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2020-12-27T04:30:25Z

Lin Xin: /* Liu Bo 刘博 */

==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==
'''Zhu Ziqing'''

A third example, where an author shows another face in his essays is Zhu Ziqing. He is known as the author of the most often reprinted story-like Chinese essay "''Back View''" (Beiying), a standard school text. The success of this essay lies in the fact, that it applies to filial pity. From the reported fare-well scene with his father at the train station, he learned that his father loved him and that he had grown-up too now.
==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==
This self-reflective essay helped Zhu to find himself through the observation of the other (here his father). The 2nd often printed essay is also from Zhu. Parallelistic and repetitive structures are the driving factor in the atmospherical nebulous lyrical landscape desription "''The Moonlit Lotus Pond''", whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader.

Zhu Ziqing supposedly opposed all political engagement and, wrote about unspectacular things. In Taiwan he became a type of substitute for the categorically refused state writer of the People’s Republic, Lu Xun, mainly because of Zhu’s supposed political independence.
==Chen Han 陈涵==
I would like to show with three examples that Zhu had absolutely clear political ideas: He had taken part in the demonstration March 18, 1926, which ended in a massacre. Zhu described this in ''"Report On the Massacre of the Government''"[ (Zhizhengfu da tusha ji).].

''Shots were still being fired, and the entrance of the east gate was packed with people. [...] Pushing and shoving, we climbed over them with great effort. We must have lost our senses then, not seeing, to our shame, the grotesqueness of our action. ''

我想用三个例子说明，朱自清有绝对明确的政治思想。1926年3月18日，他参加了示威游行，这场游行最终以屠杀告终。朱自清在《执政府大屠杀记》中对此进行了描述。

''这时枪声未歇，东门口拥塞得几乎水泄不通。[...] 我们便推推搡搡，拥挤着，挣扎着，从他们身上踏上去。那时理性真失了作用，竟恬然不以为怪似的。'' --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:39, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Hui 陈惠==
''[...]I was still walking on top of the people. No one dared to miss a single step, filing through the gate that divided safety from danger, one that would give us life or take our lives away. [...] My efforts finally brought me down to the ground, sealing my fate as I rolled down from the human pile. [...] I learned later that some of the people by the gate were dead, killed by the pistol squad firing from the other side of the gate. When I recall stepping over dead bodies, I cannot help but tremble with fear. [...]''
==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==
From this experience, Zhu addresses directly the repsonsible political leaders:

''Duan Qirui, you must think about it! [...] How could we explain this to the world? [...] Granted, Duan Qirui and others could commit such atrocities without a thought; but how could we, the people of China, face the world with such a shameless government? [...] We, [...], must ask, „So many were killed—what should we do?“''
==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==
In contrast, Lu Xun has portrayed the same massacre with sighing undertone and Zhou Zuoren bitter-humorously in his "''Ways to die''"[ (Si fa).] - in which he finds "to be shot" the best method to die. The supposedly less politically engaged Zhu shows here more engagement.

The essay "''Facing the New China''"[ (Xin Zhongguo zai wang zhong).] is Zhu's political manifest: He asks for democracy, enlightenment and an increase of the education level.
==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==
''China has to be born again through democratization. [...] The people should express their own will, concentrate on their own strength. Every level of administration should build up on the expressed will and strength of the people and struggle for the majority and its greatest happiness. This means that the people govern, the people own, the people enjoy.''

A few weeks before his death, he demanded in the speech ''"Today's duty of the Intellectuals''"[ (Zhishifenzi jintian de renwu).] the participation of the intellectual in the struggle for a better society.
==Chen Sha 陈莎==
With only a handful of essays I have demonstrated, that the picture of these three authors changes substantially, if we read carefully also their less known essayistic work. Imagine now how the picture of 20th century Chinese literature might change, if the literary histories and anthologies would not only tell the history of drama, fiction and poetry, but would also grant the essay its proper place. The following part of my paper are results of my monograph on the 20th century Chinese essay.
==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==
'''The essay boom as a mirror reflecting growing individuality, participation in the public sphere, and the giddy-paced character of modern Chinese society'''

Acquiring an overview of the essay and assessing its essence has required extensive research in bookstores and libraries, in the People's Republic of China, Taiwan, Hong Kong and the United States for available resources in the form of essay book collections as well as secondary literature dealing with the essay.
==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==
I built a database for a statistical analysis to rank more than 5000 essays and 1400 essayists. It turned out that out of the top 60 most famous Chinese essays only 14 had been translated into English so far. The forthcoming collection of Tam King-fai adds 4 and my own one the remaining 42.

Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report[ (baogao wenxue) (Klaschka 1998).].
==Cheng Yusi 成于思==
The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous essay bookseries[ sanwen congshu 散文叢書.].

The reason for the increase in essay production, which we can date right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in the sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for the survey. There are three reasons for the increase in Chinese essay production and popularity in the mid-1990s:
==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==
1, The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts, as Hall has put it: “[...] we live in an age of exposition”[ (Hall 1984:xiii).].

2, The increasing consciousness of individuality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands.

3, A revival of interest in discussing socio-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.
==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==
If we look carefully at essay collections not only published in the United States, but also in Hong Kong, Taiwan and the People’s Republic, we find the following three reasons for the under- and overestimation of single essayists or essays which correspond to regional differences:

1, EXOTIC In the United States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones.

如果我们仔细观察在美国出版的，以及在香港、台湾和中华人民共和国出版的散文集，我们会发现以下三个原因导致人们低估和高估了回应地域差异的单个散文家或散文:

1、异国情调在美国，散文往往是根据西方人的口味来选择的，完全不知名的作者和老牌作家拥有一样多的空间。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 09:37, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

如果我们细细研读在美国出版的，以及在中国香港、台湾和大陆出版的散文集，我们会发现以下三个原因导致人们因地域差异而低估或高估了某些散文家或散文:

1、异国情调在美国，散文往往是根据西方人的口味来选择的，名不见经传的作者和著名的作家拥有同样多的市场。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling

==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==
2, SOCIO-POLITICAL In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, as the mentioned survey proofs, he ranks 12th among modern authors there. Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.

3, PERSONAL Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by his disciple Huang Weiliang in favor for Yu.[ (see Lin Yaode 1989:50).]

Having named reasons for the essay boom and for the support for and the suppression of different actors in the cultural field of the essay, I would like to finish my paper by naming a few trends of the essay as they appear at the eve of the century.
==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==
The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consumer-orientation of the masses. The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educational claim with the exception of essays which claim to be "art pourt l'art".
==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==
The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing ("''On dreams''"[ "Shuo meng 說夢" On dreams in: Zhu Ziqing 1928.]) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 ("''My own garden''"[ 9.1923.], "''The Fly''"[ 1924.], "''Reading on the Toilet''"[ 1936.]), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the newly encountered world of mass consumerism.
==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==
In the end of this century not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. Among the upper list places of the political essay after 1949 there are critical essays. For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain.
==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==
A sign for the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publishing houses with an orientation for customers (former: "readers"). Following the emotional essays of Zhu Ziqing who rank 1st and 2nd, ''nostalgia'' is the element of emotional identification in "''Wild vegetables of my home region''" by Zhou Zuoren, which ranks 3rd[ In Jia Pingwa's "Moon traces", which ranks 11, and in Ba Jin's "''Paradise for Birds''", which ranks 19]. Therefore one can state, that moving essays form the top.
==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==
In 1927, Chinese literature took the form of 'engaged literature'. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics in daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology. In the later half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of individuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife.
==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==
In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only remiscent element left is the patriotism.[ ''Trends like the use of ordinary language'', which one finds in novels since 1993 (''Jia Pingwa'', Feidu; ''Gu Cheng'', Yingger) and New Borderlessness since 1995, cannot be proven in the essaywriting.The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable ''object d'art''.]

上个世纪90年代，80年代的政论文随笔文化逐渐隐没了，唯一剩下留有想象空间的元素就是爱国主义。[“比如使用普通语言的趋势”，这是从1993年以来在小说中发现的（“贾平凹”）费杜，古格，英格）以及自1995年以来，《新无边际》都无法在论文写作中得到证明，我们之所以没有找到后现代小说意义上的后现代散文，是因为文章的直接性：随笔作为一种体裁，是作者和读者之间的对话，而不是想要引起不同解释的原因或可能依赖于特殊形式或内容甚至是按顺序引用前现代特征的艺术品，这使它成为一个与众不同的“艺术品”。]--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 13:06, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

'''References''' [partly mentioned with German translation] （不用翻）

Vera Schwarcz 1996, Vera Schwarcz, "The pain of sorrow: public uses of personal grief in modern China", in Daedalus: Journal of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (Winter 1996)

Ba Jin 1982, Ba Jin: "Yi feng huixin 一封回信" (Ein Antwortbrief (26.10.1982)), in: Bing zhong ji 病中集 (Auf dem Krankenlager), Hongkong 香港 1984(?) (Series Suixiang lu 隨想錄 (Thoughts) Bd 4), 147 pp.

Ba Jin 1982a, Ba Jin: "Yi pian xuwen 一篇序文" (Ein Vorwort) [dated 1982.9/10], in: Ba Jin: Auf dem Krankenlager 1984

Ba Jin 1956, Ba Jin 巴金: "Duli sikao 獨立思考" (Unabhängig denken), in: Li Jisheng 李濟生, Li Xiaolin 李小林 (Hgg.): Ba Jin liushi nian wenxuan (1927 - 1986), Suixiang lu, zagan, sanwen, xuba, yanjiang, shuxin 巴金六十年文選（１９２７－１９８６）隨想錄·雜感·散文·序跋· 演講·書信 (Ba Jin. Werkauswahl aus 60 Jahren (1927 - 1986), Gedanken, vermischte Gefühle, Essays, Vor- und Nachworte, Reden, Briefe), Shanghai 上海: Shanghai wenyi chubanshe 上海文藝出版社 (Literatur- und Kunstverlag Shanghai), 1986.12, S. 461 - 462 [Datiert auf 1956.]

Ba Jin 1962, "Zuojia de yongqi yu zerenxin 作家的勇氣與責任心" (Mut und Verantwortungsbewußtsein der Schrifsteller) 1962; der Essay von Zhou Zuoren 周作人: "Wenxue tan 文學談" (Über Literatur), in: Tan long ji 談龍集 (Über Drachen. Sammlung), Shanghai 上海: Kaiming shudian 開明書店 (Kaiming Buchladen) 1927.12, Nachdruck: Hongkong 香港: Shiyong shuju 使用書局 (Praxisverlag) 1972.1, 310 S., S. 165 - 167

Zhou Zuoren 1919, Zhou Zuoren, "Zuxian chongbai 1919 (Ancestor Worship)," in Early Essays, op.cit., pp. 78

Zhou Zuoren 1920: Zhou Zuoren 周作人, Xin wenxue de yaoqiu 新文學的要求" (The demand of the New Literature) [lecture], in Beiping shaonian xuehui 北平少年學會 (Beiping youth conference) 1920.1.6, in: Zhang Ruoying 長若英: Xin wenxue yundong shi ziliao 新文學運動史資料 (Material on the history of the New Literature movement), Shanghai 上海: Guangming shuju 光明書局 (Guangming bookstore) (1934.9) ²1936.9, 291-296

Zhou Zuoren 1923, Zhou Zuoren: Yanzhicao ba (Preface to Yu Pingbo's Yanzhicao), in: Yongri ji (Book of Eternal Day), Shanghai: Beixin shuju 1929, 180-181

Zhou Zuoren 1929, Zhou Zuoren: Ertong de shu (The books of children), in: Chenbao fukan (1923.8.17)

Zhou Zuoren yuanliu, Zhou Zuoren: Zhongguo xin wenxue de yuanliu (Sources of New Chinese Literature), p 71

Zhou Zuoren 1932, Zhou Zuoren: Lun baguwen 1932, in: Kanyun ji p. 148

Source: NEAAS annual meeting 10/09/1999 New Haven (Yale University)

==Guo Lu 郭露==
'''Modern Chinese Literature and the Essay Genre: A New Perspective'''

''Martin Woesler''

In this paper, I will not recount the contents and propose interpretations of any essays, nor will I outline the main topics or styles of essaywriting in China, but I would like to take the opportunity to reflect a little bit on the phenomenon of the genre itself and discuss some conclusions and hypotheses with the attentive and critical audience which can be found at only a few places on earth, EALC at Harvard definitely being one of them.

《中国现代文学与散文体裁：以新视角》

''吴漠汀''

在本文中,我将不再赘述任何文章的内容和提出的观点,我也不会列出其主要主题或风格,但是我想借此机会,反映一些现象本身的类型，并与包括哈佛大学学生在内的观众对一些结论和假设进行探讨。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:16, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

《中国现代文学与散文体裁：新视角》

吴漠汀

本文将不再赘述或解释任何文章的内容，也不会列出中国散文的主要主题或风格。我想借此机会，反思体裁现象，同乐于助人、至关重要且世间少有的读者，包括哈佛大学东亚语言和文化学院的学生，对一些结论和假设进行探讨。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:28, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==
'''1. The unknown genre'''

The literary-historical narrative told by anthologies and collections of the 20th century has drawn an incomplete picture of Chinese literature: The genre of the essay was lacking. In my paper I will ask, if the picture of literature can remain unchanged, if we take into consideration also the essay. The genre has been neglected for a long time as a genre of merit (Margouliès 1949, Schmidt-Glintzer 1990) or overlooked (McNaughton 1974, Leiden 1988-90, McDougall 1998);

'''1.未知体裁'''

二十世纪文选和选集里的文学史的叙述对于整个中国文学来说是不完整的：散文题材是缺失的。在我的论文里我将要探寻是否文学整个文学框架依旧保持不变，是否把散文体裁考虑进去。作为一种具有优势的体裁它已经被忽视了很久了。（马古烈 1949，施寒薇 1990）或者被省略（约翰·麦克诺顿 1974，莱顿 1988-90，杜博妮 1998）；--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 11:09, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

'''1.未知体裁'''

20世纪选集所讲述的文学历史叙事，描绘了一幅不完整的中国文学图景:：散文题材是缺失的。在我的论文里我将要探寻是否文学整个文学框架依旧保持不变，是否把散文体裁考虑进去。作为一种具有优势的体裁它已经被忽视了很久了。（马古烈 1949，施寒薇 1990）或者被省略（约翰·麦克诺顿 1974，莱顿 1988-90，杜博妮 1998）；--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 12:30, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==
whereas its elder brother, fiction, has been prized ever since the valuing of fictional literature and the vernacularisation of writing in early Republican China, which followed from the master narrative established by the May 4th movement. Modern anthologies would have the reader believe that a triumvirate of poetry, fiction and drama forms the backbone of modern Chinese literary output.
==He Changqi 何长琦==
'''Excursion: Defining the essay as a non-fictional subjective representation in a free form'''

Similar to international literature, the basic subdivision of literature in China in general is one in three types: epic (with xiaoshuo (fiction), sanwen (non-fictional prose)), lyrics (shige) and drama (xiqu). Though there is no pure epic form, fiction and prose are often jointly addressed with the Chinese term "wu yunwen" which corresponds to the term "epic" in the West. The types may be distinguished roughly by their nature in the following way: In the epic, bygone events are retold, a broad, filled story dominates the foreground.
==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==
In the lyrics, the reader is encouraged to feel the current sensations and often confessionlike feelings of the poet. The drama recalls a self-contained action directly in monologue or dialogue and in this way unburdens the re-creative imagination of the readers/spectators through it. The essay as a genre of the epic is a detached non-fictional subjective representation in a free form.
在抒情诗中，读者被鼓励去感受当下的感觉，并且常常是诗人的忏悔式的感觉。戏剧直接在独白或对话中回忆起一个自足的动作，以这种方式释放了读者/观众重新创造的想象力。散文作为史诗的一种体裁，是一种超脱的、非虚构的、自由形式的主观表现。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 02:29, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==
"Essay", Chinese mostly ''sanwen'', is a genre term for shorter, self-contained non-fictional prose texts, in which the author tries to mediate individual experiences on an object or a question out of subjective I-perspective. This it tries associatively and from different sides, not as a text for daily use, but with artistic or educationally demanding means of language, nevertheless in an accessible form. The resource is mastered by the essayist sovereignly and the topic is seen in a larger context and can even be presented humorously. Freedom in form and content is essential for the essay.
==Hu Jin 胡瑾==
Different perspectives range in the international genre of the essay: Genres are primarily divisions of literature through the scholarship of literature for specialized contemplation and in order to be able to compare similar texts more easily. On the other hand, a subcategorization in numerous small entities, like Zheng Mingli does with the essay, questions the sense of such subdivisioning in reference to hermeneutic findings. One must also stay aware of the changing nature of literature itself and the relativity of the scientific perspective, which is still a timely one, even if its accepted internationally.
==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==
Regional deviations seem less important for the essay than for established genres like short stories, novels etc., and far less important than for poems. All these other genres are seen as international genres. My hypothesis, that the Chinese and the Western essay also belong to the same international genre maybe proved by the crosscultural mutualities both in form and content.
==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==

In the 21st century, the world is growing together and culture is mainly determined by the grade of modernization. The Chinese essay, as we find it in newspapers today, has taken on the form and content of the Western essay and is aimed at a target group comparable to that of the Western essay. This is a second hint that the modern Chinese essay belongs to the international genre of the essay.

在21世纪，世界共同发展，文化主要决定于现代化的水平。今天我们在刊物上看到的中国散文，已经具备了西方散文的形式和内容，而且其目标群体与西方散文相当。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文类别的第二个暗示。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 07:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

在21世纪，世界上的国家趋向于走到一起，而文化则主要取决于现代化水平。正如我们从现今报纸里面看到的那样，中国散文采用了西方散文的形式和内容，而且其目标群体与西方散文相当。这是中国现代散文开始趋同于国际散文体裁的第二个标志。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 09:27, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

21世纪，世界在共同成长，文化主要由现代化程度决定。我们今天在报纸上看到的中国散文，在形式和内容上都与西方散文相似，其目标群体也与之相似。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文的第二个暗示。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 09:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

在21世纪，世界共同发展，文化主要决定于现代化的水平。我们今天在报纸上看到的中国散文，已经呈现出西方散文的形式与内容，并且其目标群体也与西方散文不相上下。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文体裁的第二个迹象。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 11:17, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Jiang Hao 姜好==
Even though the translation of ''duanpian xiaoshuo'' with ''short stories'' is commonly accepted, both are less closely related than the Western essay and its Chinese counterpart. The definition, which I developed out of a sample of more than 5000 modern Chinese essays, fits also the special international understanding of the essay (following Bolz 1992 13:269-272 on the development of the western essay; Butrym 1989 on the theory of the western essay).
==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==
Besides the trend towards a globalized society, first expressed in Zhou Zuoren's call to adopt the English essay style, there are special local characteristics of the Chinese essay. How is the Chinese essay to determine culturally, what makes it "Chinese"? In the occidental essay the form seems to be a more important criterion of differentiation than in its Chinese counterpart. In China even those texts are included, which have only a similar content, but cross the borders of the formal generical framework.

除了首先由周作人表达出来的社会全球化趋势，号召采用英语散文风格，中文散文有独特本土的特征。中文散文如何形成其特有文化，其中文性又由何组成？和中文散文相比，西方散文的文章形式似乎是更重要的分类标准。在中国，甚至有些文章内容相似，但形式和类别大相径庭。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 02:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

除了最初由周作人表达出来的社会全球化趋势，号召采用英语散文风格，中文散文具有独特的本土特色。中文散文如何形成其特有文化，其中文性又由何组成？与中文散文相比，西方散文的形式分类标准似乎更重要。在中国，有些文章甚至是内容相似，但形式和类别大相径庭。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:18, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==
This can be shown with Zheng Mingli, who subcategorises the "unfinished diary" or the "unfinished letter". Those texts belong - within the Western context - to texts of personal use and therefor to the non-fictional prose works. Only after they have been altered into essays (Zheng Mingli: "essay in diary form" and "essay in letter form"), they are accepted as essays.
==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==
'''The Chinese understanding of the genre is tendencially broader'''

This tendencial broader understanding of the essay in China can be traced back directly to the connotation, that the term ''sanwen'' possesses in Chinese: ''wú yùnwén'' "non-rhythmic prose", which originally meant all non-fictional prose. In this broader meaning, also texts for personal or everyday use are included. However I deal only with ''sanwen'' in the narrower meaning "short literary essay pieces".

Further differences are that Chinese essays often have ideological contents and show stylistic characteristics like repetitions and the usage of sayings.
==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==
'''The Chinese essay is booming again in the 1980s and 1990s'''

Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report (''baogao wenxue'').[ Klaschka 1998.] The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous ''sanwen congshu'' 散文叢書 (essay bookseries).
==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==
The increase in essay production right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in a sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for a survey.

Thanks to the work of some major Chinese editors, the whole essay culture was compiled from magazines and newspapers and was published in a flood of anthologies since the 1970s. This boom is comparable to the cultural fever of undigging xiangtu literature, which rose in Taiwan in front of the background of the movement of self-identification and independance.
==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==
'''2. Why is the essay as abundant as fiction?'''

Let me name a few reasons, why the essay in fact is as abundant as its prose brother, fiction, and its lyrical sister, poetry, and why it must be valued as highly:

- The essay had a direct impact on Chinese society throughout history (the reform ideas from the end of the Qing dynasty through the May Fourth period with the literary theorethical pieces and the daily political zawen of Lu Xun, until today are mostly presented in essay form). The impact on literary reflection and theory is shown in the collection "Modern Chinese Literary Thought" 1996. The effect of the essay genre with its direct language, its connection to life (e.g. its role in the coming to terms with the cultural revolution), and its direct access to the individual reader through newspapers. This impact is larger than the indirect one of fiction or poetry. The poem is the genre of retreat from social life, from political issues and time references.
==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==
Hu Shi argues, that ''poetry'' is most important in the process of modernity, since poetry rises emotions. But it relies also on images and on linguistic rhythm. Liang Qichao stresses the role of novel and opera in the changing society. But ''sanwen'' is able to name things, it reflects life, caleidoscopic. Modern subjectivity is constructed with the tool of ''sanwen''.

- The essay also reflects trends in the society better than poetry and fiction: Individualism is expressed in the essay more directly than in the poem with its limitation in content and form. Ephemerality is reflected in the short form of the essay, which may be read in the subway on the way to work, where poems may not be so spontaneously enjoyed.

胡适认为“诗”在现代化的过程中是最重要的，因为诗会升华情感。但诗歌依赖于形象和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏曲在社会变迁中的作用。但“三文”却能命名事物，它反映生活千变万化。现代主体性是以“三文”为工具来建构的。

-散文也比诗歌和小说更能反映社会的趋势。个人主义在随笔中表现得比在诗歌中更直接，但在内容和形式上都有局限性。短文的短暂性体现在短文的形式上，可以在上班路上的地铁里读，而在地铁里读诗，可能就不能那么随性的享受了。--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 13:48, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi

胡适认为“诗”在现代化的过程中是最重要的，因为诗歌升华情感。但诗歌也依赖于意象和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏曲在社会变迁中的作用。但“散文”却能给事物命名，反映千变万化的生活。现代主体性就是以“散文”为工具建构的。

- 随笔也比诗歌和小说更能反映社会的发展趋势。个人主义在随笔中的表现比在诗歌中更直接，因为诗歌在内容和形式上对此有所限制。随笔的短暂性体现在随笔的形式上，人们可以在上班路上的地铁里阅读，而在地铁里读诗，可能就没有那么随性的享受。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:55, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Haiquan 李海泉==
- The essay reaches a larger part of the population than poetry, the amount of time spended on reading novels goes back, too. The essay itself a genre of high actuality, if not simply the genre of today.

- The essay tells us more about an author and his time than fiction or poetry, because in this genre, we encounter the author himself without metrical restrictions. We look trough authentic eyes on his contemporary society. Many authors turned to essay writing in the later periods of their lifes, like Lu Xun, Ba Jin, and Wang Meng.
==Li Lili 李丽丽==
- The volume of ''essay'' production exceeds the volume of ''xiaoshuo'' production: Chinese newspapers since the 1870s on[ Shenbao, Shibao etc. Liang Qichao sees the role of the newspaper both as liberal and authoritative: He understands the press as an institution to control the government, on the other hand he favors censorship.] and as a mass media from the early 20th century presented only one or two fictional stories in a serialized form, but invented essay columns like ''zagan'' (from which Lu Xun developed his ''zawen''), ''suibi'' or ''suixiang'' (from which famous collections like Ba Jin's ''Suixiang lu'' derived).

“随笔”的产量超过了“小说”的产量：从19世纪70年代开始，中国的报纸就在《申报》、《时报》等杂志上发表。梁启超认为报纸既自由又权威：他认为报纸是控制政府的机构，另一方面，他主张审查制度，作为20世纪初的一个大众媒体，他以连载的形式呈现一两个虚构的故事，但却发明了散文专栏，如“扎根”（鲁迅从中发展了他的“札文”）、“随笔”或“随想”（巴金的《随想录》就是从中衍生出来的）。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 12:54, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Lingyue 李凌月==
'''3. Let us assign the essay its proper place'''
The consequence which must be driven from the above presented contrast between value and valuing of the essay is: Let us assign the essay its proper place! I will describe the beginnings of the discovery of the essay.
Despite the increase in essay writing from 1979 on, it took a decade for the first theoretical reflections on this phenomenon to appear. It took another decade before the international scholarship of Chinese Studies became aware of the phenomenon of the essay.
==Li Liqin 李丽琴==

In the 1980s, Chinese scholarship made a first major approach to reflect on essay literature by writing essay histories and collecting papers, which concentrated first on the essayistic work of single authors like Lu Xun. Also two essay conferences in the 1990s showed no move towards international scholarship. Not before 1995 did international scholarship started to use common philological methods to explore single essayists (on Gaylord Leung [Liang Xihua] 梁錫華 Kubin 1995, on Wang Meng 王蒙 Woesler 1995, on Liu Zaifu 劉再復 Mansberg 1995 [unpublished]) or essays of groups (on 'Xīnyùe pài 新月派' Wagner 1996).

20世纪80年代，中国学术界首次以撰写散文史和散文集的方式对散文文学进行了重大的反思，这首先集中在鲁迅等单个作家的散文作品上。另外90年代的两次会议也没有趋于国际学术研究的动向。直到1995年，国际学术界才开始使用共同的语言学方法来探讨单个散文家（比如1995年Kubin的《关于梁漱溟》；Woesler的《关于王蒙》；Mansberg的《关于刘再复》[未发表]）或探讨某个群体的散文（1996年瓦格纳的《关于新月派》）。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 12:54, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Luyi 李璐伊==
Not before the second half of the 1990s, did a history of the Chinese essay using the means of Western philology appear (Woesler 1998) and for the first time, the essay was included in Western anthologies of literature as a genre equal to fiction and poetry (''The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature'' 1995, ''Modern Chinese Literary Thought'' 1996).

