity is that the "cultural political practice" (Venuti) of translation has always been controlled by ideology.Under the environment of western learning spreading eastward, one of the main social ideologies in East Asia was"Modern transformation".As an important means of modernization transformation, translation not only has an impact on the political and economic development of China and Korea, but also plays an important role in the two countries' acceptance of Western civilization, dissemination of new knowledge, formation of new culture, and the development of their own language and literature.In the process of sorting out the translation history of modern Chinese and Korean literature, we can clearly find that there are many similarities and intersections, and of course there are individual differences.Whether similarities or differences arise, some of them are related to the social ideology of the two countries, and some are related to the influence of the translator's personal ideology.It can be said that ideology permeates all aspects of modern translation in both countries, especially the change and development of social ideology plays a significant role in the evolution of translation.Below, this paper will compare and analyze the similarities and differences of literary translation between the two countries from several aspects.
(1) The nature and motivation of translation
In terms of the nature of translation, the modern translation activities in China and South Korea have obvious utilitarian, effective and political characteristics.Before the formal launch of literary translation, China had gone through a long stage of translating and introducing western scientific and technological books for the purpose of learning from the West, strengthening industrial development and achieving a prosperous country and a strong army.After the failure of the Reform movement of 1898, the development of Chinese foreign literature translation was in fact based on the translation of novels.One of the reasons is that Liang Qichao, the leader of the Reformists, put forward the slogan of "novel revolution" and advocated the translation of political novels, blowing the horn of literary translation. At the same time, a group of literary translators represented by Lin Shu actively engaged in translation practice, which also promoted the development of literary translation at that time.At that time, the purpose of literary translation was also to enlightening the people, reforming the society and giving play to the unique role of literary thought in shaping the "consciousness of the world".After the May 4th Movement, political demands still played a leading role in the selection of translators despite literary factors.On the other hand, the Korean Peninsula, because of the late opening of port and the depth of the country's internal troubles and foreign aggression, had no time to translate western literature as China and Japan did in terms of promoting industrial development and enriching the country and strengthening its armed forces.For them, translation is first of all a means of understanding the outside world, and its direct purpose is to get rid of the control of foreign forces and achieve independence.Therefore, the modern translation of the Korean Peninsula did not go through the stage of large-scale scientific translation, but from the very beginning, a part of social science translation and a large number of literary translation, including political novels, biographies of great men and so on.In particular, the translation of literary works has always occupied an important position in the modern translation of the Korean Peninsula.It is worth mentioning that liang Qichao had a great influence on literary translation during the Period of Korean Civilization.It was under his influence that a large number of political novels were translated and introduced to the Korean Peninsula, and played an important role in the transformation of thoughts and concepts in the Korean Peninsula in the modern period and the emergence and development of modern literature.Of course, after entering the period of colonial rule, the Translation of the Korean Peninsula became more colonial,In many ways, it is more influenced and restricted by Japan. Although there is also the pursuit of literature, the final translation inevitably has a strong political nature.In a word, the translation activities in the first half of the 20th century in both countries are determined by both literary factors and social ideology, but in the final analysis, the latter always plays a dominant role.Due to the special historical environment and similar fate, translation in both countries has strong utilitarian, utility and political characteristics to a large extent, which are the manifestation of the "manipulation" of translation by the ideological form.
(2) The source of the translation
There is no doubt that in all stages of modern translation history, the sources of translated works in the two countries are closely related to Japan, but there are differences in the specific range of sources and degree of dependence on Japan.In fact, before the late Qing Dynasty, a large number of Western scientific and technological books translated in China were basically based on the original Western language.In the translation period dominated by the Reformists, due to the vigorous development of Japanese translation and the characteristics of easy learning and understanding of Japanese, Liang Qichao and Kang Youwei advocated the translation of foreign works from Japanese. It was not until then that A large number of Japanese translations were carried out in China.
After the May 4th Movement, Translation in China flourished, with translators of various languages appearing in large numbers and many intellectuals participating in translation activities.At this time, the original versions of Chinese translations are also varied, including Japanese and English versions, and many are directly translated from the original.On the other hand, due to the influence of history, during the whole period of the Korean Peninsula, the translation of foreign books mainly consisted of Japanese and Chinese versions, and few of them were directly translated from the original.After entering the period of colonial rule, due to Japan's rule and influence on the Korean Peninsula in various fields, there were fewer and fewer translation cases based on The Chinese version, and the Japanese version took the dominant position.However, due to the increasing number of intellectuals focusing on Western language and literature (such as the emergence of the "Overseas Literature School" in 1926), the call for translation based on the original text became stronger and stronger.After all, most of the Korean intellectuals of the "overseas literary school" studied in Japan,Therefore, although they put forward the slogan of "translation from the original text", their translation activities are still directly or indirectly influenced by the Japanese knowledge system.In short, if the modern times of East Asia are "modern times of translation", as a bridge of translation in East Asia, Japanese translation is based on the original text or English.In China, there are both literal translation of the original text and retranslation of English and Japanese versions. On the other hand, Korean translation sources are a little bit unitary, basically retranslating some Chinese and most Japanese versions.However, from another point of view, the translation path of the Korean Peninsula at that time was the most complicated among the three countries, which could be the path of "Japanese → Korean", "Western → Chinese → Korean" or even "Western → Japanese → Chinese → Korean".
At that time, many Korean intellectuals were fluent in both Chinese and Japanese, so it was difficult to refer to only one source in the translation process.For example, The book On The Classics and The United States (1908), marked with the "translation" of Xuan Gonglian, was published with reference to both the Japanese and Chinese versions.Kim Kyo-je, a famous writer of new novels in the early modern period, translated or reprinted 11 novels at least four were translated to the Korean Peninsula through the path of "Western → Chinese → Korean";While Li Haichao translated Iron World (1908), the translation path is "Western → Japanese → Chinese → Korean" .
In Korea at that time, this kind of double, triple or even multiple retranslation is very common. For this reason, the modern Korean Peninsula is also called "retranslated modern times" by scholars.
(3) Topic selection and content of the translated work
Corresponding to the nature, motivation and characteristics of translation, there are not only similarities and intersecting points, but also their own characteristics in the topic selection of translated works.For example, the pilgrim's Progress, a religious novel by English novelist John Bunyan (1628-1688), was among the first western literary works translated in both countries.
This fact reflects the important role of western missionaries in the translation history of the two countries.Aesop's Fables is also one of the earliest and most frequently translated western literary works in both countries.Aesop's Fables was translated many times in both countries and included in the textbooks of the time as a children's book.After entering the modern and contemporary period, both countries highly respected historical and biographical works and political novels, and had a period of concentrated translation.For example, political novels such as "A Journey with the Wind", "Jingguo Meiyu" and "Iron World" have been translated into Chinese and English respectively.In addition, many historical and biographical works (especially the history of subjugations) were translated into The Korean Peninsula through Chinese media at that time, such as The Founding of Switzerland and Fifteen Little Heroes. As well as liang Qichao's writings or translations of the hundred Days' Coup, The History of the Fall of Vietnam, the biography of the three Heroes of the Founding of Italia, The biography of Madame Roland, and the biography of Hungarian patriot Gasus, etc.History books such as A New History of Tai Xi, a Brief History of Russia, A War in the Middle East and modern History of Egypt were also translated from Chinese versions. In the whole period of civilization, the Korean Peninsula concentrated on the translation of history, biographical works and political novels, although there is no lack of Japanese influence, but obviously The Influence of China can not be ignored.Due to reasons such as politics, current affairs and the market, the two countries in politics, history and biography of before and after the translation in the first decade of the 20th century gradually into the low tide, and other types of novels, such as science fiction, detective novels, western pure literary fiction and gradually be translated a lot, at the same time, poetry translation have greater development.It is worth mentioning that translation in both countries reached a new climax after the late decade of the first decade of the 20th century.In terms of the number and diversity of genres, China is far more diverse than The Korean Peninsula, but there are some interesting intersections in the literary translation topics of the two countries, such as Shakespeare, Hardy, Stevenson and Conan Doyle in The UK, Tolstoy, Gorky and Chekov in Russia, Tagore in India,Norway's Ibsen and other works have had a great influence in both countries.It is worth mentioning that there are obvious differences between the two countries in the topic selection of translated works as follows. The first is the translation of Japanese literature
The problem. As we all know, Japanese literature plays a very important role in the history of Chinese translation of foreign literature in the 20th century.On the Korean Peninsula, although the influence of Japanese literature is beyond doubt, and the translation of Japanese literature in the first half of the 20th century can be said to run through the whole modern translation activities of the Korean Peninsula, but the translation of Japanese literature in the Korean Peninsula itself is very few.
The reasons are mainly related to the special political and historical background of the Korean Peninsula and the control and infiltration of Japanese language in the Korean Peninsula after entering the colonial period, as well as the role of national emotional factors.Secondly, the translation and introduction of the other side's literature. In the first half of the 20th century, the literature of the two countries was not the main target of translation in each other's country, but this does not mean that there is no overlap between them. On the whole, the Korean Peninsula paid more and deeper attention to Chinese literature than China did to Korean literature during this period.After entering the modern society, under the extremely complicated and difficult cultural environment, the Korean Peninsula continued to translate Chinese vernacular novels and some classical poems in the Ming and Qing dynasties, and at the same time carried out a relatively concentrated translation of Liang Qichao, the pioneer of Chinese novel revolution. However, what is more noteworthy is his continuous translation and introduction of New Chinese literature, which started in the second half of the 1910s.Due to the special historical and geographical relationship, Korea is the first country in the world to notice China's new cultural movement except Japan. At that time, many magazines and newspapers on the Korean Peninsula introduced and reported the New Chinese literature. Some Korean intellectuals had deep feelings about the innovative atmosphere in The Chinese literary circle and hoped to provide necessary reference for the improvement and innovation of their own literature through the translation and introduction of The new Chinese literature.In a word, during the Period of Japanese rule, the Translation and introduction of modern Chinese literature in The Korean Peninsula was quite comprehensive, and many famous writers and works in the history of Chinese literature were involved in the topic selection, which played an important role in the study of Chinese literature in Korea. On the contrary, China's translation of Korean literature at that time was very limited, mainly due to the concern of "weak and weak ethnic literature", and also influenced by the war ideology of anti-japanese and national salvation, nationalism. However, in the huge history of modern Chinese literature translation, the translation of Korean literature is just a drop in the ocean and has not received enough attention. All in all, the depth and breadth of the translation of each other's works is extremely unbalanced.
(4) The translator's main body, translation strategies and methods
There are also similarities between the two countries on the subject of translators in the history of modern translation literature. In the early stage of translation activities, western missionaries played a great role. Later, famous intellectuals, social activists and literary scholars of the two countries realized the importance of translation, actively participated in translation activities, and became the leading leaders of modern translation in the two countries.For example, yan Fu, Liang Qichao and Lin Shu were active translators in early China, while xuan CAI, Pu Yinzhi, Shen Caihao and other famous scholars, thinkers and social activists led the translation during the Korean Peninsula's enlightenment period. After entering the decade of the 20th century, the translation of the two countries gradually entered the climax.Many Chinese writers, including Lu Xun, Guo Moruo and Zhou Zuoren, actively translated while writing. Choi Nam-sun and Lee Kwang-soo, leaders of Korean literature in the first decade of the 20th century, also actively translated their works.In addition, famous writers of new novels such as Lee Hae-jo, Ahn Guk-seon, and Choi Chan-sik were motivated and motivated by translation activities. With the development of translation, a number of specialized literary translators have emerged in both countries. In addition, some new women at that time also participated in the translation, such as Bing Xin from China and Kim Myung-soon from Korea.In terms of translation strategies or ways, early modern translation system is far from mature, highly standard translation way, utilitarian purpose, color thick, many translators from themselves and the needs of the audience, or excerpts and delete any reduction of the original (AD, Jane), or add their own opinions and comments in the process of translation, the tai shang ganying pian), Or in the form of translation only summarize the general idea (synopsis), for example, liang Qichao and Cui Nanshan's translation to a large extent are abridged, synopsis or translation.Generally speaking, the forms and methods of translation at that time were characterized by diversity and hybridity, which were similar in China and Korea. The reason is related to the mainstream ideology of the translation leaders who hoped to enlighten the people, enrich the country and strengthen the army through translation as soon as possible.
(5) Disputes on "Literary translation"
After literary translation gradually got on the right track and became the mainstream of translation works in the two countries, translators in the two countries gained further insights on the application, methods and techniques of translation and gradually began to express their own views on translation, whose discussions cover all aspects of translation. Such as translation methods, translation skills, translation and the status of translators, the role of translation. The opinions of different translators are bound to be different. Therefore, in the modern and contemporary period, both China and South Korea had debates on translation (literary translation). The focus and theme of the debate are similar, such as "translatable or untranslatable", "literal translation versus free translation" and so on.It is well known that in the history of modern Chinese translation, especially in the May Fourth Movement period, many writers began their literary career by translating foreign literature, and most of them published discussions on translation. The differences between different translators and groups have led to several famous debates in the history of Chinese translation. For example, lu Xun and Zhou Zuoren proposed Literal translation and related debates are typical examples. In addition, in the history of modern Chinese translation, there are also debates on "translated names", "translatable or not translatable literary works", translation methods such as mistranlation, hard translation and dead translation, and translation paths such as literal translation or retranslation.The 1920s was a period when the history of modern and contemporary translation in Korea was on the right track. Many newspapers and magazines published discussions on translation and related debates. In the history of modern translation on the Korean Peninsula, one of the most famous disputes about translation is the dispute between Jin Yi and Liang Zhudong about "literal translation" and "free translation" in poetry translation. Liang zhudong believes that poetry is untranslatable and should be literal compared with free translation. Jin Yi believes that although poetry is untranslatable, if translators exert their own subjective initiative, it can completely improve the value of translated poetry and even become a new creation. However, it is interesting that although Liang zhudong praised the method of "literal translation", he criticized the "overseas literature school" that focused on foreign literature at that time for being too rigid in the way of literal translation, and believed that "literal translation" should be organically combined with "free translation".In fact, the debate between literal translation and free translation, or "domestication" and "foreignization", is closely related to ideology.
The debate between translators in the two countries over these issues is actually carried out at the ideological level. According to venuti, a famous translation theorist of deconstruction school, the choice of translation strategy is determined by ideology.
(6) The influence of translation on the languages and literature of the two countries
In fact, the greatest influence of modern literary translation on China and South Korea is reflected in the development of characters and literature. First of all, translation must be carried out with language as the carrier. Under normal circumstances, the translated language is naturally the lingua franca of a country and a nation, but for China and South Korea in the late 19th and 20th centuries, a common problem emerged in the process of translation in terms of language carrier: At that time, both countries had two parallel language systems, which coincided with the social and cultural transition, so language translation became a very interesting topic.As we all know, in the late 19th century and the early 20th century, There were two languages in China: Classical Chinese and vernacular Chinese. Vernacular Chinese was still in the ascendant, while classical Chinese still played an important role in written and literary translation. Of course, the classical Chinese at this time refers to the late Qing Dynasty and the early Republic of China common "shallow classical Chinese", it is different from the past obscure ancient prose, but in classical Chinese mixed with common sayings, is a kind of literary language between ancient Classical Chinese and vernacular.For example, Lin Shu, a great modern translator, translated foreign literature in classical Chinese. His translation was not only welcomed by readers at that time, but also had a great influence on many famous Chinese intellectuals. In the late Qing Dynasty and the early Republic of China, there were both classical Chinese and vernacular Chinese translations, and the classical Chinese translations were more than the vernacular ones, but basically the two languages co-existed peacefully. In the process of translation, the needs of the audience should be considered. The same translator can translate in both vernacular and classical Chinese. The same foreign novel may have both classical and vernacular translations.It was not until after the New Culture Movement that the vernacular style gradually occupied the main position in written language. After the 1920s, the translated works in China were mainly in vernacular. For the development of modern Chinese vernacular, it can be said that the impact of translation is extremely far-reaching. Chinese vernacular can be divided into "traditional vernacular" and "modern vernacular".The traditional vernacular is based on a Dream of Red Mansions.
The vernacular of China represented by such vernacular classics as Water Margin, which is not influenced by western language. The "modern vernacular" is based on the traditional vernacular, influenced by oral and ancient prose and with the color of European, that is, the May 4th Movement advocated vernacular, namely the so-called European vernacular.It is worth noting that this Kind of European vernacular was actually created by western missionaries in China at that time, and the tool of missionaries to create European vernacular is translation. In order to spread religion and western culture smoothly, they translated a large number of Western books, including holy books, and consciously chose words and styles more suitable for ordinary people to read in the process of translation, which was the prototype of vernacular Chinese vigorously advocated by the May Fourth Movement.Similar to the situation in China, the Korean Peninsula in the late 19th and early 20th centuries also had two basic styles, namely, the mixed style of Chinese and Chinese and the pure Style of Chinese. It was only after the 1894-1895 Revolution that the Korean Peninsula's national language began to be widely used. It takes time for any language style to emerge and mature, and the Korean Peninsula's "pure Korean style" is no exception,In 1921, Korean language researchers formed the Korean Language Research Society under the influence of the Zhou Dynasty, which served as an opportunity for the further establishment of the modern Korean language. Before this, mixed Chinese and Korean language played an important role in the written language of the Korean Peninsula for a long time.In fact, the so-called mixed Chinese characters are based on Chinese characters, sometimes using Korean characters. The difference is that some mark Korean characters on Chinese characters, and some do not even mark Korean characters, but only Chinese characters. There is another special case, that is, the pure Chinese style with Korean auxiliary words and endings, such as the "hanging out Chinese style" used by Shen Caihao in the translation of the Biography of the Three Heroes of the Foundation of Itri.It is worth mentioning that it was also western missionaries who initially carried out translation activities in Korean. In order to preach, they carried out translation activities mainly aimed at the "Bible" in the Korean Peninsula, using the Korean language, which was not popular and was not valued by the Korean intellectuals at that time. The purpose of using The Korean language was to make the translated holy book easier for more ordinary people to accept. Kim Byeong-cheol holds that it is the translation of sacred books in the native Korean language that gave birth to the main form of modern literature on the Korean Peninsula, namely the "new novel", and thus promoted the "unity of language and language" and the emergence of modern literature in Korea.In general, the influence of translation on the development of Chinese and Korean characters and literature is far more than that. It can be said that the expansion of sentence structure, the change of style, the enrichment of vocabulary, the improvement of expressive force and the perfection of grammar system of the two languages are all inseparable from translation. In a word, translation has played an indispensable role in the unification of language and language in the history of Chinese and English literature. In addition to its role in language, translation also has a profound influence on the development of modern literature in both countries. As is known to all, the translation and introduction of a large number of foreign novels not only brought strong shock and impact to the literary circles of the two countries at that time, but also provided a lot of reference for the realization of the literary transformation of the two countries.It can be said that in the process of the collision, integration and evolution of eastern and western literature, literary translation plays a decisive external role in the transformation of Chinese and Korean literature from classical form to modern form, and has a great impact on the literary concept, literary type, narrative mode and expression mode. In this regard, researchers in China and South Korea have given positive descriptions.
==4. conclusion==
There are many similarities between China and South Korea in modern times. Under the environment of western learning spreading to the east, both of them were knocked out of the country by the West, suffered the invasion of western powers and Japan successively, and passively started the journey of modernization. Under the circumstance of deepening national crisis of domestic and foreign invasion, the enlightened intellectuals of the two countries have carried out the exploration of saving the nation from extinction, and translation is an important means for them to achieve this goal. To be specific, the historical context of the spreading of Western learning from the end of the 19th century endowed the two countries with unique historical characteristics. Due to the similarity of historical, cultural and political background and mainstream ideology, the translation of modern and contemporary literature in the two countries also presents many similarities and even intersecting points. As analyzed above, the most obvious common point in the modern translation history of China and Korea is ideology Influence throughout. For China and Korea at that time, one of the mainstream ideologies was "modernization transformation", and translation was the driving force for the modernization transformation process of the two countries. Therefore, utilitarianism and purposefulness run through the development of modern translation in both countries. In addition to the mainstream social ideology, the translator's personal ideology also has a great influence on literary translation in both countries.For example, the early translation phenomenon led by Western missionaries and the later translation activities led by intellectuals of the two countries were all carried out by translators for their personal purposes under the influence of the general environment at that time. It can be said that it is because of the influence of the subliminal form of the western learning spreading to the east that the modern and modern translations of the two countries show many similarities or similarities. Comparing the literary translation of the two countries in terms of specific content, we can find many similarities in details. For example, western missionaries played an important role at the beginning. After entering the 20th century, the translation of both countries was deeply influenced by Japan. The translation groups of the two countries were the best intellectuals and representatives of the new culture at that time. When they translated foreign works, they also carried out various discussions and even debates about translation. Translation activities have broadened the horizons of the people of the two countries and enriched their languages, literature and even culture.

It is worth mentioning that cultural exchanges between the two countries have also been continued through translation. Of course, due to the differences in specific situations, there are some differences in literary translation between the two countries while showing common features. The author believes that the biggest difference lies in the scale of translation. To be specific, from the number of translated works and translators, the discussion and construction of translation theories, the importance attached to translation, and the influence and status of translation in the history of national literature, Chinese modern translation is obviously higher. The main reason is that the translation environment and background of the two countries at that time are different, that is, the difference between complete colonies and semi-colonies. Although the Qing Dynasty fell under the background of the competition of western powers, China did not completely become a colony of any power, so it was relatively free and independent in political and cultural development. However, because Korea was annexed and ruled by Japan, it was difficult to develop modernization independently. The whole society was highly dependent on Japan, and it was also greatly restricted and influenced by Japan in terms of ideology. Translation activities were no exception.

As mentioned above, the purpose of the author's comparative study of Chinese and Korean contemporary literature translation is to restore the contemporary and contemporary literary exchanges between the two countries, and at the same time to provide necessary background for the mutual translation and introduction of the contemporary and contemporary literature of the two countries. However, the study of Chinese and Korean modern literature translation is a polyphonic and polysemy subject with a very wide range of coverage. Due to the limited space and author's ability, this paper only generalizes and arranges the subject from a macro perspective, and many details are not developed in depth. Translated works by the capacity of, for example, the sources of the related works and so on, for more exist in the two countries pay fork points to explore, in the evaluation of literature translation of words between the two countries and the specific influence of literature, especially under the background of their literary translation between the two countries the properties and significance of literary translation, etc, if you can carry out further discussion and exploration of the content, The research results will be more rich and three-dimensional.

There were many similarities between China and South Korea in modern times. Under the environment of western learning spreading to the East, both of them were knocked out of the country by the West, suffered the invasion of western powers and Japan successively, and passively started the journey of modernization. Under the circumstance of deepening national crisis of domestic and foreign invasion, the enlightened intellectuals of the two countries had carried out the exploration of saving the nation from extinction.Translation was an important means for them to achieve this goal. To be specific, the historical context of the spreading of Western learning from the end of the 19th century endowed the two countries with unique historical characteristics. Due to the similarity of historical, cultural and political background and mainstream ideology, the translation of literature in the two countries also presented many similarities and even intersecting points. As analyzed above, the most obvious common point was ideology influence. For China and Korea at that time, one of the mainstream ideologies was "modernization transformation",for which translation was the driving force. Therefore, utilitarianism and purposefulness ran through the development of modern translation in both countries. In addition to the mainstream social ideology, the translator's personal ideology also has a great influence on literary translation in both countries.For example,the early translation phenomenon led by Western missionaries and the later translation activities led by intellectuals of the two countries were all carried out by translators for their personal purposes under the influence of the general environment at that time. Without doubt, the influence of the subliminal form of the western learning spreading to the east constituted similarities between the two countries.Comparing the literary translation of the two countries in terms of specific content,we found many similarities in details. For example, western missionaries played an important role at the beginning. After entering the 20th century, the translation of both countries was deeply influenced by Japan. The translation groups of the two countries were the best intellectuals and representatives of the new culture at that time. When they translated foreign works, they also carried out various discussions and even debates about translation. Translation activities had broadened the horizons of the people and enriched their languages, literature and even culture.

It is worth mentioning that cultural exchanges between the two countries have also been continued through translation. Of course, due to the differences in specific situations, there are some differences in literary translation between the two countries while showing common features. The author believes that the biggest difference lies in the scale of translation. To be specific, from the number of translated works and translators, the discussion and construction of translation theories, the importance attached to translation to the influence and status of translation in the history of national literature, Chinese modern translation was obviously higher. The main reason was that the translation environment and background of the two countries at that time were different, that is, the difference between complete colonies and semi-colonies. Although the Qing dynasty fell under the background of the competition of western powers, China did not completely become a colony of any power, so it was relatively free and independent in political and cultural development. However, because Korea was annexed and ruled by Japan, it was difficult to develop modernization independently. The whole society was highly dependent on Japan, and it was also greatly restricted and influenced by Japan in terms of ideology. Translation activities were no exception.

As mentioned above, the purpose of the author's comparative study of Chinese and Korean contemporary literature translation is to restore the literary exchanges between the two countries, and at the same time to provide necessary background for the two countries. However, the study of Chinese and Korean modern literature translation is a polyphonic and polysemy subject with a very wide range of coverage. Due to the limited space and author's ability, this paper only generalized and arranged the subject from a macro perspective, and many details were not developed in depth, such as the sources of the related works,the evaluation of literature translation of words, the properties and significance of literary translation and so on. This paper will be more rich and three-dimensional with further discussion and exploration of the content.--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 07:59, 11 December 2021 (UTC)

==References==
*金秉哲[韩]: 《韩国近代翻译文学史研究》，首尔: 乙酉文化社，1975。130-160页
*金鹤哲: 《1949 年以前韩国文学汉译和意识形态因素》，《中国比较文学》2009 年第 4 期，第 66 页。
*金旭东[韩]: 《翻译与韩国的近代》，首尔: 小明出版社，2010，第25~28页。
*王秉钦、王颉: 《20世纪中国翻译思想史》，南开大学出版社，2004，第31页。
*许钧: 《面向中西交流的翻译史研究》，《解放军外国语学院学报》2014 年第 5 期，第 140 页。
*许钧、袁筱一编著《当代法国翻译理论》，南京大学出版社，1998，第 128 页。
*朱一凡: 《翻译与现代汉语的变迁 ( 1905 ~ 1936) 》，外语教学与研究出版社，2011，第 72 页。

=刘沛婷 Western Translation history in Renaissance)=

刘沛婷 Liu Peiting, Hunan Normal University, China

==Abstract==
The Renaissance is not only an important period in the history of literature and technology, but also a turning point in the history of western translation. During this period, the translation of religious and literary works gradually flourished, and translators constantly put forward new translation concepts and tried translation practices.The soaring of national consciousness and national languages contributed to the characteristic ideas of translation in the Renaissance. Especially France, Britain and Germany had made outstanding contributions to the evolution and progress of the entire translation history during this period.This chapter is to have a brief introduction to the translation history in Renaissance, conduct a detailed explaination from the three countries of France, Britan and Germany respectively and illustrate some representative translators and translation theories with the hope to show the magnificent translation achievements in Renaisance and the evolvement of human translation history.

==Key words==
Translation history; renaissance; France; Britain; Germany

Translation history; Renaissance; France; Britain; Germany--[[User:Liu Wei|Liu Wei]] ([[User talk:Liu Wei|talk]]) 12:44, 14 December 2021 (UTC)Liu Wei

==Introduction==

The period from around the fourteenth until the mid-seventeenth century has conventionally been designated as the Renaissance,referring to the rediscovery and revitalization of the literature, art and science of ancient Greece and Rome. The term was devised by Italian humanists who sought to reaffirm their own continuity with the classical humanist heritage after an interlude of Middle Ages (Habib 2011：79).It was a great revolution in intellect and culture. It is also “the greatest progressive revolution that mankind has so far experienced, a time which called for giants and produced giants”.Renaissance takes spreading humanism thought as one of the main forms of expression, involving all aspects of the cultural field, including the ancient Greek, Roman works and contemporary European works. In the process of studying and reviving classical culture, as well as developing and spreading new ideas, translation obviously plays an important role. The magnificent Renaissance itself included and depended on an unprecedented scale of translation activities. Therefore, it marks not only a great development in literature, art and science, but also an important milestone in the history of translation.(Engels 1972：445)

Originated in Italy in the 15th century, and in the 16th century Renaissance swept Europe, (especially Western European countries) and gradually formed a climax. At that time, western society was filled with a spirit of seeking and conquering the objective world. When this spirit was reflected in the translation field, translators were full of ambition and spared no effort to constantly discover new literary styles, excavate new cultural heritages and transplant new ideas to their motherland. Many translators translated classic works related to politics, philosophy, social system, literature and art of past glorious countries into their national languages as reference for the development of their own countries. All achievements in translation were compared to "trophies" in literature and knowledge. Next, we are to have a review on translations history of France, Britain and Germany, three major Western European countries in the high tide of Renaissance.

From the 14th century to the middle of the 17th century, it is the Renaissance, which refers to the rediscovery and Renaissance of ancient Greek and Roman literature, art and science. The word "Renaissance" was designed by Italian Humanists who tried to reaffirm their continuity with the heritage of classical humanism, which was a great intellectual and cultural revolution. This is also "the greatest progressive revolution that mankind has experienced so far, an era that needs giants and produces giants".

The Renaissance takes the dissemination of humanism as one of the main forms of expression, involving all aspects of the cultural field, including ancient Greek, Roman and contemporary European works. Translation obviously plays an important role in the study and revival of classical culture and the development and dissemination of new ideas. The brilliant renaissance itself included and relied on unprecedented translation activities. Therefore, it not only marks the great development of literature, art and science, but also an important milestone in the history of translation. (Engels 1972:445)

The Renaissance originated in Italy in the 15th century, The 16th century swept Europe (especially in Western European countries) and gradually reached a climax. At that time, western society was full of the spirit of pursuing and conquering the objective world. When this spirit was reflected in the field of translation, translators were full of ambition, spared no effort to constantly discover new styles, excavate new cultural heritage and transplant new ideas to their motherland. Many translators put the politics of past brilliant countries into practice , philosophy, social system, literature and art are translated into their own national language as a reference for their own development. All translation achievements are compared to "trophies" of literature and knowledge. Next, we will review the translation history of France, Britain and Germany in the climax of the Renaissance. --[[User:Liu Wei|Liu Wei]] ([[User talk:Liu Wei|talk]]) 12:52, 14 December 2021 (UTC)Liu Wei

==1.History of Translation in France==

In France, during this period, the wind of restoring ancient styles began to prevail, ancient languages were valued, and ancient writers were respected. A large number of literary works of Italian humanists, such as Dante, Petrarch and Boccaccio, were introduced to France, which opened people's eyes and promoted the development of French humanist movement. Therefore, the focus of translation in France shifted from religious works to Italian classical literature works. The increasingly translation activities constituted a climax of translation history in France.Translators generally believed that translating literary works was much more difficult than translating religious works. Although translation began to reach a new climax, most of the translations were the "by-products" of literary creation, with low quality and little influence. However, in the climax of translation in France in the 16th century, there were two outstanding contributors , one is Jacques Amyot and the other is Etienne Dolet.(Tan Zaixi,2000:21)

Jacques Amyot was considered the king of translation in France. His first translation, Heliodoros’ ''Aethiopica'', was completed in 1547. Later, he translated Diodorus Siculus’s ''Bibliotheca Historica'' and, in 1559 he translated Ploutarchos’s ''Vies des Hommes illustrus'', which was Amyot’s most famous work. Amyot advocated translators’ thorough understanding of the original text and plain expressions without embellishment. He emphasized the unity of content and form, free translation and literal translation. In his translation, he borrowed words from Greek and Latin and simultaneously created a large number of words in politics, philosophy, science, literature, music and so on. He fused common people language and academic language, and therefore formed an independent style of translation and greatly enriched the French vocabulary. At that time, the French language is still in a state of confusion, Amyot and other humanists made tremendous contributions to unify the French national language.

Another great man in translation history of France was Etienne Dolet. As a famous translation theorist, Dolet advocated targeted texts’ faithfulness to the original work, which is the fundamental and indispensable principle in translation. Dolet believed that an excellent translator must be proficient in both source language and target language. He was aware of the weakness of word-by-word translation and emphasized that the translation should be consistent with the original text in style through various rhetorical devices. Ballard,a French translation theorist, argued that dolet’ translation principles constituted the rudiment of the French translation theory. What he proposed was the universal principles for translation.(Xu Jun and Yuan Xiaoyi,1998:284)

Jacques Amyot set an example for the following translation works in France in the 16th century; Etienne Dolet’s translation theories were of great significance and were the first systematic principles of translation, which were ahead of those of Germany and Britain and advanced translation studies into a higher level. Thanks to their efforts, France had earned a place in translation history during Renaissance period.

==2. History of Translation in Britain==

In Britain, the Renaissance came later than in the main countries of continental Europe, but Britain gradually kept up with others countries. During this period, the British capitalist economy developed rapidly, productivity improved greatly, and the country became increasingly prosperous , which has laid a solid material foundation for the development of literature and translation. Especially since Elizabeth came to the throne in the mid-16th century by the early 17th century, translation was flourishing. On the one hand, religious translation is in the ascendant, on the other hand, a great deal of literature from Greece, Rome and other contemporary countries was translated into English, which made English translation activities in this period one of the peaks of translation activities in Europe and even the world. Literary translation ranged from history and philosophy to poetry and drama, with the occurrence of a large number of excellent translators,who introduced ancient ingenuity to Britain, offering serious lessons not only to the Queen and politicians, but also plots and materials for dramatists and readers with the purpose of serving their country. At that time, many translators were not scholars, they were not bound by any strict translation theory, they could translate what they had at their own will. Many translations are not directly from the original texts, but from the translations or even the translation of the translation. Therefore, the scope and quantity of translation are unprecedented in Britain.In the aspect of religious translation, the translator was also influenced by humanism and the Reformation, a new understanding of the Bible arose, as well as a new attitude and a new way of dealing with the translation of the Bible. People advocated accurate translation in religious works, while for literature, the unbridled freedom of traditional translation methods persisted throughout the Elizabethan era.(Tan Zaixi,2004:71)

In Britain, the Renaissance began later than the major countries in continental Europe, but Britain developed rapidly and produced many achievements.

During this period, the British capitalist economy developed rapidly, the productivity increased greatly, and the country prospered day by day, which laid a solid material foundation for the development of literature and translation. Especially since Elizabeth ascended the throne in the middle of the 16th century and the beginning of the 17th century, translation has developed vigorously. On the one hand, religious translation is in the ascendant. On the other hand, a large number of literary works from contemporary countries such as Greece and Rome have been translated into English, which makes English translation activities in this period one of the peaks of translation activities in Europe and even the world. Literary translation ranges from history and philosophy to poetry and drama. A large number of excellent translators have emerged. They introduced the originality of ancient times into Britain, which not only provided serious lessons for the queen and politicians, but also provided plot and materials for playwrights and readers, in order to serve the country. At that time, many translators were not scholars. They were not bound by any strict translation theory. They could translate what they had at will. Many translations are not directly from the original text, but from the translation, or even the translation of the translation. Therefore, the scope and quantity of translation are unprecedented in the UK. In religious translation, the translator has also been influenced by humanism and religious reform, has a new understanding of the Bible, and has a new attitude and method to the translation of the Bible. People advocate accurate translation in religious works, while in literary works, the unbridled freedom of traditional translation methods continued throughout the Elizabethan era. (Tan Zaixi, 2004:71) --[[User:Liu Wei|Liu Wei]] ([[User talk:Liu Wei|talk]]) 12:59, 14 December 2021 (UTC)Liu Wei

====2.1 Translation of Douglas and Cheke====

Gavin Douglas (1475-1522), a famous Scottish poet and translator, published his translation of Virgil’s epic Poem ''The Aeneid'' in the early 16th century. He began his preface with a eulogy of Virgil and then launched into a serious critique of the overly liberal medieval translation. He criticized Caxton's French translation as unfaithful, as far from Virgil's original work, and "as different from the devil as st. Austin" . Douglass did not translate word by word, but freely translated. He said that if translator encountered difficult words, sentences, rhymes, one had to deviate from the original text. Douglass had added new content and new meaning to translation principles, and thus had a certain value (Amos,1920:129)

Towards the middle of the 16th century, an important figure in translation was John Cheke (1514-1557). He was a humanist and supporter of the Reformation, as well as a polyglot authority on Greek at the time and served as Principal Regent Chair Professor at Cambridge university. As a result of his popularity, Cambridge became one of the academic centers in Britain, and its students were well versed in translation and language studies.Cheke was a tireless translator,who had translated many Greek works and the Bible. Characteristically, he used only pure English words or words of Saxon origin in any case, and did not adopt any foreign words. He thought the English language was rich enough without borrowing foreign words. Because of his insist on pure English words and expressions in his translation, he sometimes had to use vulgar, old and remote words, so that the style of his translation was sometimes forced and stiff.
Cheke's theory had a great influence on contemporary translators. Many other translators often mentioned Cheke's translation views in their own translations. At that time, the main criterion for evaluating a translated work was whether it was authentic and easy to be understood by compatriots. At the same time, the study of foreign grammar and contrastive vocabulary also appeared in language studies. The translator aimed to turn the translation into a textbook for students of language and translation to imitate. Some translators also use word-for-word translation to provide guidance to students. Abraham Fleming, for example, translated Virgil's Poems "according to grammatical rules." He "used plain and understandable words so as to accommodate those who are slow in comprehension, since the translator's aim is to use straightforward language structures to ease the difficulties of those whose grammatical concepts are vague, rather than to devise ways to satisfy the desires of grander humanists" (Amos,1920:109).

====2.2 Translation from Thomas North to Georga Chapman====

However, in the translation of classical masterpieces, translators tended to shift from one extreme to another. In order to avoid word-for-word translation, translators adopted excessively free translation, which was not only for the expression of words but also for the treatment of the substance of the content. Nicholas Udall(1505-1556) created the first British comedy ''Ralph Roister Doister''. In 1542 he translated Erasmus's ''Book of Proverbs'', and later presided over Erasmus's Latin translation, including the Gospel of Luke, which was published in 1548. In the preface to the translation of the ''New Testament'', he discussed various issues related to translation: the treatment of translators, the expansion of English vocabulary, the treatment of sentence structure of the translation, Erasmus's style and the stylistic characteristics of different authors. In his opinion, translation should not follow rigid rules. He advocated the use of liberal translation without deviation from the original meaning, and the translation should be readable and understandable to the general readers.

The most famous translation work of the whole Elizabethan period was the English version of ''The live of the Noble Grecians and Romans'' by translator Thomas North (1535-1601).He studied at Cambridge University in his early years, and later worked in London, where he met many translation lovers and gradually became interested in translation. In 1557 he translated ''Diall of Princes'' from a French translation and later he translated an oriental allegory from an Italian translated version in 1601. ''The live of the Noble Grecians and Romans'' was translated in 1579. This translation was not from the original Greek version, but from Amyot's French translation. However, it was still considered as an excellent epoch-making translation. North did not express any unique views on translation, but he was famous for his excellent translation in the western translation circle with three main characteristics:(1)because it is not from the original Greek, the style of the translation is different from Plutarch's style; The original text is elegant while his translation is plain. (2) North's style is also different from that of Amio in the French translation, which he used as a model. He not only changes the wording of the French translation, but also its spirit. Like Amio's French translation, North's is another masterpiece based on Plutarch's original subject. (3) Though he knew little of the classical language, North was a master of The English language, and his translations were so simple and fluent, so elegant and idiomatic, that readers might have taken them for the original if they had not read the plot. North's translation was praised by Shakespeare, who drew his inspirations from this translated works and cited its expressions, which can be considered a terrific contribution of translation to literature. The prose style adopted by ''The live of the Noble Grecians and Romans'' is novel and elegant, neither rigid nor grotesque, and hence it has become an enduring model in the history of English translation.(Tan Zaixi, 2004:76)

Philemon Holland (1552-1637) was the most outstanding English translator of the 16th century, whose works outnumbered those of his contemporaries. He had been a surgeon and headmaster of Coventry General School. He was a learned translator and scholar, fluent in Greek and Latin, proficient in ancient writing and proverbs, as well as rhetoric. His classical works were not translated but directly from the Original Greek and Latin texts, and the subject matter was also varied. He translated Livy's Romane Historie in 1600 and Pliny's Natural Historie in 1601, Plutarch's Moralia in 1603, and translated Zitonius's The Historie of The Twelve Caesars in 1606. Hollander is better known in British translation circles than North or Florio, known as the Elizabethan "translator general" who truly understood "the secret of translation." Holland's translation has two main characteristics :(1) translation must serve the reality; (2) Translation must be stylistic. In the preface to his translation of Natural History, he emphasized, "the practicality of the content of the translation, which should be suitable not only for learned people, but also for the uncivilized peasants in the countryside and for the industrious craftsmen in the cities”. Hollander was particular about the style of his translation. Like other translators of his time, he used a slow prose style, and the translation was always longer than the original. In his translation he tried to be authentic, not foreign. He does not use artificial language, but popular style. Like Cheke before him, he also preferred archaic words to foreign ones out of love for the language of his own country. What’s more, he believed that the style of the original work must be reflected in the translation, and that different works must adopt different styles without adding differences. Hollander had left behind more than just translations, but a series of works with distinctive stylistic characteristics that could withstand even the rigors of modern stylist analysis and provide the modern reader with great pleasure.(Amos,1920:86)

Georga Chapman (1559-1634) was another outstanding translator, whose greatest contribution is that his translations serve as a bridge between the 16th and 17th centuries. He spent his early years as a student at Oxford University before writing poetry and plays. But it was mainly his translations that made him famous in the literary world. He translated the first seven books of the Iliad in 1598, completed the epic in 1611, and the Odyssey in 1616. The translator's profound attainments and outstanding achievements made his translation a literary masterpiece of the time. Chapman adopted two different styles to translate the same poetic style of the original work, that is, he translated Iliad in sonnet and Odyssey in heroic couplet. In contrast, the former is more appropriate and decent than the latter. In his translation, Chapman made extensive use of mythological dictionaries, referred to early reviews of Homer's work. However, both in content and style, the translation is not completely consistent with the original work. It has transformed the characters in the poem, and added elements of moral preaching to the value of wisdom and the expression and restraint of feelings. Chapman is unblemished as a translator. As a poet, however, he was blameless. His translation has achieved great success mainly because of his extraordinary creative ability as a poet and superb ability to control language.
Chapman also made some contributions to the theoretical issues of translation. In the preface of his translation, he clearly put forward the principles guiding the translation of poetry, thus filling some gaps in translation theory in the 16th century, especially in the later period. In principle, he was against too much strictness as well as too much freedom. He said, "I despise the translators for being trapped in the mire of word-for-word translation, losing the living soul of their native language and blackening the original author with stiff language. At the same time, I abhors the use of complicated language to express the meaning” (Amos,1920:130) . Of all that he opposed, the first was word for word translation,which was considered the most unnatural and absurd. According to the views of translation theories such as Horace, who had insight and a prudent attitude that the translator should not follow the original number of words and word order, but follow its material composition and sentences, carefully weigh sentences, and then use the most appropriate expressions and form to express and decorate the translation. Chapman believed that word-by-word translation was a common fault of translators, and even he himself was inevitable. But those mistakes could be overcome. Although the expression of meaning and language style of Greek and English are different, the translator could compare the translation with the original text in meaning and style as long as he carefully identified, understood the spirit of the original text and had a thorough understanding of its grammar and vocabulary and thus approximately achieved "formal correspondence". Chapman's theory was carried on by many translators of the 17th and 18th centuries. This was obviously because he opposed both extremes, and it was easier to argue for a compromise.(Catford,1965:32)

====2.3 Translation of Tyndale and Fulke====

In the 16th century, the translation of the English Bible also flourished. Since the introduction of ethnic translation in the Middle Ages, the Bible had been increasingly read. It had the same appeal for all classes of people, which prompted translators to combine the accuracy required by scholars with the intelligibility required by ordinary people, thus promoting the overall development of translation art and theory. In this respect, religious translation in England in the 16th century was more effective than literary translation. Tyndale and Fulke were the main representatives of bible translation.

William Tyndale (1494-1536) was an erudite humanist and protestant reformist. In 1523, his translation of the New Testament from Greek from a Protestant standpoint was opposed and persecuted by the English church authorities and was not allowed to be published. He fled to Germany in 1524 and, after many twists and turns, had his translation first published in 1525. In 1526, he smuggled the translation back to England against the will of the Church, trying to spread Protestant ideas through the new translation of the Bible and convert The English people to Protestants. The church authorities immediately took measures to lay siege. The Bishop of London claimed to have found 2,000 errors in Tyndale's translation. Thomas More, a famous humanist, attacked his translation very unkindly, and the priests bought all the copies they could get and burned them to prevent their proliferation. Uncompromising, Tyndale continued to translate the Bible in his own way: he translated the first book of the Old Testament in 1530, completed The Book of Jonah in 1531, and published the revised New Testament in 1534. The church authorities had no choice but to burn Tyndale in 1536 for heresy.
Tyndale's translation, however, had not disappeared but was republished after Tyndale's martyrdom and became increasingly influential, serving as the main reference version and as the model for all English translations for centuries to come. The greatest achievement of Tyndale's translation is that it takes into account the needs of academe, conciseness and literariness, and integrates these three elements into the style of English translation of the Bible. Tyndale paid special attention to the popularity of the translation, trying to use the authentic English vocabulary and ordinary narrative expressions of vivid and specific expressions, which makes his text simple and natural without being pedantic.(Tan Zaixi,2004:80)

If Tyndale made a special contribution to the practical translation of the Bible in the 16th century, then it was William Fulke (1538-1589)who made the greatest achievements in the theoretical study of bible translation. Fulke was a scholar of The Bible with humanistic thoughts. Without translating the Bible completely, he had great views on translation theory. In 1589 he published a book entitled in Defence of the Sincere and True Translation of the Holy Scriptures into the English Tongue. It must be pointed out that Fulke did not systematically discuss the universal principles of translation as Dolet did. Instead, he only talked about the facts and refuted Gregory Martin's views, and expounded the theoretical issues in a rather chaotic manner. To sum up, there were mainly two aspects as follows:
(1)Translation can have nothing to do with faith. Fulke, influenced by Erasmus's linguistic approach, disagreed with Martin's assertion of theological authority over scientific scholarship. Translators, he believed, must be fluent in many languages so that they could make accurate judgments about the teachings of the saints without blindly following them. The power of a translator lies in his solid linguistic ability, not in his belief in God. He said, The translator cannot be called an unfaithful heretic as long as the translation conforms to the language and meaning of the original text, even if the motive is not good (Amos,1920:71). Fulke never accepted Martin's strict translation formulas, nor did he submit to unproven authoritative theories, even from the leaders of his own faction. Fulke’s point of view is obviously a challenge to the theological authority of Augustine with its purpose to liberate the Bible translation from the narrow theological tradition and win the right for ordinary people to translate and interpret the Bible.
(2)The Translation of the Bible must respect linguistic habits. If the translator has difficulty in understanding the original text, he/she should turn to the language habits of ancient non-religious writers, while one encounters difficulties in diction, translator should refer to the language habits of contemporary secular writers and the general public. Fulke added: "We are not lords dictating the way people speak. If we were, we would teach them how to use language better. Since we cannot change the way people speak, we have to follow Aristotle's instructions and use the language of ordinary people." Therefore, religious usage should give way to common usage if it is in conflict with common usage. In translation, words and expressions that are most easily understood must be used so that those who do not know their etymological meaning can understand them. At the same time, if words have been misused over a long period of time, with meanings that do not correspond to the original meaning of the words, or have been misused to increase the ambiguity of the words, the translator should not follow blindly, but should look to the root and choose the words according to their original meaning, that is, according to the meaning used in the time when the Bible was written. In translating the Bible into English, Fulke did not advocate excessive borrowing of foreign words but tapping the expressive potential of English itself and paying attention to the use of expressions in line with English habits. Fulke acknowledged that English had a small vocabulary compared with older languages, but argued that this could not be compensated for by making up words, but by using Old English words again.
Clearly, some of Mr Fulke's views are limited and conservative. Many of the foreign words he objects to have been adopted as part of the English vocabulary. But many of his criticisms of Martin are convincing, and his work has been generally praised by the translators of the Bible. Some of his observations on language are so incisive that they are still of great reference value to the study of modern English.(Amos,1920:72)

==3.History of Translation in Germany==

In Germany, the national self-consciousness was further strengthened, and the trend of mechanical imitation of Latin gradually disappeared in the 15th century.

====3.1 Dominant Ideas in German Translation====

Linguists realized the unique style and expressive ability of German, and hence shifted the focus of translation from the original language to the target language. Free translation took the place of word-to-word translation and occupied the dominant position. The only reason for translators to object literal translation is its convenience for readers to understand word-by-word translation.
Gradually, scholars recognized that Hebrew, Greek, and Latin all have distinct features, especially in terms of idiomatic expressions. Similarly, since German is an independent language, it also has its own unique expressions that cannot be translated word by word into other languages, nor can expressions in other languages be translated word by word into German. Based an an understanding of the nature and differences of languages as well as a growing sense of nationality and desire to develop the national language, more and more historians and scholars have begun to use German idiomatic expressions rather than imitate Latin.
Against the background of this trend of thought, the free translators gradually changed their inferiority in the debates with the literal translators in the 15th century, and rightly put forward another profound reason against literal translation: German is an independent language with its own rules that must be respected; German has its own language style, which cannot be destroyed by imitation of other languages. This was the dominant idea in German translation throughout the 16th century.

====3.2 Translation of Reuchlin, Erasmus and Luther====

Johannes Reuchlin(1455-1522) aroused great academic interest in Hebrew. In 1515, he wrote Epistolae Obscurorum Virorum, exposing the narrow-mouthing ignorance of the scholars and monks, which led to a fierce debate between the reformers and conservatives in the church. At the same time, he was also very knowledgeable about translation theory. He mainly translated two works, ''Batrachom Yomachia'' (1510) and ''Septem Psalmos Poenitentiales'' (1512), using word-for-word translation. This contradicts his own remarks about translation.
However, its actual content and general principles could not be compared to those of the literal translation school in the 15th century. The literatrists of the 15th century only emphasized the imitation of certain rhetorical forms of the text, while Reuchlin understood the value of rhythm and the difference between the text and the translation. He believed that the form of the original was so closely integrated with the original that it could not be preserved in the target language. Just like Homer's works alive only in Greek, it would detract from the aesthetic value of literature when translated into any other language. The purpose of literal translation was not to ask the translator to imitate the style of the original text, but to make readers pay attention to the style of the original text and appreciate its literary value.(Tan Zaixi,2004:56)

Another outstanding representatives of a new approach to literary study and new insights into translation theory in the 16th century was Desiderius Erasmus (1466-1536), who was born in a priest's family in Rotterdam, Netherlands. His early education was influenced by The Canon of Augustine. After studying in Paris, he lived successively in Britain, Germany, Italy and Switzerland, accepting humanism and opposing scholasticism. He was knowledgeable, good at language studies, and had profound attainments in Greek and Latin literature, especially his incisive treatises on literature and style.
Erasmus advocated that the original work must be respected. Before Erasmus, the Translation of the Bible in Various European countries was in a state of confusion. Erasmus bitterly pointed out that the translation and commentary of the Bible must be faithful to the original text, because no translation can fully translate the "language of God" as the Bible itself. Early theologians did not understand Hebrew or Greek and could not understand the original text of the Bible, so the truth of the Bible was covered up, distorted, or ossified into dogma. To uncover this truth, we must go back to the source. It is truth, not authority, that should be respected. What’s more, he claimed that translator must have a rich knowledge of language. He believed that to interpret the ''New Testament'' correctly it was necessary to learn ancient Greek; Anyone who wished to pursue theological studies must first be able to read the classics and learn Greek semantics, meanings, and rhetoric. Also, he realized the great importance of style in translation and attached great importance to readers’ requirements. There is no doubt that Erasmus' translation theory is the result of his humanistic thought, his mastery of multiple languages as well as his appreciation of literary styles. His translation principles and methods have exerted great influence on both contemporary and later translators.

Martin Luther (149-146) was the founder of the European Religious Reform movement and the Protestant Church reformer. Luther translated the Bible, known as “the first bible of common people” in the history by using the people's language, which played a great role in unifying the German language and laid a foundation for the formation and development of modern German.
He also proposed that translation should adopt common people language and only appropriate free translation can bring the original enlightening thoughts of Bible into light. (Luther,1530:124) Grammatical correction and semantic coherence were of great value during translation. Translation was so challenging that it requires collective wisdom and repeatedly revisions.
Luther had also put forward seven rules for translation: the word order of the original text can be changed; modal particles can be used reasonably; necessary conjunctions can be added; words in the original text that do not have an equivalent can be omitted; phrases can be used to translate individual words; figurative usage and non-figurative usage can be changed flexibly; the accuracy of variant forms and explanations should be strengthened. Although Luther’s translation practice received a great deal of criticism, his translation of Bible his was considered to be the earliest written language in German and opened a new era in the development of modern German. It endowed him with the highest reputation and the most profound influence in Germany.(Xie Tianzhen,2009:23)

==Conclusion==
It could be seen from the above sections that one of the biggest characteristics of Western translation during the Renaissance was the parallel and independent development of the translation of western European national languages. The use of Latin, though still having some market, was a tributary in both writing and translation. Before the Renaissance, especially before the middle ages, when we talked about western translation, we mostly meant translation in Latin. Since the Renaissance, with the gradual formation and consolidation of national states and the development of national languages, western translation had turned to national languages,especially French, English and German.The translation activities in the Renaissance period were basically devoid of disciplinary consciousness, and the theories were fragmentary and unsystematic. Most of the authors were translation practitioners, and most of the theories were empirical. Thanks to the translators in these three countries who were devoted themselves to the study of translation principles and the transmission of classic works, their consistant and pain-staking efforts had pushed the translation theory to anew level and left countlessly valueable translated works.Therefore, the Renaissance could be said to be a turning point in the history of western translation. In short, the Renaissance marks that the translation of national languages has been firmly on the historical stage, and that translation practice and theory have broken away from the dark Middle Ages.It also laid a solid foundation for the contemporary translation. (Pan Wenguo,2002:23)

As can be seen from the above chapters, in the Renaissance, the greatest feature of western translation theory was the parallel and independent development of Western European national language translation. Although before the Renaissance, especially before the middle ages, when we talk about western translation, we mainly refer to Latin translation. However, since the Renaissance, with the gradual formation and consolidation of the nation-state and the development of national languages, western translation has turned to national languages, especially French, English and German.

However, we have to pay attention to the shortcomings of translation activities in the Renaissance. First, translators' translation theories are scattered and fragmented, lacking discipline consciousness and systematicness. Second, most translators are empirical, and the quality of their works is uneven.

Because the translators of these three countries are committed to the study of translation principles and the dissemination of classical works, their unremitting efforts have pushed translation theory to a new height and left countless valuable translation works. Therefore, the Renaissance can be said to be a turning point in the history of western translation. In short, the Renaissance marks that the translation of national languages has been firmly on the historical stage, and the translation practice and theory have been separated from the dark middle ages. This has also laid a solid foundation for contemporary translation. (Pan Wenguo, 2002:23) --[[User:Liu Wei|Liu Wei]] ([[User talk:Liu Wei|talk]]) 13:11, 14 December 2021 (UTC)Liu Wei

==References==
Amos, F. R. (1920). Early Theories of Translation[M]. New York: Columbia University Press.

Benjamin, Andrew. (1989). Translation and the Nature of Philosophy: A New Theory of Words[M]. London and New York: Routledge.

Catford,J.C.(1965) A Linguistic Theory of Translation[M].New York: Oxford University Press.

Dolet, Etienne. (1540). How to Translate Well from One Language to Another[M]. Robinson.

Frederick Engels. (1883) The Dialects of Nature[M]. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

Luther, Martin. (1530). Sendbrief vom Dolmetschen[M]. Stoerig.

M.A.R. Habib. (2011) Literary Criticism from Plato to the Present: An Introduction[M]. New Jersey: Wiley-Blackwell Publishing.

Munday, Jeremy. (2001). Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications[M]. London and New York: Routledge.

Pan Wenguo 潘文国.(2002) 当代西方的翻译学研究[J] Contemporary Translation Studies in the West.中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal,31-34.

Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2000). 翻译学[M] Translation Studies. 武汉：湖北教育出版社 Wuhan: Hubei Educational Press.

Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2004).西方翻译简史[M] A Short History of Translation in the West. 北京：商务印书馆 Beijing: The Commercial Press.

Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2003). 翻译研究新视野[M] New Perspective for Translation Studies. 青岛：青岛出版社 Qingdao: Qingdao Publishing.

Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2009).中西翻译简史[M] A Brief History of Translation in China and the West.北京:北京外语教学与研究出版社 Beijing:Foreign Language Teachinng and Research Press.

Xu Jun, Yuan Xiaoyi 许钧，袁筱一. (1998). 当代法国翻译理论[M] Contemporary Translation Thoery in France.南京：南京大学出版社 Nanjing: Nanjing University.

=刘薇 Contemporary American Translation History)=

Liu Wei 刘薇 Hunan Normal University, China

==Abstract==
The United States is an important part of the "West", so when we talk about the conception of "West", it is impossible not to include the United States.Therefore, this chapter combs the development of contemporary American translation by introducing a series of theories of American Translators.

The United States is an important part of the "West", so when we talk about the conception of "West", it is impossible to exclude the United States.Therefore, this chapter recapitulates the development of contemporary American translation by introducing a series of theories of American Translators. (corrected by--[[User:Zhou Junhui|Zhou Junhui]] ([[User talk:Zhou Junhui|talk]]) 08:48, 14 December 2021 (UTC))

==Key words==
translation theory of American, Eugene Nida,Robert Boogrand.

==Introduction==

In the field of translation studies, the situation in the United States is very special.Since the history of the United States itself is not long, we can not expect to talk about "ancient American translation theory", "medieval American translation theory", or even "modern American translation theory".American translation theory is mainly the "contemporary translation theory", which is developed after World War II (Guo Jianzhong, [introduction]: 2).Although the development of American translation theory is relatively short, there are still many influential translation theorists, such as Eugene Nida, Robert Boogrand, Andre Leverville, Lawrence Venudi, Edwin Gentzler and so on. They are constantly innovating and developing new theories in the field of translation.

In the field of translation studies, the situation in the United States is very special.Since the history of the United States itself is not long, we can not expect to talk about "ancient American translation theory", "medieval American translation theory", or even "modern American translation theory".American translation theory is mainly the "contemporary translation theory", which is developed after World War II (Guo Jianzhong, [introduction]: 2).Although the development of American translation theory is relatively short, there are still many influential translation theorists, such as Eugene Nida, Robert Boogrand, Andre Leverville, Lawrence Venudi, Edwin Gentzler and so on. They are constantly innovating and developing new theories in the field of translation. (corrected by --[[User:Zhou Junhui|Zhou Junhui]] ([[User talk:Zhou Junhui|talk]]) 08:48, 14 December 2021 (UTC))

==Chapter1 Characteristics of the local American translation theory ==

The development of contemporary American translation theory has three main characteristics: first, it inherits the tradition of European translation theory in terms of overall research methods;Second, the early studies were mostly influenced by the schools of American structural linguistics;Third, there is a tendency to catch up in research results.These characteristics are discussed one by one below.(Tan Zaixi,1999:237)

On the first point, the inheritance of European tradition in the overall research method of American translation theory is due to its unique language and cultural tradition.As an integral part of the whole culture, translation culture naturally presents the basic characteristics of the development of the whole culture.Since the American culture with English as the national language is mainly inherited from European culture, the development of American translation culture, as an integral part of American culture, also inherits European translation culture.Especially in the early stage of the development of American translation theory, many influential people engaged in translation studies were immigrants from Europe or descendants of recent European immigrants.

Take Thorman as an example: his translation theory work the art of translation published in 1901 is one of the earliest published works in the field of American translation theory, but the contents and discussion methods involved in the book have no obvious "American characteristics".On the contrary, it is more like a work belonging to Europe, especially the British translation tradition. Even the examples in the book are similar to the European, especially the British translation tradition.

The second characteristic of the tradition of American translation theory is that the early studies were greatly influenced by the schools of American structural linguistics, which can be said to be a more distinctive "American characteristic" in American translation studies.

American linguistic studies are at the forefront of the West in many aspects. There have been many linguistic schools, such as human language school, structuralism school, transformational generative school and so on. All kinds of schools have also had various direct or indirect effects on American translation studies.

The representative of American structuralist language school is Bloomfield. He adopts the method of behaviorism and believes that everything about language can be studied scientifically and objectively.He put forward a behaviorist semantic analysis method, which holds that meaning is the relationship between stimulus and language response.In 1950s, Chomsky's transformational generative theory replaced Bloomfield's theory and occupied the dominant position in American linguistics theory and occupied the dominant position in American linguistics.The influence of Chomsky's theory on translation studies mainly lies in his discussion of surface structure and deep structure.The concept of "deep" has led to large-scale semantic research. Because semantics is closely related to translation research, Chomsky's theory has promoted the development of translation theory in the United States and even the whole west.(Xie Tianzhen ,2003:200)

Therefore, under the influence of various linguistic theories, many people try to put forward new translation concepts and research methods. These people can be collectively referred to as the structural School of American translation theory.Among them, the main characters include Wojilin, Bolinger, Katz, Quinn and Eugene Nida.

Take Wojilin as an example. He is a human linguist.His greatest contribution is to put forward a multi-step translation method (also known as step-by-step translation method).The biggest advantage of his multi-step translation method is that the steps are clear, flexible and easy to master.

Using Chomsky's transformational generative theory, Boringer puts forward a concept of structural translation as opposed to lexical translation.Based on structural linguistics, Katz makes a profound analysis of the translatability of language and the philosophical problems in language and translation.Based on the discussion of strange language, Quinn expounds some basic problems of translation from the perspective of philosophy, which has aroused great repercussions in the field of western translation theory.(Tan Zaixi,1999:250)

The third characteristic of the development of American translation theory is that it has a tendency to catch up with others in research results.One of the most prominent scholars is Eugene Nida. Although he is an outstanding linguist, his views on "translation is science", "translation is communication", "translation must pay attention to reader response" and other aspects are an innovation and breakthrough to the previous views. In addition, after Eugene Nida, many scholars have put forward many new views because of their existence,It was only after World War II that American translation theory continued to catch up.

Therefore, we will focus on him in the next chapter.

On the first point, the inheritance of European tradition in the overall research method of American translation theory is due to its unique language and cultural tradition.As an integral part of the whole culture, translation culture naturally presents the basic characteristics of the development of the whole culture.Since the American culture with English as the national language is mainly inherited from European culture, the development of American translation culture, as an integral part of American culture, also inherits European translation culture.Especially in the early stage of the development of American translation theory, many influential people engaged in translation studies were immigrants from Europe or descendants of recent European immigrants.(corrected by --[[User:Zhou Junhui|Zhou Junhui]] ([[User talk:Zhou Junhui|talk]]) 08:48, 14 December 2021 (UTC))

==Chapter2 Eugene Nida's translation theory==

Eugene Albert Nida (1914 -) was born in Oklahoma City in the south central United States. He graduated from the University of California, Los Angeles in 1936. In 1943, he worked in Bloomfield and fries (Charles fries received his doctorate in linguistics under the guidance of two famous scholars. As the leading translation theory figure in contemporary America, Nida has also engaged in research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology and communication engineering. Before his retirement in the 1980s, he worked in the Translation Department of the American Holy Bible Association and served as the executive secretary of the translation department for a long time. He is mainly engaged in the Bible Organization of translation and revision of translations and the Bible Training and theoretical guidance for translators. He is proficient in many languages and has investigated and studied more than 100 languages, especially some small languages in Africa and Latin America. In 1968, he served as the president of the American language society. Although he does not take teaching as his career, he has extremely rich experience in Translation training and lecturing. In addition to a long-term part-time job, he speaks linguistics in the famous American summer In addition to teaching linguistics and translation courses in the Institute, he also served as a guest lecturer and professor in many American universities. He was often invited to give short-term lectures in Europe, Latin America, Africa and Asia, and won several honorary doctorates. In order to recognize his contribution to translation research, especially in the field of Bible translation research, the American Bible Association named the Institute after him in 2001 In particular, Nida has deep feelings for China. Since 1982, he has been invited to give lectures in China more than ten times, and has maintained close academic contacts and exchanges with many schools and academic colleagues in China for a long time.(Tan Zaixi,2000:247)

Nida is a prolific language and translation theorist. From 1945 to 2004, he published more than 200 articles and more than 40 works (including works cooperated and edited with others). Among them, there are more than 20 works on language and translation theory, and a collection of papers has been published.