Regarding the valuing of essays in China, Taiwan and the West, there are regional differences: In the States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones.
==Li Meng 李梦==
In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, in my survey, which Chinese essayists are printed the most in the 1990s, he ranks 16th. If one only take modern authors into account, he even ranks 12th. Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by Huang Weiliang in favor for the first (see Lin Yaode 1989:50), and Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.

Still it remains a ''desideratum'' to get the most important Chinese essays in Western translation.
==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==
Currently at least three essay collections in English translation are in the reviewing process (Tam King-Fai, Woesler) or already published (Pollard 1999). Pollard's selection is a highly subjective and eclective choice of essays, covering even the premodern essay. This year, scholars will meet on a first international conference on the essay (Achern, Germany August 25-26). In the years to come, a new ''Bonn History of Chinese Literature'' will grant the essay its proper place with two to three volumes only dedicated to the ''biji, youji'' and other essays.
==Li Yu 李玉==
'''4. Taking into consideration the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature'''

I will give a few hints, what the essay can contribute to the picture of Chinese Literature, which so far is overshadowed by fiction through the narrative of C.T. Hsia, Prusek and Anderson.

We are used to established narratives, like the emergence and success of the May-Fourth literature. But this view neglects the role, that for example the ''yuanyang hudie pai'' played in the choir of different voices in the awoken intellectual debate in the beginning of this century.
==Lin Min 林敏==
The May-Fourth group at that time was one voice among many and only succeeded because of its agitation and polemic in the public sphere, so we have to use new means to assign the Chinese essay its proper place. We learn from simplifiying narratives, that it is absolutely necessary to differentiate, and to reconstruct the complex time background. Having understood Chinese literature as determined by the development of fiction and poetry only, a broader understanding will change the whole appearance of Chinese literature. A scholarly endeavour is the use of modern literary theories in the approach to this genre.
==Lin Xin 林鑫==
In the following, I will name three aspects (chronologically sorted by past, modern and contemporary time) to hold the argument, that the taking into consideration of the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature and change our current understanding of it.

'''5. The classical and premodern essay documents Chinese philosophy, early subjectivity and still, a native Chinese tradition is questioned'''

How is the Chinese essay to be positioned historically, how did it emerge, what is its generic background? Generically, the ancestors of the essay are both in China and the West notes written on the margins of books, they are letters and travel notes.

下面，我将从三个方面(在时间顺序上按过去、现代、当代排序)来论述对散文的考量将改写中国文学史，改变我们目前对它的认识这一论点。

5. 古典和前现代散文记录了中国哲学，其早期的主体性，仍然是对中国本土传统的质疑。
中国散文在历史上要如何定位，它是如何产生的，它的共有背景是什么？一般来说，中国和西方的散文都是起源于写在书本空白处的笔记，是书信和游记。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:18, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==
These notes differed from the canonized literature through its informal style, its expression of individuality und subjectivity, a much earlier document for subjectivity than the first autobiographical Chinese novel, ''The Dream of the Red Chamber''.

From the very beginning, the essay was valued lower than poetry: the oldest reference this far for the term ''sanwen'' that I found is Luo Dajing's 羅大經 (? - after 1248) statement from 1240: “Shī sāomiào tiānxià, ér sǎnwén pōjué suǒsuì júcù.
==Liu Bo 刘博==
詩騷妙天下，而散文頗覺瑣碎局促。” (Poetry is moving mankind in a wonderful way, prose inquires into incoherent bagatels, is limited.) (''Helin yulu''). Another reproach Luo Dajing mentions, is a formal one: In comparison to the highly artistic and century-long tradition of poetic writing, the direct and often vernacular langage of the essay in his eyes had less value.

In the West, a real 'art of the essaywriting' came up in the late 16th century as a medium for the newly reorganized knowledge.

“詩騷妙天下，而散文頗覺瑣碎局促。”罗大京提到的另一个骂名，是形式上的：与具有高度艺术性和长达一个世纪传统的诗歌写作相比，散文中直接的、白话文式的语言在他看来并不那么有价值。
在西方，16世纪晚期出现了一种真正的“散文写作艺术”，作为一种传播重组知识的媒介。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 00:50, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

“诗騷妙天下，而散文颇觉瑣碎局促。”罗大经提出的另一个责难，是形式上的。在他看来，与高度艺术化的百年诗词写作传统相比，散文直接的、白话文式的语言没有什么价值。
在西方，真正的 “散文写作艺术 ”是在16世纪末作为重组知识的一种媒介出现的。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:30, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==
The reorganization originated from the observations of Kopernikus, which destroyed the whole conception of the world of the Middle Age.

In China, particularly the debates on Buddhism in the 4th and 5th century A.D. saw the origination of a tradition of letters. The Chinese tradition of the ''sanwen'' 散文 (essay) however, in the understanding of sǎn 散 as (to dispel, leisure, loose, relaxed, irregular, independant style, free prose, can be seen not before the detachment from the dialogue - or aphorism, which is still visible in the philosophical ''Lunyu''.
==Liu Liu 刘柳==
Xunzi delivered the prototype of the later essay with his philosophical treatises. They are an early form of philosophical didactical essays, in which general theorems are derived not only from quotations of the canonized classical works, but for the first time also from his own individual experience. The individuality is still a main characteristic of the essay today.

During the dynasties the essay manifested itself further in certain subcategories: From reading-notes written at the paper margins originated the ''biji'' µ§°O (occasional notes), flourishing in the Ming Dynasty.

荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形，它们是哲学教学论文的早期形式。其中的一般定理不仅来自于经典著作的引用，而且第一次从他的个人经验中得出。个性仍是现今散文的主要特点。

历朝历代，散文在某些子类中进一步得以表现，如从写在纸边的读书笔记产生了明朝盛行的偶记。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 02:25, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形。其作品是哲学论教散文的早期形式，这些散文中传授的普遍定理不仅有引用经典著作，还首次借鉴其个人经历。这种个体性在当代的散文中仍有保留。

历朝历代，散文通过一些子类别得以呈现，如明朝盛行的在书页边上写的读书注释，它就是源于笔记。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 08:47, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Ou 刘欧==
The marginalism is a link between Western and Chinese tradition of early essays. Occasional notes could contain private historical notes, anecdotes, communications and contemplations. However, the consciousness of the essay as a genre of its own originated in China not before the Qing ²M dynastie, when numerous essay anthologies were compiled.

Taking into consideration the social-historical background draws a different picture of the old society than short stories and novels: Essays are much closer to real life, since they express individual problems and experiences.

边缘主义是中西早期散文的一个纽带。散见的笔记包含了私人的历史记录，轶事，交谈和个人沉思。然而，尽管当时的散文选集众多，但将视散文作为一种文体的意识，清朝之前并没有出现。

考虑到当时的社会历史背景，人们在旧社会时，对短篇故事和小说的看法不同：散文更接近现实生活，因为它们表达了个人的困惑和经历。--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 04:15, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==
Until now, the Chinese pre-''Hongloumeng'' individual literature spoke only through the indirect language of poems to us. Rediscovering the essays, we have a splendid source of opinions, social-historical pictures etc.

Premodern essay literature consists of much more than its most well-known example, the formally restrictive ''baguwen''. Lu Xun himself wrote some of his essays in ''baguwen'' style, but on the other hand took it as a synonym for the ancient society. Zhou Zuoren saw the rhythm of the language of the "Eight legged essay" as as appealing and intoxicating as the "pleasure of doing opium.'' (Zhou 1932:148).

目前为止，中国红楼梦前的个体文学还只是通过诗中的间接语言与我们对话。通过重拾散文，我们可以知晓不同观点和社会历史状况等文学创作的丰富源泉。
现代散文之前的文学并不限于形式上受限制的八股文，一方面鲁迅本人也有一些散文是用八股文写成的，但另一方面他又把八股文当作古代社会的代名词。周作人把 "八股文 "的语言节奏看作是 "做鸦片的快感 "一样令人陶醉。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 08:42, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

直到现在，中国前“红楼梦”的个体文学只能通过诗歌的间接语言与我们对话。重新发掘这些散文，我们可以拥有丰富的观点来源，社会历史图片等。

前现代散文文学不仅仅包括它最为人所知的例子，正式的、有限制性的“八卦文”。鲁迅自己的一些文章就是用“八卦文”写的，但是在另一方面又把它当作古代社会的同义词。周作人认为《八股文》的语言节奏就像“吸鸦片的快感”一样令人陶醉。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 09:07, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Yi 刘艺==
But he considered it also as a prevalent genre implicit in the modern writings as ''yang bagu'' (westernized bagu) and ''dang bagu'' (party-line bagu) (borrowing from Wu Zhihui, Zhou Yuanliu:71).

Neo-Confucianism stressed ''wen'' (prose) as the most important tool to transmit the ''dao'' (way): ''Wenyi zai dao'' (Literature as the carrier of the way). If we reinterprete this diction in the perspective of genre, we can say, that the essay then has been regarded as an important tool to express truth, subjectivity and Self.

但他认为这也是隐含在现代著作中的''洋包谷''（西化包谷）和''党行包谷''（借用吴稚晖、周远流的说法：71）的一种普遍的文体。

新儒家强调''文''（散文）是传播''道''的最重要工具：''文以载道''（文以载道）。如果我们从文体的角度来重新解读这句话，我们可以说，当时的散文已经被视为表达真理、主体性和自我的重要工具。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:01, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

但他认为这也是隐含在现代著作中的''洋包谷''（西化包谷）和''党行包谷''（借用吴稚晖、周远流的说法：71）的一种普遍的文体。

理学强调“文”（散文）是传播“道”的最重要工具：“文以载道”。（以文学为载体的方式）。如果我们从体裁的角度来重新解读这一措辞，可以说，散文已成为表达真理、主体性和自我的重要工具。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 00:53, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==
Liang Qichao developed a ''xīn wéntǐ'' 新文體 (new prose style), which was influenced by Western languages, but the essay became popular not before the newspapers became mass media, and the language changed into ''baihua''.

'''6. The essay as the medium of modernity, the questioning of the genuiness of the Chinese essay'''

To solve first of all the dispute on whether the Chinese essay grew out of a native tradition or was influenced by Western translations, one finds both traditions relevant: The occidental essay was introduced to the writers of the literature reform movement from 1907 on by translations in Chinese (Lin Shu: ''Irving'' 1907, ''Addison'' 1911).
==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==
The current form of the genre is mostly based on the influence of Western essay translations. First developed a Chinese essay tradition, which consciously leaned upon the Western model in language, form and terminology, its own proponents succumbed soon to the temptation to derive a tradition of the Chinese essay from Chinese history only. A seemingly unbroken Chinese tradition of the native Chinese ''wenyan sanwen'' is presented in Chinese textbooks (Yu Zaichun 1978-82, Li Xishang 1985).

This is older than the ones referred to in the ''Large Chinese Dictionary'' of Morohashi (Morohashi undated) and in the ''Encyclopaedic Dictionary of the Chinese Language'' 1966.

==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==
Still, the value of the native tradition of essay writing and the role of the Western influence upon it is discussed controversially among the scholars. Some admit that Western impact played a key role in what we understand as Chinese essays nowadays: Wang Bin 1992, Fan Peisong 1993; for Western impact in general see Průšek 1964, Gálik 1966, McDougall 1971. Other scholars think that Western influence is overestimated - Denton 1996 showed that the theoretical background was missing for understanding Western theories of literature in China, - and recommended that we understand the essay first by its national tradition.

然而，对于本土论文写作传统的价值以及西方对其的影响，学者们争论不休。有些人承认西方的影响在我们今天所理解的中国散文中起了关键作用:王斌1992，范培松1993;对西方总的影响参考。还有一些学者认为，西方的影响被高估了——Denton 1996表明，中国缺乏理解西方文学理论的理论背景，并建议我们首先从其民族传统来理解这篇文章。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:57, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

然而，对于本土论文写作传统的价值以及西方对其的影响，学者们争论不休。有些人承认西方的影响在我们今天所理解的中国散文中起了关键作用:王斌1992，范培松1993;对西方总的影响参考。还有一些学者认为，西方的影响被高估了——Denton 1996表明，中国缺乏理解西方文学理论的理论背景，并建议我们首先从其民族传统来理解这篇文章。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 15:07, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==
How far personal opinion may influence the narrative of historical facts can be seen by the example of the legendary authors of the May Fourth movement. All of them considered the English essay as the father of the Chinese essay: Zhou Zuoren 1921, Lu Xun 1933, the anarchist and later member of the Guomindang Wu Zhihui [1934]. Later, some of these authors changed their minds to support their own theories on the essay by looking for proof of a native Chinese essay tradition:
==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==
for example, Lu Xun with his theory "'Zhǎnkāi' shuō yǔ 'méngyá' lùn “展開”說與“萌芽”論"" (Theory of "Starting" and "Blossoming") came to see the fighting and critical character of the essay of the Jin dynasty (265 - 420) as the 'father' of the Chinese essay, and Zhou Zuoren first the English essay (1921) and later the ''biji'' (occasional notes) of the Ming, although he still tried to integrate the English essay in his "Gonganpài yu Yīngguo xiaopin 'hecheng' lun 公安派與英國小品“合成”論" (Theory of the Synthesis of the Gongan School and the English Essay).
==Ma Juan 马娟==
Wang Zengqi regrets that the national Chinese tradition of the essay at the time of the 'May Fourth Movement' has not been taken up again and has not continued in contemporary essays (Wang Zengqi 1993). The Chinese essay is an accommodating object of study, because one may look to it to prove any theory of the essay. One can find examples for each topic in almost every period, simply because the essay has a wide range of subjects.
==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==
When Zhou Zuoren showed that only seven months after the incident at Marco Polo bridge it was again possible to write about a candy seller (1924), he was critizised as "paralyzing" (Lu Xun 1934, Zhu Zhaoluo 1943). When he wrote a piece on the "Fly", he was reproached with dealing with subjects of minor importance. Reproaches like this lie in the very nature of the genre, since ''marginalism'' is substantial to the essay. The mentioned formal reproach of Luo Dajing can be found again in the 1990s, Hong Kong students critisized the literary style as it appears in Ba Jins "Thoughts" (Suixiang lu) as too direct and too less artful. But this perspective does not recognize the very nature of the essay, which is a very individual expression of an author's thoughts and not bound to tradition, and therefore much more free also in content.
==Ma Zhixing 马智星==
The essay - from its very nature free and independant - almost disappeared in the time of the Cultural Revolution and - except for the ideologically influenced essays - had a hard struggle between Yan'an and the loss of moral legitimacy by the leadership in 1989.

The essay was ''the'' genre of the modernizing society of the early 20th century. Many writers had to define and often redefine their position and self-understanding in reaction to war and warlordism and later in the modernizing society, often burying their own ideals, in the larger perspective for the seeming "needs" of society, which also claimed the author to be one of its products.
==Meng Ying 孟莹==
But from its very nature, the essay set new boundaries in form and content, and therefore not only survived the ideological restrictions, but also established its own critical subculture within. The essay was not only a medium of discussion and a documentation of the social-political background for us today, but also a documentation of the personal struggle of the writers finding a position in a changing environment, since the essay is "a genre of self-reflection". Some essays even deconstructed master narratives like the one of leftist ideology, often simply by confronting it with subjective experience, reality or art.

I want to mention another position on literature, which stresses the impact of literature on life, especially on the eve of revolutions - following this view, all literature is political (Jameson).
==Mo Ling 莫玲==
Not only the understanding of literature as a whole changes if we take into consideration the essay, also the view of single authors shifts, if we see not only their novels or poems, but also their essays. I mention only Zhou Zuoren. His ideas connected him spiritually to his contemporary collegues in Europe, Japan and America, but these where ideas for which China turned out to be not yet ready. At that time, China had taken a road which led away from progress, wealth, freedom and spiritual enlightenment. The consequences have yet to be overcome.

除开关注作家的小说和诗歌之外，如果我们对他们的散文有所涉猎，就会发现他们不仅对文学整体的理解发生了变化，单个作者的观点也发生了变化。仅就周作人来说，他的思想在精神上把他和他在欧洲、日本和美国的同伴们联系在一起，但是这些设想在中国行不通。当时的中国走的是一条远离进步、财富、自由和精神启蒙的道路，这一现状还并没有得到改变。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:34, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling

==Mo Nan 莫南==
In 1927, Chinese literature has taken the form of 'engaged literature'. The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics of daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology.
==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==
Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consume-orientation of the masses. The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educational claim with the exception of essays which claim to be "art pourt l'art".
==Ou Rong 欧蓉==
The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing ("Shuo meng 說夢" On dreams in: Zhu Ziqing 1928) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 (My own garden 9.1923, "The Fly" 1924, "Reading on the Toilet" 1936), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the new found world of mass consumerism.
==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==
I mentioned the lack of translations in Western languages. One of the reasons might be the impression of some scholars that many of the Chinese essays were just propaganda. This might be true for the 1940s and even the 1950s, but nowadays this has changed, as the overwhelming majority of publications prove. This demands a closer look: Since 1949, politically affirmative literature has been encouraged by the government, resulting in a statistical paradox: not the affirmative authors and their texts form the majority of the essayists read in the 1990s, but the critical essayists, whose texts oppose the order to serve politics through their apolitical, sometimes even defiant character.
==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==
In the 1990s, the texts of 1920s/1930s Republican China are still as often reprinted as their contemporary counterparts. Obviously we can conclude that the politically affirmative essay of the 1950s only survived in special political essay collections and is no longer written by famous contemporary authors nor read by the Chinese audience in the beginning of the 21st century.

Taking into account of a genre shifts the whole perspective on literature, taking into account the essayistic works of an author shifts also the view of the author. I will name only one author as an example for a modern essayist: Zhou Zuoren.

20世纪90年代，20、30年代民国时期的文本和当代的文本一样也经常被重印。显然，我们可得出一个结论：20世纪50年代的那些政治宣传文只能留存在特殊的政治文章选集当中，到了21世纪初，就不再有作者去写这类文章，也不会有中国读者去看这类文章了。

考虑到整个体裁对整个文学角度的转变，以及散文作品反映出的作者观点的变化，我只举一位现代散文家的例子：周作人。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 07:47, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

20世纪90年代，20-30年代民国时期的文章仍然和当代的同类文章一样经常被重印。显然，我们可以得出一个结论：20世纪50年代的政治宣传类散文只保存在专门的政治散文集中，到21世纪初，不再有人去写，也不再有人读这类文章了。

一种文学体裁会转变整个文学的视角，一位作家的散文作品，同样也会转变对这个作家的看法。我只以一位现代散文家为例：周作人。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 09:02, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Peng Dan 彭丹==
'''Zhou Zuoren'''

I mentioned already his theoretical contribution to the Chinese essayism, but still, his essays have been neglected until the 1980s. The reason does not lie in literary quality, but in political valuing. The master narrative of the offical literary history of the People's Republic on Zhou Zuoren is, that the theoretical May Fourth genius "degenerated" and later became a "traitor". Publishing in the Japanese sponsored magazines ''Reminiscences'',* and ''Chinese Literature'', he was blamed together with Zhu Pu and Yuan Xi of collaboration. An unanswered question is, why another author, who published there, Zhang Ailing, was never reproached with collaboratorship. The difference between all of them is that Zhang Ailing tried to avoid political committments, whereas Zhou felt guilty, Zhu justified it and Yuan simply accepted it.
==Peng Juan 彭娟==
''The 'mainstream' writers took an affirmative approach in their writing, whereas the other writers formed a minority. The individual authors did not necessarily belong to either one of these groups throughout their life, but may have moved between them. Since the essay is a medium which enables the individual to express thoughts directly, the writers chosen for this paper can be classified according to their position.''

''Yu Guangzhong's essay'' "The wolves are coming" ''shows that the ideological perspective did not only harm mainland essaywriting.''
==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==
In his small literary pieces, Zhou tried to aesthetizise the little things of the everyday life out of the subjective experience of his private space. The major contribution of Zhou Zuoren is, that he set the turning point in Chinese essay writing with his call for writing short literary pieces (''Meiwen'' 1921).

In foreign literature there is the so-called ''lunwen'' 論文 (treatise), which is roughly divided into two groups: the reflecting ones, piping 批評 (critical), are scientific articles. The others are ''jishu'' 記述 (descriptive) and ''yishuxing'' 藝術性 (artistic), they are also called ''meiwen'' 美文 (aesthetic essay). Within these texts, one can distinguish between ''xushi'' 敘事 (narrative) and ''shuqing'' 抒情 (lyric). But there are also mixed texts. [...] I hope that the aesthetical essay is encouraged to come back, and will open up a new field for the New Literature. Wouldn’t that be wonderful?
==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==
With these words from the essay "''The aesthetic essay''" this new vernacular form was defined. This starting point founded a whole new tradition of essay writing in China. Contemporary writers called this piece the "king of essays".

In order to bring this new form to his compatriots, he tried to find similiarities with the ''xiaopinwen'' of the Ming dynasty. He further discussed these thoughts in his essay theory. In his own essays, he profited a lot from ancient ''suibi''. Later he further developed his literary theory towards an up and down of two trends. In the modernizing society, he advocated the liberation of women and asked to "treat children as full subjects with their own external and internal lives" and to "make children the essence of children's literature" (Zhou 1923). He promoted the ''baguwen'' and the independance of literature from politics and effected the literary scene and the development towards a modern Chinese society especially between 1917 and 1938.

“美学散文”中的这些词语定义了这种新的白话形式。这个起点在中国建立了一种新的散文写作传统。当代作家称此作品为“散文之王”。

为了将这种新形式带给他的同胞，他试图找到其与明朝“小品文”的相似之处。他在散文理论中进一步讨论了这些思想。他自己的散文也从古代的“随笔”中受益匪浅。后来，他将文学理论朝着上下两种趋势进一步发展。在现代化社会中，他呼吁解放妇女、“将儿童看作具有外在和内在生命的完整主体”以及“让儿童成为儿童文学的本质”（Zhou 1923）。他提倡“八股文”和文学脱离政治的独立性，这对文学界产生了影响，并推动了中国向近代社会尤其是1917年至1938年的发展。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 09:48, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==
With this theoretical foundation and his own vo'luÉminous essayistic work, Zhou Zuoren through the example of his own form of short literary pieces within this genre, fought at that stage of the development of his literary theory like Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque 130 years ago in France for the idea "l'art pour l'art" , for individuality and independance of the writer, for disinterested literature. The jugdment, that Zhou was an apolitical author cannot be proved with his essays. Instead, he wanted his abstinence of political statement to be understood as a political statement by itself. For him, literature was a mean not for revolution, but for resistance (Zhou 1929:180-181).
==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==
In fact he saw himself as ‘patriotic underground fighter’ and looked at the collaboration with the Japanese puppet regime as a forced one, following his attempted assasination, through which his driver had lost his life. His own concept of essay writing served less the needs of the building of a nation-state and comes closer to the ideal of the individual.

"I don't really know why, but I am feeling as if I am born into a dark age. I admit, that our forests are not inhabited by dragons, tigers and wolves, but shapeless "monsters" and "goblins" are still creeping around and try to swallow our souls. [...] What alarms me most, is the absence of freedom in this prison, into which we writers have been thrown."
==Qi Kai 漆凯==
Confronting tradition and progress in the essay "''Ancestor Worship''", he is in favor of the latter, since past could only become present through changes (Zhou 1919:7-8).

Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque (1767 - 1830) war französischer Romanschriftsteller und liberaler Politiker, der neben der Freiheit der Kunst nach der Französischen Revolution die Einführung der konstitutionellen Monarchie nach englischem Vorbild forderte.

==Qu Miao 瞿淼==
Siehe ''Journal'' (10.2.1804). Die "Kunst um der Kunst willen" propagierte die Zweckfreiheit der Kunst. Im Gegensatz dazu versteht sich die engagierte Literatur. Die Parallele zwischen Zhou Zuorens Literaturverständnis und dem Konzept "Kunst um der Kunst willen" zieht auch Wolff: ''Chou Tso-jen'' 1971, S. 84.

Siehe Zhou Zuoren: ''Der Ursprung der neuen chinesischen Literatur'' 1934, S. 95 - 98; vgl. auch Chen Zizhan: ''Vorträge zur chinesischen Literaturgeschichte'' 1937, Bd 3, pp. 416 - 422, besonders S. 422. Hinweis in: H. Martin: "''Liang Qichao on Poetry Reform''" 1996, Bd 1, S. 213.
==Quan Meixin 全美欣==
Regarding Zhou Zuoren, I want to correct the official assessment of the People’s Republic, that his work would have experienced a caesura in 1938. In order to explain his opposition of the propaganda to build up national heroes about 1937 and his collaboration from 1939, it has been said officially, that his thoughts had "duoluo 墮落" (degenerated) at that time (Zhu Jinshun 1990:59). In fact, this caesura, namely the change in the style and subject in his essays on literature, art etc. to ''zhengjing'' 正經 (serious, intentional essays), and ''xianshi'' 閑適 (essays for one’s own enjoyment) is located not before his outlawing through Mao Zedong (1942), and his arrest through the Guomindang (1945).
==Sagara Seydou ==
Therefore not the Japanese suppressors are responsible for the retreat of this great writer, but his Chinese compatriots'.

On the basis of the stigma of the 'traitor', he has been undervalued until now. That his work in the 1990s is almost as often published as Lu Xun's and Zhu Ziqing's shows that his texts finally experience a more positive literaric evaluation through the audience, which now must be registered also by scholars.

==Shi Diwen 石迪文==
Another example of a misread Zhou Zuoren is his short essay on "''The Fly''", where he describes his changing attitude towards flies, which he had played with as child but later disgusted when he learned about their danger of passing on diseases. ”''The fly''” shows Zhou Zuoren’s strength to describe details and make them a real topic by recalling memories on them or describing a change of perspective on them. Zhou summarized the philosophical wisdom he learnt from this, that people did not judge on things objectively, but were likely to praise or damn things.
==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==
The official reading re¬proaches Zhou that he "saw only the fly and not the cosmos" , a quotation of the young Zhou about a position he himself clearly opposed.

His ability to chat about the more pleasent things in life is displayed in his essay ”Birds’ twitter”. In ”''Peking cakes and sweet-meat''” and in ”''Wild vegetable of my home region''”, Zhou Zuoren shows his ability to make the reader feel at home at a region, where he feels at home himself, by describing the customs and special regional food.

Siehe Zhou Zuoren: "Cangying 蒼蠅" (Die Stubenfliege), in: ''Chenbao fujuan'' 晨报副镌 (Beilage zur Morgenpost) (1924.7.13). Eine Zu¬sammenfassung des Inhalts findet sich in: Yu Daxiang (Hg.): ''Auswahllexikon chinesischer Essays mit Inhaltsangaben und Analysen'' 1993.

''Siehe Vollständige chinesische Anthologie der Wissenschaften - Bd Chinesische Literatur'' 1988, Bd 2, S. 1300. Dies spielt auf den Essay "''Cangying'' 蒼蠅" (Die Stubenfliege), in: Zhou Zuoren: ''Zhi Tang. Sammlung'' 1933 an.（文献无需翻译）

==Si Yu 司妤==
His piece ”''Bitter rain''” shows the atmosphere, for what his essays had been labelled ”bitter tea”: There remains a taste in one’s mouth after reading. If you compare Lu Xun’s ”''On tea drinking''” (Yang/Yang 1961 3:325-326) with Zhou Zuoren’s essay with the same title, you see the difference of ”short and to the point” and ”eloquent and well-read”. ”''First love''” is more hilarious. The essay ”''Three different ways to die''” shows that Zhou Zuoren can compete with his elder brother in sarcasm. Lu Xun's essay on the same subject, the massacre on March 18, 1926, was a sight.
==Song Jianru 宋建茹==
Zhou asks for the ”best” way to die and favors the short and painless one. In ”''On alcohol''” and ”''The awning bunk boat''” Zhou Zuoren continues the tradition of late Ming ''biji''.

'''7. The essay as a snapshot of contemporary thoughts'''

''What is the state of contemporary essay writing in China? Its position should be brought into its proper relationship to recent approaches, perspectives and terms of categorization, like post-modernist elements, post-colonial thinking, deconstructivism etc.''

==Su Lin 苏琳==
The increase of the essay production after the ‘Cultural Revolution’ might be explained with the ability of the essay, to express personal experiences much more authentically than other genres because of its immanent claim of historical truth. But the essay is not a guarantee for objective truth: In the same time it is subjective, the essayist mediates his image consciously. This restricts the reported truth to a subjective one and bears the risk of a consciously “corrected” truth.
==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==
The individualism of the Republican era has been based on the common feeling to stand at a historical turning point and directed towards common targets like the creation of a New Literature and a new Chinese society. In the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, individualism asks for a critical reflection on the satisfaction of personal consumption needs and tries to give personal orientation, essayists plead for moral virtues (Wang Meng: "''Anxiang'' 安详" (Serene) 1992, "''Zuohao ni ziji de shi'' 做好你自己的事" (First make your own things in a good way) 1994).
==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==
These essays, mainly published in newspapers and magazines, are widely read by people in the rapidly changing, anonymous, alienating and consume-oriented mass cultural society.

Other essays in the 1980s and 1990s are in a kind of new subjectivism targeted away from contemporary contradictions but apply to the feelings of the audience by creating an either positive ("''Shanxi opera''", Jia Pingwa 1984) or negative world ("''The nightmare''", Si Yu 1995).

From the essay, we can see contemporary trends of literature, which are also reasons for the increase in volume of this genre in the 1990s:

==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==
- The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts: “[...] we live in an age of exposition” (Hall 1984:xiii);

- The increasing consciousness of indivi¬duality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjecti¬ve expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands;

- A revival of interest in discussing social-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.

- The banality of everyday life becomes conscious through becoming a literary topic, most commonly in the genre of everyday life, the essay.

- 当下中国社会的浮躁节奏，对转折性和短文的要求。"[...]我们生活在一个论述的时代"(Hall 1984:xiii)。

- 越发增加的独立意识，对其而言，文章是最直接的主体表达形式，甚至比诗的格律和形式要求更直接。

- 通过散文这一媒介讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复苏，就像20世纪20/30年代的情况一样。

- 日常生活的平庸性通过成为文学话题而变得自觉，最常见的是日常生活的文体--散文。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

-当前中国社会节奏轻快，要求有趣味的短文：“[…]我们生活在一个博览会时代”（大厅1984:xiii）；

-对于个人二元性意识的增强，散文是主体性表达的最直接形式，甚至比诗歌的韵律和形式要求更直接；

-通过这篇文章讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复复苏，如同20世纪20年代或30年代的情况一样。

-日常生活的平庸通过成为一个文学主题而变得有意识，最常见的是日常生活的体裁——散文。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 12:59, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Tang Bei 汤蓓==
- The De-ideologization of Chinese society. Today not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. The mostly read political essays after 1949 are critical essays.

- Regarding the compiling of essay collections: For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain.
==Tang Ming 唐铭==
This is a sign of the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publis¬hing houses with an orientation toward customers (former: "readers").

- The criteria for essay best sellers in the P.R. of China are the following: In the most often printed essay "''The Back View''", filial piety is the driving factor, parallelistic and repetitive structures in the atmospherical nebulous "''The Moonlit Lotus Pond''", both written by Zhu Ziqing, whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader.
==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==
Nostalgic home feelings are the emotional identification element in "''Wild vegetables of my home region''" by Wang Zengqi. Therefore one can state, that moving es¬says form the top.

- ''In the latter half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of in¬dividuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife. Time loses worth, since more and more of the daily acctivities are filled with mechanical and autistic actions.''

==Tao Ye 陶冶==
''In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only political replique is the patriotism, for example expressed in the 1996 published monograph'' China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war (''No''! 1996).

- ''The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable object d'art.''
==Wang Meiling 王美玲==
''Also trends like the use of ordinary language, which one finds in novels since 1993 (Jia Pingwa, Feidu; Gu Cheng, Yingger) and'' New Borderlessness ''since'' 1995, ''cannot be pro-ven in the essaywriting. ''

- Also the fictional realism David Der-Wei Wang sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proves helpful for the understanding of some essays, one being "''The Small Dog Baodi''", written by Ba Jin 1981, in which the author turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in allegoric instead of in descriptive truth as before ("''In memoriam of Xiao Shan II''", Ba Jin 1984).
==Wang Xuan 王轩==
Similar is the concept of imaginery nostalgia, as Wang calls the fictional truth in Shen Congwen's work (David Der-Wei Wang 1992), helpful for the reading of Wang Zengqi's "''Rain in Kunming''" as well as for Jia Pingwa's "''Shanxi opera''".
类似的还有想象怀旧的概念，正如王功权所说的沈从文作品中虚构的真实（王大卫·德维王1992），有助于解读汪曾祺的《昆明雨》，也有助于贾平凹的《山西剧》。

- The Schwarcz' concept of ''personal grief'' expressed in a ''metaphorical discourse'' helps us to understand how Ba Jin was able to overcome the ''truth of being'' he was known for, only to reach a more convincing fictional truth through the metaphor of his dog Baodi.
施瓦茨在“隐喻话语”中所表达的“个人悲伤”概念，有助于我们理解巴金是如何克服他以“存在的真理”而闻名的，却通过他的狗“宝坻”的隐喻而获得更具说服力的虚构真相。

Xin zhuangtai xiaoshuo 新狀態小說 new borderless fiction, represented by Chen Dong 韓東, Lu Yang 魯羊, Zhu Wen 朱文, Lin Bai 林白, Chen Liang 陳梁, Zhang Mei 張梅.（文献无需翻译）

''Post-colonialist thinking (Williams et al. 1994), which is to be seen as part of the social-political discourse, appears in essays, especially in the less critical political, but patriotic essays of the 1990s. Kafkaism helps us understand the essay "The nightmare", where Si Yu appears as a de-constructionist, the I-narrator even is drawn near to suicide.''（文献无需翻译）

And maybe for Xie Bingxins* reflections on her experience as one of the chosen voluntaries of the Wuhan military academy: She insisted to remain a lifelong "woman soldier" .（文献无需翻译）

==Wang Yu 王煜==
'''8. Discussion: Is the genre of the essay the form of literary expression in 21st century China?'''

Regarding the future of the Chinese literature, we can only speculate. But out the risk of being wild and provocative, I would like to suggest some questions for considering the place of the essay in the field of Chinese literature and literary studies.

- People have less time for actions like reading, and get used to reduced visualized information through the Internet. Will the brevity of the essay make it the ideal medium?

==Wang Yuan 王源==
- If the Chinese people are rediscovering their individuality, will the essay allow them to express individual thoughts more directly?

- Modern societies are characterized by TV culture, mass consumption, and the loss of consciousness of one's own tradition, often partly due to the American impact on national cultures. Is the essay less bound to the restrictions of tradition, especially compared to the poem and thus more adaptable to the modern phenomenon of mass consumption?

==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==
- The alienation and the anonymity of citylife worldwide, in China is combined with a loss of traditional values like ideology, family, solidarity etc. in favor of the concept of profit for oneself, - if this has produced a longing for new orientation, will it possibly be filled by morally guiding essays or nationalistic thinking?

《红楼梦》与其他世界文学作品的相似性——推荐《红楼梦》列入世界记忆遗产名录

'''Commonness between the Red Chamber Dreams and other World Literature Novels – Proposing the Red Chamber Dreams to the World Documentary Heritage List'''（修改）

吴漠汀，湖南师范大学 Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University

Source: Lecture at Harvard University, Cambridge, MA USA, 14.3.2000（文献无需翻译）
==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==
'''Abstract'''

In every culture, readers associate the literature they know with new literature they read. So literature is always cumulative, it grows out of existing literature and can refer back to it. When Western readers read the Red Chamber Dreams, they foremost associate novels and other pieces of literature of their own cultural tradition with the Dreams. This has also influenced the first full translation into German.

Cao Xueqin and even more his protagonist Jia Baoyu both are early humanists, universalists and world citizens. ''The Red Chamber Dreams'' function worldwide.

摘要

在每一种文化中，读者都会把他们读到的新文学与已知文学联系起来，所以文学总是积累的，它从现有的文学中生长出来，并以已有文学为参考。西方读者在阅读《红楼梦》时，首先会把《红楼梦》与自身文化传统中的小说和其他文学作品联系起来，这也影响了首次德语全译本。

曹雪芹，尤其是他的主人公贾宝玉，都是早期的人文主义者，普世主义者和世界公民。《红楼梦》具有普世价值。（修改）

在每一种文化中，读者都会把他们读到的新文学与已知文学联系起来，所以文学总是积累的，它从现有的文学中衍生出来，并以已有文学为参考。西方读者在阅读《红楼梦》时，首先会把《红楼梦》与自身文化传统中的小说和其他文学作品联系起来，这也影响了首次德语全译本。

曹雪芹，甚至于他的主人公贾宝玉，都是早期的人文主义者，普世主义者和世界公民。《红楼梦》具有普世价值。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:09, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==
''The Dream'' is a complex showroom of diverse aspects of Chinese cultures and is the embodiment and essence of Chinese cultures, but it has also a global impact, therefore it should be honoured as “World Documentary Heritage”.

红楼梦》综合展示了中国的多元文化，是中国文化的集中体现和精华，同时在全球范围内产生影响，理应列入世界记忆遗产名录。（修改）

多元一体

'''Key words'''

Western culture, reception tradition, German translation, Embodiment of Chinese cultures, global compatibility, World Documentary Heritage

“红楼梦”是一个多元的中国文化综合体，是中国文化的体现和精髓，但它也具有全球影响力，因此应该被授予“世界文献遗产”的荣誉。（修改<nowiki>Insert non-formatted text here</nowiki>）

多元一体

'''Key words'''

Western culture, reception tradition, German translation, Embodiment of Chinese cultures, global compatibility, World Documentary Heritage
--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 10:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

《红楼梦》是一个中国文化综合体，展示着中国文化的精髓的同时也极具全球影响力，理应被列入世界记忆遗产名录。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:00, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==
'''1. Chinese Ethics'''

To help the poor and disadvantaged belongs to the traditional core values of Chinese culture.

When we sit in the Beijing Subway today, the loudspeaker announcement reminds us, that it is Chinese traditional ethics to give seats to the disadvantaged (老弱病残孕让座是中国传统道德). We know of Cao Xueqin, that he supported the poor and disadvantaged, and that he made kites for children.

However, when we look closer at these “Chinese Ethics”, we discover, that they are claimed also in Indian Buddhism “karuna” and in the Christian tradition of “caritas” and in almost every civilization. Therefore, we might call these values “human ethics”.

==Wu Kai 吴恺==
'''2. Compatibility
'''
Why do the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' function worldwide and have achieved world literature status even in their translations?

First of all, the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' are, like novels worldwide, a piece of entertainment literature. In comparison to the drama, in which every element is compulsory and plays its part in the overall structure, in the novel the line of action itself is simpler and not so important, most of the scenes or episodes are loosely put together and fit in the broader theme of the novel.
==Wu Qi 吴琪==
However, the lose arrangement of episodes of the ''Dreams'' comes from the tradition of almost unconnected episodes like in the ''Shuihuzhuan'' and is a step towards the greater coherence of the episodes, the aligning into a story line and the greater concentration on fewer protagonists. Therefore, the ''Dreams'' show clearly a step towards the Western tradition of novels, maybe because of growing Western influence in Qing dynasty.

'''3. Impact of translator’s native culture on the translation process'''

There are intercultural parallels between the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' and Western works of literature.
==Wu Qiong 吴琼==
These parallels are fundamental for the translation and were explicitly and implicitly fundamental for the German translator Martin Woesler during his translation and editorial work on the first full German translation. In the following, I will mention some of the Western novels and pieces of literature, which the Western reader of the ''Dreams'' will immediately think of.

'''4. The novel as embodiment of “Zeitgeist”'''

According to Georg Lukács’ ''Theory of the Novel'', while the Epos (like Homer’s ''Ilias'', which like the ''Dream'' reasons the stories in the divine realm) displayed a holistic world experience, a complete, self-contained culture, the novel displays, that the modern world has become infinitely large and has lost its homely quality.
==Wu Xiang 邬香==
The novel as a genre is no longer documenting just one culture, but represents, with the words of Walter Benjamin, the Organon of History. So the understanding of the novel changed with Lukacs to historical-philosophically. A novel is understood as typical for its historical era, the novel embodies the spirit of the epoch (Zeitgeist).

The ''Red Chamber Dreams'' are written in front of the background of the Manchu minority having taken over the power in formerly Han-shaped Ming-China (which was a multi-ethnic and crosscultural society) and families suffering the changing favor of changing emperors, with the Cao family being fostered by Kangxi and being persecuted by Yongzheng.
==Wu Yilu 吴一露==
While the author in his time could not criticize the system and power of emperors, in the novel he came to terms with this life by seeking the guilt for the persecution in the growing decadence of the family (engaging in Daoism, leisure, poetry-writing, arts and music instead of learning for being able to earn a living) and in himself not fulfilling the expectations as the family heir. This description of decadence of a declining family reminds us of the novels of Tschechov (and e.g. in the ''Buddenbrooks'' by Mann, including the turn to arts and music).
==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==
Moreover, with the detailed description of life on all social levels in early Qing Dynasty, the Dream appears as a documentary historical novel very much like Günter Grass’ The Tin Drum 1959.

'''5. Coming-of-age and Alienation'''

Abandoning the paradise-like garden in the Red Chamber Dreams is a symbol for leaving the protected childhood and arriving in the complex world of adults. With George Lukács theory of the novel, the protagonist starts to problematize the sense of his life, in the novel, the protagonist’s self permanently struggles with his environment.
==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==
However, Cao Xueqin’s message is not simply the one of “Paradise Lost”, instead he himself made the best out of his life. Although being less wealthy than when his family still enjoyed the favour of the emperor, there was a payroll system and a social net intact in Early Qing China, where he received enough income to be independent from his rich relatives, to be selective on accepting jobs, to live a relaxed life in a small house in the nature, spending time with his family and friends, follow his own interests, like reading, writing and drinking wine, making kites for the children and thinking of the disadvantaged.

然而，曹雪芹的信息不仅是“失乐园”的信息，而是他本人的一生。尽管不如他的家人仍然享有皇帝的宠爱时富裕，但清初中国有一个工资体系和一个完整的社会网络，在那里他获得了足够的收入以独立于自己的富裕亲戚，可以有选择性地接受工作在大自然的小房子里过着轻松的生活，与家人和朋友共度时光，遵循自己的兴趣，例如读书，写作和喝酒，为孩子们放风筝和思考处境不利的人。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:38, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

==Xiao Ting 肖婷==
Cao Xueqin was fully aware of his time and China’s cultural achievements, he was familiar with the different levels of society, he was a detailed observer and skilful narrator. He may have conceptualized the ending of the novel as a discussion about the different personalities of the characters in the novel and therefore displaying his reflection about life and his psychological understanding of the diversity of human nature. He was able to grasp the “spirit of time” (Zeitgeist) and with his autobiographical experience create an eternal coming-of-age novel not just for his family, for the Qing-Chinese, for Chinese people, but for mankind.

曹雪芹对自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就有充分的认识，他熟悉社会的方方面面，他观察细致，叙事娴熟。他能把小说的结尾构思为对小说中人物不同性格的探讨，从而体现出他对人生的思考和对人性多样性的理解。他能够把握 "时间精神"(Zeitgeist)，并以他的亲身经历为材料创造了一部成熟的绝世之作，这不仅是为他的家庭、为清人、为中国人，更是为全人类。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 11:29, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

曹雪芹充分了解自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就，熟悉社会的不同层次，是一个细致的观察者和娴熟的叙述者。他可能将小说的结局概念化为对小说中人物不同性格的讨论，从而表现出他对生活的反思和对人性多样性的心理理解。他能够把握“时代精神”(时代精神)，并以他的自传体经历，为他的家庭，为清朝人，为中国人，为人类创造了一部永恒的成长小说。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 12:01, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

曹雪芹对自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就了如指掌，他熟悉社会的不同层面，他是一个细致的观察者和娴熟的叙述者。因此，他在小说中对人的不同个性的理解和对小说中人物性格的多样性进行了概念化的探讨。他能够把握“时代精神”，用他的自传体经历，不仅为他的家庭，为清朝的中国人，为中国人民，而且为人类，创作了一部永恒的成人小说。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:43, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

==Xiao Xi 肖茜==
This tradition of Coming-of-age novels is also a European one, like enlightenment philosopher Voltaire’s novel ''Candide or Optimism''《老实人》shows at the very same time (1759) in Europe. Also Voltaire’s Candide has to leave the luxurious paradise of his childhood and strives for true love, but his main learning is more pessimistic, since Voltaire wrote the novel in opposition to Leibniz, who optimistically looked to China as “the best of all worlds”. Recent research findings show that China had a much larger influence on European enlightenment philosophers and we can be sure, that also Cao Xueqin was aware of some European literary traditions.
==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==
Also the German readership is familiar with the chronological following of the life of the protagonist and his development, the fate of a family over generations, the German readership knows this type of novel as the “Education novel” or “Coming-of-age-novel”. In Germany, the genre of the coming-of-age novel has a long tradition and it is shaped more by single characters, who appear as teachers (Goethe: ''Wilhelm Meister’s Apprenticeship''威廉·麦斯特的学徒岁月 1795-96, Novalis 诺瓦利斯: ''Heinrich von Ofterdingen''《海因利·封·歐福特丁根》1802).
==Xie Fan 解帆==
Wilhelm Meister, parallely to Jia Baoyu, is struggling with the traditional education, in ''Wilhelm Meister'' this is represented with the classics revived in Shakespeare’s dramas. Tradition can give orientation, but the personality of the protagonist needs to develop through emancipation is a wisdom, we can learn from all mentioned novels including the ''Dreams''.

'''6. Pornography and True Love, female rivals'''

Sexuality is a basic human need and has developed into different shapes in all cultures. The German audience is familiar with erotic topics from the Middle Ages, in which sexuality was stylized. In the “Schwänke” of the 15th century (Wittenwielers Ring), erotic scenes are described sexually explicit.

与贾宝玉一样，威廉·迈斯特也在与传统教育作斗争，这通过莎士比亚的经典戏剧得以体现。传统可以作为方向标，但主人公的个性需要通过解放才能发展，这是一种智慧，我们可以以上提过包括《梦》的所有小说中学习。
“6.色情与真爱，女性对手"
性是人类的一种基本需求，在不同文化中展现出不同的形态。德国观众熟悉中世纪的情色话题，在这些话题中，性是有固定程式的。在15世纪的“Schwanke”(Wittenwielers Ring)中，情色场景被描述为露骨的性。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:37, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

与贾宝玉一样，威廉·迈斯特也在与传统教育作斗争，在《威廉·迈斯特》中，莎士比亚戏剧中复兴的经典作品代表了这一点。传统可以给予导向，但主人公的个性需要通过解放来发展是一种智慧，我们可以从包括《梦》在内的所有小说中学习。
“6。色情与真爱，女性对手"
性是人类的一种基本需求，在各种文化中形成了不同的形态。德国观众熟悉中世纪的情色话题，在这些话题中，性是程式化的。在15世纪的“Schwanke”(Wittenwielers Ring)中，情色场景被描述为露骨的性。--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 01:37, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==
In the barock literature of the 17th century even the physical act is described extensively.

According to „cumulativity“, every human being is a product of history and literature is based on previous literature, therefore the author of this pager thinks that this background has to be taken into account while translating.

The best study on ''qing'' passion in the Dreams is the one by Anthony Yu, who understood it as ''desire'' and as the central motif of the ''Dreams''. „The centrality of qing in shaping virtually every aspect of The Story of the Stone’s structure and meaning cannot be denied [...].“ (Anthony Yu 2001, 54).

==Xu Jia 徐佳==
In the framework story of the Dreams, the narrator consciously takes a stand against low-action and stereotypical pornographic literature as well as against the widespread romance novels (with the classic roles of the beautiful, talented woman and the poor scholar who finally achieves a respected position and prosperity by passing a civil service exam).

In chapter 1 he says: ”of the true feelings of young people [...] nobody has reported about so far.”

Erotic scenes are described in a decent and associative way (“Game of clouds and rain”), while displaying another quality in its openness e.g. towards bisexuality.

==Xu Jing 许晶==
The ''Dreams'' narrate the story of unfortunate lovers. Unfortunate lovers also in the West have a literary tradition, they constitute an archetype, such as Hero and Leander, Pyramus and Thisbe, Tristan and Isolde, Flore and Blanscheflur as well as Troilus and Cressida, the latter being considered the model for Arthur Brookes, who wrote Romeo and Juliet in 1562 and thus directly influenced Shakespeare.

While Marián Galik saw as the central topic of both, the ''Dream'' and ''Faust'', the eternal feminine, which draws us on high, Gu Cheng called it the “eternal virgine”.

==Xu Jing 许静==
In Goethe’s coming-of-age novel ''Wilhelm Meisters Wanderjahre'', we find a similar motif of female rivals, in the Keller 凯勒 ''The Green Henry'' 《绿衣亨利》1855, the hero turns away from an emphatically sexually designed figure and turns to the 'real' woman. In Jane Austen’s ''Pride and Prejudice'' 1813 Elizabeth and Lin Daiyu are similar, e.g. they both strive for real love (Zhuang 2011).
==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==
'''7. Feudal society and slavery'''

A widespread interpretation is that Jia Baoyu’s equal treatment of family members and slaves would be a manifesto to free the slaves. I also do not share this interpretation, since Aristotle, when he demanded democracy, would exclude slaves from the right to vote. So we cannot use modern concepts to judge on the past. In my understanding, Jia Baoyu was not fighting inequality, but looked at the people as humans and individuals.

封建社会和奴隶
一种普遍的解释是，贾宝玉对家庭成员和奴隶一视同仁，这将成为奴隶解放的宣言。我并不同意这个解释，因为亚里士多德的民主就排除了奴隶的投票权。所以，我们并不能用现代观念去评判过去。在我看来，贾宝玉并不是和不平等作斗争，而是把人视作群体和个人。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 09:55, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie

一种普遍的解释是，贾宝玉对家庭成员和奴隶的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我也不同意这种解释，因为亚里士多德，当他要求民主的时候，会排除奴隶的投票权。所以我们不能用现代的概念来判断过去。在我的理解中，贾宝玉并不是在与不平等作斗争，而是把人看成是群体和个人。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 10:31, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==
Also the understanding of the servants as slaves does not match the description in the Dream, since some servants had servants themselves, the family took care after they left the Jia family to find a match for them and Jia Zheng refers to his daughter Yingchun as „yatou 丫头“, so it is inappropriate to translate this expression with slave. Therefore, the translator preferred “servant” over “slave” in the translation.

另外，把仆人理解为奴隶也与《红楼梦》中所描述的不符，因为有些仆人自己也有仆人，他们离开贾家后，家人会照顾他们，为他们婚配，并且贾正把女儿迎春称为“丫头”，所以用奴隶来翻译这个词是不合适的。因此，译者在翻译中更倾向于“仆人”而不是“奴隶”。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 09:14, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

而且把仆人理解为奴隶与《红楼梦》中的描写不符，因为有些仆人自己还有仆人，贾府会在她们离府的时候为她们寻一门亲事，作为贾府对她们的照料；贾政也把自己的女儿迎春喊作 “丫头”，所以把这些翻译成奴隶是不合适的。因此英文翻译中采用“servant”会比“slave”更为合适。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 10:08, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie

==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==
Mo Yan in his speech at the Frankfurt Bookfair in 2009, when China was the guest of honor, draws the (similarly) parallel between the ''Dream'' and Goethe’s ''Sorrows of the Young Werther'', that both expressed the wish to abandon feudal society. My own impression is that both do not express this wish, but that this is a later concept and interpretation and we should not apply this to judge the past.

2009年，莫言代表中国作为主宾国参加法兰克福书展时，他在演讲中把《梦》和歌德的《少年维特之哀》画上了约等号，表达了抛弃封建社会的愿望。我自己的印象是，两者都没有表达这个愿望，但这是后来的概念和解释，而我们不应该以此来判断过去。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:36, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting

2009年，莫言代表中国作为主宾国参加法兰克福书展时，在演讲中把《梦》和歌德的《少年维特之哀》画上了约等号，表达了抛弃封建社会的愿望。我自己的感觉是，两者都没有表达这个愿望，但这是后来的概念和解释，我们不应该以此来判断过去。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:43, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Hairong 杨海容==
'''8. Tragedy of all tragedies'''

Aristotle explained in ''On the Tragedy'' (Poetics VI), that tragedies move people more than comedies because they “imitate [mimēsis] an action that is serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude” (Aristotle 1971, 51), This high esteem of the tragedy in Europe is partly ascribed to the loss of Aristotle’s work ''On the Comedy''.