His research achievements include "Toward a Science of Translating" published in 1964, "The Theory and Practice of Translation" Co authored with Charles Taber in 1969, "Com ponential Analysis of Meaning " published in 1975 and "language structure and Translation" . Nida's anthology "Language Structure and Translation : Essays by Eugene A. Nida，ed. by Anwar S. Dil" , "From One Language to Another" , co authored with de warrd in 1986, "The Sociolinguistics of Interlingual Communication" , published in 1996 and published in 2001 "Language and Culture :Contertsin Translating" .(Xie Tianzhen.2003:212)

Throughout Nida's translation thought, we can divide it into three main development stages: the linguistic stage with obvious American structuralism in the early stage, the stage of translation science and translation communication in the middle stage, and the stage of social semiotics.

The first major stage is the linguistic stage, from 1943 when he wrote his doctoral thesis "a summary of English syntax" to 1959 when he published "principles of translation from biblical translation".At this stage, he tries to clarify the structural nature of language through the description of syntax, morphology and language translation.In his early days, he was greatly influenced by American structuralist Bloomfield and human linguist Sapir, and paid attention to the collection and analysis of language materials in language research.Through the opportunity to visit and contact different languages all over the world, many examples of speech differences are collected.However, he does not regard speech differences as insurmountable obstacles between languages, but as different phenomena of the same essence.

The second development stage of Nida's translation thought is the stage of translation science and translation communication. It took 10 years from the publication of "principles of translation from biblical translation" in 1959 to the publication of "translation theory and practice" in 1969.The research achievements at this stage have played a key role in establishing Nida's authoritative position in the whole western translation theory circle.
By summarizing this main development period, the main contents of the following five aspects can be summarized:

（一）Translation science.Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill, but also a science.The so-called science here means that translation problems can be handled by "scientific approaches to language structure, semantic analysis and information theory", that is, a linguistic and descriptive method can be adopted to explain the translation process.If the principles and procedures of translation seem to be normative, it is only because they are generally considered to be the most useful in a specific scope of translation.Nida's view that "translation is science" has had great repercussions in the field of western linguistics and translation theory.

（二） Translation communication theory. Nida applies communication theory and information theory to translation studies and holds that translation is communication. After World War II, not only advertisers, politicians and businessmen attached great importance to the intelligibility of language, but also scholars, writers, editors, publishers and translators realized that any information would be worthless if it could not play a communicative role. Therefore, to judge whether a translation is successful, we must first see whether it can be immediately understood by the recipient and whether it can play a role in the communication of ideas, information and feelings. Therefore, in the field of translation research, various names and statements such as "communicative translation", "functional translation" and related "equal response theory", "equal effect theory", "equal role theory" and "equal power theory" have sprung up one after another. Nida's "translation is communication" and his "reader response theory" and "dynamic equivalence" discussed below“ "Functional equivalence" has become an important representative of the communicative school in the field of western translation studies.

Nida's theory of "translation is communication" is based on the theory of language commonality. Nida, like Jacobson, believes that all languages in the world have the same expression ability, which can enable native speakers of the language to express ideas, describe the world and carry out social communication. His argument is based on the same "identity" For example, in countries with relatively developed productive forces, many scientific and technological words will appear in their languages, while in countries with less developed or very low productive forces, there may be a lack of scientific and technological words in their languages. However, this does not mean that the latter has the same expressive ability as the former, but only shows that people have different requirements for languages in different languages, It is not because the language cannot produce scientific and technological vocabulary, but because the speakers of the language do not have or temporarily do not have the requirement to use scientific and technological vocabulary. Once there is such a requirement, there will be corresponding vocabulary in the language, or "native" scientific and technological vocabulary, or "foreign" vocabulary transplanted from foreign words. In short, the expression efficiency of various languages is the same.

Nida believes that the primary task of translation is to make it clear to the readers at a glance after reading the translation. That is to say, the translation should be fluent and natural, and the readers can understand it without the knowledge of the cultural background of the source language. This requires that rigid foreign words should be used as little as possible in translation, and expressions belonging to the receiving language should be used as much as possible. For example, in a Sudanese language, for If the expression "repent and reform" is translated directly, it will make people feel at a loss, and it should be translated into the local familiar "spitting on the ground in front of someone". For example, in the language without "Snow", white as snow may be puzzling, but it should be said "white as frost" or "white as egret hair" Another example is that in the ancient West, the habit of people meeting and greeting each other was "sacred kiss", but now it should become "very warm handshake".(Nida·Eugene,1996:234）

In a sense, the theory of translation communication is not only one of the main symbols of Nida's second development stage of translation thought, but also one of the biggest characteristics of his whole ideological system.Especially after the publication of translation theory and practice, Nida's translation communication theory has had a great impact on the western translation circles, including those in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union.

（三） Dynamic equivalence theory.The so-called dynamic equivalence translation is actually translation under the guidance of translation communication theory. Specifically, it refers to "reproducing the source language information with the closest (original) natural equivalence in the receiving language from semantics to style".In this definition, there are three key points: one is "nature", which means that the translation cannot have a translation cavity;The second is "close", which refers to selecting the translation with the closest meaning to the original text on the basis of "nature";The third is "equivalence", which is the core.Both "nature" and "close" serve to find equivalents.

（四） Translation function theory.From the perspective of sociolinguistics and language communicative function, Nida believes that translation must serve the reader.To judge whether a translation is correct or not, we must take the reader's response as the criterion.If the response of the target readers is basically the same as that of the original readers, the translation can be considered successful.

（五） Four step model.This refers to the translation process.Nida puts forward that the process of translation is: analysis, transfer (transfer the meaning obtained from the analysis from the source language to the receiving language), reorganization (reorganize the translation according to the rules of the receiving language), and inspection (detect the target text against the source text).Among these four steps, "analysis" is the most complex and key, which is the focus of Nida's translation research.The focus of the analysis is semantics. He distinguishes four parts of speech from the perspective of semantics: object words, activity words, abstract words and relational words.In semantic analysis, he introduced three methods: linear analysis, hierarchical analysis and component analysis.In the specific analysis of semantics, he focuses on grammatical meaning, referential meaning and connotative meaning (or emotional meaning and associative meaning).These distinction theories are of great significance to understand his translation thought.

Nida's research achievements in the 1980s can be regarded as the third stage of translation thought.He has made a series of modifications and supplements to his translation theory.He did not completely abandon the theory of the original communicative school, but further developed on the original basis and incorporated the useful elements of the original theory into a new model, which is the social semiotics model in the third development stage translation thought.

Compared with previous works, Eugene Nida has the following four changes and developments in from one language to another: first, based on the translation theory of social semiotics, he emphasizes that everything in the text has meaning, including speech form, so form cannot be easily sacrificed.That is to say, form is also meaningful. Sacrificing form means sacrificing meaning.Secondly, it points out that the rhetorical features of language play an important role in language communication, so we must pay attention to these features in translation.Third, the theory of "dynamic equivalence" is no longer used, but replaced by "functional equivalence", which is intended to make the meaning of the term clearer and easier to understand.Fourth, instead of using the distinction of grammatical meaning, referential meaning and associative meaning, meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, and all kinds of meaning are divided into referential meaning and associative meaning.From the whole historical process of the development of translation theory, it should be said that these changes are basically positive.(Nida·Eugene,1996:222）

Of course, his theory and works are not perfect.First, his theory focuses too much on solving the problems of communicative and intelligibility of translation, so its scope of application is limited.It is natural to emphasize the intelligibility of the translation in the field of Bible translation, but if the intelligibility of the translation is always put in the first place in the translation of secular literary works, it will inevitably lead to the simplification and even non literariness of the translated language.

Second, he no longer completely negates "formal correspondence", but believes that the expression form of the original text cannot be broken at will in translation.In order to expand the scope of application of his theory, he also added rhetoric.However, despite his amendments, he failed to elaborate more deeply on his new views.

Thirdly, Eugene Nida once put forward the proposition that "translation is science", and then basically abandoned this proposition.Whether he put forward or gave up, he did not put forward sufficient and convincing arguments, which can not be said to be a major defect.

Of course, Nida's theory and works are not perfect. Firstly, his theory focuses too much on solving the problems of communicative and intelligibility of translation, so its scope of application is limited. It is natural to emphasize the intelligibility of the translation in the field of Bible translation, but if the intelligibility of the translation is always put in the first place in the translation of secular literary works, it will inevitably lead to the simplification and even non literariness of the translated language. Newmark, a British translation theorist, once pointed out: "if we delete all the metaphors in the Bible that Doneda believes readers cannot understand, it will inevitably lead to a large loss of meaning." . an important feature of literary works is that they use more metaphorical and novel language. The author's real intention may have to taste and capture between the lines. If all the metaphorical images in the original work are deleted and all the associative meanings are clearly stated, the result will be that the translation is easy to understand, but it is dull and can't reach To the purpose of literature. In recent years, Nida has become more and more aware of this, and has constantly revised and improved some of his past views. For example, he later no longer focused on the intelligibility of the translation, but advocated a "three nature principle", that is, the principle of paying equal attention to comprehensibility, readability and acceptability. In addition, he no longer completely denied "formal correspondence" In order to expand the scope of application of his theory, he especially added rhetoric. However, despite Nida's amendments, he failed to make a more profound exposition of his new views; he was only aware of the existence of the problem rather than successfully solving the relevant problems Besides, Nida once put forward the proposition that "translation is science", and then basically gave up this proposition. Whether he put forward or gave up, he did not put forward sufficient and convincing arguments, which is a major defect.

Of course, flaws do not hide the jade. Looking at Nida's lifelong contributions, he is one of the most outstanding theoretical figures in the field of contemporary translation studies in the United States and even the whole west. The historical theory of the development of western translation theory should give him a heavy pen.(Tan Zaixi,2000:257)

==Chapter3 Robert Boogrand's translation theory==

Since the 1970s, more voices outside the structural language school and the communicative school have gradually emerged in the field of translation studies in the United States, especially the voice of discourse linguistics theory and discourse analysis represented by Robert Boogrand.
Boogrand teaches in the English Department of the University of Florida and is engaged in the study of literary discourse rhetoric and grammatical structure.In 1978, he published a book called "elements of translation theory of poetry"), which was listed as one of the Translation Studies Series edited by Holmes and attracted extensive attention.(Xie Tianzhen,2003:56)

Boogrand's view is: 1. The unit of translation is not a single word or sentence, but the whole text.2. Translation is a process of interaction among authors, translators and readers.3. What is worth studying is not the characteristics of the article itself, but the skills of language use reflected in these characteristics.

After the publication of the above translation theory works guided by the thought of discourse linguistics in 1978, Boogrand continued to engage in the research of language and translation along the same line, and more than ten relevant works (including Works CO authored and co edited with others) have been published successively, mainly including discourse, discourse and process: multidisciplinary discourse science exploration Linguistic Theory: Discourse of basic works, introduction to discourse linguistics, language discourse, Western and Middle East translation Boogrand has always expounded language and translation from the perspective of discourse linguistics, thus establishing his important position as the leader of discourse linguistics in the field of British and American translation studies. Boogrand's contribution as one of the pioneers of discourse analysis and discourse linguistics in translation studies is very important and worthy of full recognition.(Tan Zaixi,2000:256)

==Chapter4 Andre Lefevere's translation theory==

With the development of the times, translation studies in the United States, like other parts of the west, have been continuously improved in theoretical depth. By the 1990s, the focus of theorists' discussion on translation has gradually separated from the previous specific translation processes and methods, and turned more to the fundamental nature of translation, translation and ideology, translation and culture. This chapter introduces Andre Leverville's translation theory.
Andre Leverville, a professor of translation and comparative literature at the University of Texas at Austin, originally from Belgium, is a very important theoretical figure in the field of Contemporary Western comparative literature and translation research. We can discuss his main ideas from the following two aspects.(Tan Zaixi,2000:276)

(一)The cultural turn in translation studies. It is a common feature of all cultural schools to turn the focus of translation studies from the language structure and language form correspondence that language schools are most concerned about to the meaning and function of the target text and the source text in their respective cultural systems. He believes that any literature must survive in a certain social and cultural environment, and its meaning and value Value, as well as its interpretation and acceptance, will always be affected and restricted by a series of interrelated and mutually referenced factors, including both internal and external factors of literature. Therefore, as far as translation research is concerned, the goal of the research is far from limited to exploring the equivalence or equivalence of the two texts in language forms, but to explore at the same time.Study various cultural issues directly or indirectly related to translation activities.

（二） The concept of manipulation in translation. When talking about and describing the basic characteristics of the cultural school, we often can not do without using the word "manipulation". Here, "manipulation"It is not emotional, but a special term representing the concept of neutrality. According to the translation operation of Andre Leverville and others, the core meaning is that in the process of processing the source text and generating the target text, the translator has the right and will rewrite the text in order to achieve a certain purpose. Andre Leverville believes that translation is a reflection of the image of the text.Other literary forms such as literary criticism, biography, literary history, drama, film, fiction and so on are also the rewriting of the text image, and rewriting is the manipulation of the text.

（三） Obviously, the manipulative rewriting in Lefevere and his cultural school theory is not simply equivalent to "Rewriting" in the general sense, because in his view, all translation is rewriting, even the "most faithful"Translation is also a form of rewriting. As a translation manipulator, this rewriting or manipulation should be regarded as a cultural necessity in essence. In the process of translation, the translator is bound to be affected and restricted by various social and cultural factors. In addition to considering all the characteristics related to the source text, such as the original author's intention, the context of the source text and so on, the more important thing is toIt is necessary to consider a series of factors related to the target or receiving culture, such as the purpose of translation, the function of the target text, the expectations and reactions of readers, the requirements of clients and sponsors, and the review of the publishing and distribution organization of the work. The existence of these factors and the degree of constraints imposed by the translator on them vary from person to person constitute the inevitable "manipulation" condition of the translator on the text.(Lefevere·André,1980:100).

For "manipulation" in this sense, we can not judge it by moral value words such as "legitimate" or "improper", but only by the "appropriateness" criteria such as whether the target text has achieved the purpose of translation, whether it meets the expectations of the audience, and whether it can be accepted by the accepted culture.

==Chapter5 Lawrence Venudi's translation theory==

It is precisely because the cultural school or manipulation school, and even the polysystem school, in translation studies have established a relationship with the theory of domestication and Foreignization in translation, that a new group of scholars and viewpoints have emerged. In the field of American translation studies, Lawrence Wenudi is the most vocal theoretical figure on the issues of "domestication" and "Foreignization".
As an English professor at Temple University in Philadelphia, winudi is one of the most active and influential figures in the field of American translation theory since the 1990s. Winudi belongs to the deconstruction school in translation studies, that is, what genzler calls the "post structuralism school"In his works on translation studies, Venuti advocates that literary translation should not aim at eliminating alien features, but should try to show cultural differences in the target text.(Tan Zaixi,2000:278)

Venuti's main view is that it is wrong to require the translator to be invisible in translation; the translator should not be invisible in the translation, but should be visible. That is to say, translation should adopt the principle and strategy of "alienation" to keep the translation exotic and exotic, and read like the translation, rather than "domestication"So that the translation can be transformed completely in accordance with the ideology and creative norms of the target culture. It doesn't read like foreign works, but the original of the target language.(Xie Tianzhen,2003:278).

However, translation has never been carried out in an unaffected way. Foreignization translation and domestication translation are actually the products of translation activities affected. From the perspective of translation ethics, it is difficult to assert which is good or which is bad, because translation reality shows that the two play irreplaceable roles in the target language and culture and complete their respective missions.Therefore, the two kinds of translation will always coexist and complement each other.(Tan Zaixi,2000:279)

==Chapter6 Edwin Gensler's translation theory==

Edwin Genzler is the director of the translation center of Amherst University of Massachusetts, doctor of comparative literature and professor of translation. His famous translation work is contemporary translation theory published in 1993 and reprinted in 2001.(Xie Tianzhen,2003:290).

Genzler's contribution to translation theory is mainly reflected in the following three aspects:
First, it comprehensively combs the contemporary western translation theories, so as to clarify people's understanding of various western translation theory schools since World War II, and thus arouse the research interest in all kinds of contemporary western translation theories in the field of translation studies (including China's Translation Studies).In contemporary translation theory, Genzler studies translation from different perspectives such as scientific theory, polysystem theory and deconstruction. By exploring the "political reality" outside translation (literary translation practice), he outlines the outline of contemporary western translation research and guides readers to rethink a series of theoretical issues such as the definition and classification of translation.(Tan Zaixi,2000:300)

Secondly, on the basis of comprehensively and systematically combing various contemporary western translation thoughts and theories, Genzler puts forward a multi-channel cooperative translation research view of "fair treatment of all systems".He believes that contemporary translation theory, like literary theory, originates from structuralist theory.All these structuralist or post structuralist theories have been confined to their respective academic circles for a long time.Various schools have very special requirements for the terms used in this system, and the terms are limited;Their pursuit of "correctness" or "objectivity" of theory tends to be one-sided, and they all try to gain universal recognition in the academic circles at the expense of other perspectives.The result is only the continuous conflict between theories, but there is no due cooperation and exchange between theories, which leads to the marginalization of academic research.(Xie Tianzhen,2003:293)

Thirdly, Genzler puts forward a post structuralist interpretation model of the essence of translation.In translation, post structuralism and power, he analyzes the deconstruction (post structuralism) thoughts of Derrida, Spivak and others, as well as the translation thoughts of translation theorists such as Wenudi, Levin and Robinson under the influence of their deconstruction thoughts, and points out that the new translation interpretation model can no longer follow the past tradition and simply define translation as"The transformation from a single language to another single language", but it should be regarded as the transformation between a multicultural form environment and another equally multicultural form environment.

==Conclusion==

In addition to the above-mentioned important theoretical figures in the field of contemporary American translation studies, many others, such as Roberto Tradu, Daniel Shaw, Burton Raphael and so on, have also made achievements in translation theory. However, due to space constraints, they cannot be discussed in detail here.

Generally speaking, due to the historical origin and the influence of the subject's immigrant culture, the initial development of American translation studies depends on the inheritance and promotion of the tradition of European translation theory. With the evolution of the times, American translation studies catch up with each other in many aspects with rapid development and fruitful achievements, and walk in the forefront of western translation studies, becoming the driving force of contemporary western translation theory. On an important force for forward development.(Tan Zaixi,2000:301)

In addition to the above-mentioned important theoretical figures in the field of contemporary American translation studies, many others, such as Roberto Tradu, Daniel Shaw, Burton Raphael and so on, have also made achievements in translation theory. However, due to space constraints, they cannot be discussed in detail here.

Generally speaking, due to the historical origin and the influence of the subject's immigrant culture, the initial development of American translation studies depends on the inheritance and promotion of the tradition of European translation theory. With the evolution of the times, American translation studies catch up with each other in many aspects with rapid development and fruitful achievements, and walk in the forefront of western translation studies, becoming the driving force of contemporary western translation theory. On an important force for forward development.(corrected by--[[User:Zhou Junhui|Zhou Junhui]] ([[User talk:Zhou Junhui|talk]]) 08:48, 14 December 2021 (UTC))

==reference==

Lefevere·André. (1980). Translating literature [M]. New York:Clarendon Press.

Newmark·Peter. （1978）.The theory and the craft of translation [M].London:Rountledge Press.

Nida·Eugene.（1996）.The Sociolinguistics of Interlingual Communication [M]. Brussels:Editions du Hazard.

Katz·Jerrold J. （1966）.The Philosophy of Language [M]. New York:Harper and Row.

Pound，E. 1917. Notes on Elizabethan classicists [M]. New York:Clarendon Press.

Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (1999).《新编奈达论翻译》[M] New Nida on Translation. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司 Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.

Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2000).《翻译学》[M] Translatology. 武汉:湖北教育出版社 Wuhan: Hubei Education Press.

Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2003).《翻译研究新视野》[M].New perspectives in Translation Studies. 青岛:青岛出版社 Qingdao: Qingdao Press.

中国对外翻译出版公司（编).(1983).《翻译理论与翻译技巧论文集》[M].Collection of Papers on Translation Theory and Translation Skills. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.

中国对外翻译出版公司（编).(1983).《国外翻译理论评介文集》[M].A Review of Foreign Translation Theories. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司 Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.

--[[User:Liu Wei|Liu Wei]] ([[User talk:Liu Wei|talk]]) 16:11, 8 December 2021 (UTC)Liu Wei

=周俊辉Translation of Science and Technology in Late Qing Dynasty and Early Republic of China=
[[Hist_Trans_EN_10]]

=周玖Translation of Science and Technology in Ancient China=
[[Hist_Trans_EN_11]]

=钟雨露Western Translation History in the Old Ages=
[[Hist_Trans_EN_12]]

=钟义菲: The Chinese Translation History in Mordern Age=
[[Hist_Trans_EN_13]]

=魏楚璇: Western translation history in the Modern and Contemporary Ages=
[[Hist_Trans_EN_14]]

=Chapter 15Mahzad Heydarian: Where Persian Language Meets Translation=
[[Hist_Trans_EN_15]]

Mahzad Sadat Heydarian,Hunan Normal University,China

=Akira Jantarat： History of Chinese-Thai literature Translation in 19th century=
[[Hist_Trans_EN_16]]

=Jawad Ahmad; History of Translation=

[[Hist_Trans_EN_17]]

=Benjamin Wellsand; Bible Translation in Christian History=

[[Hist_Trans_EN_18]]

History of Translations

2021-12-15T04:55:33Z

Li Xichang: /* Bible Translation from Different Perspectives */

[[History_of_Translations|Overview Page of History of Translation]]

30 Chapters（0/30)

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[[Book_projects|Back to translation project overview]] [[DCG-To-Do|Zur To-Do-Liste]]

=chapter 1 Rouabah Soumaya: History of translation in the Middle Ages=
[[Hist_Trans_EN_1]]
== Abstract==
The history of translation is seen variously as examining the role of translation in historical episodes through decades or investigating the phenomenon or understanding of translation itself historically. These different historiographical perspectives involve potentially different research aims, approaches, concepts, methods and scholarly interlocutors. The paper focuses on this question of disciplinary commensurability in historical studies, and draws parallels between the history of translation and translation in the middle ages. Themes addressed include the bible translation as , established historiographical norms and alternative, interdisciplinary approaches. It is argued that both the history of translation started with the translation of the Bible in the early BC comes, towards a reflexive, transnational history that seeks productive modes of engagement with other historical disciplines. By bringing to the attention of translation scholars some of the key debates in the history of translation and by identifying commonalities, this paper hopes to present an overall view of translation in the middle ages with slight knowledge of Bible translation in the early centuries of the middle ages, which starts from th5 to the 15 century.

== Keywords==
History of Translation , Bible Translation, Translation in the Middle Ages
medieval translation, medieval translator, translation and culture

== Introduction ==
This paper aims at a general review of the history of translation studies and the prevalent approaches from antiquity to the present in the west, in the form of a historical survey in which key theoretical developments are taken into account, focusing on approaches that have been developed during the twentieth century. Without a doubt, It is James Holme's seminal paper "the name and nature of translation studies" that draws up a disciplinary map for translation studies and serves as a springboard for researchers with its binary division of Translation Studies into two branches: "pure" and "applied." Its growth as a discipline goes back to the 1980s. As time elapses, translation studies, by achieving a certain institutional authority and coalescing with many a resurging disciplines and trends as cultural studies, linguistics, literary theory and criticism, brings a renewed aspect to translation theory.

In addition, this paper argues that English medieval translation can be considered as part of a cultural project in that the medieval translator is concerned more with the role and the function of translation in the target culture. Medieval translation theory derives from the classical theories of translation, however, prefaces to translations indicate that medieval translator appropriates the classical translation theory and uses it to serve the cultural and ideological objectives of translation in the middle Ages.

Key words: medieval translation, medieval translator, translation and culture, translation theory.
The pioneering work of Jeannette Beer and Roger Ellis has decidedly promoted medieval translation as a significant area, and has established medieval translation as the work of culturally responsible, academically oriented people of learning.

1 Susan
* Assist. Prof. Dr., Hacettepe University, Department of English Language and Literature
1 The problematic situation of Medieval translation in the academia is discussed by Ruth Evans in "Translating
Past Cultures?" in The Medieval Translator /Vied. Roger Ellis and Ruth Evans, the University of Exeter Press,
Medieval Translation and Cultural Transformation

== Early History of Translation==
The word ‘translation’ comes from a Latin term which means, “To bring or carry across”. Another relevant term comes from the Ancient Greek word of ‘metaphrasis’ which means, “To speak across” and from this, the term ‘metaphrase’ was born, which means a “word-for-word translation”. These terms have been at the heart of theories relating to translation throughout history and have given insight into when and where translation have been used throughout the ages.

It is known that translation was carried out as early as the Mesopotamian era when the Sumerian poem, Gilgamesh, was translated into Asian languages. This dates back to around the second millennium BC. Other ancient translated works include those carried out by Buddhist monks who translated Indian documents into Chinese. In later periods, Ancient Greek texts were also translated by Roman poets and were adapted to create developed literary works for entertainment. It is known that translation services were utilised in Rome by Cicero and Horace and that these uses were continued through to the 17th century, where newer practices were developed.

The history of translation has been a topic that has long been debated by scholars and historians, though it is widely accepted that translation pre-dates the bible. The bible tells of different languages as well as giving insight to the interaction of speakers from different areas. The need for translation has been apparent since the earliest days of human interaction, whether it be for emotional, trade or survival purposes.

The demand for translation services has continued to develop and is now more vital than ever, with businesses acknowledging the inability to expand internationally or succeed in penetrating foreign markets without translating marketing material and business documents.

It is significant to review the history of translation in different languages. There are divisions of period made by scholars like George Steiner. According to Steiner, the history of translation is divided into four periods. Starting from the Roman translators Cicero and Horace to Alexander Fraser Tytler is the first period; the second period extends up to Valery and from Valery to 1960s becomes the third period and the fourth period 1960s onwards. The history of translation is stressed out from 3000 B.C. Rosetta Stone is considered the most ancient work of Translation belonged to the second century B.C. Livius Andronicus translated Homer’s Odyssey named Odusia into Latin in 240 B.C. All that survives is parts of 46 scattered lines from 17 books of the Greek 24-book epic. In some lines, he translates literally, though in others more freely. His translation of the Odyssey had a great historical importance. Before then, the Mesopotamians and Egyptians had translated judicial and religious texts, but no one had yet translated a literary work written in a foreign language until the Roman Empire. Livius’ translation made this fundamental Greek text accessible to Romans, and advanced literary culture in Latin. This project was one of the best examples of translation as artistic process. The work was to be enjoyed on its own, and Livius strove to preserve the artistic quality of original. Since there was no tradition of epic in Italy before him, Livius must have faced enormous problems. For example, he used archaizing forms to make his language more solemn and intense. Barnstone Willis. The Poetics of Translation: History, Theory and Practice. London: Yale University Press, 1993. Print. Bassnett, Susan and Lefevere, Andre (Eds.). Translation, History and Culture. London: Pinter, 1990. Print.

When we talk about the history of translation, we should think of the theories and names that e merged at its different periods. In fact, each era is characterized by specific changes in translation history, but these changes differ from one place to another. For example, the developments of translation in the western world are not the same as those in the Arab world, as each nation knew particular incidents that led to the birth of particular theories. So, what marked the western translation? .By Marouane Zakhir English translator University of Soultan Moulay Slimane, Morocco

== Translation in the Western World==
For centuries, people believed in the relation between translation and the story of the tower of Babel in the Book of Genesis. According to the Bible, the descendants of Noah decided, after the great flood, to settle down in a plain in the land of Shinar. There, they committed a great sin. Instead of setting up a society that fits God's will, they decided to challenge His authority and build a tower that could reach Heaven. However, this plan was not completed, as God, recognizing their wish, regained control over them through a linguistic stratagem. He caused them to speak different languages so as not to understand each other. Then, he scattered them all over the earth. After that incident, the number of languages increased through diversion, and people started to look for ways to communicate, hence the birth of translation (Abdessalam Benabdelali, 2006) (1).

Actually, with the birth of translation studies and the increase of research in the domain, people started to get away from this story of Babel, and they began to look for specific dates and figures that mark the periods of translation history.

Researchers mention that writings on translation go back to the Romans. Eric Jacobson claims that translating is a Roman invention (see McGuire: 1980) (2). Cicero and Horace (first century BC) were the first theorists who distinguished between word-for-word translation and sense-for-sense translation. Their comments on translation practice influenced the following generations of translation up to the twentieth century.

Another period that knew a changing step in translation development was marked by St Jerome (fourth century CE). "His approach to translating the Greek Septuagint Bible into Latin would affect later translations of the scriptures." (Munday, 2001) (3)

The first important translation in the West was that of the Septuagint, a collection of Jewish Scriptures translated into early Koine Greek in Alexandria between the 3rd and "1st centuries B C E The dispersed Jews had forgotten their ancestral language and Throughout the .middle Ages, /Latin was the lingua franca of the western learned world. -Wikipedia .org/wiki/

The 9th1century Alfred the Great, king of Wessex in England, was far ahead of his time in commissioning 'vernacular Anglo -Saxon translations of Bede’s Ecclesiastical History and Boethius « Consolation of Philosophy ) meanwhile, the Christian church frowned on even partial adaptations of St . Jerome ‘s Vulgate of CA 384 CE, the Latin Bible . -Wikipedia .org/wiki/

The broad historic trends in Western translation practice may be illustrated on the example of translation into the English language .

The first fine translations into English were made in the "the century by Geoffrey Chaucer, who adapted from the Italian of Giovanni Boccaccio in his own Knight's Tal e and Troilus and Criseyde ; began a translation of the French -language Roman de la Rose 7 and completed a translation of Boethius from the Latin . Chaucer bounded an English poetic tradition on adaptations and translations from those earlier established literary languages . -Wikipedia .org/wiki/

The first great English translation was the Wycliffe (CA 1382), which showed the weaknesses of an under developed English prose . only at the end of the "15th century did the great age to English prose translation begin with Thomas Malory ‘s "le Morte D arthur”- Ban adaptation of Arthurian romances so free that it can, in fact, hardly be called a true translation . The first great Tudor translations are, accordingly, the Tyndale new Testament ( 1525), which influenced the Authorized Version (1611), and Lord Berners version of jean Froissart’s Chronicles ( 1523- 25) . - Wikipedia .org/wiki/

== History of Translation in the Middle Ages==
In the history of Europe, the middle Ages or medieval period lasted approximately from the Fifth to the late 15th centuries, similarly to the Post-classical period of global history. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and transitioned into the Renaissance and the Age of Discovery. The middle Ages is the middle period of the three traditional divisions of Western history: classical antiquity, the medieval period, and the modern period. The medieval period is itself subdivided into the Early, High, and Late Middle Ages.

This article is about medieval Europe. For a global history of the period between the 5th and 15th centuries, see Post-classical history. For other uses, see middle Ages (disambiguation).

"Medieval times" redirects here. For the dinner theatre, see Medieval Times.

Latin was the lingua franca of the Western learned world throughout the middle Ages, with few translations of Latin works into vernacular languages. In the 9th century, Alfred the Great, King of Wessex in England, was far ahead of his time in commissioning vernacular translations from Latin into English of Bede’s “Ecclesiastical History”and Boethius's “The Consolation of Philosophy”, which contributed to improve the underdeveloped English prose of that time.

It is argued that the knowledge and findings of Greek academics was developed and understood so widely thanks to the translation work of Arabic scholars. When the Greeks were conquered, Arabic scholars, who translated them and created their own versions of the scientific, entertainment and philosophical understandings took in their works. These Arabic versions were later translated into Latin, during the middle Ages, mostly throughout Spain and the resulting works provided the foundations of Renaissance academics.

Medieval times in human history – also referred to as the “Middles Ages” – was the time period that fell roughly between the fall of the Roman Empire in 476 CE and the 14th century. However, these years bear another moniker as well: the Dark Ages. There are valid reasons for that term. In the eyes of many historians, people during this age made little to no significant advancements that benefitted humankind. In addition, most notably, this was the period when the “Black Death” (the bubonic plague) killed an estimated 30 percent of the population of Europe.

However, the middle Ages were not completely “dark.” In fact, modern historians are taking a second look at this period with a more objective – and perhaps more generous – perspective. There is no doubt, for example, that religion flourished during this time. The Catholic Church came to prominence throughout Europe, and the rise of Islam was occurring simultaneously in the Middle East. It was there – particularly in urban centres such a Baghdad, Damascus and Cairo – that an extremely vibrant culture and intellectual society thrived.

The art of translation also made great strides during the middle Ages. Thanks to Alfred the Great (the king of England during the 9th century), The Consolation of Philosophy by Boethius and Ecclesiastical History by Bede were translated from Latin to English – a major feat that would have a great impact on the overall advancement of English prose during this period. Later, during the 12th and 13th centuries, the Toledo School of Translators (“Escuela de Traductores de Toledo”) worked on a wide variety of translations, including religious, scientific, philosophical and medical works. The original texts were created in Arabic, Hebrew and Greek, and all were translated into Castilian – and that formed the basis for the formation of the Spanish language. Also during the 13th century, English linguist Roger Bacon postulated the concept that a translator not only needed to be fully fluent in both the source and target languages of the work being translated, but also that a translator should be fully versed in the topic of the work to be translated – a tenet that still holds true in the language arts to this day.

One of the most notable translators during the middle Ages was also one of the most accomplished authors and poets – Geoffrey Chaucer. In fact, those historians who still maintain that the Dark Ages produced little to no significant contributions to humankind might do well to remember the works of Chaucer. In a lifetime that spanned some 60 years (from the 1340s until 1400), Chaucer earned the reputation as the “father of English literature.” However, that description only scratched the surface of Chaucer’s accomplishments. He was also a noted astronomer and philosopher, as well as a diplomat, bureaucrat and parliament member. Chaucer’s contributions to the language arts were no less significant; his use of Middle English (as opposed to Latin or French, which were the two most commonly used languages of the day) quite literally brought English into mainstream usage, as did his translations of numerous works from Italian, French and Latin into English.

It can truly be said that historians have given medieval times somewhat of a bad rap over the centuries. And while there’s no doubt that the accomplishments of linguists and others during the Middle Ages can’t come close to comparing with those of the Renaissance or later time periods, the contributions made during the “Dark Ages” should not be overlooked. In fact, from a linguistic point of view, this was an extremely crucial time. Not only were the basic principles of translation developed during the middle Ages, but also English itself began to take shape as a language of import for future years.

Studies on the theory and practice of medieval translation reveal therefore that the translation principles and the issues of translation theory in the Middle Ages derive from a long established tradition of translation theory developed by the classical authors. In practice, Roger Ellis states, medieval translation is heterogeneous; "every instance of practice that we may be tempted to erect into a principle has its answering opposite, sometimes in the same work (quoted in Evans, 1994: 27). Evidently, not only the critical approaches to translation in the Middle Ages but also theory and practice of translation of the period vary considerably. However, it seems that medieval translation utilises the translation and writing theories inherited from the classical authors to adopt a translational approach that recognises translation's vital role in the cultural transformation of the middle Ages. Page 96

This paper argues therefore that the medieval interest in translation can be considered as a cultural and political interest since the 1994. pp. 20-45. See Jeanette Beer, Medieval Translators and Their Craft.1989 and Roger Ellis (ed) assisted by Jocelyn Price, Stephen Medcalf and Peter Meredith. The Medieval Translator: The Theory and Practice of Translation in the Middle Ages: Papers Read at a Conference Held 20-23 August 1987 at the University of Wales Conference Centre, Gregynog //a//.Woodbridge, Suffolk: D.S. Brewer, 1989.

Rita Copeland, Rhetoric, Hermeneutics, and Translation in the Middle Ages: Academic Traditions and
Vernacular Texts. Cambridge, 1991. See particularly A. J. Minnis and A. B. Scots (eds) Medieval Literary
Theory and Criticism c.l 100-1375 The Commentary Tradition. Oxford, 1988.

Translations of the period are introduced as potential projects for cultural transformation. The formative role of translation in the middle Ages can be observed in medieval culture's awareness of the significance of cultural interaction. Medieval culture is a highly bookish culture, which contributed to the development of a vigorous translation activity in the Middle Ages. The recognition of the authority of the books seems to have led to the utilisation of the potential in translation for cultural education and transformation. As there was little or no difference between translation and original composition in the Middle Ages, translation was often considered in association with the pragmatic function of the book (Barratt, 1992:13-14).

In Geoffrey Chaucer's The Prologue to the Legend of Good Women, the fictional dialogue concerning the translations of the narrator provides an instructive interaction concerning translation activity as an integral part of cultural re-construction in the middle Ages.

The god of Love presents two works of Chaucer, the Troilus and Criseyde and the Romance of the Rose, as translations and questions the narrator's motives in choosing to translate works undermining the doctrine of Love (322-335). This fictional questioning introduces, in fact, the main attitude to translation in the middle Ages as it recognises the transformative role of translation on the target audience as an important issue the medieval translator recognises and aims at as the ultimate target of translation. Similarly, the narrator in Chaucer's Prologue to the Legend of Good Women argues that he wanted to teach the reader the true conduct in love through the experience of the lovers in the books he translated (471-474).

The translator in this fictional debate introduces the main objective of translation as making the works of foreign languages available to the linguistically disadvantaged audience for their cultural improvement. This rather pragmatic translational paradigm, moreover, introduces another important issue of medieval translation addressed by theoretical tradition of translation in the middle Ages. In fact, the translator accused of mistranslation in Chaucer's Prologue to the Legend of Good Women is also a writer, his accuser does not make a distinction between his role as a translator and his role as a writer.3 many of the medieval translators were also writers, and translation and interpretation were considered as important strategies in medieval composition. Moreover, most of the medieval translation activity from Latin into the vernacular involved a transfer of the past works into the vernacular by re-writing.
As Douglas Kelly argues, "such re-writing is 'translation' as literary invention, using pre-
existent source material. It is a variety of translation study « (1997: 48). Medieval reception of the translation theory of the classical antiquity as a principle governing creative activity led to a special sense of translation, that is, translation as "an 3 See the Prologue to the Legend of Good Women, lines 322-35 and 362-370. 97

".. And other bokes took me ...To reed upon ": Medieval Translation and Cultural Transformation 'unfaithful' yet artful interpretation or reinterpretation"(Kelly, 1997: 55), or "secondary translation" to put it in Copeland's words.

Identifying the important status of translation in the Middle Ages as a branch of writing reveals that the Middle Ages was not totally oblivious to the legacy of rhetorical and hermeneutic traditions of the classical antiquity. More importantly, it testifies to the significant function translation is given in the cultural transformation. As stated above, a theoretical understanding of translation in the middle Ages was largely dependent on the classical ideas of translation. Rita Copeland argues for the necessity of recognising the medieval awareness of the classical tradition as the strong theoretical foundation of Medieval translation.

==Translation in middle Ages (The Philological Perspective)==

Middle Ages epoch roughly represents the time between late fifth century and the fifteenth century A.D.in Europe. Middle Ages, however, continue until the advent of European Colonialism (about eighteenth century) in the 'Oriental' and African countries. With the spread of Christianity, translation takes a new role of disseminating the word of God. How to translate the divine words faithfully was a serious issue because of dogmatic and political concerns. “St. Jerome claims that he follows sense for sense approach rather than word for word approach when translating the New Testament in AD 384.”18 Since the aim of the divine text is to provide understanding and guidance, it seems logical to follow sense for sense approach. Thence, there is a possibility of intentional or unintentional change of meaning and the context; for these reasons, some scholars emphasize on the word for word translation approach. The first translation of the complete Bible into English was the Wycliffe Bible is which was produced between 1380 and 1384; “Wycliffe believes man should have direct contact with God and thus the Bible should be translated into language that man can understand, i.e. in the vernacular. Purvey believes translator should translate “after sentence (meaning),” not only after words. Martin Luther says, “... the meaning and subject matter must be considered, not the grammar, for the grammar should not rule over the meaning;”19 Criticism on sense for sense was widespread because it minimized the power of the church authorities, “while literal translation was bound up with the Bible and other religious and philosophical works, says Jeremy Monday; non-literal or non-accepted translation came to be seen and used as a weapon against the Church.”20“In the Western Europe this word-for-word versus sense-for-sense debate continued in one form or another until the twentieth century. The centrality of Bible to translation also explains the enduring theoretical questions about accuracy and fidelity to fixed source.”21 In the eighth and ninth century A.D., a large number of translations from Greek into Arabic gave rise to Arabic learning. “Scholars from Syria, a part of the Roman Empire (during 64B.C.-636A.D) came to Baghdad and translated Greek works of Physician Hippocrates (460-360 B.C.), philosophers Plato (427-327 B.C.) and Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) into Arabic during the eighth and ninth century A.D. Baghdad continued to be a centre of translations of Greek classics into Arabic even in the twentieth century A.D.”22 The dominance of religion is prominent in the Translation Era of Middle Ages. In this era, both the trends of Antiquity period can be seen in action, yet emphasis is again on the sense for sense approach.

==Translation In the middle Ages between the 12th and the 15 centuries;==

In the 12th and 13th centuries, the Toledo School of Translators (Escuela de Traductores de Toledo) became a meeting point for European scholars who — attracted by the high wages they were offered — came and settled down in Toledo, Spain, to translate major philosophical, religious, scientific and medical works from Arabic, Greek and Hebrew into Latin and Castilian. Toledo was a city of libraries offering a number of manuscripts, and one of the few places in medieval Europe where a Christian could be exposed to Arabic language and culture.

The Toledo School of Translators went through two distinct periods. Archbishop Raymond de Toledo, who advocated the translation of philosophical and religious works, led the first period (in the 12th century) mainly from classical Arabic into Latin. These Latin translations helped advance European Scholasticism, and thus European science and culture. King Alfonso X of Castile himself led the second period (in the 13th century). On top of philosophical and religious works, the scholars also translated scientific and medical works. Castilian — instead of Latin — became the final language, thus resulting in establishing the foundations of the modern Spanish language.

The translations of works on different sciences (astronomy, astrology, algebra, medicine) acted as a magnet for numerous scholars, who came from all over Europe to Toledo to learn first-hand about the contents of all those Arab, Greek and Hebrew works, before going back home to disseminate the acquired knowledge in European universities. While some Toledo translations of physical and cosmological works were accepted in most European universities in the early 1200s, the works of Aristotle and Arab philosophers were often banned, for example at the Sorbonne University in Paris.

Roger Bacon was a 13th-century English scholar heralded for his early exposition of a “universal grammar” (the concept that the ability to learn grammar is hard-wired into the brain). He was the first linguist to assess that a translator should know well both the source language and the target language to produce a good translation, and that the translator should be well versed in the discipline of the work he was translating. According to legend, after finding out that few translators did, Roger Bacon decided to do away with translation and translators altogether. However, his decision did not last long. He relied on many Toledo translations from Arabic into Latin to make major contributions in the fields of optics, astronomy, natural sciences, chemistry and mathematics.

Geoffrey Chaucer produced the first fine translations into English in the 14th century. Chaucer translated the “Roman de la Rose” from French, and Boethius’s works from Latin. He also adapted some works of the Italian humanist Giovanni Boccaccio to produce his own “Knight’s Tale” and “Troilus and Criseyde” (c.1385) in English. Chaucer is regarded as the founder of an English poetic tradition based on translations and adaptations of literary works in languages that were more “established” than English was at the time, beginning with Latin and Italian. The finest religious translation of that time was the “Wycliffe’s Bible” (1382-84), named after John Wycliffe, an English theologian who translated the Bible from Latin to English.

In the 15th century : Byzantine scholar Gemistus Pletho’s trip to Florence, Italy, pioneered the revival of Greek learning in Western Europe. Gemistus Pletho reintroduced Plato’s thought during the 1438-39 Council of Florence, in a failed attempt to reconcile the East-West schism (a 11th-century schism between the Eastern Orthodox and Catholic churches). During this Council, Pletho met Cosimo de Medici, the politician ruling Florence and a great patron of learning and the arts, and influenced him to found a Platonic Academy. Led by the Italian scholar and translator Marsilio Ficino, the Platonic Academy took over the translation into Latin of all Plato’s works, the “Enneads” of Plotinus and other Neo-Platonist works. Marsilio Ficino’s work — and Erasmus’ Latin edition of the New Testament — led to a new attitude to translation. For the first time, readers demanded rigor of rendering, as philosophical and religious beliefs depended on the exact words of Plato and Jesus (and Aristotle and others).

The great age of English prose translation began in the late 15th century with Thomas Malory’s “Le Morte d’Arthur” (1485), a free translation/adaptation of Arthurian romances about the legendary King Arthur, as well as Guinevere, Lancelot, Merlin and the Knights of the Round Table. Thomas Malory “interpreted” existing French and English stories about these figures while adding original material, e.g. the “Gareth” story about one of the Knights of the Round Table.4

== An Overview of Bible Translations in The Middle Ages==
The most significant turn in the history of translation came with the Bible translations. The efforts of translating the Bible from its original languages into over 2,000 others have spanned more than two millennia. Partial translation of the Bible into languages of English people can be stressed back to the end of the seventh century, including translations into Old English and Middle English. Over 450 versions have been created overtime.
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Bible translations in the Middle Ages discussions are in contrast to Late Antiquity, when the Bibles available to most Christians were in the local vernacular. In a process seen in many other religions, as languages changed, and in Western Europe, languages with no tradition of being written down became dominant, the prevailing vernacular translations remained in place, despite gradually becoming sacred languages, incomprehensible to the majority of the population in many places. In Western Europe, the Latin Vulgate, itself originally a translation into the vernacular, was the standard text of the Bible, and full or partial translations into a vernacular language were uncommon until the Late Middle Ages and the Early Modern Period. A page from the luxury illuminated manuscript Wenceslas Bible, a German translation of the 1390s.[1] From Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia

During the Migration Period Christianity spread to various peoples who had not been part of the old Roman Empire, and whose languages had yet no written form, or only a very simple one, like runes. Typically, the Church itself was the first to attempt to capture these languages in written form, and Bible translations are often the oldest surviving texts in these newly written-down languages. Meanwhile, Latin was evolving into new distinct regional forms, the early versions of the Romance languages, for which new translations eventually became necessary. However, the Vulgate remained the authoritative text, used universally in the West for scholarship and the liturgy since the early development of the Romance languages had not come to full fruition, matching its continued use for other purposes such as religious literature and most secular books and documents. In the early middle Ages, anyone who could read at all could often read Latin, even in Anglo-Saxon England, where writing in the vernacular (Old English) was more common than elsewhere. A number of pre-reformation Old English Bible translations survive, as do many instances of glosses in the vernacular, especially in the Gospels and the Psalms.[4] Over time, biblical translations and adaptations were produced both within and outside the church, some as personal copies for religious or lay nobility, and others for liturgical or pedagogical purposes.[5][6] From Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia

The Bible was translated into various languages in late antiquity; the most important of these translations are those in the Syriac dialect of Aramaic (including the Peshitta and the Diatessaron gospel harmony), the Ge'ez language of Ethiopia, and, in Western Europe, Latin. The earliest Latin translations are collectively known as the Vetus Latina, but in the late fourth century, Jerome re-translated the Hebrew and Greek texts into the normal vernacular Latin of his day, in a version known as the Vulgate (Biblia vulgata) (meaning "common version", in the sense of "popular"). Jerome's translation gradually replaced most of the older Latin texts, and gradually ceased to be a vernacular version as the Latin language developed and divided. The earliest surviving complete manuscript of the entire Latin Bible is the Codex Amiatinus, produced in eighth century England at the double monastery of Wearmouth-Jarrow. By the end of late, antiquity the Bible was therefore available and used in all the major written languages then spoken by Christians. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia

== Conclusion ==
The history of translation studies and the resurgence and genesis of the approaches to this emerging discipline was marked by the first century (BCE) commentator Cicero and then St. Jerome whose word-for-word and sense-for-sense approaches to translation was a springboard for other approaches and trends to thrive. From the medieval ages until now, each decade was marked by a dominant concept such as translatability, equivalence etc. Whilst before the twentieth century translation was an element of language learning, the study of the field developed into an academic discipline only in the second half of the twentieth century, when this field achieved a certain institutional authority and developed as a distinct discipline. As this discipline moved towards the present, the level of sophistication and inventiveness did in fact soared and new concepts, methods, and research projects were developed which interacted with this discipline. The brief review here, albeit incomplete, reflects the current fragmentation of the field into subspecialties, some empirically oriented, some hermeneutic and literary and some influenced by various forms of linguistics and cultural studies which have culminated in productive syntheses. In short, translation studies is now a field which brings together approaches from a wide language and cultural studies, that for its own use, modifies them and develops new models specific to its own requirements.
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© 2012 ACADEMY PUBLISHER Manufactured in Finland.
doi:10.4304/tpls.2.1.77-85

== References ==
-A page from the luxury illuminated manuscript Wenceslas Bible, a German translation of the 1390s.[1] From Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia

-Barnstone Willis. The Poetics of Translation: History, Theory and Practice. London: Yale University Press, 1993. Print. Bassnett, Susan and Lefevere, Andre (Eds.). Translation, History and Culture. London: Pinter, 1990. Print. 2- Barnstone Willis. The Poetics of Translation: History, Theory and Practice. London: Yale University Press, 1993. Print. Bassnett, Susan and Lefevere, Andre (Eds.). Translation, History and Culture. London: Pinter, 1990. Print.

-Early history of translation .By Marouane Zakhir English translator University of Soultan Moulay Slimane, Morocco

-From Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia

-https//www.tandfonline.com// 5- https//www.tandfonline.com//

-Prologue to the Legend of Good Women, lines 322-35 and 362-370. 97 ".. And other bokes took me ...To reed upon ": Medieval Translation and Cultural Transformation 'unfaithful' yet artful interpretation or reinterpretation"(Kelly, 1997: 55), or "secondary translation" to put it in Copeland's words.

-Susan * Assist. Prof. Dr., Hacettepe University, Department of English Language and Literature The problematic situation of Medieval translation in the academia is discussed by Ruth Evans in "Translating Past Cultures?" in The Medieval Translator /Vied. Roger Ellis and Ruth Evans, the University of Exeter Press, Medieval Translation and Cultural Transformation .

-SSN 1799-2591 Theory and Practice in Language Studies, Vol. 2, No. 1, pp. 77-85, January 2012 © 2012 ACADEMY PUBLISHER Manufactured in Finland. doi:10.4304/tpls.2.1.77-85.

-This article is about medieval Europe. For a global history of the period between the 5th and 15th centuries, see Post-classical history. For other uses, see middle Ages (disambiguation). "Medieval times" redirects here. For the dinner theatre, see Medieval Times.

-the 1994. pp. 20-45. See Jeanette Beer, Medieval Translators and Their Craft.1989 and Roger Ellis (ed) assisted by Jocelyn Price, Stephen Medcalf and Peter Meredith. The Medieval Translator: The Theory and Practice of Translation in the Middle Ages: Papers Read at a Conference Held 20-23 August 1987 at the University of Wales Conference Centre, Gregynog //a//.Woodbridge, Suffolk: D.S. Brewer, 1989.

^ Rita Copeland, Rhetoric, Hermeneutics, and Translation in the Middle Ages: Academic Traditions and Vernacular Texts. Cambridge, 1991. See particularly A. J. Minnis and A. B. Scots (eds) Medieval Literary Theory and Criticism c.l 100-1375 The Commentary Tradition. Oxford, 1988.

-Wikipedia .org/wiki/

=Chapter 2 History of Modern and Contemporary Chinese Translation=
“中国现当代翻译史”

[[Hist_Trans_EN_2]]

Li Xichang, 李习长, Hunan Normal University, China

=Chapter 3 The Translation of Buddihist Sutra in Chinese Translation History=
“佛经翻译”

[[Hist_Trans_EN_3]]

Huang Zhuliang 黄柱梁 Hunan Normal University, China

=王镇隆 The Brief History of Bible's Chinese Translation=
== Abstract==
Bible is the only Christian classic. Many Bible translation versions in the territory of China, including the Chinese characters and the languages of ethnic minorities, are not only the important events and modern history publication with the largest circulation, translated versions of books in the modern translation history, but also the close relationship with the modern transformation of Chinese characters and the creation of minority languages. Three aspects of Bible translation history, information, research and outlook are described in this paper.

== 摘要==
圣经是基督教的唯一经典，圣经翻译则是中国近代翻译史上的重要事件。当时的中国境内，出现了包括汉语汉字和少数民族语言文字的众多圣经译本，这不仅使圣经成为中国近代史上出版发行量最大、翻译版本最多的书籍，而且对中国的汉语汉字的近代转型和少数民族文字创制产生了重要影响。本文从 3 个方面对圣经中译的历史、资料、研究及展望进行了叙述。

== Key Words==
History of the Bible translation；Research review;Academic outlook

== 关键词==
圣经中译史；研究回顾；学术展望

== The Overall Introduction of Bible Translation==
“Bible” translation has a pivotal position in the history of Western translation. From the beginning of the era to today, the translation of the “Bible” has never stopped. The range of languages involved, the number of translations, and the frequency of use of translations,etc., are unmatched by the translation of any other work. A birds-eye view of the history of “Bible” translation has the following important milestones: the first is the “Seventy Sons Greek Text” before the Era, the second is the “Popular Latin Text Bible” from the 4th to 5th centuries, and the later the national languages of the early Middle Ages. The ancient texts (such as Old German, Old French translations), modern texts since the 16th century Reformation Movement (such as the Lutheran version of Germany, the King James version, etc.) and various modern texts. All these translations have made indelible contributions to the spread and development of Christianity in the West, as well as the prosperity and development of the languages and cultures of various nations.(Gu Changsheng,1991)

The “Bible” is the holy book of Christianity, including the “Old Testament” and “New Testament.” The Old Testament was written in BC. It is a classic of Judaism. It was inherited by Christianity from Judaism. The original text was in Hebrew. The New Testament was written in the second half of the first to second centuries, and the original text is in Greek. Throughout human history, language translation is almost as old as the language itself. Therefore, from the beginning of the era to today, the translation of the “Bible” has never stopped. The range of languages involved, the number of translations, and the frequency of use of the translations, etc., are unmatched by the translation of any other work. The translation of the "Bible" is mainly to spread the doctrine, so that people are influenced and accepted by the views. According to the “New Testament Acts” Chapter Two, Section One: The saints gathered on Pentecost, and they were all filled with the Holy Spirit, and spoke the words of other countries according to the eloquence given by the Holy Spirit. However, the translation at that time was mainly “interprete” or “interpretation.” Among them, St. Paul himself is a multilingual believer. He preached in Jerusalem, Athens and Rome in Hebrew, Greek and Italian respectively. The Bible was first translated from Hebrew into Greek, then into Latin, and then into Romanian, Portuguese, Spanish, Italian, and Walloon (wal-lon), German, French, Romance languages. English was then translated into various languages in the world, and the translations of its various texts were repeatedly revised by experts in the translation of the classics, which lasted more than ten centuries.

In the history of the translation of the Bible, it has gone through several milestone stages: the first is the “Seventy Sons Greek Text” before the era, the second is the “Popular Latin Text Bible” from the 4th to 5th centuries, and later it is the national languages of the early Middle Ages. Ancient texts (such as Old German, Old French translations), modern texts since the 16th century Reformation Movement (such as Luther, Casio Dorobin in Spain, King James Version in English, Nikon in Russia) and All kinds of modern texts (such as “American Standard Text” in English, “New English Bible” and “English Today”, etc.). “The Bible Old Testament” is the first important and earliest translation in ancient times in the West, and it was translated into Greek. The Old Testament was originally the official classic of Judaism, originally in Hebrew. The Jews have been scattered around for a long time and drifted overseas. Over time, they have forgotten the language of their ancestors and spoke foreign languages such as Arabic and Greek. Among them, Greek speakers accounted for the majority. In ancient times, the city of Alexandria in Egypt was the cultural and trade center of the eastern Mediterranean. The Jews living here accounted for two-fifths of the city’s total population. In the third century BC, in order to meet the increasingly urgent needs of these Greek-speaking Jews, the church decided to translate the Hebrew text of the Old Testament into a Greek text. In the second century BC, an unknown Jew once wrote an epistle article, which was later named “Letter of Aristeas” (“Letter of Aristeas”), which records that in the third century BC, Jerusalem At the request of Egyptian King Ptolemy II Feiradelphis (308-246 BC), Bishop Elizar sent translators to Alexandria to undertake the translation of the Old Testament. In this way, according to Ptolemy II's will, between 285 and 249 BC, 72 “noble” Jewish scholars gathered in the Library of Alexandria, Egypt, to perform this translation. According to legend, the 72 scholars came from 12 different Israeli tribes, with 6 from each tribe. After they came to the Library of Alexandria, they worked in pairs in 36 locations and translated them into 36 translations that were very similar to each other. Finally, 72 translators gathered together to compare and check the 36 translation manuscripts, and reached a consensus on the wording of the final version, and called it the “Seventy Son Text” or “Seventy Magi Translation”, that is, “Septuagint” (“Septuagint”), has since opened a precedent for collective translation in the history of translation. Soon after the translation of the “Seventy Sons”, the priests held a joint meeting with the Jewish leaders and pointed out: “This translation is well translated, pious, and very accurate. (Marshall Broomhall,1934,P.2)

Therefore, it must be kept as it is and cannot be changed.” We also regarded it as the classic translation. In fact, this Greek translation became the “second original”, and sometimes even replaced the Hebrew text and ascended to the throne of the “first original”. Many of the translations of the Bible in languages such as ancient Latin, Slavic, and Arabic are not based on the original Hebrew but on the Greek translation.

== Multilingualism in the Chinese version of the Bible==
According to the report of the World Union Bible Association in 2006, the new and Old Testament of the Bible has been translated into 301 different languages. If regional dialects and partial translations are included, the translated languages of the Bible have exceeded 2287 different languages. The Bible is the most widely circulated and translated book in the world.

If someone says that in Chinese history, the Bible has the largest number of translated versions, the largest number of Chinese language forms, both vernacular and classical Chinese, and the largest number of Chinese dialect forms. It has not only created nearly 10 ethnic minority languages, but also nearly 20 ethnic minority language translation books, but also the largest publication and circulation in modern history, There must be many people who don't believe it.(William Canton,1904,1910)

But this is the fact of history. The Chinese version of the Bible does have many historical “best”, which is related to the super pronunciation and super dialect nature of Chinese language and characters, the reform and cultural transformation of Chinese language and culture in the late Qing Dynasty and the early Republic of China, and the fact that most ethnic minorities in Southwest China have only language but no words. The period of the late Qing Dynasty and the beginning of the Republic of China, that is, the 1860s to the 1930s, was the period of the most drastic changes in Chinese language and characters, the period of the transformation of ancient Chinese and its culture into vernacular, the period of the widespread voice and hard practice of Chinese Latinization, the most active period of language and character reform, and the transformation and reform of Chinese language and characters, A variety of transitional writing methods have emerged due to text reform and stylistic changes. However, the reform and expression methods of multiple languages and characters in the late Qing Dynasty and the early Republic of China, some of which are even very short-lived transitional writing methods. The Bible has published translated versions in this text form. This can be best confirmed by many translations of the Bible, such as classical Chinese, half written and half spoken, vernacular, dialect Chinese characters, dialect church Roman characters, Wang Zhao Mandarin phonetic alphabets, Mandarin phonetic alphabets, Mandarin Roman characters, weituoma Pinyin, kuaizi, a variety of ethnic minority characters, blind characters and so on.(Li Kuanshu,1998)

The large-scale cultural exchange and interaction between China and the west is an important historical phenomenon in the modern world. This cultural relationship has not only changed the cultural and political pattern all over the world, but also greatly affected the development of Chinese culture and society. Language contact is not only an important part of cultural relations, but also an important prerequisite for all other exchanges. The large-scale and multilingual cross-cultural in-depth language and cultural exchange is a modern cultural phenomenon gradually formed all over the world after the great discovery of geography. It is also a prominent manifestation in the history of China's modern foreign cultural relations, which is particularly different from previous dynasties.

The language and cultural exchange in modern China began with the arrival of Christian missionaries in China. As the only classic of Christian religion, the Bible inevitably involves the problems of how to translate into China’s local language, how to adapt to and influence the local ideology and culture in the historical process of Christian communication and translation.

The earliest translation of the Bible in China can be extended to the Tang Dynasty, which has a long history of thousands of years. Although the Bible translation activities have been interrupted, they continue to this day. In Taiwan and Hong Kong, the Bible translation is still not over.

== Bible Translation from Different Perspectives==
From the perspective of language, Bible translation can be divided into Chinese language and minority language. In addition to the Chinese translation (the Chinese translation is described in detail below), in the process of Bible translation, the missionaries took advantage of the Pinyin advantages of their Latin mother tongue and combined with the pronunciation of local minority languages to create Pinyin characters in the form of Latin letters for those southwest minorities who only have spoken language but no words, that is, bagri Miao Language (old Miao Language) in Northeast Yunnan Frame format: East Lisu, Funeng Renxi Lisu (old Lisu), Jingpo, Zawa, Lahu, Buyi, WA, etc. It also borrowed Chinese phonetic alphabets and modified and created Hu Zhizhong’s Miao language. They translated and published the complete Scriptures or section translations of Jingpo language, Zaiwa language, East Lisu language, West Lisu language, Yi language, Nuosu language and Gepo language, Lahu language, WA language, Naxi language, Dehong Dai language, Xishuangbanna Dai language, Huayao Dai language, Huamiao language, Chuanmiao language, heimiao language, Buyi language and other languages. Among them, Jingpo, Funeng Renxi Lisu and bagri Miao are still widely used in society, and Hu Zhizhong Miao is still used among religious believers in Kaili, Guizhou. These characters not only ended the history of these nationalities without characters, but also provided great reference and Enlightenment for the large-scale creation of characters for ethnic minorities in New China. In the northern minority languages, the missionaries also translated and published Bible translations in Mongolian (karmec Mongolian, kalka Mongolian, Buryat Mongolian), Tibetan (Tibetan Classical Chinese, Tibetan Ladakh dialect, Tibetan Lahore dialect), Manchu, Kazakh and Korean. In Taiwan, missionaries and today’s Taiwan Christian Church have also created Pinyin characters in the form of Latin letters for the Paiwan, Taiya, AMI, Taroko, Yamei, Bunun, Lukai, Dawu and other indigenous peoples, translated and published biblical translations, which are still in use today.(Wang Zhixin,2004)

From the perspective of Chinese style, Chinese versions of the Bible can be divided into three categories:
1. Classical Chinese translation, that is, the translation of deep arts and Sciences: in history, there have been yangmano's direct interpretation of the Bible, daysun's translation, masman's translation, Morrison's translation, Guo Shili's translation, commissioned translation (or representative translation), bizhiwen / kebicun translation, Gaode translation, the printed version of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom, lianweiren translation, and Heshen's translation of Arts and Sciences.
2. Half written and half white translation, i.e. shallow liberal arts translation: in history, there have been Yang Ge's non shallow liberal arts translation, Shi Joseph's shallow liberal arts translation, Bao John / Ke Bicun translation and hehe shallow liberal arts translation.
3. Vernacular translation: China is a country with many dialects. Six of China's seven dialects have Bible translations. Among them, nine branches of five dialects, including Wu, min, Guangdong, Hakka and Mandarin, have biblical Chinese characters. They are Nanjing dialect translation, Beijing dialect translation, Hankou dialect translation, Tianjin dialect translation, Shanghai dialect translation, Ningbo Dialect translation, Suzhou dialect translation, Hangzhou dialect translation, Fuzhou dialect translation, Xiamen dialect translation, Shantou dialect translation, Guangzhou dialect translation, Hakka dialect translation Hakka Sanjiang dialect translation. In 1919, the vernacular intensive cost and official script appeared, which is the Bible translation used by the Christian Church of China.

From the perspective of Chinese text form, Bible translation can be basically divided into seven categories:
1. Chinese Character Edition: in history, there were classical Chinese character edition and vernacular Chinese Character Edition (including dialect Chinese Character Edition);
2. Roman script of church Dialect: missionaries spell the words of local dialects according to the Latin alphabet. There are 15 branches of the six dialects, including Nanjing dialect translation, Beijing dialect translation, Shandong dialect translation, Shanghai dialect translation, Ningbo Dialect translation, Hangzhou dialect translation, Wenzhou dialect translation, Jinhua dialect translation, Taizhou dialect translation, Fuzhou dialect translation Bible translations of Xiamen dialect, Shantou dialect, Xinghua dialect, Jianyang dialect, Shaowu dialect, Hainan dialect, Guangzhou dialect, Hakka Guangdong and Taiwan dialect, Hakka Wujingfu dialect, Hakka Tingzhou dialect and Hakka Jianning dialect;
3. Wang Zhao Mandarin phonetic alphabet: the Bible is spelled with Wang Zhao Mandarin phonetic alphabet. There have been Bible translations of Tianjin dialect, Hankou dialect, Hebei dialect and Jiaodong dialect;
4. Mandarin phonetic alphabet: there have been Bible translations of Fuzhou dialect and Jiaodong dialect;
5. Braille script；
6. Quick script: that is, the Bible translation of early sketch;
7. Weituoma Pinyin book.