==Yang Hui 阳慧==
While Europe has the Hamlet as its tragedy of all tragedies, the lack of tragic literature in Chinese literary tradition has long been lamented. Wang Guowei sees the Dream as "tragedy of all tragedies". To Wang Guowei the suffering of Faust and Jia Baoyu is central in the novels. However, many scholars contest that Faustianism is central for Chinese culture.

In 18th century Europe, we saw a new development in the genre of the drama, to establish a “bourgeois tragedy”.

==Yang Yi 杨逸==
It developed as an emancipatory movement in the 18th century in London, Paris and Germany, and demonstrated that tragedy was not reserved to rulers, but was also imagineable for lower noblemen and ordinary citizens. The ''Dream'' at the same time as the bourgeois tragedy in Europe shows a tragic story of a mid-level noble family which loses its titles and privileges.

==Yang Yue 杨悦==
'''9. “Non-Binary” Novels'''

One of the things attracting Western readers is the adorable but mysterious protagonist Jia Baoyu. With his open bisexual orientation and his interest in his mates regardless of their social status, he appears “modern” or at least displaced in time. His struggle with traditional learning makes him appear sympathetic, his long states of rapture out of the world give him both the aura of a timeless character and of mystery.

==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==
With the bisexual orientation of the Dreams’ protagonist, the novel appears non-binary.
According to Karl-Heinz Pohl, binaries are just superficial, ultimately decisive is the ''Heart Sutra''. Today, the novel is listed among the genre of non-binary literature (see e.g. the bibliographical list on https://www.goodreads.com/list/tag/non-binary), in which contrasts are dissolved deconstructivistically.

==Yao Cheng 姚诚==
'''10. Foreign Cultures in the Red Chamber Dreams'''

Foreign Cultures frequently appear in the Dreams in all kinds of varieties, like exoticism with the many objects in the household and presented to the household as novelties, especially the blond girl of the same age as Baoyu referred to in person (combining different origins and cultures, including European, Japanese, Chinese) or several times on paintings, one time shown with wings as an angel.

==Yao Jia 姚佳==
The playful combination of different traditions we can see also when a religious dress is described, which carries characteristics of different religions. Similarly, the Daoist monk and the Confucian priest appear together. Cao Xueqin wanted to show the richness and diversity, also with the many topics and societal levels of the novel. Even a variety of Christian motifs can be found, like when Jia Baoyu is not recognized by his father in chapter 120 and when he disappears, all parallel to Jesus Christ.

==Yi Huan 易欢==
The variety of cultures is paralleled with the variety of elements of different dynasties, which makes it timeless and therefore even more a masterpiece of Chinese art and a masterpiece of human art. Therefore I would like to nominate the Red Chamber Dreams as “World Documentary Heritage”.

'''References'''（参考文献不用翻译）

Anthony, C. Yu. (2001). ''Rereading the Stone: Desire and the Making of Fiction in Dream of the Red Chamber''. Princeton University Press.

Aristotle. (1971). ''Poetics''. Trans. S. H. Butcher. Ed. Hazard Adams. Critical Theory since Plato. ew York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 48-66.

Woesler, Martin, ed., Cao Xueqin, Gao E et al. (2016). ''Der Traum der Roten Kammer oder Die Geschichte vom Stein'' [''Red Chamber Dreams or The Story of the Stone''], Peking: Foreign Languages Press, ISBN 9787119094120, 4813 pages, 6 vols., hardcover, transl. by Rainer Schwarz and Martin Woesler; Chinese-German bilingual edition

Woesler, Martin. (2011). “Being Explicit About the Implicit – John Minford’s Translation of the last Forty Chapters of The Story of the Stone with a Field Study on two Sexually Arousing Scenes”. ''Hong lou meng xue kan'' 6: 274-289

Woesler, Martin. (2010). “ ’To Amuse the Beaux and Belles’ The Early Western Reception of the Hongloumeng”. ''Journal of Sino-Western Communications'' 2 (2010.12) 2:81-107

Zhuang, Xiuhua. (2011). Self, Ideal and Salvation: A Comparative Study of Jane Austen’s Elizabeth and Cao Xueqin’s Lin Daiyu. ''Journal of Language Teaching and Research'', Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 420-423, March 2011. Fulltext: http://www.academypublication.com/issues/past/jltr/vol02/02/19.pdf.

==Yi Zichu 义子楚==
'''Virtual Communication Between Machines with the Human as Their Object
'''

A new stage of multimodal communication after oral, written, printed, electronic and machine-human communication

Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University

'''Abstract'''

Luhmann and Baecker described the development of communication from orality (media epoch 1.0) to script (2.0), through print (3.0) and finally to digital communication (4.0). In all these stages, technology played only an assisting role.

==You Yuting 游雨婷==
This paper argues, that there is a fundamentally new media epoch of “virtual communication” (communication 5.0), in which artificial intelligence (initialized by humans) has taken over and humans have become the object of analysis and manipulation (as customers, voters etc.).

Algorithms do not only listen to oral or read written human communication (between humans or between humans and bots), but they analyze multimodal communication (including likes, behaviour, surfing habits, mobility profile, values, dreams, aims, beliefs etc.), compare them with Big Data (e.g. cloud data) and base decisions of manipulation on a prediction of behavior according to a personality profile and correlations.

本文认为，“虚拟传播”(5.0传播版本)是一个全新的媒体时代，在这个时代，人工智能(由人类初始化)已经接管，人类成为分析和操纵的对象(如顾客、选民等)。

算法不仅听人类口头或书面沟通(在人类之间或人类和机器人之间),但他们分析多通道通信(包括喜欢、行为、上网习惯,流动剖面,价值观,梦想,目标,信念等),比较他们与大数据(例如云数据)和基础操作的预测行为的决策根据个性特征和相关性。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 12:34, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yu Ni 余妮==
These algorithms target not only the explicit communications, but the emotions and thoughts of humans too and predict future behavior, therefore allowing simulations of reality. Mightier algorithms have also taken over decision-making roles in societies where they: replace human court decisions, fine tune just-in-time and on-demand production, censor chatrooms etc. Sets of algorithms help to manage smart cities and a whole society.

----
==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==
Although the human is still part of the communication, especially as the analyzed object and the target of the manipulation, the human is often unaware of the virtual communication and a passive receiver of the machine’s decisions, while the main actors in the virtual communication are machines.

虽然人仍然是通信的一部分，特别是作为被分析的对象和操纵的目标，但是人往往没有意识到虚拟通信和机器决策的被动接受者，而虚拟通信的主要参与者是机器。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 08:55, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

尽管人类仍然是交流活动的一个组成部分，特别是作为被分析的对象和操纵的目标，但是人类往往没有意识到，自己是虚拟沟通和机器决策的被动接受者，而虚拟沟通的主导者是机器。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:11, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

虽然人仍然是构成通信的一部分，尤其是作为分析对象和操纵目标，但人往往没有意识到人们在虚拟通信中扮演机器决策的被动接受者，而机器才是主要参与者。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:42, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==
Research describes these forms of virtual communication, finds evidence in social management systems and credit systems (in Germany, we have the “Schufa”, in the USA there are big players in credit history, which leads to credit-orientation and gamification of human life) or customized (fake) news filter bubbles and in customized consumption offers (Amazon, Facebook, Google, Netflix) and analyzes benefits, including security enhancements through such virtual communication.

研究对这些形式的虚拟沟通进行了描述，在社会管理系统、信用系统（定制的（虚假）新闻筛选泡沫）和定制的消费商（亚马逊、脸书、谷歌、网飞）里面找到了证据（德国有“Schufa”，美国则因为信用史有重大人物而使得社会信用至上并日趋游戏化），并对益处加以分析，这些益处包含通过这类虚拟沟通提升安全。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 09:20, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

研究描述了这些虚拟通信的形式，在社会管理系统和信用系统中找到证据（在德国，我们有 "Schufa"，在美国有信用记录的大玩家，这导致了信用导向和人类生活的游戏化）或定制化（假）新闻过滤气泡，以及在定制化的消费优惠中（亚马逊，Facebook，谷歌，Netflix），并分析了好处，包括通过这种虚拟通信增强安全性。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:03, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==
But research also has the duty to warn of abuse or harmful developments and to raise ethical questions. Exoskeletal ethics, imposed by gamifications like credit systems, especially need to be valued against intrinsic ethics.

'''Introduction'''

In this paper dealing with machine to machine communication, I skip the machines assisting humans to make their life more convenient (ranging from “The milk is out, please add the usual amount of milk to the delivery list,” to “The old lady has not left her bed this morning, I’ll better call the doctor”).

但研究也有责任对滥用或有害的发展发出警告，同时要对引起的伦理问题也要承担责任。特别是信用体系游戏化所造成的外骨骼伦理问题更需要得到重视，要反对内在的伦理问题。

引言

本论文在涉及机器与机器之间的交流时，我不考虑那些帮助人类让生活更便捷的机器（从“牛奶没了，请在送货单上加平常剂量的牛奶”到“老太太今早卧床不起，我最好叫医生吧”）。
--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:10, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

但研究也有责任对滥用或有害的发展提出警告，并提出伦理问题。特别是信用体系等游戏化所强加的外骨骼伦理，更需要对照内在伦理加以重视。

引言

在本文中涉及机器与机器之间的交流，我跳过了机器协助人类提高生活便利的内容（从 "牛奶没了，请把平时的牛奶量加到送货单上"，到 "老太太今天早上还没下床，我还是叫医生吧"。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 11:40, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==
Instead, I deal with communication like: “Let’s create a user personality profile and compare it with Big Data to learn how I can best catch this user’s attention and make him/her vote for presidential candidate A or B.”; “Let’s check this users’ mouse movements and compare it with Big Data to get a correlation to estimate if (and if “yes” when) he will get Parkinson, to decide whether or not to deny him the loan or health insurance.”
实际上，本人研究涉及的方面如下：比如，“让我们创建一名用户的个性化主界面，并将其与大数据进行比对，学习如何最好的吸引该用户的注意，让他/她投票给总统候选人甲或乙。”“让我们检查这名用户鼠标的运动轨迹，通过与大数据进行比对，建立关联，来估计他是否会得帕金森。如果他患有帕金森疾病，我们会决定是否需要对他的贷款或医疗保险的申请予以拒绝。”--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:41, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Liang 曾良==
“Let’s check this users sexual orientation, religious beliefs, fears, secrets like adultery etc. to blackmail him to get ransom money for my programmer.”; or even “Let’s use this user’s location to aim the killer drone.”

The current neoliberal system with Amazon, Facebook, WhatsApp, Instagram, Google, Netflix etc. provides incentives to collect as much user data as possible and to abuse user data for manipulation, which creates huge profits.

“让我们检查该用户的性取向、宗教信仰、恐惧、诸如通奸之类的秘密去勒索他为我的程序员去获取赎金”。或者甚至“使用用户的位置瞄准杀手无人机。”

当前具有亚马逊、脸谱网、瓦茨艾普、照片墙、谷歌、奈飞等的新自由主义系统激励人们尽可能多地收集用户信息，并滥用用户信息进行操纵，从而创造可观利益。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:04, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

"让我们查一查这个用户的性取向、宗教信仰、恐惧、通奸等秘密，以勒索他为我的程序员获取赎金。"；甚至"利用这个用户的位置来瞄准杀手无人机。"
目前亚马逊、脸书、WhatsApp、Instagram、谷歌、奈飞等的新自由主义体系，为收集尽可能多的用户数据，并滥用用户数据，从而创造了巨大的利润。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:39, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting

“让我们检查该用户的性取向、宗教信仰、惧怕的事物、诸如通奸之类的秘密，从而勒索他让我的程序员获取赎金”。更有甚时，“让我们使用用户的位置让攻击机瞄准他。”

当前亚马逊、脸书、联络电话、Instagram、谷歌、网飞等的新自由主义的系统软件，激励人们尽可能多地收集用户信息，并滥用用户信息进行操纵，从而创造可观利益。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==
Very much like the financial crisis, which was caused by the unregulated use of derivatives, this is a systemic development, which currently follows a path to enslave the human race under the control of algorithms for the benefit of tech companies. The enslavement has already begun, as we can see from the world wide addiction to social media, from the growing mass of conspiracy theorists and from the polarization of the USA over Trump or the polarization of Great Britain over the Brexit.

==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==
'''1 History of Media Epochs'''

Luhmann and Baecker described the development of communication from orality (media epoch 1.0) to script (2.0), through print (3.0) and finally to digital communication (4.0). In all these stages, technology played only an assisting role.

This paper argues, that there is a fundamentally new stage of “virtual communication” (media epoch 5.0), in which artificial intelligence (initialized by humans) has taken over and humans have become the object of analysis and manipulation (as customers, voters etc.).

卢曼和贝克尔描述了从口头（媒体时代1.0）到文字（2.0）的通讯发展，再到印刷（3.0）数字通讯（4.0）
在所有这些阶段中，科技都只起到了协助作用。

本文认为，从根本上来说，“虚拟沟通”处于新阶段（媒体时代5.0），其中人工智能（由人类初始化）已被接管，人类已成为分析和操纵的对象（如顾客，选民等）--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 14:56, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Hu 张虎==
While Luhmann would still summarize this under digital communication, I see a full new quality here, and have therefore coined the term “communication 5.0” or “virtual communication” for it. In Luhmann’s view, the computer consists out of the “surface” of the machine (the visible interfaces like screen, keyboard, mouse) and the “depth” of the machine (the invisible, often incomprehensive inside).

虽然卢曼仍然会在数字通信中总结这一点，但我在这里看到了一个全新的品质，因此创造了术语“通信5.0”或“虚拟通信”。在卢曼看来，计算机是由机器的“表面”(屏幕、键盘、鼠标等可见界面)和机器的“内里”(看不见的、内部不全面的部分)组成的。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:41, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Hui 张慧==
However, we are almost constantly producing data, with our chats and geotracked movements, with our addiction to social media, our carrying of cell phones and more and more smart devices at all times, and we are therefore an object of analysis by algorithms.

The traditional setting of a communicative act blurs: The machine can directly communicate with the human (there the Turing test marks a threshold), and, after a certain complexity, it can hide its machine nature.

但是，我们几乎一直在通过聊天和地理位置追踪运动，不断沉迷于社交媒体，携带手机以及越来越多的智能设备来生成数据，因此，我们一直是通过算法进行分析的对象。

交流行为的传统设置变得模糊：机器可以直接与人类交流（图灵测试标记了阈值），并且在经过一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏机器的本质。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 11:49, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

然而，我们几乎在不断地产生数据，我们的聊天和地理追踪的动作，我们对社交媒体的沉迷，我们随时携带手机和越来越多的智能设备，我们因此成为算法分析的对象。

传统的交流行为的设定模糊了。机器可以直接与人类交流（图灵测试标志着一个门槛），在一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏自己的机器本质。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:03, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Ling 张玲==
The machine can also indirectly communicate with the human by simply analyzing humans’ verbal communication, non-verbal multimodal communication, behavior, personality etc. and interacting with the human with, or without, revealing its existence. A human, growing up in a filter bubble and believing in conspiracy theories is one such example: The human has been manipulated by social media and news which prefer lies over truth.

==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==
Without even noticing that there was an interaction taking place between the human and the machine, the human has lost his/her independence to the machine.

'''2 Types of communicative acts'''

1.Texts (oral and written comments/chat texts/blogs/emails)

2.Surf behavior (websites visited)

3.Consumer behavior (purchases)

4.Likes (see OCEAN, UEBA)

5.Duration/Attention (see UEBA)

6.habits/repetitiveness/occurrences (is an element of analysis in different AI apps/tools)

==Zhang Qi 张琪==
7.Unconscious, often unique data allowing identification (way of writing, mouse movements pattern, see Raj Kannan 2020)

8.social interaction incl. friendships, sexual relationships

9.mobility behavior/pattern (e.g. immediate environment – e.g. unconsciously recording the inside of houses while playing “Pokemon Go”), travel: Travel Behavior (Yu Cui et al. 2018)

==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==
'''3 Types of analysis'''

1.General (User and Entity Behavior Analytics UEBA: AI-assisted cybersecurity tools like by Gartner, Inc.)

2.True identity (e.g.: mouse movements, face recognition, find real name) (Verschuere 2016)

3.Personality profile: Big Five Personality Inventory: Openness to Experience, Consciousness, Extroversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism “OCEAN” (Golbeck 2011), by only analyzing the users' likes, Facebook can generate personality profiles (AI-Demand 2020)

4.Mobility profile/pattern

==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==
5.Health situation (health apps, ai supported disease research, see Daley 2020)

6.Job situation/job market (Talent Search People 2020 analyzes the job market, and classifies 4 different AI systems: 1. systems that think like humans, 2. systems that act like humans, 3. systems that think rationally, and 4.) systems that act rationally.)

==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==
7.Financial credit-worthiness: E.g. German Schufa company uses AI in addition to human expertise for evaluations, see Banken-Technologie 2020. Banken-Technologie 2020. Schufa’s attempt to gain access to customers’ bank account transfer information was discussed in the news.

8.Consumer Behavior: e.g. the "clickworker" company analyses and optimizes customers' searches in respect to a client company's goals/products with the help of AI (clickworker 2019)

9.Secrets (like adultery)

==Zhang Yu 张瑜==
'''4 Unique quality of media epoch 5.0'''[ I have coined the terms “media epoch 5.0” and “virtual communication” I have developed it from concepts like „Industry 4.0“ in Germany and the four media epochs Luhmann and Baecker developed (by Baecker called 1.0 … 4.0). There are several authors speculating about the media epoch 4.0, like Ray Kurzweil. The Age of Intelligent Machines. 1990.]

1.the human switches from active to passive

2.the human switches from subject to object

3.the human becomes addicted to social media, which enhances depression (Van Den Eijnden et al. 2016, Jasso-Medrano et al. 2018, Shensa et al. 2017)

4.the human switches from puppeteer, or entity with seemingly free will, to puppet

5.nature of the internet turns from freedom to surveillance

4.媒介5.0时代的独特品质 [我创造了 "媒介5.0时代"和 "虚拟通信 "这两个词，它们是从德国的“工业4.0”以及卢曼和贝克提出的媒介4.0时代（贝克称之为1.0...4.0）等概念发展而来的。一些作者揣测媒介4.0时代这个词的含义，比如1990年出版的雷-库兹韦尔的《灵魂机器时代》]

1.人从主动到被动的转换

2.人从主体到客体的转换

3.人沉迷于社交媒体，提高了患抑郁症的风险

4.人从木偶操纵者或看似拥有自由意志的实体到木偶人的转换

5.互联网的性质从自由到监测的转换--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 01:25, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==
6.direct communication turns into indirect communication (humans may not be aware of this communication/analysis)

7.explicit communication (voice, words) turns into implicit communication (preferences/thoughts/dreams/wishes/ values (first experiments with brain scanners in worker hats have started in Shanghai and Peking))

8.man-man communication turns to man-machine communication (phone bot) to machine-machine

9.4.0 was from centralization to decentralization, 5.0 is partial centralization and partial decentralization, but also concentration

==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==
So far, mass media has been considered one-way. The interaction and processing of data of millions of individual users seemed simply too much work. In the age of virtual communication, the media epoch 5.0, mass media is individualized and interactive and therefore even more influential.

'''5 Types of manipulation (consciously or unconsciously, sometimes half-consciously)
'''

1.Priming by unconscious advertisements: Influencing consumer decisions

2.Filter bubbles => supports conspiracy theories, influences judgments

到目前为止，大众媒体一直被认为是单一的。数百万个人用户数据的交互和处理似乎太费力。在虚拟传播时代，即媒体时代5.0，大众传媒是个性化和互动的，因此更具影响力。

'''5 种操纵类型（有意识或无意识，有时是半意识的）'''

1.无意识广告发布：影响消费者决策

2.过滤泡沫=>支持阴谋论，影响判断--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:08, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhao Xi 赵茜==
3.Nature of social media: lies spread 6 times faster than truth. (Vosoughi et al. 2018).

4.Change of political attitude: Case Cambridge Analytica: Helped minority to win election by manipulating young people of majority not to vote (Do so: Don’t vote campaign, Oddleifson 2020); Trump election and Brexit were won by manipulation

5.Use of private information/dependencies to obtain advantages (blackmailing for money or for conducting crimes etc.)

6.Identity theft

==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==
'''6 Consequences'''

1.Virtual Communication is mostly “hidden”, the human is mostly unaware of it, but may endure the consequences (policeman may detain suspect simply because the face recognition glass recognizes a pedestrian passing by and assesses him/her as “dangerous”; loan is declined; insurance company declines to accept new customer)

6.后果

1.虚拟通讯大多是 "隐蔽 "的，人多半不知道，但可能会承受后果（警察可能仅仅因为人脸识别玻璃识别出路过的行人，并评估其为 "危险 "而拘留嫌疑人；贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新的客户）--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:02, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

6.后果

1.虚拟通信通常是“隐藏的”，人类大多数情况下是不知道的，但可能会承受后果（警察可能只是因为面部识别玻璃杯识别出行人经过并将他/她评估为“危险”而拘留嫌疑人；贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新客户）。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 12:05, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

'''6.后果
'''

1.大多情况下，虚拟通信是“隐藏的”，人类也没有意识到这一点，但可能会承担由此带来的后果（警察可能会因为面部识别玻璃检测到行人通过，并将其评估为“危险人物”而将嫌疑犯拘留‘贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新客户）。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 09:29, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==
2.User becomes transparent (government can fight terrorism, any user can be blackmailed, jealous spouse can check on adultery)

3.Less will to communicate and discuss (since positions are too far apart)

4.Populists and populist views gain supporters

5.Polarization of Society

6.There is an incentive not to reveal how much one knows about the object, because the object then could question the legality, the system etc.

7.Last resort, the thinking, is tackled: Machine interprets “real” attitudes, not lip-service words

==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==
8.The knowing ones (algorithms, hackers, controllers of algorithms) have power over the unknowing ones (victims)

9.Exoskeleton ethics (like points/awards for measurable performances) reduce incentives to build inner ethics
'''
7 Simulation of the imminent future'''

1.The imminent future behavior of a human can be predicted

2.With many analyzed humans, the imminent future of reality can be predicted => simulation

==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==
Is this an Orwellian dystopia or reality? Some cases of the above listed phenomena have been documented. However, we are still at the beginning of “little” AI development (optimizing existing processes) and on the brink of a much more powerful development, that of “big” AI (rethinking whole industries, being able to reproduce and enhance itself). (cf. Euchner 2019).

==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==
'''8 Conclusion and Outlook'''

Data has succeeded oil as the most valuable resource for today’s economy. Big Tech companies already use users’ data and make big profits with it while legislation is delayed and national boundaries (which do not exist for the Tech companies) are struggled over.
Although input-legitimized liberal democracies and market economies, like that of the European Union, still protect privacy and data security, US- and China-based technology companies are already penetrating the European market.

==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==
We need to raise awareness and guide the youth to be careful with screen time and what they share online. We need to avoid addiction to social media.

'''The algorithms do not just check which film to suggest viewing next, they have started to invade the innermost sanctum of personality, our thoughts, dreams, wishes, visions, hopes, fears and secrets.
'''
'''
The listed consequences document a fundamental change of paradigms:
'''
我们需要提高意识，引导青少年注意屏幕时间和他们在网上分享的东西。我们需要避免沉迷于社交媒体。

'''算法不只是检查建议接下来看哪部电影，它们已经开始侵入人格、我们的思想、梦想、愿望、愿景、希望、恐惧和秘密的最深处的圣殿。'''

所列出的后果证明了范式的根本变化:--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 01:38, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

我们需要提高意识，引导青少年留意屏幕时间和网上分享，需要避免沉迷于社交媒体。

'''算法不只是检查建议接下来看哪部电影，它们已经开始侵入人格、我们的思想、梦想、愿望、愿景、希望、恐惧和秘密的最深处的圣殿。'''

所列出的后果证明了范式的基本变化:--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:11, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==
'''The cause-based decision-making by humans with established institutions like politicians, judges etc. is being replaced with correlation-based decision-making by algorithms which often serve the profit interests of tech companies or the political interests of election-manipulators.
'''

AI took the wrong development path, when it changed from serving humans to trying to manipulate humans for economic or political profit. When AI is used to educate citizens – like helping German customers to keep a clean credit history and a good credit score – then it changes the behavior of citizens to an exoskeletal ethic.

==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==
However, animals with an exoskeleton reduce their inside muscles and develop a soft inside, making them totally incapable of living without the exoskeleton. An exoskeletal ethic, giving reward points, for example, for behavior which is deemed positive and subtracting points for behavior which is deemed negative, deprives the human of the natural learning and developing process, in a social environment, of his responsibility and inner ethical judgment. If you were to meet a human with exoskeletal ethics and one who has inner ethics, whom would you trust more?

==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==
If we want to avoid the consequences listed in point 6, the public needs to become aware of this and nations and supranational organizations need to define legislation to a) protect privacy and data security, and b) give the user the control over his/her data including the commercial use of it where they earn a share from the profit made with the usage of his/her data.

==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==
'''9 Outlook'''

We need to accept, that the development is irreversible. Every new technology has created fears. Important is, that we become aware of the developments and adjust where the development heads into the wrong direction. We need set the right framework and incentives that the new technology stays on track to serve humanity.

==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==
New developments open new possibilities. We need to make sure that not only a few tech companies and terrorists use this powerful new technology to achieve their goals, but that the mass of smart device users emancipate themselves from addiction to and manipulation by technology and gain back their dignity, privacy and free will.

'''References
'''
（参考文献不用翻译）

AI-Demand. (2020). www.ai-demand.com/insights/data/big-data/big-data-and-facebook-the-heavenly-pair-that-isnt-quite-in-heaven/

Baecker, Dirk. (2007). ''Studien zur nächsten Gesellschaft''. Frankfurt 2007

Banken-Technologie. (2020). 26. Handelsblatt Jahrestagung. Banken-Technologie. „New Normal” in der Finanzwirtschaft: digital – intelligent – automatisiert – hybrid. 2. und 3.12.2020, Digital [Conference Announcement] https://veranstaltungen.handelsblatt.com/bankentechnologie/ki-machine-learning-finanzanalyse/

Booth, T. "Cambridge Analytica controversy must spur researchers to update data ethics." ''Nature'' 555.7698 (2018): 559-560.

Clickworker. (2019). www.clickworker.com/2019/04/30/ai-for-ecommerce/

Cui, Yu, Qing He, and Alireza Khani. (2018). Travel behavior classification: an approach with social network and deep learning. ''Transportation research record'', 2672(47), 68-80. https://par.nsf.gov/servlets/purl/10109453

Daley, Sam. (2020). 32 Examples of AI in Healthcare that Will Make you Feel better about the Future (July 4, 2019, updated July 29, 2020). builtin.com/artificial-intelligence/artificial-intelligence-healthcare

Euchner, Jim. (2019). Little ai, Big AI—Good AI, Bad AI. Terminology Management 62:3, 10-12. pdf:

https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/08956308.2019.1587280?needAccess=true

Golbeck, Jennifer, Cristina Robles, and Karen Turner. (2011). "Predicting personality with social media." ''CHI'11 extended abstracts on human factors in computing systems''. 2011. 253-262.

Jasso-Medrano, José Luis, and Fuensanta Lopez-Rosales. (2018). "Measuring the relationship between social media use and addictive behavior and depression and suicide ideation among university students." Computers in Human Behavior 87: 183-191.

Luhmann, Niklas. (1997). ''Die Gesellschaft der Gesellschaft''. 1997

Oddleifson, Evan. 2020, The Effects of Modern Data Analytics in Electoral Politics: Cambridge Analytica’s Suppression of Voter Agency and the Implications for Global Politics, ''Political Sciences Undergraduate Review'' 5 (2020) 7, 1-7.

https://journals.library.ualberta.ca/psur/index.php/psur/article/view/130/90/130-Article%20Text-642-1-10-20200401.pdf

Raj Kannan, J., Sabitha, R., Karthik, S., & Shanthini, J. (2020). Mouse Movement Pattern Based Analysis of Customer Behavior (CBA-MMP) Using Cloud Data Analytics. ''Wireless Personal Communications'', OnlineFirst, 1-17.

Ruan, Lotus, et al. "One App, Two Systems: How WeChat uses one censorship policy in China and another internationally." (2016).
Shensa, Ariel, et al. (2017). "Problematic social media use and depressive symptoms among US young adults: A nationally-representative study." ''Social Science & Medicine ''182: 150-157.

Talent Search People. (2020). How Will Artificial Intelligence Affect the Job Market? www.talentsearchpeople.com/en/blog/494-how-will-artificial-intelligence-affect-the-job-market/.

Van Den Eijnden, Regina JJM, Jeroen S. Lemmens, and Patti M. Valkenburg. (2016). "The social media disorder scale." ''Computers in Human Behavior ''61: 478-487.

Verschuere, Bruno, and Bennett Kleinberg. "ID‐check: Online Concealed Information Test reveals true identity." ''Journal of forensic sciences'' 61 (2016): S237-S240.

Vosoughi, Soroush, Deb Roy, and Sinan Aral. (2018). The spread of true and false news online. Science 359.6380: 1146-1151.. science.sciencemag.org/content/359/6380/1146

==Zhu Xu 朱旭==
'''Bio'''

Martin Woesler, PhD, is Jean Monnet Chair in European Studies with Hunan Normal University since 2020. At its Foreign Studies College, he is Distinguished Professor of Chinese Studies, Translation Studies and Comparative Literature since 2019. Woesler was elected Academian of the European Academy of Sciences and Arts, Salzburg in 2019.
Woesler has co-edited the books "China's Digital Dream", "Ethics of Information Society" and Springer has scheduled to publish the book "Diverse Voices in Chinese Translation and Interpretation" including his book chapter "Modern Interpreting with Digital and Technical Aids" in February 2021.

==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==
Woesler was a Senior Fellow of the German Science Foundation's (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft) Research College "Media Cultures of Computer Simulations" 2019‐2020 and hosted a related workshop with Bertelsmann Foundation in 2020. Woesler is also a researcher with Witten/Herdecke University, Germany, investigating the impact of daily screen time of children and of young people on their health.

20201228 trans

2020-12-27T04:18:59Z

Lin Xin: /* Lin Xin 林鑫 */

==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==
'''Zhu Ziqing'''

A third example, where an author shows another face in his essays is Zhu Ziqing. He is known as the author of the most often reprinted story-like Chinese essay "''Back View''" (Beiying), a standard school text. The success of this essay lies in the fact, that it applies to filial pity. From the reported fare-well scene with his father at the train station, he learned that his father loved him and that he had grown-up too now.
==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==
This self-reflective essay helped Zhu to find himself through the observation of the other (here his father). The 2nd often printed essay is also from Zhu. Parallelistic and repetitive structures are the driving factor in the atmospherical nebulous lyrical landscape desription "''The Moonlit Lotus Pond''", whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader.

Zhu Ziqing supposedly opposed all political engagement and, wrote about unspectacular things. In Taiwan he became a type of substitute for the categorically refused state writer of the People’s Republic, Lu Xun, mainly because of Zhu’s supposed political independence.
==Chen Han 陈涵==
I would like to show with three examples that Zhu had absolutely clear political ideas: He had taken part in the demonstration March 18, 1926, which ended in a massacre. Zhu described this in ''"Report On the Massacre of the Government''"[ (Zhizhengfu da tusha ji).].

''Shots were still being fired, and the entrance of the east gate was packed with people. [...] Pushing and shoving, we climbed over them with great effort. We must have lost our senses then, not seeing, to our shame, the grotesqueness of our action. ''

我想用三个例子说明，朱自清有绝对明确的政治思想。1926年3月18日，他参加了示威游行，这场游行最终以屠杀告终。朱自清在《执政府大屠杀记》中对此进行了描述。

''这时枪声未歇，东门口拥塞得几乎水泄不通。[...] 我们便推推搡搡，拥挤着，挣扎着，从他们身上踏上去。那时理性真失了作用，竟恬然不以为怪似的。'' --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:39, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Hui 陈惠==
''[...]I was still walking on top of the people. No one dared to miss a single step, filing through the gate that divided safety from danger, one that would give us life or take our lives away. [...] My efforts finally brought me down to the ground, sealing my fate as I rolled down from the human pile. [...] I learned later that some of the people by the gate were dead, killed by the pistol squad firing from the other side of the gate. When I recall stepping over dead bodies, I cannot help but tremble with fear. [...]''
==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==
From this experience, Zhu addresses directly the repsonsible political leaders:

''Duan Qirui, you must think about it! [...] How could we explain this to the world? [...] Granted, Duan Qirui and others could commit such atrocities without a thought; but how could we, the people of China, face the world with such a shameless government? [...] We, [...], must ask, „So many were killed—what should we do?“''
==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==
In contrast, Lu Xun has portrayed the same massacre with sighing undertone and Zhou Zuoren bitter-humorously in his "''Ways to die''"[ (Si fa).] - in which he finds "to be shot" the best method to die. The supposedly less politically engaged Zhu shows here more engagement.

The essay "''Facing the New China''"[ (Xin Zhongguo zai wang zhong).] is Zhu's political manifest: He asks for democracy, enlightenment and an increase of the education level.
==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==
''China has to be born again through democratization. [...] The people should express their own will, concentrate on their own strength. Every level of administration should build up on the expressed will and strength of the people and struggle for the majority and its greatest happiness. This means that the people govern, the people own, the people enjoy.''

A few weeks before his death, he demanded in the speech ''"Today's duty of the Intellectuals''"[ (Zhishifenzi jintian de renwu).] the participation of the intellectual in the struggle for a better society.
==Chen Sha 陈莎==
With only a handful of essays I have demonstrated, that the picture of these three authors changes substantially, if we read carefully also their less known essayistic work. Imagine now how the picture of 20th century Chinese literature might change, if the literary histories and anthologies would not only tell the history of drama, fiction and poetry, but would also grant the essay its proper place. The following part of my paper are results of my monograph on the 20th century Chinese essay.
==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==
'''The essay boom as a mirror reflecting growing individuality, participation in the public sphere, and the giddy-paced character of modern Chinese society'''

Acquiring an overview of the essay and assessing its essence has required extensive research in bookstores and libraries, in the People's Republic of China, Taiwan, Hong Kong and the United States for available resources in the form of essay book collections as well as secondary literature dealing with the essay.
==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==
I built a database for a statistical analysis to rank more than 5000 essays and 1400 essayists. It turned out that out of the top 60 most famous Chinese essays only 14 had been translated into English so far. The forthcoming collection of Tam King-fai adds 4 and my own one the remaining 42.

Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report[ (baogao wenxue) (Klaschka 1998).].
==Cheng Yusi 成于思==
The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous essay bookseries[ sanwen congshu 散文叢書.].

The reason for the increase in essay production, which we can date right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in the sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for the survey. There are three reasons for the increase in Chinese essay production and popularity in the mid-1990s:
==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==
1, The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts, as Hall has put it: “[...] we live in an age of exposition”[ (Hall 1984:xiii).].

2, The increasing consciousness of individuality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands.

3, A revival of interest in discussing socio-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.
==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==
If we look carefully at essay collections not only published in the United States, but also in Hong Kong, Taiwan and the People’s Republic, we find the following three reasons for the under- and overestimation of single essayists or essays which correspond to regional differences:

1, EXOTIC In the United States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones.

如果我们仔细观察在美国出版的，以及在香港、台湾和中华人民共和国出版的散文集，我们会发现以下三个原因导致人们低估和高估了回应地域差异的单个散文家或散文:

1、异国情调在美国，散文往往是根据西方人的口味来选择的，完全不知名的作者和老牌作家拥有一样多的空间。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 09:37, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

如果我们细细研读在美国出版的，以及在中国香港、台湾和大陆出版的散文集，我们会发现以下三个原因导致人们因地域差异而低估或高估了某些散文家或散文:

1、异国情调在美国，散文往往是根据西方人的口味来选择的，名不见经传的作者和著名的作家拥有同样多的市场。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling

==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==
2, SOCIO-POLITICAL In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, as the mentioned survey proofs, he ranks 12th among modern authors there. Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.

3, PERSONAL Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by his disciple Huang Weiliang in favor for Yu.[ (see Lin Yaode 1989:50).]

Having named reasons for the essay boom and for the support for and the suppression of different actors in the cultural field of the essay, I would like to finish my paper by naming a few trends of the essay as they appear at the eve of the century.
==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==
The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consumer-orientation of the masses. The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educational claim with the exception of essays which claim to be "art pourt l'art".
==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==
The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing ("''On dreams''"[ "Shuo meng 說夢" On dreams in: Zhu Ziqing 1928.]) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 ("''My own garden''"[ 9.1923.], "''The Fly''"[ 1924.], "''Reading on the Toilet''"[ 1936.]), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the newly encountered world of mass consumerism.
==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==
In the end of this century not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. Among the upper list places of the political essay after 1949 there are critical essays. For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain.
==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==
A sign for the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publishing houses with an orientation for customers (former: "readers"). Following the emotional essays of Zhu Ziqing who rank 1st and 2nd, ''nostalgia'' is the element of emotional identification in "''Wild vegetables of my home region''" by Zhou Zuoren, which ranks 3rd[ In Jia Pingwa's "Moon traces", which ranks 11, and in Ba Jin's "''Paradise for Birds''", which ranks 19]. Therefore one can state, that moving essays form the top.
==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==
In 1927, Chinese literature took the form of 'engaged literature'. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics in daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology. In the later half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of individuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife.
==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==
In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only remiscent element left is the patriotism.[ ''Trends like the use of ordinary language'', which one finds in novels since 1993 (''Jia Pingwa'', Feidu; ''Gu Cheng'', Yingger) and New Borderlessness since 1995, cannot be proven in the essaywriting.The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable ''object d'art''.]

上个世纪90年代，80年代的政论文随笔文化逐渐隐没了，唯一剩下留有想象空间的元素就是爱国主义。[“比如使用普通语言的趋势”，这是从1993年以来在小说中发现的（“贾平凹”）费杜，古格，英格）以及自1995年以来，《新无边际》都无法在论文写作中得到证明，我们之所以没有找到后现代小说意义上的后现代散文，是因为文章的直接性：随笔作为一种体裁，是作者和读者之间的对话，而不是想要引起不同解释的原因或可能依赖于特殊形式或内容甚至是按顺序引用前现代特征的艺术品，这使它成为一个与众不同的“艺术品”。]--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 13:06, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

'''References''' [partly mentioned with German translation] （不用翻）

Vera Schwarcz 1996, Vera Schwarcz, "The pain of sorrow: public uses of personal grief in modern China", in Daedalus: Journal of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (Winter 1996)

Ba Jin 1982, Ba Jin: "Yi feng huixin 一封回信" (Ein Antwortbrief (26.10.1982)), in: Bing zhong ji 病中集 (Auf dem Krankenlager), Hongkong 香港 1984(?) (Series Suixiang lu 隨想錄 (Thoughts) Bd 4), 147 pp.

Ba Jin 1982a, Ba Jin: "Yi pian xuwen 一篇序文" (Ein Vorwort) [dated 1982.9/10], in: Ba Jin: Auf dem Krankenlager 1984

Ba Jin 1956, Ba Jin 巴金: "Duli sikao 獨立思考" (Unabhängig denken), in: Li Jisheng 李濟生, Li Xiaolin 李小林 (Hgg.): Ba Jin liushi nian wenxuan (1927 - 1986), Suixiang lu, zagan, sanwen, xuba, yanjiang, shuxin 巴金六十年文選（１９２７－１９８６）隨想錄·雜感·散文·序跋· 演講·書信 (Ba Jin. Werkauswahl aus 60 Jahren (1927 - 1986), Gedanken, vermischte Gefühle, Essays, Vor- und Nachworte, Reden, Briefe), Shanghai 上海: Shanghai wenyi chubanshe 上海文藝出版社 (Literatur- und Kunstverlag Shanghai), 1986.12, S. 461 - 462 [Datiert auf 1956.]

Ba Jin 1962, "Zuojia de yongqi yu zerenxin 作家的勇氣與責任心" (Mut und Verantwortungsbewußtsein der Schrifsteller) 1962; der Essay von Zhou Zuoren 周作人: "Wenxue tan 文學談" (Über Literatur), in: Tan long ji 談龍集 (Über Drachen. Sammlung), Shanghai 上海: Kaiming shudian 開明書店 (Kaiming Buchladen) 1927.12, Nachdruck: Hongkong 香港: Shiyong shuju 使用書局 (Praxisverlag) 1972.1, 310 S., S. 165 - 167

Zhou Zuoren 1919, Zhou Zuoren, "Zuxian chongbai 1919 (Ancestor Worship)," in Early Essays, op.cit., pp. 78

Zhou Zuoren 1920: Zhou Zuoren 周作人, Xin wenxue de yaoqiu 新文學的要求" (The demand of the New Literature) [lecture], in Beiping shaonian xuehui 北平少年學會 (Beiping youth conference) 1920.1.6, in: Zhang Ruoying 長若英: Xin wenxue yundong shi ziliao 新文學運動史資料 (Material on the history of the New Literature movement), Shanghai 上海: Guangming shuju 光明書局 (Guangming bookstore) (1934.9) ²1936.9, 291-296

Zhou Zuoren 1923, Zhou Zuoren: Yanzhicao ba (Preface to Yu Pingbo's Yanzhicao), in: Yongri ji (Book of Eternal Day), Shanghai: Beixin shuju 1929, 180-181

Zhou Zuoren 1929, Zhou Zuoren: Ertong de shu (The books of children), in: Chenbao fukan (1923.8.17)

Zhou Zuoren yuanliu, Zhou Zuoren: Zhongguo xin wenxue de yuanliu (Sources of New Chinese Literature), p 71

Zhou Zuoren 1932, Zhou Zuoren: Lun baguwen 1932, in: Kanyun ji p. 148

Source: NEAAS annual meeting 10/09/1999 New Haven (Yale University)

==Guo Lu 郭露==
'''Modern Chinese Literature and the Essay Genre: A New Perspective'''

''Martin Woesler''

In this paper, I will not recount the contents and propose interpretations of any essays, nor will I outline the main topics or styles of essaywriting in China, but I would like to take the opportunity to reflect a little bit on the phenomenon of the genre itself and discuss some conclusions and hypotheses with the attentive and critical audience which can be found at only a few places on earth, EALC at Harvard definitely being one of them.

《中国现代文学与散文体裁：以新视角》

''吴漠汀''

在本文中,我将不再赘述任何文章的内容和提出的观点,我也不会列出其主要主题或风格,但是我想借此机会,反映一些现象本身的类型，并与包括哈佛大学学生在内的观众对一些结论和假设进行探讨。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:16, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

《中国现代文学与散文体裁：新视角》

吴漠汀

本文将不再赘述或解释任何文章的内容，也不会列出中国散文的主要主题或风格。我想借此机会，反思体裁现象，同乐于助人、至关重要且世间少有的读者，包括哈佛大学东亚语言和文化学院的学生，对一些结论和假设进行探讨。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:28, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==
'''1. The unknown genre'''

The literary-historical narrative told by anthologies and collections of the 20th century has drawn an incomplete picture of Chinese literature: The genre of the essay was lacking. In my paper I will ask, if the picture of literature can remain unchanged, if we take into consideration also the essay. The genre has been neglected for a long time as a genre of merit (Margouliès 1949, Schmidt-Glintzer 1990) or overlooked (McNaughton 1974, Leiden 1988-90, McDougall 1998);

'''1.未知体裁'''

二十世纪文选和选集里的文学史的叙述对于整个中国文学来说是不完整的：散文题材是缺失的。在我的论文里我将要探寻是否文学整个文学框架依旧保持不变，是否把散文体裁考虑进去。作为一种具有优势的体裁它已经被忽视了很久了。（马古烈 1949，施寒薇 1990）或者被省略（约翰·麦克诺顿 1974，莱顿 1988-90，杜博妮 1998）；--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 11:09, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

'''1.未知体裁'''

20世纪选集所讲述的文学历史叙事，描绘了一幅不完整的中国文学图景:：散文题材是缺失的。在我的论文里我将要探寻是否文学整个文学框架依旧保持不变，是否把散文体裁考虑进去。作为一种具有优势的体裁它已经被忽视了很久了。（马古烈 1949，施寒薇 1990）或者被省略（约翰·麦克诺顿 1974，莱顿 1988-90，杜博妮 1998）；--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 12:30, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==
whereas its elder brother, fiction, has been prized ever since the valuing of fictional literature and the vernacularisation of writing in early Republican China, which followed from the master narrative established by the May 4th movement. Modern anthologies would have the reader believe that a triumvirate of poetry, fiction and drama forms the backbone of modern Chinese literary output.
==He Changqi 何长琦==
'''Excursion: Defining the essay as a non-fictional subjective representation in a free form'''

Similar to international literature, the basic subdivision of literature in China in general is one in three types: epic (with xiaoshuo (fiction), sanwen (non-fictional prose)), lyrics (shige) and drama (xiqu). Though there is no pure epic form, fiction and prose are often jointly addressed with the Chinese term "wu yunwen" which corresponds to the term "epic" in the West. The types may be distinguished roughly by their nature in the following way: In the epic, bygone events are retold, a broad, filled story dominates the foreground.
==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==
In the lyrics, the reader is encouraged to feel the current sensations and often confessionlike feelings of the poet. The drama recalls a self-contained action directly in monologue or dialogue and in this way unburdens the re-creative imagination of the readers/spectators through it. The essay as a genre of the epic is a detached non-fictional subjective representation in a free form.
在抒情诗中，读者被鼓励去感受当下的感觉，并且常常是诗人的忏悔式的感觉。戏剧直接在独白或对话中回忆起一个自足的动作，以这种方式释放了读者/观众重新创造的想象力。散文作为史诗的一种体裁，是一种超脱的、非虚构的、自由形式的主观表现。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 02:29, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==
"Essay", Chinese mostly ''sanwen'', is a genre term for shorter, self-contained non-fictional prose texts, in which the author tries to mediate individual experiences on an object or a question out of subjective I-perspective. This it tries associatively and from different sides, not as a text for daily use, but with artistic or educationally demanding means of language, nevertheless in an accessible form. The resource is mastered by the essayist sovereignly and the topic is seen in a larger context and can even be presented humorously. Freedom in form and content is essential for the essay.
==Hu Jin 胡瑾==
Different perspectives range in the international genre of the essay: Genres are primarily divisions of literature through the scholarship of literature for specialized contemplation and in order to be able to compare similar texts more easily. On the other hand, a subcategorization in numerous small entities, like Zheng Mingli does with the essay, questions the sense of such subdivisioning in reference to hermeneutic findings. One must also stay aware of the changing nature of literature itself and the relativity of the scientific perspective, which is still a timely one, even if its accepted internationally.
==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==
Regional deviations seem less important for the essay than for established genres like short stories, novels etc., and far less important than for poems. All these other genres are seen as international genres. My hypothesis, that the Chinese and the Western essay also belong to the same international genre maybe proved by the crosscultural mutualities both in form and content.
==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==

In the 21st century, the world is growing together and culture is mainly determined by the grade of modernization. The Chinese essay, as we find it in newspapers today, has taken on the form and content of the Western essay and is aimed at a target group comparable to that of the Western essay. This is a second hint that the modern Chinese essay belongs to the international genre of the essay.

在21世纪，世界共同发展，文化主要决定于现代化的水平。今天我们在刊物上看到的中国散文，已经具备了西方散文的形式和内容，而且其目标群体与西方散文相当。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文类别的第二个暗示。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 07:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

在21世纪，世界上的国家趋向于走到一起，而文化则主要取决于现代化水平。正如我们从现今报纸里面看到的那样，中国散文采用了西方散文的形式和内容，而且其目标群体与西方散文相当。这是中国现代散文开始趋同于国际散文体裁的第二个标志。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 09:27, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

21世纪，世界在共同成长，文化主要由现代化程度决定。我们今天在报纸上看到的中国散文，在形式和内容上都与西方散文相似，其目标群体也与之相似。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文的第二个暗示。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 09:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

在21世纪，世界共同发展，文化主要决定于现代化的水平。我们今天在报纸上看到的中国散文，已经呈现出西方散文的形式与内容，并且其目标群体也与西方散文不相上下。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文体裁的第二个迹象。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 11:17, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Jiang Hao 姜好==
Even though the translation of ''duanpian xiaoshuo'' with ''short stories'' is commonly accepted, both are less closely related than the Western essay and its Chinese counterpart. The definition, which I developed out of a sample of more than 5000 modern Chinese essays, fits also the special international understanding of the essay (following Bolz 1992 13:269-272 on the development of the western essay; Butrym 1989 on the theory of the western essay).
==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==
Besides the trend towards a globalized society, first expressed in Zhou Zuoren's call to adopt the English essay style, there are special local characteristics of the Chinese essay. How is the Chinese essay to determine culturally, what makes it "Chinese"? In the occidental essay the form seems to be a more important criterion of differentiation than in its Chinese counterpart. In China even those texts are included, which have only a similar content, but cross the borders of the formal generical framework.

除了首先由周作人表达出来的社会全球化趋势，号召采用英语散文风格，中文散文有独特本土的特征。中文散文如何形成其特有文化，其中文性又由何组成？和中文散文相比，西方散文的文章形式似乎是更重要的分类标准。在中国，甚至有些文章内容相似，但形式和类别大相径庭。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 02:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

除了最初由周作人表达出来的社会全球化趋势，号召采用英语散文风格，中文散文具有独特的本土特色。中文散文如何形成其特有文化，其中文性又由何组成？与中文散文相比，西方散文的形式分类标准似乎更重要。在中国，有些文章甚至是内容相似，但形式和类别大相径庭。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:18, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==
This can be shown with Zheng Mingli, who subcategorises the "unfinished diary" or the "unfinished letter". Those texts belong - within the Western context - to texts of personal use and therefor to the non-fictional prose works. Only after they have been altered into essays (Zheng Mingli: "essay in diary form" and "essay in letter form"), they are accepted as essays.
==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==
'''The Chinese understanding of the genre is tendencially broader'''

This tendencial broader understanding of the essay in China can be traced back directly to the connotation, that the term ''sanwen'' possesses in Chinese: ''wú yùnwén'' "non-rhythmic prose", which originally meant all non-fictional prose. In this broader meaning, also texts for personal or everyday use are included. However I deal only with ''sanwen'' in the narrower meaning "short literary essay pieces".

Further differences are that Chinese essays often have ideological contents and show stylistic characteristics like repetitions and the usage of sayings.
==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==
'''The Chinese essay is booming again in the 1980s and 1990s'''

Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report (''baogao wenxue'').[ Klaschka 1998.] The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous ''sanwen congshu'' 散文叢書 (essay bookseries).
==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==
The increase in essay production right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in a sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for a survey.

Thanks to the work of some major Chinese editors, the whole essay culture was compiled from magazines and newspapers and was published in a flood of anthologies since the 1970s. This boom is comparable to the cultural fever of undigging xiangtu literature, which rose in Taiwan in front of the background of the movement of self-identification and independance.
==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==
'''2. Why is the essay as abundant as fiction?'''

Let me name a few reasons, why the essay in fact is as abundant as its prose brother, fiction, and its lyrical sister, poetry, and why it must be valued as highly:

- The essay had a direct impact on Chinese society throughout history (the reform ideas from the end of the Qing dynasty through the May Fourth period with the literary theorethical pieces and the daily political zawen of Lu Xun, until today are mostly presented in essay form). The impact on literary reflection and theory is shown in the collection "Modern Chinese Literary Thought" 1996. The effect of the essay genre with its direct language, its connection to life (e.g. its role in the coming to terms with the cultural revolution), and its direct access to the individual reader through newspapers. This impact is larger than the indirect one of fiction or poetry. The poem is the genre of retreat from social life, from political issues and time references.
==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==
Hu Shi argues, that ''poetry'' is most important in the process of modernity, since poetry rises emotions. But it relies also on images and on linguistic rhythm. Liang Qichao stresses the role of novel and opera in the changing society. But ''sanwen'' is able to name things, it reflects life, caleidoscopic. Modern subjectivity is constructed with the tool of ''sanwen''.

- The essay also reflects trends in the society better than poetry and fiction: Individualism is expressed in the essay more directly than in the poem with its limitation in content and form. Ephemerality is reflected in the short form of the essay, which may be read in the subway on the way to work, where poems may not be so spontaneously enjoyed.