In terms of publication forms, there are many kinds of publications, such as Chinese character edition, Chinese character and foreign language comparison edition, Chinese character and Mandarin phonetic alphabet comparison edition, Chinese character and Wang Zhao Mandarin phonetic alphabet comparison edition, Chinese character and church Roman character comparison edition, church Roman character and Mandarin phonetic alphabet comparison edition, etc. As far as the editions are concerned, there are single volume edition, multi volume edition, the New Testament, the Old Testament, the New Testament with psalms, the new and Old Testament, etc., with a total number of more than 1000. Based on the American Bible Society, the British Bible Society and the Scottish Bible Society, which had the greatest influence in old China and published and sold various versions of the Bible, a total of 225 million copies were sold from 1814 to 1934; From 1814 to 1950, 279351752 copies were sold.(Chen Yugang,1992)
After the founding of new China, the Chinese Christian Church basically took the heheguan vernacular Version (later called hehehe vernacular version, hereinafter referred to as hehe version) as the Bible translation dedicated to the church, and no other Chinese classical Chinese or dialect versions of the Bible were published. As of December 2007, the Christian Church of China has printed and distributed 50 million copies of Hehe vernacular books. China has become one of the countries with the largest number of printed Bibles in the world.

== Writings and Work Records of Biblical Translators==
As the only classic of Christian religion, the meaning of the Bible is different. Since the Christian foreign missionaries came to China in the 19th century, they have been translating the Bible continuously, and published many documents and works at the same time. Most of these archives and works are the reports and introductions of Christian sects to publicize and introduce their own work achievements, which are limited to the publicity of their own sects without academic and serious research.

The earliest works related to the translation and recording of Bible translation were written by personnel and institutions related to Christian religion. The first documentary about the Chinese Bible translation is the Bible in China by Alexander Wylie, a missionary who once served as the director of the British Bible Society. This article records the earliest Bible translation in China, which is the work report of Alexander Wylie.

Among the records of missionaries on Bible translation, the Bible in China written by Marshall Broomhall, a missionary of the mainland church, is the most concentrated and representative. Hainbo is the director general of the headquarters of the mainland Association in London and is responsible for editing China's million, the most important publication of the mainland Association, for 20 years.

Another book about Bible translation is the Chinese versions of the Bible (1934) written by A. J. Garnier, a missionary of the British Baptist Church. His book is more often seen in its Chinese translation, which is compiled by George Milligan.

History of the spread of the New Testament (Guangzhou society, 1934). These two books are not long, about 100000 words. They describe the general situation of Bible translation from ancient times to now. They are basically the working records and introduction of Bible translation. The recording time is up to the three combined versions of the main translations of missionaries in 1919. The early Catholic translation, the Christian minority language translation in the late Qing Dynasty and the early Republic of China, and the Chinese dialect translation are too vague and too brief to cover, including the Chinese translation and the Catholic sigo translation. They can not be called academic research works. The Bible translation of missionaries is mostly missionary encouragement and publicity, which belongs to the missionary works of the church.

In modern Chinese history, foreign institutions or individuals have many publishing and sales institutions in China, among which the Bible has a certain nature of exclusive translation, monopoly and sales. The Chinese translation of the Bible is basically undertaken by the Bible Societies of various countries in China. Among the Foreign Bible Societies in China, the American Bible Society, the British Bible Society and the Scottish bible society are mainly responsible for the dissemination of the Chinese Bible, including the organization and arrangement of Bible translation, financial support, the formulation of translation principles, the selection and determination of translators, the publication and reprint of the Bible, the sales of the Bible, and almost all the leading work of Bible translation. The most detailed work on the history of the British bible society so far is a history of the British and Foreign Bible Society written by William Canton, which introduces the work of the British Bible Society in the 19th century. The more important work in recent years is the cheap Bibles: Nineteen Century Publishing and the British and Foreign Bible Society written by Leslie Howsam, but its history and content are still dominated by the 19th century. For the history of the British Bible Society in the first half of the 20th century, please refer to a history of the British and Foreign Bible Society, 1900-1954 written by James M. roe. As for the historical works of the American Bible Society, what is important is the centennial history of the American Bible Society written by Henry O. Dwight, which introduces the work progress of the American Bible Society around the world in the 19th century. Chinese Bible translation is only a small part of it. In the same year, translations of the scripts into the languages of China and her dependencies [10], written by John R. hykes, director general of the American Bible Society in China, specifically described the Bible translation work of the American Bible Society in China. These monographs introduced the missionary work of various Bible Societies in China, especially the printing and distribution of the Bible.

In the Chinese recorder edited by missionaries, there are scattered information about the translation and publication of various versions of Bible translation written by missionaries in different times, or missionaries' discussions on various affairs and research of Bible translation. Educational administration magazine is an English magazine sponsored by missionaries in China for more than 100 years.
== Catalogue of Biblical Editions==
In addition to the reports of the Bible guild and missionaries, there are some catalogues of Biblical translations that can be viewed as data. Alexander Wylie, a British missionary, has been acting for the British Bible Association since 1863. He catalogued all kinds of Christian books and periodicals published at that time and published the biographies and works of missionaries who came to China in 1867 （Memorials of Protestant Missionaries to the Chinese Given a List of Their Publications and Obituary Notices of the Deceased, with Copious Indexes） The book records the life stories, catalogues and abstracts of early missionaries in China, and is the most complete bibliography of religious translation in the period of the Republic of China. However, according to the author's comparative verification of the original Bible translations collected by the National Library, it is found that the catalogue misjudges some of the Bible translations, or some translations do not judge the translations, so it is necessary to judge them according to each library Up to now, the catalogue of Chinese versions of the Bible published abroad is more detailed than the collection, introduction and description of the collection information and records of the mainland edition catalogue.

== Academic Research: Western Part==
Thor strandenaes graduated from Uppsala University in Sweden in 1987. His doctoral thesis principles of Chinese Bible translation is the earliest doctoral thesis focusing on the Chinese Bible. He is particularly inclined to compare different Chinese versions of the Bible. From the perspective of translatology and Christian theological interpretation, he analyzes the translation principles of five Bible versions, including Morrison's version of Shen Wenli, the Commission's version of Shen Wenli, the vernacular hehe version, the Catholic SIKO Bible version and the modern Chinese version of Taiwan. He believes that Bible translation has strong inheritance and mutual influence, But at the same time, Catholicism and Christianity have formed their own translation style and vocabulary system. Shi Fulai is a priest, so his research especially emphasizes the theological factors and influence of Bible translation . Jost zetzsche graduated from the University of Hamburg, Germany, in 1999. His doctoral dissertation the Bible in China: the history of the union version or the cultivation of Bible missionary Bible translation in China is a masterpiece in recent years. From the perspective of Christian theological theory and church use, he also discussed the Bible and the combined version, which has the greatest influence, the largest circulation and is still used by the Christian Church, and came to the conclusion that the combined version is the greatest achievement of Bible translation. Both English Monographs discuss the attitude and evolution of missionaries towards Bible translation, the role of Bible translation in the spread of Christianity in China, the scale of Bible distribution, the evolution of Bible translation and sales institutions from the perspective of church position and theology. The paper has a certain historical overview of various early versions, especially the deep arts and science versions, but it does not involve the dialect Bible versions and ethnic minority Bible versions, nor does it discuss the significance and role of the Bible as a Christian classic.
This paper studies one of dozens of translations of the Bible - the translation of different stylistic versions of heheben, as well as the theological basis and theological disputes of the translated Heben. Both of these doctoral theses give full play to the author's expertise in Western mother tongue, and focus on one aspect with the archives of the Christian missionary church, including work reports and letters, work records and the archives of the Bible Association as the main data sources.

Including the discussion of individual translations or translators. Thor strantenaes's paper anonymous Bible translators: native language and the translation of the Bible into Chinese (1817-1917) discusses the role of Chinese people in Chinese Bible translation. Due to the cultural arrogance of missionaries, The contribution and role of Chinese scholars in Bible translation has been buried. Reading Christian scripts in China, edited by chole Starr, is a collection of multiple papers to explore the translation of the Chinese Bible in the 19th century and its impact on the final synthesizer and integration of the Bible.

== Academic Research: Chinese Part==
So far, the Chinese world has not carried out in-depth and systematic historical investigation and academic research on the Bible translation. Only in the history of Chinese Christianity, the history of modern Chinese printing and the history of modern Chinese translation can we see some brief introductions, such as Gu Changsheng's missionaries and modern China (page 16); Yang Senfu's history of Christianity in China (12 pages); A brief history of Christianity in China by Li kuanshu (5 pages); Wang Zhixin's outline of the history of Christianity in China (4 pages); Chen Yugang's historical manuscript of Chinese literary translation (5 pages).
The more in-depth discussions basically point to the theoretical discussion of Chinese Bible translation. The most important thing is the discussion on "term question", sometimes called "holy number problem". This problem involves how to use Chinese to call Hebrew "YHWH" and "Elohim", Greek "theos", Latin "Deus" or English "God", and how to translate theological names such as "Holy Spirit", "an - gel" or "baptism". How to translate holy names into Chinese is not only a linguistic and theological problem, but also involves the connotation of Chinese religious beliefs, but also involves how one language and culture is translated into another language and culture of heterogeneous paganism. This is a long-standing and controversial topic on translation in the history of Chinese Christian religion. Until today, there is still no final conclusion within Christianity. Zhao Weiben's "debate on the translation of the Chinese Bible: Shenhu? Dihu" is an early academic paper on the dispute over the translation of the Chinese Bible; Li Chi Chang, editor in chief, compiled more than 60 debates on the translation of "God" and "God" published by Chinese Christians in the communique of nations from 1877 to 1878. It pays close attention to the opinions and responses of Chinese Christians, It is a significant revision of the tendency of many works and historical materials to only pay attention to missionaries and forget the Chinese people. Zhao Xiaoyang's translation and introduction of local culture and foreign religions in regeneration: from the perspective of the Chinese translation of God and God discusses the fierce debate between Catholicism and Christianity on the "translation problem" for 300 years. Under the interpretation of Western religious ideas, the traditional Chinese words "God" and "God" have been gradually Christianized, lost the connotation of their original local religion, and regenerated into new words symbolizing western culture. This paper goes beyond the narrow theological scope of discussing the translation of names within the church in the past, and discusses this cultural problem from a broader perspective. Cheng Xiaojuan's doctoral thesis, discussion and acceptance of "God" in Chinese Bible translation, comprehensively examines the discussion of Western missionaries on the translation of "God" and the history of Chinese acceptance of "God", hoping to form a horizontal investigation of the complete cultural exchange system of "dissemination acceptance", Vertically, it shows their historical changes in different historical situations and cultural exchange stages.
Cai Jintu's doctoral thesis, the orientation and problems of commissioned Chinese Bible translation, specially discusses one of many deep arts and science translations - commissioned translation, its translatological principles, translation activities, sales, assistance of Chinese assistants, etc., focusing on the theological theory of Bible translation, And the influence of these theological theories on Chinese Bible translation and the development of Christian Church. Ren Dongsheng's doctoral thesis, a study on the culture of Bible Chinese translation, discusses the thematic changes of Bible literature, history and theology from the perspective of translatology.

At present, the academic research on the Chinese version of the Bible is still insufficient. So far, only Ma min's mahiman, Rasha and the early Chinese translation of the Bible has achieved a high level of academic research results; Wu Yixiong's the dispute over translation names and the Chinese translation of the early Bible; Zhao Xiaoyang's research on the relationship between the two horse Bible versions and the daysun Bible versions, an analysis of the origin of the printed Bible base in the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom, Chiang Kai Shek and Bible translation during the war of resistance against Japan, and a historical overview of the Centennial Ministry of the American Chinese Bible Society. Based on the discovery of new materials in Chinese and English, these Chinese papers textual research and analyze the basic historical facts of the Bible translation and Foreign Bible Societies, and describe the work contents of Bible translation, personnel changes, Bible sales, version identification and textual research, disputes and focus during translation in each period. These research papers only involve the earliest translation of Christian missionaries or the Bible translation of Chiang Kai Shek, a famous political figure in modern history.
== Conclusion==
But up to now, due to the differences and opposites between Catholicism and Christianity, there are differences and estrangements among many sects in Christianity; Under the influence of social and political ideology, academic circles have neglected and lacked this field intentionally or unintentionally in the past; The objective difficulties in the study of Chinese versions of the Bible, such as the vast majority of archival materials and various versions are kept abroad, and the majority of foreign materials; There is still no academic research monograph on the historical investigation of the whole Chinese translation of the Bible. The existing in-depth research on Chinese Bible translation is also limited to the most famous versions of the Bible in the history of Chinese Bible translation, such as the marsmian version, the Morrison version, the Guo Shili version, the commissioned version and so on. There is no dialect translation and minority language translation of the Bible, no Roman Bible translation of many churches, and no Chinese translation in the post missionary era. Special studies on the impact, response and reference of Chinese Bible translation on Chinese language, language reform, social culture, new literature and new words, the impact of Chinese Bible translation on the spread and development of Chinese Christian religion, the impact and response of Chinese Bible translation on Chinese traditional ideology and culture, and the impact and significance of Chinese Bible translation on the history of Chinese translation, It is even more rare to pay. The research on the translation and influence of the Bible is a blank spot that needs to be developed. It is worth us to devote ourselves to it and make a difference.

== References==

Marshall Broomhall, The Bible in China, London: British and Foreign Bible Society, 1934, p.2.

William Canton, A History of the British and Foreign Bible Society，London: John Murray, 1904, 1910.

Leslie Howsam, Cheap Bibles: Nineteenth-Century Publishing and the British and Foreign Bible Society,Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991.

Henry O. Dwight, The Centennial History of the American Bible Society, New York: Macmillan, 1916.

Hubert W. Spillett, A Catalogue of Scriptures in the Languages of China and the Republic of China, Hong Kong: British and Foreign Bible Society,1975.

Eugene A. Nida, The Book of A Thousand Tongues, New York: United Bible Societies, 1972.

Chloe Starr edit, Reading Christian Scriptures in China,London: T&T Clark, 2008.

Tony 汤因. 中国基督教圣经事业史料简编 A compendium of historical materials on the cause of Chinese Christian Bible [J] 协进 Xie Jin, 1953 (9): 48

Gu Changsheng 顾长声.传教士与近代中国 Missionaries and modern China [M] 上海：上海人民出版社 Shanghai: Shanghai People's publishing house,1991

Yang Senfu 杨森富.中国基督教史 History of Christianity in China [M] 台北：商务印书馆 Taipei: Commercial Press, 1968

Li kuanshu 李宽淑.中国基督教史略 A brief history of Christianity in China [M] 北京：社会科学文献出版社 Beijing: Social Science Literature Press,,1998

Wang Zhixin 王治心.中国基督教史纲 Outline of Chinese Christian history [M] 上海：上海古籍出版社 Shanghai: Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House,2004

1Chen Yugang 陈玉刚.中国文学翻译史稿 History of Chinese literary translation [M] 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司，Beijing: China translation and Publishing Corporation, 1992

== 叶维杰 Medieval Arabic Translation Movement=
中世纪阿拉伯翻译运动
Ye Weijie 叶维杰 Hunan Normal University, China

== Abstract==
The Medieval Arabic Translation Movement(The Harakah al—Tarjamah) is also called the Translation Movement. It was a large-scale organized academic activity carried out by the Arab Empire in the Middle Ages to translate and introduce ancient Greek and Eastern scientific and cultural classics. The Abbasid Caliphate implemented a diversified and inclusive cultural policy, vigorously advocated and sponsored the translation of academic classics from ancient Greece, Rome, Persia, India and other countries into Arabic to absorb advanced cultural heritage. The Arabic translation movement preserved the natural sciences and humanities in ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and played an extremely important role in promoting the cultural revival of European political and cultural conditions in the late Middle Ages. The Hundred-Year Arab Translation Movement lasted for more than two hundred years, spanning the vast regions of Asia, Africa, and Europe, and blending ancient Eastern and Western cultures such as Persia, India, Greece, Rome, and Arabia. There are not many translation activities in the history of world civilization. Analyzing its causes, processes, results, and impacts is of great academic value for studying the phased development of human civilization and the commonality of human wisdom, and it is also of great help to deeply understand the Arab Islamic philosophy and culture.

== Key words==
Harakah al—Tarjamah, translation movement, Western culture, Islamic culture，Middle Ages

== 摘要 ==
中世纪的阿拉伯语翻译运动（The Harakah al-Tarjamah）也叫百年翻译运动。它是中世纪阿拉伯帝国为翻译和介绍古希腊和东方科学文化经典而进行的有组织的大型学术活动。阿拔斯王朝哈里发推行多元包容的文化政策，大力倡导和赞助将古希腊、罗马、波斯、印度等国的学术经典译成阿拉伯文，吸收先进的文化遗产。阿拉伯语翻译运动保存了古希腊罗马文化中的自然科学和人文学科，对中世纪晚期欧洲政治文化状况的文化复兴起到了极其重要的推动作用。阿拉伯百年翻译运动持续了两百多年，横跨亚非欧广大地区，融合了波斯、印度、希腊、罗马、阿拉伯等古老的东西方文化。世界文明史上的翻译活动并不多。分析其成因、过程、结果和影响，对于研究人类文明的阶段性发展和人类智慧的共性具有重要的学术价值，对于深入了解阿拉伯伊斯兰哲学和文化也有很大帮助。

== 关键词 ==
阿拉伯百年翻译运动，翻译运动，西方文化，伊斯兰文化，中世纪

== Introduction==
The Harakah al—Tarjamah is also called the Translation Movement. The Centennial Arab Translation Movement lasted for more than two hundred years. The content of translation involved cultural achievements such as ancient Greek and Roman culture, Persian Mesopotamian culture, and ancient Indian culture. It spanned three continents and five seas in space and was the most extensive in human history. One of the major events. The Arab translation movement in the middle of the eighth century to the end of the tenth century not only changed the backward state of the Arab nation, but also gave birth to a strong Arab-Islamic culture; and its document translation was extremely important to the Renaissance movement in the later political and cultural state of Europe.The Arab Empire in the Middle Ages carried out large-scale and organized academic activities that translated and introduced ancient Greek and Eastern scientific and cultural classics. The Abbasid Caliphate implemented a diversified and inclusive cultural policy, vigorously advocated and sponsored the translation of academic classics from ancient Greece, Rome, Persia, India and other countries into Arabic to absorb advanced cultural heritage. The Arabic translation movement preserved the natural sciences and humanities in ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and played an extremely important role in promoting the cultural revival of European political and cultural conditions in the late Middle Ages. The Hundred-Year Arab Translation Movement lasted for more than two hundred years, spanning the vast regions of Asia, Africa, and Europe, and blending ancient Eastern and Western cultures such as Persia, India, Greece, Rome, and Arabia. There are not many translation activities in the history of world civilization. Analyzing its causes, processes, results, and impacts is of great academic value for studying the phased development of human civilization and the commonality of human wisdom, and it is also of great help to deeply understand the Arab Islamic philosophy and culture.

The Arabic translation movement can be divided into three periods: the first period is from the middle and late 8th century to the late 9th century. Translation activities in this period were mainly carried out with the support of the famous Caliph Mansour and Harun Rashid. The translated books are mainly Persian works, and the content mostly revolves around astronomy and medicine. The second period was from the early 9th century to the middle and late 9th century. The Caliph Maimon strongly supported this matter and achieved the golden age of the 100-year translation movement. The content involved ancient Greek philosophy, natural sciences, etc.; the last period was from the middle and late 9th century to the early 10th century. During this period, the support of the Caliphate and the pace of translation declined, and a lot of work was retranslation and revision of previous translations. At this time, the translation movement has also entered its end. The century-old translation movement with a history of more than 200 years changed the backwardness of the Arab nation and gave birth to Arab-Islamic culture, which had a significant impact on Arab society. This movement promoted the exchange of various cultures while preserving classics and ancient books. Rongtong has added an important heritage to the world cultural treasure house, and has had a positive and valuable impact on the development of world culture. This article will give a more systematic introduction to the movement, divided into the following three parts: the reasons for the translation movement, the Baghdad Translation Center of the translation movement, and the influence of the translation movement.

== The Background and Cause of Translation Movement ==

During the Umayyad dynasty, Arab Muslims were fully aware of the importance of absorbing the highly developed spiritual culture of foreign nations. In order to adapt to the actual needs of society, Khalid bin Yazid organized a group of people who were proficient in Syriac, Greek or Persian scholars, focusing on the translation of ancient books in medicine and pharmacology and chemistry, and have conducted translation explorations in a broader academic field. The beginning of the Arabic translation movement and its subsequent 200-year glorious achievements are mainly due to the following four factors:

1.Geographical factors:

Since Mansour, the second caliph of the Abbasid dynasty, established its capital in Baghdad, the important position of Baghdad as the political, economic and cultural center of the dynasty has been highlighted. Baghdad is located in the two rivers basin of West Asia and is located in the main traffic arteries between the East and the West. Throughout the history of civilizations in the world, rivers and civilizations have accompanied each other. The superior geographical location has created good conditions for cultural exchanges, accelerated the circulation of classics from various countries, and provided large-scale translation activities. Provides a wealth of source text.

Damascus, the capital of the former Umayyad dynasty, was handed over to Muslim rule after several regime changes. Prior to this, Damascus was an important center of Greco-Roman culture, with Greek as the official language, while the new capital of the Abbasid dynasty, Baghdad, was close to Persia. Ctesiphon, the old capital of the Sassanid Dynasty, was influenced by Persian culture before Islamic cultural rule. Therefore, during the translation movement at that time, a considerable number of Persian translators participated in the translation, and a large number of Persian classics were translated into Arabic and retained . "The Persian influence set back the original life of the Arabians, and paved the way for a new era characterized by the development of science and academic research." By translating classic works of other ethnic groups, cultural exchanges between different ethnic groups can be realized. Translation Played an important role as a bridge. At the same time, the Persian aristocracy made great contributions to the establishment of the Abbasid dynasty and was quite influential in the regime. The caliph also urgently needed the support of this force to promote cultural integration and identity identification among different ethnic groups. Therefore, geopolitical factors are undoubtedly one of the important driving forces for the vigorous development of the Abbasid dynasty translation movement.

2.Religious factors:

In the early days of the Umayyad dynasty, the domestic political situation was basically stable, but there were still some political opponents and religious scholars dissatisfied with the rule. The influence of Christianity still exists. Islam, as a relatively young faith, has impacted on different religions and cultures. Make efforts to gain a firm foundation. In the early days of the rise of Islam, the spread of teachings could only be done through word of mouth, and academic interpretation was mainly based on the Koran. Except for Arabic and Islam, the early Muslims failed to import advanced culture or science and technology into the conquered areas, and only focused on consolidating the rule of Islam in the Arab region. The purpose of early translation activities was limited to promoting the dissemination of Islamic culture. For religious purposes, the original intent of religious works was greatly changed during the translation process. Although this practice can play a certain missionary role, it violates the basic principles of translation, fails to accurately convey the original information, and loses the inheritance significance of the original.

After the establishment of the Abbasid dynasty, the Islamization of the empire further deepened, and at the same time a batch of fresh religious and cultural blood was injected. The Quran is more tolerant towards foreign denominations such as Judaism and Christianity. Especially for Christians, the Quran calls them “the closest people to Muslims”. Under the guidance of this doctrine, “The Abbasid Empire has become an Islamic empire instead of a Umayyad-style “Arab Empire”. A large number of infidels and Muslims intermarried, reducing the ideological gap between various ethnic groups. Translator The religious structure of the group has been substantially adjusted. The converts filtered by Islamic ideology brought an active academic atmosphere and non-Islamic theological concepts, and multidisciplinary systems such as linguistics, literature, law, philosophy, and mathematics were gradually formed.

Islamic culture was further enriched in the Abbasid dynasty. The spirit of advocating knowledge and scholarship became the spiritual source of the translation movement during this period. The increasingly diversified inner religious spirit became the source of the translation movement, and promoted the translators of different religions. Translation behavior and multiple beliefs collide with each other, the scale of translation continues to expand, and the types and content of translations are also enriched by the tolerance of religious and cultural attitudes. The prosperity of the translation movement was promoted by many factors. At the religious and cultural level, the acceptance of various religious beliefs is a prerequisite for the vigorous development of the translation movement. If Muslims completely reject paganism and force other believers to convert to Islam, the participation of Christians or Jews in translation activities will be greatly reduced, the diversity of translator groups will be combated, and the perspective of translation research will inevitably be affected.

3.Science and technology factors:

In terms of science and technology, two factors have jointly promoted the development of translation, one is the foundation of early document translation, and the other is the introduction of papermaking.

The Prophet Muhammad said: “Learning is divided into two categories: religious learning and physical learning (medicine).” Translators of the Umayyad Dynasty followed this precept and performed sporadic translations of works on medicine, philosophy, and chemistry. , Pave the way for the emergence of the golden age of the translation movement in the later dynasties. "As for the natural sciences such as medicine, logic, and mathematics of the Islamic nation, it has been systematic from the beginning. Because partial research on it has already been carried out in Greece, India, Persia and other countries, and it has been sorted and recorded. It’s the stage of analysis and analysis. In the Abbasid era, these subjects were completely translated into Arabic without starting from scratch. Perhaps, when the writers of the paraphrasing subjects saw the rigorous system of natural science, they copied their practices. Some styles that they think are good have been added.” The scientific inquiry and translations of works in early Islam facilitated the prosperity of the translation movement, and Abbasid translators only needed to review the documents based on the collated documents. Or retranslation, which greatly improves the accuracy of translation.

The status of the development of emerging technologies in the Arab translation movement is undeniable, but technological development is equally important to the spread of early civilizations and is not unique to the Abbasid dynasty, so it cannot be used as a unique motivation for the emergence of large-scale translation activities in the Abbasid dynasty. However, the introduction of papermaking technology did make an indelible contribution to the cultural heritage of the empire. The first paper mill in the empire was located in Samarkand on the Silk Road in Central Asia. In the centuries before it was conquered by Islam, this city was already one of the most prosperous cities in the Persian Empire, and it was the academic center of Persia until the Middle Ages. The smooth flow of Eastern Commercial Road brought papermaking technology to Muslim countries. The introduction of papermaking has obvious influence on the translation movement. The Arabs replaced expensive parchment with relatively inexpensive paper, which made writing records and book circulation more convenient and expanded. People's demand for academic works has promoted the large-scale emergence of translation movement.

4.Translation ability factor：

Maimon, the seventh caliph of the Abbasid dynasty, established a "wisdom palace" on the basis of the Mansour Royal Library to recruit academic elites from all walks of life for translation work. The historian Yakubi once described the academic style in Baghdad: "Scholars in Baghdad have a higher education level, where experts are more knowledgeable in tradition, grammarians are more reliable in syntax... Logicians think more clearly Missionaries are also more eloquent.” Although the translators of this period were not true translators, they all had received strict philosophical and logical training. Some Syrian Christians specially returned to Greece to study in order to improve their language skills. They used Syriac as their mother tongue as a translation agency and played an important role in the translation movement. The translators in the Abbasid period built bridges between different languages and cultures with their outstanding professional ability, serious translation attitude and unlimited enthusiasm for science, which became another important driving force for the vigorous development of translation movement.

With the popularization of academic knowledge and the dissemination of various books, the scientific and cultural literacy of translators has also been comprehensively improved. The increase in knowledge reserves in astronomy, medicine, philosophy, etc. makes translation activities not only at the level of mechanical code switching. , But based on understanding and even proficiency in the meaning of the text, improving the level of translation in terms of translation quality and translation speed.

== Baghdad Translation Center ==

Baghdad Translation Center:

Before the Arab conquest, there was a tradition of studying ancient Greek cultural classics and translating them into Syriac. With the expansion of Islamic countries and the spread of religion, Arabic was popularized as an official language. At that time, there were many Syrians, Persians, Egyptians, Jews, Bebers, Spanish, Sicilians, and even Italians have become Muslims, and the Arabic language has been greatly popularized. During the reign of the Caliph dynasty, due to its rulers' enthusiasm for academic research and translation, under the impetus of the rulers, the Arab region in the Middle Ages became the center of science and translation.

Baghdad was the capital of the Abbasid Caliph dynasty. The rulers of the dynasty strongly supported the translation and paid the translators a very substantial compensation. With the support of the caliph ruler, a large number of Syrian, ancient Persian and Sanskrit texts were translated. At that time, they were most interested in medicine and philosophy. The choice of translation work text was not only political and cultural, but the personal interests of the current caliph and courtiers were also important factors. The Arab world attaches great importance to astronomy and calendar, mainly for the service of its religion. They used astronomy and calendar to accurately calculate the exact time of the five prayers, so that they could give the correct latitude and longitude coordinates facing the holy city of Mecca in any Islamic mosque for pilgrimage and prayer, and accurately calculated the time of fasting The exact number of days of the period. Therefore, many caliphs of the Abbasid dynasty paid great attention to the translation of astronomy and calendar classics. During the reign of the third-generation caliph Harun Al-Rashid (Harun Al-Rashid, said to be the prototype of the protagonist in the story of "The Thousand and One Nights"), the "Treasury of Knowledge" library was Established, it contains a large number of trophies of Greek literature and science obtained by defeating Byzantium. By the time of the fourth caliph Al-Mamun (reigned 813-833), Mamun was built in Baghdad in 830 AD The “House of Wisdom” (House of Wisdom), which is larger than the “Treasure House of Knowledge”, aims to translate the scientific and philosophical works of ancient Greece into Arabic. A large number of ancient Syriac, ancient Persian, and texts can be obtained here. In addition to translation, it is worth mentioning that during this period, many ancient Greek texts were translated into Arabic and preserved. In the 9th and 10th centuries AD, the city of Baghdad was the center of a vast translation project whose goal was to translate ancient Greek scientific and philosophical works into Arabic. This event had a profound impact on the development of science and philosophy in the entire Arab world, and directly brought about the dramatic changes in the culture and ideas of the region at that time. At that time, Hunayn Ibn Ishaq was in charge of the translation work. He and his more than 90 people translated a large number of Plato and Aristotle's works: Plato's Dialogues and "The Utopia", Aristotle's Logic Essays Set The Organon, including Categories, On Interpretation, Pior Analytics, Posterior Analytics, Topics, On Sophistical Refutations, The Metaphysics.

In addition to noting the translations of the original authors, the Arab scientists of this period also contained translational elements in their own works. Al-Razi (865-925), the author of the most important medicinal work at the time, was a student of Hunayn’s disciple. His most famous "Medical Integration" actually had a lot of content compiled, and the book collected All the medical knowledge of ancient Greece, India and the Middle East that was known at that time.

Alchemy also emerged in Arab countries during this period. It was initiated by the "mystic" Jabir Ibn Hayyan. He put forward a doctrine in his legacy writings that all things, especially metals, are based on mercury and Formed by the interaction of sulfur. The alchemy of China and Alexandria also had the seeds of this doctrine. Arab alchemists adopted the four-element theory of ancient Greece and imagined that by changing the amount of the elements that make up a metal, one metal can be transformed into another metal.

In the Arab world in the Middle Ages, like other ancient civilizations, encyclopedic scholars also appeared. The most representative one is Omar Khayyam (1048-1131). He was proficient in calendar reforms and algebraic studies, but his " Quartet" made him famous soon after him. His Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam is popular all over the world, and there have been hundreds of versions so far. His poems are recognized as the treasure of world literature and become the pride of ancient Persian literature.

During this period, Al-Khwarizmi (?-835) introduced Indian numbers and Indian algorithms to Arab countries, and later spread them to the world through Europe, which is what we now call "Arabic numbers".

The "Palace of Wisdom" established in 830 AD was the result of Arab absorbing the cultural wealth of China, India, Persia, and ancient Greece. A large number of translation activities continued until the decline of the empire in the 13th century. Translation has had a profound impact on the development of science and philosophy throughout the Arab world. For translators in Baghdad, the translation works play the role of raw materials, and the translated text is not the goal, but the catalyst that stimulates the original ideas and products of knowledge. Therefore, translators regard translation as a creative process, and the translation is often accompanied by comments, summaries or explanatory notes to make the original text easier to understand. Translators are often experts in the field of their translation. In translation, they not only exert their own understanding and comprehensive ability, but also practice their own creativity. A new ideological system was established with the help of translation and became the basis of Arab-Muslim culture. In this context, the prosperous Arab astronomy took the lead in blooming flowers from here, forming the so-called "Baghdad School" of later generations. The works of Alaba during this period were translated into Latin by later European academic circles, which in turn influenced the entire Western civilization.

== The Influence of the Arabic Translation Movement ==

The Influence of the Translation Movement

The Abbasid dynasty was the golden age of the Arab translation movement. The academic research and cultural activities carried out on the basis of translation completely changed the early material and spiritual scarcity of the Arab nation, promoted the development of natural sciences in the Middle Ages, and gave birth to Arab- Islamic culture.

1.Promotion of the development of natural sciences:

In the golden age of the translation movement of the Abbasid dynasty, a large number of natural science and medical works from Persia and Greece were translated into Arabic. Translators learn astronomy and geography in the translation process, digest the source text and perform creative translation, use Arabic to annotate and explain the unclear or obscure meanings of the original text, and then use the target language that is easy for Muslims to output, which enhances The universality of the text promoted the popularization of Muslim science and culture. "In the eighty years after the establishment of the Abbasid dynasty, the cultural essence of the above-mentioned peoples has been recorded in Arabic. I didn’t know anything about arithmetic, geometry, medicine and other terms, and I knew Aristotle’s logic. Arabs who have never heard of philosophy can use Arabic to express Euclid’s most refined theories, express the law of sines in Indian mathematics, and express Aristotle’s Materialism, Ptolemy’s principles of astronomy, Galen’s medicine, Bizley’s motto, and the politics of the Persian king.” By studying translations, the Arabs built an Islamic medical system on the basis of native medicine. From theory to clinical practice, it has corrected and made up for the medical gap before the Abbasid dynasty. During the Abbasid period, medical achievements have been fruitful and have attracted worldwide attention. At the same time, research in the fields of pharmacology, botany, mathematics, and physics has gradually deepened, and many authoritative works have been published, which have made inestimable contributions to the development of modern science in China, the Arab world, and Europe, and even the development of human civilization. contribute.

Whether it is for the caliph’s personal preferences or serving in religious ceremonies, the translation of astrological and astronomical works has promoted the development of modern Arab science and technology. Some translators became astronomers or scientists by translating classics, thus realizing the transformation of their identities. After reading the translated works, many Arabs developed a keen interest in astronomy and mathematics, and then continued to translate. The main works of Euclid and Ptolemy were also translated into Arabic during this period. The translation of classics and scientific development promoted each other, and academic atmosphere became popular for a time.

2.The formation of Arab-Islamic culture:

While the natural sciences are developing vigorously, from the perspective of ideological and cultural analysis, the translation movement gave birth to Arab-Islamic culture. With the expansion of the Abbasid Empire, Islamic civilization was also brought to the vast conquered areas. Islam in the Umayyad period only existed as a foreign religion in the conquered areas. Christianity still has a profound influence there, and the beliefs of residents have not changed much. With the influence of various factors such as intermarriage and political dependence, the Islamization of the Arab empire has gradually advanced in the ruled areas and merged with the local culture into a splendid and complex Arab-Islamic culture. "After the 7th century, Islamic culture rose to become the mainstream culture of the Mediterranean. The Arab Empire became an important center of world culture at that time, and it radiated strongly outward."

The unification of language helps resolve ideological contradictions and promote national cultural identity. During the translation movement, the further popularization of Arabic became the official language of the empire, the civilization of neighboring countries gradually declined, and the status of Arab-Islamic culture gradually took shape. Without the prosperity of the Abbasid translation movement, there would be no new cultural construction of Islamic civilization. Since then, Arab-Islamic culture has shined in Spain. During the Arab rule of the Iberian Peninsula, it had a significant impact on the formation of Spanish national culture and language, and it also left a deep Arab imprint in the formation of European civilization. Although the Arab Empire fell apart due to religious and political struggles, the Arab-Islamic civilization left behind by the translation movement is still shining.

3.Having Promoted the Renaissance in Europe:

In the history of modern science, the Western Middle Ages has been given the image of a "dark age". In the Middle Ages from 500 to 1500 AD, because European countries pursued a religious theology and idealistic view of nature, the priests of the Roman Church only knew that they adhered to the dogma of their church. Religion seriously hindered the development of science. Therefore, Western science was here. The stage of development is unusually slow. The Christian churches in the West had brutally attacked the ancient Greek heritage and regarded this as a heritage related to idolatry that was harmful to the Christian faith. Christians were forbidden to learn more. At that time, the writings of most Greek philosophers and writers were despised. . The Byzantine emperor Constantine even closed the philosophical school in Athens in 529 AD, and this hostile attitude towards Greek heritage continued for centuries. Muslim scholars saved the Greek heritage by studying and in-depth annotations of the writings of Aristotle, Gran, and Ptolemy. It was through the labor of these Muslim scholars that the European countries that were shrouded in the dark age at that time realized their true and forgotten traditions of Greek science and philosophy. It is precisely because of the Arab world's translation of ancient Greek and Roman scientific and philosophical works that the natural and human sciences in ancient Greek and Roman cultures were preserved, so that the translation of Arabic documents in Europe in the late Middle Ages promoted European politics In this regard, the cultural revival is indispensable for the contribution of the Arab Translation Movement.

== Conclusion==

The Abbasid dynasty was the second hereditary dynasty of the Arab Empire, which lasted for more than five hundred years. The translation movement that flourished in this era pushed Arab-Islamic culture to its peak under the multiple combined forces. Although the power of the Arab empire in the second half of the 9th century was declining and the Caliphate came to an end, its cultural influence has never diminished. With the advancement of international cultural exchanges between countries, the Arab translation movement still has important practical significance:

First of all, cultural exchanges between countries in the world are becoming more and more frequent. Translation disciplines are no longer limited to the language field. Interdisciplinary translation has become a future trend. It is a new type of challenge;

secondly, a good academic environment is a prerequisite for promoting knowledge progress and achieving academic innovation. During the Abbasid dynasty, translation activities were organized and carried out on a large scale under the call of the state, focusing on and rewarding academic activities, and setting up academic institutions. The academic atmosphere of the entire Baghdad city was strong, and the natural sciences and social sciences had been developed by leaps and bounds. This provides a reference for the further construction of the academic environment of other countries.

Furthermore, the development of science and technology has closely linked the countries of the world, and the collision of multiculturalism has become the theme of the development of civilization in the world today. The reason for the success of the Arab translation movement is that Muslims' tolerance towards other religions and foreign cultures is a crucial part. This is also the main reason why Arab-Islamic culture has absorbed the millennium culture of ancient Greece and Rome in a century. In summary, the Abbasid dynasty’s open and inclusive attitude towards academic activities led the Arab translation movement into a golden age. The vigorous development of the translation movement during this period promoted the progress of the natural sciences of the Arab Empire, and laid a solid academic foundation for the early inheritance of science and culture, as well as the exchanges and mutual learning between Eastern and Western civilizations. Despite the decline of the Arab empire, the characteristics of Arab-Islamic culture will continue in new ways. In the contemporary era, the Abbasid dynasty translation movement provides the world with a deeper historical perspective, and provides a useful reference for the training of translators and cultural exchanges in various countries around the world.

Although the vigorous Arab translation movement for a century has been obliterated in the long river of history, the impact of the Arab-Islamic culture produced is far-reaching. Throughout the long history, one can still hear the voices of many Muslims and non-Muslim scholars struggling to translate manuscripts in the "Wisdom Hall", as well as their clamor for truth and academic culture; you can still hear the Arab Muslims in "for Allah" Under the slogan of "War", the screams of expansion riding on a war horse; I can still imagine the amazing scenes of Arab merchants traveling thousands of miles and sailing merchant ships to China and Scandinavia. Under the influence of the strong Arab-Islamic culture, the people of the Arab empire have discarded national and racial differences and formed a spirit of "Muslim brothers and sisters" psychologically. This strong culture and common psychological cognition give Arab-Islamic culture a tenacious vitality, and it still arouses echoes from time to time in Arab countries and the Islamic world.

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= Brief history of French translation =
李怡 Li Yi ,Hunan Normal University ,China
== Abstract==
The purpose of this article is to make a brief introduction to the translation history of France. The history of French translation began in the Middle Ages: with the development of Christianity and nationalism, the royal family hired translators to translate the Bible. The Renaissance in the 16th century, as well as economic and educational development, increased the demand for reading and writing, thus promoting the development of translation, most of the translated works are classical works. Then two religious films appeared in France: Jansenists and Jesuit, which had a great influence on the translation schools of that time. During the Enlightenment in the 18th century, France was deeply influenced by Britain, so most of the works in this period were British progressive thoughts and literature. The Industrial Revolution in the second half of the 18th century increased French scientific and technological translation. With the progress of the French Revolution, French translators are more inclined to the economic and political and judicial fields. After the Second World War, the translation industry in France recovered and developed vigorously. France even set up ESIT（École Supérieure d'Interprètes et de Traducteurs）to train senior translators. In the 20th century, there appeared many translation theorists in France, which promoted the professionalization of translation.
== Key words==
Renaissance, French translation, contemporary, French Revolution
== Introduction==
As a developed country in the west, France has a very long translation history. Translators and translation theories emerge in endlessly, which can not be ignored in the history of translation. At the same time, with the development of globalization, translation theories in various countries learn from and integrate with each other. Among them, French translation theory also plays a very important role. Therefore, it is necessary to comb the history of French translation and study the translators of relevant times and their relevant theories.
==1.Medieval French translation based on Bible Translation==
In the middle ages, translation in various countries was deeply influenced by religion, especially the translation of the Bible, which greatly promoted the development of translation. In France, the royal family specially hired translators to translate various Latin and Greek works for the imperial court. The most prominent court interpreter was Nicholas Oresme of the Charles V Dynasty. Aristotle's works translated by him in 1377 had a great impact on the French translation and philosophy circles at that time. Jean de Vigne translated the Latin Bible in French in 1340. In addition, Jean de malkaraume, J argyropylos and others translated the works of Virgil, Ovid, Aristotle, Plato and contemporary writers at the same time.
==2.Renaissance: the development of French translation==
The Renaissance is the development period of French translation theory. The main representatives are Dolet and Jacques Amyot, especially the former. In the 16th century, there was an upsurge of translation in France. During this period, the focus of translation shifted from religious translation such as the Bible to classical literature translation. Religious translation abides by the translation principle of "word to word" . Its purpose is to follow the will of God and avoid blasphemy. This is irrefutable, so there are not many translation theories to speak of. However, as a new genre, the translation of literary works is different from the previous religious translation. Translators face many new problems, so translation theory came into being. Dolet and amyot are the most prominent representatives of translation theory in this period. They are both translators and translation theorists, and the latter wins especially by translation. Both their translation theories come from translation practice, so they are persuasive. Dolet is famous for his "five principles of translation". "Five principles of translation" comes from his paper on how to translate well published in 1540 ,La manière de bien traduire d’une langue à l’autre. 1. the translator must fully understand the content of the translated work; 2.The translator must be familiar with the target language and the target language; 3.The translator must avoid word by word translation; 4.The translator must adopt the popular language form; 5.The translator must select words and adjust word order to make the translation produce the effect of appropriate tone. (Tan Zaixi,2004:71)These five principles involve the criterion of "faithfulness" in translation, the translator's bilingual ability, translation methods, style and style of translation. Amyot is one of the greatest translators in the history of French translation. He is known as the "king of translation". His translation has had a great impact on that time and future generations. He follows two principles in Translation: 1. The translator must understand the original text and make great efforts in the translation of content; 2.The translation must be simple and natural without any decoration. The first involves the standard of faithfulness in translation, and the second involves the style of translation. These two principles are similar to the first and fifth of Dolet's five translation principles.

==3.The 17th century: the climax of French translation and various translation schools==
After the Renaissance, classicism deeply influenced France. In the translation circle at that time, people were engaged in the translation of classical works on a large scale. Translation has launched a magnificent "dispute between ancient and modern" around the translation methods of classical works. Some translators pay more attention to the past than the present: they pay attention to the imitation of words with sentences, and praise the so-called accurate translation method. Some translators prefer to use the opposite translation method.
In the 17th century, the most famous French translator was Perrot d’Ablancourt,, His translation is sophisticated and elegant, both meaningful and beautiful, and easy to understand. There are no words that need to be explained in order to clarify the meaning in the translation, and there are no annoying cliches. Therefore, he has a great reputation for a long time. His characteristic is to take an original work and grasp the main idea. No matter what the original style is, as long as the translation is literary and readable and can make contemporary readers love and welcome, he will do whatever he can to add or delete the content at any cost, and modify it if he can, regardless of the accuracy of the translation. At that time, this literary and beautiful translation method attracted many followers, but it was also criticized by many people as "beautiful but unfaithful".By the end of the 17th century, those who advocated free translation were overwhelmingly in favor, while those who really advocated accurate translation were few and far between. The earliest theorist to advocate accurate translation was Bachet de Méziriac in the mid-17th century. In December 1635, he published an essay entitled "on translation" at the French academy, stating that translators must observe three principles :1.do not stuff the original work with personal goods; 2.The original work shall not be abridged; 3.No alteration may be made detrimental to the original intention.
As one of the most influential translators in France in the 17th century, Daniel Huet, worshipped classical literature and clearly advocated accurate translation. He criticized both post-modern translators and unfaithful translators abranguel. He believes that the best translation method is: the translator first closely follows the original author's meaning; Secondly, if possible, stick to his words; Finally, try to reproduce his character as much as possible; The translator must carefully study the character of the original author, not delete, weaken, add and expand, and faithfully make it complete as the original. His translation principles are: the only goal of translation is to be accurate. Only by accurately imitating the original in language can it be possible to accurately convey the original author's meaning; The translator has no right to choose words or change word order arbitrarily, because "Deviation" from the original text will lead to deviation from the original meaning. His translation theory has been praised by many people, but due to the lack of practice, his theory is not attractive to translators.
In the 17th century, there were also two representatives from inaccurate translation to accurate translation,François Maucroix and Jacques de Tourreil.
François Maucroix is regarded by contemporary and later critics as one of the most outstanding French translators in the 17th century and the first person to translate demesne in the 17th century. In addition to demesne, he also translated the works of Plato and others. Maucroix received the education of the Jesuit Church in his early years, was greatly influenced by the Jesuit Church, loved debating literature, and paid attention to ingenious expression and beautiful language style.
His early translations were inaccurate in content, style or written expression. He liked to modernize ancient terms and expressions. In 1685, his style changed, and his translation became more accurate, which seemed to have completely corrected the defects of procrastination and weakness in his early translation. The reason can be seen from his letters with Boileau in the last decade of the 17th century. He regarded Boileau not only as the most important representative of classical literature, but also as an authority on translation theory. Therefore, he always sent the translation to Boileau for revision. Boileau read the manuscript carefully, criticized some paragraphs and put forward better translation methods. In his reply, Maucroix said that Poirot's criticism of some of his inaccurate translations was pertinent, and his opinions on the revision were also very good. He admitted that the inaccurate translation was a mistake and must be completely corrected. He finally realized that translators must adhere to the principle of accurate translation if they want to become real classicists.
Jacques de Tourreil also experienced a change from inaccurate translation to accurate translation, which is reflected in his translation of three different versions of Demosthenes. In 1691, he published his first translation, which was influenced by the education of the Jesuit and paid attention to elegant style rather than accurate content. Tourreil processed the original work in the most ingenious way to modernize the ancients. After the translation was published, it was immediately severely criticized by Racine. After being criticized, Tourreil published a revised version in 1710, but the revised version actually only made detailed changes to the original translation, and the guiding principle of translation remains unchanged, that is, we must "make the characteristics of the original work conform to the characteristics of our nation". The new translation has received various comments. On the one hand, the ancient school refers to Tourreil 's attempt to impose new ideas on Demosthenes, believing that he not only did not beautify the original work, but distorted and vilified the original work. On the other hand, the present school believes that Tourreil's unfaithful translation of the original is better than the original, which is worth applauding. Tourreil himself is an ancient school. Naturally, he doesn't appreciate the present school's praise and thinks that this praise is "the most severe criticism to the translator". After that, he revised the translation for the third time, which is very different from the first two versions. It was not only a rare and accurate translation at that time, but also extremely beautiful. The translator translates in strict accordance with the original work, neither adding or subtracting nor making changes. By this time Tourreil had fundamentally changed his point of view.
Discussing the history of French translation from the 17th century to the 18th century is bound to involve the influence of Jesuit and Jansenists. The main reason is that the people engaged in education at that time were members of these two schools. They had direct or indirect contact with each translation school through their own translation practice and teaching.
The Jesuit believes that classical literature is worth studying and learning only in the aspect that it provides moral education or guides people how to learn eloquence. The excavation of classical works is not because their contents are of great value, but because of their beautiful forms. Teachers believe that the purpose of teaching is not so much to enable students to obtain substantive knowledge as to enable them to obtain formal learning identity.
The works translated by Jesuit teachers or students generally have an obvious sign, that is, they do not pay much attention to the spiritual essence of the original work, but only pay attention to the expression of the original thought and the beauty of the translation style. In order to achieve this, translators often sacrifice the content, even misinterpret the original meaning, and religiously turn classical literary works. Therefore, the origin of inaccurate translation in the 17th century is often influenced by Jesuit thought.
Jansenists is the second school that directly or indirectly affects translation principles. They believe that once students can read and write, they should read these translations in order to obtain basic knowledge about the original author and facilitate more and better reading of the original works in the future. In the early days, the views of the janssenian translators and the Jesuit translators were basically the same. Later, the translators of Jansenists believed that the practice of style for style in translation was also dangerous. However, towards the middle of the 17th century, their views changed and they believed that the style of ancient Greek and Latin writers, especially the style of ancient Greek writers, was worth learning. They really appreciate classical works more than the Jesuits. They admit that the language style of the ancients is superior to that of the present, but the present enjoys more inspiration from God, so the present surpasses the ancients in terms of thought and morality. In this way, no matter from which perspective, their views are completely consistent with those of ancient school. But the translation of Jansenists is far less elegant and beautiful than that of the Jesuits.
==4.The decline of French translation in the 18th century and the translator Charles Batteux==
In the 18th century, France was not as powerful as in the 16th and 17th centuries, nor was it culturally complacent. So she began to look at other countries' literature, first of all England. For example, the novels of the contemporary British sentimentalist writer Richard Were translated into French, which had a great influence on the development of French sentimentalist literature. In particular, the Chinese culture, which had been introduced to Europe for a long time, became more active in France in the 18th century. Although the number of translations is large, the quality is often not high.
Charles Batteux was one of the most important translators in France in the 18th century. He was one of the most influential literary and translation theorists in France and the whole Europe in the 18th century. He edited and published a variety of translation books, translated aristoteles, Horace and many other classical works of ancient Greece and Rome, wrote Principes de Litterature, Cours de Belles-Lettres and other works. Batteux elaborated his thoughts and views on translation in The Principles of Treatise. His original views and excellent exposition made this book an important milestone in the development of translation theory in the 18th century.
The fifth part of Principes de Litterature deals with translation problems.The theory of Charles Batteux obviously has the characteristics of philosophers, linguists, philology and translation. In other words, Charles Batteux discusses the principles of translation mainly from the perspective of general linguistic skills, rather than literary creation. He proposed the following 12 rules for dealing with word order in translation: 1. We must not alter the order of what the original says, either as fact or inference. 2. We should also preserve the order of ideas in the original text. 3. No matter how long the original sentence is, it should be kept intact in the translation, for a sentence is a thought in which the different elements are related to each other, and their correlation constitutes a kind of harmony. 4.All the conjunctions in the original text should be preserved. It is these conjunctions, so to speak, that hold the sentence elements together. 5. All adverbs should be placed either before or after the verb, depending on the harmony and momentum of the sentence. 6.Symmetrical sentences should be translated into symmetrical sentences. 7. Colorful ideas should be expressed in as much space as possible in the translation so as to maintain the same brilliance. 8. Rhetorical devices and forms of speech used to express ideas must be preserved in the translation. 9. We must translate short and pithy sayings that people like, or translate them into words that are natural and can be used as proverbs. 10. Interpretation is incorrect and incomplete because it is no longer a translation but a commentary. However, if there is no other way to convey the meaning of the original text, the translator has no choice but to use interpretation. 11. For the sake of meaning, we must abandon all forms of expression in order to make ourselves intelligible; Abandon emotion in exchange for a lively translation; Give up harmony for the pleasure of translation. 12. The idea of the original text can be expressed in different forms, combined or broken up by the words used to express it, and expressed by verbs, adjectives, nouns and adverbs, as long as its essence remains unchanged（Tan Zaixi,2004:98）.

==5.The revival of French translation in the 19th century and its rich translators==
Another high tide of French translation came in the 19th century, when a large number of English, German, Italian, Spanish and Latin literary works were translated, such as Shakespeare, Milton, Byron, Shelley in England, Goethe and Schiller in Germany, Dante in Italy, and Spanish folk songs. The most prominent remains the translation of Shakespeare's works. If the 18th century was Shakespeare's Silver age in France, the 19th was the golden age. In the 19th century, people not only worshiped Shakespeare's works, but also worshipped him, and Shakespeare fever spread throughout France. From 1800 to 1910, at least eight different translations of Shakespeare's complete works were produced in France, of which francois-Victor Hugo is the best. Hugo's father was Victor Hugo, a great writer. With Hugo's assistance and cooperation, the complete works of Shakespeare were translated between 1859 and 1867. This translation has faithfully retained the unique rhythm of the play, so it has been praised by critics as the second milestone in the history of French translation of Shakespeare's plays, even more important than Letourne's famous translation in the late 18th century.
Famous French translators in the 19th century included Francoise-René de Chateaubriand, Gérard de Nerval, and Charles Baudelaire. Chateaubriand is another epoch-making translator in France after Amio. His translation is faithful and beautiful. His literal translation of Milton's Paradise Lost is one of the outstanding French translations with its melodious and poetic tone. Nerval is best known for his translation of Goethe's Faust in prose style. In 1830 Goethe saw Nerval's translation and praised it as better than his original. Baudelaire, another famous poet of this period, was one of the earliest French translators of American literature and the first translator of Allan Poe. For 13 years from 1852 to 1865, he wrote, translated and commented on the complete works of Allan Poe. Baudelaire found what he was pursuing in Allan Poe's works, and believed that he and the author were in the same spirit, so that the translation could be in touch with the author. The translation was smooth and natural, just like the French creation, and was listed as an excellent classic of French prose.
==6.The specialization of French translation in the 20th century and the maturity of translation theory==
The 20th century has been the heyday of French translation theory. The characteristics of French translation in this period are: since the end of the Second World War, due to practical needs, commercial, diplomatic, scientific and technological aspects of the translation boom(Chen Shunyi,2014:6), its momentum even more than literary translation, thus forming a major content of the development of modern western translation; The study of translation theory is unprecedented and has produced translation theorists who have an important influence on the history of translation in the world. Before the First World War, the two countries used the language of power in business transactions, and French, which was considered the language of diplomacy at international conferences and other diplomatic occasions, did not have much problem in translation. However, after the end of the First World War, French lost its dominance, and English rose to take the lead with French, forming a situation in which French and English were used together. The Paris Peace Conference of 1919 was the beginning of this situation. Later, the European Union has 24 official languages, which means that translation has become an indispensable part of daily work, whether it is communication between countries in other regions or between western countries. With the increase of cooperation between countries, the need for translators is increasing. To meet this need, a number of schools specializing in training translators have been set up. One of the most prominent is ESIT（École Supérieure d'Interprètes et de Traducteurs）.
ESIT was founded in 1957, set up the department of Oral translation and pen translation, initially only opened several European languages, since 1972 added Chinese, now a total of English, Chinese, Russian, Arabic, French, German, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, Danish, Swedish, Icelandic and other languages translation courses. Later, on the basis of the original two departments, the School added a department of Translation Studies, specializing in the study of language and translation theory, with the right to confer doctoral degrees. After graduation, most of the students apply for translation departments of international institutions, and some graduates apply for the work license of free translators to relevant institutions of various countries in order to work freely and not apply for the work license of free translators to international institutions. Over the years, ESIT has trained a number of senior translators for the foreign affairs departments of the United Nations, the European Community (EU) and western countries.
Another characteristic of modern French translation is that French translators are organized in large numbers, setting up various translation associations and establishing various translation publications. Each association has its own purpose and purpose to carry out its work effectively. There are two major translation associations in France: the Association of French Translators and the Association of French Literary Translators. The Association of French Literary Translators was founded in 1973 as a splinter from the Association of Translators. Its entry requirements are the most stringent of any of its kind. Only highly qualified translators are eligible to join. Applicants must have at least one translation, which is carefully reviewed against the original work by a special selection committee. The aims of the association are :1.to improve the quality of French literature and literary translation publications; 2.To protect the rights and interests of members in respect of copyright, remuneration and working conditions of translated works; 3.Do not participate in any political activities. Since its establishment, the association has held many lectures and lectures, and its members have published many articles on translation in such authoritative publications as le Monde and New Literature. Through this series of business activities, it has become the most distinctive and vocal translation organization in France.
In the first half of the 20th century, the French translation theorist J.Marouzeau is worth a book. He is a professor at the University of Paris and editor in chief of Année Philologique. In 1931, he published a pamphlet called La Traduction du Latin. The theory is as follows:1.Translation is, first of all, a skill. Maruzzo does not deny that translation is an art and a science, and that it is more of a skill. To master it, we mainly rely on rich practical experience, solid language knowledge and flexible translation methods. 2.In order to reach as many readers as possible, the translator's primary task, like linguists, educators and exegetists, is to reveal to the reader what the source text is, not what it covers. 3.The purpose of using a dictionary is not to translate, but to understand. It is a puzzling view, but it is not hard to discern the truth in it. He points out that translators must learn to use dictionaries, but must first understand what problems they are using them to solve. Latin, for example, is very different from French, he said. Latin words are not related to each other, and there is no strict word order, which must be added to a French translation to make the translation smooth. Dictionaries don't help in this respect. They define a particular word in inverse proportion to its simplicity, thus leaving the translator in a difficult position to choose between many different translations. Therefore, the main purpose of using a dictionary is not to find ready-made words, but to understand the meaning of the original text, to explain the text of the original text, and then produce a translation on this basis. At the same time, Marouzeau points out that words from different sources must be interpreted differently. 4.Translation is not guesswork. This is especially important. When encountering difficulties, the translator must carefully consider and avoid any "preconceived ideas", because in translation, the first thought of meaning or expression is often not the most correct or best. 5.Translation must be in living language. This was a popular idea in England in the 17th and 18th centuries. Marouzeau said that to translate Latin into French, if you need to introduce an old expression, you have to turn to a living language so that the translation is alive. That is to say, the translator must ask: if the original author were alive today and writing in French, how would he express the same thing? But Marouzeau also points out that this is not a generalization, and that for some passages, especially those of Ovid, "a bit of antiquity is most appropriate in French translation".
The following is an introduction to Georges Mounin, a famous French translation theorist in the second half of the 20th century. He devoted his life to the teaching and research of linguistics and translation theory with outstanding achievements. He is regarded as the founder and most important representative of linguistic theory in contemporary French translation studies. Major theoretical works include Le belles infidèles , Les problèmes théorique de la traduction, La machine à traduire: Histoire des problèmes linguistiques, Linguistique et traduction, Semiotic praxis, etc. Among them, Les problèmes théorique de la traduction is the most praised by contemporary Western translation theorists. As mentioned above, this book uses the basic theories and methods of modern linguistics to explain translation, and sets up the first clear-cut flag of linguistic school in the field of Translation studies in France.
The core idea of Mounin 's book is that he thinks translation belongs to linguistics, so it should be studied, understood and explained by means of modern linguistics. To establish an effective translation theory, it has to for translation and the translation of basic problems related to make a scientific understanding of these problems include the nature of translation, translation and the meaning of vocabulary, grammatical structure, the relationship between translation and the objective world, the world's image), the relationship between translation and language universals and language features, the relationship between the processing of language features in translation, and so on. Mounin 's discussion of translation theory revolves around these questions.
What exactly is a translation? What kind of discipline should translation studies belong to and what kind of methods should be adopted? And so on. Such problems have always been the most concerned by translation researchers but have not been properly explained. Mounin believes that translation is a special and universal language activity, which naturally belongs to the scope of linguistics research, and the research results of language science can be applied to the study of translation problems. Mounin admit that the translation of poetry, the literature such as drama, movies, many factors other than language and paralanguage does play an important role, but the basis of translation activity is mainly to the original and the translation of linguistic analysis, and applied linguistics is more than any other skilled experience can provide accurate and reliable. Of course, from another point of view, especially from the perspective of the development of translation studies as an independent discipline since the 1980s, the practice of classifying translation studies as linguistics has been outdated. However, even if translatology is regarded as an independent discipline, its independence is only relative. Since translation (interlingual and intralingual translation) necessarily involves language, translation studies should not and cannot be completely free from the influence of linguistics at any time. In this sense, Mounin's view of linguistic translation has always been positive.
Since the 1970s and 1980s, the interpretive school represented by Seleskovitch or the Paris School has emerged in the field of Translation studies in France and become the most remarkable and French characteristic in the post-modern period, thus forming the second major feature of the development of contemporary French translation theory. It should be said that this school does not negate the basic idea of the school of linguistics to study linguistic phenomena, but only opposes the pure linguistic orientation of the school of linguistics and focuses on the research method of form. Interpretive theory holds that translation is a linguistic act, but it requires the participation of extralinguistic knowledge. Whether it is diachronic linguistics in the 19th century, synchronic descriptive linguistics and contrastive structural linguistics in the 20th century, or the later transformational generative grammar theory, it ignores the pragmatic context as the main component of language communication, so it cannot reasonably explain translation problems. Based on practice, the theory of interpretation studies translation as a linguistic act, and interprets and conveys the meaning of language from linguistic factors, cultural factors, and extralinguistic factors, so as to give a scientific and reasonable explanation to the reality of translation.
An important feature of interpretive translation theory is to reveal the essence of translation as communicative behavior from practice. Interpretivism holds that translation is a kind of linguistic act, which, like language use, must be supported by non-linguistic knowledge. However, as an act, the object of translation is not language, but meaning, which is the communicative meaning of the text. The output of meaning requires the combination of nonverbal thoughts and signs, and the reception of meaning requires the conscious behavior of the addressee. The arrangement of words is only a means of meaning formation for the originator of words. The understanding and grasp of meaning need to get rid of the original language form. The acquisition of meaning is instantaneous, not staged. Meaning is not the sum of words, but an organic whole, and the comprehension of meaning is completed at the level of discourse.
According to the interpretive theory, language and thought are separated in the translation of translators. Language and thought are not exactly the same thing, but there is a constant two-way communication between them. Thought waves can be transformed into language, and language can be transformed into thought waves. Human knowledge and experience do not reside in the brain in the form of words.
Interpretive theory also holds that understanding requires the participation of cognitive knowledge; The process of comprehension is the process of interpretation. Interpretation is the prerequisite of translation, and translation cannot be carried out without interpretation. Translation, on the other hand, is interpretation. Interpretive translation is a translation of meaning equivalence, which is established between texts. If a translation is to be successful, it is necessary to seek the overall meaning equivalence between the source text and the target text, and the meaning equivalence needs to achieve cognitive and emotional equivalence. Translators use their own abilities to organically combine the cognitive content and emotional content of the source text into an indivisible whole, and then successfully express it. Only in this way can the equivalence of meaning be achieved, which is the essence of the interpretive theory.
The interpretive theory also focuses on fidelity. The translator cannot interpret at will, and his interpretation and understanding can only be faithful to the actual content of the speaker. Although the interpreter interprets in his own words, he conveys the meaning of the speaker and imitates the speaker's style. The interpreter should understand the overall style of the speech, and tend to be consistent with the speaker, should be as far as possible to get rid of the constraints of words, in order to accurately reflect the original style.
== Conclusion==
There may be many deficiencies and omissions in the simple combing of French translation history, but as a powerful and long-standing western developed country, France's translation process and theory have great research and reference significance for China and the world. The world is still developing, so is translation. With the development of modern science and technology, people explore translation more deeply, and new theories are constantly put forward. Therefore, we should seize the trend of the times, base ourselves on China, look at the world and seriously study these excellent theories.
== References==
[1]Chen Shunyi陈顺意（2014）.法国翻译理论源流Sources and schools of French translation theory.法国研究The French Study.
[2]Tan Zaixi谭载喜（2004）.西方翻译简史A Short History of Translation in the West.商务印书馆The Commercial Press.
[3]Xu Jun许均,Yuan Xiao一袁筱一(1998).当代法国翻译理论Contemporary Translation Study in France .湖北教育出版社Hubei Education Press.
[4]Liu Mingjiu柳鸣九,Zheng Kelu郑克鲁,Zhang Yinglun张英伦(1979).法国文学史History of French Literature,人民文学出版社People's Literature Publishing House
[5]Xie Tianzhen谢天振（2009）.中西翻译简史A brief history of Chinese and Western translation,外语教育与研究出版社Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.

=李新星A Comparative Study on The Translation history of Modern Chinese and Korean Literature under the Background of "Western Learning" (1894~1949) =
==Abstract==
The spreading of Western learning to the east is an extensive and far-reaching influence of modern Western culture on eastern civilization, which started from translation as a means of cultural communication.Scholars in China and Korea have always recognized the influence of the eastward spread of Western learning on the development of translation in their countries.However, most studies on modern and contemporary translation take the country as the boundary and rarely talk about the comparison and exchange between the two countries.In fact, although there are some individual differences between Chinese and Korean translation in modern times due to different national conditions, there are also many similarities and connections worthy of attention and research.From the perspective of translation history, this paper will explore the history of literary translation in China and Korea under the trend of western learning to the east, compare the commonness and individuality of the two countries' literary translation practices, explore the historical information behind the translation practices, and finally achieve the purpose of restoring the history of cultural (literary) exchanges between the two countries.

The spreading of western culture to the East was an extensive and far-reaching influence of modern Western culture on Eastern civilization, resulted from translation as a means of cultural communication.Scholars in China and Korea had always recognized the influence of the eastward spread of Western learning on the development of translation in their countries. However, most studies on modern and contemporary translation take the country as the boundary and rarely talk about the comparison and exchange between the two countries.In fact, regardless of some individual differences between Chinese and Korean translation in modern times due to different national conditions, there are also many similarities and connections worthy of attention and research.From the perspective of translation history, this paper will explore the history of literary translation in China and Korea under the trend of western learning to the East, compare the commonness and individuality of the two countries' literary translation practices, dig out the historical information behind the practices, and finally achieve the purpose of restoring the history of cultural exchanges between the two.--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 07:23, 11 December 2021 (UTC)

==Key words==
History of literary translation；“Western Learning”;China;Korea

==摘要==
西学东渐是近代西方文化对东方文明的一次广泛而深远的影响，而这影响首先是从作为文化交流的手段———翻译开始的。一直以来，中韩两国学者都认同西学东渐对本国翻译发展的影响，但现有的研究在探讨近现代翻译时大多以本国为界，很少谈及两国比较和交流。而实际上，虽然因为国情不同，中国与朝鲜半岛的近现代翻译存在一定的个体差异，但同时也有很多相似点和联系点值得关注和研究。本文将从翻译史视角出发，窥探西学东渐时代潮流下中韩两国文学翻译史的面貌，比较两国文学翻译实践的共性和个性，发掘翻译实践背后的历史信息，最终达到还原两国文化 (文学) 交流史的目的。

==关键词==
文学翻译史；“西学东渐”；中国；朝鲜（韩国）

==1.Introduction==
The spreading of Western learning to the east is an extensive and far-reaching influence of modern Western culture on Eastern civilization.Late 19th century to early 20th century,When the West had modernized and gradually replaced the East as the world's dominant power,The three East Asian countries ( China, Japan and Korea), which had been sleeping for a long time, were gradually awakened and embarked on the "journey" of modernization.Among them, In order to achieve a rich country and a strong army, Japan left Asia and entered Europe,Take the lead in taking a series of measures to actively learn from the West and introduce advanced ideas and culture.The main measure is to develop the translation of western literature.Under the influence of such a large environment, the translation of overseas literature in China and the Korean Peninsula has also set off a boom.It can be said that the influence of the eastward spreading of Western learning on the modernization of East Asia began with translation as a means of cultural exchange.
Some scholars have pointed out that in the process of modernization in East Asia represented by Japan,Translation plays an important role.Without translation, East Asia would not have been able to open the door to modernization.This is also true in modern China and the Korean Peninsula.It can be said that after entering the modern society, the cultural exchanges between the two countries were continued through translation --"A history of translation is not only a history of cultural exchange, but also a history of the dissemination of ideas".As we all know, the study of translation history is a "basic project" in the construction of translation discipline.Behrman, a famous translator and translation theorist, once pointed out that "the composition of translation history is the first task of modern translation theory, and self-reflection is the establishment of itself" .The history of literary translation is an important part of the study of translation history and an indispensable factor in the investigation of a country's literature and even the whole cultural background in a particular period.
In view of the above analysis, the author believes that in order to have a macro and in-depth understanding of the cultural exchanges between China and Korea in modern times.It is necessary for us to make a comparative study of literary translation between the two countries during this period (1894 ~ 1949).Writers believe that only by putting literary translation activities into a larger social and historical context can we have a clearer understanding of the translation practices of the two countries at that time.Therefore, from the perspective of translation history, this paper will explore the history of literary translation in China and Korea under the trend of western learning to the east, compare the commonness and individuality of the two countries'literary translation practices, explore the historical information behind the translation practices, and finally achieve the purpose of restoring the history of cultural (literary) exchanges between the two countries.

The spreading of Western learning to the east exerted an extensive and far-reaching influence on Eastern civilization.In the late 19th century to early 20th century,when the West had modernized and gradually replaced the East as the world's dominant power,the three East Asian countries (China,Japan and Korea),which had been sleeping for a long time, were gradually awakened and embarked on the "journey" of modernization. In order to attain prosperity, Japan left Asia and entered Europe, taking a series of measures to actively learn from the West and introduce advanced ideas and culture through the media of translation.Under the influence of such a univerasl situation, the translation of overseas literature in China and the Korean Peninsula had also set off a boom.It could be said that the influence of the eastward spreading of western learning on the modernization of East Asia began with translation as a means of cultural exchange.
Some scholars have pointed out that translation plays an important role in the process of modernization in East Asia represented by Japan.Without translation,East Asia would not have been able to open the door to modernization.This is also true in modern China and the Korean Peninsula.It can be said that after entering the modern society, the cultural exchanges between the two countries were continued through translation --"A history of translation is not only a history of cultural exchange, but also a history of the dissemination of ideas".As we all know, the study of translation history is a "basic project" in the construction of translation discipline.Behrman, a famous translator and translation theorist, once pointed out that "the composition of translation history is the first task of modern translation theory, and self-reflection is the establishment of itself".The history of literary translation is an important part of the study of translation history and an indispensable factor in the investigation of a country's literature and even the whole cultural background in a particular period.
In view of the above analysis, the author believes that in order to have a macro and in-depth understanding of the cultural exchanges between China and Korea in modern times.It is necessary for us to make a comparative study of literary translation between the two countries from 1894 to 1949. Only by putting literary translation activities into a larger social and historical context can we have a clearer understanding of the translation practices of the two countries at that time.Therefore, from the perspective of translation history, this paper will explore the history of literary translation in China and Korea under the trend of western learning to the East, compare the commonness and individuality of the two countries' literary translation practices, explore the historical information behind the practices, and finally achieve the purpose of restoring the history of cultural (literary) exchanges between the two countries.--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 07:34, 11 December 2021 (UTC)

==2. The origin and development of modern translation in both countries ==
After being opened to the outside world, western civilization flooded in. China and North Korea, which had been pursuing the policy of "closing the door to the outside world", began to "open their eyes to the world".From the government to the people, there has been an upsurge in the introduction of advanced Western civilization.Translation plays an important, even decisive role in this process.
====2.1The historical evolution of Modern Translation in China====
As is known to all, Among the three East Asian countries, China is the first to pay attention to the West and understand and learn the West through translation.In the 1860s, after the Westernization Movement, a climax of modern Chinese translation began slowly.Strictly speaking, this translation period can be further divided into two stages, namely, with the Sino-Japanese War of 1894 as the dividing line, the early stage was the translation period dominated by westernization school, and the later stage was the translation period dominated by reformists.If the translation during the Westernization Movement was the primary stage of modern Western learning translation in China, there were still many problems, then the translation activities led by reformists such as Kang Youwei, Liang Qichao and Yan Fu had a greater development in terms of scale, significance and function.From the perspective of translation history, they set up translation institutes and translated western books widely(Especially those that had a great influence on Meiji Restoration in Japan.)Training translation talents, etc.Its scale, breadth of subjects, quantity and quality are unmatched by translation in the Westernization period.It should be noted that since the 1880s, China's interest in learning from the West has shifted from science to politics, education system and so on.In the late Qing Dynasty and early period, literary works gradually became the main object of translation activities.In the minds of the Vixinists represented by Liang Qichao, novels have become the most appropriate tool for political reform, popular enlightenment and the modernization of the country.Thus, beginning in the late 19th and early 20th centuries,Foreign literature has been widely translated into China, and communication channels include not only modern media such as newspapers and magazines, but also single-line books and large-scale translation literature series, which have also produced a series of arguments and discussions on translation methods and techniques.Modern Chinese translation has also entered a new period, that is, from the Ming and Qing period of scientific and technological translation as the mainstream gradually to culture / literature / literary translation as the core of the translation activities period.Overall, the translation of modern foreign literature in China from the end of the 19th century to the period 1949 can be broken down into the following three stages.
The first stage was from the late Qing Dynasty and the early Republic of China to the May 4th Movement in 1919.In December 1898, Liang Qichao translated The Japanese political novel The Adventure of The Beautiful Woman in Qingyi Daily. In 1900, Zhou translated one of the most influential works in Japanese political fiction, Yano Ryuki's "On The Classics of America".Since then, many Japanese political novels have been translated and introduced to China.After a more concentrated translation of political novels, other genres, such as history, science and the popular detective novels, have also been introduced.After 1907, a variety of modern literary magazines sprang up, and a large number of translated novels were published in these magazines in serial form, among which the serialized translated novels in magazines such as "Novel Forest" and "New Novel Cluster" even occupied absolute space, forming the first climax of foreign novel translation.However, it should be emphasized that the translation of literary works in this period was still in the exploratory stage,Although there are a large number of works, there are problems in the selection of works, translation skills and strategies.
The second period is 1916 to 1936. This period can be further subdivided into the May Fourth Movement period and the Left Coalition Period.With the development of the New literature movement, Chinese literary translation has entered the most glorious period in the history of translation.Compared with the late Qing Dynasty, literary translation in this period was larger in scale, higher in quantity and quality, and its influence was unprecedented.It is worth emphasizing that almost all the heavyweights in the history of modern Chinese literature have participated in the translation and introduction.In addition to translation works, they also introduced various literary and artistic thoughts, and actively explored and discussed translation methods and theories.Especially with their active advocacy and hard work, The translation industry in China has been closely integrated with the struggle against imperialism and feudalism.It completely changed the chaotic and unprincipled state of translation circles before the May 4th Movement.In addition, it was from this time that China's translation of Soviet/Russian literature gradually reached its peak.It can be said that the mainstream of Chinese literature translation in the 1930s was Marxist literary trend of thought and progressive literature (especially Soviet/Russian literature).Of course, in addition to Russian/Soviet literature, this period has translated the literature of Britain, The United States, Japan, France, Germany and southeast Northern Europe and Asia.
The third period is from 1937 to 1949. After the war of Resistance against Japan broke out.The translation community, like the rest of the country, has concentrated all its efforts on the cause of saving the nation from extinction and striving for liberation.Therefore, the pace of development of Translation in China slowed down during this period.In spite of this, Chinese writers and translators have overcome various difficulties and translated and published many excellent foreign literary works.During this period, there was a wide range of translations, ranging from western European classical literature to war literature at that time, and even ancient Greek literature and Jewish literature.In terms of genres, there are novels, poems, plays, prose and even some academic works on literary history.A number of famous translators in the history of Chinese translation literature, such as Zhu Shenghao, Ge Baoquan, Fu Lei, Liang Shiqiu, Lin Yutang and so on, are active in literary translation.Of course, the biggest characteristic of this period was the translation of the Soviet Union and other countries anti-fascist war works, in particular, the establishment of the revolutionary translation group "Times Press", published the revolutionary translation publication "Soviet Literature", a large number of Soviet literary and artistic works.

====2.2 The situation of modern and contemporary Translation on the Korean Peninsula and the Influence of China==
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From the end of the 19th century, western civilization began to flow into East Asia on a large scale, and Korea was further plunged into the situation of internal troubles and foreign aggression. Faced with the complicated situation at home and abroad, the enlightened intellectuals of Korea further realized that translating Western books was an important task at that time. As early as 1886, The "Seoul Weekly" published by Powen Bureau had a column specially emphasizing the importance of translation, and proposed to establish a special translation agency to translate foreign books. And six years later, another important newspaper of the day 《Huangcheng News 》also commented, stressing that translation is an important means to enrich the country and strengthen the army and realize modern civilization. We call for the establishment of specialized translation institutions under the guidance of the government "to strengthen the guidance and management of translation. On behalf of this, not only all kinds of news media actively propagated, but also some intellectuals at that time called for the realization of civilization and the prosperity of the country and the strength of the army by translating overseas literature and learning advanced western experience. As a result, the Korean Peninsula at that time set off a boom in the translation of overseas works, especially literary works. Of course, as in China, one of the preconditions for translating Western books in the Korean Peninsula was the development of modern media, which provided a platform for the dissemination of written works at that time. After the 1895-1895 revolution, modern schools were established one after another, and special language schools were set up, which played a positive role in understanding overseas and spreading Western culture, and reserved talents for the translation and introduction of foreign literature.
Generally speaking, the history of translation of foreign works on the Korean Peninsula from 1895 to 1949 can be divided into the following five stages: Patriotic enlightenment period (1895-1910), translation literature awakening period (1911-1919), translation into the proper period (1920-1935), dark Period (1936-1945), Regeneration period (1945 ~1949). We can refer to Kim Byung-chul's Studies on the History of Modern Korean Translation Literature, the earliest and only work on the history of modern Korean Translation literature. However, it is worth noting that Kim Byung-chul's pioneering work has carefully combed and studied the translation history of modern Korean literature from both macro and micro perspectives. However, there is no introduction to the translation of Chinese and Japanese literature. In fact, in the whole modern and modern period, although the communication between China and South Korea seems not as active and close as that in ancient times, the spiritual, political and cultural ties that have connected the two countries for thousands of years have not disappeared overnight. This point can be seen from the early stage of The History of Korean translated literature with China as the medium of translation activities and the late continuous translation of Modern Chinese literature.
The first stage (1895-1910) is the period of patriotic enlightenment，The main function of translation in this period was "enlightenment of civilization, independence, social and political enlightenment", and the translation activities inevitably had obvious purpose and utility. The patriotic enlighteners represented by Xuan CAI, Zhang Zhiyuan, Shen Caihao and Zhou Shijing received Chinese education from childhood and were deeply influenced by Confucian culture. Most of the works translated from The Korean Peninsula during this period were biographies of great men, history of the war, history of independence and geographical history. Almost all the translated works are from Chinese and Japanese versions. According to statistics, there were about 37 separate editions of such works translated in the Korean Peninsula before 1910, among which 16 were based on Chinese translations, not including those published in newspapers and magazines. In particular, it is worth emphasizing the important works in the early history of Korean literature, such as The History of The Fall of Vietnam, the Biography of the Three Masters of the Founding of Italy, and so on.The Biography of the Patriotic Lady was introduced to the Korean Peninsula based on the Chinese version. In addition, the Japanese Ryoki Yano's Korean single version of The Book On The Nation and the United States (1908, Translated by Hyun Gonglian) was based on zhou Kui's Chinese version in 1907. It is also highly likely that The first western literary work to be officially translated into Korea, Robin Sun Crusoe (1908, translated by Kim Chan), was translated into Chinese. In a word, China's influence cannot be ignored in the history of translated literature during the Korean civilization period.
The second stage (1910 ~ 1919) is called "the Awakening period of Translated literature". The translation activities of this period did have many characteristics different from those of the previous period. For example, many translations clearly identify the original author and translator; There appeared some literary magazines that paid attention to translation, such as Youth, New Star, Youth, Light of Learning and New Wenjie.“Three Lights", and "Tai Xi Literature and Art News" founded in 1918 with the main purpose of translating foreign literary works; At the beginning, it was consciously emphasized that translation should be based on the original text rather than through a third language. Translation methods also began to emphasize the separation from the earlier simple emphasis on the transmission of content translation, summary translation, abbreviated translation, etc. It puts forward the importance of respecting the original text and being faithful to the original text, and actively practices it. Kim Il and other important figures in the history of Korean translation literature have officially started their translation activities. And so on. All these indicate that the translation activities on the Korean Peninsula have "awakened" and are ready for further progress on the right track.
Generally speaking, since 1908, when Juvenile was first published，The Translated literature of the Korean Peninsula further broke away from the original utilitarian and purist nature and began to enter the era of "pure literature and art" translation. Since then, a great deal of Western literature has been translated into The Korean peninsula, and the quality of translation in this period is significantly higher than that of the Patriotic Enlightenment period. In addition to new novelists such as Lee Sang-hyup, Lee Hae-jo and Ahn Guk-seon, the translators also include famous figures in the history of literature such as Choi Nam-seon, Hong Myung-hee and Lee Kwang-soo, as well as some publishers and media workers. It is worth noting that some scholars believe that literary exchanges between China and Korea ended after Japan annexed the Korean Peninsula in 1910. This view is obviously somewhat arbitrary. According to incomplete statistics, at least 20 Chinese translations were introduced to the Korean Peninsula through the medium of Chinese translations, although the translation activities based on Chinese translations were not as active as in the Enlightenment period. These works include not only reprints of Chinese vernacular novels in Ming and Qing Dynasties, but also western novels based on Chinese translations. Among these Chinese translations of western novels, 8 are from the large western literature translation series "Shuobo Congshu", which was planned and published by the Shanghai Commercial Press in 1903. Choi Chan-sik, a famous writer of new novels at the time, recalled that recalled that he began writing a new novel after translating a book in the "Shaobo Series" published in Shanghai, China. These data show that even at a time when Japan's control over the Korean Peninsula was increasing, China's translation and media activities still have a certain influence on Korean intellectuals. In other words, under the new historical conditions, the cultural exchanges between the two countries are still struggling to continue in a new form.
The third stage (1920-1935) marked the beginning of joseon's translation literature. According to Kim byung-chul's statistics, at least 600 foreign literary works have been translated to the Korean Peninsula in various forms since the 1920s, Genres include fiction, poetry, drama, essays, fairy tales, and some literary criticism, Countries involved Britain, the United States, Germany, France, Russia, India and so on. Of course, this statistic does not include the translation of Chinese literature. In fact, after the 1920s, one of the biggest changes in the history of Sino-Korean translation was the movement that was then in China and the new literary works began to be translated and introduced to the Korean Peninsula. According to incomplete statistics, about 30 kinds of modern Chinese literary works including novels were translated and translated in the Korean Peninsula during the colonial period (In addition to the only collection of Chinese Short Stories during the colonial period), 16 plays, 41 poems, 3 essays, 1 fairy tale, etc., and more than a dozen literary criticism. If we add the Chinese classical literature translated in this period, we can say that after 1920, the translation of Chinese literature in the Korean Peninsula is relatively comprehensive and continuous, which should not be excluded from the history of Korean translated literature.
The fourth stage (1936-1945) was a dark period for the entire Korean Peninsula. In terms of translated literature, Japan has strengthened its control over public opinion and media by strengthening its policy of suppressing national language, The flood of Japanese books, coupled with the growing economic collapse on the Korean peninsula, has put pressure on the publishing industry and reduced the number of magazines, Access to foreign books has also been blocked, resulting in a huge blow to translation activities on the Korean Peninsula. This was the darkest period in the history of Translated literature on the Korean Peninsula. Although there were sporadic translations of Chinese literary works, they only catered to the political needs of the Japanese colonial government and chose some works that were irrelevant to politics and even covered up and beautified its militarist ambitions. In 1940, for example, Three Thousand Miles magazine ran a special collection of "New Chinese literature,"The content of the works is either daily life, love or traditional art, which has nothing to do with politics, and the original translations are entirely dependent on Japanese translations. The content of the works is either daily life, love or traditional art, which has nothing to do with politics, and the original translations are entirely dependent on Japanese translations.
In the fifth stage (1945-1949), the Korean Peninsula was finally liberated from Japanese colonial rule. The country was in ruins and all walks of life seemed to be full of hope, but at the same time, it was in a sudden chaos. At this time, translation has gradually entered the recovery period. From the point of view of countries, the United States and the Soviet Union were the most translated works, which obviously reflected the political situation and ideology at that time. However, the translation and study of modern Chinese literature also ushered in a brief bright period. Many researchers from academic schools joined the ranks of translation, and the translation of their works also moved toward specialization and systematization, with the emergence of selected Modern Chinese Short Stories (1946), Short Stories of Lu Xun (1946), Selected Modern Chinese Poems (1947) and other individual editions. He even published the history of Modern Chinese Literature (1949), the first book of Chinese studies in Korea. Compared with the colonial period, translation at this time was no longer subject to many restrictions, and further got rid of the early enlightenment and utilitarian color in nature. It began to attempt to approach modern Chinese literary works from the perspective of aesthetics and pure literature and carried out systematic and professional research. Translators seem to want to make up for the many regrets of the colonial period and are eager to translate and study modern Chinese literature in an all-round way. Unfortunately, this boom came to an abrupt end after the outbreak of the war in 1950, and The cause of Chinese literary translation fell into recession again.

==3. Differences and Similarities in the translation history of Modern Chinese and Korean literature==
Differences and similarities in the translation history of Modern Chinese and Korean literature
As is known to all, since the 1970s, translation studies have achieved a "cultural" shift, and the scope of research has expanded from the purely linguistic category to the non-linguistic category of culture, ideology, power relations, politics and so on.The literariness and thinking of literary works determine that literary translation has the dual orientation of ideology and poetics.Therefore, the study of literary translation should be connected with the socio-historical background and the poetic background so as to analyze and explain the important translation phenomena in depth.Throughout the history of modern literary translation in China and South Korea, we will find that the biggest similarity is that the "cultural political practice" (Venuti) of translation has always been controlled by ideology.Under the environment of western learning spreading eastward, one of the main social ideologies in East Asia was"Modern transformation".As an important means of modernization transformation, translation not only has an impact on the political and economic development of China and Korea, but also plays an important role in the two countries' acceptance of Western civilization, dissemination of new knowledge, formation of new culture, and the development of their own language and literature.In the process of sorting out the translation history of modern Chinese and Korean literature, we can clearly find that there are many similarities and intersections, and of course there are individual differences.Whether similarities or differences arise, some of them are related to the social ideology of the two countries, and some are related to the influence of the translator's personal ideology.It can be said that ideology permeates all aspects of modern translation in both countries, especially the change and development of social ideology plays a significant role in the evolution of translation.Below, this paper will compare and analyze the similarities and differences of literary translation between the two countries from several aspects.
(1) The nature and motivation of translation
In terms of the nature of translation, the modern translation activities in China and South Korea have obvious utilitarian, effective and political characteristics.Before the formal launch of literary translation, China had gone through a long stage of translating and introducing western scientific and technological books for the purpose of learning from the West, strengthening industrial development and achieving a prosperous country and a strong army.After the failure of the Reform movement of 1898, the development of Chinese foreign literature translation was in fact based on the translation of novels.One of the reasons is that Liang Qichao, the leader of the Reformists, put forward the slogan of "novel revolution" and advocated the translation of political novels, blowing the horn of literary translation. At the same time, a group of literary translators represented by Lin Shu actively engaged in translation practice, which also promoted the development of literary translation at that time.At that time, the purpose of literary translation was also to enlightening the people, reforming the society and giving play to the unique role of literary thought in shaping the "consciousness of the world".After the May 4th Movement, political demands still played a leading role in the selection of translators despite literary factors.On the other hand, the Korean Peninsula, because of the late opening of port and the depth of the country's internal troubles and foreign aggression, had no time to translate western literature as China and Japan did in terms of promoting industrial development and enriching the country and strengthening its armed forces.For them, translation is first of all a means of understanding the outside world, and its direct purpose is to get rid of the control of foreign forces and achieve independence.Therefore, the modern translation of the Korean Peninsula did not go through the stage of large-scale scientific translation, but from the very beginning, a part of social science translation and a large number of literary translation, including political novels, biographies of great men and so on.In particular, the translation of literary works has always occupied an important position in the modern translation of the Korean Peninsula.It is worth mentioning that liang Qichao had a great influence on literary translation during the Period of Korean Civilization.It was under his influence that a large number of political novels were translated and introduced to the Korean Peninsula, and played an important role in the transformation of thoughts and concepts in the Korean Peninsula in the modern period and the emergence and development of modern literature.Of course, after entering the period of colonial rule, the Translation of the Korean Peninsula became more colonial,In many ways, it is more influenced and restricted by Japan. Although there is also the pursuit of literature, the final translation inevitably has a strong political nature.In a word, the translation activities in the first half of the 20th century in both countries are determined by both literary factors and social ideology, but in the final analysis, the latter always plays a dominant role.Due to the special historical environment and similar fate, translation in both countries has strong utilitarian, utility and political characteristics to a large extent, which are the manifestation of the "manipulation" of translation by the ideological form.
(2) The source of the translation
There is no doubt that in all stages of modern translation history, the sources of translated works in the two countries are closely related to Japan, but there are differences in the specific range of sources and degree of dependence on Japan.In fact, before the late Qing Dynasty, a large number of Western scientific and technological books translated in China were basically based on the original Western language.In the translation period dominated by the Reformists, due to the vigorous development of Japanese translation and the characteristics of easy learning and understanding of Japanese, Liang Qichao and Kang Youwei advocated the translation of foreign works from Japanese. It was not until then that A large number of Japanese translations were carried out in China.
After the May 4th Movement, Translation in China flourished, with translators of various languages appearing in large numbers and many intellectuals participating in translation activities.At this time, the original versions of Chinese translations are also varied, including Japanese and English versions, and many are directly translated from the original.On the other hand, due to the influence of history, during the whole period of the Korean Peninsula, the translation of foreign books mainly consisted of Japanese and Chinese versions, and few of them were directly translated from the original.After entering the period of colonial rule, due to Japan's rule and influence on the Korean Peninsula in various fields, there were fewer and fewer translation cases based on The Chinese version, and the Japanese version took the dominant position.However, due to the increasing number of intellectuals focusing on Western language and literature (such as the emergence of the "Overseas Literature School" in 1926), the call for translation based on the original text became stronger and stronger.After all, most of the Korean intellectuals of the "overseas literary school" studied in Japan,Therefore, although they put forward the slogan of "translation from the original text", their translation activities are still directly or indirectly influenced by the Japanese knowledge system.In short, if the modern times of East Asia are "modern times of translation", as a bridge of translation in East Asia, Japanese translation is based on the original text or English.In China, there are both literal translation of the original text and retranslation of English and Japanese versions. On the other hand, Korean translation sources are a little bit unitary, basically retranslating some Chinese and most Japanese versions.However, from another point of view, the translation path of the Korean Peninsula at that time was the most complicated among the three countries, which could be the path of "Japanese → Korean", "Western → Chinese → Korean" or even "Western → Japanese → Chinese → Korean".
At that time, many Korean intellectuals were fluent in both Chinese and Japanese, so it was difficult to refer to only one source in the translation process.For example, The book On The Classics and The United States (1908), marked with the "translation" of Xuan Gonglian, was published with reference to both the Japanese and Chinese versions.Kim Kyo-je, a famous writer of new novels in the early modern period, translated or reprinted 11 novels at least four were translated to the Korean Peninsula through the path of "Western → Chinese → Korean";While Li Haichao translated Iron World (1908), the translation path is "Western → Japanese → Chinese → Korean" .
In Korea at that time, this kind of double, triple or even multiple retranslation is very common. For this reason, the modern Korean Peninsula is also called "retranslated modern times" by scholars.
(3) Topic selection and content of the translated work
Corresponding to the nature, motivation and characteristics of translation, there are not only similarities and intersecting points, but also their own characteristics in the topic selection of translated works.For example, the pilgrim's Progress, a religious novel by English novelist John Bunyan (1628-1688), was among the first western literary works translated in both countries.
This fact reflects the important role of western missionaries in the translation history of the two countries.Aesop's Fables is also one of the earliest and most frequently translated western literary works in both countries.Aesop's Fables was translated many times in both countries and included in the textbooks of the time as a children's book.After entering the modern and contemporary period, both countries highly respected historical and biographical works and political novels, and had a period of concentrated translation.For example, political novels such as "A Journey with the Wind", "Jingguo Meiyu" and "Iron World" have been translated into Chinese and English respectively.In addition, many historical and biographical works (especially the history of subjugations) were translated into The Korean Peninsula through Chinese media at that time, such as The Founding of Switzerland and Fifteen Little Heroes. As well as liang Qichao's writings or translations of the hundred Days' Coup, The History of the Fall of Vietnam, the biography of the three Heroes of the Founding of Italia, The biography of Madame Roland, and the biography of Hungarian patriot Gasus, etc.History books such as A New History of Tai Xi, a Brief History of Russia, A War in the Middle East and modern History of Egypt were also translated from Chinese versions. In the whole period of civilization, the Korean Peninsula concentrated on the translation of history, biographical works and political novels, although there is no lack of Japanese influence, but obviously The Influence of China can not be ignored.Due to reasons such as politics, current affairs and the market, the two countries in politics, history and biography of before and after the translation in the first decade of the 20th century gradually into the low tide, and other types of novels, such as science fiction, detective novels, western pure literary fiction and gradually be translated a lot, at the same time, poetry translation have greater development.It is worth mentioning that translation in both countries reached a new climax after the late decade of the first decade of the 20th century.In terms of the number and diversity of genres, China is far more diverse than The Korean Peninsula, but there are some interesting intersections in the literary translation topics of the two countries, such as Shakespeare, Hardy, Stevenson and Conan Doyle in The UK, Tolstoy, Gorky and Chekov in Russia, Tagore in India,Norway's Ibsen and other works have had a great influence in both countries.It is worth mentioning that there are obvious differences between the two countries in the topic selection of translated works as follows. The first is the translation of Japanese literature
The problem. As we all know, Japanese literature plays a very important role in the history of Chinese translation of foreign literature in the 20th century.On the Korean Peninsula, although the influence of Japanese literature is beyond doubt, and the translation of Japanese literature in the first half of the 20th century can be said to run through the whole modern translation activities of the Korean Peninsula, but the translation of Japanese literature in the Korean Peninsula itself is very few.
The reasons are mainly related to the special political and historical background of the Korean Peninsula and the control and infiltration of Japanese language in the Korean Peninsula after entering the colonial period, as well as the role of national emotional factors.Secondly, the translation and introduction of the other side's literature. In the first half of the 20th century, the literature of the two countries was not the main target of translation in each other's country, but this does not mean that there is no overlap between them. On the whole, the Korean Peninsula paid more and deeper attention to Chinese literature than China did to Korean literature during this period.After entering the modern society, under the extremely complicated and difficult cultural environment, the Korean Peninsula continued to translate Chinese vernacular novels and some classical poems in the Ming and Qing dynasties, and at the same time carried out a relatively concentrated translation of Liang Qichao, the pioneer of Chinese novel revolution. However, what is more noteworthy is his continuous translation and introduction of New Chinese literature, which started in the second half of the 1910s.Due to the special historical and geographical relationship, Korea is the first country in the world to notice China's new cultural movement except Japan. At that time, many magazines and newspapers on the Korean Peninsula introduced and reported the New Chinese literature. Some Korean intellectuals had deep feelings about the innovative atmosphere in The Chinese literary circle and hoped to provide necessary reference for the improvement and innovation of their own literature through the translation and introduction of The new Chinese literature.In a word, during the Period of Japanese rule, the Translation and introduction of modern Chinese literature in The Korean Peninsula was quite comprehensive, and many famous writers and works in the history of Chinese literature were involved in the topic selection, which played an important role in the study of Chinese literature in Korea. On the contrary, China's translation of Korean literature at that time was very limited, mainly due to the concern of "weak and weak ethnic literature", and also influenced by the war ideology of anti-japanese and national salvation, nationalism. However, in the huge history of modern Chinese literature translation, the translation of Korean literature is just a drop in the ocean and has not received enough attention. All in all, the depth and breadth of the translation of each other's works is extremely unbalanced.
(4) The translator's main body, translation strategies and methods
There are also similarities between the two countries on the subject of translators in the history of modern translation literature. In the early stage of translation activities, western missionaries played a great role. Later, famous intellectuals, social activists and literary scholars of the two countries realized the importance of translation, actively participated in translation activities, and became the leading leaders of modern translation in the two countries.For example, yan Fu, Liang Qichao and Lin Shu were active translators in early China, while xuan CAI, Pu Yinzhi, Shen Caihao and other famous scholars, thinkers and social activists led the translation during the Korean Peninsula's enlightenment period. After entering the decade of the 20th century, the translation of the two countries gradually entered the climax.Many Chinese writers, including Lu Xun, Guo Moruo and Zhou Zuoren, actively translated while writing. Choi Nam-sun and Lee Kwang-soo, leaders of Korean literature in the first decade of the 20th century, also actively translated their works.In addition, famous writers of new novels such as Lee Hae-jo, Ahn Guk-seon, and Choi Chan-sik were motivated and motivated by translation activities. With the development of translation, a number of specialized literary translators have emerged in both countries. In addition, some new women at that time also participated in the translation, such as Bing Xin from China and Kim Myung-soon from Korea.In terms of translation strategies or ways, early modern translation system is far from mature, highly standard translation way, utilitarian purpose, color thick, many translators from themselves and the needs of the audience, or excerpts and delete any reduction of the original (AD, Jane), or add their own opinions and comments in the process of translation, the tai shang ganying pian), Or in the form of translation only summarize the general idea (synopsis), for example, liang Qichao and Cui Nanshan's translation to a large extent are abridged, synopsis or translation.Generally speaking, the forms and methods of translation at that time were characterized by diversity and hybridity, which were similar in China and Korea. The reason is related to the mainstream ideology of the translation leaders who hoped to enlighten the people, enrich the country and strengthen the army through translation as soon as possible.
(5) Disputes on "Literary translation"
After literary translation gradually got on the right track and became the mainstream of translation works in the two countries, translators in the two countries gained further insights on the application, methods and techniques of translation and gradually began to express their own views on translation, whose discussions cover all aspects of translation. Such as translation methods, translation skills, translation and the status of translators, the role of translation. The opinions of different translators are bound to be different. Therefore, in the modern and contemporary period, both China and South Korea had debates on translation (literary translation). The focus and theme of the debate are similar, such as "translatable or untranslatable", "literal translation versus free translation" and so on.It is well known that in the history of modern Chinese translation, especially in the May Fourth Movement period, many writers began their literary career by translating foreign literature, and most of them published discussions on translation. The differences between different translators and groups have led to several famous debates in the history of Chinese translation. For example, lu Xun and Zhou Zuoren proposed Literal translation and related debates are typical examples. In addition, in the history of modern Chinese translation, there are also debates on "translated names", "translatable or not translatable literary works", translation methods such as mistranlation, hard translation and dead translation, and translation paths such as literal translation or retranslation.The 1920s was a period when the history of modern and contemporary translation in Korea was on the right track. Many newspapers and magazines published discussions on translation and related debates. In the history of modern translation on the Korean Peninsula, one of the most famous disputes about translation is the dispute between Jin Yi and Liang Zhudong about "literal translation" and "free translation" in poetry translation. Liang zhudong believes that poetry is untranslatable and should be literal compared with free translation. Jin Yi believes that although poetry is untranslatable, if translators exert their own subjective initiative, it can completely improve the value of translated poetry and even become a new creation. However, it is interesting that although Liang zhudong praised the method of "literal translation", he criticized the "overseas literature school" that focused on foreign literature at that time for being too rigid in the way of literal translation, and believed that "literal translation" should be organically combined with "free translation".In fact, the debate between literal translation and free translation, or "domestication" and "foreignization", is closely related to ideology.
The debate between translators in the two countries over these issues is actually carried out at the ideological level. According to venuti, a famous translation theorist of deconstruction school, the choice of translation strategy is determined by ideology.
(6) The influence of translation on the languages and literature of the two countries
In fact, the greatest influence of modern literary translation on China and South Korea is reflected in the development of characters and literature. First of all, translation must be carried out with language as the carrier. Under normal circumstances, the translated language is naturally the lingua franca of a country and a nation, but for China and South Korea in the late 19th and 20th centuries, a common problem emerged in the process of translation in terms of language carrier: At that time, both countries had two parallel language systems, which coincided with the social and cultural transition, so language translation became a very interesting topic.As we all know, in the late 19th century and the early 20th century, There were two languages in China: Classical Chinese and vernacular Chinese. Vernacular Chinese was still in the ascendant, while classical Chinese still played an important role in written and literary translation. Of course, the classical Chinese at this time refers to the late Qing Dynasty and the early Republic of China common "shallow classical Chinese", it is different from the past obscure ancient prose, but in classical Chinese mixed with common sayings, is a kind of literary language between ancient Classical Chinese and vernacular.For example, Lin Shu, a great modern translator, translated foreign literature in classical Chinese. His translation was not only welcomed by readers at that time, but also had a great influence on many famous Chinese intellectuals. In the late Qing Dynasty and the early Republic of China, there were both classical Chinese and vernacular Chinese translations, and the classical Chinese translations were more than the vernacular ones, but basically the two languages co-existed peacefully. In the process of translation, the needs of the audience should be considered. The same translator can translate in both vernacular and classical Chinese. The same foreign novel may have both classical and vernacular translations.It was not until after the New Culture Movement that the vernacular style gradually occupied the main position in written language. After the 1920s, the translated works in China were mainly in vernacular. For the development of modern Chinese vernacular, it can be said that the impact of translation is extremely far-reaching. Chinese vernacular can be divided into "traditional vernacular" and "modern vernacular".The traditional vernacular is based on a Dream of Red Mansions.
The vernacular of China represented by such vernacular classics as Water Margin, which is not influenced by western language. The "modern vernacular" is based on the traditional vernacular, influenced by oral and ancient prose and with the color of European, that is, the May 4th Movement advocated vernacular, namely the so-called European vernacular.It is worth noting that this Kind of European vernacular was actually created by western missionaries in China at that time, and the tool of missionaries to create European vernacular is translation. In order to spread religion and western culture smoothly, they translated a large number of Western books, including holy books, and consciously chose words and styles more suitable for ordinary people to read in the process of translation, which was the prototype of vernacular Chinese vigorously advocated by the May Fourth Movement.Similar to the situation in China, the Korean Peninsula in the late 19th and early 20th centuries also had two basic styles, namely, the mixed style of Chinese and Chinese and the pure Style of Chinese. It was only after the 1894-1895 Revolution that the Korean Peninsula's national language began to be widely used. It takes time for any language style to emerge and mature, and the Korean Peninsula's "pure Korean style" is no exception,In 1921, Korean language researchers formed the Korean Language Research Society under the influence of the Zhou Dynasty, which served as an opportunity for the further establishment of the modern Korean language. Before this, mixed Chinese and Korean language played an important role in the written language of the Korean Peninsula for a long time.In fact, the so-called mixed Chinese characters are based on Chinese characters, sometimes using Korean characters. The difference is that some mark Korean characters on Chinese characters, and some do not even mark Korean characters, but only Chinese characters. There is another special case, that is, the pure Chinese style with Korean auxiliary words and endings, such as the "hanging out Chinese style" used by Shen Caihao in the translation of the Biography of the Three Heroes of the Foundation of Itri.It is worth mentioning that it was also western missionaries who initially carried out translation activities in Korean. In order to preach, they carried out translation activities mainly aimed at the "Bible" in the Korean Peninsula, using the Korean language, which was not popular and was not valued by the Korean intellectuals at that time. The purpose of using The Korean language was to make the translated holy book easier for more ordinary people to accept. Kim Byeong-cheol holds that it is the translation of sacred books in the native Korean language that gave birth to the main form of modern literature on the Korean Peninsula, namely the "new novel", and thus promoted the "unity of language and language" and the emergence of modern literature in Korea.In general, the influence of translation on the development of Chinese and Korean characters and literature is far more than that. It can be said that the expansion of sentence structure, the change of style, the enrichment of vocabulary, the improvement of expressive force and the perfection of grammar system of the two languages are all inseparable from translation. In a word, translation has played an indispensable role in the unification of language and language in the history of Chinese and English literature. In addition to its role in language, translation also has a profound influence on the development of modern literature in both countries. As is known to all, the translation and introduction of a large number of foreign novels not only brought strong shock and impact to the literary circles of the two countries at that time, but also provided a lot of reference for the realization of the literary transformation of the two countries.It can be said that in the process of the collision, integration and evolution of eastern and western literature, literary translation plays a decisive external role in the transformation of Chinese and Korean literature from classical form to modern form, and has a great impact on the literary concept, literary type, narrative mode and expression mode. In this regard, researchers in China and South Korea have given positive descriptions.
==4. conclusion==
There are many similarities between China and South Korea in modern times. Under the environment of western learning spreading to the east, both of them were knocked out of the country by the West, suffered the invasion of western powers and Japan successively, and passively started the journey of modernization. Under the circumstance of deepening national crisis of domestic and foreign invasion, the enlightened intellectuals of the two countries have carried out the exploration of saving the nation from extinction, and translation is an important means for them to achieve this goal. To be specific, the historical context of the spreading of Western learning from the end of the 19th century endowed the two countries with unique historical characteristics. Due to the similarity of historical, cultural and political background and mainstream ideology, the translation of modern and contemporary literature in the two countries also presents many similarities and even intersecting points. As analyzed above, the most obvious common point in the modern translation history of China and Korea is ideology Influence throughout. For China and Korea at that time, one of the mainstream ideologies was "modernization transformation", and translation was the driving force for the modernization transformation process of the two countries. Therefore, utilitarianism and purposefulness run through the development of modern translation in both countries. In addition to the mainstream social ideology, the translator's personal ideology also has a great influence on literary translation in both countries.For example, the early translation phenomenon led by Western missionaries and the later translation activities led by intellectuals of the two countries were all carried out by translators for their personal purposes under the influence of the general environment at that time. It can be said that it is because of the influence of the subliminal form of the western learning spreading to the east that the modern and modern translations of the two countries show many similarities or similarities. Comparing the literary translation of the two countries in terms of specific content, we can find many similarities in details. For example, western missionaries played an important role at the beginning. After entering the 20th century, the translation of both countries was deeply influenced by Japan. The translation groups of the two countries were the best intellectuals and representatives of the new culture at that time. When they translated foreign works, they also carried out various discussions and even debates about translation. Translation activities have broadened the horizons of the people of the two countries and enriched their languages, literature and even culture.

It is worth mentioning that cultural exchanges between the two countries have also been continued through translation. Of course, due to the differences in specific situations, there are some differences in literary translation between the two countries while showing common features. The author believes that the biggest difference lies in the scale of translation. To be specific, from the number of translated works and translators, the discussion and construction of translation theories, the importance attached to translation, and the influence and status of translation in the history of national literature, Chinese modern translation is obviously higher. The main reason is that the translation environment and background of the two countries at that time are different, that is, the difference between complete colonies and semi-colonies. Although the Qing Dynasty fell under the background of the competition of western powers, China did not completely become a colony of any power, so it was relatively free and independent in political and cultural development. However, because Korea was annexed and ruled by Japan, it was difficult to develop modernization independently. The whole society was highly dependent on Japan, and it was also greatly restricted and influenced by Japan in terms of ideology. Translation activities were no exception.

As mentioned above, the purpose of the author's comparative study of Chinese and Korean contemporary literature translation is to restore the contemporary and contemporary literary exchanges between the two countries, and at the same time to provide necessary background for the mutual translation and introduction of the contemporary and contemporary literature of the two countries. However, the study of Chinese and Korean modern literature translation is a polyphonic and polysemy subject with a very wide range of coverage. Due to the limited space and author's ability, this paper only generalizes and arranges the subject from a macro perspective, and many details are not developed in depth. Translated works by the capacity of, for example, the sources of the related works and so on, for more exist in the two countries pay fork points to explore, in the evaluation of literature translation of words between the two countries and the specific influence of literature, especially under the background of their literary translation between the two countries the properties and significance of literary translation, etc, if you can carry out further discussion and exploration of the content, The research results will be more rich and three-dimensional.

There were many similarities between China and South Korea in modern times. Under the environment of western learning spreading to the East, both of them were knocked out of the country by the West, suffered the invasion of western powers and Japan successively, and passively started the journey of modernization. Under the circumstance of deepening national crisis of domestic and foreign invasion, the enlightened intellectuals of the two countries had carried out the exploration of saving the nation from extinction.Translation was an important means for them to achieve this goal. To be specific, the historical context of the spreading of Western learning from the end of the 19th century endowed the two countries with unique historical characteristics. Due to the similarity of historical, cultural and political background and mainstream ideology, the translation of literature in the two countries also presented many similarities and even intersecting points. As analyzed above, the most obvious common point was ideology influence. For China and Korea at that time, one of the mainstream ideologies was "modernization transformation",for which translation was the driving force. Therefore, utilitarianism and purposefulness ran through the development of modern translation in both countries. In addition to the mainstream social ideology, the translator's personal ideology also has a great influence on literary translation in both countries.For example,the early translation phenomenon led by Western missionaries and the later translation activities led by intellectuals of the two countries were all carried out by translators for their personal purposes under the influence of the general environment at that time. Without doubt, the influence of the subliminal form of the western learning spreading to the east constituted similarities between the two countries.Comparing the literary translation of the two countries in terms of specific content,we found many similarities in details. For example, western missionaries played an important role at the beginning. After entering the 20th century, the translation of both countries was deeply influenced by Japan. The translation groups of the two countries were the best intellectuals and representatives of the new culture at that time. When they translated foreign works, they also carried out various discussions and even debates about translation. Translation activities had broadened the horizons of the people and enriched their languages, literature and even culture.

It is worth mentioning that cultural exchanges between the two countries have also been continued through translation. Of course, due to the differences in specific situations, there are some differences in literary translation between the two countries while showing common features. The author believes that the biggest difference lies in the scale of translation. To be specific, from the number of translated works and translators, the discussion and construction of translation theories, the importance attached to translation to the influence and status of translation in the history of national literature, Chinese modern translation was obviously higher. The main reason was that the translation environment and background of the two countries at that time were different, that is, the difference between complete colonies and semi-colonies. Although the Qing dynasty fell under the background of the competition of western powers, China did not completely become a colony of any power, so it was relatively free and independent in political and cultural development. However, because Korea was annexed and ruled by Japan, it was difficult to develop modernization independently. The whole society was highly dependent on Japan, and it was also greatly restricted and influenced by Japan in terms of ideology. Translation activities were no exception.

As mentioned above, the purpose of the author's comparative study of Chinese and Korean contemporary literature translation is to restore the literary exchanges between the two countries, and at the same time to provide necessary background for the two countries. However, the study of Chinese and Korean modern literature translation is a polyphonic and polysemy subject with a very wide range of coverage. Due to the limited space and author's ability, this paper only generalized and arranged the subject from a macro perspective, and many details were not developed in depth, such as the sources of the related works,the evaluation of literature translation of words, the properties and significance of literary translation and so on. This paper will be more rich and three-dimensional with further discussion and exploration of the content.--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 07:59, 11 December 2021 (UTC)

==References==
*金秉哲[韩]: 《韩国近代翻译文学史研究》，首尔: 乙酉文化社，1975。130-160页
*金鹤哲: 《1949 年以前韩国文学汉译和意识形态因素》，《中国比较文学》2009 年第 4 期，第 66 页。
*金旭东[韩]: 《翻译与韩国的近代》，首尔: 小明出版社，2010，第25~28页。
*王秉钦、王颉: 《20世纪中国翻译思想史》，南开大学出版社，2004，第31页。
*许钧: 《面向中西交流的翻译史研究》，《解放军外国语学院学报》2014 年第 5 期，第 140 页。
*许钧、袁筱一编著《当代法国翻译理论》，南京大学出版社，1998，第 128 页。
*朱一凡: 《翻译与现代汉语的变迁 ( 1905 ~ 1936) 》，外语教学与研究出版社，2011，第 72 页。

=刘沛婷 Western Translation history in Renaissance)=

刘沛婷 Liu Peiting, Hunan Normal University, China

==Abstract==
The Renaissance is not only an important period in the history of literature and technology, but also a turning point in the history of western translation. During this period, the translation of religious and literary works gradually flourished, and translators constantly put forward new translation concepts and tried translation practices.The soaring of national consciousness and national languages contributed to the characteristic ideas of translation in the Renaissance. Especially France, Britain and Germany had made outstanding contributions to the evolution and progress of the entire translation history during this period.This chapter is to have a brief introduction to the translation history in Renaissance, conduct a detailed explaination from the three countries of France, Britan and Germany respectively and illustrate some representative translators and translation theories with the hope to show the magnificent translation achievements in Renaisance and the evolvement of human translation history.

==Key words==
Translation history; renaissance; France; Britain; Germany

Translation history; Renaissance; France; Britain; Germany--[[User:Liu Wei|Liu Wei]] ([[User talk:Liu Wei|talk]]) 12:44, 14 December 2021 (UTC)Liu Wei

==Introduction==

The period from around the fourteenth until the mid-seventeenth century has conventionally been designated as the Renaissance,referring to the rediscovery and revitalization of the literature, art and science of ancient Greece and Rome. The term was devised by Italian humanists who sought to reaffirm their own continuity with the classical humanist heritage after an interlude of Middle Ages (Habib 2011：79).It was a great revolution in intellect and culture. It is also “the greatest progressive revolution that mankind has so far experienced, a time which called for giants and produced giants”.Renaissance takes spreading humanism thought as one of the main forms of expression, involving all aspects of the cultural field, including the ancient Greek, Roman works and contemporary European works. In the process of studying and reviving classical culture, as well as developing and spreading new ideas, translation obviously plays an important role. The magnificent Renaissance itself included and depended on an unprecedented scale of translation activities. Therefore, it marks not only a great development in literature, art and science, but also an important milestone in the history of translation.(Engels 1972：445)

Originated in Italy in the 15th century, and in the 16th century Renaissance swept Europe, (especially Western European countries) and gradually formed a climax. At that time, western society was filled with a spirit of seeking and conquering the objective world. When this spirit was reflected in the translation field, translators were full of ambition and spared no effort to constantly discover new literary styles, excavate new cultural heritages and transplant new ideas to their motherland. Many translators translated classic works related to politics, philosophy, social system, literature and art of past glorious countries into their national languages as reference for the development of their own countries. All achievements in translation were compared to "trophies" in literature and knowledge. Next, we are to have a review on translations history of France, Britain and Germany, three major Western European countries in the high tide of Renaissance.

From the 14th century to the middle of the 17th century, it is the Renaissance, which refers to the rediscovery and Renaissance of ancient Greek and Roman literature, art and science. The word "Renaissance" was designed by Italian Humanists who tried to reaffirm their continuity with the heritage of classical humanism, which was a great intellectual and cultural revolution. This is also "the greatest progressive revolution that mankind has experienced so far, an era that needs giants and produces giants".

The Renaissance takes the dissemination of humanism as one of the main forms of expression, involving all aspects of the cultural field, including ancient Greek, Roman and contemporary European works. Translation obviously plays an important role in the study and revival of classical culture and the development and dissemination of new ideas. The brilliant renaissance itself included and relied on unprecedented translation activities. Therefore, it not only marks the great development of literature, art and science, but also an important milestone in the history of translation. (Engels 1972:445)

The Renaissance originated in Italy in the 15th century, The 16th century swept Europe (especially in Western European countries) and gradually reached a climax. At that time, western society was full of the spirit of pursuing and conquering the objective world. When this spirit was reflected in the field of translation, translators were full of ambition, spared no effort to constantly discover new styles, excavate new cultural heritage and transplant new ideas to their motherland. Many translators put the politics of past brilliant countries into practice , philosophy, social system, literature and art are translated into their own national language as a reference for their own development. All translation achievements are compared to "trophies" of literature and knowledge. Next, we will review the translation history of France, Britain and Germany in the climax of the Renaissance. --[[User:Liu Wei|Liu Wei]] ([[User talk:Liu Wei|talk]]) 12:52, 14 December 2021 (UTC)Liu Wei

==1.History of Translation in France==

In France, during this period, the wind of restoring ancient styles began to prevail, ancient languages were valued, and ancient writers were respected. A large number of literary works of Italian humanists, such as Dante, Petrarch and Boccaccio, were introduced to France, which opened people's eyes and promoted the development of French humanist movement. Therefore, the focus of translation in France shifted from religious works to Italian classical literature works. The increasingly translation activities constituted a climax of translation history in France.Translators generally believed that translating literary works was much more difficult than translating religious works. Although translation began to reach a new climax, most of the translations were the "by-products" of literary creation, with low quality and little influence. However, in the climax of translation in France in the 16th century, there were two outstanding contributors , one is Jacques Amyot and the other is Etienne Dolet.(Tan Zaixi,2000:21)

Jacques Amyot was considered the king of translation in France. His first translation, Heliodoros’ ''Aethiopica'', was completed in 1547. Later, he translated Diodorus Siculus’s ''Bibliotheca Historica'' and, in 1559 he translated Ploutarchos’s ''Vies des Hommes illustrus'', which was Amyot’s most famous work. Amyot advocated translators’ thorough understanding of the original text and plain expressions without embellishment. He emphasized the unity of content and form, free translation and literal translation. In his translation, he borrowed words from Greek and Latin and simultaneously created a large number of words in politics, philosophy, science, literature, music and so on. He fused common people language and academic language, and therefore formed an independent style of translation and greatly enriched the French vocabulary. At that time, the French language is still in a state of confusion, Amyot and other humanists made tremendous contributions to unify the French national language.

Another great man in translation history of France was Etienne Dolet. As a famous translation theorist, Dolet advocated targeted texts’ faithfulness to the original work, which is the fundamental and indispensable principle in translation. Dolet believed that an excellent translator must be proficient in both source language and target language. He was aware of the weakness of word-by-word translation and emphasized that the translation should be consistent with the original text in style through various rhetorical devices. Ballard,a French translation theorist, argued that dolet’ translation principles constituted the rudiment of the French translation theory. What he proposed was the universal principles for translation.(Xu Jun and Yuan Xiaoyi,1998:284)

Jacques Amyot set an example for the following translation works in France in the 16th century; Etienne Dolet’s translation theories were of great significance and were the first systematic principles of translation, which were ahead of those of Germany and Britain and advanced translation studies into a higher level. Thanks to their efforts, France had earned a place in translation history during Renaissance period.

==2. History of Translation in Britain==

In Britain, the Renaissance came later than in the main countries of continental Europe, but Britain gradually kept up with others countries. During this period, the British capitalist economy developed rapidly, productivity improved greatly, and the country became increasingly prosperous , which has laid a solid material foundation for the development of literature and translation. Especially since Elizabeth came to the throne in the mid-16th century by the early 17th century, translation was flourishing. On the one hand, religious translation is in the ascendant, on the other hand, a great deal of literature from Greece, Rome and other contemporary countries was translated into English, which made English translation activities in this period one of the peaks of translation activities in Europe and even the world. Literary translation ranged from history and philosophy to poetry and drama, with the occurrence of a large number of excellent translators,who introduced ancient ingenuity to Britain, offering serious lessons not only to the Queen and politicians, but also plots and materials for dramatists and readers with the purpose of serving their country. At that time, many translators were not scholars, they were not bound by any strict translation theory, they could translate what they had at their own will. Many translations are not directly from the original texts, but from the translations or even the translation of the translation. Therefore, the scope and quantity of translation are unprecedented in Britain.In the aspect of religious translation, the translator was also influenced by humanism and the Reformation, a new understanding of the Bible arose, as well as a new attitude and a new way of dealing with the translation of the Bible. People advocated accurate translation in religious works, while for literature, the unbridled freedom of traditional translation methods persisted throughout the Elizabethan era.(Tan Zaixi,2004:71)

In Britain, the Renaissance began later than the major countries in continental Europe, but Britain developed rapidly and produced many achievements.

During this period, the British capitalist economy developed rapidly, the productivity increased greatly, and the country prospered day by day, which laid a solid material foundation for the development of literature and translation. Especially since Elizabeth ascended the throne in the middle of the 16th century and the beginning of the 17th century, translation has developed vigorously. On the one hand, religious translation is in the ascendant. On the other hand, a large number of literary works from contemporary countries such as Greece and Rome have been translated into English, which makes English translation activities in this period one of the peaks of translation activities in Europe and even the world. Literary translation ranges from history and philosophy to poetry and drama. A large number of excellent translators have emerged. They introduced the originality of ancient times into Britain, which not only provided serious lessons for the queen and politicians, but also provided plot and materials for playwrights and readers, in order to serve the country. At that time, many translators were not scholars. They were not bound by any strict translation theory. They could translate what they had at will. Many translations are not directly from the original text, but from the translation, or even the translation of the translation. Therefore, the scope and quantity of translation are unprecedented in the UK. In religious translation, the translator has also been influenced by humanism and religious reform, has a new understanding of the Bible, and has a new attitude and method to the translation of the Bible. People advocate accurate translation in religious works, while in literary works, the unbridled freedom of traditional translation methods continued throughout the Elizabethan era. (Tan Zaixi, 2004:71) --[[User:Liu Wei|Liu Wei]] ([[User talk:Liu Wei|talk]]) 12:59, 14 December 2021 (UTC)Liu Wei

====2.1 Translation of Douglas and Cheke====

Gavin Douglas (1475-1522), a famous Scottish poet and translator, published his translation of Virgil’s epic Poem ''The Aeneid'' in the early 16th century. He began his preface with a eulogy of Virgil and then launched into a serious critique of the overly liberal medieval translation. He criticized Caxton's French translation as unfaithful, as far from Virgil's original work, and "as different from the devil as st. Austin" . Douglass did not translate word by word, but freely translated. He said that if translator encountered difficult words, sentences, rhymes, one had to deviate from the original text. Douglass had added new content and new meaning to translation principles, and thus had a certain value (Amos,1920:129)

Towards the middle of the 16th century, an important figure in translation was John Cheke (1514-1557). He was a humanist and supporter of the Reformation, as well as a polyglot authority on Greek at the time and served as Principal Regent Chair Professor at Cambridge university. As a result of his popularity, Cambridge became one of the academic centers in Britain, and its students were well versed in translation and language studies.Cheke was a tireless translator,who had translated many Greek works and the Bible. Characteristically, he used only pure English words or words of Saxon origin in any case, and did not adopt any foreign words. He thought the English language was rich enough without borrowing foreign words. Because of his insist on pure English words and expressions in his translation, he sometimes had to use vulgar, old and remote words, so that the style of his translation was sometimes forced and stiff.
Cheke's theory had a great influence on contemporary translators. Many other translators often mentioned Cheke's translation views in their own translations. At that time, the main criterion for evaluating a translated work was whether it was authentic and easy to be understood by compatriots. At the same time, the study of foreign grammar and contrastive vocabulary also appeared in language studies. The translator aimed to turn the translation into a textbook for students of language and translation to imitate. Some translators also use word-for-word translation to provide guidance to students. Abraham Fleming, for example, translated Virgil's Poems "according to grammatical rules." He "used plain and understandable words so as to accommodate those who are slow in comprehension, since the translator's aim is to use straightforward language structures to ease the difficulties of those whose grammatical concepts are vague, rather than to devise ways to satisfy the desires of grander humanists" (Amos,1920:109).

====2.2 Translation from Thomas North to Georga Chapman====

However, in the translation of classical masterpieces, translators tended to shift from one extreme to another. In order to avoid word-for-word translation, translators adopted excessively free translation, which was not only for the expression of words but also for the treatment of the substance of the content. Nicholas Udall(1505-1556) created the first British comedy ''Ralph Roister Doister''. In 1542 he translated Erasmus's ''Book of Proverbs'', and later presided over Erasmus's Latin translation, including the Gospel of Luke, which was published in 1548. In the preface to the translation of the ''New Testament'', he discussed various issues related to translation: the treatment of translators, the expansion of English vocabulary, the treatment of sentence structure of the translation, Erasmus's style and the stylistic characteristics of different authors. In his opinion, translation should not follow rigid rules. He advocated the use of liberal translation without deviation from the original meaning, and the translation should be readable and understandable to the general readers.

The most famous translation work of the whole Elizabethan period was the English version of ''The live of the Noble Grecians and Romans'' by translator Thomas North (1535-1601).He studied at Cambridge University in his early years, and later worked in London, where he met many translation lovers and gradually became interested in translation. In 1557 he translated ''Diall of Princes'' from a French translation and later he translated an oriental allegory from an Italian translated version in 1601. ''The live of the Noble Grecians and Romans'' was translated in 1579. This translation was not from the original Greek version, but from Amyot's French translation. However, it was still considered as an excellent epoch-making translation. North did not express any unique views on translation, but he was famous for his excellent translation in the western translation circle with three main characteristics:(1)because it is not from the original Greek, the style of the translation is different from Plutarch's style; The original text is elegant while his translation is plain. (2) North's style is also different from that of Amio in the French translation, which he used as a model. He not only changes the wording of the French translation, but also its spirit. Like Amio's French translation, North's is another masterpiece based on Plutarch's original subject. (3) Though he knew little of the classical language, North was a master of The English language, and his translations were so simple and fluent, so elegant and idiomatic, that readers might have taken them for the original if they had not read the plot. North's translation was praised by Shakespeare, who drew his inspirations from this translated works and cited its expressions, which can be considered a terrific contribution of translation to literature. The prose style adopted by ''The live of the Noble Grecians and Romans'' is novel and elegant, neither rigid nor grotesque, and hence it has become an enduring model in the history of English translation.(Tan Zaixi, 2004:76)

Philemon Holland (1552-1637) was the most outstanding English translator of the 16th century, whose works outnumbered those of his contemporaries. He had been a surgeon and headmaster of Coventry General School. He was a learned translator and scholar, fluent in Greek and Latin, proficient in ancient writing and proverbs, as well as rhetoric. His classical works were not translated but directly from the Original Greek and Latin texts, and the subject matter was also varied. He translated Livy's Romane Historie in 1600 and Pliny's Natural Historie in 1601, Plutarch's Moralia in 1603, and translated Zitonius's The Historie of The Twelve Caesars in 1606. Hollander is better known in British translation circles than North or Florio, known as the Elizabethan "translator general" who truly understood "the secret of translation." Holland's translation has two main characteristics :(1) translation must serve the reality; (2) Translation must be stylistic. In the preface to his translation of Natural History, he emphasized, "the practicality of the content of the translation, which should be suitable not only for learned people, but also for the uncivilized peasants in the countryside and for the industrious craftsmen in the cities”. Hollander was particular about the style of his translation. Like other translators of his time, he used a slow prose style, and the translation was always longer than the original. In his translation he tried to be authentic, not foreign. He does not use artificial language, but popular style. Like Cheke before him, he also preferred archaic words to foreign ones out of love for the language of his own country. What’s more, he believed that the style of the original work must be reflected in the translation, and that different works must adopt different styles without adding differences. Hollander had left behind more than just translations, but a series of works with distinctive stylistic characteristics that could withstand even the rigors of modern stylist analysis and provide the modern reader with great pleasure.(Amos,1920:86)

Georga Chapman (1559-1634) was another outstanding translator, whose greatest contribution is that his translations serve as a bridge between the 16th and 17th centuries. He spent his early years as a student at Oxford University before writing poetry and plays. But it was mainly his translations that made him famous in the literary world. He translated the first seven books of the Iliad in 1598, completed the epic in 1611, and the Odyssey in 1616. The translator's profound attainments and outstanding achievements made his translation a literary masterpiece of the time. Chapman adopted two different styles to translate the same poetic style of the original work, that is, he translated Iliad in sonnet and Odyssey in heroic couplet. In contrast, the former is more appropriate and decent than the latter. In his translation, Chapman made extensive use of mythological dictionaries, referred to early reviews of Homer's work. However, both in content and style, the translation is not completely consistent with the original work. It has transformed the characters in the poem, and added elements of moral preaching to the value of wisdom and the expression and restraint of feelings. Chapman is unblemished as a translator. As a poet, however, he was blameless. His translation has achieved great success mainly because of his extraordinary creative ability as a poet and superb ability to control language.
Chapman also made some contributions to the theoretical issues of translation. In the preface of his translation, he clearly put forward the principles guiding the translation of poetry, thus filling some gaps in translation theory in the 16th century, especially in the later period. In principle, he was against too much strictness as well as too much freedom. He said, "I despise the translators for being trapped in the mire of word-for-word translation, losing the living soul of their native language and blackening the original author with stiff language. At the same time, I abhors the use of complicated language to express the meaning” (Amos,1920:130) . Of all that he opposed, the first was word for word translation,which was considered the most unnatural and absurd. According to the views of translation theories such as Horace, who had insight and a prudent attitude that the translator should not follow the original number of words and word order, but follow its material composition and sentences, carefully weigh sentences, and then use the most appropriate expressions and form to express and decorate the translation. Chapman believed that word-by-word translation was a common fault of translators, and even he himself was inevitable. But those mistakes could be overcome. Although the expression of meaning and language style of Greek and English are different, the translator could compare the translation with the original text in meaning and style as long as he carefully identified, understood the spirit of the original text and had a thorough understanding of its grammar and vocabulary and thus approximately achieved "formal correspondence". Chapman's theory was carried on by many translators of the 17th and 18th centuries. This was obviously because he opposed both extremes, and it was easier to argue for a compromise.(Catford,1965:32)

====2.3 Translation of Tyndale and Fulke====

In the 16th century, the translation of the English Bible also flourished. Since the introduction of ethnic translation in the Middle Ages, the Bible had been increasingly read. It had the same appeal for all classes of people, which prompted translators to combine the accuracy required by scholars with the intelligibility required by ordinary people, thus promoting the overall development of translation art and theory. In this respect, religious translation in England in the 16th century was more effective than literary translation. Tyndale and Fulke were the main representatives of bible translation.