胡适认为“诗”在现代化的过程中是最重要的，因为诗会升华情感。但诗歌依赖于形象和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏曲在社会变迁中的作用。但“三文”却能命名事物，它反映生活千变万化。现代主体性是以“三文”为工具来建构的。

-散文也比诗歌和小说更能反映社会的趋势。个人主义在随笔中表现得比在诗歌中更直接，但在内容和形式上都有局限性。短文的短暂性体现在短文的形式上，可以在上班路上的地铁里读，而在地铁里读诗，可能就不能那么随性的享受了。--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 13:48, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi

胡适认为“诗”在现代化的过程中是最重要的，因为诗歌升华情感。但诗歌也依赖于意象和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏曲在社会变迁中的作用。但“散文”却能给事物命名，反映千变万化的生活。现代主体性就是以“散文”为工具建构的。

- 随笔也比诗歌和小说更能反映社会的发展趋势。个人主义在随笔中的表现比在诗歌中更直接，因为诗歌在内容和形式上对此有所限制。随笔的短暂性体现在随笔的形式上，人们可以在上班路上的地铁里阅读，而在地铁里读诗，可能就没有那么随性的享受。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:55, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Haiquan 李海泉==
- The essay reaches a larger part of the population than poetry, the amount of time spended on reading novels goes back, too. The essay itself a genre of high actuality, if not simply the genre of today.

- The essay tells us more about an author and his time than fiction or poetry, because in this genre, we encounter the author himself without metrical restrictions. We look trough authentic eyes on his contemporary society. Many authors turned to essay writing in the later periods of their lifes, like Lu Xun, Ba Jin, and Wang Meng.
==Li Lili 李丽丽==
- The volume of ''essay'' production exceeds the volume of ''xiaoshuo'' production: Chinese newspapers since the 1870s on[ Shenbao, Shibao etc. Liang Qichao sees the role of the newspaper both as liberal and authoritative: He understands the press as an institution to control the government, on the other hand he favors censorship.] and as a mass media from the early 20th century presented only one or two fictional stories in a serialized form, but invented essay columns like ''zagan'' (from which Lu Xun developed his ''zawen''), ''suibi'' or ''suixiang'' (from which famous collections like Ba Jin's ''Suixiang lu'' derived).

“随笔”的产量超过了“小说”的产量：从19世纪70年代开始，中国的报纸就在《申报》、《时报》等杂志上发表。梁启超认为报纸既自由又权威：他认为报纸是控制政府的机构，另一方面，他主张审查制度，作为20世纪初的一个大众媒体，他以连载的形式呈现一两个虚构的故事，但却发明了散文专栏，如“扎根”（鲁迅从中发展了他的“札文”）、“随笔”或“随想”（巴金的《随想录》就是从中衍生出来的）。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 12:54, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Lingyue 李凌月==
'''3. Let us assign the essay its proper place'''
The consequence which must be driven from the above presented contrast between value and valuing of the essay is: Let us assign the essay its proper place! I will describe the beginnings of the discovery of the essay.
Despite the increase in essay writing from 1979 on, it took a decade for the first theoretical reflections on this phenomenon to appear. It took another decade before the international scholarship of Chinese Studies became aware of the phenomenon of the essay.
==Li Liqin 李丽琴==

In the 1980s, Chinese scholarship made a first major approach to reflect on essay literature by writing essay histories and collecting papers, which concentrated first on the essayistic work of single authors like Lu Xun. Also two essay conferences in the 1990s showed no move towards international scholarship. Not before 1995 did international scholarship started to use common philological methods to explore single essayists (on Gaylord Leung [Liang Xihua] 梁錫華 Kubin 1995, on Wang Meng 王蒙 Woesler 1995, on Liu Zaifu 劉再復 Mansberg 1995 [unpublished]) or essays of groups (on 'Xīnyùe pài 新月派' Wagner 1996).

20世纪80年代，中国学术界首次以撰写散文史和散文集的方式对散文文学进行了重大的反思，这首先集中在鲁迅等单个作家的散文作品上。另外90年代的两次会议也没有趋于国际学术研究的动向。直到1995年，国际学术界才开始使用共同的语言学方法来探讨单个散文家（比如1995年Kubin的《关于梁漱溟》；Woesler的《关于王蒙》；Mansberg的《关于刘再复》[未发表]）或探讨某个群体的散文（1996年瓦格纳的《关于新月派》）。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 12:54, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Luyi 李璐伊==
Not before the second half of the 1990s, did a history of the Chinese essay using the means of Western philology appear (Woesler 1998) and for the first time, the essay was included in Western anthologies of literature as a genre equal to fiction and poetry (''The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature'' 1995, ''Modern Chinese Literary Thought'' 1996).

Regarding the valuing of essays in China, Taiwan and the West, there are regional differences: In the States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones.
==Li Meng 李梦==
In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, in my survey, which Chinese essayists are printed the most in the 1990s, he ranks 16th. If one only take modern authors into account, he even ranks 12th. Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by Huang Weiliang in favor for the first (see Lin Yaode 1989:50), and Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.

Still it remains a ''desideratum'' to get the most important Chinese essays in Western translation.
==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==
Currently at least three essay collections in English translation are in the reviewing process (Tam King-Fai, Woesler) or already published (Pollard 1999). Pollard's selection is a highly subjective and eclective choice of essays, covering even the premodern essay. This year, scholars will meet on a first international conference on the essay (Achern, Germany August 25-26). In the years to come, a new ''Bonn History of Chinese Literature'' will grant the essay its proper place with two to three volumes only dedicated to the ''biji, youji'' and other essays.
==Li Yu 李玉==
'''4. Taking into consideration the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature'''

I will give a few hints, what the essay can contribute to the picture of Chinese Literature, which so far is overshadowed by fiction through the narrative of C.T. Hsia, Prusek and Anderson.

We are used to established narratives, like the emergence and success of the May-Fourth literature. But this view neglects the role, that for example the ''yuanyang hudie pai'' played in the choir of different voices in the awoken intellectual debate in the beginning of this century.
==Lin Min 林敏==
The May-Fourth group at that time was one voice among many and only succeeded because of its agitation and polemic in the public sphere, so we have to use new means to assign the Chinese essay its proper place. We learn from simplifiying narratives, that it is absolutely necessary to differentiate, and to reconstruct the complex time background. Having understood Chinese literature as determined by the development of fiction and poetry only, a broader understanding will change the whole appearance of Chinese literature. A scholarly endeavour is the use of modern literary theories in the approach to this genre.
==Lin Xin 林鑫==
In the following, I will name three aspects (chronologically sorted by past, modern and contemporary time) to hold the argument, that the taking into consideration of the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature and change our current understanding of it.

'''5. The classical and premodern essay documents Chinese philosophy, early subjectivity and still, a native Chinese tradition is questioned'''

How is the Chinese essay to be positioned historically, how did it emerge, what is its generic background? Generically, the ancestors of the essay are both in China and the West notes written on the margins of books, they are letters and travel notes.

下面，我将从三个方面(在时间顺序上按过去、现代、当代排序)来论述对散文的考量将改写中国文学史，改变我们目前对它的认识这一论点。

5. 古典和前现代散文记录了中国哲学，其早期的主体性，仍然是对中国本土传统的质疑。
中国散文在历史上要如何定位，它是如何产生的，它的共有背景是什么？一般来说，中国和西方的散文都是起源于写在书本空白处的笔记，是书信和游记。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:18, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==
These notes differed from the canonized literature through its informal style, its expression of individuality und subjectivity, a much earlier document for subjectivity than the first autobiographical Chinese novel, ''The Dream of the Red Chamber''.

From the very beginning, the essay was valued lower than poetry: the oldest reference this far for the term ''sanwen'' that I found is Luo Dajing's 羅大經 (? - after 1248) statement from 1240: “Shī sāomiào tiānxià, ér sǎnwén pōjué suǒsuì júcù.
==Liu Bo 刘博==
詩騷妙天下，而散文頗覺瑣碎局促。” (Poetry is moving mankind in a wonderful way, prose inquires into incoherent bagatels, is limited.) (''Helin yulu''). Another reproach Luo Dajing mentions, is a formal one: In comparison to the highly artistic and century-long tradition of poetic writing, the direct and often vernacular langage of the essay in his eyes had less value.

In the West, a real 'art of the essaywriting' came up in the late 16th century as a medium for the newly reorganized knowledge.

“詩騷妙天下，而散文頗覺瑣碎局促。”罗大京提到的另一个骂名，是形式上的：与具有高度艺术性和长达一个世纪传统的诗歌写作相比，散文中直接的、白话文式的语言在他看来并不那么有价值。
在西方，16世纪晚期出现了一种真正的“散文写作艺术”，作为一种传播重组知识的媒介。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 00:50, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==
The reorganization originated from the observations of Kopernikus, which destroyed the whole conception of the world of the Middle Age.

In China, particularly the debates on Buddhism in the 4th and 5th century A.D. saw the origination of a tradition of letters. The Chinese tradition of the ''sanwen'' 散文 (essay) however, in the understanding of sǎn 散 as (to dispel, leisure, loose, relaxed, irregular, independant style, free prose, can be seen not before the detachment from the dialogue - or aphorism, which is still visible in the philosophical ''Lunyu''.
==Liu Liu 刘柳==
Xunzi delivered the prototype of the later essay with his philosophical treatises. They are an early form of philosophical didactical essays, in which general theorems are derived not only from quotations of the canonized classical works, but for the first time also from his own individual experience. The individuality is still a main characteristic of the essay today.

During the dynasties the essay manifested itself further in certain subcategories: From reading-notes written at the paper margins originated the ''biji'' µ§°O (occasional notes), flourishing in the Ming Dynasty.

荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形，它们是哲学教学论文的早期形式。其中的一般定理不仅来自于经典著作的引用，而且第一次从他的个人经验中得出。个性仍是现今散文的主要特点。

历朝历代，散文在某些子类中进一步得以表现，如从写在纸边的读书笔记产生了明朝盛行的偶记。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 02:25, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形。其作品是哲学论教散文的早期形式，这些散文中传授的普遍定理不仅有引用经典著作，还首次借鉴其个人经历。这种个体性在当代的散文中仍有保留。

历朝历代，散文通过一些子类别得以呈现，如明朝盛行的在书页边上写的读书注释，它就是源于笔记。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 08:47, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Ou 刘欧==
The marginalism is a link between Western and Chinese tradition of early essays. Occasional notes could contain private historical notes, anecdotes, communications and contemplations. However, the consciousness of the essay as a genre of its own originated in China not before the Qing ²M dynastie, when numerous essay anthologies were compiled.

Taking into consideration the social-historical background draws a different picture of the old society than short stories and novels: Essays are much closer to real life, since they express individual problems and experiences.

边缘主义是中西早期散文的一个纽带。散见的笔记包含了私人的历史记录，轶事，交谈和个人沉思。然而，尽管当时的散文选集众多，但将视散文作为一种文体的意识，清朝之前并没有出现。

考虑到当时的社会历史背景，人们在旧社会时，对短篇故事和小说的看法不同：散文更接近现实生活，因为它们表达了个人的困惑和经历。--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 04:15, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==
Until now, the Chinese pre-''Hongloumeng'' individual literature spoke only through the indirect language of poems to us. Rediscovering the essays, we have a splendid source of opinions, social-historical pictures etc.

Premodern essay literature consists of much more than its most well-known example, the formally restrictive ''baguwen''. Lu Xun himself wrote some of his essays in ''baguwen'' style, but on the other hand took it as a synonym for the ancient society. Zhou Zuoren saw the rhythm of the language of the "Eight legged essay" as as appealing and intoxicating as the "pleasure of doing opium.'' (Zhou 1932:148).

目前为止，中国红楼梦前的个体文学还只是通过诗中的间接语言与我们对话。通过重拾散文，我们可以知晓不同观点和社会历史状况等文学创作的丰富源泉。
现代散文之前的文学并不限于形式上受限制的八股文，一方面鲁迅本人也有一些散文是用八股文写成的，但另一方面他又把八股文当作古代社会的代名词。周作人把 "八股文 "的语言节奏看作是 "做鸦片的快感 "一样令人陶醉。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 08:42, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

直到现在，中国前“红楼梦”的个体文学只能通过诗歌的间接语言与我们对话。重新发掘这些散文，我们可以拥有丰富的观点来源，社会历史图片等。

前现代散文文学不仅仅包括它最为人所知的例子，正式的、有限制性的“八卦文”。鲁迅自己的一些文章就是用“八卦文”写的，但是在另一方面又把它当作古代社会的同义词。周作人认为《八股文》的语言节奏就像“吸鸦片的快感”一样令人陶醉。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 09:07, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Yi 刘艺==
But he considered it also as a prevalent genre implicit in the modern writings as ''yang bagu'' (westernized bagu) and ''dang bagu'' (party-line bagu) (borrowing from Wu Zhihui, Zhou Yuanliu:71).

Neo-Confucianism stressed ''wen'' (prose) as the most important tool to transmit the ''dao'' (way): ''Wenyi zai dao'' (Literature as the carrier of the way). If we reinterprete this diction in the perspective of genre, we can say, that the essay then has been regarded as an important tool to express truth, subjectivity and Self.

但他认为这也是隐含在现代著作中的''洋包谷''（西化包谷）和''党行包谷''（借用吴稚晖、周远流的说法：71）的一种普遍的文体。

新儒家强调''文''（散文）是传播''道''的最重要工具：''文以载道''（文以载道）。如果我们从文体的角度来重新解读这句话，我们可以说，当时的散文已经被视为表达真理、主体性和自我的重要工具。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:01, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

但他认为这也是隐含在现代著作中的''洋包谷''（西化包谷）和''党行包谷''（借用吴稚晖、周远流的说法：71）的一种普遍的文体。

理学强调“文”（散文）是传播“道”的最重要工具：“文以载道”。（以文学为载体的方式）。如果我们从体裁的角度来重新解读这一措辞，可以说，散文已成为表达真理、主体性和自我的重要工具。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 00:53, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==
Liang Qichao developed a ''xīn wéntǐ'' 新文體 (new prose style), which was influenced by Western languages, but the essay became popular not before the newspapers became mass media, and the language changed into ''baihua''.

'''6. The essay as the medium of modernity, the questioning of the genuiness of the Chinese essay'''

To solve first of all the dispute on whether the Chinese essay grew out of a native tradition or was influenced by Western translations, one finds both traditions relevant: The occidental essay was introduced to the writers of the literature reform movement from 1907 on by translations in Chinese (Lin Shu: ''Irving'' 1907, ''Addison'' 1911).
==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==
The current form of the genre is mostly based on the influence of Western essay translations. First developed a Chinese essay tradition, which consciously leaned upon the Western model in language, form and terminology, its own proponents succumbed soon to the temptation to derive a tradition of the Chinese essay from Chinese history only. A seemingly unbroken Chinese tradition of the native Chinese ''wenyan sanwen'' is presented in Chinese textbooks (Yu Zaichun 1978-82, Li Xishang 1985).

This is older than the ones referred to in the ''Large Chinese Dictionary'' of Morohashi (Morohashi undated) and in the ''Encyclopaedic Dictionary of the Chinese Language'' 1966.

==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==
Still, the value of the native tradition of essay writing and the role of the Western influence upon it is discussed controversially among the scholars. Some admit that Western impact played a key role in what we understand as Chinese essays nowadays: Wang Bin 1992, Fan Peisong 1993; for Western impact in general see Průšek 1964, Gálik 1966, McDougall 1971. Other scholars think that Western influence is overestimated - Denton 1996 showed that the theoretical background was missing for understanding Western theories of literature in China, - and recommended that we understand the essay first by its national tradition.

然而，对于本土论文写作传统的价值以及西方对其的影响，学者们争论不休。有些人承认西方的影响在我们今天所理解的中国散文中起了关键作用:王斌1992，范培松1993;对西方总的影响参考。还有一些学者认为，西方的影响被高估了——Denton 1996表明，中国缺乏理解西方文学理论的理论背景，并建议我们首先从其民族传统来理解这篇文章。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:57, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

然而，对于本土论文写作传统的价值以及西方对其的影响，学者们争论不休。有些人承认西方的影响在我们今天所理解的中国散文中起了关键作用:王斌1992，范培松1993;对西方总的影响参考。还有一些学者认为，西方的影响被高估了——Denton 1996表明，中国缺乏理解西方文学理论的理论背景，并建议我们首先从其民族传统来理解这篇文章。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 15:07, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==
How far personal opinion may influence the narrative of historical facts can be seen by the example of the legendary authors of the May Fourth movement. All of them considered the English essay as the father of the Chinese essay: Zhou Zuoren 1921, Lu Xun 1933, the anarchist and later member of the Guomindang Wu Zhihui [1934]. Later, some of these authors changed their minds to support their own theories on the essay by looking for proof of a native Chinese essay tradition:
==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==
for example, Lu Xun with his theory "'Zhǎnkāi' shuō yǔ 'méngyá' lùn “展開”說與“萌芽”論"" (Theory of "Starting" and "Blossoming") came to see the fighting and critical character of the essay of the Jin dynasty (265 - 420) as the 'father' of the Chinese essay, and Zhou Zuoren first the English essay (1921) and later the ''biji'' (occasional notes) of the Ming, although he still tried to integrate the English essay in his "Gonganpài yu Yīngguo xiaopin 'hecheng' lun 公安派與英國小品“合成”論" (Theory of the Synthesis of the Gongan School and the English Essay).
==Ma Juan 马娟==
Wang Zengqi regrets that the national Chinese tradition of the essay at the time of the 'May Fourth Movement' has not been taken up again and has not continued in contemporary essays (Wang Zengqi 1993). The Chinese essay is an accommodating object of study, because one may look to it to prove any theory of the essay. One can find examples for each topic in almost every period, simply because the essay has a wide range of subjects.
==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==
When Zhou Zuoren showed that only seven months after the incident at Marco Polo bridge it was again possible to write about a candy seller (1924), he was critizised as "paralyzing" (Lu Xun 1934, Zhu Zhaoluo 1943). When he wrote a piece on the "Fly", he was reproached with dealing with subjects of minor importance. Reproaches like this lie in the very nature of the genre, since ''marginalism'' is substantial to the essay. The mentioned formal reproach of Luo Dajing can be found again in the 1990s, Hong Kong students critisized the literary style as it appears in Ba Jins "Thoughts" (Suixiang lu) as too direct and too less artful. But this perspective does not recognize the very nature of the essay, which is a very individual expression of an author's thoughts and not bound to tradition, and therefore much more free also in content.
==Ma Zhixing 马智星==
The essay - from its very nature free and independant - almost disappeared in the time of the Cultural Revolution and - except for the ideologically influenced essays - had a hard struggle between Yan'an and the loss of moral legitimacy by the leadership in 1989.

The essay was ''the'' genre of the modernizing society of the early 20th century. Many writers had to define and often redefine their position and self-understanding in reaction to war and warlordism and later in the modernizing society, often burying their own ideals, in the larger perspective for the seeming "needs" of society, which also claimed the author to be one of its products.
==Meng Ying 孟莹==
But from its very nature, the essay set new boundaries in form and content, and therefore not only survived the ideological restrictions, but also established its own critical subculture within. The essay was not only a medium of discussion and a documentation of the social-political background for us today, but also a documentation of the personal struggle of the writers finding a position in a changing environment, since the essay is "a genre of self-reflection". Some essays even deconstructed master narratives like the one of leftist ideology, often simply by confronting it with subjective experience, reality or art.

I want to mention another position on literature, which stresses the impact of literature on life, especially on the eve of revolutions - following this view, all literature is political (Jameson).
==Mo Ling 莫玲==
Not only the understanding of literature as a whole changes if we take into consideration the essay, also the view of single authors shifts, if we see not only their novels or poems, but also their essays. I mention only Zhou Zuoren. His ideas connected him spiritually to his contemporary collegues in Europe, Japan and America, but these where ideas for which China turned out to be not yet ready. At that time, China had taken a road which led away from progress, wealth, freedom and spiritual enlightenment. The consequences have yet to be overcome.

除开关注作家的小说和诗歌之外，如果我们对他们的散文有所涉猎，就会发现他们不仅对文学整体的理解发生了变化，单个作者的观点也发生了变化。仅就周作人来说，他的思想在精神上把他和他在欧洲、日本和美国的同伴们联系在一起，但是这些设想在中国行不通。当时的中国走的是一条远离进步、财富、自由和精神启蒙的道路，这一现状还并没有得到改变。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:34, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling

==Mo Nan 莫南==
In 1927, Chinese literature has taken the form of 'engaged literature'. The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics of daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology.
==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==
Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consume-orientation of the masses. The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educational claim with the exception of essays which claim to be "art pourt l'art".
==Ou Rong 欧蓉==
The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing ("Shuo meng 說夢" On dreams in: Zhu Ziqing 1928) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 (My own garden 9.1923, "The Fly" 1924, "Reading on the Toilet" 1936), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the new found world of mass consumerism.
==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==
I mentioned the lack of translations in Western languages. One of the reasons might be the impression of some scholars that many of the Chinese essays were just propaganda. This might be true for the 1940s and even the 1950s, but nowadays this has changed, as the overwhelming majority of publications prove. This demands a closer look: Since 1949, politically affirmative literature has been encouraged by the government, resulting in a statistical paradox: not the affirmative authors and their texts form the majority of the essayists read in the 1990s, but the critical essayists, whose texts oppose the order to serve politics through their apolitical, sometimes even defiant character.
==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==
In the 1990s, the texts of 1920s/1930s Republican China are still as often reprinted as their contemporary counterparts. Obviously we can conclude that the politically affirmative essay of the 1950s only survived in special political essay collections and is no longer written by famous contemporary authors nor read by the Chinese audience in the beginning of the 21st century.

Taking into account of a genre shifts the whole perspective on literature, taking into account the essayistic works of an author shifts also the view of the author. I will name only one author as an example for a modern essayist: Zhou Zuoren.

20世纪90年代，20、30年代民国时期的文本和当代的文本一样也经常被重印。显然，我们可得出一个结论：20世纪50年代的那些政治宣传文只能留存在特殊的政治文章选集当中，到了21世纪初，就不再有作者去写这类文章，也不会有中国读者去看这类文章了。

考虑到整个体裁对整个文学角度的转变，以及散文作品反映出的作者观点的变化，我只举一位现代散文家的例子：周作人。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 07:47, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

20世纪90年代，20-30年代民国时期的文章仍然和当代的同类文章一样经常被重印。显然，我们可以得出一个结论：20世纪50年代的政治宣传类散文只保存在专门的政治散文集中，到21世纪初，不再有人去写，也不再有人读这类文章了。

一种文学体裁会转变整个文学的视角，一位作家的散文作品，同样也会转变对这个作家的看法。我只以一位现代散文家为例：周作人。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 09:02, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Peng Dan 彭丹==
'''Zhou Zuoren'''

I mentioned already his theoretical contribution to the Chinese essayism, but still, his essays have been neglected until the 1980s. The reason does not lie in literary quality, but in political valuing. The master narrative of the offical literary history of the People's Republic on Zhou Zuoren is, that the theoretical May Fourth genius "degenerated" and later became a "traitor". Publishing in the Japanese sponsored magazines ''Reminiscences'',* and ''Chinese Literature'', he was blamed together with Zhu Pu and Yuan Xi of collaboration. An unanswered question is, why another author, who published there, Zhang Ailing, was never reproached with collaboratorship. The difference between all of them is that Zhang Ailing tried to avoid political committments, whereas Zhou felt guilty, Zhu justified it and Yuan simply accepted it.
==Peng Juan 彭娟==
''The 'mainstream' writers took an affirmative approach in their writing, whereas the other writers formed a minority. The individual authors did not necessarily belong to either one of these groups throughout their life, but may have moved between them. Since the essay is a medium which enables the individual to express thoughts directly, the writers chosen for this paper can be classified according to their position.''

''Yu Guangzhong's essay'' "The wolves are coming" ''shows that the ideological perspective did not only harm mainland essaywriting.''
==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==
In his small literary pieces, Zhou tried to aesthetizise the little things of the everyday life out of the subjective experience of his private space. The major contribution of Zhou Zuoren is, that he set the turning point in Chinese essay writing with his call for writing short literary pieces (''Meiwen'' 1921).

In foreign literature there is the so-called ''lunwen'' 論文 (treatise), which is roughly divided into two groups: the reflecting ones, piping 批評 (critical), are scientific articles. The others are ''jishu'' 記述 (descriptive) and ''yishuxing'' 藝術性 (artistic), they are also called ''meiwen'' 美文 (aesthetic essay). Within these texts, one can distinguish between ''xushi'' 敘事 (narrative) and ''shuqing'' 抒情 (lyric). But there are also mixed texts. [...] I hope that the aesthetical essay is encouraged to come back, and will open up a new field for the New Literature. Wouldn’t that be wonderful?
==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==
With these words from the essay "''The aesthetic essay''" this new vernacular form was defined. This starting point founded a whole new tradition of essay writing in China. Contemporary writers called this piece the "king of essays".

In order to bring this new form to his compatriots, he tried to find similiarities with the ''xiaopinwen'' of the Ming dynasty. He further discussed these thoughts in his essay theory. In his own essays, he profited a lot from ancient ''suibi''. Later he further developed his literary theory towards an up and down of two trends. In the modernizing society, he advocated the liberation of women and asked to "treat children as full subjects with their own external and internal lives" and to "make children the essence of children's literature" (Zhou 1923). He promoted the ''baguwen'' and the independance of literature from politics and effected the literary scene and the development towards a modern Chinese society especially between 1917 and 1938.

“美学散文”中的这些词语定义了这种新的白话形式。这个起点在中国建立了一种新的散文写作传统。当代作家称此作品为“散文之王”。

为了将这种新形式带给他的同胞，他试图找到其与明朝“小品文”的相似之处。他在散文理论中进一步讨论了这些思想。他自己的散文也从古代的“随笔”中受益匪浅。后来，他将文学理论朝着上下两种趋势进一步发展。在现代化社会中，他呼吁解放妇女、“将儿童看作具有外在和内在生命的完整主体”以及“让儿童成为儿童文学的本质”（Zhou 1923）。他提倡“八股文”和文学脱离政治的独立性，这对文学界产生了影响，并推动了中国向近代社会尤其是1917年至1938年的发展。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 09:48, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==
With this theoretical foundation and his own vo'luÉminous essayistic work, Zhou Zuoren through the example of his own form of short literary pieces within this genre, fought at that stage of the development of his literary theory like Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque 130 years ago in France for the idea "l'art pour l'art" , for individuality and independance of the writer, for disinterested literature. The jugdment, that Zhou was an apolitical author cannot be proved with his essays. Instead, he wanted his abstinence of political statement to be understood as a political statement by itself. For him, literature was a mean not for revolution, but for resistance (Zhou 1929:180-181).
==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==
In fact he saw himself as ‘patriotic underground fighter’ and looked at the collaboration with the Japanese puppet regime as a forced one, following his attempted assasination, through which his driver had lost his life. His own concept of essay writing served less the needs of the building of a nation-state and comes closer to the ideal of the individual.