William Tyndale (1494-1536) was an erudite humanist and protestant reformist. In 1523, his translation of the New Testament from Greek from a Protestant standpoint was opposed and persecuted by the English church authorities and was not allowed to be published. He fled to Germany in 1524 and, after many twists and turns, had his translation first published in 1525. In 1526, he smuggled the translation back to England against the will of the Church, trying to spread Protestant ideas through the new translation of the Bible and convert The English people to Protestants. The church authorities immediately took measures to lay siege. The Bishop of London claimed to have found 2,000 errors in Tyndale's translation. Thomas More, a famous humanist, attacked his translation very unkindly, and the priests bought all the copies they could get and burned them to prevent their proliferation. Uncompromising, Tyndale continued to translate the Bible in his own way: he translated the first book of the Old Testament in 1530, completed The Book of Jonah in 1531, and published the revised New Testament in 1534. The church authorities had no choice but to burn Tyndale in 1536 for heresy.
Tyndale's translation, however, had not disappeared but was republished after Tyndale's martyrdom and became increasingly influential, serving as the main reference version and as the model for all English translations for centuries to come. The greatest achievement of Tyndale's translation is that it takes into account the needs of academe, conciseness and literariness, and integrates these three elements into the style of English translation of the Bible. Tyndale paid special attention to the popularity of the translation, trying to use the authentic English vocabulary and ordinary narrative expressions of vivid and specific expressions, which makes his text simple and natural without being pedantic.(Tan Zaixi,2004:80)

If Tyndale made a special contribution to the practical translation of the Bible in the 16th century, then it was William Fulke (1538-1589)who made the greatest achievements in the theoretical study of bible translation. Fulke was a scholar of The Bible with humanistic thoughts. Without translating the Bible completely, he had great views on translation theory. In 1589 he published a book entitled in Defence of the Sincere and True Translation of the Holy Scriptures into the English Tongue. It must be pointed out that Fulke did not systematically discuss the universal principles of translation as Dolet did. Instead, he only talked about the facts and refuted Gregory Martin's views, and expounded the theoretical issues in a rather chaotic manner. To sum up, there were mainly two aspects as follows:
(1)Translation can have nothing to do with faith. Fulke, influenced by Erasmus's linguistic approach, disagreed with Martin's assertion of theological authority over scientific scholarship. Translators, he believed, must be fluent in many languages so that they could make accurate judgments about the teachings of the saints without blindly following them. The power of a translator lies in his solid linguistic ability, not in his belief in God. He said, The translator cannot be called an unfaithful heretic as long as the translation conforms to the language and meaning of the original text, even if the motive is not good (Amos,1920:71). Fulke never accepted Martin's strict translation formulas, nor did he submit to unproven authoritative theories, even from the leaders of his own faction. Fulke’s point of view is obviously a challenge to the theological authority of Augustine with its purpose to liberate the Bible translation from the narrow theological tradition and win the right for ordinary people to translate and interpret the Bible.
(2)The Translation of the Bible must respect linguistic habits. If the translator has difficulty in understanding the original text, he/she should turn to the language habits of ancient non-religious writers, while one encounters difficulties in diction, translator should refer to the language habits of contemporary secular writers and the general public. Fulke added: "We are not lords dictating the way people speak. If we were, we would teach them how to use language better. Since we cannot change the way people speak, we have to follow Aristotle's instructions and use the language of ordinary people." Therefore, religious usage should give way to common usage if it is in conflict with common usage. In translation, words and expressions that are most easily understood must be used so that those who do not know their etymological meaning can understand them. At the same time, if words have been misused over a long period of time, with meanings that do not correspond to the original meaning of the words, or have been misused to increase the ambiguity of the words, the translator should not follow blindly, but should look to the root and choose the words according to their original meaning, that is, according to the meaning used in the time when the Bible was written. In translating the Bible into English, Fulke did not advocate excessive borrowing of foreign words but tapping the expressive potential of English itself and paying attention to the use of expressions in line with English habits. Fulke acknowledged that English had a small vocabulary compared with older languages, but argued that this could not be compensated for by making up words, but by using Old English words again.
Clearly, some of Mr Fulke's views are limited and conservative. Many of the foreign words he objects to have been adopted as part of the English vocabulary. But many of his criticisms of Martin are convincing, and his work has been generally praised by the translators of the Bible. Some of his observations on language are so incisive that they are still of great reference value to the study of modern English.(Amos,1920:72)

==3.History of Translation in Germany==

In Germany, the national self-consciousness was further strengthened, and the trend of mechanical imitation of Latin gradually disappeared in the 15th century.

====3.1 Dominant Ideas in German Translation====

Linguists realized the unique style and expressive ability of German, and hence shifted the focus of translation from the original language to the target language. Free translation took the place of word-to-word translation and occupied the dominant position. The only reason for translators to object literal translation is its convenience for readers to understand word-by-word translation.
Gradually, scholars recognized that Hebrew, Greek, and Latin all have distinct features, especially in terms of idiomatic expressions. Similarly, since German is an independent language, it also has its own unique expressions that cannot be translated word by word into other languages, nor can expressions in other languages be translated word by word into German. Based an an understanding of the nature and differences of languages as well as a growing sense of nationality and desire to develop the national language, more and more historians and scholars have begun to use German idiomatic expressions rather than imitate Latin.
Against the background of this trend of thought, the free translators gradually changed their inferiority in the debates with the literal translators in the 15th century, and rightly put forward another profound reason against literal translation: German is an independent language with its own rules that must be respected; German has its own language style, which cannot be destroyed by imitation of other languages. This was the dominant idea in German translation throughout the 16th century.

====3.2 Translation of Reuchlin, Erasmus and Luther====

Johannes Reuchlin(1455-1522) aroused great academic interest in Hebrew. In 1515, he wrote Epistolae Obscurorum Virorum, exposing the narrow-mouthing ignorance of the scholars and monks, which led to a fierce debate between the reformers and conservatives in the church. At the same time, he was also very knowledgeable about translation theory. He mainly translated two works, ''Batrachom Yomachia'' (1510) and ''Septem Psalmos Poenitentiales'' (1512), using word-for-word translation. This contradicts his own remarks about translation.
However, its actual content and general principles could not be compared to those of the literal translation school in the 15th century. The literatrists of the 15th century only emphasized the imitation of certain rhetorical forms of the text, while Reuchlin understood the value of rhythm and the difference between the text and the translation. He believed that the form of the original was so closely integrated with the original that it could not be preserved in the target language. Just like Homer's works alive only in Greek, it would detract from the aesthetic value of literature when translated into any other language. The purpose of literal translation was not to ask the translator to imitate the style of the original text, but to make readers pay attention to the style of the original text and appreciate its literary value.(Tan Zaixi,2004:56)

Another outstanding representatives of a new approach to literary study and new insights into translation theory in the 16th century was Desiderius Erasmus (1466-1536), who was born in a priest's family in Rotterdam, Netherlands. His early education was influenced by The Canon of Augustine. After studying in Paris, he lived successively in Britain, Germany, Italy and Switzerland, accepting humanism and opposing scholasticism. He was knowledgeable, good at language studies, and had profound attainments in Greek and Latin literature, especially his incisive treatises on literature and style.
Erasmus advocated that the original work must be respected. Before Erasmus, the Translation of the Bible in Various European countries was in a state of confusion. Erasmus bitterly pointed out that the translation and commentary of the Bible must be faithful to the original text, because no translation can fully translate the "language of God" as the Bible itself. Early theologians did not understand Hebrew or Greek and could not understand the original text of the Bible, so the truth of the Bible was covered up, distorted, or ossified into dogma. To uncover this truth, we must go back to the source. It is truth, not authority, that should be respected. What’s more, he claimed that translator must have a rich knowledge of language. He believed that to interpret the ''New Testament'' correctly it was necessary to learn ancient Greek; Anyone who wished to pursue theological studies must first be able to read the classics and learn Greek semantics, meanings, and rhetoric. Also, he realized the great importance of style in translation and attached great importance to readers’ requirements. There is no doubt that Erasmus' translation theory is the result of his humanistic thought, his mastery of multiple languages as well as his appreciation of literary styles. His translation principles and methods have exerted great influence on both contemporary and later translators.

Martin Luther (149-146) was the founder of the European Religious Reform movement and the Protestant Church reformer. Luther translated the Bible, known as “the first bible of common people” in the history by using the people's language, which played a great role in unifying the German language and laid a foundation for the formation and development of modern German.
He also proposed that translation should adopt common people language and only appropriate free translation can bring the original enlightening thoughts of Bible into light. (Luther,1530:124) Grammatical correction and semantic coherence were of great value during translation. Translation was so challenging that it requires collective wisdom and repeatedly revisions.
Luther had also put forward seven rules for translation: the word order of the original text can be changed; modal particles can be used reasonably; necessary conjunctions can be added; words in the original text that do not have an equivalent can be omitted; phrases can be used to translate individual words; figurative usage and non-figurative usage can be changed flexibly; the accuracy of variant forms and explanations should be strengthened. Although Luther’s translation practice received a great deal of criticism, his translation of Bible his was considered to be the earliest written language in German and opened a new era in the development of modern German. It endowed him with the highest reputation and the most profound influence in Germany.(Xie Tianzhen,2009:23)

==Conclusion==
It could be seen from the above sections that one of the biggest characteristics of Western translation during the Renaissance was the parallel and independent development of the translation of western European national languages. The use of Latin, though still having some market, was a tributary in both writing and translation. Before the Renaissance, especially before the middle ages, when we talked about western translation, we mostly meant translation in Latin. Since the Renaissance, with the gradual formation and consolidation of national states and the development of national languages, western translation had turned to national languages,especially French, English and German.The translation activities in the Renaissance period were basically devoid of disciplinary consciousness, and the theories were fragmentary and unsystematic. Most of the authors were translation practitioners, and most of the theories were empirical. Thanks to the translators in these three countries who were devoted themselves to the study of translation principles and the transmission of classic works, their consistant and pain-staking efforts had pushed the translation theory to anew level and left countlessly valueable translated works.Therefore, the Renaissance could be said to be a turning point in the history of western translation. In short, the Renaissance marks that the translation of national languages has been firmly on the historical stage, and that translation practice and theory have broken away from the dark Middle Ages.It also laid a solid foundation for the contemporary translation. (Pan Wenguo,2002:23)

As can be seen from the above chapters, in the Renaissance, the greatest feature of western translation theory was the parallel and independent development of Western European national language translation. Although before the Renaissance, especially before the middle ages, when we talk about western translation, we mainly refer to Latin translation. However, since the Renaissance, with the gradual formation and consolidation of the nation-state and the development of national languages, western translation has turned to national languages, especially French, English and German.

However, we have to pay attention to the shortcomings of translation activities in the Renaissance. First, translators' translation theories are scattered and fragmented, lacking discipline consciousness and systematicness. Second, most translators are empirical, and the quality of their works is uneven.

Because the translators of these three countries are committed to the study of translation principles and the dissemination of classical works, their unremitting efforts have pushed translation theory to a new height and left countless valuable translation works. Therefore, the Renaissance can be said to be a turning point in the history of western translation. In short, the Renaissance marks that the translation of national languages has been firmly on the historical stage, and the translation practice and theory have been separated from the dark middle ages. This has also laid a solid foundation for contemporary translation. (Pan Wenguo, 2002:23) --[[User:Liu Wei|Liu Wei]] ([[User talk:Liu Wei|talk]]) 13:11, 14 December 2021 (UTC)Liu Wei

==References==
Amos, F. R. (1920). Early Theories of Translation[M]. New York: Columbia University Press.

Benjamin, Andrew. (1989). Translation and the Nature of Philosophy: A New Theory of Words[M]. London and New York: Routledge.

Catford,J.C.(1965) A Linguistic Theory of Translation[M].New York: Oxford University Press.

Dolet, Etienne. (1540). How to Translate Well from One Language to Another[M]. Robinson.

Frederick Engels. (1883) The Dialects of Nature[M]. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

Luther, Martin. (1530). Sendbrief vom Dolmetschen[M]. Stoerig.

M.A.R. Habib. (2011) Literary Criticism from Plato to the Present: An Introduction[M]. New Jersey: Wiley-Blackwell Publishing.

Munday, Jeremy. (2001). Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications[M]. London and New York: Routledge.

Pan Wenguo 潘文国.(2002) 当代西方的翻译学研究[J] Contemporary Translation Studies in the West.中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal,31-34.

Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2000). 翻译学[M] Translation Studies. 武汉：湖北教育出版社 Wuhan: Hubei Educational Press.

Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2004).西方翻译简史[M] A Short History of Translation in the West. 北京：商务印书馆 Beijing: The Commercial Press.

Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2003). 翻译研究新视野[M] New Perspective for Translation Studies. 青岛：青岛出版社 Qingdao: Qingdao Publishing.

Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2009).中西翻译简史[M] A Brief History of Translation in China and the West.北京:北京外语教学与研究出版社 Beijing:Foreign Language Teachinng and Research Press.

Xu Jun, Yuan Xiaoyi 许钧，袁筱一. (1998). 当代法国翻译理论[M] Contemporary Translation Thoery in France.南京：南京大学出版社 Nanjing: Nanjing University.

=刘薇 Contemporary American Translation History)=

Liu Wei 刘薇 Hunan Normal University, China

==Abstract==
The United States is an important part of the "West", so when we talk about the conception of "West", it is impossible not to include the United States.Therefore, this chapter combs the development of contemporary American translation by introducing a series of theories of American Translators.

The United States is an important part of the "West", so when we talk about the conception of "West", it is impossible to exclude the United States.Therefore, this chapter recapitulates the development of contemporary American translation by introducing a series of theories of American Translators. (corrected by--[[User:Zhou Junhui|Zhou Junhui]] ([[User talk:Zhou Junhui|talk]]) 08:48, 14 December 2021 (UTC))

==Key words==
translation theory of American, Eugene Nida,Robert Boogrand.

==Introduction==

In the field of translation studies, the situation in the United States is very special.Since the history of the United States itself is not long, we can not expect to talk about "ancient American translation theory", "medieval American translation theory", or even "modern American translation theory".American translation theory is mainly the "contemporary translation theory", which is developed after World War II (Guo Jianzhong, [introduction]: 2).Although the development of American translation theory is relatively short, there are still many influential translation theorists, such as Eugene Nida, Robert Boogrand, Andre Leverville, Lawrence Venudi, Edwin Gentzler and so on. They are constantly innovating and developing new theories in the field of translation.

In the field of translation studies, the situation in the United States is very special.Since the history of the United States itself is not long, we can not expect to talk about "ancient American translation theory", "medieval American translation theory", or even "modern American translation theory".American translation theory is mainly the "contemporary translation theory", which is developed after World War II (Guo Jianzhong, [introduction]: 2).Although the development of American translation theory is relatively short, there are still many influential translation theorists, such as Eugene Nida, Robert Boogrand, Andre Leverville, Lawrence Venudi, Edwin Gentzler and so on. They are constantly innovating and developing new theories in the field of translation. (corrected by --[[User:Zhou Junhui|Zhou Junhui]] ([[User talk:Zhou Junhui|talk]]) 08:48, 14 December 2021 (UTC))

==Chapter1 Characteristics of the local American translation theory ==

The development of contemporary American translation theory has three main characteristics: first, it inherits the tradition of European translation theory in terms of overall research methods;Second, the early studies were mostly influenced by the schools of American structural linguistics;Third, there is a tendency to catch up in research results.These characteristics are discussed one by one below.(Tan Zaixi,1999:237)

On the first point, the inheritance of European tradition in the overall research method of American translation theory is due to its unique language and cultural tradition.As an integral part of the whole culture, translation culture naturally presents the basic characteristics of the development of the whole culture.Since the American culture with English as the national language is mainly inherited from European culture, the development of American translation culture, as an integral part of American culture, also inherits European translation culture.Especially in the early stage of the development of American translation theory, many influential people engaged in translation studies were immigrants from Europe or descendants of recent European immigrants.

Take Thorman as an example: his translation theory work the art of translation published in 1901 is one of the earliest published works in the field of American translation theory, but the contents and discussion methods involved in the book have no obvious "American characteristics".On the contrary, it is more like a work belonging to Europe, especially the British translation tradition. Even the examples in the book are similar to the European, especially the British translation tradition.

The second characteristic of the tradition of American translation theory is that the early studies were greatly influenced by the schools of American structural linguistics, which can be said to be a more distinctive "American characteristic" in American translation studies.

American linguistic studies are at the forefront of the West in many aspects. There have been many linguistic schools, such as human language school, structuralism school, transformational generative school and so on. All kinds of schools have also had various direct or indirect effects on American translation studies.

The representative of American structuralist language school is Bloomfield. He adopts the method of behaviorism and believes that everything about language can be studied scientifically and objectively.He put forward a behaviorist semantic analysis method, which holds that meaning is the relationship between stimulus and language response.In 1950s, Chomsky's transformational generative theory replaced Bloomfield's theory and occupied the dominant position in American linguistics theory and occupied the dominant position in American linguistics.The influence of Chomsky's theory on translation studies mainly lies in his discussion of surface structure and deep structure.The concept of "deep" has led to large-scale semantic research. Because semantics is closely related to translation research, Chomsky's theory has promoted the development of translation theory in the United States and even the whole west.(Xie Tianzhen ,2003:200)

Therefore, under the influence of various linguistic theories, many people try to put forward new translation concepts and research methods. These people can be collectively referred to as the structural School of American translation theory.Among them, the main characters include Wojilin, Bolinger, Katz, Quinn and Eugene Nida.

Take Wojilin as an example. He is a human linguist.His greatest contribution is to put forward a multi-step translation method (also known as step-by-step translation method).The biggest advantage of his multi-step translation method is that the steps are clear, flexible and easy to master.

Using Chomsky's transformational generative theory, Boringer puts forward a concept of structural translation as opposed to lexical translation.Based on structural linguistics, Katz makes a profound analysis of the translatability of language and the philosophical problems in language and translation.Based on the discussion of strange language, Quinn expounds some basic problems of translation from the perspective of philosophy, which has aroused great repercussions in the field of western translation theory.(Tan Zaixi,1999:250)

The third characteristic of the development of American translation theory is that it has a tendency to catch up with others in research results.One of the most prominent scholars is Eugene Nida. Although he is an outstanding linguist, his views on "translation is science", "translation is communication", "translation must pay attention to reader response" and other aspects are an innovation and breakthrough to the previous views. In addition, after Eugene Nida, many scholars have put forward many new views because of their existence,It was only after World War II that American translation theory continued to catch up.

Therefore, we will focus on him in the next chapter.

On the first point, the inheritance of European tradition in the overall research method of American translation theory is due to its unique language and cultural tradition.As an integral part of the whole culture, translation culture naturally presents the basic characteristics of the development of the whole culture.Since the American culture with English as the national language is mainly inherited from European culture, the development of American translation culture, as an integral part of American culture, also inherits European translation culture.Especially in the early stage of the development of American translation theory, many influential people engaged in translation studies were immigrants from Europe or descendants of recent European immigrants.(corrected by --[[User:Zhou Junhui|Zhou Junhui]] ([[User talk:Zhou Junhui|talk]]) 08:48, 14 December 2021 (UTC))

==Chapter2 Eugene Nida's translation theory==

Eugene Albert Nida (1914 -) was born in Oklahoma City in the south central United States. He graduated from the University of California, Los Angeles in 1936. In 1943, he worked in Bloomfield and fries (Charles fries received his doctorate in linguistics under the guidance of two famous scholars. As the leading translation theory figure in contemporary America, Nida has also engaged in research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology and communication engineering. Before his retirement in the 1980s, he worked in the Translation Department of the American Holy Bible Association and served as the executive secretary of the translation department for a long time. He is mainly engaged in the Bible Organization of translation and revision of translations and the Bible Training and theoretical guidance for translators. He is proficient in many languages and has investigated and studied more than 100 languages, especially some small languages in Africa and Latin America. In 1968, he served as the president of the American language society. Although he does not take teaching as his career, he has extremely rich experience in Translation training and lecturing. In addition to a long-term part-time job, he speaks linguistics in the famous American summer In addition to teaching linguistics and translation courses in the Institute, he also served as a guest lecturer and professor in many American universities. He was often invited to give short-term lectures in Europe, Latin America, Africa and Asia, and won several honorary doctorates. In order to recognize his contribution to translation research, especially in the field of Bible translation research, the American Bible Association named the Institute after him in 2001 In particular, Nida has deep feelings for China. Since 1982, he has been invited to give lectures in China more than ten times, and has maintained close academic contacts and exchanges with many schools and academic colleagues in China for a long time.(Tan Zaixi,2000:247)

Nida is a prolific language and translation theorist. From 1945 to 2004, he published more than 200 articles and more than 40 works (including works cooperated and edited with others). Among them, there are more than 20 works on language and translation theory, and a collection of papers has been published.

His research achievements include "Toward a Science of Translating" published in 1964, "The Theory and Practice of Translation" Co authored with Charles Taber in 1969, "Com ponential Analysis of Meaning " published in 1975 and "language structure and Translation" . Nida's anthology "Language Structure and Translation : Essays by Eugene A. Nida，ed. by Anwar S. Dil" , "From One Language to Another" , co authored with de warrd in 1986, "The Sociolinguistics of Interlingual Communication" , published in 1996 and published in 2001 "Language and Culture :Contertsin Translating" .(Xie Tianzhen.2003:212)

Throughout Nida's translation thought, we can divide it into three main development stages: the linguistic stage with obvious American structuralism in the early stage, the stage of translation science and translation communication in the middle stage, and the stage of social semiotics.

The first major stage is the linguistic stage, from 1943 when he wrote his doctoral thesis "a summary of English syntax" to 1959 when he published "principles of translation from biblical translation".At this stage, he tries to clarify the structural nature of language through the description of syntax, morphology and language translation.In his early days, he was greatly influenced by American structuralist Bloomfield and human linguist Sapir, and paid attention to the collection and analysis of language materials in language research.Through the opportunity to visit and contact different languages all over the world, many examples of speech differences are collected.However, he does not regard speech differences as insurmountable obstacles between languages, but as different phenomena of the same essence.

The second development stage of Nida's translation thought is the stage of translation science and translation communication. It took 10 years from the publication of "principles of translation from biblical translation" in 1959 to the publication of "translation theory and practice" in 1969.The research achievements at this stage have played a key role in establishing Nida's authoritative position in the whole western translation theory circle.
By summarizing this main development period, the main contents of the following five aspects can be summarized:

（一）Translation science.Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill, but also a science.The so-called science here means that translation problems can be handled by "scientific approaches to language structure, semantic analysis and information theory", that is, a linguistic and descriptive method can be adopted to explain the translation process.If the principles and procedures of translation seem to be normative, it is only because they are generally considered to be the most useful in a specific scope of translation.Nida's view that "translation is science" has had great repercussions in the field of western linguistics and translation theory.

（二） Translation communication theory. Nida applies communication theory and information theory to translation studies and holds that translation is communication. After World War II, not only advertisers, politicians and businessmen attached great importance to the intelligibility of language, but also scholars, writers, editors, publishers and translators realized that any information would be worthless if it could not play a communicative role. Therefore, to judge whether a translation is successful, we must first see whether it can be immediately understood by the recipient and whether it can play a role in the communication of ideas, information and feelings. Therefore, in the field of translation research, various names and statements such as "communicative translation", "functional translation" and related "equal response theory", "equal effect theory", "equal role theory" and "equal power theory" have sprung up one after another. Nida's "translation is communication" and his "reader response theory" and "dynamic equivalence" discussed below“ "Functional equivalence" has become an important representative of the communicative school in the field of western translation studies.

Nida's theory of "translation is communication" is based on the theory of language commonality. Nida, like Jacobson, believes that all languages in the world have the same expression ability, which can enable native speakers of the language to express ideas, describe the world and carry out social communication. His argument is based on the same "identity" For example, in countries with relatively developed productive forces, many scientific and technological words will appear in their languages, while in countries with less developed or very low productive forces, there may be a lack of scientific and technological words in their languages. However, this does not mean that the latter has the same expressive ability as the former, but only shows that people have different requirements for languages in different languages, It is not because the language cannot produce scientific and technological vocabulary, but because the speakers of the language do not have or temporarily do not have the requirement to use scientific and technological vocabulary. Once there is such a requirement, there will be corresponding vocabulary in the language, or "native" scientific and technological vocabulary, or "foreign" vocabulary transplanted from foreign words. In short, the expression efficiency of various languages is the same.

Nida believes that the primary task of translation is to make it clear to the readers at a glance after reading the translation. That is to say, the translation should be fluent and natural, and the readers can understand it without the knowledge of the cultural background of the source language. This requires that rigid foreign words should be used as little as possible in translation, and expressions belonging to the receiving language should be used as much as possible. For example, in a Sudanese language, for If the expression "repent and reform" is translated directly, it will make people feel at a loss, and it should be translated into the local familiar "spitting on the ground in front of someone". For example, in the language without "Snow", white as snow may be puzzling, but it should be said "white as frost" or "white as egret hair" Another example is that in the ancient West, the habit of people meeting and greeting each other was "sacred kiss", but now it should become "very warm handshake".(Nida·Eugene,1996:234）

In a sense, the theory of translation communication is not only one of the main symbols of Nida's second development stage of translation thought, but also one of the biggest characteristics of his whole ideological system.Especially after the publication of translation theory and practice, Nida's translation communication theory has had a great impact on the western translation circles, including those in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union.

（三） Dynamic equivalence theory.The so-called dynamic equivalence translation is actually translation under the guidance of translation communication theory. Specifically, it refers to "reproducing the source language information with the closest (original) natural equivalence in the receiving language from semantics to style".In this definition, there are three key points: one is "nature", which means that the translation cannot have a translation cavity;The second is "close", which refers to selecting the translation with the closest meaning to the original text on the basis of "nature";The third is "equivalence", which is the core.Both "nature" and "close" serve to find equivalents.

（四） Translation function theory.From the perspective of sociolinguistics and language communicative function, Nida believes that translation must serve the reader.To judge whether a translation is correct or not, we must take the reader's response as the criterion.If the response of the target readers is basically the same as that of the original readers, the translation can be considered successful.

（五） Four step model.This refers to the translation process.Nida puts forward that the process of translation is: analysis, transfer (transfer the meaning obtained from the analysis from the source language to the receiving language), reorganization (reorganize the translation according to the rules of the receiving language), and inspection (detect the target text against the source text).Among these four steps, "analysis" is the most complex and key, which is the focus of Nida's translation research.The focus of the analysis is semantics. He distinguishes four parts of speech from the perspective of semantics: object words, activity words, abstract words and relational words.In semantic analysis, he introduced three methods: linear analysis, hierarchical analysis and component analysis.In the specific analysis of semantics, he focuses on grammatical meaning, referential meaning and connotative meaning (or emotional meaning and associative meaning).These distinction theories are of great significance to understand his translation thought.

Nida's research achievements in the 1980s can be regarded as the third stage of translation thought.He has made a series of modifications and supplements to his translation theory.He did not completely abandon the theory of the original communicative school, but further developed on the original basis and incorporated the useful elements of the original theory into a new model, which is the social semiotics model in the third development stage translation thought.

Compared with previous works, Eugene Nida has the following four changes and developments in from one language to another: first, based on the translation theory of social semiotics, he emphasizes that everything in the text has meaning, including speech form, so form cannot be easily sacrificed.That is to say, form is also meaningful. Sacrificing form means sacrificing meaning.Secondly, it points out that the rhetorical features of language play an important role in language communication, so we must pay attention to these features in translation.Third, the theory of "dynamic equivalence" is no longer used, but replaced by "functional equivalence", which is intended to make the meaning of the term clearer and easier to understand.Fourth, instead of using the distinction of grammatical meaning, referential meaning and associative meaning, meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, and all kinds of meaning are divided into referential meaning and associative meaning.From the whole historical process of the development of translation theory, it should be said that these changes are basically positive.(Nida·Eugene,1996:222）

Of course, his theory and works are not perfect.First, his theory focuses too much on solving the problems of communicative and intelligibility of translation, so its scope of application is limited.It is natural to emphasize the intelligibility of the translation in the field of Bible translation, but if the intelligibility of the translation is always put in the first place in the translation of secular literary works, it will inevitably lead to the simplification and even non literariness of the translated language.

Second, he no longer completely negates "formal correspondence", but believes that the expression form of the original text cannot be broken at will in translation.In order to expand the scope of application of his theory, he also added rhetoric.However, despite his amendments, he failed to elaborate more deeply on his new views.

Thirdly, Eugene Nida once put forward the proposition that "translation is science", and then basically abandoned this proposition.Whether he put forward or gave up, he did not put forward sufficient and convincing arguments, which can not be said to be a major defect.

Of course, Nida's theory and works are not perfect. Firstly, his theory focuses too much on solving the problems of communicative and intelligibility of translation, so its scope of application is limited. It is natural to emphasize the intelligibility of the translation in the field of Bible translation, but if the intelligibility of the translation is always put in the first place in the translation of secular literary works, it will inevitably lead to the simplification and even non literariness of the translated language. Newmark, a British translation theorist, once pointed out: "if we delete all the metaphors in the Bible that Doneda believes readers cannot understand, it will inevitably lead to a large loss of meaning." . an important feature of literary works is that they use more metaphorical and novel language. The author's real intention may have to taste and capture between the lines. If all the metaphorical images in the original work are deleted and all the associative meanings are clearly stated, the result will be that the translation is easy to understand, but it is dull and can't reach To the purpose of literature. In recent years, Nida has become more and more aware of this, and has constantly revised and improved some of his past views. For example, he later no longer focused on the intelligibility of the translation, but advocated a "three nature principle", that is, the principle of paying equal attention to comprehensibility, readability and acceptability. In addition, he no longer completely denied "formal correspondence" In order to expand the scope of application of his theory, he especially added rhetoric. However, despite Nida's amendments, he failed to make a more profound exposition of his new views; he was only aware of the existence of the problem rather than successfully solving the relevant problems Besides, Nida once put forward the proposition that "translation is science", and then basically gave up this proposition. Whether he put forward or gave up, he did not put forward sufficient and convincing arguments, which is a major defect.

Of course, flaws do not hide the jade. Looking at Nida's lifelong contributions, he is one of the most outstanding theoretical figures in the field of contemporary translation studies in the United States and even the whole west. The historical theory of the development of western translation theory should give him a heavy pen.(Tan Zaixi,2000:257)

==Chapter3 Robert Boogrand's translation theory==

Since the 1970s, more voices outside the structural language school and the communicative school have gradually emerged in the field of translation studies in the United States, especially the voice of discourse linguistics theory and discourse analysis represented by Robert Boogrand.
Boogrand teaches in the English Department of the University of Florida and is engaged in the study of literary discourse rhetoric and grammatical structure.In 1978, he published a book called "elements of translation theory of poetry"), which was listed as one of the Translation Studies Series edited by Holmes and attracted extensive attention.(Xie Tianzhen,2003:56)

Boogrand's view is: 1. The unit of translation is not a single word or sentence, but the whole text.2. Translation is a process of interaction among authors, translators and readers.3. What is worth studying is not the characteristics of the article itself, but the skills of language use reflected in these characteristics.

After the publication of the above translation theory works guided by the thought of discourse linguistics in 1978, Boogrand continued to engage in the research of language and translation along the same line, and more than ten relevant works (including Works CO authored and co edited with others) have been published successively, mainly including discourse, discourse and process: multidisciplinary discourse science exploration Linguistic Theory: Discourse of basic works, introduction to discourse linguistics, language discourse, Western and Middle East translation Boogrand has always expounded language and translation from the perspective of discourse linguistics, thus establishing his important position as the leader of discourse linguistics in the field of British and American translation studies. Boogrand's contribution as one of the pioneers of discourse analysis and discourse linguistics in translation studies is very important and worthy of full recognition.(Tan Zaixi,2000:256)

==Chapter4 Andre Lefevere's translation theory==

With the development of the times, translation studies in the United States, like other parts of the west, have been continuously improved in theoretical depth. By the 1990s, the focus of theorists' discussion on translation has gradually separated from the previous specific translation processes and methods, and turned more to the fundamental nature of translation, translation and ideology, translation and culture. This chapter introduces Andre Leverville's translation theory.
Andre Leverville, a professor of translation and comparative literature at the University of Texas at Austin, originally from Belgium, is a very important theoretical figure in the field of Contemporary Western comparative literature and translation research. We can discuss his main ideas from the following two aspects.(Tan Zaixi,2000:276)

(一)The cultural turn in translation studies. It is a common feature of all cultural schools to turn the focus of translation studies from the language structure and language form correspondence that language schools are most concerned about to the meaning and function of the target text and the source text in their respective cultural systems. He believes that any literature must survive in a certain social and cultural environment, and its meaning and value Value, as well as its interpretation and acceptance, will always be affected and restricted by a series of interrelated and mutually referenced factors, including both internal and external factors of literature. Therefore, as far as translation research is concerned, the goal of the research is far from limited to exploring the equivalence or equivalence of the two texts in language forms, but to explore at the same time.Study various cultural issues directly or indirectly related to translation activities.

（二） The concept of manipulation in translation. When talking about and describing the basic characteristics of the cultural school, we often can not do without using the word "manipulation". Here, "manipulation"It is not emotional, but a special term representing the concept of neutrality. According to the translation operation of Andre Leverville and others, the core meaning is that in the process of processing the source text and generating the target text, the translator has the right and will rewrite the text in order to achieve a certain purpose. Andre Leverville believes that translation is a reflection of the image of the text.Other literary forms such as literary criticism, biography, literary history, drama, film, fiction and so on are also the rewriting of the text image, and rewriting is the manipulation of the text.

（三） Obviously, the manipulative rewriting in Lefevere and his cultural school theory is not simply equivalent to "Rewriting" in the general sense, because in his view, all translation is rewriting, even the "most faithful"Translation is also a form of rewriting. As a translation manipulator, this rewriting or manipulation should be regarded as a cultural necessity in essence. In the process of translation, the translator is bound to be affected and restricted by various social and cultural factors. In addition to considering all the characteristics related to the source text, such as the original author's intention, the context of the source text and so on, the more important thing is toIt is necessary to consider a series of factors related to the target or receiving culture, such as the purpose of translation, the function of the target text, the expectations and reactions of readers, the requirements of clients and sponsors, and the review of the publishing and distribution organization of the work. The existence of these factors and the degree of constraints imposed by the translator on them vary from person to person constitute the inevitable "manipulation" condition of the translator on the text.(Lefevere·André,1980:100).

For "manipulation" in this sense, we can not judge it by moral value words such as "legitimate" or "improper", but only by the "appropriateness" criteria such as whether the target text has achieved the purpose of translation, whether it meets the expectations of the audience, and whether it can be accepted by the accepted culture.

==Chapter5 Lawrence Venudi's translation theory==

It is precisely because the cultural school or manipulation school, and even the polysystem school, in translation studies have established a relationship with the theory of domestication and Foreignization in translation, that a new group of scholars and viewpoints have emerged. In the field of American translation studies, Lawrence Wenudi is the most vocal theoretical figure on the issues of "domestication" and "Foreignization".
As an English professor at Temple University in Philadelphia, winudi is one of the most active and influential figures in the field of American translation theory since the 1990s. Winudi belongs to the deconstruction school in translation studies, that is, what genzler calls the "post structuralism school"In his works on translation studies, Venuti advocates that literary translation should not aim at eliminating alien features, but should try to show cultural differences in the target text.(Tan Zaixi,2000:278)

Venuti's main view is that it is wrong to require the translator to be invisible in translation; the translator should not be invisible in the translation, but should be visible. That is to say, translation should adopt the principle and strategy of "alienation" to keep the translation exotic and exotic, and read like the translation, rather than "domestication"So that the translation can be transformed completely in accordance with the ideology and creative norms of the target culture. It doesn't read like foreign works, but the original of the target language.(Xie Tianzhen,2003:278).

However, translation has never been carried out in an unaffected way. Foreignization translation and domestication translation are actually the products of translation activities affected. From the perspective of translation ethics, it is difficult to assert which is good or which is bad, because translation reality shows that the two play irreplaceable roles in the target language and culture and complete their respective missions.Therefore, the two kinds of translation will always coexist and complement each other.(Tan Zaixi,2000:279)

==Chapter6 Edwin Gensler's translation theory==

Edwin Genzler is the director of the translation center of Amherst University of Massachusetts, doctor of comparative literature and professor of translation. His famous translation work is contemporary translation theory published in 1993 and reprinted in 2001.(Xie Tianzhen,2003:290).

Genzler's contribution to translation theory is mainly reflected in the following three aspects:
First, it comprehensively combs the contemporary western translation theories, so as to clarify people's understanding of various western translation theory schools since World War II, and thus arouse the research interest in all kinds of contemporary western translation theories in the field of translation studies (including China's Translation Studies).In contemporary translation theory, Genzler studies translation from different perspectives such as scientific theory, polysystem theory and deconstruction. By exploring the "political reality" outside translation (literary translation practice), he outlines the outline of contemporary western translation research and guides readers to rethink a series of theoretical issues such as the definition and classification of translation.(Tan Zaixi,2000:300)

Secondly, on the basis of comprehensively and systematically combing various contemporary western translation thoughts and theories, Genzler puts forward a multi-channel cooperative translation research view of "fair treatment of all systems".He believes that contemporary translation theory, like literary theory, originates from structuralist theory.All these structuralist or post structuralist theories have been confined to their respective academic circles for a long time.Various schools have very special requirements for the terms used in this system, and the terms are limited;Their pursuit of "correctness" or "objectivity" of theory tends to be one-sided, and they all try to gain universal recognition in the academic circles at the expense of other perspectives.The result is only the continuous conflict between theories, but there is no due cooperation and exchange between theories, which leads to the marginalization of academic research.(Xie Tianzhen,2003:293)

Thirdly, Genzler puts forward a post structuralist interpretation model of the essence of translation.In translation, post structuralism and power, he analyzes the deconstruction (post structuralism) thoughts of Derrida, Spivak and others, as well as the translation thoughts of translation theorists such as Wenudi, Levin and Robinson under the influence of their deconstruction thoughts, and points out that the new translation interpretation model can no longer follow the past tradition and simply define translation as"The transformation from a single language to another single language", but it should be regarded as the transformation between a multicultural form environment and another equally multicultural form environment.

==Conclusion==

In addition to the above-mentioned important theoretical figures in the field of contemporary American translation studies, many others, such as Roberto Tradu, Daniel Shaw, Burton Raphael and so on, have also made achievements in translation theory. However, due to space constraints, they cannot be discussed in detail here.

Generally speaking, due to the historical origin and the influence of the subject's immigrant culture, the initial development of American translation studies depends on the inheritance and promotion of the tradition of European translation theory. With the evolution of the times, American translation studies catch up with each other in many aspects with rapid development and fruitful achievements, and walk in the forefront of western translation studies, becoming the driving force of contemporary western translation theory. On an important force for forward development.(Tan Zaixi,2000:301)

In addition to the above-mentioned important theoretical figures in the field of contemporary American translation studies, many others, such as Roberto Tradu, Daniel Shaw, Burton Raphael and so on, have also made achievements in translation theory. However, due to space constraints, they cannot be discussed in detail here.

Generally speaking, due to the historical origin and the influence of the subject's immigrant culture, the initial development of American translation studies depends on the inheritance and promotion of the tradition of European translation theory. With the evolution of the times, American translation studies catch up with each other in many aspects with rapid development and fruitful achievements, and walk in the forefront of western translation studies, becoming the driving force of contemporary western translation theory. On an important force for forward development.(corrected by--[[User:Zhou Junhui|Zhou Junhui]] ([[User talk:Zhou Junhui|talk]]) 08:48, 14 December 2021 (UTC))

==reference==

Lefevere·André. (1980). Translating literature [M]. New York:Clarendon Press.

Newmark·Peter. （1978）.The theory and the craft of translation [M].London:Rountledge Press.

Nida·Eugene.（1996）.The Sociolinguistics of Interlingual Communication [M]. Brussels:Editions du Hazard.

Katz·Jerrold J. （1966）.The Philosophy of Language [M]. New York:Harper and Row.

Pound，E. 1917. Notes on Elizabethan classicists [M]. New York:Clarendon Press.

Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (1999).《新编奈达论翻译》[M] New Nida on Translation. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司 Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.

Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2000).《翻译学》[M] Translatology. 武汉:湖北教育出版社 Wuhan: Hubei Education Press.

Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2003).《翻译研究新视野》[M].New perspectives in Translation Studies. 青岛:青岛出版社 Qingdao: Qingdao Press.

中国对外翻译出版公司（编).(1983).《翻译理论与翻译技巧论文集》[M].Collection of Papers on Translation Theory and Translation Skills. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.

中国对外翻译出版公司（编).(1983).《国外翻译理论评介文集》[M].A Review of Foreign Translation Theories. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司 Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.

--[[User:Liu Wei|Liu Wei]] ([[User talk:Liu Wei|talk]]) 16:11, 8 December 2021 (UTC)Liu Wei

=周俊辉Translation of Science and Technology in Late Qing Dynasty and Early Republic of China=
[[Hist_Trans_EN_10]]

=周玖Translation of Science and Technology in Ancient China=
[[Hist_Trans_EN_11]]

=钟雨露Western Translation History in the Old Ages=
[[Hist_Trans_EN_12]]

=钟义菲: The Chinese Translation History in Mordern Age=
[[Hist_Trans_EN_13]]

=魏楚璇: Western translation history in the Modern and Contemporary Ages=
[[Hist_Trans_EN_14]]

=Chapter 15Mahzad Heydarian: Where Persian Language Meets Translation=
[[Hist_Trans_EN_15]]

Mahzad Sadat Heydarian,Hunan Normal University,China

=Akira Jantarat： History of Chinese-Thai literature Translation in 19th century=
[[Hist_Trans_EN_16]]

=Jawad Ahmad; History of Translation=

[[Hist_Trans_EN_17]]

=Benjamin Wellsand; Bible Translation in Christian History=

[[Hist_Trans_EN_18]]

History of Translations

2021-12-15T04:53:02Z

Li Xichang: /* Multilingualism in the Chinese version of the Bible */

[[History_of_Translations|Overview Page of History of Translation]]

30 Chapters（0/30)

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[[Book_projects|Back to translation project overview]] [[DCG-To-Do|Zur To-Do-Liste]]

=chapter 1 Rouabah Soumaya: History of translation in the Middle Ages=
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== Abstract==
The history of translation is seen variously as examining the role of translation in historical episodes through decades or investigating the phenomenon or understanding of translation itself historically. These different historiographical perspectives involve potentially different research aims, approaches, concepts, methods and scholarly interlocutors. The paper focuses on this question of disciplinary commensurability in historical studies, and draws parallels between the history of translation and translation in the middle ages. Themes addressed include the bible translation as , established historiographical norms and alternative, interdisciplinary approaches. It is argued that both the history of translation started with the translation of the Bible in the early BC comes, towards a reflexive, transnational history that seeks productive modes of engagement with other historical disciplines. By bringing to the attention of translation scholars some of the key debates in the history of translation and by identifying commonalities, this paper hopes to present an overall view of translation in the middle ages with slight knowledge of Bible translation in the early centuries of the middle ages, which starts from th5 to the 15 century.

== Keywords==
History of Translation , Bible Translation, Translation in the Middle Ages
medieval translation, medieval translator, translation and culture

== Introduction ==
This paper aims at a general review of the history of translation studies and the prevalent approaches from antiquity to the present in the west, in the form of a historical survey in which key theoretical developments are taken into account, focusing on approaches that have been developed during the twentieth century. Without a doubt, It is James Holme's seminal paper "the name and nature of translation studies" that draws up a disciplinary map for translation studies and serves as a springboard for researchers with its binary division of Translation Studies into two branches: "pure" and "applied." Its growth as a discipline goes back to the 1980s. As time elapses, translation studies, by achieving a certain institutional authority and coalescing with many a resurging disciplines and trends as cultural studies, linguistics, literary theory and criticism, brings a renewed aspect to translation theory.

In addition, this paper argues that English medieval translation can be considered as part of a cultural project in that the medieval translator is concerned more with the role and the function of translation in the target culture. Medieval translation theory derives from the classical theories of translation, however, prefaces to translations indicate that medieval translator appropriates the classical translation theory and uses it to serve the cultural and ideological objectives of translation in the middle Ages.

Key words: medieval translation, medieval translator, translation and culture, translation theory.
The pioneering work of Jeannette Beer and Roger Ellis has decidedly promoted medieval translation as a significant area, and has established medieval translation as the work of culturally responsible, academically oriented people of learning.

1 Susan
* Assist. Prof. Dr., Hacettepe University, Department of English Language and Literature
1 The problematic situation of Medieval translation in the academia is discussed by Ruth Evans in "Translating
Past Cultures?" in The Medieval Translator /Vied. Roger Ellis and Ruth Evans, the University of Exeter Press,
Medieval Translation and Cultural Transformation

== Early History of Translation==
The word ‘translation’ comes from a Latin term which means, “To bring or carry across”. Another relevant term comes from the Ancient Greek word of ‘metaphrasis’ which means, “To speak across” and from this, the term ‘metaphrase’ was born, which means a “word-for-word translation”. These terms have been at the heart of theories relating to translation throughout history and have given insight into when and where translation have been used throughout the ages.

It is known that translation was carried out as early as the Mesopotamian era when the Sumerian poem, Gilgamesh, was translated into Asian languages. This dates back to around the second millennium BC. Other ancient translated works include those carried out by Buddhist monks who translated Indian documents into Chinese. In later periods, Ancient Greek texts were also translated by Roman poets and were adapted to create developed literary works for entertainment. It is known that translation services were utilised in Rome by Cicero and Horace and that these uses were continued through to the 17th century, where newer practices were developed.

The history of translation has been a topic that has long been debated by scholars and historians, though it is widely accepted that translation pre-dates the bible. The bible tells of different languages as well as giving insight to the interaction of speakers from different areas. The need for translation has been apparent since the earliest days of human interaction, whether it be for emotional, trade or survival purposes.

The demand for translation services has continued to develop and is now more vital than ever, with businesses acknowledging the inability to expand internationally or succeed in penetrating foreign markets without translating marketing material and business documents.

It is significant to review the history of translation in different languages. There are divisions of period made by scholars like George Steiner. According to Steiner, the history of translation is divided into four periods. Starting from the Roman translators Cicero and Horace to Alexander Fraser Tytler is the first period; the second period extends up to Valery and from Valery to 1960s becomes the third period and the fourth period 1960s onwards. The history of translation is stressed out from 3000 B.C. Rosetta Stone is considered the most ancient work of Translation belonged to the second century B.C. Livius Andronicus translated Homer’s Odyssey named Odusia into Latin in 240 B.C. All that survives is parts of 46 scattered lines from 17 books of the Greek 24-book epic. In some lines, he translates literally, though in others more freely. His translation of the Odyssey had a great historical importance. Before then, the Mesopotamians and Egyptians had translated judicial and religious texts, but no one had yet translated a literary work written in a foreign language until the Roman Empire. Livius’ translation made this fundamental Greek text accessible to Romans, and advanced literary culture in Latin. This project was one of the best examples of translation as artistic process. The work was to be enjoyed on its own, and Livius strove to preserve the artistic quality of original. Since there was no tradition of epic in Italy before him, Livius must have faced enormous problems. For example, he used archaizing forms to make his language more solemn and intense. Barnstone Willis. The Poetics of Translation: History, Theory and Practice. London: Yale University Press, 1993. Print. Bassnett, Susan and Lefevere, Andre (Eds.). Translation, History and Culture. London: Pinter, 1990. Print.

When we talk about the history of translation, we should think of the theories and names that e merged at its different periods. In fact, each era is characterized by specific changes in translation history, but these changes differ from one place to another. For example, the developments of translation in the western world are not the same as those in the Arab world, as each nation knew particular incidents that led to the birth of particular theories. So, what marked the western translation? .By Marouane Zakhir English translator University of Soultan Moulay Slimane, Morocco

== Translation in the Western World==
For centuries, people believed in the relation between translation and the story of the tower of Babel in the Book of Genesis. According to the Bible, the descendants of Noah decided, after the great flood, to settle down in a plain in the land of Shinar. There, they committed a great sin. Instead of setting up a society that fits God's will, they decided to challenge His authority and build a tower that could reach Heaven. However, this plan was not completed, as God, recognizing their wish, regained control over them through a linguistic stratagem. He caused them to speak different languages so as not to understand each other. Then, he scattered them all over the earth. After that incident, the number of languages increased through diversion, and people started to look for ways to communicate, hence the birth of translation (Abdessalam Benabdelali, 2006) (1).

Actually, with the birth of translation studies and the increase of research in the domain, people started to get away from this story of Babel, and they began to look for specific dates and figures that mark the periods of translation history.

Researchers mention that writings on translation go back to the Romans. Eric Jacobson claims that translating is a Roman invention (see McGuire: 1980) (2). Cicero and Horace (first century BC) were the first theorists who distinguished between word-for-word translation and sense-for-sense translation. Their comments on translation practice influenced the following generations of translation up to the twentieth century.

Another period that knew a changing step in translation development was marked by St Jerome (fourth century CE). "His approach to translating the Greek Septuagint Bible into Latin would affect later translations of the scriptures." (Munday, 2001) (3)

The first important translation in the West was that of the Septuagint, a collection of Jewish Scriptures translated into early Koine Greek in Alexandria between the 3rd and "1st centuries B C E The dispersed Jews had forgotten their ancestral language and Throughout the .middle Ages, /Latin was the lingua franca of the western learned world. -Wikipedia .org/wiki/

The 9th1century Alfred the Great, king of Wessex in England, was far ahead of his time in commissioning 'vernacular Anglo -Saxon translations of Bede’s Ecclesiastical History and Boethius « Consolation of Philosophy ) meanwhile, the Christian church frowned on even partial adaptations of St . Jerome ‘s Vulgate of CA 384 CE, the Latin Bible . -Wikipedia .org/wiki/

The broad historic trends in Western translation practice may be illustrated on the example of translation into the English language .

The first fine translations into English were made in the "the century by Geoffrey Chaucer, who adapted from the Italian of Giovanni Boccaccio in his own Knight's Tal e and Troilus and Criseyde ; began a translation of the French -language Roman de la Rose 7 and completed a translation of Boethius from the Latin . Chaucer bounded an English poetic tradition on adaptations and translations from those earlier established literary languages . -Wikipedia .org/wiki/

The first great English translation was the Wycliffe (CA 1382), which showed the weaknesses of an under developed English prose . only at the end of the "15th century did the great age to English prose translation begin with Thomas Malory ‘s "le Morte D arthur”- Ban adaptation of Arthurian romances so free that it can, in fact, hardly be called a true translation . The first great Tudor translations are, accordingly, the Tyndale new Testament ( 1525), which influenced the Authorized Version (1611), and Lord Berners version of jean Froissart’s Chronicles ( 1523- 25) . - Wikipedia .org/wiki/

== History of Translation in the Middle Ages==
In the history of Europe, the middle Ages or medieval period lasted approximately from the Fifth to the late 15th centuries, similarly to the Post-classical period of global history. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and transitioned into the Renaissance and the Age of Discovery. The middle Ages is the middle period of the three traditional divisions of Western history: classical antiquity, the medieval period, and the modern period. The medieval period is itself subdivided into the Early, High, and Late Middle Ages.

This article is about medieval Europe. For a global history of the period between the 5th and 15th centuries, see Post-classical history. For other uses, see middle Ages (disambiguation).

"Medieval times" redirects here. For the dinner theatre, see Medieval Times.

Latin was the lingua franca of the Western learned world throughout the middle Ages, with few translations of Latin works into vernacular languages. In the 9th century, Alfred the Great, King of Wessex in England, was far ahead of his time in commissioning vernacular translations from Latin into English of Bede’s “Ecclesiastical History”and Boethius's “The Consolation of Philosophy”, which contributed to improve the underdeveloped English prose of that time.

It is argued that the knowledge and findings of Greek academics was developed and understood so widely thanks to the translation work of Arabic scholars. When the Greeks were conquered, Arabic scholars, who translated them and created their own versions of the scientific, entertainment and philosophical understandings took in their works. These Arabic versions were later translated into Latin, during the middle Ages, mostly throughout Spain and the resulting works provided the foundations of Renaissance academics.

Medieval times in human history – also referred to as the “Middles Ages” – was the time period that fell roughly between the fall of the Roman Empire in 476 CE and the 14th century. However, these years bear another moniker as well: the Dark Ages. There are valid reasons for that term. In the eyes of many historians, people during this age made little to no significant advancements that benefitted humankind. In addition, most notably, this was the period when the “Black Death” (the bubonic plague) killed an estimated 30 percent of the population of Europe.

However, the middle Ages were not completely “dark.” In fact, modern historians are taking a second look at this period with a more objective – and perhaps more generous – perspective. There is no doubt, for example, that religion flourished during this time. The Catholic Church came to prominence throughout Europe, and the rise of Islam was occurring simultaneously in the Middle East. It was there – particularly in urban centres such a Baghdad, Damascus and Cairo – that an extremely vibrant culture and intellectual society thrived.

The art of translation also made great strides during the middle Ages. Thanks to Alfred the Great (the king of England during the 9th century), The Consolation of Philosophy by Boethius and Ecclesiastical History by Bede were translated from Latin to English – a major feat that would have a great impact on the overall advancement of English prose during this period. Later, during the 12th and 13th centuries, the Toledo School of Translators (“Escuela de Traductores de Toledo”) worked on a wide variety of translations, including religious, scientific, philosophical and medical works. The original texts were created in Arabic, Hebrew and Greek, and all were translated into Castilian – and that formed the basis for the formation of the Spanish language. Also during the 13th century, English linguist Roger Bacon postulated the concept that a translator not only needed to be fully fluent in both the source and target languages of the work being translated, but also that a translator should be fully versed in the topic of the work to be translated – a tenet that still holds true in the language arts to this day.

One of the most notable translators during the middle Ages was also one of the most accomplished authors and poets – Geoffrey Chaucer. In fact, those historians who still maintain that the Dark Ages produced little to no significant contributions to humankind might do well to remember the works of Chaucer. In a lifetime that spanned some 60 years (from the 1340s until 1400), Chaucer earned the reputation as the “father of English literature.” However, that description only scratched the surface of Chaucer’s accomplishments. He was also a noted astronomer and philosopher, as well as a diplomat, bureaucrat and parliament member. Chaucer’s contributions to the language arts were no less significant; his use of Middle English (as opposed to Latin or French, which were the two most commonly used languages of the day) quite literally brought English into mainstream usage, as did his translations of numerous works from Italian, French and Latin into English.

It can truly be said that historians have given medieval times somewhat of a bad rap over the centuries. And while there’s no doubt that the accomplishments of linguists and others during the Middle Ages can’t come close to comparing with those of the Renaissance or later time periods, the contributions made during the “Dark Ages” should not be overlooked. In fact, from a linguistic point of view, this was an extremely crucial time. Not only were the basic principles of translation developed during the middle Ages, but also English itself began to take shape as a language of import for future years.

Studies on the theory and practice of medieval translation reveal therefore that the translation principles and the issues of translation theory in the Middle Ages derive from a long established tradition of translation theory developed by the classical authors. In practice, Roger Ellis states, medieval translation is heterogeneous; "every instance of practice that we may be tempted to erect into a principle has its answering opposite, sometimes in the same work (quoted in Evans, 1994: 27). Evidently, not only the critical approaches to translation in the Middle Ages but also theory and practice of translation of the period vary considerably. However, it seems that medieval translation utilises the translation and writing theories inherited from the classical authors to adopt a translational approach that recognises translation's vital role in the cultural transformation of the middle Ages. Page 96

This paper argues therefore that the medieval interest in translation can be considered as a cultural and political interest since the 1994. pp. 20-45. See Jeanette Beer, Medieval Translators and Their Craft.1989 and Roger Ellis (ed) assisted by Jocelyn Price, Stephen Medcalf and Peter Meredith. The Medieval Translator: The Theory and Practice of Translation in the Middle Ages: Papers Read at a Conference Held 20-23 August 1987 at the University of Wales Conference Centre, Gregynog //a//.Woodbridge, Suffolk: D.S. Brewer, 1989.

Rita Copeland, Rhetoric, Hermeneutics, and Translation in the Middle Ages: Academic Traditions and
Vernacular Texts. Cambridge, 1991. See particularly A. J. Minnis and A. B. Scots (eds) Medieval Literary
Theory and Criticism c.l 100-1375 The Commentary Tradition. Oxford, 1988.

Translations of the period are introduced as potential projects for cultural transformation. The formative role of translation in the middle Ages can be observed in medieval culture's awareness of the significance of cultural interaction. Medieval culture is a highly bookish culture, which contributed to the development of a vigorous translation activity in the Middle Ages. The recognition of the authority of the books seems to have led to the utilisation of the potential in translation for cultural education and transformation. As there was little or no difference between translation and original composition in the Middle Ages, translation was often considered in association with the pragmatic function of the book (Barratt, 1992:13-14).

In Geoffrey Chaucer's The Prologue to the Legend of Good Women, the fictional dialogue concerning the translations of the narrator provides an instructive interaction concerning translation activity as an integral part of cultural re-construction in the middle Ages.

The god of Love presents two works of Chaucer, the Troilus and Criseyde and the Romance of the Rose, as translations and questions the narrator's motives in choosing to translate works undermining the doctrine of Love (322-335). This fictional questioning introduces, in fact, the main attitude to translation in the middle Ages as it recognises the transformative role of translation on the target audience as an important issue the medieval translator recognises and aims at as the ultimate target of translation. Similarly, the narrator in Chaucer's Prologue to the Legend of Good Women argues that he wanted to teach the reader the true conduct in love through the experience of the lovers in the books he translated (471-474).

The translator in this fictional debate introduces the main objective of translation as making the works of foreign languages available to the linguistically disadvantaged audience for their cultural improvement. This rather pragmatic translational paradigm, moreover, introduces another important issue of medieval translation addressed by theoretical tradition of translation in the middle Ages. In fact, the translator accused of mistranslation in Chaucer's Prologue to the Legend of Good Women is also a writer, his accuser does not make a distinction between his role as a translator and his role as a writer.3 many of the medieval translators were also writers, and translation and interpretation were considered as important strategies in medieval composition. Moreover, most of the medieval translation activity from Latin into the vernacular involved a transfer of the past works into the vernacular by re-writing.
As Douglas Kelly argues, "such re-writing is 'translation' as literary invention, using pre-
existent source material. It is a variety of translation study « (1997: 48). Medieval reception of the translation theory of the classical antiquity as a principle governing creative activity led to a special sense of translation, that is, translation as "an 3 See the Prologue to the Legend of Good Women, lines 322-35 and 362-370. 97

".. And other bokes took me ...To reed upon ": Medieval Translation and Cultural Transformation 'unfaithful' yet artful interpretation or reinterpretation"(Kelly, 1997: 55), or "secondary translation" to put it in Copeland's words.

Identifying the important status of translation in the Middle Ages as a branch of writing reveals that the Middle Ages was not totally oblivious to the legacy of rhetorical and hermeneutic traditions of the classical antiquity. More importantly, it testifies to the significant function translation is given in the cultural transformation. As stated above, a theoretical understanding of translation in the middle Ages was largely dependent on the classical ideas of translation. Rita Copeland argues for the necessity of recognising the medieval awareness of the classical tradition as the strong theoretical foundation of Medieval translation.

==Translation in middle Ages (The Philological Perspective)==

Middle Ages epoch roughly represents the time between late fifth century and the fifteenth century A.D.in Europe. Middle Ages, however, continue until the advent of European Colonialism (about eighteenth century) in the 'Oriental' and African countries. With the spread of Christianity, translation takes a new role of disseminating the word of God. How to translate the divine words faithfully was a serious issue because of dogmatic and political concerns. “St. Jerome claims that he follows sense for sense approach rather than word for word approach when translating the New Testament in AD 384.”18 Since the aim of the divine text is to provide understanding and guidance, it seems logical to follow sense for sense approach. Thence, there is a possibility of intentional or unintentional change of meaning and the context; for these reasons, some scholars emphasize on the word for word translation approach. The first translation of the complete Bible into English was the Wycliffe Bible is which was produced between 1380 and 1384; “Wycliffe believes man should have direct contact with God and thus the Bible should be translated into language that man can understand, i.e. in the vernacular. Purvey believes translator should translate “after sentence (meaning),” not only after words. Martin Luther says, “... the meaning and subject matter must be considered, not the grammar, for the grammar should not rule over the meaning;”19 Criticism on sense for sense was widespread because it minimized the power of the church authorities, “while literal translation was bound up with the Bible and other religious and philosophical works, says Jeremy Monday; non-literal or non-accepted translation came to be seen and used as a weapon against the Church.”20“In the Western Europe this word-for-word versus sense-for-sense debate continued in one form or another until the twentieth century. The centrality of Bible to translation also explains the enduring theoretical questions about accuracy and fidelity to fixed source.”21 In the eighth and ninth century A.D., a large number of translations from Greek into Arabic gave rise to Arabic learning. “Scholars from Syria, a part of the Roman Empire (during 64B.C.-636A.D) came to Baghdad and translated Greek works of Physician Hippocrates (460-360 B.C.), philosophers Plato (427-327 B.C.) and Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) into Arabic during the eighth and ninth century A.D. Baghdad continued to be a centre of translations of Greek classics into Arabic even in the twentieth century A.D.”22 The dominance of religion is prominent in the Translation Era of Middle Ages. In this era, both the trends of Antiquity period can be seen in action, yet emphasis is again on the sense for sense approach.

==Translation In the middle Ages between the 12th and the 15 centuries;==

In the 12th and 13th centuries, the Toledo School of Translators (Escuela de Traductores de Toledo) became a meeting point for European scholars who — attracted by the high wages they were offered — came and settled down in Toledo, Spain, to translate major philosophical, religious, scientific and medical works from Arabic, Greek and Hebrew into Latin and Castilian. Toledo was a city of libraries offering a number of manuscripts, and one of the few places in medieval Europe where a Christian could be exposed to Arabic language and culture.

The Toledo School of Translators went through two distinct periods. Archbishop Raymond de Toledo, who advocated the translation of philosophical and religious works, led the first period (in the 12th century) mainly from classical Arabic into Latin. These Latin translations helped advance European Scholasticism, and thus European science and culture. King Alfonso X of Castile himself led the second period (in the 13th century). On top of philosophical and religious works, the scholars also translated scientific and medical works. Castilian — instead of Latin — became the final language, thus resulting in establishing the foundations of the modern Spanish language.

The translations of works on different sciences (astronomy, astrology, algebra, medicine) acted as a magnet for numerous scholars, who came from all over Europe to Toledo to learn first-hand about the contents of all those Arab, Greek and Hebrew works, before going back home to disseminate the acquired knowledge in European universities. While some Toledo translations of physical and cosmological works were accepted in most European universities in the early 1200s, the works of Aristotle and Arab philosophers were often banned, for example at the Sorbonne University in Paris.

Roger Bacon was a 13th-century English scholar heralded for his early exposition of a “universal grammar” (the concept that the ability to learn grammar is hard-wired into the brain). He was the first linguist to assess that a translator should know well both the source language and the target language to produce a good translation, and that the translator should be well versed in the discipline of the work he was translating. According to legend, after finding out that few translators did, Roger Bacon decided to do away with translation and translators altogether. However, his decision did not last long. He relied on many Toledo translations from Arabic into Latin to make major contributions in the fields of optics, astronomy, natural sciences, chemistry and mathematics.

Geoffrey Chaucer produced the first fine translations into English in the 14th century. Chaucer translated the “Roman de la Rose” from French, and Boethius’s works from Latin. He also adapted some works of the Italian humanist Giovanni Boccaccio to produce his own “Knight’s Tale” and “Troilus and Criseyde” (c.1385) in English. Chaucer is regarded as the founder of an English poetic tradition based on translations and adaptations of literary works in languages that were more “established” than English was at the time, beginning with Latin and Italian. The finest religious translation of that time was the “Wycliffe’s Bible” (1382-84), named after John Wycliffe, an English theologian who translated the Bible from Latin to English.

In the 15th century : Byzantine scholar Gemistus Pletho’s trip to Florence, Italy, pioneered the revival of Greek learning in Western Europe. Gemistus Pletho reintroduced Plato’s thought during the 1438-39 Council of Florence, in a failed attempt to reconcile the East-West schism (a 11th-century schism between the Eastern Orthodox and Catholic churches). During this Council, Pletho met Cosimo de Medici, the politician ruling Florence and a great patron of learning and the arts, and influenced him to found a Platonic Academy. Led by the Italian scholar and translator Marsilio Ficino, the Platonic Academy took over the translation into Latin of all Plato’s works, the “Enneads” of Plotinus and other Neo-Platonist works. Marsilio Ficino’s work — and Erasmus’ Latin edition of the New Testament — led to a new attitude to translation. For the first time, readers demanded rigor of rendering, as philosophical and religious beliefs depended on the exact words of Plato and Jesus (and Aristotle and others).

The great age of English prose translation began in the late 15th century with Thomas Malory’s “Le Morte d’Arthur” (1485), a free translation/adaptation of Arthurian romances about the legendary King Arthur, as well as Guinevere, Lancelot, Merlin and the Knights of the Round Table. Thomas Malory “interpreted” existing French and English stories about these figures while adding original material, e.g. the “Gareth” story about one of the Knights of the Round Table.4

== An Overview of Bible Translations in The Middle Ages==
The most significant turn in the history of translation came with the Bible translations. The efforts of translating the Bible from its original languages into over 2,000 others have spanned more than two millennia. Partial translation of the Bible into languages of English people can be stressed back to the end of the seventh century, including translations into Old English and Middle English. Over 450 versions have been created overtime.
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Bible translations in the Middle Ages discussions are in contrast to Late Antiquity, when the Bibles available to most Christians were in the local vernacular. In a process seen in many other religions, as languages changed, and in Western Europe, languages with no tradition of being written down became dominant, the prevailing vernacular translations remained in place, despite gradually becoming sacred languages, incomprehensible to the majority of the population in many places. In Western Europe, the Latin Vulgate, itself originally a translation into the vernacular, was the standard text of the Bible, and full or partial translations into a vernacular language were uncommon until the Late Middle Ages and the Early Modern Period. A page from the luxury illuminated manuscript Wenceslas Bible, a German translation of the 1390s.[1] From Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia

During the Migration Period Christianity spread to various peoples who had not been part of the old Roman Empire, and whose languages had yet no written form, or only a very simple one, like runes. Typically, the Church itself was the first to attempt to capture these languages in written form, and Bible translations are often the oldest surviving texts in these newly written-down languages. Meanwhile, Latin was evolving into new distinct regional forms, the early versions of the Romance languages, for which new translations eventually became necessary. However, the Vulgate remained the authoritative text, used universally in the West for scholarship and the liturgy since the early development of the Romance languages had not come to full fruition, matching its continued use for other purposes such as religious literature and most secular books and documents. In the early middle Ages, anyone who could read at all could often read Latin, even in Anglo-Saxon England, where writing in the vernacular (Old English) was more common than elsewhere. A number of pre-reformation Old English Bible translations survive, as do many instances of glosses in the vernacular, especially in the Gospels and the Psalms.[4] Over time, biblical translations and adaptations were produced both within and outside the church, some as personal copies for religious or lay nobility, and others for liturgical or pedagogical purposes.[5][6] From Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia

The Bible was translated into various languages in late antiquity; the most important of these translations are those in the Syriac dialect of Aramaic (including the Peshitta and the Diatessaron gospel harmony), the Ge'ez language of Ethiopia, and, in Western Europe, Latin. The earliest Latin translations are collectively known as the Vetus Latina, but in the late fourth century, Jerome re-translated the Hebrew and Greek texts into the normal vernacular Latin of his day, in a version known as the Vulgate (Biblia vulgata) (meaning "common version", in the sense of "popular"). Jerome's translation gradually replaced most of the older Latin texts, and gradually ceased to be a vernacular version as the Latin language developed and divided. The earliest surviving complete manuscript of the entire Latin Bible is the Codex Amiatinus, produced in eighth century England at the double monastery of Wearmouth-Jarrow. By the end of late, antiquity the Bible was therefore available and used in all the major written languages then spoken by Christians. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia

== Conclusion ==
The history of translation studies and the resurgence and genesis of the approaches to this emerging discipline was marked by the first century (BCE) commentator Cicero and then St. Jerome whose word-for-word and sense-for-sense approaches to translation was a springboard for other approaches and trends to thrive. From the medieval ages until now, each decade was marked by a dominant concept such as translatability, equivalence etc. Whilst before the twentieth century translation was an element of language learning, the study of the field developed into an academic discipline only in the second half of the twentieth century, when this field achieved a certain institutional authority and developed as a distinct discipline. As this discipline moved towards the present, the level of sophistication and inventiveness did in fact soared and new concepts, methods, and research projects were developed which interacted with this discipline. The brief review here, albeit incomplete, reflects the current fragmentation of the field into subspecialties, some empirically oriented, some hermeneutic and literary and some influenced by various forms of linguistics and cultural studies which have culminated in productive syntheses. In short, translation studies is now a field which brings together approaches from a wide language and cultural studies, that for its own use, modifies them and develops new models specific to its own requirements.
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© 2012 ACADEMY PUBLISHER Manufactured in Finland.
doi:10.4304/tpls.2.1.77-85

== References ==
-A page from the luxury illuminated manuscript Wenceslas Bible, a German translation of the 1390s.[1] From Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia

-Barnstone Willis. The Poetics of Translation: History, Theory and Practice. London: Yale University Press, 1993. Print. Bassnett, Susan and Lefevere, Andre (Eds.). Translation, History and Culture. London: Pinter, 1990. Print. 2- Barnstone Willis. The Poetics of Translation: History, Theory and Practice. London: Yale University Press, 1993. Print. Bassnett, Susan and Lefevere, Andre (Eds.). Translation, History and Culture. London: Pinter, 1990. Print.

-Early history of translation .By Marouane Zakhir English translator University of Soultan Moulay Slimane, Morocco

-From Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia

-https//www.tandfonline.com// 5- https//www.tandfonline.com//

-Prologue to the Legend of Good Women, lines 322-35 and 362-370. 97 ".. And other bokes took me ...To reed upon ": Medieval Translation and Cultural Transformation 'unfaithful' yet artful interpretation or reinterpretation"(Kelly, 1997: 55), or "secondary translation" to put it in Copeland's words.

-Susan * Assist. Prof. Dr., Hacettepe University, Department of English Language and Literature The problematic situation of Medieval translation in the academia is discussed by Ruth Evans in "Translating Past Cultures?" in The Medieval Translator /Vied. Roger Ellis and Ruth Evans, the University of Exeter Press, Medieval Translation and Cultural Transformation .

-SSN 1799-2591 Theory and Practice in Language Studies, Vol. 2, No. 1, pp. 77-85, January 2012 © 2012 ACADEMY PUBLISHER Manufactured in Finland. doi:10.4304/tpls.2.1.77-85.

-This article is about medieval Europe. For a global history of the period between the 5th and 15th centuries, see Post-classical history. For other uses, see middle Ages (disambiguation). "Medieval times" redirects here. For the dinner theatre, see Medieval Times.

-the 1994. pp. 20-45. See Jeanette Beer, Medieval Translators and Their Craft.1989 and Roger Ellis (ed) assisted by Jocelyn Price, Stephen Medcalf and Peter Meredith. The Medieval Translator: The Theory and Practice of Translation in the Middle Ages: Papers Read at a Conference Held 20-23 August 1987 at the University of Wales Conference Centre, Gregynog //a//.Woodbridge, Suffolk: D.S. Brewer, 1989.

^ Rita Copeland, Rhetoric, Hermeneutics, and Translation in the Middle Ages: Academic Traditions and Vernacular Texts. Cambridge, 1991. See particularly A. J. Minnis and A. B. Scots (eds) Medieval Literary Theory and Criticism c.l 100-1375 The Commentary Tradition. Oxford, 1988.

-Wikipedia .org/wiki/

=Chapter 2 History of Modern and Contemporary Chinese Translation=
“中国现当代翻译史”

[[Hist_Trans_EN_2]]

Li Xichang, 李习长, Hunan Normal University, China

=Chapter 3 The Translation of Buddihist Sutra in Chinese Translation History=
“佛经翻译”

[[Hist_Trans_EN_3]]

Huang Zhuliang 黄柱梁 Hunan Normal University, China

=王镇隆 The Brief History of Bible's Chinese Translation=
== Abstract==
Bible is the only Christian classic. Many Bible translation versions in the territory of China, including the Chinese characters and the languages of ethnic minorities, are not only the important events and modern history publication with the largest circulation, translated versions of books in the modern translation history, but also the close relationship with the modern transformation of Chinese characters and the creation of minority languages. Three aspects of Bible translation history, information, research and outlook are described in this paper.

== 摘要==
圣经是基督教的唯一经典，圣经翻译则是中国近代翻译史上的重要事件。当时的中国境内，出现了包括汉语汉字和少数民族语言文字的众多圣经译本，这不仅使圣经成为中国近代史上出版发行量最大、翻译版本最多的书籍，而且对中国的汉语汉字的近代转型和少数民族文字创制产生了重要影响。本文从 3 个方面对圣经中译的历史、资料、研究及展望进行了叙述。

== Key Words==
History of the Bible translation；Research review;Academic outlook

== 关键词==
圣经中译史；研究回顾；学术展望

== The Overall Introduction of Bible Translation==
“Bible” translation has a pivotal position in the history of Western translation. From the beginning of the era to today, the translation of the “Bible” has never stopped. The range of languages involved, the number of translations, and the frequency of use of translations,etc., are unmatched by the translation of any other work. A birds-eye view of the history of “Bible” translation has the following important milestones: the first is the “Seventy Sons Greek Text” before the Era, the second is the “Popular Latin Text Bible” from the 4th to 5th centuries, and the later the national languages of the early Middle Ages. The ancient texts (such as Old German, Old French translations), modern texts since the 16th century Reformation Movement (such as the Lutheran version of Germany, the King James version, etc.) and various modern texts. All these translations have made indelible contributions to the spread and development of Christianity in the West, as well as the prosperity and development of the languages and cultures of various nations.(Gu Changsheng,1991)

The “Bible” is the holy book of Christianity, including the “Old Testament” and “New Testament.” The Old Testament was written in BC. It is a classic of Judaism. It was inherited by Christianity from Judaism. The original text was in Hebrew. The New Testament was written in the second half of the first to second centuries, and the original text is in Greek. Throughout human history, language translation is almost as old as the language itself. Therefore, from the beginning of the era to today, the translation of the “Bible” has never stopped. The range of languages involved, the number of translations, and the frequency of use of the translations, etc., are unmatched by the translation of any other work. The translation of the "Bible" is mainly to spread the doctrine, so that people are influenced and accepted by the views. According to the “New Testament Acts” Chapter Two, Section One: The saints gathered on Pentecost, and they were all filled with the Holy Spirit, and spoke the words of other countries according to the eloquence given by the Holy Spirit. However, the translation at that time was mainly “interprete” or “interpretation.” Among them, St. Paul himself is a multilingual believer. He preached in Jerusalem, Athens and Rome in Hebrew, Greek and Italian respectively. The Bible was first translated from Hebrew into Greek, then into Latin, and then into Romanian, Portuguese, Spanish, Italian, and Walloon (wal-lon), German, French, Romance languages. English was then translated into various languages in the world, and the translations of its various texts were repeatedly revised by experts in the translation of the classics, which lasted more than ten centuries.

In the history of the translation of the Bible, it has gone through several milestone stages: the first is the “Seventy Sons Greek Text” before the era, the second is the “Popular Latin Text Bible” from the 4th to 5th centuries, and later it is the national languages of the early Middle Ages. Ancient texts (such as Old German, Old French translations), modern texts since the 16th century Reformation Movement (such as Luther, Casio Dorobin in Spain, King James Version in English, Nikon in Russia) and All kinds of modern texts (such as “American Standard Text” in English, “New English Bible” and “English Today”, etc.). “The Bible Old Testament” is the first important and earliest translation in ancient times in the West, and it was translated into Greek. The Old Testament was originally the official classic of Judaism, originally in Hebrew. The Jews have been scattered around for a long time and drifted overseas. Over time, they have forgotten the language of their ancestors and spoke foreign languages such as Arabic and Greek. Among them, Greek speakers accounted for the majority. In ancient times, the city of Alexandria in Egypt was the cultural and trade center of the eastern Mediterranean. The Jews living here accounted for two-fifths of the city’s total population. In the third century BC, in order to meet the increasingly urgent needs of these Greek-speaking Jews, the church decided to translate the Hebrew text of the Old Testament into a Greek text. In the second century BC, an unknown Jew once wrote an epistle article, which was later named “Letter of Aristeas” (“Letter of Aristeas”), which records that in the third century BC, Jerusalem At the request of Egyptian King Ptolemy II Feiradelphis (308-246 BC), Bishop Elizar sent translators to Alexandria to undertake the translation of the Old Testament. In this way, according to Ptolemy II's will, between 285 and 249 BC, 72 “noble” Jewish scholars gathered in the Library of Alexandria, Egypt, to perform this translation. According to legend, the 72 scholars came from 12 different Israeli tribes, with 6 from each tribe. After they came to the Library of Alexandria, they worked in pairs in 36 locations and translated them into 36 translations that were very similar to each other. Finally, 72 translators gathered together to compare and check the 36 translation manuscripts, and reached a consensus on the wording of the final version, and called it the “Seventy Son Text” or “Seventy Magi Translation”, that is, “Septuagint” (“Septuagint”), has since opened a precedent for collective translation in the history of translation. Soon after the translation of the “Seventy Sons”, the priests held a joint meeting with the Jewish leaders and pointed out: “This translation is well translated, pious, and very accurate. (Marshall Broomhall,1934,P.2)

Therefore, it must be kept as it is and cannot be changed.” We also regarded it as the classic translation. In fact, this Greek translation became the “second original”, and sometimes even replaced the Hebrew text and ascended to the throne of the “first original”. Many of the translations of the Bible in languages such as ancient Latin, Slavic, and Arabic are not based on the original Hebrew but on the Greek translation.

== Multilingualism in the Chinese version of the Bible==
According to the report of the World Union Bible Association in 2006, the new and Old Testament of the Bible has been translated into 301 different languages. If regional dialects and partial translations are included, the translated languages of the Bible have exceeded 2287 different languages. The Bible is the most widely circulated and translated book in the world.

If someone says that in Chinese history, the Bible has the largest number of translated versions, the largest number of Chinese language forms, both vernacular and classical Chinese, and the largest number of Chinese dialect forms. It has not only created nearly 10 ethnic minority languages, but also nearly 20 ethnic minority language translation books, but also the largest publication and circulation in modern history, There must be many people who don't believe it.(William Canton,1904,1910)

But this is the fact of history. The Chinese version of the Bible does have many historical “best”, which is related to the super pronunciation and super dialect nature of Chinese language and characters, the reform and cultural transformation of Chinese language and culture in the late Qing Dynasty and the early Republic of China, and the fact that most ethnic minorities in Southwest China have only language but no words. The period of the late Qing Dynasty and the beginning of the Republic of China, that is, the 1860s to the 1930s, was the period of the most drastic changes in Chinese language and characters, the period of the transformation of ancient Chinese and its culture into vernacular, the period of the widespread voice and hard practice of Chinese Latinization, the most active period of language and character reform, and the transformation and reform of Chinese language and characters, A variety of transitional writing methods have emerged due to text reform and stylistic changes. However, the reform and expression methods of multiple languages and characters in the late Qing Dynasty and the early Republic of China, some of which are even very short-lived transitional writing methods. The Bible has published translated versions in this text form. This can be best confirmed by many translations of the Bible, such as classical Chinese, half written and half spoken, vernacular, dialect Chinese characters, dialect church Roman characters, Wang Zhao Mandarin phonetic alphabets, Mandarin phonetic alphabets, Mandarin Roman characters, weituoma Pinyin, kuaizi, a variety of ethnic minority characters, blind characters and so on.(Li Kuanshu,1998)

The large-scale cultural exchange and interaction between China and the west is an important historical phenomenon in the modern world. This cultural relationship has not only changed the cultural and political pattern all over the world, but also greatly affected the development of Chinese culture and society. Language contact is not only an important part of cultural relations, but also an important prerequisite for all other exchanges. The large-scale and multilingual cross-cultural in-depth language and cultural exchange is a modern cultural phenomenon gradually formed all over the world after the great discovery of geography. It is also a prominent manifestation in the history of China's modern foreign cultural relations, which is particularly different from previous dynasties.

The language and cultural exchange in modern China began with the arrival of Christian missionaries in China. As the only classic of Christian religion, the Bible inevitably involves the problems of how to translate into China’s local language, how to adapt to and influence the local ideology and culture in the historical process of Christian communication and translation.

The earliest translation of the Bible in China can be extended to the Tang Dynasty, which has a long history of thousands of years. Although the Bible translation activities have been interrupted, they continue to this day. In Taiwan and Hong Kong, the Bible translation is still not over.

== Bible Translation from Different Perspectives==
From the perspective of language, Bible translation can be divided into Chinese language and minority language. In addition to the Chinese translation (the Chinese translation is described in detail below), in the process of Bible translation, the missionaries took advantage of the Pinyin advantages of their Latin mother tongue and combined with the pronunciation of local minority languages to create Pinyin characters in the form of Latin letters for those southwest minorities who only have spoken language but no words, that is, bagri Miao Language (old Miao Language) in Northeast Yunnan Frame format: East Lisu, Funeng Renxi Lisu (old Lisu), Jingpo, Zawa, Lahu, Buyi, WA, etc. It also borrowed Chinese phonetic alphabets and modified and created Hu Zhizhong’s Miao language. They translated and published the complete Scriptures or section translations of Jingpo language, Zaiwa language, East Lisu language, West Lisu language, Yi language, Nuosu language and Gepo language, Lahu language, WA language, Naxi language, Dehong Dai language, Xishuangbanna Dai language, Huayao Dai language, Huamiao language, Chuanmiao language, heimiao language, Buyi language and other languages. Among them, Jingpo, Funeng Renxi Lisu and bagri Miao are still widely used in society, and Hu Zhizhong Miao is still used among religious believers in Kaili, Guizhou. These characters not only ended the history of these nationalities without characters, but also provided great reference and Enlightenment for the large-scale creation of characters for ethnic minorities in New China. In the northern minority languages, the missionaries also translated and published Bible translations in Mongolian (karmec Mongolian, kalka Mongolian, Buryat Mongolian), Tibetan (Tibetan Classical Chinese, Tibetan Ladakh dialect, Tibetan Lahore dialect), Manchu, Kazakh and Korean. In Taiwan, missionaries and today’s Taiwan Christian Church have also created Pinyin characters in the form of Latin letters for the Paiwan, Taiya, AMI, Taroko, Yamei, Bunun, Lukai, Dawu and other indigenous peoples, translated and published biblical translations, which are still in use today.

From the perspective of Chinese style, Chinese versions of the Bible can be divided into three categories:
1. Classical Chinese translation, that is, the translation of deep arts and Sciences: in history, there have been yangmano's direct interpretation of the Bible, daysun's translation, masman's translation, Morrison's translation, Guo Shili's translation, commissioned translation (or representative translation), bizhiwen / kebicun translation, Gaode translation, the printed version of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom, lianweiren translation, and Heshen's translation of Arts and Sciences.
2. Half written and half white translation, i.e. shallow liberal arts translation: in history, there have been Yang Ge's non shallow liberal arts translation, Shi Joseph's shallow liberal arts translation, Bao John / Ke Bicun translation and hehe shallow liberal arts translation.
3. Vernacular translation: China is a country with many dialects. Six of China's seven dialects have Bible translations. Among them, nine branches of five dialects, including Wu, min, Guangdong, Hakka and Mandarin, have biblical Chinese characters. They are Nanjing dialect translation, Beijing dialect translation, Hankou dialect translation, Tianjin dialect translation, Shanghai dialect translation, Ningbo Dialect translation, Suzhou dialect translation, Hangzhou dialect translation, Fuzhou dialect translation, Xiamen dialect translation, Shantou dialect translation, Guangzhou dialect translation, Hakka dialect translation Hakka Sanjiang dialect translation. In 1919, the vernacular intensive cost and official script appeared, which is the Bible translation used by the Christian Church of China.

From the perspective of Chinese text form, Bible translation can be basically divided into seven categories:
1. Chinese Character Edition: in history, there were classical Chinese character edition and vernacular Chinese Character Edition (including dialect Chinese Character Edition);
2. Roman script of church Dialect: missionaries spell the words of local dialects according to the Latin alphabet. There are 15 branches of the six dialects, including Nanjing dialect translation, Beijing dialect translation, Shandong dialect translation, Shanghai dialect translation, Ningbo Dialect translation, Hangzhou dialect translation, Wenzhou dialect translation, Jinhua dialect translation, Taizhou dialect translation, Fuzhou dialect translation Bible translations of Xiamen dialect, Shantou dialect, Xinghua dialect, Jianyang dialect, Shaowu dialect, Hainan dialect, Guangzhou dialect, Hakka Guangdong and Taiwan dialect, Hakka Wujingfu dialect, Hakka Tingzhou dialect and Hakka Jianning dialect;
3. Wang Zhao Mandarin phonetic alphabet: the Bible is spelled with Wang Zhao Mandarin phonetic alphabet. There have been Bible translations of Tianjin dialect, Hankou dialect, Hebei dialect and Jiaodong dialect;
4. Mandarin phonetic alphabet: there have been Bible translations of Fuzhou dialect and Jiaodong dialect;
5. Braille script；
6. Quick script: that is, the Bible translation of early sketch;
7. Weituoma Pinyin book.

In terms of publication forms, there are many kinds of publications, such as Chinese character edition, Chinese character and foreign language comparison edition, Chinese character and Mandarin phonetic alphabet comparison edition, Chinese character and Wang Zhao Mandarin phonetic alphabet comparison edition, Chinese character and church Roman character comparison edition, church Roman character and Mandarin phonetic alphabet comparison edition, etc. As far as the editions are concerned, there are single volume edition, multi volume edition, the New Testament, the Old Testament, the New Testament with psalms, the new and Old Testament, etc., with a total number of more than 1000. Based on the American Bible Society, the British Bible Society and the Scottish Bible Society, which had the greatest influence in old China and published and sold various versions of the Bible, a total of 225 million copies were sold from 1814 to 1934; From 1814 to 1950, 279351752 copies were sold.
After the founding of new China, the Chinese Christian Church basically took the heheguan vernacular Version (later called hehehe vernacular version, hereinafter referred to as hehe version) as the Bible translation dedicated to the church, and no other Chinese classical Chinese or dialect versions of the Bible were published. As of December 2007, the Christian Church of China has printed and distributed 50 million copies of Hehe vernacular books. China has become one of the countries with the largest number of printed Bibles in the world.

== Writings and Work Records of Biblical Translators==
As the only classic of Christian religion, the meaning of the Bible is different. Since the Christian foreign missionaries came to China in the 19th century, they have been translating the Bible continuously, and published many documents and works at the same time. Most of these archives and works are the reports and introductions of Christian sects to publicize and introduce their own work achievements, which are limited to the publicity of their own sects without academic and serious research.

The earliest works related to the translation and recording of Bible translation were written by personnel and institutions related to Christian religion. The first documentary about the Chinese Bible translation is the Bible in China by Alexander Wylie, a missionary who once served as the director of the British Bible Society. This article records the earliest Bible translation in China, which is the work report of Alexander Wylie.

Among the records of missionaries on Bible translation, the Bible in China written by Marshall Broomhall, a missionary of the mainland church, is the most concentrated and representative. Hainbo is the director general of the headquarters of the mainland Association in London and is responsible for editing China's million, the most important publication of the mainland Association, for 20 years.

Another book about Bible translation is the Chinese versions of the Bible (1934) written by A. J. Garnier, a missionary of the British Baptist Church. His book is more often seen in its Chinese translation, which is compiled by George Milligan.

History of the spread of the New Testament (Guangzhou society, 1934). These two books are not long, about 100000 words. They describe the general situation of Bible translation from ancient times to now. They are basically the working records and introduction of Bible translation. The recording time is up to the three combined versions of the main translations of missionaries in 1919. The early Catholic translation, the Christian minority language translation in the late Qing Dynasty and the early Republic of China, and the Chinese dialect translation are too vague and too brief to cover, including the Chinese translation and the Catholic sigo translation. They can not be called academic research works. The Bible translation of missionaries is mostly missionary encouragement and publicity, which belongs to the missionary works of the church.

In modern Chinese history, foreign institutions or individuals have many publishing and sales institutions in China, among which the Bible has a certain nature of exclusive translation, monopoly and sales. The Chinese translation of the Bible is basically undertaken by the Bible Societies of various countries in China. Among the Foreign Bible Societies in China, the American Bible Society, the British Bible Society and the Scottish bible society are mainly responsible for the dissemination of the Chinese Bible, including the organization and arrangement of Bible translation, financial support, the formulation of translation principles, the selection and determination of translators, the publication and reprint of the Bible, the sales of the Bible, and almost all the leading work of Bible translation. The most detailed work on the history of the British bible society so far is a history of the British and Foreign Bible Society written by William Canton, which introduces the work of the British Bible Society in the 19th century. The more important work in recent years is the cheap Bibles: Nineteen Century Publishing and the British and Foreign Bible Society written by Leslie Howsam, but its history and content are still dominated by the 19th century. For the history of the British Bible Society in the first half of the 20th century, please refer to a history of the British and Foreign Bible Society, 1900-1954 written by James M. roe. As for the historical works of the American Bible Society, what is important is the centennial history of the American Bible Society written by Henry O. Dwight, which introduces the work progress of the American Bible Society around the world in the 19th century. Chinese Bible translation is only a small part of it. In the same year, translations of the scripts into the languages of China and her dependencies [10], written by John R. hykes, director general of the American Bible Society in China, specifically described the Bible translation work of the American Bible Society in China. These monographs introduced the missionary work of various Bible Societies in China, especially the printing and distribution of the Bible.

In the Chinese recorder edited by missionaries, there are scattered information about the translation and publication of various versions of Bible translation written by missionaries in different times, or missionaries' discussions on various affairs and research of Bible translation. Educational administration magazine is an English magazine sponsored by missionaries in China for more than 100 years.
== Catalogue of Biblical Editions==
In addition to the reports of the Bible guild and missionaries, there are some catalogues of Biblical translations that can be viewed as data. Alexander Wylie, a British missionary, has been acting for the British Bible Association since 1863. He catalogued all kinds of Christian books and periodicals published at that time and published the biographies and works of missionaries who came to China in 1867 （Memorials of Protestant Missionaries to the Chinese Given a List of Their Publications and Obituary Notices of the Deceased, with Copious Indexes） The book records the life stories, catalogues and abstracts of early missionaries in China, and is the most complete bibliography of religious translation in the period of the Republic of China. However, according to the author's comparative verification of the original Bible translations collected by the National Library, it is found that the catalogue misjudges some of the Bible translations, or some translations do not judge the translations, so it is necessary to judge them according to each library Up to now, the catalogue of Chinese versions of the Bible published abroad is more detailed than the collection, introduction and description of the collection information and records of the mainland edition catalogue.

== Academic Research: Western Part==
Thor strandenaes graduated from Uppsala University in Sweden in 1987. His doctoral thesis principles of Chinese Bible translation is the earliest doctoral thesis focusing on the Chinese Bible. He is particularly inclined to compare different Chinese versions of the Bible. From the perspective of translatology and Christian theological interpretation, he analyzes the translation principles of five Bible versions, including Morrison's version of Shen Wenli, the Commission's version of Shen Wenli, the vernacular hehe version, the Catholic SIKO Bible version and the modern Chinese version of Taiwan. He believes that Bible translation has strong inheritance and mutual influence, But at the same time, Catholicism and Christianity have formed their own translation style and vocabulary system. Shi Fulai is a priest, so his research especially emphasizes the theological factors and influence of Bible translation . Jost zetzsche graduated from the University of Hamburg, Germany, in 1999. His doctoral dissertation the Bible in China: the history of the union version or the cultivation of Bible missionary Bible translation in China is a masterpiece in recent years. From the perspective of Christian theological theory and church use, he also discussed the Bible and the combined version, which has the greatest influence, the largest circulation and is still used by the Christian Church, and came to the conclusion that the combined version is the greatest achievement of Bible translation. Both English Monographs discuss the attitude and evolution of missionaries towards Bible translation, the role of Bible translation in the spread of Christianity in China, the scale of Bible distribution, the evolution of Bible translation and sales institutions from the perspective of church position and theology. The paper has a certain historical overview of various early versions, especially the deep arts and science versions, but it does not involve the dialect Bible versions and ethnic minority Bible versions, nor does it discuss the significance and role of the Bible as a Christian classic.
This paper studies one of dozens of translations of the Bible - the translation of different stylistic versions of heheben, as well as the theological basis and theological disputes of the translated Heben. Both of these doctoral theses give full play to the author's expertise in Western mother tongue, and focus on one aspect with the archives of the Christian missionary church, including work reports and letters, work records and the archives of the Bible Association as the main data sources.

Including the discussion of individual translations or translators. Thor strantenaes's paper anonymous Bible translators: native language and the translation of the Bible into Chinese (1817-1917) discusses the role of Chinese people in Chinese Bible translation. Due to the cultural arrogance of missionaries, The contribution and role of Chinese scholars in Bible translation has been buried. Reading Christian scripts in China, edited by chole Starr, is a collection of multiple papers to explore the translation of the Chinese Bible in the 19th century and its impact on the final synthesizer and integration of the Bible.

== Academic Research: Chinese Part==
So far, the Chinese world has not carried out in-depth and systematic historical investigation and academic research on the Bible translation. Only in the history of Chinese Christianity, the history of modern Chinese printing and the history of modern Chinese translation can we see some brief introductions, such as Gu Changsheng's missionaries and modern China (page 16); Yang Senfu's history of Christianity in China (12 pages); A brief history of Christianity in China by Li kuanshu (5 pages); Wang Zhixin's outline of the history of Christianity in China (4 pages); Chen Yugang's historical manuscript of Chinese literary translation (5 pages).
The more in-depth discussions basically point to the theoretical discussion of Chinese Bible translation. The most important thing is the discussion on "term question", sometimes called "holy number problem". This problem involves how to use Chinese to call Hebrew "YHWH" and "Elohim", Greek "theos", Latin "Deus" or English "God", and how to translate theological names such as "Holy Spirit", "an - gel" or "baptism". How to translate holy names into Chinese is not only a linguistic and theological problem, but also involves the connotation of Chinese religious beliefs, but also involves how one language and culture is translated into another language and culture of heterogeneous paganism. This is a long-standing and controversial topic on translation in the history of Chinese Christian religion. Until today, there is still no final conclusion within Christianity. Zhao Weiben's "debate on the translation of the Chinese Bible: Shenhu? Dihu" is an early academic paper on the dispute over the translation of the Chinese Bible; Li Chi Chang, editor in chief, compiled more than 60 debates on the translation of "God" and "God" published by Chinese Christians in the communique of nations from 1877 to 1878. It pays close attention to the opinions and responses of Chinese Christians, It is a significant revision of the tendency of many works and historical materials to only pay attention to missionaries and forget the Chinese people. Zhao Xiaoyang's translation and introduction of local culture and foreign religions in regeneration: from the perspective of the Chinese translation of God and God discusses the fierce debate between Catholicism and Christianity on the "translation problem" for 300 years. Under the interpretation of Western religious ideas, the traditional Chinese words "God" and "God" have been gradually Christianized, lost the connotation of their original local religion, and regenerated into new words symbolizing western culture. This paper goes beyond the narrow theological scope of discussing the translation of names within the church in the past, and discusses this cultural problem from a broader perspective. Cheng Xiaojuan's doctoral thesis, discussion and acceptance of "God" in Chinese Bible translation, comprehensively examines the discussion of Western missionaries on the translation of "God" and the history of Chinese acceptance of "God", hoping to form a horizontal investigation of the complete cultural exchange system of "dissemination acceptance", Vertically, it shows their historical changes in different historical situations and cultural exchange stages.
Cai Jintu's doctoral thesis, the orientation and problems of commissioned Chinese Bible translation, specially discusses one of many deep arts and science translations - commissioned translation, its translatological principles, translation activities, sales, assistance of Chinese assistants, etc., focusing on the theological theory of Bible translation, And the influence of these theological theories on Chinese Bible translation and the development of Christian Church. Ren Dongsheng's doctoral thesis, a study on the culture of Bible Chinese translation, discusses the thematic changes of Bible literature, history and theology from the perspective of translatology.

At present, the academic research on the Chinese version of the Bible is still insufficient. So far, only Ma min's mahiman, Rasha and the early Chinese translation of the Bible has achieved a high level of academic research results; Wu Yixiong's the dispute over translation names and the Chinese translation of the early Bible; Zhao Xiaoyang's research on the relationship between the two horse Bible versions and the daysun Bible versions, an analysis of the origin of the printed Bible base in the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom, Chiang Kai Shek and Bible translation during the war of resistance against Japan, and a historical overview of the Centennial Ministry of the American Chinese Bible Society. Based on the discovery of new materials in Chinese and English, these Chinese papers textual research and analyze the basic historical facts of the Bible translation and Foreign Bible Societies, and describe the work contents of Bible translation, personnel changes, Bible sales, version identification and textual research, disputes and focus during translation in each period. These research papers only involve the earliest translation of Christian missionaries or the Bible translation of Chiang Kai Shek, a famous political figure in modern history.
== Conclusion==
But up to now, due to the differences and opposites between Catholicism and Christianity, there are differences and estrangements among many sects in Christianity; Under the influence of social and political ideology, academic circles have neglected and lacked this field intentionally or unintentionally in the past; The objective difficulties in the study of Chinese versions of the Bible, such as the vast majority of archival materials and various versions are kept abroad, and the majority of foreign materials; There is still no academic research monograph on the historical investigation of the whole Chinese translation of the Bible. The existing in-depth research on Chinese Bible translation is also limited to the most famous versions of the Bible in the history of Chinese Bible translation, such as the marsmian version, the Morrison version, the Guo Shili version, the commissioned version and so on. There is no dialect translation and minority language translation of the Bible, no Roman Bible translation of many churches, and no Chinese translation in the post missionary era. Special studies on the impact, response and reference of Chinese Bible translation on Chinese language, language reform, social culture, new literature and new words, the impact of Chinese Bible translation on the spread and development of Chinese Christian religion, the impact and response of Chinese Bible translation on Chinese traditional ideology and culture, and the impact and significance of Chinese Bible translation on the history of Chinese translation, It is even more rare to pay. The research on the translation and influence of the Bible is a blank spot that needs to be developed. It is worth us to devote ourselves to it and make a difference.

== References==

Marshall Broomhall, The Bible in China, London: British and Foreign Bible Society, 1934, p.2.

William Canton, A History of the British and Foreign Bible Society，London: John Murray, 1904, 1910.

Leslie Howsam, Cheap Bibles: Nineteenth-Century Publishing and the British and Foreign Bible Society,Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991.

Henry O. Dwight, The Centennial History of the American Bible Society, New York: Macmillan, 1916.

Hubert W. Spillett, A Catalogue of Scriptures in the Languages of China and the Republic of China, Hong Kong: British and Foreign Bible Society,1975.

Eugene A. Nida, The Book of A Thousand Tongues, New York: United Bible Societies, 1972.

Chloe Starr edit, Reading Christian Scriptures in China,London: T&T Clark, 2008.

Tony 汤因. 中国基督教圣经事业史料简编 A compendium of historical materials on the cause of Chinese Christian Bible [J] 协进 Xie Jin, 1953 (9): 48

Gu Changsheng 顾长声.传教士与近代中国 Missionaries and modern China [M] 上海：上海人民出版社 Shanghai: Shanghai People's publishing house,1991

Yang Senfu 杨森富.中国基督教史 History of Christianity in China [M] 台北：商务印书馆 Taipei: Commercial Press, 1968

Li kuanshu 李宽淑.中国基督教史略 A brief history of Christianity in China [M] 北京：社会科学文献出版社 Beijing: Social Science Literature Press,,1998

Wang Zhixin 王治心.中国基督教史纲 Outline of Chinese Christian history [M] 上海：上海古籍出版社 Shanghai: Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House,2004

1Chen Yugang 陈玉刚.中国文学翻译史稿 History of Chinese literary translation [M] 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司，Beijing: China translation and Publishing Corporation, 1992

== 叶维杰 Medieval Arabic Translation Movement=
中世纪阿拉伯翻译运动
Ye Weijie 叶维杰 Hunan Normal University, China

== Abstract==
The Medieval Arabic Translation Movement(The Harakah al—Tarjamah) is also called the Translation Movement. It was a large-scale organized academic activity carried out by the Arab Empire in the Middle Ages to translate and introduce ancient Greek and Eastern scientific and cultural classics. The Abbasid Caliphate implemented a diversified and inclusive cultural policy, vigorously advocated and sponsored the translation of academic classics from ancient Greece, Rome, Persia, India and other countries into Arabic to absorb advanced cultural heritage. The Arabic translation movement preserved the natural sciences and humanities in ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and played an extremely important role in promoting the cultural revival of European political and cultural conditions in the late Middle Ages. The Hundred-Year Arab Translation Movement lasted for more than two hundred years, spanning the vast regions of Asia, Africa, and Europe, and blending ancient Eastern and Western cultures such as Persia, India, Greece, Rome, and Arabia. There are not many translation activities in the history of world civilization. Analyzing its causes, processes, results, and impacts is of great academic value for studying the phased development of human civilization and the commonality of human wisdom, and it is also of great help to deeply understand the Arab Islamic philosophy and culture.

== Key words==
Harakah al—Tarjamah, translation movement, Western culture, Islamic culture，Middle Ages

== 摘要 ==
中世纪的阿拉伯语翻译运动（The Harakah al-Tarjamah）也叫百年翻译运动。它是中世纪阿拉伯帝国为翻译和介绍古希腊和东方科学文化经典而进行的有组织的大型学术活动。阿拔斯王朝哈里发推行多元包容的文化政策，大力倡导和赞助将古希腊、罗马、波斯、印度等国的学术经典译成阿拉伯文，吸收先进的文化遗产。阿拉伯语翻译运动保存了古希腊罗马文化中的自然科学和人文学科，对中世纪晚期欧洲政治文化状况的文化复兴起到了极其重要的推动作用。阿拉伯百年翻译运动持续了两百多年，横跨亚非欧广大地区，融合了波斯、印度、希腊、罗马、阿拉伯等古老的东西方文化。世界文明史上的翻译活动并不多。分析其成因、过程、结果和影响，对于研究人类文明的阶段性发展和人类智慧的共性具有重要的学术价值，对于深入了解阿拉伯伊斯兰哲学和文化也有很大帮助。

== 关键词 ==
阿拉伯百年翻译运动，翻译运动，西方文化，伊斯兰文化，中世纪

== Introduction==
The Harakah al—Tarjamah is also called the Translation Movement. The Centennial Arab Translation Movement lasted for more than two hundred years. The content of translation involved cultural achievements such as ancient Greek and Roman culture, Persian Mesopotamian culture, and ancient Indian culture. It spanned three continents and five seas in space and was the most extensive in human history. One of the major events. The Arab translation movement in the middle of the eighth century to the end of the tenth century not only changed the backward state of the Arab nation, but also gave birth to a strong Arab-Islamic culture; and its document translation was extremely important to the Renaissance movement in the later political and cultural state of Europe.The Arab Empire in the Middle Ages carried out large-scale and organized academic activities that translated and introduced ancient Greek and Eastern scientific and cultural classics. The Abbasid Caliphate implemented a diversified and inclusive cultural policy, vigorously advocated and sponsored the translation of academic classics from ancient Greece, Rome, Persia, India and other countries into Arabic to absorb advanced cultural heritage. The Arabic translation movement preserved the natural sciences and humanities in ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and played an extremely important role in promoting the cultural revival of European political and cultural conditions in the late Middle Ages. The Hundred-Year Arab Translation Movement lasted for more than two hundred years, spanning the vast regions of Asia, Africa, and Europe, and blending ancient Eastern and Western cultures such as Persia, India, Greece, Rome, and Arabia. There are not many translation activities in the history of world civilization. Analyzing its causes, processes, results, and impacts is of great academic value for studying the phased development of human civilization and the commonality of human wisdom, and it is also of great help to deeply understand the Arab Islamic philosophy and culture.

The Arabic translation movement can be divided into three periods: the first period is from the middle and late 8th century to the late 9th century. Translation activities in this period were mainly carried out with the support of the famous Caliph Mansour and Harun Rashid. The translated books are mainly Persian works, and the content mostly revolves around astronomy and medicine. The second period was from the early 9th century to the middle and late 9th century. The Caliph Maimon strongly supported this matter and achieved the golden age of the 100-year translation movement. The content involved ancient Greek philosophy, natural sciences, etc.; the last period was from the middle and late 9th century to the early 10th century. During this period, the support of the Caliphate and the pace of translation declined, and a lot of work was retranslation and revision of previous translations. At this time, the translation movement has also entered its end. The century-old translation movement with a history of more than 200 years changed the backwardness of the Arab nation and gave birth to Arab-Islamic culture, which had a significant impact on Arab society. This movement promoted the exchange of various cultures while preserving classics and ancient books. Rongtong has added an important heritage to the world cultural treasure house, and has had a positive and valuable impact on the development of world culture. This article will give a more systematic introduction to the movement, divided into the following three parts: the reasons for the translation movement, the Baghdad Translation Center of the translation movement, and the influence of the translation movement.

== The Background and Cause of Translation Movement ==

During the Umayyad dynasty, Arab Muslims were fully aware of the importance of absorbing the highly developed spiritual culture of foreign nations. In order to adapt to the actual needs of society, Khalid bin Yazid organized a group of people who were proficient in Syriac, Greek or Persian scholars, focusing on the translation of ancient books in medicine and pharmacology and chemistry, and have conducted translation explorations in a broader academic field. The beginning of the Arabic translation movement and its subsequent 200-year glorious achievements are mainly due to the following four factors:

1.Geographical factors:

Since Mansour, the second caliph of the Abbasid dynasty, established its capital in Baghdad, the important position of Baghdad as the political, economic and cultural center of the dynasty has been highlighted. Baghdad is located in the two rivers basin of West Asia and is located in the main traffic arteries between the East and the West. Throughout the history of civilizations in the world, rivers and civilizations have accompanied each other. The superior geographical location has created good conditions for cultural exchanges, accelerated the circulation of classics from various countries, and provided large-scale translation activities. Provides a wealth of source text.

Damascus, the capital of the former Umayyad dynasty, was handed over to Muslim rule after several regime changes. Prior to this, Damascus was an important center of Greco-Roman culture, with Greek as the official language, while the new capital of the Abbasid dynasty, Baghdad, was close to Persia. Ctesiphon, the old capital of the Sassanid Dynasty, was influenced by Persian culture before Islamic cultural rule. Therefore, during the translation movement at that time, a considerable number of Persian translators participated in the translation, and a large number of Persian classics were translated into Arabic and retained . "The Persian influence set back the original life of the Arabians, and paved the way for a new era characterized by the development of science and academic research." By translating classic works of other ethnic groups, cultural exchanges between different ethnic groups can be realized. Translation Played an important role as a bridge. At the same time, the Persian aristocracy made great contributions to the establishment of the Abbasid dynasty and was quite influential in the regime. The caliph also urgently needed the support of this force to promote cultural integration and identity identification among different ethnic groups. Therefore, geopolitical factors are undoubtedly one of the important driving forces for the vigorous development of the Abbasid dynasty translation movement.

2.Religious factors:

In the early days of the Umayyad dynasty, the domestic political situation was basically stable, but there were still some political opponents and religious scholars dissatisfied with the rule. The influence of Christianity still exists. Islam, as a relatively young faith, has impacted on different religions and cultures. Make efforts to gain a firm foundation. In the early days of the rise of Islam, the spread of teachings could only be done through word of mouth, and academic interpretation was mainly based on the Koran. Except for Arabic and Islam, the early Muslims failed to import advanced culture or science and technology into the conquered areas, and only focused on consolidating the rule of Islam in the Arab region. The purpose of early translation activities was limited to promoting the dissemination of Islamic culture. For religious purposes, the original intent of religious works was greatly changed during the translation process. Although this practice can play a certain missionary role, it violates the basic principles of translation, fails to accurately convey the original information, and loses the inheritance significance of the original.

After the establishment of the Abbasid dynasty, the Islamization of the empire further deepened, and at the same time a batch of fresh religious and cultural blood was injected. The Quran is more tolerant towards foreign denominations such as Judaism and Christianity. Especially for Christians, the Quran calls them “the closest people to Muslims”. Under the guidance of this doctrine, “The Abbasid Empire has become an Islamic empire instead of a Umayyad-style “Arab Empire”. A large number of infidels and Muslims intermarried, reducing the ideological gap between various ethnic groups. Translator The religious structure of the group has been substantially adjusted. The converts filtered by Islamic ideology brought an active academic atmosphere and non-Islamic theological concepts, and multidisciplinary systems such as linguistics, literature, law, philosophy, and mathematics were gradually formed.

Islamic culture was further enriched in the Abbasid dynasty. The spirit of advocating knowledge and scholarship became the spiritual source of the translation movement during this period. The increasingly diversified inner religious spirit became the source of the translation movement, and promoted the translators of different religions. Translation behavior and multiple beliefs collide with each other, the scale of translation continues to expand, and the types and content of translations are also enriched by the tolerance of religious and cultural attitudes. The prosperity of the translation movement was promoted by many factors. At the religious and cultural level, the acceptance of various religious beliefs is a prerequisite for the vigorous development of the translation movement. If Muslims completely reject paganism and force other believers to convert to Islam, the participation of Christians or Jews in translation activities will be greatly reduced, the diversity of translator groups will be combated, and the perspective of translation research will inevitably be affected.

3.Science and technology factors:

In terms of science and technology, two factors have jointly promoted the development of translation, one is the foundation of early document translation, and the other is the introduction of papermaking.

The Prophet Muhammad said: “Learning is divided into two categories: religious learning and physical learning (medicine).” Translators of the Umayyad Dynasty followed this precept and performed sporadic translations of works on medicine, philosophy, and chemistry. , Pave the way for the emergence of the golden age of the translation movement in the later dynasties. "As for the natural sciences such as medicine, logic, and mathematics of the Islamic nation, it has been systematic from the beginning. Because partial research on it has already been carried out in Greece, India, Persia and other countries, and it has been sorted and recorded. It’s the stage of analysis and analysis. In the Abbasid era, these subjects were completely translated into Arabic without starting from scratch. Perhaps, when the writers of the paraphrasing subjects saw the rigorous system of natural science, they copied their practices. Some styles that they think are good have been added.” The scientific inquiry and translations of works in early Islam facilitated the prosperity of the translation movement, and Abbasid translators only needed to review the documents based on the collated documents. Or retranslation, which greatly improves the accuracy of translation.

The status of the development of emerging technologies in the Arab translation movement is undeniable, but technological development is equally important to the spread of early civilizations and is not unique to the Abbasid dynasty, so it cannot be used as a unique motivation for the emergence of large-scale translation activities in the Abbasid dynasty. However, the introduction of papermaking technology did make an indelible contribution to the cultural heritage of the empire. The first paper mill in the empire was located in Samarkand on the Silk Road in Central Asia. In the centuries before it was conquered by Islam, this city was already one of the most prosperous cities in the Persian Empire, and it was the academic center of Persia until the Middle Ages. The smooth flow of Eastern Commercial Road brought papermaking technology to Muslim countries. The introduction of papermaking has obvious influence on the translation movement. The Arabs replaced expensive parchment with relatively inexpensive paper, which made writing records and book circulation more convenient and expanded. People's demand for academic works has promoted the large-scale emergence of translation movement.

4.Translation ability factor：

Maimon, the seventh caliph of the Abbasid dynasty, established a "wisdom palace" on the basis of the Mansour Royal Library to recruit academic elites from all walks of life for translation work. The historian Yakubi once described the academic style in Baghdad: "Scholars in Baghdad have a higher education level, where experts are more knowledgeable in tradition, grammarians are more reliable in syntax... Logicians think more clearly Missionaries are also more eloquent.” Although the translators of this period were not true translators, they all had received strict philosophical and logical training. Some Syrian Christians specially returned to Greece to study in order to improve their language skills. They used Syriac as their mother tongue as a translation agency and played an important role in the translation movement. The translators in the Abbasid period built bridges between different languages and cultures with their outstanding professional ability, serious translation attitude and unlimited enthusiasm for science, which became another important driving force for the vigorous development of translation movement.

With the popularization of academic knowledge and the dissemination of various books, the scientific and cultural literacy of translators has also been comprehensively improved. The increase in knowledge reserves in astronomy, medicine, philosophy, etc. makes translation activities not only at the level of mechanical code switching. , But based on understanding and even proficiency in the meaning of the text, improving the level of translation in terms of translation quality and translation speed.

== Baghdad Translation Center ==

Baghdad Translation Center:

Before the Arab conquest, there was a tradition of studying ancient Greek cultural classics and translating them into Syriac. With the expansion of Islamic countries and the spread of religion, Arabic was popularized as an official language. At that time, there were many Syrians, Persians, Egyptians, Jews, Bebers, Spanish, Sicilians, and even Italians have become Muslims, and the Arabic language has been greatly popularized. During the reign of the Caliph dynasty, due to its rulers' enthusiasm for academic research and translation, under the impetus of the rulers, the Arab region in the Middle Ages became the center of science and translation.

Baghdad was the capital of the Abbasid Caliph dynasty. The rulers of the dynasty strongly supported the translation and paid the translators a very substantial compensation. With the support of the caliph ruler, a large number of Syrian, ancient Persian and Sanskrit texts were translated. At that time, they were most interested in medicine and philosophy. The choice of translation work text was not only political and cultural, but the personal interests of the current caliph and courtiers were also important factors. The Arab world attaches great importance to astronomy and calendar, mainly for the service of its religion. They used astronomy and calendar to accurately calculate the exact time of the five prayers, so that they could give the correct latitude and longitude coordinates facing the holy city of Mecca in any Islamic mosque for pilgrimage and prayer, and accurately calculated the time of fasting The exact number of days of the period. Therefore, many caliphs of the Abbasid dynasty paid great attention to the translation of astronomy and calendar classics. During the reign of the third-generation caliph Harun Al-Rashid (Harun Al-Rashid, said to be the prototype of the protagonist in the story of "The Thousand and One Nights"), the "Treasury of Knowledge" library was Established, it contains a large number of trophies of Greek literature and science obtained by defeating Byzantium. By the time of the fourth caliph Al-Mamun (reigned 813-833), Mamun was built in Baghdad in 830 AD The “House of Wisdom” (House of Wisdom), which is larger than the “Treasure House of Knowledge”, aims to translate the scientific and philosophical works of ancient Greece into Arabic. A large number of ancient Syriac, ancient Persian, and texts can be obtained here. In addition to translation, it is worth mentioning that during this period, many ancient Greek texts were translated into Arabic and preserved. In the 9th and 10th centuries AD, the city of Baghdad was the center of a vast translation project whose goal was to translate ancient Greek scientific and philosophical works into Arabic. This event had a profound impact on the development of science and philosophy in the entire Arab world, and directly brought about the dramatic changes in the culture and ideas of the region at that time. At that time, Hunayn Ibn Ishaq was in charge of the translation work. He and his more than 90 people translated a large number of Plato and Aristotle's works: Plato's Dialogues and "The Utopia", Aristotle's Logic Essays Set The Organon, including Categories, On Interpretation, Pior Analytics, Posterior Analytics, Topics, On Sophistical Refutations, The Metaphysics.

In addition to noting the translations of the original authors, the Arab scientists of this period also contained translational elements in their own works. Al-Razi (865-925), the author of the most important medicinal work at the time, was a student of Hunayn’s disciple. His most famous "Medical Integration" actually had a lot of content compiled, and the book collected All the medical knowledge of ancient Greece, India and the Middle East that was known at that time.

Alchemy also emerged in Arab countries during this period. It was initiated by the "mystic" Jabir Ibn Hayyan. He put forward a doctrine in his legacy writings that all things, especially metals, are based on mercury and Formed by the interaction of sulfur. The alchemy of China and Alexandria also had the seeds of this doctrine. Arab alchemists adopted the four-element theory of ancient Greece and imagined that by changing the amount of the elements that make up a metal, one metal can be transformed into another metal.

In the Arab world in the Middle Ages, like other ancient civilizations, encyclopedic scholars also appeared. The most representative one is Omar Khayyam (1048-1131). He was proficient in calendar reforms and algebraic studies, but his " Quartet" made him famous soon after him. His Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam is popular all over the world, and there have been hundreds of versions so far. His poems are recognized as the treasure of world literature and become the pride of ancient Persian literature.

During this period, Al-Khwarizmi (?-835) introduced Indian numbers and Indian algorithms to Arab countries, and later spread them to the world through Europe, which is what we now call "Arabic numbers".

The "Palace of Wisdom" established in 830 AD was the result of Arab absorbing the cultural wealth of China, India, Persia, and ancient Greece. A large number of translation activities continued until the decline of the empire in the 13th century. Translation has had a profound impact on the development of science and philosophy throughout the Arab world. For translators in Baghdad, the translation works play the role of raw materials, and the translated text is not the goal, but the catalyst that stimulates the original ideas and products of knowledge. Therefore, translators regard translation as a creative process, and the translation is often accompanied by comments, summaries or explanatory notes to make the original text easier to understand. Translators are often experts in the field of their translation. In translation, they not only exert their own understanding and comprehensive ability, but also practice their own creativity. A new ideological system was established with the help of translation and became the basis of Arab-Muslim culture. In this context, the prosperous Arab astronomy took the lead in blooming flowers from here, forming the so-called "Baghdad School" of later generations. The works of Alaba during this period were translated into Latin by later European academic circles, which in turn influenced the entire Western civilization.

== The Influence of the Arabic Translation Movement ==

The Influence of the Translation Movement

The Abbasid dynasty was the golden age of the Arab translation movement. The academic research and cultural activities carried out on the basis of translation completely changed the early material and spiritual scarcity of the Arab nation, promoted the development of natural sciences in the Middle Ages, and gave birth to Arab- Islamic culture.

1.Promotion of the development of natural sciences:

In the golden age of the translation movement of the Abbasid dynasty, a large number of natural science and medical works from Persia and Greece were translated into Arabic. Translators learn astronomy and geography in the translation process, digest the source text and perform creative translation, use Arabic to annotate and explain the unclear or obscure meanings of the original text, and then use the target language that is easy for Muslims to output, which enhances The universality of the text promoted the popularization of Muslim science and culture. "In the eighty years after the establishment of the Abbasid dynasty, the cultural essence of the above-mentioned peoples has been recorded in Arabic. I didn’t know anything about arithmetic, geometry, medicine and other terms, and I knew Aristotle’s logic. Arabs who have never heard of philosophy can use Arabic to express Euclid’s most refined theories, express the law of sines in Indian mathematics, and express Aristotle’s Materialism, Ptolemy’s principles of astronomy, Galen’s medicine, Bizley’s motto, and the politics of the Persian king.” By studying translations, the Arabs built an Islamic medical system on the basis of native medicine. From theory to clinical practice, it has corrected and made up for the medical gap before the Abbasid dynasty. During the Abbasid period, medical achievements have been fruitful and have attracted worldwide attention. At the same time, research in the fields of pharmacology, botany, mathematics, and physics has gradually deepened, and many authoritative works have been published, which have made inestimable contributions to the development of modern science in China, the Arab world, and Europe, and even the development of human civilization. contribute.

Whether it is for the caliph’s personal preferences or serving in religious ceremonies, the translation of astrological and astronomical works has promoted the development of modern Arab science and technology. Some translators became astronomers or scientists by translating classics, thus realizing the transformation of their identities. After reading the translated works, many Arabs developed a keen interest in astronomy and mathematics, and then continued to translate. The main works of Euclid and Ptolemy were also translated into Arabic during this period. The translation of classics and scientific development promoted each other, and academic atmosphere became popular for a time.

2.The formation of Arab-Islamic culture:

While the natural sciences are developing vigorously, from the perspective of ideological and cultural analysis, the translation movement gave birth to Arab-Islamic culture. With the expansion of the Abbasid Empire, Islamic civilization was also brought to the vast conquered areas. Islam in the Umayyad period only existed as a foreign religion in the conquered areas. Christianity still has a profound influence there, and the beliefs of residents have not changed much. With the influence of various factors such as intermarriage and political dependence, the Islamization of the Arab empire has gradually advanced in the ruled areas and merged with the local culture into a splendid and complex Arab-Islamic culture. "After the 7th century, Islamic culture rose to become the mainstream culture of the Mediterranean. The Arab Empire became an important center of world culture at that time, and it radiated strongly outward."

The unification of language helps resolve ideological contradictions and promote national cultural identity. During the translation movement, the further popularization of Arabic became the official language of the empire, the civilization of neighboring countries gradually declined, and the status of Arab-Islamic culture gradually took shape. Without the prosperity of the Abbasid translation movement, there would be no new cultural construction of Islamic civilization. Since then, Arab-Islamic culture has shined in Spain. During the Arab rule of the Iberian Peninsula, it had a significant impact on the formation of Spanish national culture and language, and it also left a deep Arab imprint in the formation of European civilization. Although the Arab Empire fell apart due to religious and political struggles, the Arab-Islamic civilization left behind by the translation movement is still shining.

3.Having Promoted the Renaissance in Europe:

In the history of modern science, the Western Middle Ages has been given the image of a "dark age". In the Middle Ages from 500 to 1500 AD, because European countries pursued a religious theology and idealistic view of nature, the priests of the Roman Church only knew that they adhered to the dogma of their church. Religion seriously hindered the development of science. Therefore, Western science was here. The stage of development is unusually slow. The Christian churches in the West had brutally attacked the ancient Greek heritage and regarded this as a heritage related to idolatry that was harmful to the Christian faith. Christians were forbidden to learn more. At that time, the writings of most Greek philosophers and writers were despised. . The Byzantine emperor Constantine even closed the philosophical school in Athens in 529 AD, and this hostile attitude towards Greek heritage continued for centuries. Muslim scholars saved the Greek heritage by studying and in-depth annotations of the writings of Aristotle, Gran, and Ptolemy. It was through the labor of these Muslim scholars that the European countries that were shrouded in the dark age at that time realized their true and forgotten traditions of Greek science and philosophy. It is precisely because of the Arab world's translation of ancient Greek and Roman scientific and philosophical works that the natural and human sciences in ancient Greek and Roman cultures were preserved, so that the translation of Arabic documents in Europe in the late Middle Ages promoted European politics In this regard, the cultural revival is indispensable for the contribution of the Arab Translation Movement.

== Conclusion==

The Abbasid dynasty was the second hereditary dynasty of the Arab Empire, which lasted for more than five hundred years. The translation movement that flourished in this era pushed Arab-Islamic culture to its peak under the multiple combined forces. Although the power of the Arab empire in the second half of the 9th century was declining and the Caliphate came to an end, its cultural influence has never diminished. With the advancement of international cultural exchanges between countries, the Arab translation movement still has important practical significance:

First of all, cultural exchanges between countries in the world are becoming more and more frequent. Translation disciplines are no longer limited to the language field. Interdisciplinary translation has become a future trend. It is a new type of challenge;

secondly, a good academic environment is a prerequisite for promoting knowledge progress and achieving academic innovation. During the Abbasid dynasty, translation activities were organized and carried out on a large scale under the call of the state, focusing on and rewarding academic activities, and setting up academic institutions. The academic atmosphere of the entire Baghdad city was strong, and the natural sciences and social sciences had been developed by leaps and bounds. This provides a reference for the further construction of the academic environment of other countries.

Furthermore, the development of science and technology has closely linked the countries of the world, and the collision of multiculturalism has become the theme of the development of civilization in the world today. The reason for the success of the Arab translation movement is that Muslims' tolerance towards other religions and foreign cultures is a crucial part. This is also the main reason why Arab-Islamic culture has absorbed the millennium culture of ancient Greece and Rome in a century. In summary, the Abbasid dynasty’s open and inclusive attitude towards academic activities led the Arab translation movement into a golden age. The vigorous development of the translation movement during this period promoted the progress of the natural sciences of the Arab Empire, and laid a solid academic foundation for the early inheritance of science and culture, as well as the exchanges and mutual learning between Eastern and Western civilizations. Despite the decline of the Arab empire, the characteristics of Arab-Islamic culture will continue in new ways. In the contemporary era, the Abbasid dynasty translation movement provides the world with a deeper historical perspective, and provides a useful reference for the training of translators and cultural exchanges in various countries around the world.

Although the vigorous Arab translation movement for a century has been obliterated in the long river of history, the impact of the Arab-Islamic culture produced is far-reaching. Throughout the long history, one can still hear the voices of many Muslims and non-Muslim scholars struggling to translate manuscripts in the "Wisdom Hall", as well as their clamor for truth and academic culture; you can still hear the Arab Muslims in "for Allah" Under the slogan of "War", the screams of expansion riding on a war horse; I can still imagine the amazing scenes of Arab merchants traveling thousands of miles and sailing merchant ships to China and Scandinavia. Under the influence of the strong Arab-Islamic culture, the people of the Arab empire have discarded national and racial differences and formed a spirit of "Muslim brothers and sisters" psychologically. This strong culture and common psychological cognition give Arab-Islamic culture a tenacious vitality, and it still arouses echoes from time to time in Arab countries and the Islamic world.

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= Brief history of French translation =
李怡 Li Yi ,Hunan Normal University ,China
== Abstract==
The purpose of this article is to make a brief introduction to the translation history of France. The history of French translation began in the Middle Ages: with the development of Christianity and nationalism, the royal family hired translators to translate the Bible. The Renaissance in the 16th century, as well as economic and educational development, increased the demand for reading and writing, thus promoting the development of translation, most of the translated works are classical works. Then two religious films appeared in France: Jansenists and Jesuit, which had a great influence on the translation schools of that time. During the Enlightenment in the 18th century, France was deeply influenced by Britain, so most of the works in this period were British progressive thoughts and literature. The Industrial Revolution in the second half of the 18th century increased French scientific and technological translation. With the progress of the French Revolution, French translators are more inclined to the economic and political and judicial fields. After the Second World War, the translation industry in France recovered and developed vigorously. France even set up ESIT（École Supérieure d'Interprètes et de Traducteurs）to train senior translators. In the 20th century, there appeared many translation theorists in France, which promoted the professionalization of translation.
== Key words==
Renaissance, French translation, contemporary, French Revolution
== Introduction==
As a developed country in the west, France has a very long translation history. Translators and translation theories emerge in endlessly, which can not be ignored in the history of translation. At the same time, with the development of globalization, translation theories in various countries learn from and integrate with each other. Among them, French translation theory also plays a very important role. Therefore, it is necessary to comb the history of French translation and study the translators of relevant times and their relevant theories.
==1.Medieval French translation based on Bible Translation==
In the middle ages, translation in various countries was deeply influenced by religion, especially the translation of the Bible, which greatly promoted the development of translation. In France, the royal family specially hired translators to translate various Latin and Greek works for the imperial court. The most prominent court interpreter was Nicholas Oresme of the Charles V Dynasty. Aristotle's works translated by him in 1377 had a great impact on the French translation and philosophy circles at that time. Jean de Vigne translated the Latin Bible in French in 1340. In addition, Jean de malkaraume, J argyropylos and others translated the works of Virgil, Ovid, Aristotle, Plato and contemporary writers at the same time.
==2.Renaissance: the development of French translation==
The Renaissance is the development period of French translation theory. The main representatives are Dolet and Jacques Amyot, especially the former. In the 16th century, there was an upsurge of translation in France. During this period, the focus of translation shifted from religious translation such as the Bible to classical literature translation. Religious translation abides by the translation principle of "word to word" . Its purpose is to follow the will of God and avoid blasphemy. This is irrefutable, so there are not many translation theories to speak of. However, as a new genre, the translation of literary works is different from the previous religious translation. Translators face many new problems, so translation theory came into being. Dolet and amyot are the most prominent representatives of translation theory in this period. They are both translators and translation theorists, and the latter wins especially by translation. Both their translation theories come from translation practice, so they are persuasive. Dolet is famous for his "five principles of translation". "Five principles of translation" comes from his paper on how to translate well published in 1540 ,La manière de bien traduire d’une langue à l’autre. 1. the translator must fully understand the content of the translated work; 2.The translator must be familiar with the target language and the target language; 3.The translator must avoid word by word translation; 4.The translator must adopt the popular language form; 5.The translator must select words and adjust word order to make the translation produce the effect of appropriate tone. (Tan Zaixi,2004:71)These five principles involve the criterion of "faithfulness" in translation, the translator's bilingual ability, translation methods, style and style of translation. Amyot is one of the greatest translators in the history of French translation. He is known as the "king of translation". His translation has had a great impact on that time and future generations. He follows two principles in Translation: 1. The translator must understand the original text and make great efforts in the translation of content; 2.The translation must be simple and natural without any decoration. The first involves the standard of faithfulness in translation, and the second involves the style of translation. These two principles are similar to the first and fifth of Dolet's five translation principles.