"I don't really know why, but I am feeling as if I am born into a dark age. I admit, that our forests are not inhabited by dragons, tigers and wolves, but shapeless "monsters" and "goblins" are still creeping around and try to swallow our souls. [...] What alarms me most, is the absence of freedom in this prison, into which we writers have been thrown."
==Qi Kai 漆凯==
Confronting tradition and progress in the essay "''Ancestor Worship''", he is in favor of the latter, since past could only become present through changes (Zhou 1919:7-8).

Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque (1767 - 1830) war französischer Romanschriftsteller und liberaler Politiker, der neben der Freiheit der Kunst nach der Französischen Revolution die Einführung der konstitutionellen Monarchie nach englischem Vorbild forderte.

==Qu Miao 瞿淼==
Siehe ''Journal'' (10.2.1804). Die "Kunst um der Kunst willen" propagierte die Zweckfreiheit der Kunst. Im Gegensatz dazu versteht sich die engagierte Literatur. Die Parallele zwischen Zhou Zuorens Literaturverständnis und dem Konzept "Kunst um der Kunst willen" zieht auch Wolff: ''Chou Tso-jen'' 1971, S. 84.

Siehe Zhou Zuoren: ''Der Ursprung der neuen chinesischen Literatur'' 1934, S. 95 - 98; vgl. auch Chen Zizhan: ''Vorträge zur chinesischen Literaturgeschichte'' 1937, Bd 3, pp. 416 - 422, besonders S. 422. Hinweis in: H. Martin: "''Liang Qichao on Poetry Reform''" 1996, Bd 1, S. 213.
==Quan Meixin 全美欣==
Regarding Zhou Zuoren, I want to correct the official assessment of the People’s Republic, that his work would have experienced a caesura in 1938. In order to explain his opposition of the propaganda to build up national heroes about 1937 and his collaboration from 1939, it has been said officially, that his thoughts had "duoluo 墮落" (degenerated) at that time (Zhu Jinshun 1990:59). In fact, this caesura, namely the change in the style and subject in his essays on literature, art etc. to ''zhengjing'' 正經 (serious, intentional essays), and ''xianshi'' 閑適 (essays for one’s own enjoyment) is located not before his outlawing through Mao Zedong (1942), and his arrest through the Guomindang (1945).
==Sagara Seydou ==
Therefore not the Japanese suppressors are responsible for the retreat of this great writer, but his Chinese compatriots'.

On the basis of the stigma of the 'traitor', he has been undervalued until now. That his work in the 1990s is almost as often published as Lu Xun's and Zhu Ziqing's shows that his texts finally experience a more positive literaric evaluation through the audience, which now must be registered also by scholars.

==Shi Diwen 石迪文==
Another example of a misread Zhou Zuoren is his short essay on "''The Fly''", where he describes his changing attitude towards flies, which he had played with as child but later disgusted when he learned about their danger of passing on diseases. ”''The fly''” shows Zhou Zuoren’s strength to describe details and make them a real topic by recalling memories on them or describing a change of perspective on them. Zhou summarized the philosophical wisdom he learnt from this, that people did not judge on things objectively, but were likely to praise or damn things.
==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==
The official reading re¬proaches Zhou that he "saw only the fly and not the cosmos" , a quotation of the young Zhou about a position he himself clearly opposed.

His ability to chat about the more pleasent things in life is displayed in his essay ”Birds’ twitter”. In ”''Peking cakes and sweet-meat''” and in ”''Wild vegetable of my home region''”, Zhou Zuoren shows his ability to make the reader feel at home at a region, where he feels at home himself, by describing the customs and special regional food.

Siehe Zhou Zuoren: "Cangying 蒼蠅" (Die Stubenfliege), in: ''Chenbao fujuan'' 晨报副镌 (Beilage zur Morgenpost) (1924.7.13). Eine Zu¬sammenfassung des Inhalts findet sich in: Yu Daxiang (Hg.): ''Auswahllexikon chinesischer Essays mit Inhaltsangaben und Analysen'' 1993.

''Siehe Vollständige chinesische Anthologie der Wissenschaften - Bd Chinesische Literatur'' 1988, Bd 2, S. 1300. Dies spielt auf den Essay "''Cangying'' 蒼蠅" (Die Stubenfliege), in: Zhou Zuoren: ''Zhi Tang. Sammlung'' 1933 an.（文献无需翻译）

==Si Yu 司妤==
His piece ”''Bitter rain''” shows the atmosphere, for what his essays had been labelled ”bitter tea”: There remains a taste in one’s mouth after reading. If you compare Lu Xun’s ”''On tea drinking''” (Yang/Yang 1961 3:325-326) with Zhou Zuoren’s essay with the same title, you see the difference of ”short and to the point” and ”eloquent and well-read”. ”''First love''” is more hilarious. The essay ”''Three different ways to die''” shows that Zhou Zuoren can compete with his elder brother in sarcasm. Lu Xun's essay on the same subject, the massacre on March 18, 1926, was a sight.
==Song Jianru 宋建茹==
Zhou asks for the ”best” way to die and favors the short and painless one. In ”''On alcohol''” and ”''The awning bunk boat''” Zhou Zuoren continues the tradition of late Ming ''biji''.

'''7. The essay as a snapshot of contemporary thoughts'''

''What is the state of contemporary essay writing in China? Its position should be brought into its proper relationship to recent approaches, perspectives and terms of categorization, like post-modernist elements, post-colonial thinking, deconstructivism etc.''

==Su Lin 苏琳==
The increase of the essay production after the ‘Cultural Revolution’ might be explained with the ability of the essay, to express personal experiences much more authentically than other genres because of its immanent claim of historical truth. But the essay is not a guarantee for objective truth: In the same time it is subjective, the essayist mediates his image consciously. This restricts the reported truth to a subjective one and bears the risk of a consciously “corrected” truth.
==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==
The individualism of the Republican era has been based on the common feeling to stand at a historical turning point and directed towards common targets like the creation of a New Literature and a new Chinese society. In the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, individualism asks for a critical reflection on the satisfaction of personal consumption needs and tries to give personal orientation, essayists plead for moral virtues (Wang Meng: "''Anxiang'' 安详" (Serene) 1992, "''Zuohao ni ziji de shi'' 做好你自己的事" (First make your own things in a good way) 1994).
==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==
These essays, mainly published in newspapers and magazines, are widely read by people in the rapidly changing, anonymous, alienating and consume-oriented mass cultural society.

Other essays in the 1980s and 1990s are in a kind of new subjectivism targeted away from contemporary contradictions but apply to the feelings of the audience by creating an either positive ("''Shanxi opera''", Jia Pingwa 1984) or negative world ("''The nightmare''", Si Yu 1995).

From the essay, we can see contemporary trends of literature, which are also reasons for the increase in volume of this genre in the 1990s:

==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==
- The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts: “[...] we live in an age of exposition” (Hall 1984:xiii);

- The increasing consciousness of indivi¬duality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjecti¬ve expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands;

- A revival of interest in discussing social-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.

- The banality of everyday life becomes conscious through becoming a literary topic, most commonly in the genre of everyday life, the essay.

- 当下中国社会的浮躁节奏，对转折性和短文的要求。"[...]我们生活在一个论述的时代"(Hall 1984:xiii)。

- 越发增加的独立意识，对其而言，文章是最直接的主体表达形式，甚至比诗的格律和形式要求更直接。

- 通过散文这一媒介讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复苏，就像20世纪20/30年代的情况一样。

- 日常生活的平庸性通过成为文学话题而变得自觉，最常见的是日常生活的文体--散文。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

-当前中国社会节奏轻快，要求有趣味的短文：“[…]我们生活在一个博览会时代”（大厅1984:xiii）；

-对于个人二元性意识的增强，散文是主体性表达的最直接形式，甚至比诗歌的韵律和形式要求更直接；

-通过这篇文章讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复复苏，如同20世纪20年代或30年代的情况一样。

-日常生活的平庸通过成为一个文学主题而变得有意识，最常见的是日常生活的体裁——散文。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 12:59, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Tang Bei 汤蓓==
- The De-ideologization of Chinese society. Today not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. The mostly read political essays after 1949 are critical essays.

- Regarding the compiling of essay collections: For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain.
==Tang Ming 唐铭==
This is a sign of the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publis¬hing houses with an orientation toward customers (former: "readers").

- The criteria for essay best sellers in the P.R. of China are the following: In the most often printed essay "''The Back View''", filial piety is the driving factor, parallelistic and repetitive structures in the atmospherical nebulous "''The Moonlit Lotus Pond''", both written by Zhu Ziqing, whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader.
==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==
Nostalgic home feelings are the emotional identification element in "''Wild vegetables of my home region''" by Wang Zengqi. Therefore one can state, that moving es¬says form the top.

- ''In the latter half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of in¬dividuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife. Time loses worth, since more and more of the daily acctivities are filled with mechanical and autistic actions.''

==Tao Ye 陶冶==
''In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only political replique is the patriotism, for example expressed in the 1996 published monograph'' China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war (''No''! 1996).

- ''The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable object d'art.''
==Wang Meiling 王美玲==
''Also trends like the use of ordinary language, which one finds in novels since 1993 (Jia Pingwa, Feidu; Gu Cheng, Yingger) and'' New Borderlessness ''since'' 1995, ''cannot be pro-ven in the essaywriting. ''

- Also the fictional realism David Der-Wei Wang sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proves helpful for the understanding of some essays, one being "''The Small Dog Baodi''", written by Ba Jin 1981, in which the author turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in allegoric instead of in descriptive truth as before ("''In memoriam of Xiao Shan II''", Ba Jin 1984).
==Wang Xuan 王轩==
Similar is the concept of imaginery nostalgia, as Wang calls the fictional truth in Shen Congwen's work (David Der-Wei Wang 1992), helpful for the reading of Wang Zengqi's "''Rain in Kunming''" as well as for Jia Pingwa's "''Shanxi opera''".
类似的还有想象怀旧的概念，正如王功权所说的沈从文作品中虚构的真实（王大卫·德维王1992），有助于解读汪曾祺的《昆明雨》，也有助于贾平凹的《山西剧》。

- The Schwarcz' concept of ''personal grief'' expressed in a ''metaphorical discourse'' helps us to understand how Ba Jin was able to overcome the ''truth of being'' he was known for, only to reach a more convincing fictional truth through the metaphor of his dog Baodi.
施瓦茨在“隐喻话语”中所表达的“个人悲伤”概念，有助于我们理解巴金是如何克服他以“存在的真理”而闻名的，却通过他的狗“宝坻”的隐喻而获得更具说服力的虚构真相。

Xin zhuangtai xiaoshuo 新狀態小說 new borderless fiction, represented by Chen Dong 韓東, Lu Yang 魯羊, Zhu Wen 朱文, Lin Bai 林白, Chen Liang 陳梁, Zhang Mei 張梅.（文献无需翻译）

''Post-colonialist thinking (Williams et al. 1994), which is to be seen as part of the social-political discourse, appears in essays, especially in the less critical political, but patriotic essays of the 1990s. Kafkaism helps us understand the essay "The nightmare", where Si Yu appears as a de-constructionist, the I-narrator even is drawn near to suicide.''（文献无需翻译）

And maybe for Xie Bingxins* reflections on her experience as one of the chosen voluntaries of the Wuhan military academy: She insisted to remain a lifelong "woman soldier" .（文献无需翻译）

==Wang Yu 王煜==
'''8. Discussion: Is the genre of the essay the form of literary expression in 21st century China?'''

Regarding the future of the Chinese literature, we can only speculate. But out the risk of being wild and provocative, I would like to suggest some questions for considering the place of the essay in the field of Chinese literature and literary studies.

- People have less time for actions like reading, and get used to reduced visualized information through the Internet. Will the brevity of the essay make it the ideal medium?

==Wang Yuan 王源==
- If the Chinese people are rediscovering their individuality, will the essay allow them to express individual thoughts more directly?

- Modern societies are characterized by TV culture, mass consumption, and the loss of consciousness of one's own tradition, often partly due to the American impact on national cultures. Is the essay less bound to the restrictions of tradition, especially compared to the poem and thus more adaptable to the modern phenomenon of mass consumption?

==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==
- The alienation and the anonymity of citylife worldwide, in China is combined with a loss of traditional values like ideology, family, solidarity etc. in favor of the concept of profit for oneself, - if this has produced a longing for new orientation, will it possibly be filled by morally guiding essays or nationalistic thinking?

《红楼梦》与其他世界文学作品的相似性——推荐《红楼梦》列入世界记忆遗产名录

'''Commonness between the Red Chamber Dreams and other World Literature Novels – Proposing the Red Chamber Dreams to the World Documentary Heritage List'''（修改）

吴漠汀，湖南师范大学 Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University

Source: Lecture at Harvard University, Cambridge, MA USA, 14.3.2000（文献无需翻译）
==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==
'''Abstract'''

In every culture, readers associate the literature they know with new literature they read. So literature is always cumulative, it grows out of existing literature and can refer back to it. When Western readers read the Red Chamber Dreams, they foremost associate novels and other pieces of literature of their own cultural tradition with the Dreams. This has also influenced the first full translation into German.

Cao Xueqin and even more his protagonist Jia Baoyu both are early humanists, universalists and world citizens. ''The Red Chamber Dreams'' function worldwide.

摘要

在每一种文化中，读者都会把他们读到的新文学与已知文学联系起来，所以文学总是积累的，它从现有的文学中生长出来，并以已有文学为参考。西方读者在阅读《红楼梦》时，首先会把《红楼梦》与自身文化传统中的小说和其他文学作品联系起来，这也影响了首次德语全译本。

曹雪芹，尤其是他的主人公贾宝玉，都是早期的人文主义者，普世主义者和世界公民。《红楼梦》具有普世价值。（修改）

在每一种文化中，读者都会把他们读到的新文学与已知文学联系起来，所以文学总是积累的，它从现有的文学中衍生出来，并以已有文学为参考。西方读者在阅读《红楼梦》时，首先会把《红楼梦》与自身文化传统中的小说和其他文学作品联系起来，这也影响了首次德语全译本。

曹雪芹，甚至于他的主人公贾宝玉，都是早期的人文主义者，普世主义者和世界公民。《红楼梦》具有普世价值。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:09, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==
''The Dream'' is a complex showroom of diverse aspects of Chinese cultures and is the embodiment and essence of Chinese cultures, but it has also a global impact, therefore it should be honoured as “World Documentary Heritage”.

红楼梦》综合展示了中国的多元文化，是中国文化的集中体现和精华，同时在全球范围内产生影响，理应列入世界记忆遗产名录。（修改）

多元一体

'''Key words'''

Western culture, reception tradition, German translation, Embodiment of Chinese cultures, global compatibility, World Documentary Heritage

“红楼梦”是一个多元的中国文化综合体，是中国文化的体现和精髓，但它也具有全球影响力，因此应该被授予“世界文献遗产”的荣誉。（修改<nowiki>Insert non-formatted text here</nowiki>）

多元一体

'''Key words'''

Western culture, reception tradition, German translation, Embodiment of Chinese cultures, global compatibility, World Documentary Heritage
--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 10:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

《红楼梦》是一个中国文化综合体，展示着中国文化的精髓的同时也极具全球影响力，理应被列入世界记忆遗产名录。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:00, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==
'''1. Chinese Ethics'''

To help the poor and disadvantaged belongs to the traditional core values of Chinese culture.

When we sit in the Beijing Subway today, the loudspeaker announcement reminds us, that it is Chinese traditional ethics to give seats to the disadvantaged (老弱病残孕让座是中国传统道德). We know of Cao Xueqin, that he supported the poor and disadvantaged, and that he made kites for children.

However, when we look closer at these “Chinese Ethics”, we discover, that they are claimed also in Indian Buddhism “karuna” and in the Christian tradition of “caritas” and in almost every civilization. Therefore, we might call these values “human ethics”.

==Wu Kai 吴恺==
'''2. Compatibility
'''
Why do the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' function worldwide and have achieved world literature status even in their translations?

First of all, the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' are, like novels worldwide, a piece of entertainment literature. In comparison to the drama, in which every element is compulsory and plays its part in the overall structure, in the novel the line of action itself is simpler and not so important, most of the scenes or episodes are loosely put together and fit in the broader theme of the novel.
==Wu Qi 吴琪==
However, the lose arrangement of episodes of the ''Dreams'' comes from the tradition of almost unconnected episodes like in the ''Shuihuzhuan'' and is a step towards the greater coherence of the episodes, the aligning into a story line and the greater concentration on fewer protagonists. Therefore, the ''Dreams'' show clearly a step towards the Western tradition of novels, maybe because of growing Western influence in Qing dynasty.

'''3. Impact of translator’s native culture on the translation process'''

There are intercultural parallels between the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' and Western works of literature.
==Wu Qiong 吴琼==
These parallels are fundamental for the translation and were explicitly and implicitly fundamental for the German translator Martin Woesler during his translation and editorial work on the first full German translation. In the following, I will mention some of the Western novels and pieces of literature, which the Western reader of the ''Dreams'' will immediately think of.

'''4. The novel as embodiment of “Zeitgeist”'''

According to Georg Lukács’ ''Theory of the Novel'', while the Epos (like Homer’s ''Ilias'', which like the ''Dream'' reasons the stories in the divine realm) displayed a holistic world experience, a complete, self-contained culture, the novel displays, that the modern world has become infinitely large and has lost its homely quality.
==Wu Xiang 邬香==
The novel as a genre is no longer documenting just one culture, but represents, with the words of Walter Benjamin, the Organon of History. So the understanding of the novel changed with Lukacs to historical-philosophically. A novel is understood as typical for its historical era, the novel embodies the spirit of the epoch (Zeitgeist).

The ''Red Chamber Dreams'' are written in front of the background of the Manchu minority having taken over the power in formerly Han-shaped Ming-China (which was a multi-ethnic and crosscultural society) and families suffering the changing favor of changing emperors, with the Cao family being fostered by Kangxi and being persecuted by Yongzheng.
==Wu Yilu 吴一露==
While the author in his time could not criticize the system and power of emperors, in the novel he came to terms with this life by seeking the guilt for the persecution in the growing decadence of the family (engaging in Daoism, leisure, poetry-writing, arts and music instead of learning for being able to earn a living) and in himself not fulfilling the expectations as the family heir. This description of decadence of a declining family reminds us of the novels of Tschechov (and e.g. in the ''Buddenbrooks'' by Mann, including the turn to arts and music).
==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==
Moreover, with the detailed description of life on all social levels in early Qing Dynasty, the Dream appears as a documentary historical novel very much like Günter Grass’ The Tin Drum 1959.

'''5. Coming-of-age and Alienation'''

Abandoning the paradise-like garden in the Red Chamber Dreams is a symbol for leaving the protected childhood and arriving in the complex world of adults. With George Lukács theory of the novel, the protagonist starts to problematize the sense of his life, in the novel, the protagonist’s self permanently struggles with his environment.
==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==
However, Cao Xueqin’s message is not simply the one of “Paradise Lost”, instead he himself made the best out of his life. Although being less wealthy than when his family still enjoyed the favour of the emperor, there was a payroll system and a social net intact in Early Qing China, where he received enough income to be independent from his rich relatives, to be selective on accepting jobs, to live a relaxed life in a small house in the nature, spending time with his family and friends, follow his own interests, like reading, writing and drinking wine, making kites for the children and thinking of the disadvantaged.

然而，曹雪芹的信息不仅是“失乐园”的信息，而是他本人的一生。尽管不如他的家人仍然享有皇帝的宠爱时富裕，但清初中国有一个工资体系和一个完整的社会网络，在那里他获得了足够的收入以独立于自己的富裕亲戚，可以有选择性地接受工作在大自然的小房子里过着轻松的生活，与家人和朋友共度时光，遵循自己的兴趣，例如读书，写作和喝酒，为孩子们放风筝和思考处境不利的人。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:38, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

==Xiao Ting 肖婷==
Cao Xueqin was fully aware of his time and China’s cultural achievements, he was familiar with the different levels of society, he was a detailed observer and skilful narrator. He may have conceptualized the ending of the novel as a discussion about the different personalities of the characters in the novel and therefore displaying his reflection about life and his psychological understanding of the diversity of human nature. He was able to grasp the “spirit of time” (Zeitgeist) and with his autobiographical experience create an eternal coming-of-age novel not just for his family, for the Qing-Chinese, for Chinese people, but for mankind.

曹雪芹对自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就有充分的认识，他熟悉社会的方方面面，他观察细致，叙事娴熟。他能把小说的结尾构思为对小说中人物不同性格的探讨，从而体现出他对人生的思考和对人性多样性的理解。他能够把握 "时间精神"(Zeitgeist)，并以他的亲身经历为材料创造了一部成熟的绝世之作，这不仅是为他的家庭、为清人、为中国人，更是为全人类。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 11:29, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

曹雪芹充分了解自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就，熟悉社会的不同层次，是一个细致的观察者和娴熟的叙述者。他可能将小说的结局概念化为对小说中人物不同性格的讨论，从而表现出他对生活的反思和对人性多样性的心理理解。他能够把握“时代精神”(时代精神)，并以他的自传体经历，为他的家庭，为清朝人，为中国人，为人类创造了一部永恒的成长小说。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 12:01, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

曹雪芹对自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就了如指掌，他熟悉社会的不同层面，他是一个细致的观察者和娴熟的叙述者。因此，他在小说中对人的不同个性的理解和对小说中人物性格的多样性进行了概念化的探讨。他能够把握“时代精神”，用他的自传体经历，不仅为他的家庭，为清朝的中国人，为中国人民，而且为人类，创作了一部永恒的成人小说。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:43, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

==Xiao Xi 肖茜==
This tradition of Coming-of-age novels is also a European one, like enlightenment philosopher Voltaire’s novel ''Candide or Optimism''《老实人》shows at the very same time (1759) in Europe. Also Voltaire’s Candide has to leave the luxurious paradise of his childhood and strives for true love, but his main learning is more pessimistic, since Voltaire wrote the novel in opposition to Leibniz, who optimistically looked to China as “the best of all worlds”. Recent research findings show that China had a much larger influence on European enlightenment philosophers and we can be sure, that also Cao Xueqin was aware of some European literary traditions.
==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==
Also the German readership is familiar with the chronological following of the life of the protagonist and his development, the fate of a family over generations, the German readership knows this type of novel as the “Education novel” or “Coming-of-age-novel”. In Germany, the genre of the coming-of-age novel has a long tradition and it is shaped more by single characters, who appear as teachers (Goethe: ''Wilhelm Meister’s Apprenticeship''威廉·麦斯特的学徒岁月 1795-96, Novalis 诺瓦利斯: ''Heinrich von Ofterdingen''《海因利·封·歐福特丁根》1802).
==Xie Fan 解帆==
Wilhelm Meister, parallely to Jia Baoyu, is struggling with the traditional education, in ''Wilhelm Meister'' this is represented with the classics revived in Shakespeare’s dramas. Tradition can give orientation, but the personality of the protagonist needs to develop through emancipation is a wisdom, we can learn from all mentioned novels including the ''Dreams''.

'''6. Pornography and True Love, female rivals'''

Sexuality is a basic human need and has developed into different shapes in all cultures. The German audience is familiar with erotic topics from the Middle Ages, in which sexuality was stylized. In the “Schwänke” of the 15th century (Wittenwielers Ring), erotic scenes are described sexually explicit.

与贾宝玉一样，威廉·迈斯特也在与传统教育作斗争，这通过莎士比亚的经典戏剧得以体现。传统可以作为方向标，但主人公的个性需要通过解放才能发展，这是一种智慧，我们可以以上提过包括《梦》的所有小说中学习。
“6.色情与真爱，女性对手"
性是人类的一种基本需求，在不同文化中展现出不同的形态。德国观众熟悉中世纪的情色话题，在这些话题中，性是有固定程式的。在15世纪的“Schwanke”(Wittenwielers Ring)中，情色场景被描述为露骨的性。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:37, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

与贾宝玉一样，威廉·迈斯特也在与传统教育作斗争，在《威廉·迈斯特》中，莎士比亚戏剧中复兴的经典作品代表了这一点。传统可以给予导向，但主人公的个性需要通过解放来发展是一种智慧，我们可以从包括《梦》在内的所有小说中学习。
“6。色情与真爱，女性对手"
性是人类的一种基本需求，在各种文化中形成了不同的形态。德国观众熟悉中世纪的情色话题，在这些话题中，性是程式化的。在15世纪的“Schwanke”(Wittenwielers Ring)中，情色场景被描述为露骨的性。--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 01:37, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==
In the barock literature of the 17th century even the physical act is described extensively.

According to „cumulativity“, every human being is a product of history and literature is based on previous literature, therefore the author of this pager thinks that this background has to be taken into account while translating.

The best study on ''qing'' passion in the Dreams is the one by Anthony Yu, who understood it as ''desire'' and as the central motif of the ''Dreams''. „The centrality of qing in shaping virtually every aspect of The Story of the Stone’s structure and meaning cannot be denied [...].“ (Anthony Yu 2001, 54).

==Xu Jia 徐佳==
In the framework story of the Dreams, the narrator consciously takes a stand against low-action and stereotypical pornographic literature as well as against the widespread romance novels (with the classic roles of the beautiful, talented woman and the poor scholar who finally achieves a respected position and prosperity by passing a civil service exam).

In chapter 1 he says: ”of the true feelings of young people [...] nobody has reported about so far.”

Erotic scenes are described in a decent and associative way (“Game of clouds and rain”), while displaying another quality in its openness e.g. towards bisexuality.

==Xu Jing 许晶==
The ''Dreams'' narrate the story of unfortunate lovers. Unfortunate lovers also in the West have a literary tradition, they constitute an archetype, such as Hero and Leander, Pyramus and Thisbe, Tristan and Isolde, Flore and Blanscheflur as well as Troilus and Cressida, the latter being considered the model for Arthur Brookes, who wrote Romeo and Juliet in 1562 and thus directly influenced Shakespeare.

While Marián Galik saw as the central topic of both, the ''Dream'' and ''Faust'', the eternal feminine, which draws us on high, Gu Cheng called it the “eternal virgine”.

==Xu Jing 许静==
In Goethe’s coming-of-age novel ''Wilhelm Meisters Wanderjahre'', we find a similar motif of female rivals, in the Keller 凯勒 ''The Green Henry'' 《绿衣亨利》1855, the hero turns away from an emphatically sexually designed figure and turns to the 'real' woman. In Jane Austen’s ''Pride and Prejudice'' 1813 Elizabeth and Lin Daiyu are similar, e.g. they both strive for real love (Zhuang 2011).
==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==
'''7. Feudal society and slavery'''

A widespread interpretation is that Jia Baoyu’s equal treatment of family members and slaves would be a manifesto to free the slaves. I also do not share this interpretation, since Aristotle, when he demanded democracy, would exclude slaves from the right to vote. So we cannot use modern concepts to judge on the past. In my understanding, Jia Baoyu was not fighting inequality, but looked at the people as humans and individuals.