==3.The 17th century: the climax of French translation and various translation schools==
After the Renaissance, classicism deeply influenced France. In the translation circle at that time, people were engaged in the translation of classical works on a large scale. Translation has launched a magnificent "dispute between ancient and modern" around the translation methods of classical works. Some translators pay more attention to the past than the present: they pay attention to the imitation of words with sentences, and praise the so-called accurate translation method. Some translators prefer to use the opposite translation method.
In the 17th century, the most famous French translator was Perrot d’Ablancourt,, His translation is sophisticated and elegant, both meaningful and beautiful, and easy to understand. There are no words that need to be explained in order to clarify the meaning in the translation, and there are no annoying cliches. Therefore, he has a great reputation for a long time. His characteristic is to take an original work and grasp the main idea. No matter what the original style is, as long as the translation is literary and readable and can make contemporary readers love and welcome, he will do whatever he can to add or delete the content at any cost, and modify it if he can, regardless of the accuracy of the translation. At that time, this literary and beautiful translation method attracted many followers, but it was also criticized by many people as "beautiful but unfaithful".By the end of the 17th century, those who advocated free translation were overwhelmingly in favor, while those who really advocated accurate translation were few and far between. The earliest theorist to advocate accurate translation was Bachet de Méziriac in the mid-17th century. In December 1635, he published an essay entitled "on translation" at the French academy, stating that translators must observe three principles :1.do not stuff the original work with personal goods; 2.The original work shall not be abridged; 3.No alteration may be made detrimental to the original intention.
As one of the most influential translators in France in the 17th century, Daniel Huet, worshipped classical literature and clearly advocated accurate translation. He criticized both post-modern translators and unfaithful translators abranguel. He believes that the best translation method is: the translator first closely follows the original author's meaning; Secondly, if possible, stick to his words; Finally, try to reproduce his character as much as possible; The translator must carefully study the character of the original author, not delete, weaken, add and expand, and faithfully make it complete as the original. His translation principles are: the only goal of translation is to be accurate. Only by accurately imitating the original in language can it be possible to accurately convey the original author's meaning; The translator has no right to choose words or change word order arbitrarily, because "Deviation" from the original text will lead to deviation from the original meaning. His translation theory has been praised by many people, but due to the lack of practice, his theory is not attractive to translators.
In the 17th century, there were also two representatives from inaccurate translation to accurate translation,François Maucroix and Jacques de Tourreil.
François Maucroix is regarded by contemporary and later critics as one of the most outstanding French translators in the 17th century and the first person to translate demesne in the 17th century. In addition to demesne, he also translated the works of Plato and others. Maucroix received the education of the Jesuit Church in his early years, was greatly influenced by the Jesuit Church, loved debating literature, and paid attention to ingenious expression and beautiful language style.
His early translations were inaccurate in content, style or written expression. He liked to modernize ancient terms and expressions. In 1685, his style changed, and his translation became more accurate, which seemed to have completely corrected the defects of procrastination and weakness in his early translation. The reason can be seen from his letters with Boileau in the last decade of the 17th century. He regarded Boileau not only as the most important representative of classical literature, but also as an authority on translation theory. Therefore, he always sent the translation to Boileau for revision. Boileau read the manuscript carefully, criticized some paragraphs and put forward better translation methods. In his reply, Maucroix said that Poirot's criticism of some of his inaccurate translations was pertinent, and his opinions on the revision were also very good. He admitted that the inaccurate translation was a mistake and must be completely corrected. He finally realized that translators must adhere to the principle of accurate translation if they want to become real classicists.
Jacques de Tourreil also experienced a change from inaccurate translation to accurate translation, which is reflected in his translation of three different versions of Demosthenes. In 1691, he published his first translation, which was influenced by the education of the Jesuit and paid attention to elegant style rather than accurate content. Tourreil processed the original work in the most ingenious way to modernize the ancients. After the translation was published, it was immediately severely criticized by Racine. After being criticized, Tourreil published a revised version in 1710, but the revised version actually only made detailed changes to the original translation, and the guiding principle of translation remains unchanged, that is, we must "make the characteristics of the original work conform to the characteristics of our nation". The new translation has received various comments. On the one hand, the ancient school refers to Tourreil 's attempt to impose new ideas on Demosthenes, believing that he not only did not beautify the original work, but distorted and vilified the original work. On the other hand, the present school believes that Tourreil's unfaithful translation of the original is better than the original, which is worth applauding. Tourreil himself is an ancient school. Naturally, he doesn't appreciate the present school's praise and thinks that this praise is "the most severe criticism to the translator". After that, he revised the translation for the third time, which is very different from the first two versions. It was not only a rare and accurate translation at that time, but also extremely beautiful. The translator translates in strict accordance with the original work, neither adding or subtracting nor making changes. By this time Tourreil had fundamentally changed his point of view.
Discussing the history of French translation from the 17th century to the 18th century is bound to involve the influence of Jesuit and Jansenists. The main reason is that the people engaged in education at that time were members of these two schools. They had direct or indirect contact with each translation school through their own translation practice and teaching.
The Jesuit believes that classical literature is worth studying and learning only in the aspect that it provides moral education or guides people how to learn eloquence. The excavation of classical works is not because their contents are of great value, but because of their beautiful forms. Teachers believe that the purpose of teaching is not so much to enable students to obtain substantive knowledge as to enable them to obtain formal learning identity.
The works translated by Jesuit teachers or students generally have an obvious sign, that is, they do not pay much attention to the spiritual essence of the original work, but only pay attention to the expression of the original thought and the beauty of the translation style. In order to achieve this, translators often sacrifice the content, even misinterpret the original meaning, and religiously turn classical literary works. Therefore, the origin of inaccurate translation in the 17th century is often influenced by Jesuit thought.
Jansenists is the second school that directly or indirectly affects translation principles. They believe that once students can read and write, they should read these translations in order to obtain basic knowledge about the original author and facilitate more and better reading of the original works in the future. In the early days, the views of the janssenian translators and the Jesuit translators were basically the same. Later, the translators of Jansenists believed that the practice of style for style in translation was also dangerous. However, towards the middle of the 17th century, their views changed and they believed that the style of ancient Greek and Latin writers, especially the style of ancient Greek writers, was worth learning. They really appreciate classical works more than the Jesuits. They admit that the language style of the ancients is superior to that of the present, but the present enjoys more inspiration from God, so the present surpasses the ancients in terms of thought and morality. In this way, no matter from which perspective, their views are completely consistent with those of ancient school. But the translation of Jansenists is far less elegant and beautiful than that of the Jesuits.
==4.The decline of French translation in the 18th century and the translator Charles Batteux==
In the 18th century, France was not as powerful as in the 16th and 17th centuries, nor was it culturally complacent. So she began to look at other countries' literature, first of all England. For example, the novels of the contemporary British sentimentalist writer Richard Were translated into French, which had a great influence on the development of French sentimentalist literature. In particular, the Chinese culture, which had been introduced to Europe for a long time, became more active in France in the 18th century. Although the number of translations is large, the quality is often not high.
Charles Batteux was one of the most important translators in France in the 18th century. He was one of the most influential literary and translation theorists in France and the whole Europe in the 18th century. He edited and published a variety of translation books, translated aristoteles, Horace and many other classical works of ancient Greece and Rome, wrote Principes de Litterature, Cours de Belles-Lettres and other works. Batteux elaborated his thoughts and views on translation in The Principles of Treatise. His original views and excellent exposition made this book an important milestone in the development of translation theory in the 18th century.
The fifth part of Principes de Litterature deals with translation problems.The theory of Charles Batteux obviously has the characteristics of philosophers, linguists, philology and translation. In other words, Charles Batteux discusses the principles of translation mainly from the perspective of general linguistic skills, rather than literary creation. He proposed the following 12 rules for dealing with word order in translation: 1. We must not alter the order of what the original says, either as fact or inference. 2. We should also preserve the order of ideas in the original text. 3. No matter how long the original sentence is, it should be kept intact in the translation, for a sentence is a thought in which the different elements are related to each other, and their correlation constitutes a kind of harmony. 4.All the conjunctions in the original text should be preserved. It is these conjunctions, so to speak, that hold the sentence elements together. 5. All adverbs should be placed either before or after the verb, depending on the harmony and momentum of the sentence. 6.Symmetrical sentences should be translated into symmetrical sentences. 7. Colorful ideas should be expressed in as much space as possible in the translation so as to maintain the same brilliance. 8. Rhetorical devices and forms of speech used to express ideas must be preserved in the translation. 9. We must translate short and pithy sayings that people like, or translate them into words that are natural and can be used as proverbs. 10. Interpretation is incorrect and incomplete because it is no longer a translation but a commentary. However, if there is no other way to convey the meaning of the original text, the translator has no choice but to use interpretation. 11. For the sake of meaning, we must abandon all forms of expression in order to make ourselves intelligible; Abandon emotion in exchange for a lively translation; Give up harmony for the pleasure of translation. 12. The idea of the original text can be expressed in different forms, combined or broken up by the words used to express it, and expressed by verbs, adjectives, nouns and adverbs, as long as its essence remains unchanged（Tan Zaixi,2004:98）.

==5.The revival of French translation in the 19th century and its rich translators==
Another high tide of French translation came in the 19th century, when a large number of English, German, Italian, Spanish and Latin literary works were translated, such as Shakespeare, Milton, Byron, Shelley in England, Goethe and Schiller in Germany, Dante in Italy, and Spanish folk songs. The most prominent remains the translation of Shakespeare's works. If the 18th century was Shakespeare's Silver age in France, the 19th was the golden age. In the 19th century, people not only worshiped Shakespeare's works, but also worshipped him, and Shakespeare fever spread throughout France. From 1800 to 1910, at least eight different translations of Shakespeare's complete works were produced in France, of which francois-Victor Hugo is the best. Hugo's father was Victor Hugo, a great writer. With Hugo's assistance and cooperation, the complete works of Shakespeare were translated between 1859 and 1867. This translation has faithfully retained the unique rhythm of the play, so it has been praised by critics as the second milestone in the history of French translation of Shakespeare's plays, even more important than Letourne's famous translation in the late 18th century.
Famous French translators in the 19th century included Francoise-René de Chateaubriand, Gérard de Nerval, and Charles Baudelaire. Chateaubriand is another epoch-making translator in France after Amio. His translation is faithful and beautiful. His literal translation of Milton's Paradise Lost is one of the outstanding French translations with its melodious and poetic tone. Nerval is best known for his translation of Goethe's Faust in prose style. In 1830 Goethe saw Nerval's translation and praised it as better than his original. Baudelaire, another famous poet of this period, was one of the earliest French translators of American literature and the first translator of Allan Poe. For 13 years from 1852 to 1865, he wrote, translated and commented on the complete works of Allan Poe. Baudelaire found what he was pursuing in Allan Poe's works, and believed that he and the author were in the same spirit, so that the translation could be in touch with the author. The translation was smooth and natural, just like the French creation, and was listed as an excellent classic of French prose.
==6.The specialization of French translation in the 20th century and the maturity of translation theory==
The 20th century has been the heyday of French translation theory. The characteristics of French translation in this period are: since the end of the Second World War, due to practical needs, commercial, diplomatic, scientific and technological aspects of the translation boom(Chen Shunyi,2014:6), its momentum even more than literary translation, thus forming a major content of the development of modern western translation; The study of translation theory is unprecedented and has produced translation theorists who have an important influence on the history of translation in the world. Before the First World War, the two countries used the language of power in business transactions, and French, which was considered the language of diplomacy at international conferences and other diplomatic occasions, did not have much problem in translation. However, after the end of the First World War, French lost its dominance, and English rose to take the lead with French, forming a situation in which French and English were used together. The Paris Peace Conference of 1919 was the beginning of this situation. Later, the European Union has 24 official languages, which means that translation has become an indispensable part of daily work, whether it is communication between countries in other regions or between western countries. With the increase of cooperation between countries, the need for translators is increasing. To meet this need, a number of schools specializing in training translators have been set up. One of the most prominent is ESIT（École Supérieure d'Interprètes et de Traducteurs）.
ESIT was founded in 1957, set up the department of Oral translation and pen translation, initially only opened several European languages, since 1972 added Chinese, now a total of English, Chinese, Russian, Arabic, French, German, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, Danish, Swedish, Icelandic and other languages translation courses. Later, on the basis of the original two departments, the School added a department of Translation Studies, specializing in the study of language and translation theory, with the right to confer doctoral degrees. After graduation, most of the students apply for translation departments of international institutions, and some graduates apply for the work license of free translators to relevant institutions of various countries in order to work freely and not apply for the work license of free translators to international institutions. Over the years, ESIT has trained a number of senior translators for the foreign affairs departments of the United Nations, the European Community (EU) and western countries.
Another characteristic of modern French translation is that French translators are organized in large numbers, setting up various translation associations and establishing various translation publications. Each association has its own purpose and purpose to carry out its work effectively. There are two major translation associations in France: the Association of French Translators and the Association of French Literary Translators. The Association of French Literary Translators was founded in 1973 as a splinter from the Association of Translators. Its entry requirements are the most stringent of any of its kind. Only highly qualified translators are eligible to join. Applicants must have at least one translation, which is carefully reviewed against the original work by a special selection committee. The aims of the association are :1.to improve the quality of French literature and literary translation publications; 2.To protect the rights and interests of members in respect of copyright, remuneration and working conditions of translated works; 3.Do not participate in any political activities. Since its establishment, the association has held many lectures and lectures, and its members have published many articles on translation in such authoritative publications as le Monde and New Literature. Through this series of business activities, it has become the most distinctive and vocal translation organization in France.
In the first half of the 20th century, the French translation theorist J.Marouzeau is worth a book. He is a professor at the University of Paris and editor in chief of Année Philologique. In 1931, he published a pamphlet called La Traduction du Latin. The theory is as follows:1.Translation is, first of all, a skill. Maruzzo does not deny that translation is an art and a science, and that it is more of a skill. To master it, we mainly rely on rich practical experience, solid language knowledge and flexible translation methods. 2.In order to reach as many readers as possible, the translator's primary task, like linguists, educators and exegetists, is to reveal to the reader what the source text is, not what it covers. 3.The purpose of using a dictionary is not to translate, but to understand. It is a puzzling view, but it is not hard to discern the truth in it. He points out that translators must learn to use dictionaries, but must first understand what problems they are using them to solve. Latin, for example, is very different from French, he said. Latin words are not related to each other, and there is no strict word order, which must be added to a French translation to make the translation smooth. Dictionaries don't help in this respect. They define a particular word in inverse proportion to its simplicity, thus leaving the translator in a difficult position to choose between many different translations. Therefore, the main purpose of using a dictionary is not to find ready-made words, but to understand the meaning of the original text, to explain the text of the original text, and then produce a translation on this basis. At the same time, Marouzeau points out that words from different sources must be interpreted differently. 4.Translation is not guesswork. This is especially important. When encountering difficulties, the translator must carefully consider and avoid any "preconceived ideas", because in translation, the first thought of meaning or expression is often not the most correct or best. 5.Translation must be in living language. This was a popular idea in England in the 17th and 18th centuries. Marouzeau said that to translate Latin into French, if you need to introduce an old expression, you have to turn to a living language so that the translation is alive. That is to say, the translator must ask: if the original author were alive today and writing in French, how would he express the same thing? But Marouzeau also points out that this is not a generalization, and that for some passages, especially those of Ovid, "a bit of antiquity is most appropriate in French translation".
The following is an introduction to Georges Mounin, a famous French translation theorist in the second half of the 20th century. He devoted his life to the teaching and research of linguistics and translation theory with outstanding achievements. He is regarded as the founder and most important representative of linguistic theory in contemporary French translation studies. Major theoretical works include Le belles infidèles , Les problèmes théorique de la traduction, La machine à traduire: Histoire des problèmes linguistiques, Linguistique et traduction, Semiotic praxis, etc. Among them, Les problèmes théorique de la traduction is the most praised by contemporary Western translation theorists. As mentioned above, this book uses the basic theories and methods of modern linguistics to explain translation, and sets up the first clear-cut flag of linguistic school in the field of Translation studies in France.
The core idea of Mounin 's book is that he thinks translation belongs to linguistics, so it should be studied, understood and explained by means of modern linguistics. To establish an effective translation theory, it has to for translation and the translation of basic problems related to make a scientific understanding of these problems include the nature of translation, translation and the meaning of vocabulary, grammatical structure, the relationship between translation and the objective world, the world's image), the relationship between translation and language universals and language features, the relationship between the processing of language features in translation, and so on. Mounin 's discussion of translation theory revolves around these questions.
What exactly is a translation? What kind of discipline should translation studies belong to and what kind of methods should be adopted? And so on. Such problems have always been the most concerned by translation researchers but have not been properly explained. Mounin believes that translation is a special and universal language activity, which naturally belongs to the scope of linguistics research, and the research results of language science can be applied to the study of translation problems. Mounin admit that the translation of poetry, the literature such as drama, movies, many factors other than language and paralanguage does play an important role, but the basis of translation activity is mainly to the original and the translation of linguistic analysis, and applied linguistics is more than any other skilled experience can provide accurate and reliable. Of course, from another point of view, especially from the perspective of the development of translation studies as an independent discipline since the 1980s, the practice of classifying translation studies as linguistics has been outdated. However, even if translatology is regarded as an independent discipline, its independence is only relative. Since translation (interlingual and intralingual translation) necessarily involves language, translation studies should not and cannot be completely free from the influence of linguistics at any time. In this sense, Mounin's view of linguistic translation has always been positive.
Since the 1970s and 1980s, the interpretive school represented by Seleskovitch or the Paris School has emerged in the field of Translation studies in France and become the most remarkable and French characteristic in the post-modern period, thus forming the second major feature of the development of contemporary French translation theory. It should be said that this school does not negate the basic idea of the school of linguistics to study linguistic phenomena, but only opposes the pure linguistic orientation of the school of linguistics and focuses on the research method of form. Interpretive theory holds that translation is a linguistic act, but it requires the participation of extralinguistic knowledge. Whether it is diachronic linguistics in the 19th century, synchronic descriptive linguistics and contrastive structural linguistics in the 20th century, or the later transformational generative grammar theory, it ignores the pragmatic context as the main component of language communication, so it cannot reasonably explain translation problems. Based on practice, the theory of interpretation studies translation as a linguistic act, and interprets and conveys the meaning of language from linguistic factors, cultural factors, and extralinguistic factors, so as to give a scientific and reasonable explanation to the reality of translation.
An important feature of interpretive translation theory is to reveal the essence of translation as communicative behavior from practice. Interpretivism holds that translation is a kind of linguistic act, which, like language use, must be supported by non-linguistic knowledge. However, as an act, the object of translation is not language, but meaning, which is the communicative meaning of the text. The output of meaning requires the combination of nonverbal thoughts and signs, and the reception of meaning requires the conscious behavior of the addressee. The arrangement of words is only a means of meaning formation for the originator of words. The understanding and grasp of meaning need to get rid of the original language form. The acquisition of meaning is instantaneous, not staged. Meaning is not the sum of words, but an organic whole, and the comprehension of meaning is completed at the level of discourse.
According to the interpretive theory, language and thought are separated in the translation of translators. Language and thought are not exactly the same thing, but there is a constant two-way communication between them. Thought waves can be transformed into language, and language can be transformed into thought waves. Human knowledge and experience do not reside in the brain in the form of words.
Interpretive theory also holds that understanding requires the participation of cognitive knowledge; The process of comprehension is the process of interpretation. Interpretation is the prerequisite of translation, and translation cannot be carried out without interpretation. Translation, on the other hand, is interpretation. Interpretive translation is a translation of meaning equivalence, which is established between texts. If a translation is to be successful, it is necessary to seek the overall meaning equivalence between the source text and the target text, and the meaning equivalence needs to achieve cognitive and emotional equivalence. Translators use their own abilities to organically combine the cognitive content and emotional content of the source text into an indivisible whole, and then successfully express it. Only in this way can the equivalence of meaning be achieved, which is the essence of the interpretive theory.
The interpretive theory also focuses on fidelity. The translator cannot interpret at will, and his interpretation and understanding can only be faithful to the actual content of the speaker. Although the interpreter interprets in his own words, he conveys the meaning of the speaker and imitates the speaker's style. The interpreter should understand the overall style of the speech, and tend to be consistent with the speaker, should be as far as possible to get rid of the constraints of words, in order to accurately reflect the original style.
== Conclusion==
There may be many deficiencies and omissions in the simple combing of French translation history, but as a powerful and long-standing western developed country, France's translation process and theory have great research and reference significance for China and the world. The world is still developing, so is translation. With the development of modern science and technology, people explore translation more deeply, and new theories are constantly put forward. Therefore, we should seize the trend of the times, base ourselves on China, look at the world and seriously study these excellent theories.
== References==
[1]Chen Shunyi陈顺意（2014）.法国翻译理论源流Sources and schools of French translation theory.法国研究The French Study.
[2]Tan Zaixi谭载喜（2004）.西方翻译简史A Short History of Translation in the West.商务印书馆The Commercial Press.
[3]Xu Jun许均,Yuan Xiao一袁筱一(1998).当代法国翻译理论Contemporary Translation Study in France .湖北教育出版社Hubei Education Press.
[4]Liu Mingjiu柳鸣九,Zheng Kelu郑克鲁,Zhang Yinglun张英伦(1979).法国文学史History of French Literature,人民文学出版社People's Literature Publishing House
[5]Xie Tianzhen谢天振（2009）.中西翻译简史A brief history of Chinese and Western translation,外语教育与研究出版社Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.

=李新星A Comparative Study on The Translation history of Modern Chinese and Korean Literature under the Background of "Western Learning" (1894~1949) =
==Abstract==
The spreading of Western learning to the east is an extensive and far-reaching influence of modern Western culture on eastern civilization, which started from translation as a means of cultural communication.Scholars in China and Korea have always recognized the influence of the eastward spread of Western learning on the development of translation in their countries.However, most studies on modern and contemporary translation take the country as the boundary and rarely talk about the comparison and exchange between the two countries.In fact, although there are some individual differences between Chinese and Korean translation in modern times due to different national conditions, there are also many similarities and connections worthy of attention and research.From the perspective of translation history, this paper will explore the history of literary translation in China and Korea under the trend of western learning to the east, compare the commonness and individuality of the two countries' literary translation practices, explore the historical information behind the translation practices, and finally achieve the purpose of restoring the history of cultural (literary) exchanges between the two countries.

The spreading of western culture to the East was an extensive and far-reaching influence of modern Western culture on Eastern civilization, resulted from translation as a means of cultural communication.Scholars in China and Korea had always recognized the influence of the eastward spread of Western learning on the development of translation in their countries. However, most studies on modern and contemporary translation take the country as the boundary and rarely talk about the comparison and exchange between the two countries.In fact, regardless of some individual differences between Chinese and Korean translation in modern times due to different national conditions, there are also many similarities and connections worthy of attention and research.From the perspective of translation history, this paper will explore the history of literary translation in China and Korea under the trend of western learning to the East, compare the commonness and individuality of the two countries' literary translation practices, dig out the historical information behind the practices, and finally achieve the purpose of restoring the history of cultural exchanges between the two.--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 07:23, 11 December 2021 (UTC)

==Key words==
History of literary translation；“Western Learning”;China;Korea

==摘要==
西学东渐是近代西方文化对东方文明的一次广泛而深远的影响，而这影响首先是从作为文化交流的手段———翻译开始的。一直以来，中韩两国学者都认同西学东渐对本国翻译发展的影响，但现有的研究在探讨近现代翻译时大多以本国为界，很少谈及两国比较和交流。而实际上，虽然因为国情不同，中国与朝鲜半岛的近现代翻译存在一定的个体差异，但同时也有很多相似点和联系点值得关注和研究。本文将从翻译史视角出发，窥探西学东渐时代潮流下中韩两国文学翻译史的面貌，比较两国文学翻译实践的共性和个性，发掘翻译实践背后的历史信息，最终达到还原两国文化 (文学) 交流史的目的。

==关键词==
文学翻译史；“西学东渐”；中国；朝鲜（韩国）

==1.Introduction==
The spreading of Western learning to the east is an extensive and far-reaching influence of modern Western culture on Eastern civilization.Late 19th century to early 20th century,When the West had modernized and gradually replaced the East as the world's dominant power,The three East Asian countries ( China, Japan and Korea), which had been sleeping for a long time, were gradually awakened and embarked on the "journey" of modernization.Among them, In order to achieve a rich country and a strong army, Japan left Asia and entered Europe,Take the lead in taking a series of measures to actively learn from the West and introduce advanced ideas and culture.The main measure is to develop the translation of western literature.Under the influence of such a large environment, the translation of overseas literature in China and the Korean Peninsula has also set off a boom.It can be said that the influence of the eastward spreading of Western learning on the modernization of East Asia began with translation as a means of cultural exchange.
Some scholars have pointed out that in the process of modernization in East Asia represented by Japan,Translation plays an important role.Without translation, East Asia would not have been able to open the door to modernization.This is also true in modern China and the Korean Peninsula.It can be said that after entering the modern society, the cultural exchanges between the two countries were continued through translation --"A history of translation is not only a history of cultural exchange, but also a history of the dissemination of ideas".As we all know, the study of translation history is a "basic project" in the construction of translation discipline.Behrman, a famous translator and translation theorist, once pointed out that "the composition of translation history is the first task of modern translation theory, and self-reflection is the establishment of itself" .The history of literary translation is an important part of the study of translation history and an indispensable factor in the investigation of a country's literature and even the whole cultural background in a particular period.
In view of the above analysis, the author believes that in order to have a macro and in-depth understanding of the cultural exchanges between China and Korea in modern times.It is necessary for us to make a comparative study of literary translation between the two countries during this period (1894 ~ 1949).Writers believe that only by putting literary translation activities into a larger social and historical context can we have a clearer understanding of the translation practices of the two countries at that time.Therefore, from the perspective of translation history, this paper will explore the history of literary translation in China and Korea under the trend of western learning to the east, compare the commonness and individuality of the two countries'literary translation practices, explore the historical information behind the translation practices, and finally achieve the purpose of restoring the history of cultural (literary) exchanges between the two countries.

The spreading of Western learning to the east exerted an extensive and far-reaching influence on Eastern civilization.In the late 19th century to early 20th century,when the West had modernized and gradually replaced the East as the world's dominant power,the three East Asian countries (China,Japan and Korea),which had been sleeping for a long time, were gradually awakened and embarked on the "journey" of modernization. In order to attain prosperity, Japan left Asia and entered Europe, taking a series of measures to actively learn from the West and introduce advanced ideas and culture through the media of translation.Under the influence of such a univerasl situation, the translation of overseas literature in China and the Korean Peninsula had also set off a boom.It could be said that the influence of the eastward spreading of western learning on the modernization of East Asia began with translation as a means of cultural exchange.
Some scholars have pointed out that translation plays an important role in the process of modernization in East Asia represented by Japan.Without translation,East Asia would not have been able to open the door to modernization.This is also true in modern China and the Korean Peninsula.It can be said that after entering the modern society, the cultural exchanges between the two countries were continued through translation --"A history of translation is not only a history of cultural exchange, but also a history of the dissemination of ideas".As we all know, the study of translation history is a "basic project" in the construction of translation discipline.Behrman, a famous translator and translation theorist, once pointed out that "the composition of translation history is the first task of modern translation theory, and self-reflection is the establishment of itself".The history of literary translation is an important part of the study of translation history and an indispensable factor in the investigation of a country's literature and even the whole cultural background in a particular period.
In view of the above analysis, the author believes that in order to have a macro and in-depth understanding of the cultural exchanges between China and Korea in modern times.It is necessary for us to make a comparative study of literary translation between the two countries from 1894 to 1949. Only by putting literary translation activities into a larger social and historical context can we have a clearer understanding of the translation practices of the two countries at that time.Therefore, from the perspective of translation history, this paper will explore the history of literary translation in China and Korea under the trend of western learning to the East, compare the commonness and individuality of the two countries' literary translation practices, explore the historical information behind the practices, and finally achieve the purpose of restoring the history of cultural (literary) exchanges between the two countries.--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 07:34, 11 December 2021 (UTC)

==2. The origin and development of modern translation in both countries ==
After being opened to the outside world, western civilization flooded in. China and North Korea, which had been pursuing the policy of "closing the door to the outside world", began to "open their eyes to the world".From the government to the people, there has been an upsurge in the introduction of advanced Western civilization.Translation plays an important, even decisive role in this process.
====2.1The historical evolution of Modern Translation in China====
As is known to all, Among the three East Asian countries, China is the first to pay attention to the West and understand and learn the West through translation.In the 1860s, after the Westernization Movement, a climax of modern Chinese translation began slowly.Strictly speaking, this translation period can be further divided into two stages, namely, with the Sino-Japanese War of 1894 as the dividing line, the early stage was the translation period dominated by westernization school, and the later stage was the translation period dominated by reformists.If the translation during the Westernization Movement was the primary stage of modern Western learning translation in China, there were still many problems, then the translation activities led by reformists such as Kang Youwei, Liang Qichao and Yan Fu had a greater development in terms of scale, significance and function.From the perspective of translation history, they set up translation institutes and translated western books widely(Especially those that had a great influence on Meiji Restoration in Japan.)Training translation talents, etc.Its scale, breadth of subjects, quantity and quality are unmatched by translation in the Westernization period.It should be noted that since the 1880s, China's interest in learning from the West has shifted from science to politics, education system and so on.In the late Qing Dynasty and early period, literary works gradually became the main object of translation activities.In the minds of the Vixinists represented by Liang Qichao, novels have become the most appropriate tool for political reform, popular enlightenment and the modernization of the country.Thus, beginning in the late 19th and early 20th centuries,Foreign literature has been widely translated into China, and communication channels include not only modern media such as newspapers and magazines, but also single-line books and large-scale translation literature series, which have also produced a series of arguments and discussions on translation methods and techniques.Modern Chinese translation has also entered a new period, that is, from the Ming and Qing period of scientific and technological translation as the mainstream gradually to culture / literature / literary translation as the core of the translation activities period.Overall, the translation of modern foreign literature in China from the end of the 19th century to the period 1949 can be broken down into the following three stages.
The first stage was from the late Qing Dynasty and the early Republic of China to the May 4th Movement in 1919.In December 1898, Liang Qichao translated The Japanese political novel The Adventure of The Beautiful Woman in Qingyi Daily. In 1900, Zhou translated one of the most influential works in Japanese political fiction, Yano Ryuki's "On The Classics of America".Since then, many Japanese political novels have been translated and introduced to China.After a more concentrated translation of political novels, other genres, such as history, science and the popular detective novels, have also been introduced.After 1907, a variety of modern literary magazines sprang up, and a large number of translated novels were published in these magazines in serial form, among which the serialized translated novels in magazines such as "Novel Forest" and "New Novel Cluster" even occupied absolute space, forming the first climax of foreign novel translation.However, it should be emphasized that the translation of literary works in this period was still in the exploratory stage,Although there are a large number of works, there are problems in the selection of works, translation skills and strategies.
The second period is 1916 to 1936. This period can be further subdivided into the May Fourth Movement period and the Left Coalition Period.With the development of the New literature movement, Chinese literary translation has entered the most glorious period in the history of translation.Compared with the late Qing Dynasty, literary translation in this period was larger in scale, higher in quantity and quality, and its influence was unprecedented.It is worth emphasizing that almost all the heavyweights in the history of modern Chinese literature have participated in the translation and introduction.In addition to translation works, they also introduced various literary and artistic thoughts, and actively explored and discussed translation methods and theories.Especially with their active advocacy and hard work, The translation industry in China has been closely integrated with the struggle against imperialism and feudalism.It completely changed the chaotic and unprincipled state of translation circles before the May 4th Movement.In addition, it was from this time that China's translation of Soviet/Russian literature gradually reached its peak.It can be said that the mainstream of Chinese literature translation in the 1930s was Marxist literary trend of thought and progressive literature (especially Soviet/Russian literature).Of course, in addition to Russian/Soviet literature, this period has translated the literature of Britain, The United States, Japan, France, Germany and southeast Northern Europe and Asia.
The third period is from 1937 to 1949. After the war of Resistance against Japan broke out.The translation community, like the rest of the country, has concentrated all its efforts on the cause of saving the nation from extinction and striving for liberation.Therefore, the pace of development of Translation in China slowed down during this period.In spite of this, Chinese writers and translators have overcome various difficulties and translated and published many excellent foreign literary works.During this period, there was a wide range of translations, ranging from western European classical literature to war literature at that time, and even ancient Greek literature and Jewish literature.In terms of genres, there are novels, poems, plays, prose and even some academic works on literary history.A number of famous translators in the history of Chinese translation literature, such as Zhu Shenghao, Ge Baoquan, Fu Lei, Liang Shiqiu, Lin Yutang and so on, are active in literary translation.Of course, the biggest characteristic of this period was the translation of the Soviet Union and other countries anti-fascist war works, in particular, the establishment of the revolutionary translation group "Times Press", published the revolutionary translation publication "Soviet Literature", a large number of Soviet literary and artistic works.

====2.2 The situation of modern and contemporary Translation on the Korean Peninsula and the Influence of China==
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From the end of the 19th century, western civilization began to flow into East Asia on a large scale, and Korea was further plunged into the situation of internal troubles and foreign aggression. Faced with the complicated situation at home and abroad, the enlightened intellectuals of Korea further realized that translating Western books was an important task at that time. As early as 1886, The "Seoul Weekly" published by Powen Bureau had a column specially emphasizing the importance of translation, and proposed to establish a special translation agency to translate foreign books. And six years later, another important newspaper of the day 《Huangcheng News 》also commented, stressing that translation is an important means to enrich the country and strengthen the army and realize modern civilization. We call for the establishment of specialized translation institutions under the guidance of the government "to strengthen the guidance and management of translation. On behalf of this, not only all kinds of news media actively propagated, but also some intellectuals at that time called for the realization of civilization and the prosperity of the country and the strength of the army by translating overseas literature and learning advanced western experience. As a result, the Korean Peninsula at that time set off a boom in the translation of overseas works, especially literary works. Of course, as in China, one of the preconditions for translating Western books in the Korean Peninsula was the development of modern media, which provided a platform for the dissemination of written works at that time. After the 1895-1895 revolution, modern schools were established one after another, and special language schools were set up, which played a positive role in understanding overseas and spreading Western culture, and reserved talents for the translation and introduction of foreign literature.
Generally speaking, the history of translation of foreign works on the Korean Peninsula from 1895 to 1949 can be divided into the following five stages: Patriotic enlightenment period (1895-1910), translation literature awakening period (1911-1919), translation into the proper period (1920-1935), dark Period (1936-1945), Regeneration period (1945 ~1949). We can refer to Kim Byung-chul's Studies on the History of Modern Korean Translation Literature, the earliest and only work on the history of modern Korean Translation literature. However, it is worth noting that Kim Byung-chul's pioneering work has carefully combed and studied the translation history of modern Korean literature from both macro and micro perspectives. However, there is no introduction to the translation of Chinese and Japanese literature. In fact, in the whole modern and modern period, although the communication between China and South Korea seems not as active and close as that in ancient times, the spiritual, political and cultural ties that have connected the two countries for thousands of years have not disappeared overnight. This point can be seen from the early stage of The History of Korean translated literature with China as the medium of translation activities and the late continuous translation of Modern Chinese literature.
The first stage (1895-1910) is the period of patriotic enlightenment，The main function of translation in this period was "enlightenment of civilization, independence, social and political enlightenment", and the translation activities inevitably had obvious purpose and utility. The patriotic enlighteners represented by Xuan CAI, Zhang Zhiyuan, Shen Caihao and Zhou Shijing received Chinese education from childhood and were deeply influenced by Confucian culture. Most of the works translated from The Korean Peninsula during this period were biographies of great men, history of the war, history of independence and geographical history. Almost all the translated works are from Chinese and Japanese versions. According to statistics, there were about 37 separate editions of such works translated in the Korean Peninsula before 1910, among which 16 were based on Chinese translations, not including those published in newspapers and magazines. In particular, it is worth emphasizing the important works in the early history of Korean literature, such as The History of The Fall of Vietnam, the Biography of the Three Masters of the Founding of Italy, and so on.The Biography of the Patriotic Lady was introduced to the Korean Peninsula based on the Chinese version. In addition, the Japanese Ryoki Yano's Korean single version of The Book On The Nation and the United States (1908, Translated by Hyun Gonglian) was based on zhou Kui's Chinese version in 1907. It is also highly likely that The first western literary work to be officially translated into Korea, Robin Sun Crusoe (1908, translated by Kim Chan), was translated into Chinese. In a word, China's influence cannot be ignored in the history of translated literature during the Korean civilization period.
The second stage (1910 ~ 1919) is called "the Awakening period of Translated literature". The translation activities of this period did have many characteristics different from those of the previous period. For example, many translations clearly identify the original author and translator; There appeared some literary magazines that paid attention to translation, such as Youth, New Star, Youth, Light of Learning and New Wenjie.“Three Lights", and "Tai Xi Literature and Art News" founded in 1918 with the main purpose of translating foreign literary works; At the beginning, it was consciously emphasized that translation should be based on the original text rather than through a third language. Translation methods also began to emphasize the separation from the earlier simple emphasis on the transmission of content translation, summary translation, abbreviated translation, etc. It puts forward the importance of respecting the original text and being faithful to the original text, and actively practices it. Kim Il and other important figures in the history of Korean translation literature have officially started their translation activities. And so on. All these indicate that the translation activities on the Korean Peninsula have "awakened" and are ready for further progress on the right track.
Generally speaking, since 1908, when Juvenile was first published，The Translated literature of the Korean Peninsula further broke away from the original utilitarian and purist nature and began to enter the era of "pure literature and art" translation. Since then, a great deal of Western literature has been translated into The Korean peninsula, and the quality of translation in this period is significantly higher than that of the Patriotic Enlightenment period. In addition to new novelists such as Lee Sang-hyup, Lee Hae-jo and Ahn Guk-seon, the translators also include famous figures in the history of literature such as Choi Nam-seon, Hong Myung-hee and Lee Kwang-soo, as well as some publishers and media workers. It is worth noting that some scholars believe that literary exchanges between China and Korea ended after Japan annexed the Korean Peninsula in 1910. This view is obviously somewhat arbitrary. According to incomplete statistics, at least 20 Chinese translations were introduced to the Korean Peninsula through the medium of Chinese translations, although the translation activities based on Chinese translations were not as active as in the Enlightenment period. These works include not only reprints of Chinese vernacular novels in Ming and Qing Dynasties, but also western novels based on Chinese translations. Among these Chinese translations of western novels, 8 are from the large western literature translation series "Shuobo Congshu", which was planned and published by the Shanghai Commercial Press in 1903. Choi Chan-sik, a famous writer of new novels at the time, recalled that recalled that he began writing a new novel after translating a book in the "Shaobo Series" published in Shanghai, China. These data show that even at a time when Japan's control over the Korean Peninsula was increasing, China's translation and media activities still have a certain influence on Korean intellectuals. In other words, under the new historical conditions, the cultural exchanges between the two countries are still struggling to continue in a new form.
The third stage (1920-1935) marked the beginning of joseon's translation literature. According to Kim byung-chul's statistics, at least 600 foreign literary works have been translated to the Korean Peninsula in various forms since the 1920s, Genres include fiction, poetry, drama, essays, fairy tales, and some literary criticism, Countries involved Britain, the United States, Germany, France, Russia, India and so on. Of course, this statistic does not include the translation of Chinese literature. In fact, after the 1920s, one of the biggest changes in the history of Sino-Korean translation was the movement that was then in China and the new literary works began to be translated and introduced to the Korean Peninsula. According to incomplete statistics, about 30 kinds of modern Chinese literary works including novels were translated and translated in the Korean Peninsula during the colonial period (In addition to the only collection of Chinese Short Stories during the colonial period), 16 plays, 41 poems, 3 essays, 1 fairy tale, etc., and more than a dozen literary criticism. If we add the Chinese classical literature translated in this period, we can say that after 1920, the translation of Chinese literature in the Korean Peninsula is relatively comprehensive and continuous, which should not be excluded from the history of Korean translated literature.
The fourth stage (1936-1945) was a dark period for the entire Korean Peninsula. In terms of translated literature, Japan has strengthened its control over public opinion and media by strengthening its policy of suppressing national language, The flood of Japanese books, coupled with the growing economic collapse on the Korean peninsula, has put pressure on the publishing industry and reduced the number of magazines, Access to foreign books has also been blocked, resulting in a huge blow to translation activities on the Korean Peninsula. This was the darkest period in the history of Translated literature on the Korean Peninsula. Although there were sporadic translations of Chinese literary works, they only catered to the political needs of the Japanese colonial government and chose some works that were irrelevant to politics and even covered up and beautified its militarist ambitions. In 1940, for example, Three Thousand Miles magazine ran a special collection of "New Chinese literature,"The content of the works is either daily life, love or traditional art, which has nothing to do with politics, and the original translations are entirely dependent on Japanese translations. The content of the works is either daily life, love or traditional art, which has nothing to do with politics, and the original translations are entirely dependent on Japanese translations.
In the fifth stage (1945-1949), the Korean Peninsula was finally liberated from Japanese colonial rule. The country was in ruins and all walks of life seemed to be full of hope, but at the same time, it was in a sudden chaos. At this time, translation has gradually entered the recovery period. From the point of view of countries, the United States and the Soviet Union were the most translated works, which obviously reflected the political situation and ideology at that time. However, the translation and study of modern Chinese literature also ushered in a brief bright period. Many researchers from academic schools joined the ranks of translation, and the translation of their works also moved toward specialization and systematization, with the emergence of selected Modern Chinese Short Stories (1946), Short Stories of Lu Xun (1946), Selected Modern Chinese Poems (1947) and other individual editions. He even published the history of Modern Chinese Literature (1949), the first book of Chinese studies in Korea. Compared with the colonial period, translation at this time was no longer subject to many restrictions, and further got rid of the early enlightenment and utilitarian color in nature. It began to attempt to approach modern Chinese literary works from the perspective of aesthetics and pure literature and carried out systematic and professional research. Translators seem to want to make up for the many regrets of the colonial period and are eager to translate and study modern Chinese literature in an all-round way. Unfortunately, this boom came to an abrupt end after the outbreak of the war in 1950, and The cause of Chinese literary translation fell into recession again.

==3. Differences and Similarities in the translation history of Modern Chinese and Korean literature==
Differences and similarities in the translation history of Modern Chinese and Korean literature
As is known to all, since the 1970s, translation studies have achieved a "cultural" shift, and the scope of research has expanded from the purely linguistic category to the non-linguistic category of culture, ideology, power relations, politics and so on.The literariness and thinking of literary works determine that literary translation has the dual orientation of ideology and poetics.Therefore, the study of literary translation should be connected with the socio-historical background and the poetic background so as to analyze and explain the important translation phenomena in depth.Throughout the history of modern literary translation in China and South Korea, we will find that the biggest similarity is that the "cultural political practice" (Venuti) of translation has always been controlled by ideology.Under the environment of western learning spreading eastward, one of the main social ideologies in East Asia was"Modern transformation".As an important means of modernization transformation, translation not only has an impact on the political and economic development of China and Korea, but also plays an important role in the two countries' acceptance of Western civilization, dissemination of new knowledge, formation of new culture, and the development of their own language and literature.In the process of sorting out the translation history of modern Chinese and Korean literature, we can clearly find that there are many similarities and intersections, and of course there are individual differences.Whether similarities or differences arise, some of them are related to the social ideology of the two countries, and some are related to the influence of the translator's personal ideology.It can be said that ideology permeates all aspects of modern translation in both countries, especially the change and development of social ideology plays a significant role in the evolution of translation.Below, this paper will compare and analyze the similarities and differences of literary translation between the two countries from several aspects.
(1) The nature and motivation of translation
In terms of the nature of translation, the modern translation activities in China and South Korea have obvious utilitarian, effective and political characteristics.Before the formal launch of literary translation, China had gone through a long stage of translating and introducing western scientific and technological books for the purpose of learning from the West, strengthening industrial development and achieving a prosperous country and a strong army.After the failure of the Reform movement of 1898, the development of Chinese foreign literature translation was in fact based on the translation of novels.One of the reasons is that Liang Qichao, the leader of the Reformists, put forward the slogan of "novel revolution" and advocated the translation of political novels, blowing the horn of literary translation. At the same time, a group of literary translators represented by Lin Shu actively engaged in translation practice, which also promoted the development of literary translation at that time.At that time, the purpose of literary translation was also to enlightening the people, reforming the society and giving play to the unique role of literary thought in shaping the "consciousness of the world".After the May 4th Movement, political demands still played a leading role in the selection of translators despite literary factors.On the other hand, the Korean Peninsula, because of the late opening of port and the depth of the country's internal troubles and foreign aggression, had no time to translate western literature as China and Japan did in terms of promoting industrial development and enriching the country and strengthening its armed forces.For them, translation is first of all a means of understanding the outside world, and its direct purpose is to get rid of the control of foreign forces and achieve independence.Therefore, the modern translation of the Korean Peninsula did not go through the stage of large-scale scientific translation, but from the very beginning, a part of social science translation and a large number of literary translation, including political novels, biographies of great men and so on.In particular, the translation of literary works has always occupied an important position in the modern translation of the Korean Peninsula.It is worth mentioning that liang Qichao had a great influence on literary translation during the Period of Korean Civilization.It was under his influence that a large number of political novels were translated and introduced to the Korean Peninsula, and played an important role in the transformation of thoughts and concepts in the Korean Peninsula in the modern period and the emergence and development of modern literature.Of course, after entering the period of colonial rule, the Translation of the Korean Peninsula became more colonial,In many ways, it is more influenced and restricted by Japan. Although there is also the pursuit of literature, the final translation inevitably has a strong political nature.In a word, the translation activities in the first half of the 20th century in both countries are determined by both literary factors and social ideology, but in the final analysis, the latter always plays a dominant role.Due to the special historical environment and similar fate, translation in both countries has strong utilitarian, utility and political characteristics to a large extent, which are the manifestation of the "manipulation" of translation by the ideological form.
(2) The source of the translation
There is no doubt that in all stages of modern translation history, the sources of translated works in the two countries are closely related to Japan, but there are differences in the specific range of sources and degree of dependence on Japan.In fact, before the late Qing Dynasty, a large number of Western scientific and technological books translated in China were basically based on the original Western language.In the translation period dominated by the Reformists, due to the vigorous development of Japanese translation and the characteristics of easy learning and understanding of Japanese, Liang Qichao and Kang Youwei advocated the translation of foreign works from Japanese. It was not until then that A large number of Japanese translations were carried out in China.
After the May 4th Movement, Translation in China flourished, with translators of various languages appearing in large numbers and many intellectuals participating in translation activities.At this time, the original versions of Chinese translations are also varied, including Japanese and English versions, and many are directly translated from the original.On the other hand, due to the influence of history, during the whole period of the Korean Peninsula, the translation of foreign books mainly consisted of Japanese and Chinese versions, and few of them were directly translated from the original.After entering the period of colonial rule, due to Japan's rule and influence on the Korean Peninsula in various fields, there were fewer and fewer translation cases based on The Chinese version, and the Japanese version took the dominant position.However, due to the increasing number of intellectuals focusing on Western language and literature (such as the emergence of the "Overseas Literature School" in 1926), the call for translation based on the original text became stronger and stronger.After all, most of the Korean intellectuals of the "overseas literary school" studied in Japan,Therefore, although they put forward the slogan of "translation from the original text", their translation activities are still directly or indirectly influenced by the Japanese knowledge system.In short, if the modern times of East Asia are "modern times of translation", as a bridge of translation in East Asia, Japanese translation is based on the original text or English.In China, there are both literal translation of the original text and retranslation of English and Japanese versions. On the other hand, Korean translation sources are a little bit unitary, basically retranslating some Chinese and most Japanese versions.However, from another point of view, the translation path of the Korean Peninsula at that time was the most complicated among the three countries, which could be the path of "Japanese → Korean", "Western → Chinese → Korean" or even "Western → Japanese → Chinese → Korean".
At that time, many Korean intellectuals were fluent in both Chinese and Japanese, so it was difficult to refer to only one source in the translation process.For example, The book On The Classics and The United States (1908), marked with the "translation" of Xuan Gonglian, was published with reference to both the Japanese and Chinese versions.Kim Kyo-je, a famous writer of new novels in the early modern period, translated or reprinted 11 novels at least four were translated to the Korean Peninsula through the path of "Western → Chinese → Korean";While Li Haichao translated Iron World (1908), the translation path is "Western → Japanese → Chinese → Korean" .
In Korea at that time, this kind of double, triple or even multiple retranslation is very common. For this reason, the modern Korean Peninsula is also called "retranslated modern times" by scholars.
(3) Topic selection and content of the translated work
Corresponding to the nature, motivation and characteristics of translation, there are not only similarities and intersecting points, but also their own characteristics in the topic selection of translated works.For example, the pilgrim's Progress, a religious novel by English novelist John Bunyan (1628-1688), was among the first western literary works translated in both countries.
This fact reflects the important role of western missionaries in the translation history of the two countries.Aesop's Fables is also one of the earliest and most frequently translated western literary works in both countries.Aesop's Fables was translated many times in both countries and included in the textbooks of the time as a children's book.After entering the modern and contemporary period, both countries highly respected historical and biographical works and political novels, and had a period of concentrated translation.For example, political novels such as "A Journey with the Wind", "Jingguo Meiyu" and "Iron World" have been translated into Chinese and English respectively.In addition, many historical and biographical works (especially the history of subjugations) were translated into The Korean Peninsula through Chinese media at that time, such as The Founding of Switzerland and Fifteen Little Heroes. As well as liang Qichao's writings or translations of the hundred Days' Coup, The History of the Fall of Vietnam, the biography of the three Heroes of the Founding of Italia, The biography of Madame Roland, and the biography of Hungarian patriot Gasus, etc.History books such as A New History of Tai Xi, a Brief History of Russia, A War in the Middle East and modern History of Egypt were also translated from Chinese versions. In the whole period of civilization, the Korean Peninsula concentrated on the translation of history, biographical works and political novels, although there is no lack of Japanese influence, but obviously The Influence of China can not be ignored.Due to reasons such as politics, current affairs and the market, the two countries in politics, history and biography of before and after the translation in the first decade of the 20th century gradually into the low tide, and other types of novels, such as science fiction, detective novels, western pure literary fiction and gradually be translated a lot, at the same time, poetry translation have greater development.It is worth mentioning that translation in both countries reached a new climax after the late decade of the first decade of the 20th century.In terms of the number and diversity of genres, China is far more diverse than The Korean Peninsula, but there are some interesting intersections in the literary translation topics of the two countries, such as Shakespeare, Hardy, Stevenson and Conan Doyle in The UK, Tolstoy, Gorky and Chekov in Russia, Tagore in India,Norway's Ibsen and other works have had a great influence in both countries.It is worth mentioning that there are obvious differences between the two countries in the topic selection of translated works as follows. The first is the translation of Japanese literature
The problem. As we all know, Japanese literature plays a very important role in the history of Chinese translation of foreign literature in the 20th century.On the Korean Peninsula, although the influence of Japanese literature is beyond doubt, and the translation of Japanese literature in the first half of the 20th century can be said to run through the whole modern translation activities of the Korean Peninsula, but the translation of Japanese literature in the Korean Peninsula itself is very few.
The reasons are mainly related to the special political and historical background of the Korean Peninsula and the control and infiltration of Japanese language in the Korean Peninsula after entering the colonial period, as well as the role of national emotional factors.Secondly, the translation and introduction of the other side's literature. In the first half of the 20th century, the literature of the two countries was not the main target of translation in each other's country, but this does not mean that there is no overlap between them. On the whole, the Korean Peninsula paid more and deeper attention to Chinese literature than China did to Korean literature during this period.After entering the modern society, under the extremely complicated and difficult cultural environment, the Korean Peninsula continued to translate Chinese vernacular novels and some classical poems in the Ming and Qing dynasties, and at the same time carried out a relatively concentrated translation of Liang Qichao, the pioneer of Chinese novel revolution. However, what is more noteworthy is his continuous translation and introduction of New Chinese literature, which started in the second half of the 1910s.Due to the special historical and geographical relationship, Korea is the first country in the world to notice China's new cultural movement except Japan. At that time, many magazines and newspapers on the Korean Peninsula introduced and reported the New Chinese literature. Some Korean intellectuals had deep feelings about the innovative atmosphere in The Chinese literary circle and hoped to provide necessary reference for the improvement and innovation of their own literature through the translation and introduction of The new Chinese literature.In a word, during the Period of Japanese rule, the Translation and introduction of modern Chinese literature in The Korean Peninsula was quite comprehensive, and many famous writers and works in the history of Chinese literature were involved in the topic selection, which played an important role in the study of Chinese literature in Korea. On the contrary, China's translation of Korean literature at that time was very limited, mainly due to the concern of "weak and weak ethnic literature", and also influenced by the war ideology of anti-japanese and national salvation, nationalism. However, in the huge history of modern Chinese literature translation, the translation of Korean literature is just a drop in the ocean and has not received enough attention. All in all, the depth and breadth of the translation of each other's works is extremely unbalanced.
(4) The translator's main body, translation strategies and methods
There are also similarities between the two countries on the subject of translators in the history of modern translation literature. In the early stage of translation activities, western missionaries played a great role. Later, famous intellectuals, social activists and literary scholars of the two countries realized the importance of translation, actively participated in translation activities, and became the leading leaders of modern translation in the two countries.For example, yan Fu, Liang Qichao and Lin Shu were active translators in early China, while xuan CAI, Pu Yinzhi, Shen Caihao and other famous scholars, thinkers and social activists led the translation during the Korean Peninsula's enlightenment period. After entering the decade of the 20th century, the translation of the two countries gradually entered the climax.Many Chinese writers, including Lu Xun, Guo Moruo and Zhou Zuoren, actively translated while writing. Choi Nam-sun and Lee Kwang-soo, leaders of Korean literature in the first decade of the 20th century, also actively translated their works.In addition, famous writers of new novels such as Lee Hae-jo, Ahn Guk-seon, and Choi Chan-sik were motivated and motivated by translation activities. With the development of translation, a number of specialized literary translators have emerged in both countries. In addition, some new women at that time also participated in the translation, such as Bing Xin from China and Kim Myung-soon from Korea.In terms of translation strategies or ways, early modern translation system is far from mature, highly standard translation way, utilitarian purpose, color thick, many translators from themselves and the needs of the audience, or excerpts and delete any reduction of the original (AD, Jane), or add their own opinions and comments in the process of translation, the tai shang ganying pian), Or in the form of translation only summarize the general idea (synopsis), for example, liang Qichao and Cui Nanshan's translation to a large extent are abridged, synopsis or translation.Generally speaking, the forms and methods of translation at that time were characterized by diversity and hybridity, which were similar in China and Korea. The reason is related to the mainstream ideology of the translation leaders who hoped to enlighten the people, enrich the country and strengthen the army through translation as soon as possible.
(5) Disputes on "Literary translation"
After literary translation gradually got on the right track and became the mainstream of translation works in the two countries, translators in the two countries gained further insights on the application, methods and techniques of translation and gradually began to express their own views on translation, whose discussions cover all aspects of translation. Such as translation methods, translation skills, translation and the status of translators, the role of translation. The opinions of different translators are bound to be different. Therefore, in the modern and contemporary period, both China and South Korea had debates on translation (literary translation). The focus and theme of the debate are similar, such as "translatable or untranslatable", "literal translation versus free translation" and so on.It is well known that in the history of modern Chinese translation, especially in the May Fourth Movement period, many writers began their literary career by translating foreign literature, and most of them published discussions on translation. The differences between different translators and groups have led to several famous debates in the history of Chinese translation. For example, lu Xun and Zhou Zuoren proposed Literal translation and related debates are typical examples. In addition, in the history of modern Chinese translation, there are also debates on "translated names", "translatable or not translatable literary works", translation methods such as mistranlation, hard translation and dead translation, and translation paths such as literal translation or retranslation.The 1920s was a period when the history of modern and contemporary translation in Korea was on the right track. Many newspapers and magazines published discussions on translation and related debates. In the history of modern translation on the Korean Peninsula, one of the most famous disputes about translation is the dispute between Jin Yi and Liang Zhudong about "literal translation" and "free translation" in poetry translation. Liang zhudong believes that poetry is untranslatable and should be literal compared with free translation. Jin Yi believes that although poetry is untranslatable, if translators exert their own subjective initiative, it can completely improve the value of translated poetry and even become a new creation. However, it is interesting that although Liang zhudong praised the method of "literal translation", he criticized the "overseas literature school" that focused on foreign literature at that time for being too rigid in the way of literal translation, and believed that "literal translation" should be organically combined with "free translation".In fact, the debate between literal translation and free translation, or "domestication" and "foreignization", is closely related to ideology.
The debate between translators in the two countries over these issues is actually carried out at the ideological level. According to venuti, a famous translation theorist of deconstruction school, the choice of translation strategy is determined by ideology.
(6) The influence of translation on the languages and literature of the two countries
In fact, the greatest influence of modern literary translation on China and South Korea is reflected in the development of characters and literature. First of all, translation must be carried out with language as the carrier. Under normal circumstances, the translated language is naturally the lingua franca of a country and a nation, but for China and South Korea in the late 19th and 20th centuries, a common problem emerged in the process of translation in terms of language carrier: At that time, both countries had two parallel language systems, which coincided with the social and cultural transition, so language translation became a very interesting topic.As we all know, in the late 19th century and the early 20th century, There were two languages in China: Classical Chinese and vernacular Chinese. Vernacular Chinese was still in the ascendant, while classical Chinese still played an important role in written and literary translation. Of course, the classical Chinese at this time refers to the late Qing Dynasty and the early Republic of China common "shallow classical Chinese", it is different from the past obscure ancient prose, but in classical Chinese mixed with common sayings, is a kind of literary language between ancient Classical Chinese and vernacular.For example, Lin Shu, a great modern translator, translated foreign literature in classical Chinese. His translation was not only welcomed by readers at that time, but also had a great influence on many famous Chinese intellectuals. In the late Qing Dynasty and the early Republic of China, there were both classical Chinese and vernacular Chinese translations, and the classical Chinese translations were more than the vernacular ones, but basically the two languages co-existed peacefully. In the process of translation, the needs of the audience should be considered. The same translator can translate in both vernacular and classical Chinese. The same foreign novel may have both classical and vernacular translations.It was not until after the New Culture Movement that the vernacular style gradually occupied the main position in written language. After the 1920s, the translated works in China were mainly in vernacular. For the development of modern Chinese vernacular, it can be said that the impact of translation is extremely far-reaching. Chinese vernacular can be divided into "traditional vernacular" and "modern vernacular".The traditional vernacular is based on a Dream of Red Mansions.
The vernacular of China represented by such vernacular classics as Water Margin, which is not influenced by western language. The "modern vernacular" is based on the traditional vernacular, influenced by oral and ancient prose and with the color of European, that is, the May 4th Movement advocated vernacular, namely the so-called European vernacular.It is worth noting that this Kind of European vernacular was actually created by western missionaries in China at that time, and the tool of missionaries to create European vernacular is translation. In order to spread religion and western culture smoothly, they translated a large number of Western books, including holy books, and consciously chose words and styles more suitable for ordinary people to read in the process of translation, which was the prototype of vernacular Chinese vigorously advocated by the May Fourth Movement.Similar to the situation in China, the Korean Peninsula in the late 19th and early 20th centuries also had two basic styles, namely, the mixed style of Chinese and Chinese and the pure Style of Chinese. It was only after the 1894-1895 Revolution that the Korean Peninsula's national language began to be widely used. It takes time for any language style to emerge and mature, and the Korean Peninsula's "pure Korean style" is no exception,In 1921, Korean language researchers formed the Korean Language Research Society under the influence of the Zhou Dynasty, which served as an opportunity for the further establishment of the modern Korean language. Before this, mixed Chinese and Korean language played an important role in the written language of the Korean Peninsula for a long time.In fact, the so-called mixed Chinese characters are based on Chinese characters, sometimes using Korean characters. The difference is that some mark Korean characters on Chinese characters, and some do not even mark Korean characters, but only Chinese characters. There is another special case, that is, the pure Chinese style with Korean auxiliary words and endings, such as the "hanging out Chinese style" used by Shen Caihao in the translation of the Biography of the Three Heroes of the Foundation of Itri.It is worth mentioning that it was also western missionaries who initially carried out translation activities in Korean. In order to preach, they carried out translation activities mainly aimed at the "Bible" in the Korean Peninsula, using the Korean language, which was not popular and was not valued by the Korean intellectuals at that time. The purpose of using The Korean language was to make the translated holy book easier for more ordinary people to accept. Kim Byeong-cheol holds that it is the translation of sacred books in the native Korean language that gave birth to the main form of modern literature on the Korean Peninsula, namely the "new novel", and thus promoted the "unity of language and language" and the emergence of modern literature in Korea.In general, the influence of translation on the development of Chinese and Korean characters and literature is far more than that. It can be said that the expansion of sentence structure, the change of style, the enrichment of vocabulary, the improvement of expressive force and the perfection of grammar system of the two languages are all inseparable from translation. In a word, translation has played an indispensable role in the unification of language and language in the history of Chinese and English literature. In addition to its role in language, translation also has a profound influence on the development of modern literature in both countries. As is known to all, the translation and introduction of a large number of foreign novels not only brought strong shock and impact to the literary circles of the two countries at that time, but also provided a lot of reference for the realization of the literary transformation of the two countries.It can be said that in the process of the collision, integration and evolution of eastern and western literature, literary translation plays a decisive external role in the transformation of Chinese and Korean literature from classical form to modern form, and has a great impact on the literary concept, literary type, narrative mode and expression mode. In this regard, researchers in China and South Korea have given positive descriptions.
==4. conclusion==
There are many similarities between China and South Korea in modern times. Under the environment of western learning spreading to the east, both of them were knocked out of the country by the West, suffered the invasion of western powers and Japan successively, and passively started the journey of modernization. Under the circumstance of deepening national crisis of domestic and foreign invasion, the enlightened intellectuals of the two countries have carried out the exploration of saving the nation from extinction, and translation is an important means for them to achieve this goal. To be specific, the historical context of the spreading of Western learning from the end of the 19th century endowed the two countries with unique historical characteristics. Due to the similarity of historical, cultural and political background and mainstream ideology, the translation of modern and contemporary literature in the two countries also presents many similarities and even intersecting points. As analyzed above, the most obvious common point in the modern translation history of China and Korea is ideology Influence throughout. For China and Korea at that time, one of the mainstream ideologies was "modernization transformation", and translation was the driving force for the modernization transformation process of the two countries. Therefore, utilitarianism and purposefulness run through the development of modern translation in both countries. In addition to the mainstream social ideology, the translator's personal ideology also has a great influence on literary translation in both countries.For example, the early translation phenomenon led by Western missionaries and the later translation activities led by intellectuals of the two countries were all carried out by translators for their personal purposes under the influence of the general environment at that time. It can be said that it is because of the influence of the subliminal form of the western learning spreading to the east that the modern and modern translations of the two countries show many similarities or similarities. Comparing the literary translation of the two countries in terms of specific content, we can find many similarities in details. For example, western missionaries played an important role at the beginning. After entering the 20th century, the translation of both countries was deeply influenced by Japan. The translation groups of the two countries were the best intellectuals and representatives of the new culture at that time. When they translated foreign works, they also carried out various discussions and even debates about translation. Translation activities have broadened the horizons of the people of the two countries and enriched their languages, literature and even culture.

It is worth mentioning that cultural exchanges between the two countries have also been continued through translation. Of course, due to the differences in specific situations, there are some differences in literary translation between the two countries while showing common features. The author believes that the biggest difference lies in the scale of translation. To be specific, from the number of translated works and translators, the discussion and construction of translation theories, the importance attached to translation, and the influence and status of translation in the history of national literature, Chinese modern translation is obviously higher. The main reason is that the translation environment and background of the two countries at that time are different, that is, the difference between complete colonies and semi-colonies. Although the Qing Dynasty fell under the background of the competition of western powers, China did not completely become a colony of any power, so it was relatively free and independent in political and cultural development. However, because Korea was annexed and ruled by Japan, it was difficult to develop modernization independently. The whole society was highly dependent on Japan, and it was also greatly restricted and influenced by Japan in terms of ideology. Translation activities were no exception.

As mentioned above, the purpose of the author's comparative study of Chinese and Korean contemporary literature translation is to restore the contemporary and contemporary literary exchanges between the two countries, and at the same time to provide necessary background for the mutual translation and introduction of the contemporary and contemporary literature of the two countries. However, the study of Chinese and Korean modern literature translation is a polyphonic and polysemy subject with a very wide range of coverage. Due to the limited space and author's ability, this paper only generalizes and arranges the subject from a macro perspective, and many details are not developed in depth. Translated works by the capacity of, for example, the sources of the related works and so on, for more exist in the two countries pay fork points to explore, in the evaluation of literature translation of words between the two countries and the specific influence of literature, especially under the background of their literary translation between the two countries the properties and significance of literary translation, etc, if you can carry out further discussion and exploration of the content, The research results will be more rich and three-dimensional.

There were many similarities between China and South Korea in modern times. Under the environment of western learning spreading to the East, both of them were knocked out of the country by the West, suffered the invasion of western powers and Japan successively, and passively started the journey of modernization. Under the circumstance of deepening national crisis of domestic and foreign invasion, the enlightened intellectuals of the two countries had carried out the exploration of saving the nation from extinction.Translation was an important means for them to achieve this goal. To be specific, the historical context of the spreading of Western learning from the end of the 19th century endowed the two countries with unique historical characteristics. Due to the similarity of historical, cultural and political background and mainstream ideology, the translation of literature in the two countries also presented many similarities and even intersecting points. As analyzed above, the most obvious common point was ideology influence. For China and Korea at that time, one of the mainstream ideologies was "modernization transformation",for which translation was the driving force. Therefore, utilitarianism and purposefulness ran through the development of modern translation in both countries. In addition to the mainstream social ideology, the translator's personal ideology also has a great influence on literary translation in both countries.For example,the early translation phenomenon led by Western missionaries and the later translation activities led by intellectuals of the two countries were all carried out by translators for their personal purposes under the influence of the general environment at that time. Without doubt, the influence of the subliminal form of the western learning spreading to the east constituted similarities between the two countries.Comparing the literary translation of the two countries in terms of specific content,we found many similarities in details. For example, western missionaries played an important role at the beginning. After entering the 20th century, the translation of both countries was deeply influenced by Japan. The translation groups of the two countries were the best intellectuals and representatives of the new culture at that time. When they translated foreign works, they also carried out various discussions and even debates about translation. Translation activities had broadened the horizons of the people and enriched their languages, literature and even culture.

It is worth mentioning that cultural exchanges between the two countries have also been continued through translation. Of course, due to the differences in specific situations, there are some differences in literary translation between the two countries while showing common features. The author believes that the biggest difference lies in the scale of translation. To be specific, from the number of translated works and translators, the discussion and construction of translation theories, the importance attached to translation to the influence and status of translation in the history of national literature, Chinese modern translation was obviously higher. The main reason was that the translation environment and background of the two countries at that time were different, that is, the difference between complete colonies and semi-colonies. Although the Qing dynasty fell under the background of the competition of western powers, China did not completely become a colony of any power, so it was relatively free and independent in political and cultural development. However, because Korea was annexed and ruled by Japan, it was difficult to develop modernization independently. The whole society was highly dependent on Japan, and it was also greatly restricted and influenced by Japan in terms of ideology. Translation activities were no exception.

As mentioned above, the purpose of the author's comparative study of Chinese and Korean contemporary literature translation is to restore the literary exchanges between the two countries, and at the same time to provide necessary background for the two countries. However, the study of Chinese and Korean modern literature translation is a polyphonic and polysemy subject with a very wide range of coverage. Due to the limited space and author's ability, this paper only generalized and arranged the subject from a macro perspective, and many details were not developed in depth, such as the sources of the related works,the evaluation of literature translation of words, the properties and significance of literary translation and so on. This paper will be more rich and three-dimensional with further discussion and exploration of the content.--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 07:59, 11 December 2021 (UTC)

==References==
*金秉哲[韩]: 《韩国近代翻译文学史研究》，首尔: 乙酉文化社，1975。130-160页
*金鹤哲: 《1949 年以前韩国文学汉译和意识形态因素》，《中国比较文学》2009 年第 4 期，第 66 页。
*金旭东[韩]: 《翻译与韩国的近代》，首尔: 小明出版社，2010，第25~28页。
*王秉钦、王颉: 《20世纪中国翻译思想史》，南开大学出版社，2004，第31页。
*许钧: 《面向中西交流的翻译史研究》，《解放军外国语学院学报》2014 年第 5 期，第 140 页。
*许钧、袁筱一编著《当代法国翻译理论》，南京大学出版社，1998，第 128 页。
*朱一凡: 《翻译与现代汉语的变迁 ( 1905 ~ 1936) 》，外语教学与研究出版社，2011，第 72 页。

=刘沛婷 Western Translation history in Renaissance)=

刘沛婷 Liu Peiting, Hunan Normal University, China

==Abstract==
The Renaissance is not only an important period in the history of literature and technology, but also a turning point in the history of western translation. During this period, the translation of religious and literary works gradually flourished, and translators constantly put forward new translation concepts and tried translation practices.The soaring of national consciousness and national languages contributed to the characteristic ideas of translation in the Renaissance. Especially France, Britain and Germany had made outstanding contributions to the evolution and progress of the entire translation history during this period.This chapter is to have a brief introduction to the translation history in Renaissance, conduct a detailed explaination from the three countries of France, Britan and Germany respectively and illustrate some representative translators and translation theories with the hope to show the magnificent translation achievements in Renaisance and the evolvement of human translation history.

==Key words==
Translation history; renaissance; France; Britain; Germany

Translation history; Renaissance; France; Britain; Germany--[[User:Liu Wei|Liu Wei]] ([[User talk:Liu Wei|talk]]) 12:44, 14 December 2021 (UTC)Liu Wei

==Introduction==

The period from around the fourteenth until the mid-seventeenth century has conventionally been designated as the Renaissance,referring to the rediscovery and revitalization of the literature, art and science of ancient Greece and Rome. The term was devised by Italian humanists who sought to reaffirm their own continuity with the classical humanist heritage after an interlude of Middle Ages (Habib 2011：79).It was a great revolution in intellect and culture. It is also “the greatest progressive revolution that mankind has so far experienced, a time which called for giants and produced giants”.Renaissance takes spreading humanism thought as one of the main forms of expression, involving all aspects of the cultural field, including the ancient Greek, Roman works and contemporary European works. In the process of studying and reviving classical culture, as well as developing and spreading new ideas, translation obviously plays an important role. The magnificent Renaissance itself included and depended on an unprecedented scale of translation activities. Therefore, it marks not only a great development in literature, art and science, but also an important milestone in the history of translation.(Engels 1972：445)

Originated in Italy in the 15th century, and in the 16th century Renaissance swept Europe, (especially Western European countries) and gradually formed a climax. At that time, western society was filled with a spirit of seeking and conquering the objective world. When this spirit was reflected in the translation field, translators were full of ambition and spared no effort to constantly discover new literary styles, excavate new cultural heritages and transplant new ideas to their motherland. Many translators translated classic works related to politics, philosophy, social system, literature and art of past glorious countries into their national languages as reference for the development of their own countries. All achievements in translation were compared to "trophies" in literature and knowledge. Next, we are to have a review on translations history of France, Britain and Germany, three major Western European countries in the high tide of Renaissance.

From the 14th century to the middle of the 17th century, it is the Renaissance, which refers to the rediscovery and Renaissance of ancient Greek and Roman literature, art and science. The word "Renaissance" was designed by Italian Humanists who tried to reaffirm their continuity with the heritage of classical humanism, which was a great intellectual and cultural revolution. This is also "the greatest progressive revolution that mankind has experienced so far, an era that needs giants and produces giants".

The Renaissance takes the dissemination of humanism as one of the main forms of expression, involving all aspects of the cultural field, including ancient Greek, Roman and contemporary European works. Translation obviously plays an important role in the study and revival of classical culture and the development and dissemination of new ideas. The brilliant renaissance itself included and relied on unprecedented translation activities. Therefore, it not only marks the great development of literature, art and science, but also an important milestone in the history of translation. (Engels 1972:445)

The Renaissance originated in Italy in the 15th century, The 16th century swept Europe (especially in Western European countries) and gradually reached a climax. At that time, western society was full of the spirit of pursuing and conquering the objective world. When this spirit was reflected in the field of translation, translators were full of ambition, spared no effort to constantly discover new styles, excavate new cultural heritage and transplant new ideas to their motherland. Many translators put the politics of past brilliant countries into practice , philosophy, social system, literature and art are translated into their own national language as a reference for their own development. All translation achievements are compared to "trophies" of literature and knowledge. Next, we will review the translation history of France, Britain and Germany in the climax of the Renaissance. --[[User:Liu Wei|Liu Wei]] ([[User talk:Liu Wei|talk]]) 12:52, 14 December 2021 (UTC)Liu Wei

==1.History of Translation in France==

In France, during this period, the wind of restoring ancient styles began to prevail, ancient languages were valued, and ancient writers were respected. A large number of literary works of Italian humanists, such as Dante, Petrarch and Boccaccio, were introduced to France, which opened people's eyes and promoted the development of French humanist movement. Therefore, the focus of translation in France shifted from religious works to Italian classical literature works. The increasingly translation activities constituted a climax of translation history in France.Translators generally believed that translating literary works was much more difficult than translating religious works. Although translation began to reach a new climax, most of the translations were the "by-products" of literary creation, with low quality and little influence. However, in the climax of translation in France in the 16th century, there were two outstanding contributors , one is Jacques Amyot and the other is Etienne Dolet.(Tan Zaixi,2000:21)

Jacques Amyot was considered the king of translation in France. His first translation, Heliodoros’ ''Aethiopica'', was completed in 1547. Later, he translated Diodorus Siculus’s ''Bibliotheca Historica'' and, in 1559 he translated Ploutarchos’s ''Vies des Hommes illustrus'', which was Amyot’s most famous work. Amyot advocated translators’ thorough understanding of the original text and plain expressions without embellishment. He emphasized the unity of content and form, free translation and literal translation. In his translation, he borrowed words from Greek and Latin and simultaneously created a large number of words in politics, philosophy, science, literature, music and so on. He fused common people language and academic language, and therefore formed an independent style of translation and greatly enriched the French vocabulary. At that time, the French language is still in a state of confusion, Amyot and other humanists made tremendous contributions to unify the French national language.

Another great man in translation history of France was Etienne Dolet. As a famous translation theorist, Dolet advocated targeted texts’ faithfulness to the original work, which is the fundamental and indispensable principle in translation. Dolet believed that an excellent translator must be proficient in both source language and target language. He was aware of the weakness of word-by-word translation and emphasized that the translation should be consistent with the original text in style through various rhetorical devices. Ballard,a French translation theorist, argued that dolet’ translation principles constituted the rudiment of the French translation theory. What he proposed was the universal principles for translation.(Xu Jun and Yuan Xiaoyi,1998:284)

Jacques Amyot set an example for the following translation works in France in the 16th century; Etienne Dolet’s translation theories were of great significance and were the first systematic principles of translation, which were ahead of those of Germany and Britain and advanced translation studies into a higher level. Thanks to their efforts, France had earned a place in translation history during Renaissance period.

==2. History of Translation in Britain==

In Britain, the Renaissance came later than in the main countries of continental Europe, but Britain gradually kept up with others countries. During this period, the British capitalist economy developed rapidly, productivity improved greatly, and the country became increasingly prosperous , which has laid a solid material foundation for the development of literature and translation. Especially since Elizabeth came to the throne in the mid-16th century by the early 17th century, translation was flourishing. On the one hand, religious translation is in the ascendant, on the other hand, a great deal of literature from Greece, Rome and other contemporary countries was translated into English, which made English translation activities in this period one of the peaks of translation activities in Europe and even the world. Literary translation ranged from history and philosophy to poetry and drama, with the occurrence of a large number of excellent translators,who introduced ancient ingenuity to Britain, offering serious lessons not only to the Queen and politicians, but also plots and materials for dramatists and readers with the purpose of serving their country. At that time, many translators were not scholars, they were not bound by any strict translation theory, they could translate what they had at their own will. Many translations are not directly from the original texts, but from the translations or even the translation of the translation. Therefore, the scope and quantity of translation are unprecedented in Britain.In the aspect of religious translation, the translator was also influenced by humanism and the Reformation, a new understanding of the Bible arose, as well as a new attitude and a new way of dealing with the translation of the Bible. People advocated accurate translation in religious works, while for literature, the unbridled freedom of traditional translation methods persisted throughout the Elizabethan era.(Tan Zaixi,2004:71)

In Britain, the Renaissance began later than the major countries in continental Europe, but Britain developed rapidly and produced many achievements.

During this period, the British capitalist economy developed rapidly, the productivity increased greatly, and the country prospered day by day, which laid a solid material foundation for the development of literature and translation. Especially since Elizabeth ascended the throne in the middle of the 16th century and the beginning of the 17th century, translation has developed vigorously. On the one hand, religious translation is in the ascendant. On the other hand, a large number of literary works from contemporary countries such as Greece and Rome have been translated into English, which makes English translation activities in this period one of the peaks of translation activities in Europe and even the world. Literary translation ranges from history and philosophy to poetry and drama. A large number of excellent translators have emerged. They introduced the originality of ancient times into Britain, which not only provided serious lessons for the queen and politicians, but also provided plot and materials for playwrights and readers, in order to serve the country. At that time, many translators were not scholars. They were not bound by any strict translation theory. They could translate what they had at will. Many translations are not directly from the original text, but from the translation, or even the translation of the translation. Therefore, the scope and quantity of translation are unprecedented in the UK. In religious translation, the translator has also been influenced by humanism and religious reform, has a new understanding of the Bible, and has a new attitude and method to the translation of the Bible. People advocate accurate translation in religious works, while in literary works, the unbridled freedom of traditional translation methods continued throughout the Elizabethan era. (Tan Zaixi, 2004:71) --[[User:Liu Wei|Liu Wei]] ([[User talk:Liu Wei|talk]]) 12:59, 14 December 2021 (UTC)Liu Wei

====2.1 Translation of Douglas and Cheke====

Gavin Douglas (1475-1522), a famous Scottish poet and translator, published his translation of Virgil’s epic Poem ''The Aeneid'' in the early 16th century. He began his preface with a eulogy of Virgil and then launched into a serious critique of the overly liberal medieval translation. He criticized Caxton's French translation as unfaithful, as far from Virgil's original work, and "as different from the devil as st. Austin" . Douglass did not translate word by word, but freely translated. He said that if translator encountered difficult words, sentences, rhymes, one had to deviate from the original text. Douglass had added new content and new meaning to translation principles, and thus had a certain value (Amos,1920:129)

Towards the middle of the 16th century, an important figure in translation was John Cheke (1514-1557). He was a humanist and supporter of the Reformation, as well as a polyglot authority on Greek at the time and served as Principal Regent Chair Professor at Cambridge university. As a result of his popularity, Cambridge became one of the academic centers in Britain, and its students were well versed in translation and language studies.Cheke was a tireless translator,who had translated many Greek works and the Bible. Characteristically, he used only pure English words or words of Saxon origin in any case, and did not adopt any foreign words. He thought the English language was rich enough without borrowing foreign words. Because of his insist on pure English words and expressions in his translation, he sometimes had to use vulgar, old and remote words, so that the style of his translation was sometimes forced and stiff.
Cheke's theory had a great influence on contemporary translators. Many other translators often mentioned Cheke's translation views in their own translations. At that time, the main criterion for evaluating a translated work was whether it was authentic and easy to be understood by compatriots. At the same time, the study of foreign grammar and contrastive vocabulary also appeared in language studies. The translator aimed to turn the translation into a textbook for students of language and translation to imitate. Some translators also use word-for-word translation to provide guidance to students. Abraham Fleming, for example, translated Virgil's Poems "according to grammatical rules." He "used plain and understandable words so as to accommodate those who are slow in comprehension, since the translator's aim is to use straightforward language structures to ease the difficulties of those whose grammatical concepts are vague, rather than to devise ways to satisfy the desires of grander humanists" (Amos,1920:109).

====2.2 Translation from Thomas North to Georga Chapman====

However, in the translation of classical masterpieces, translators tended to shift from one extreme to another. In order to avoid word-for-word translation, translators adopted excessively free translation, which was not only for the expression of words but also for the treatment of the substance of the content. Nicholas Udall(1505-1556) created the first British comedy ''Ralph Roister Doister''. In 1542 he translated Erasmus's ''Book of Proverbs'', and later presided over Erasmus's Latin translation, including the Gospel of Luke, which was published in 1548. In the preface to the translation of the ''New Testament'', he discussed various issues related to translation: the treatment of translators, the expansion of English vocabulary, the treatment of sentence structure of the translation, Erasmus's style and the stylistic characteristics of different authors. In his opinion, translation should not follow rigid rules. He advocated the use of liberal translation without deviation from the original meaning, and the translation should be readable and understandable to the general readers.

The most famous translation work of the whole Elizabethan period was the English version of ''The live of the Noble Grecians and Romans'' by translator Thomas North (1535-1601).He studied at Cambridge University in his early years, and later worked in London, where he met many translation lovers and gradually became interested in translation. In 1557 he translated ''Diall of Princes'' from a French translation and later he translated an oriental allegory from an Italian translated version in 1601. ''The live of the Noble Grecians and Romans'' was translated in 1579. This translation was not from the original Greek version, but from Amyot's French translation. However, it was still considered as an excellent epoch-making translation. North did not express any unique views on translation, but he was famous for his excellent translation in the western translation circle with three main characteristics:(1)because it is not from the original Greek, the style of the translation is different from Plutarch's style; The original text is elegant while his translation is plain. (2) North's style is also different from that of Amio in the French translation, which he used as a model. He not only changes the wording of the French translation, but also its spirit. Like Amio's French translation, North's is another masterpiece based on Plutarch's original subject. (3) Though he knew little of the classical language, North was a master of The English language, and his translations were so simple and fluent, so elegant and idiomatic, that readers might have taken them for the original if they had not read the plot. North's translation was praised by Shakespeare, who drew his inspirations from this translated works and cited its expressions, which can be considered a terrific contribution of translation to literature. The prose style adopted by ''The live of the Noble Grecians and Romans'' is novel and elegant, neither rigid nor grotesque, and hence it has become an enduring model in the history of English translation.(Tan Zaixi, 2004:76)

Philemon Holland (1552-1637) was the most outstanding English translator of the 16th century, whose works outnumbered those of his contemporaries. He had been a surgeon and headmaster of Coventry General School. He was a learned translator and scholar, fluent in Greek and Latin, proficient in ancient writing and proverbs, as well as rhetoric. His classical works were not translated but directly from the Original Greek and Latin texts, and the subject matter was also varied. He translated Livy's Romane Historie in 1600 and Pliny's Natural Historie in 1601, Plutarch's Moralia in 1603, and translated Zitonius's The Historie of The Twelve Caesars in 1606. Hollander is better known in British translation circles than North or Florio, known as the Elizabethan "translator general" who truly understood "the secret of translation." Holland's translation has two main characteristics :(1) translation must serve the reality; (2) Translation must be stylistic. In the preface to his translation of Natural History, he emphasized, "the practicality of the content of the translation, which should be suitable not only for learned people, but also for the uncivilized peasants in the countryside and for the industrious craftsmen in the cities”. Hollander was particular about the style of his translation. Like other translators of his time, he used a slow prose style, and the translation was always longer than the original. In his translation he tried to be authentic, not foreign. He does not use artificial language, but popular style. Like Cheke before him, he also preferred archaic words to foreign ones out of love for the language of his own country. What’s more, he believed that the style of the original work must be reflected in the translation, and that different works must adopt different styles without adding differences. Hollander had left behind more than just translations, but a series of works with distinctive stylistic characteristics that could withstand even the rigors of modern stylist analysis and provide the modern reader with great pleasure.(Amos,1920:86)

Georga Chapman (1559-1634) was another outstanding translator, whose greatest contribution is that his translations serve as a bridge between the 16th and 17th centuries. He spent his early years as a student at Oxford University before writing poetry and plays. But it was mainly his translations that made him famous in the literary world. He translated the first seven books of the Iliad in 1598, completed the epic in 1611, and the Odyssey in 1616. The translator's profound attainments and outstanding achievements made his translation a literary masterpiece of the time. Chapman adopted two different styles to translate the same poetic style of the original work, that is, he translated Iliad in sonnet and Odyssey in heroic couplet. In contrast, the former is more appropriate and decent than the latter. In his translation, Chapman made extensive use of mythological dictionaries, referred to early reviews of Homer's work. However, both in content and style, the translation is not completely consistent with the original work. It has transformed the characters in the poem, and added elements of moral preaching to the value of wisdom and the expression and restraint of feelings. Chapman is unblemished as a translator. As a poet, however, he was blameless. His translation has achieved great success mainly because of his extraordinary creative ability as a poet and superb ability to control language.
Chapman also made some contributions to the theoretical issues of translation. In the preface of his translation, he clearly put forward the principles guiding the translation of poetry, thus filling some gaps in translation theory in the 16th century, especially in the later period. In principle, he was against too much strictness as well as too much freedom. He said, "I despise the translators for being trapped in the mire of word-for-word translation, losing the living soul of their native language and blackening the original author with stiff language. At the same time, I abhors the use of complicated language to express the meaning” (Amos,1920:130) . Of all that he opposed, the first was word for word translation,which was considered the most unnatural and absurd. According to the views of translation theories such as Horace, who had insight and a prudent attitude that the translator should not follow the original number of words and word order, but follow its material composition and sentences, carefully weigh sentences, and then use the most appropriate expressions and form to express and decorate the translation. Chapman believed that word-by-word translation was a common fault of translators, and even he himself was inevitable. But those mistakes could be overcome. Although the expression of meaning and language style of Greek and English are different, the translator could compare the translation with the original text in meaning and style as long as he carefully identified, understood the spirit of the original text and had a thorough understanding of its grammar and vocabulary and thus approximately achieved "formal correspondence". Chapman's theory was carried on by many translators of the 17th and 18th centuries. This was obviously because he opposed both extremes, and it was easier to argue for a compromise.(Catford,1965:32)

====2.3 Translation of Tyndale and Fulke====

In the 16th century, the translation of the English Bible also flourished. Since the introduction of ethnic translation in the Middle Ages, the Bible had been increasingly read. It had the same appeal for all classes of people, which prompted translators to combine the accuracy required by scholars with the intelligibility required by ordinary people, thus promoting the overall development of translation art and theory. In this respect, religious translation in England in the 16th century was more effective than literary translation. Tyndale and Fulke were the main representatives of bible translation.

William Tyndale (1494-1536) was an erudite humanist and protestant reformist. In 1523, his translation of the New Testament from Greek from a Protestant standpoint was opposed and persecuted by the English church authorities and was not allowed to be published. He fled to Germany in 1524 and, after many twists and turns, had his translation first published in 1525. In 1526, he smuggled the translation back to England against the will of the Church, trying to spread Protestant ideas through the new translation of the Bible and convert The English people to Protestants. The church authorities immediately took measures to lay siege. The Bishop of London claimed to have found 2,000 errors in Tyndale's translation. Thomas More, a famous humanist, attacked his translation very unkindly, and the priests bought all the copies they could get and burned them to prevent their proliferation. Uncompromising, Tyndale continued to translate the Bible in his own way: he translated the first book of the Old Testament in 1530, completed The Book of Jonah in 1531, and published the revised New Testament in 1534. The church authorities had no choice but to burn Tyndale in 1536 for heresy.
Tyndale's translation, however, had not disappeared but was republished after Tyndale's martyrdom and became increasingly influential, serving as the main reference version and as the model for all English translations for centuries to come. The greatest achievement of Tyndale's translation is that it takes into account the needs of academe, conciseness and literariness, and integrates these three elements into the style of English translation of the Bible. Tyndale paid special attention to the popularity of the translation, trying to use the authentic English vocabulary and ordinary narrative expressions of vivid and specific expressions, which makes his text simple and natural without being pedantic.(Tan Zaixi,2004:80)

If Tyndale made a special contribution to the practical translation of the Bible in the 16th century, then it was William Fulke (1538-1589)who made the greatest achievements in the theoretical study of bible translation. Fulke was a scholar of The Bible with humanistic thoughts. Without translating the Bible completely, he had great views on translation theory. In 1589 he published a book entitled in Defence of the Sincere and True Translation of the Holy Scriptures into the English Tongue. It must be pointed out that Fulke did not systematically discuss the universal principles of translation as Dolet did. Instead, he only talked about the facts and refuted Gregory Martin's views, and expounded the theoretical issues in a rather chaotic manner. To sum up, there were mainly two aspects as follows:
(1)Translation can have nothing to do with faith. Fulke, influenced by Erasmus's linguistic approach, disagreed with Martin's assertion of theological authority over scientific scholarship. Translators, he believed, must be fluent in many languages so that they could make accurate judgments about the teachings of the saints without blindly following them. The power of a translator lies in his solid linguistic ability, not in his belief in God. He said, The translator cannot be called an unfaithful heretic as long as the translation conforms to the language and meaning of the original text, even if the motive is not good (Amos,1920:71). Fulke never accepted Martin's strict translation formulas, nor did he submit to unproven authoritative theories, even from the leaders of his own faction. Fulke’s point of view is obviously a challenge to the theological authority of Augustine with its purpose to liberate the Bible translation from the narrow theological tradition and win the right for ordinary people to translate and interpret the Bible.
(2)The Translation of the Bible must respect linguistic habits. If the translator has difficulty in understanding the original text, he/she should turn to the language habits of ancient non-religious writers, while one encounters difficulties in diction, translator should refer to the language habits of contemporary secular writers and the general public. Fulke added: "We are not lords dictating the way people speak. If we were, we would teach them how to use language better. Since we cannot change the way people speak, we have to follow Aristotle's instructions and use the language of ordinary people." Therefore, religious usage should give way to common usage if it is in conflict with common usage. In translation, words and expressions that are most easily understood must be used so that those who do not know their etymological meaning can understand them. At the same time, if words have been misused over a long period of time, with meanings that do not correspond to the original meaning of the words, or have been misused to increase the ambiguity of the words, the translator should not follow blindly, but should look to the root and choose the words according to their original meaning, that is, according to the meaning used in the time when the Bible was written. In translating the Bible into English, Fulke did not advocate excessive borrowing of foreign words but tapping the expressive potential of English itself and paying attention to the use of expressions in line with English habits. Fulke acknowledged that English had a small vocabulary compared with older languages, but argued that this could not be compensated for by making up words, but by using Old English words again.
Clearly, some of Mr Fulke's views are limited and conservative. Many of the foreign words he objects to have been adopted as part of the English vocabulary. But many of his criticisms of Martin are convincing, and his work has been generally praised by the translators of the Bible. Some of his observations on language are so incisive that they are still of great reference value to the study of modern English.(Amos,1920:72)

==3.History of Translation in Germany==

In Germany, the national self-consciousness was further strengthened, and the trend of mechanical imitation of Latin gradually disappeared in the 15th century.

====3.1 Dominant Ideas in German Translation====

Linguists realized the unique style and expressive ability of German, and hence shifted the focus of translation from the original language to the target language. Free translation took the place of word-to-word translation and occupied the dominant position. The only reason for translators to object literal translation is its convenience for readers to understand word-by-word translation.
Gradually, scholars recognized that Hebrew, Greek, and Latin all have distinct features, especially in terms of idiomatic expressions. Similarly, since German is an independent language, it also has its own unique expressions that cannot be translated word by word into other languages, nor can expressions in other languages be translated word by word into German. Based an an understanding of the nature and differences of languages as well as a growing sense of nationality and desire to develop the national language, more and more historians and scholars have begun to use German idiomatic expressions rather than imitate Latin.
Against the background of this trend of thought, the free translators gradually changed their inferiority in the debates with the literal translators in the 15th century, and rightly put forward another profound reason against literal translation: German is an independent language with its own rules that must be respected; German has its own language style, which cannot be destroyed by imitation of other languages. This was the dominant idea in German translation throughout the 16th century.

====3.2 Translation of Reuchlin, Erasmus and Luther====

Johannes Reuchlin(1455-1522) aroused great academic interest in Hebrew. In 1515, he wrote Epistolae Obscurorum Virorum, exposing the narrow-mouthing ignorance of the scholars and monks, which led to a fierce debate between the reformers and conservatives in the church. At the same time, he was also very knowledgeable about translation theory. He mainly translated two works, ''Batrachom Yomachia'' (1510) and ''Septem Psalmos Poenitentiales'' (1512), using word-for-word translation. This contradicts his own remarks about translation.
However, its actual content and general principles could not be compared to those of the literal translation school in the 15th century. The literatrists of the 15th century only emphasized the imitation of certain rhetorical forms of the text, while Reuchlin understood the value of rhythm and the difference between the text and the translation. He believed that the form of the original was so closely integrated with the original that it could not be preserved in the target language. Just like Homer's works alive only in Greek, it would detract from the aesthetic value of literature when translated into any other language. The purpose of literal translation was not to ask the translator to imitate the style of the original text, but to make readers pay attention to the style of the original text and appreciate its literary value.(Tan Zaixi,2004:56)

Another outstanding representatives of a new approach to literary study and new insights into translation theory in the 16th century was Desiderius Erasmus (1466-1536), who was born in a priest's family in Rotterdam, Netherlands. His early education was influenced by The Canon of Augustine. After studying in Paris, he lived successively in Britain, Germany, Italy and Switzerland, accepting humanism and opposing scholasticism. He was knowledgeable, good at language studies, and had profound attainments in Greek and Latin literature, especially his incisive treatises on literature and style.
Erasmus advocated that the original work must be respected. Before Erasmus, the Translation of the Bible in Various European countries was in a state of confusion. Erasmus bitterly pointed out that the translation and commentary of the Bible must be faithful to the original text, because no translation can fully translate the "language of God" as the Bible itself. Early theologians did not understand Hebrew or Greek and could not understand the original text of the Bible, so the truth of the Bible was covered up, distorted, or ossified into dogma. To uncover this truth, we must go back to the source. It is truth, not authority, that should be respected. What’s more, he claimed that translator must have a rich knowledge of language. He believed that to interpret the ''New Testament'' correctly it was necessary to learn ancient Greek; Anyone who wished to pursue theological studies must first be able to read the classics and learn Greek semantics, meanings, and rhetoric. Also, he realized the great importance of style in translation and attached great importance to readers’ requirements. There is no doubt that Erasmus' translation theory is the result of his humanistic thought, his mastery of multiple languages as well as his appreciation of literary styles. His translation principles and methods have exerted great influence on both contemporary and later translators.

Martin Luther (149-146) was the founder of the European Religious Reform movement and the Protestant Church reformer. Luther translated the Bible, known as “the first bible of common people” in the history by using the people's language, which played a great role in unifying the German language and laid a foundation for the formation and development of modern German.
He also proposed that translation should adopt common people language and only appropriate free translation can bring the original enlightening thoughts of Bible into light. (Luther,1530:124) Grammatical correction and semantic coherence were of great value during translation. Translation was so challenging that it requires collective wisdom and repeatedly revisions.
Luther had also put forward seven rules for translation: the word order of the original text can be changed; modal particles can be used reasonably; necessary conjunctions can be added; words in the original text that do not have an equivalent can be omitted; phrases can be used to translate individual words; figurative usage and non-figurative usage can be changed flexibly; the accuracy of variant forms and explanations should be strengthened. Although Luther’s translation practice received a great deal of criticism, his translation of Bible his was considered to be the earliest written language in German and opened a new era in the development of modern German. It endowed him with the highest reputation and the most profound influence in Germany.(Xie Tianzhen,2009:23)

==Conclusion==
It could be seen from the above sections that one of the biggest characteristics of Western translation during the Renaissance was the parallel and independent development of the translation of western European national languages. The use of Latin, though still having some market, was a tributary in both writing and translation. Before the Renaissance, especially before the middle ages, when we talked about western translation, we mostly meant translation in Latin. Since the Renaissance, with the gradual formation and consolidation of national states and the development of national languages, western translation had turned to national languages,especially French, English and German.The translation activities in the Renaissance period were basically devoid of disciplinary consciousness, and the theories were fragmentary and unsystematic. Most of the authors were translation practitioners, and most of the theories were empirical. Thanks to the translators in these three countries who were devoted themselves to the study of translation principles and the transmission of classic works, their consistant and pain-staking efforts had pushed the translation theory to anew level and left countlessly valueable translated works.Therefore, the Renaissance could be said to be a turning point in the history of western translation. In short, the Renaissance marks that the translation of national languages has been firmly on the historical stage, and that translation practice and theory have broken away from the dark Middle Ages.It also laid a solid foundation for the contemporary translation. (Pan Wenguo,2002:23)

As can be seen from the above chapters, in the Renaissance, the greatest feature of western translation theory was the parallel and independent development of Western European national language translation. Although before the Renaissance, especially before the middle ages, when we talk about western translation, we mainly refer to Latin translation. However, since the Renaissance, with the gradual formation and consolidation of the nation-state and the development of national languages, western translation has turned to national languages, especially French, English and German.

However, we have to pay attention to the shortcomings of translation activities in the Renaissance. First, translators' translation theories are scattered and fragmented, lacking discipline consciousness and systematicness. Second, most translators are empirical, and the quality of their works is uneven.

Because the translators of these three countries are committed to the study of translation principles and the dissemination of classical works, their unremitting efforts have pushed translation theory to a new height and left countless valuable translation works. Therefore, the Renaissance can be said to be a turning point in the history of western translation. In short, the Renaissance marks that the translation of national languages has been firmly on the historical stage, and the translation practice and theory have been separated from the dark middle ages. This has also laid a solid foundation for contemporary translation. (Pan Wenguo, 2002:23) --[[User:Liu Wei|Liu Wei]] ([[User talk:Liu Wei|talk]]) 13:11, 14 December 2021 (UTC)Liu Wei

==References==
Amos, F. R. (1920). Early Theories of Translation[M]. New York: Columbia University Press.

Benjamin, Andrew. (1989). Translation and the Nature of Philosophy: A New Theory of Words[M]. London and New York: Routledge.

Catford,J.C.(1965) A Linguistic Theory of Translation[M].New York: Oxford University Press.

Dolet, Etienne. (1540). How to Translate Well from One Language to Another[M]. Robinson.

Frederick Engels. (1883) The Dialects of Nature[M]. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

Luther, Martin. (1530). Sendbrief vom Dolmetschen[M]. Stoerig.

M.A.R. Habib. (2011) Literary Criticism from Plato to the Present: An Introduction[M]. New Jersey: Wiley-Blackwell Publishing.

Munday, Jeremy. (2001). Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications[M]. London and New York: Routledge.

Pan Wenguo 潘文国.(2002) 当代西方的翻译学研究[J] Contemporary Translation Studies in the West.中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal,31-34.

Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2000). 翻译学[M] Translation Studies. 武汉：湖北教育出版社 Wuhan: Hubei Educational Press.

Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2004).西方翻译简史[M] A Short History of Translation in the West. 北京：商务印书馆 Beijing: The Commercial Press.

Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2003). 翻译研究新视野[M] New Perspective for Translation Studies. 青岛：青岛出版社 Qingdao: Qingdao Publishing.

Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2009).中西翻译简史[M] A Brief History of Translation in China and the West.北京:北京外语教学与研究出版社 Beijing:Foreign Language Teachinng and Research Press.

Xu Jun, Yuan Xiaoyi 许钧，袁筱一. (1998). 当代法国翻译理论[M] Contemporary Translation Thoery in France.南京：南京大学出版社 Nanjing: Nanjing University.

=刘薇 Contemporary American Translation History)=

Liu Wei 刘薇 Hunan Normal University, China

==Abstract==
The United States is an important part of the "West", so when we talk about the conception of "West", it is impossible not to include the United States.Therefore, this chapter combs the development of contemporary American translation by introducing a series of theories of American Translators.

The United States is an important part of the "West", so when we talk about the conception of "West", it is impossible to exclude the United States.Therefore, this chapter recapitulates the development of contemporary American translation by introducing a series of theories of American Translators. (corrected by--[[User:Zhou Junhui|Zhou Junhui]] ([[User talk:Zhou Junhui|talk]]) 08:48, 14 December 2021 (UTC))

==Key words==
translation theory of American, Eugene Nida,Robert Boogrand.

==Introduction==

In the field of translation studies, the situation in the United States is very special.Since the history of the United States itself is not long, we can not expect to talk about "ancient American translation theory", "medieval American translation theory", or even "modern American translation theory".American translation theory is mainly the "contemporary translation theory", which is developed after World War II (Guo Jianzhong, [introduction]: 2).Although the development of American translation theory is relatively short, there are still many influential translation theorists, such as Eugene Nida, Robert Boogrand, Andre Leverville, Lawrence Venudi, Edwin Gentzler and so on. They are constantly innovating and developing new theories in the field of translation.

In the field of translation studies, the situation in the United States is very special.Since the history of the United States itself is not long, we can not expect to talk about "ancient American translation theory", "medieval American translation theory", or even "modern American translation theory".American translation theory is mainly the "contemporary translation theory", which is developed after World War II (Guo Jianzhong, [introduction]: 2).Although the development of American translation theory is relatively short, there are still many influential translation theorists, such as Eugene Nida, Robert Boogrand, Andre Leverville, Lawrence Venudi, Edwin Gentzler and so on. They are constantly innovating and developing new theories in the field of translation. (corrected by --[[User:Zhou Junhui|Zhou Junhui]] ([[User talk:Zhou Junhui|talk]]) 08:48, 14 December 2021 (UTC))

==Chapter1 Characteristics of the local American translation theory ==

The development of contemporary American translation theory has three main characteristics: first, it inherits the tradition of European translation theory in terms of overall research methods;Second, the early studies were mostly influenced by the schools of American structural linguistics;Third, there is a tendency to catch up in research results.These characteristics are discussed one by one below.(Tan Zaixi,1999:237)

On the first point, the inheritance of European tradition in the overall research method of American translation theory is due to its unique language and cultural tradition.As an integral part of the whole culture, translation culture naturally presents the basic characteristics of the development of the whole culture.Since the American culture with English as the national language is mainly inherited from European culture, the development of American translation culture, as an integral part of American culture, also inherits European translation culture.Especially in the early stage of the development of American translation theory, many influential people engaged in translation studies were immigrants from Europe or descendants of recent European immigrants.

Take Thorman as an example: his translation theory work the art of translation published in 1901 is one of the earliest published works in the field of American translation theory, but the contents and discussion methods involved in the book have no obvious "American characteristics".On the contrary, it is more like a work belonging to Europe, especially the British translation tradition. Even the examples in the book are similar to the European, especially the British translation tradition.

The second characteristic of the tradition of American translation theory is that the early studies were greatly influenced by the schools of American structural linguistics, which can be said to be a more distinctive "American characteristic" in American translation studies.

American linguistic studies are at the forefront of the West in many aspects. There have been many linguistic schools, such as human language school, structuralism school, transformational generative school and so on. All kinds of schools have also had various direct or indirect effects on American translation studies.

The representative of American structuralist language school is Bloomfield. He adopts the method of behaviorism and believes that everything about language can be studied scientifically and objectively.He put forward a behaviorist semantic analysis method, which holds that meaning is the relationship between stimulus and language response.In 1950s, Chomsky's transformational generative theory replaced Bloomfield's theory and occupied the dominant position in American linguistics theory and occupied the dominant position in American linguistics.The influence of Chomsky's theory on translation studies mainly lies in his discussion of surface structure and deep structure.The concept of "deep" has led to large-scale semantic research. Because semantics is closely related to translation research, Chomsky's theory has promoted the development of translation theory in the United States and even the whole west.(Xie Tianzhen ,2003:200)

Therefore, under the influence of various linguistic theories, many people try to put forward new translation concepts and research methods. These people can be collectively referred to as the structural School of American translation theory.Among them, the main characters include Wojilin, Bolinger, Katz, Quinn and Eugene Nida.

Take Wojilin as an example. He is a human linguist.His greatest contribution is to put forward a multi-step translation method (also known as step-by-step translation method).The biggest advantage of his multi-step translation method is that the steps are clear, flexible and easy to master.

Using Chomsky's transformational generative theory, Boringer puts forward a concept of structural translation as opposed to lexical translation.Based on structural linguistics, Katz makes a profound analysis of the translatability of language and the philosophical problems in language and translation.Based on the discussion of strange language, Quinn expounds some basic problems of translation from the perspective of philosophy, which has aroused great repercussions in the field of western translation theory.(Tan Zaixi,1999:250)

The third characteristic of the development of American translation theory is that it has a tendency to catch up with others in research results.One of the most prominent scholars is Eugene Nida. Although he is an outstanding linguist, his views on "translation is science", "translation is communication", "translation must pay attention to reader response" and other aspects are an innovation and breakthrough to the previous views. In addition, after Eugene Nida, many scholars have put forward many new views because of their existence,It was only after World War II that American translation theory continued to catch up.

Therefore, we will focus on him in the next chapter.

On the first point, the inheritance of European tradition in the overall research method of American translation theory is due to its unique language and cultural tradition.As an integral part of the whole culture, translation culture naturally presents the basic characteristics of the development of the whole culture.Since the American culture with English as the national language is mainly inherited from European culture, the development of American translation culture, as an integral part of American culture, also inherits European translation culture.Especially in the early stage of the development of American translation theory, many influential people engaged in translation studies were immigrants from Europe or descendants of recent European immigrants.(corrected by --[[User:Zhou Junhui|Zhou Junhui]] ([[User talk:Zhou Junhui|talk]]) 08:48, 14 December 2021 (UTC))

==Chapter2 Eugene Nida's translation theory==

Eugene Albert Nida (1914 -) was born in Oklahoma City in the south central United States. He graduated from the University of California, Los Angeles in 1936. In 1943, he worked in Bloomfield and fries (Charles fries received his doctorate in linguistics under the guidance of two famous scholars. As the leading translation theory figure in contemporary America, Nida has also engaged in research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology and communication engineering. Before his retirement in the 1980s, he worked in the Translation Department of the American Holy Bible Association and served as the executive secretary of the translation department for a long time. He is mainly engaged in the Bible Organization of translation and revision of translations and the Bible Training and theoretical guidance for translators. He is proficient in many languages and has investigated and studied more than 100 languages, especially some small languages in Africa and Latin America. In 1968, he served as the president of the American language society. Although he does not take teaching as his career, he has extremely rich experience in Translation training and lecturing. In addition to a long-term part-time job, he speaks linguistics in the famous American summer In addition to teaching linguistics and translation courses in the Institute, he also served as a guest lecturer and professor in many American universities. He was often invited to give short-term lectures in Europe, Latin America, Africa and Asia, and won several honorary doctorates. In order to recognize his contribution to translation research, especially in the field of Bible translation research, the American Bible Association named the Institute after him in 2001 In particular, Nida has deep feelings for China. Since 1982, he has been invited to give lectures in China more than ten times, and has maintained close academic contacts and exchanges with many schools and academic colleagues in China for a long time.(Tan Zaixi,2000:247)

Nida is a prolific language and translation theorist. From 1945 to 2004, he published more than 200 articles and more than 40 works (including works cooperated and edited with others). Among them, there are more than 20 works on language and translation theory, and a collection of papers has been published.

His research achievements include "Toward a Science of Translating" published in 1964, "The Theory and Practice of Translation" Co authored with Charles Taber in 1969, "Com ponential Analysis of Meaning " published in 1975 and "language structure and Translation" . Nida's anthology "Language Structure and Translation : Essays by Eugene A. Nida，ed. by Anwar S. Dil" , "From One Language to Another" , co authored with de warrd in 1986, "The Sociolinguistics of Interlingual Communication" , published in 1996 and published in 2001 "Language and Culture :Contertsin Translating" .(Xie Tianzhen.2003:212)

Throughout Nida's translation thought, we can divide it into three main development stages: the linguistic stage with obvious American structuralism in the early stage, the stage of translation science and translation communication in the middle stage, and the stage of social semiotics.

The first major stage is the linguistic stage, from 1943 when he wrote his doctoral thesis "a summary of English syntax" to 1959 when he published "principles of translation from biblical translation".At this stage, he tries to clarify the structural nature of language through the description of syntax, morphology and language translation.In his early days, he was greatly influenced by American structuralist Bloomfield and human linguist Sapir, and paid attention to the collection and analysis of language materials in language research.Through the opportunity to visit and contact different languages all over the world, many examples of speech differences are collected.However, he does not regard speech differences as insurmountable obstacles between languages, but as different phenomena of the same essence.

The second development stage of Nida's translation thought is the stage of translation science and translation communication. It took 10 years from the publication of "principles of translation from biblical translation" in 1959 to the publication of "translation theory and practice" in 1969.The research achievements at this stage have played a key role in establishing Nida's authoritative position in the whole western translation theory circle.
By summarizing this main development period, the main contents of the following five aspects can be summarized:

（一）Translation science.Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill, but also a science.The so-called science here means that translation problems can be handled by "scientific approaches to language structure, semantic analysis and information theory", that is, a linguistic and descriptive method can be adopted to explain the translation process.If the principles and procedures of translation seem to be normative, it is only because they are generally considered to be the most useful in a specific scope of translation.Nida's view that "translation is science" has had great repercussions in the field of western linguistics and translation theory.

（二） Translation communication theory. Nida applies communication theory and information theory to translation studies and holds that translation is communication. After World War II, not only advertisers, politicians and businessmen attached great importance to the intelligibility of language, but also scholars, writers, editors, publishers and translators realized that any information would be worthless if it could not play a communicative role. Therefore, to judge whether a translation is successful, we must first see whether it can be immediately understood by the recipient and whether it can play a role in the communication of ideas, information and feelings. Therefore, in the field of translation research, various names and statements such as "communicative translation", "functional translation" and related "equal response theory", "equal effect theory", "equal role theory" and "equal power theory" have sprung up one after another. Nida's "translation is communication" and his "reader response theory" and "dynamic equivalence" discussed below“ "Functional equivalence" has become an important representative of the communicative school in the field of western translation studies.

Nida's theory of "translation is communication" is based on the theory of language commonality. Nida, like Jacobson, believes that all languages in the world have the same expression ability, which can enable native speakers of the language to express ideas, describe the world and carry out social communication. His argument is based on the same "identity" For example, in countries with relatively developed productive forces, many scientific and technological words will appear in their languages, while in countries with less developed or very low productive forces, there may be a lack of scientific and technological words in their languages. However, this does not mean that the latter has the same expressive ability as the former, but only shows that people have different requirements for languages in different languages, It is not because the language cannot produce scientific and technological vocabulary, but because the speakers of the language do not have or temporarily do not have the requirement to use scientific and technological vocabulary. Once there is such a requirement, there will be corresponding vocabulary in the language, or "native" scientific and technological vocabulary, or "foreign" vocabulary transplanted from foreign words. In short, the expression efficiency of various languages is the same.

Nida believes that the primary task of translation is to make it clear to the readers at a glance after reading the translation. That is to say, the translation should be fluent and natural, and the readers can understand it without the knowledge of the cultural background of the source language. This requires that rigid foreign words should be used as little as possible in translation, and expressions belonging to the receiving language should be used as much as possible. For example, in a Sudanese language, for If the expression "repent and reform" is translated directly, it will make people feel at a loss, and it should be translated into the local familiar "spitting on the ground in front of someone". For example, in the language without "Snow", white as snow may be puzzling, but it should be said "white as frost" or "white as egret hair" Another example is that in the ancient West, the habit of people meeting and greeting each other was "sacred kiss", but now it should become "very warm handshake".(Nida·Eugene,1996:234）

In a sense, the theory of translation communication is not only one of the main symbols of Nida's second development stage of translation thought, but also one of the biggest characteristics of his whole ideological system.Especially after the publication of translation theory and practice, Nida's translation communication theory has had a great impact on the western translation circles, including those in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union.

（三） Dynamic equivalence theory.The so-called dynamic equivalence translation is actually translation under the guidance of translation communication theory. Specifically, it refers to "reproducing the source language information with the closest (original) natural equivalence in the receiving language from semantics to style".In this definition, there are three key points: one is "nature", which means that the translation cannot have a translation cavity;The second is "close", which refers to selecting the translation with the closest meaning to the original text on the basis of "nature";The third is "equivalence", which is the core.Both "nature" and "close" serve to find equivalents.

（四） Translation function theory.From the perspective of sociolinguistics and language communicative function, Nida believes that translation must serve the reader.To judge whether a translation is correct or not, we must take the reader's response as the criterion.If the response of the target readers is basically the same as that of the original readers, the translation can be considered successful.

（五） Four step model.This refers to the translation process.Nida puts forward that the process of translation is: analysis, transfer (transfer the meaning obtained from the analysis from the source language to the receiving language), reorganization (reorganize the translation according to the rules of the receiving language), and inspection (detect the target text against the source text).Among these four steps, "analysis" is the most complex and key, which is the focus of Nida's translation research.The focus of the analysis is semantics. He distinguishes four parts of speech from the perspective of semantics: object words, activity words, abstract words and relational words.In semantic analysis, he introduced three methods: linear analysis, hierarchical analysis and component analysis.In the specific analysis of semantics, he focuses on grammatical meaning, referential meaning and connotative meaning (or emotional meaning and associative meaning).These distinction theories are of great significance to understand his translation thought.

Nida's research achievements in the 1980s can be regarded as the third stage of translation thought.He has made a series of modifications and supplements to his translation theory.He did not completely abandon the theory of the original communicative school, but further developed on the original basis and incorporated the useful elements of the original theory into a new model, which is the social semiotics model in the third development stage translation thought.

Compared with previous works, Eugene Nida has the following four changes and developments in from one language to another: first, based on the translation theory of social semiotics, he emphasizes that everything in the text has meaning, including speech form, so form cannot be easily sacrificed.That is to say, form is also meaningful. Sacrificing form means sacrificing meaning.Secondly, it points out that the rhetorical features of language play an important role in language communication, so we must pay attention to these features in translation.Third, the theory of "dynamic equivalence" is no longer used, but replaced by "functional equivalence", which is intended to make the meaning of the term clearer and easier to understand.Fourth, instead of using the distinction of grammatical meaning, referential meaning and associative meaning, meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, and all kinds of meaning are divided into referential meaning and associative meaning.From the whole historical process of the development of translation theory, it should be said that these changes are basically positive.(Nida·Eugene,1996:222）

Of course, his theory and works are not perfect.First, his theory focuses too much on solving the problems of communicative and intelligibility of translation, so its scope of application is limited.It is natural to emphasize the intelligibility of the translation in the field of Bible translation, but if the intelligibility of the translation is always put in the first place in the translation of secular literary works, it will inevitably lead to the simplification and even non literariness of the translated language.

Second, he no longer completely negates "formal correspondence", but believes that the expression form of the original text cannot be broken at will in translation.In order to expand the scope of application of his theory, he also added rhetoric.However, despite his amendments, he failed to elaborate more deeply on his new views.

Thirdly, Eugene Nida once put forward the proposition that "translation is science", and then basically abandoned this proposition.Whether he put forward or gave up, he did not put forward sufficient and convincing arguments, which can not be said to be a major defect.

Of course, Nida's theory and works are not perfect. Firstly, his theory focuses too much on solving the problems of communicative and intelligibility of translation, so its scope of application is limited. It is natural to emphasize the intelligibility of the translation in the field of Bible translation, but if the intelligibility of the translation is always put in the first place in the translation of secular literary works, it will inevitably lead to the simplification and even non literariness of the translated language. Newmark, a British translation theorist, once pointed out: "if we delete all the metaphors in the Bible that Doneda believes readers cannot understand, it will inevitably lead to a large loss of meaning." . an important feature of literary works is that they use more metaphorical and novel language. The author's real intention may have to taste and capture between the lines. If all the metaphorical images in the original work are deleted and all the associative meanings are clearly stated, the result will be that the translation is easy to understand, but it is dull and can't reach To the purpose of literature. In recent years, Nida has become more and more aware of this, and has constantly revised and improved some of his past views. For example, he later no longer focused on the intelligibility of the translation, but advocated a "three nature principle", that is, the principle of paying equal attention to comprehensibility, readability and acceptability. In addition, he no longer completely denied "formal correspondence" In order to expand the scope of application of his theory, he especially added rhetoric. However, despite Nida's amendments, he failed to make a more profound exposition of his new views; he was only aware of the existence of the problem rather than successfully solving the relevant problems Besides, Nida once put forward the proposition that "translation is science", and then basically gave up this proposition. Whether he put forward or gave up, he did not put forward sufficient and convincing arguments, which is a major defect.

Of course, flaws do not hide the jade. Looking at Nida's lifelong contributions, he is one of the most outstanding theoretical figures in the field of contemporary translation studies in the United States and even the whole west. The historical theory of the development of western translation theory should give him a heavy pen.(Tan Zaixi,2000:257)

==Chapter3 Robert Boogrand's translation theory==

Since the 1970s, more voices outside the structural language school and the communicative school have gradually emerged in the field of translation studies in the United States, especially the voice of discourse linguistics theory and discourse analysis represented by Robert Boogrand.
Boogrand teaches in the English Department of the University of Florida and is engaged in the study of literary discourse rhetoric and grammatical structure.In 1978, he published a book called "elements of translation theory of poetry"), which was listed as one of the Translation Studies Series edited by Holmes and attracted extensive attention.(Xie Tianzhen,2003:56)

Boogrand's view is: 1. The unit of translation is not a single word or sentence, but the whole text.2. Translation is a process of interaction among authors, translators and readers.3. What is worth studying is not the characteristics of the article itself, but the skills of language use reflected in these characteristics.

After the publication of the above translation theory works guided by the thought of discourse linguistics in 1978, Boogrand continued to engage in the research of language and translation along the same line, and more than ten relevant works (including Works CO authored and co edited with others) have been published successively, mainly including discourse, discourse and process: multidisciplinary discourse science exploration Linguistic Theory: Discourse of basic works, introduction to discourse linguistics, language discourse, Western and Middle East translation Boogrand has always expounded language and translation from the perspective of discourse linguistics, thus establishing his important position as the leader of discourse linguistics in the field of British and American translation studies. Boogrand's contribution as one of the pioneers of discourse analysis and discourse linguistics in translation studies is very important and worthy of full recognition.(Tan Zaixi,2000:256)

==Chapter4 Andre Lefevere's translation theory==

With the development of the times, translation studies in the United States, like other parts of the west, have been continuously improved in theoretical depth. By the 1990s, the focus of theorists' discussion on translation has gradually separated from the previous specific translation processes and methods, and turned more to the fundamental nature of translation, translation and ideology, translation and culture. This chapter introduces Andre Leverville's translation theory.
Andre Leverville, a professor of translation and comparative literature at the University of Texas at Austin, originally from Belgium, is a very important theoretical figure in the field of Contemporary Western comparative literature and translation research. We can discuss his main ideas from the following two aspects.(Tan Zaixi,2000:276)

(一)The cultural turn in translation studies. It is a common feature of all cultural schools to turn the focus of translation studies from the language structure and language form correspondence that language schools are most concerned about to the meaning and function of the target text and the source text in their respective cultural systems. He believes that any literature must survive in a certain social and cultural environment, and its meaning and value Value, as well as its interpretation and acceptance, will always be affected and restricted by a series of interrelated and mutually referenced factors, including both internal and external factors of literature. Therefore, as far as translation research is concerned, the goal of the research is far from limited to exploring the equivalence or equivalence of the two texts in language forms, but to explore at the same time.Study various cultural issues directly or indirectly related to translation activities.

（二） The concept of manipulation in translation. When talking about and describing the basic characteristics of the cultural school, we often can not do without using the word "manipulation". Here, "manipulation"It is not emotional, but a special term representing the concept of neutrality. According to the translation operation of Andre Leverville and others, the core meaning is that in the process of processing the source text and generating the target text, the translator has the right and will rewrite the text in order to achieve a certain purpose. Andre Leverville believes that translation is a reflection of the image of the text.Other literary forms such as literary criticism, biography, literary history, drama, film, fiction and so on are also the rewriting of the text image, and rewriting is the manipulation of the text.

（三） Obviously, the manipulative rewriting in Lefevere and his cultural school theory is not simply equivalent to "Rewriting" in the general sense, because in his view, all translation is rewriting, even the "most faithful"Translation is also a form of rewriting. As a translation manipulator, this rewriting or manipulation should be regarded as a cultural necessity in essence. In the process of translation, the translator is bound to be affected and restricted by various social and cultural factors. In addition to considering all the characteristics related to the source text, such as the original author's intention, the context of the source text and so on, the more important thing is toIt is necessary to consider a series of factors related to the target or receiving culture, such as the purpose of translation, the function of the target text, the expectations and reactions of readers, the requirements of clients and sponsors, and the review of the publishing and distribution organization of the work. The existence of these factors and the degree of constraints imposed by the translator on them vary from person to person constitute the inevitable "manipulation" condition of the translator on the text.(Lefevere·André,1980:100).

For "manipulation" in this sense, we can not judge it by moral value words such as "legitimate" or "improper", but only by the "appropriateness" criteria such as whether the target text has achieved the purpose of translation, whether it meets the expectations of the audience, and whether it can be accepted by the accepted culture.

==Chapter5 Lawrence Venudi's translation theory==

It is precisely because the cultural school or manipulation school, and even the polysystem school, in translation studies have established a relationship with the theory of domestication and Foreignization in translation, that a new group of scholars and viewpoints have emerged. In the field of American translation studies, Lawrence Wenudi is the most vocal theoretical figure on the issues of "domestication" and "Foreignization".
As an English professor at Temple University in Philadelphia, winudi is one of the most active and influential figures in the field of American translation theory since the 1990s. Winudi belongs to the deconstruction school in translation studies, that is, what genzler calls the "post structuralism school"In his works on translation studies, Venuti advocates that literary translation should not aim at eliminating alien features, but should try to show cultural differences in the target text.(Tan Zaixi,2000:278)

Venuti's main view is that it is wrong to require the translator to be invisible in translation; the translator should not be invisible in the translation, but should be visible. That is to say, translation should adopt the principle and strategy of "alienation" to keep the translation exotic and exotic, and read like the translation, rather than "domestication"So that the translation can be transformed completely in accordance with the ideology and creative norms of the target culture. It doesn't read like foreign works, but the original of the target language.(Xie Tianzhen,2003:278).

However, translation has never been carried out in an unaffected way. Foreignization translation and domestication translation are actually the products of translation activities affected. From the perspective of translation ethics, it is difficult to assert which is good or which is bad, because translation reality shows that the two play irreplaceable roles in the target language and culture and complete their respective missions.Therefore, the two kinds of translation will always coexist and complement each other.(Tan Zaixi,2000:279)

==Chapter6 Edwin Gensler's translation theory==

Edwin Genzler is the director of the translation center of Amherst University of Massachusetts, doctor of comparative literature and professor of translation. His famous translation work is contemporary translation theory published in 1993 and reprinted in 2001.(Xie Tianzhen,2003:290).

Genzler's contribution to translation theory is mainly reflected in the following three aspects:
First, it comprehensively combs the contemporary western translation theories, so as to clarify people's understanding of various western translation theory schools since World War II, and thus arouse the research interest in all kinds of contemporary western translation theories in the field of translation studies (including China's Translation Studies).In contemporary translation theory, Genzler studies translation from different perspectives such as scientific theory, polysystem theory and deconstruction. By exploring the "political reality" outside translation (literary translation practice), he outlines the outline of contemporary western translation research and guides readers to rethink a series of theoretical issues such as the definition and classification of translation.(Tan Zaixi,2000:300)

Secondly, on the basis of comprehensively and systematically combing various contemporary western translation thoughts and theories, Genzler puts forward a multi-channel cooperative translation research view of "fair treatment of all systems".He believes that contemporary translation theory, like literary theory, originates from structuralist theory.All these structuralist or post structuralist theories have been confined to their respective academic circles for a long time.Various schools have very special requirements for the terms used in this system, and the terms are limited;Their pursuit of "correctness" or "objectivity" of theory tends to be one-sided, and they all try to gain universal recognition in the academic circles at the expense of other perspectives.The result is only the continuous conflict between theories, but there is no due cooperation and exchange between theories, which leads to the marginalization of academic research.(Xie Tianzhen,2003:293)

Thirdly, Genzler puts forward a post structuralist interpretation model of the essence of translation.In translation, post structuralism and power, he analyzes the deconstruction (post structuralism) thoughts of Derrida, Spivak and others, as well as the translation thoughts of translation theorists such as Wenudi, Levin and Robinson under the influence of their deconstruction thoughts, and points out that the new translation interpretation model can no longer follow the past tradition and simply define translation as"The transformation from a single language to another single language", but it should be regarded as the transformation between a multicultural form environment and another equally multicultural form environment.

==Conclusion==

In addition to the above-mentioned important theoretical figures in the field of contemporary American translation studies, many others, such as Roberto Tradu, Daniel Shaw, Burton Raphael and so on, have also made achievements in translation theory. However, due to space constraints, they cannot be discussed in detail here.

Generally speaking, due to the historical origin and the influence of the subject's immigrant culture, the initial development of American translation studies depends on the inheritance and promotion of the tradition of European translation theory. With the evolution of the times, American translation studies catch up with each other in many aspects with rapid development and fruitful achievements, and walk in the forefront of western translation studies, becoming the driving force of contemporary western translation theory. On an important force for forward development.(Tan Zaixi,2000:301)

In addition to the above-mentioned important theoretical figures in the field of contemporary American translation studies, many others, such as Roberto Tradu, Daniel Shaw, Burton Raphael and so on, have also made achievements in translation theory. However, due to space constraints, they cannot be discussed in detail here.

Generally speaking, due to the historical origin and the influence of the subject's immigrant culture, the initial development of American translation studies depends on the inheritance and promotion of the tradition of European translation theory. With the evolution of the times, American translation studies catch up with each other in many aspects with rapid development and fruitful achievements, and walk in the forefront of western translation studies, becoming the driving force of contemporary western translation theory. On an important force for forward development.(corrected by--[[User:Zhou Junhui|Zhou Junhui]] ([[User talk:Zhou Junhui|talk]]) 08:48, 14 December 2021 (UTC))

==reference==

Lefevere·André. (1980). Translating literature [M]. New York:Clarendon Press.

Newmark·Peter. （1978）.The theory and the craft of translation [M].London:Rountledge Press.

Nida·Eugene.（1996）.The Sociolinguistics of Interlingual Communication [M]. Brussels:Editions du Hazard.

Katz·Jerrold J. （1966）.The Philosophy of Language [M]. New York:Harper and Row.

Pound，E. 1917. Notes on Elizabethan classicists [M]. New York:Clarendon Press.

Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (1999).《新编奈达论翻译》[M] New Nida on Translation. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司 Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.

Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2000).《翻译学》[M] Translatology. 武汉:湖北教育出版社 Wuhan: Hubei Education Press.

Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2003).《翻译研究新视野》[M].New perspectives in Translation Studies. 青岛:青岛出版社 Qingdao: Qingdao Press.

中国对外翻译出版公司（编).(1983).《翻译理论与翻译技巧论文集》[M].Collection of Papers on Translation Theory and Translation Skills. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.

中国对外翻译出版公司（编).(1983).《国外翻译理论评介文集》[M].A Review of Foreign Translation Theories. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司 Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.

--[[User:Liu Wei|Liu Wei]] ([[User talk:Liu Wei|talk]]) 16:11, 8 December 2021 (UTC)Liu Wei

=周俊辉Translation of Science and Technology in Late Qing Dynasty and Early Republic of China=
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=周玖Translation of Science and Technology in Ancient China=
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=钟雨露Western Translation History in the Old Ages=
[[Hist_Trans_EN_12]]

=钟义菲: The Chinese Translation History in Mordern Age=
[[Hist_Trans_EN_13]]

=魏楚璇: Western translation history in the Modern and Contemporary Ages=
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=Chapter 15Mahzad Heydarian: Where Persian Language Meets Translation=
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Mahzad Sadat Heydarian,Hunan Normal University,China

=Akira Jantarat： History of Chinese-Thai literature Translation in 19th century=
[[Hist_Trans_EN_16]]

=Jawad Ahmad; History of Translation=

[[Hist_Trans_EN_17]]

=Benjamin Wellsand; Bible Translation in Christian History=

[[Hist_Trans_EN_18]]