封建社会和奴隶
一种普遍的解释是，贾宝玉对家庭成员和奴隶一视同仁，这将成为奴隶解放的宣言。我并不同意这个解释，因为亚里士多德的民主就排除了奴隶的投票权。所以，我们并不能用现代观念去评判过去。在我看来，贾宝玉并不是和不平等作斗争，而是把人视作群体和个人。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 09:55, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie

一种普遍的解释是，贾宝玉对家庭成员和奴隶的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我也不同意这种解释，因为亚里士多德，当他要求民主的时候，会排除奴隶的投票权。所以我们不能用现代的概念来判断过去。在我的理解中，贾宝玉并不是在与不平等作斗争，而是把人看成是群体和个人。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 10:31, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==
Also the understanding of the servants as slaves does not match the description in the Dream, since some servants had servants themselves, the family took care after they left the Jia family to find a match for them and Jia Zheng refers to his daughter Yingchun as „yatou 丫头“, so it is inappropriate to translate this expression with slave. Therefore, the translator preferred “servant” over “slave” in the translation.

另外，把仆人理解为奴隶也与《红楼梦》中所描述的不符，因为有些仆人自己也有仆人，他们离开贾家后，家人会照顾他们，为他们婚配，并且贾正把女儿迎春称为“丫头”，所以用奴隶来翻译这个词是不合适的。因此，译者在翻译中更倾向于“仆人”而不是“奴隶”。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 09:14, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

而且把仆人理解为奴隶与《红楼梦》中的描写不符，因为有些仆人自己还有仆人，贾府会在她们离府的时候为她们寻一门亲事，作为贾府对她们的照料；贾政也把自己的女儿迎春喊作 “丫头”，所以把这些翻译成奴隶是不合适的。因此英文翻译中采用“servant”会比“slave”更为合适。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 10:08, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie

==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==
Mo Yan in his speech at the Frankfurt Bookfair in 2009, when China was the guest of honor, draws the (similarly) parallel between the ''Dream'' and Goethe’s ''Sorrows of the Young Werther'', that both expressed the wish to abandon feudal society. My own impression is that both do not express this wish, but that this is a later concept and interpretation and we should not apply this to judge the past.

2009年，莫言代表中国作为主宾国参加法兰克福书展时，他在演讲中把《梦》和歌德的《少年维特之哀》画上了约等号，表达了抛弃封建社会的愿望。我自己的印象是，两者都没有表达这个愿望，但这是后来的概念和解释，而我们不应该以此来判断过去。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:36, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting

2009年，莫言代表中国作为主宾国参加法兰克福书展时，在演讲中把《梦》和歌德的《少年维特之哀》画上了约等号，表达了抛弃封建社会的愿望。我自己的感觉是，两者都没有表达这个愿望，但这是后来的概念和解释，我们不应该以此来判断过去。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:43, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Hairong 杨海容==
'''8. Tragedy of all tragedies'''

Aristotle explained in ''On the Tragedy'' (Poetics VI), that tragedies move people more than comedies because they “imitate [mimēsis] an action that is serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude” (Aristotle 1971, 51), This high esteem of the tragedy in Europe is partly ascribed to the loss of Aristotle’s work ''On the Comedy''.

==Yang Hui 阳慧==
While Europe has the Hamlet as its tragedy of all tragedies, the lack of tragic literature in Chinese literary tradition has long been lamented. Wang Guowei sees the Dream as "tragedy of all tragedies". To Wang Guowei the suffering of Faust and Jia Baoyu is central in the novels. However, many scholars contest that Faustianism is central for Chinese culture.

In 18th century Europe, we saw a new development in the genre of the drama, to establish a “bourgeois tragedy”.

==Yang Yi 杨逸==
It developed as an emancipatory movement in the 18th century in London, Paris and Germany, and demonstrated that tragedy was not reserved to rulers, but was also imagineable for lower noblemen and ordinary citizens. The ''Dream'' at the same time as the bourgeois tragedy in Europe shows a tragic story of a mid-level noble family which loses its titles and privileges.

==Yang Yue 杨悦==
'''9. “Non-Binary” Novels'''

One of the things attracting Western readers is the adorable but mysterious protagonist Jia Baoyu. With his open bisexual orientation and his interest in his mates regardless of their social status, he appears “modern” or at least displaced in time. His struggle with traditional learning makes him appear sympathetic, his long states of rapture out of the world give him both the aura of a timeless character and of mystery.

==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==
With the bisexual orientation of the Dreams’ protagonist, the novel appears non-binary.
According to Karl-Heinz Pohl, binaries are just superficial, ultimately decisive is the ''Heart Sutra''. Today, the novel is listed among the genre of non-binary literature (see e.g. the bibliographical list on https://www.goodreads.com/list/tag/non-binary), in which contrasts are dissolved deconstructivistically.

==Yao Cheng 姚诚==
'''10. Foreign Cultures in the Red Chamber Dreams'''

Foreign Cultures frequently appear in the Dreams in all kinds of varieties, like exoticism with the many objects in the household and presented to the household as novelties, especially the blond girl of the same age as Baoyu referred to in person (combining different origins and cultures, including European, Japanese, Chinese) or several times on paintings, one time shown with wings as an angel.

==Yao Jia 姚佳==
The playful combination of different traditions we can see also when a religious dress is described, which carries characteristics of different religions. Similarly, the Daoist monk and the Confucian priest appear together. Cao Xueqin wanted to show the richness and diversity, also with the many topics and societal levels of the novel. Even a variety of Christian motifs can be found, like when Jia Baoyu is not recognized by his father in chapter 120 and when he disappears, all parallel to Jesus Christ.

==Yi Huan 易欢==
The variety of cultures is paralleled with the variety of elements of different dynasties, which makes it timeless and therefore even more a masterpiece of Chinese art and a masterpiece of human art. Therefore I would like to nominate the Red Chamber Dreams as “World Documentary Heritage”.

'''References'''（参考文献不用翻译）

Anthony, C. Yu. (2001). ''Rereading the Stone: Desire and the Making of Fiction in Dream of the Red Chamber''. Princeton University Press.

Aristotle. (1971). ''Poetics''. Trans. S. H. Butcher. Ed. Hazard Adams. Critical Theory since Plato. ew York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 48-66.

Woesler, Martin, ed., Cao Xueqin, Gao E et al. (2016). ''Der Traum der Roten Kammer oder Die Geschichte vom Stein'' [''Red Chamber Dreams or The Story of the Stone''], Peking: Foreign Languages Press, ISBN 9787119094120, 4813 pages, 6 vols., hardcover, transl. by Rainer Schwarz and Martin Woesler; Chinese-German bilingual edition

Woesler, Martin. (2011). “Being Explicit About the Implicit – John Minford’s Translation of the last Forty Chapters of The Story of the Stone with a Field Study on two Sexually Arousing Scenes”. ''Hong lou meng xue kan'' 6: 274-289

Woesler, Martin. (2010). “ ’To Amuse the Beaux and Belles’ The Early Western Reception of the Hongloumeng”. ''Journal of Sino-Western Communications'' 2 (2010.12) 2:81-107

Zhuang, Xiuhua. (2011). Self, Ideal and Salvation: A Comparative Study of Jane Austen’s Elizabeth and Cao Xueqin’s Lin Daiyu. ''Journal of Language Teaching and Research'', Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 420-423, March 2011. Fulltext: http://www.academypublication.com/issues/past/jltr/vol02/02/19.pdf.

==Yi Zichu 义子楚==
'''Virtual Communication Between Machines with the Human as Their Object
'''

A new stage of multimodal communication after oral, written, printed, electronic and machine-human communication

Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University

'''Abstract'''

Luhmann and Baecker described the development of communication from orality (media epoch 1.0) to script (2.0), through print (3.0) and finally to digital communication (4.0). In all these stages, technology played only an assisting role.

==You Yuting 游雨婷==
This paper argues, that there is a fundamentally new media epoch of “virtual communication” (communication 5.0), in which artificial intelligence (initialized by humans) has taken over and humans have become the object of analysis and manipulation (as customers, voters etc.).

Algorithms do not only listen to oral or read written human communication (between humans or between humans and bots), but they analyze multimodal communication (including likes, behaviour, surfing habits, mobility profile, values, dreams, aims, beliefs etc.), compare them with Big Data (e.g. cloud data) and base decisions of manipulation on a prediction of behavior according to a personality profile and correlations.

本文认为，“虚拟传播”(5.0传播版本)是一个全新的媒体时代，在这个时代，人工智能(由人类初始化)已经接管，人类成为分析和操纵的对象(如顾客、选民等)。

算法不仅听人类口头或书面沟通(在人类之间或人类和机器人之间),但他们分析多通道通信(包括喜欢、行为、上网习惯,流动剖面,价值观,梦想,目标,信念等),比较他们与大数据(例如云数据)和基础操作的预测行为的决策根据个性特征和相关性。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 12:34, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yu Ni 余妮==
These algorithms target not only the explicit communications, but the emotions and thoughts of humans too and predict future behavior, therefore allowing simulations of reality. Mightier algorithms have also taken over decision-making roles in societies where they: replace human court decisions, fine tune just-in-time and on-demand production, censor chatrooms etc. Sets of algorithms help to manage smart cities and a whole society.

----
==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==
Although the human is still part of the communication, especially as the analyzed object and the target of the manipulation, the human is often unaware of the virtual communication and a passive receiver of the machine’s decisions, while the main actors in the virtual communication are machines.

虽然人仍然是通信的一部分，特别是作为被分析的对象和操纵的目标，但是人往往没有意识到虚拟通信和机器决策的被动接受者，而虚拟通信的主要参与者是机器。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 08:55, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

尽管人类仍然是交流活动的一个组成部分，特别是作为被分析的对象和操纵的目标，但是人类往往没有意识到，自己是虚拟沟通和机器决策的被动接受者，而虚拟沟通的主导者是机器。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:11, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

虽然人仍然是构成通信的一部分，尤其是作为分析对象和操纵目标，但人往往没有意识到人们在虚拟通信中扮演机器决策的被动接受者，而机器才是主要参与者。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:42, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==
Research describes these forms of virtual communication, finds evidence in social management systems and credit systems (in Germany, we have the “Schufa”, in the USA there are big players in credit history, which leads to credit-orientation and gamification of human life) or customized (fake) news filter bubbles and in customized consumption offers (Amazon, Facebook, Google, Netflix) and analyzes benefits, including security enhancements through such virtual communication.

研究对这些形式的虚拟沟通进行了描述，在社会管理系统、信用系统（定制的（虚假）新闻筛选泡沫）和定制的消费商（亚马逊、脸书、谷歌、网飞）里面找到了证据（德国有“Schufa”，美国则因为信用史有重大人物而使得社会信用至上并日趋游戏化），并对益处加以分析，这些益处包含通过这类虚拟沟通提升安全。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 09:20, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

研究描述了这些虚拟通信的形式，在社会管理系统和信用系统中找到证据（在德国，我们有 "Schufa"，在美国有信用记录的大玩家，这导致了信用导向和人类生活的游戏化）或定制化（假）新闻过滤气泡，以及在定制化的消费优惠中（亚马逊，Facebook，谷歌，Netflix），并分析了好处，包括通过这种虚拟通信增强安全性。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:03, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==
But research also has the duty to warn of abuse or harmful developments and to raise ethical questions. Exoskeletal ethics, imposed by gamifications like credit systems, especially need to be valued against intrinsic ethics.

'''Introduction'''

In this paper dealing with machine to machine communication, I skip the machines assisting humans to make their life more convenient (ranging from “The milk is out, please add the usual amount of milk to the delivery list,” to “The old lady has not left her bed this morning, I’ll better call the doctor”).

但研究也有责任对滥用或有害的发展发出警告，同时要对引起的伦理问题也要承担责任。特别是信用体系游戏化所造成的外骨骼伦理问题更需要得到重视，要反对内在的伦理问题。

引言

本论文在涉及机器与机器之间的交流时，我不考虑那些帮助人类让生活更便捷的机器（从“牛奶没了，请在送货单上加平常剂量的牛奶”到“老太太今早卧床不起，我最好叫医生吧”）。
--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:10, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

但研究也有责任对滥用或有害的发展提出警告，并提出伦理问题。特别是信用体系等游戏化所强加的外骨骼伦理，更需要对照内在伦理加以重视。

引言

在本文中涉及机器与机器之间的交流，我跳过了机器协助人类提高生活便利的内容（从 "牛奶没了，请把平时的牛奶量加到送货单上"，到 "老太太今天早上还没下床，我还是叫医生吧"。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 11:40, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==
Instead, I deal with communication like: “Let’s create a user personality profile and compare it with Big Data to learn how I can best catch this user’s attention and make him/her vote for presidential candidate A or B.”; “Let’s check this users’ mouse movements and compare it with Big Data to get a correlation to estimate if (and if “yes” when) he will get Parkinson, to decide whether or not to deny him the loan or health insurance.”
实际上，本人研究涉及的方面如下：比如，“让我们创建一名用户的个性化主界面，并将其与大数据进行比对，学习如何最好的吸引该用户的注意，让他/她投票给总统候选人甲或乙。”“让我们检查这名用户鼠标的运动轨迹，通过与大数据进行比对，建立关联，来估计他是否会得帕金森。如果他患有帕金森疾病，我们会决定是否需要对他的贷款或医疗保险的申请予以拒绝。”--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:41, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Liang 曾良==
“Let’s check this users sexual orientation, religious beliefs, fears, secrets like adultery etc. to blackmail him to get ransom money for my programmer.”; or even “Let’s use this user’s location to aim the killer drone.”

The current neoliberal system with Amazon, Facebook, WhatsApp, Instagram, Google, Netflix etc. provides incentives to collect as much user data as possible and to abuse user data for manipulation, which creates huge profits.

“让我们检查该用户的性取向、宗教信仰、恐惧、诸如通奸之类的秘密去勒索他为我的程序员去获取赎金”。或者甚至“使用用户的位置瞄准杀手无人机。”

当前具有亚马逊、脸谱网、瓦茨艾普、照片墙、谷歌、奈飞等的新自由主义系统激励人们尽可能多地收集用户信息，并滥用用户信息进行操纵，从而创造可观利益。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:04, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

"让我们查一查这个用户的性取向、宗教信仰、恐惧、通奸等秘密，以勒索他为我的程序员获取赎金。"；甚至"利用这个用户的位置来瞄准杀手无人机。"
目前亚马逊、脸书、WhatsApp、Instagram、谷歌、奈飞等的新自由主义体系，为收集尽可能多的用户数据，并滥用用户数据，从而创造了巨大的利润。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:39, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting

“让我们检查该用户的性取向、宗教信仰、惧怕的事物、诸如通奸之类的秘密，从而勒索他让我的程序员获取赎金”。更有甚时，“让我们使用用户的位置让攻击机瞄准他。”

当前亚马逊、脸书、联络电话、Instagram、谷歌、网飞等的新自由主义的系统软件，激励人们尽可能多地收集用户信息，并滥用用户信息进行操纵，从而创造可观利益。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==
Very much like the financial crisis, which was caused by the unregulated use of derivatives, this is a systemic development, which currently follows a path to enslave the human race under the control of algorithms for the benefit of tech companies. The enslavement has already begun, as we can see from the world wide addiction to social media, from the growing mass of conspiracy theorists and from the polarization of the USA over Trump or the polarization of Great Britain over the Brexit.

==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==
'''1 History of Media Epochs'''

Luhmann and Baecker described the development of communication from orality (media epoch 1.0) to script (2.0), through print (3.0) and finally to digital communication (4.0). In all these stages, technology played only an assisting role.

This paper argues, that there is a fundamentally new stage of “virtual communication” (media epoch 5.0), in which artificial intelligence (initialized by humans) has taken over and humans have become the object of analysis and manipulation (as customers, voters etc.).

卢曼和贝克尔描述了从口头（媒体时代1.0）到文字（2.0）的通讯发展，再到印刷（3.0）数字通讯（4.0）
在所有这些阶段中，科技都只起到了协助作用。

本文认为，从根本上来说，“虚拟沟通”处于新阶段（媒体时代5.0），其中人工智能（由人类初始化）已被接管，人类已成为分析和操纵的对象（如顾客，选民等）--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 14:56, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Hu 张虎==
While Luhmann would still summarize this under digital communication, I see a full new quality here, and have therefore coined the term “communication 5.0” or “virtual communication” for it. In Luhmann’s view, the computer consists out of the “surface” of the machine (the visible interfaces like screen, keyboard, mouse) and the “depth” of the machine (the invisible, often incomprehensive inside).

虽然卢曼仍然会在数字通信中总结这一点，但我在这里看到了一个全新的品质，因此创造了术语“通信5.0”或“虚拟通信”。在卢曼看来，计算机是由机器的“表面”(屏幕、键盘、鼠标等可见界面)和机器的“内里”(看不见的、内部不全面的部分)组成的。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:41, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Hui 张慧==
However, we are almost constantly producing data, with our chats and geotracked movements, with our addiction to social media, our carrying of cell phones and more and more smart devices at all times, and we are therefore an object of analysis by algorithms.

The traditional setting of a communicative act blurs: The machine can directly communicate with the human (there the Turing test marks a threshold), and, after a certain complexity, it can hide its machine nature.

但是，我们几乎一直在通过聊天和地理位置追踪运动，不断沉迷于社交媒体，携带手机以及越来越多的智能设备来生成数据，因此，我们一直是通过算法进行分析的对象。

交流行为的传统设置变得模糊：机器可以直接与人类交流（图灵测试标记了阈值），并且在经过一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏机器的本质。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 11:49, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

然而，我们几乎在不断地产生数据，我们的聊天和地理追踪的动作，我们对社交媒体的沉迷，我们随时携带手机和越来越多的智能设备，我们因此成为算法分析的对象。

传统的交流行为的设定模糊了。机器可以直接与人类交流（图灵测试标志着一个门槛），在一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏自己的机器本质。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:03, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Ling 张玲==
The machine can also indirectly communicate with the human by simply analyzing humans’ verbal communication, non-verbal multimodal communication, behavior, personality etc. and interacting with the human with, or without, revealing its existence. A human, growing up in a filter bubble and believing in conspiracy theories is one such example: The human has been manipulated by social media and news which prefer lies over truth.

==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==
Without even noticing that there was an interaction taking place between the human and the machine, the human has lost his/her independence to the machine.

'''2 Types of communicative acts'''

1.Texts (oral and written comments/chat texts/blogs/emails)

2.Surf behavior (websites visited)

3.Consumer behavior (purchases)

4.Likes (see OCEAN, UEBA)

5.Duration/Attention (see UEBA)

6.habits/repetitiveness/occurrences (is an element of analysis in different AI apps/tools)

==Zhang Qi 张琪==
7.Unconscious, often unique data allowing identification (way of writing, mouse movements pattern, see Raj Kannan 2020)

8.social interaction incl. friendships, sexual relationships

9.mobility behavior/pattern (e.g. immediate environment – e.g. unconsciously recording the inside of houses while playing “Pokemon Go”), travel: Travel Behavior (Yu Cui et al. 2018)

==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==
'''3 Types of analysis'''

1.General (User and Entity Behavior Analytics UEBA: AI-assisted cybersecurity tools like by Gartner, Inc.)

2.True identity (e.g.: mouse movements, face recognition, find real name) (Verschuere 2016)

3.Personality profile: Big Five Personality Inventory: Openness to Experience, Consciousness, Extroversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism “OCEAN” (Golbeck 2011), by only analyzing the users' likes, Facebook can generate personality profiles (AI-Demand 2020)

4.Mobility profile/pattern

==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==
5.Health situation (health apps, ai supported disease research, see Daley 2020)

6.Job situation/job market (Talent Search People 2020 analyzes the job market, and classifies 4 different AI systems: 1. systems that think like humans, 2. systems that act like humans, 3. systems that think rationally, and 4.) systems that act rationally.)

==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==
7.Financial credit-worthiness: E.g. German Schufa company uses AI in addition to human expertise for evaluations, see Banken-Technologie 2020. Banken-Technologie 2020. Schufa’s attempt to gain access to customers’ bank account transfer information was discussed in the news.

8.Consumer Behavior: e.g. the "clickworker" company analyses and optimizes customers' searches in respect to a client company's goals/products with the help of AI (clickworker 2019)

9.Secrets (like adultery)

==Zhang Yu 张瑜==
'''4 Unique quality of media epoch 5.0'''[ I have coined the terms “media epoch 5.0” and “virtual communication” I have developed it from concepts like „Industry 4.0“ in Germany and the four media epochs Luhmann and Baecker developed (by Baecker called 1.0 … 4.0). There are several authors speculating about the media epoch 4.0, like Ray Kurzweil. The Age of Intelligent Machines. 1990.]

1.the human switches from active to passive

2.the human switches from subject to object

3.the human becomes addicted to social media, which enhances depression (Van Den Eijnden et al. 2016, Jasso-Medrano et al. 2018, Shensa et al. 2017)

4.the human switches from puppeteer, or entity with seemingly free will, to puppet

5.nature of the internet turns from freedom to surveillance

4.媒介5.0时代的独特品质 [我创造了 "媒介5.0时代"和 "虚拟通信 "这两个词，它们是从德国的“工业4.0”以及卢曼和贝克提出的媒介4.0时代（贝克称之为1.0...4.0）等概念发展而来的。一些作者揣测媒介4.0时代这个词的含义，比如1990年出版的雷-库兹韦尔的《灵魂机器时代》]

1.人从主动到被动的转换

2.人从主体到客体的转换

3.人沉迷于社交媒体，提高了患抑郁症的风险

4.人从木偶操纵者或看似拥有自由意志的实体到木偶人的转换

5.互联网的性质从自由到监测的转换--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 01:25, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==
6.direct communication turns into indirect communication (humans may not be aware of this communication/analysis)

7.explicit communication (voice, words) turns into implicit communication (preferences/thoughts/dreams/wishes/ values (first experiments with brain scanners in worker hats have started in Shanghai and Peking))

8.man-man communication turns to man-machine communication (phone bot) to machine-machine

9.4.0 was from centralization to decentralization, 5.0 is partial centralization and partial decentralization, but also concentration

==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==
So far, mass media has been considered one-way. The interaction and processing of data of millions of individual users seemed simply too much work. In the age of virtual communication, the media epoch 5.0, mass media is individualized and interactive and therefore even more influential.

'''5 Types of manipulation (consciously or unconsciously, sometimes half-consciously)
'''

1.Priming by unconscious advertisements: Influencing consumer decisions

2.Filter bubbles => supports conspiracy theories, influences judgments

到目前为止，大众媒体一直被认为是单一的。数百万个人用户数据的交互和处理似乎太费力。在虚拟传播时代，即媒体时代5.0，大众传媒是个性化和互动的，因此更具影响力。

'''5 种操纵类型（有意识或无意识，有时是半意识的）'''

1.无意识广告发布：影响消费者决策

2.过滤泡沫=>支持阴谋论，影响判断--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:08, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhao Xi 赵茜==
3.Nature of social media: lies spread 6 times faster than truth. (Vosoughi et al. 2018).

4.Change of political attitude: Case Cambridge Analytica: Helped minority to win election by manipulating young people of majority not to vote (Do so: Don’t vote campaign, Oddleifson 2020); Trump election and Brexit were won by manipulation

5.Use of private information/dependencies to obtain advantages (blackmailing for money or for conducting crimes etc.)

6.Identity theft

==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==
'''6 Consequences'''

1.Virtual Communication is mostly “hidden”, the human is mostly unaware of it, but may endure the consequences (policeman may detain suspect simply because the face recognition glass recognizes a pedestrian passing by and assesses him/her as “dangerous”; loan is declined; insurance company declines to accept new customer)

6.后果

1.虚拟通讯大多是 "隐蔽 "的，人多半不知道，但可能会承受后果（警察可能仅仅因为人脸识别玻璃识别出路过的行人，并评估其为 "危险 "而拘留嫌疑人；贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新的客户）--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:02, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

6.后果

1.虚拟通信通常是“隐藏的”，人类大多数情况下是不知道的，但可能会承受后果（警察可能只是因为面部识别玻璃杯识别出行人经过并将他/她评估为“危险”而拘留嫌疑人；贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新客户）。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 12:05, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

'''6.后果
'''

1.大多情况下，虚拟通信是“隐藏的”，人类也没有意识到这一点，但可能会承担由此带来的后果（警察可能会因为面部识别玻璃检测到行人通过，并将其评估为“危险人物”而将嫌疑犯拘留‘贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新客户）。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 09:29, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==
2.User becomes transparent (government can fight terrorism, any user can be blackmailed, jealous spouse can check on adultery)

3.Less will to communicate and discuss (since positions are too far apart)

4.Populists and populist views gain supporters

5.Polarization of Society

6.There is an incentive not to reveal how much one knows about the object, because the object then could question the legality, the system etc.

7.Last resort, the thinking, is tackled: Machine interprets “real” attitudes, not lip-service words

==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==
8.The knowing ones (algorithms, hackers, controllers of algorithms) have power over the unknowing ones (victims)

9.Exoskeleton ethics (like points/awards for measurable performances) reduce incentives to build inner ethics
'''
7 Simulation of the imminent future'''

1.The imminent future behavior of a human can be predicted

2.With many analyzed humans, the imminent future of reality can be predicted => simulation

==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==
Is this an Orwellian dystopia or reality? Some cases of the above listed phenomena have been documented. However, we are still at the beginning of “little” AI development (optimizing existing processes) and on the brink of a much more powerful development, that of “big” AI (rethinking whole industries, being able to reproduce and enhance itself). (cf. Euchner 2019).

==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==
'''8 Conclusion and Outlook'''

Data has succeeded oil as the most valuable resource for today’s economy. Big Tech companies already use users’ data and make big profits with it while legislation is delayed and national boundaries (which do not exist for the Tech companies) are struggled over.
Although input-legitimized liberal democracies and market economies, like that of the European Union, still protect privacy and data security, US- and China-based technology companies are already penetrating the European market.

==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==
We need to raise awareness and guide the youth to be careful with screen time and what they share online. We need to avoid addiction to social media.

'''The algorithms do not just check which film to suggest viewing next, they have started to invade the innermost sanctum of personality, our thoughts, dreams, wishes, visions, hopes, fears and secrets.
'''
'''
The listed consequences document a fundamental change of paradigms:
'''
我们需要提高意识，引导青少年注意屏幕时间和他们在网上分享的东西。我们需要避免沉迷于社交媒体。

'''算法不只是检查建议接下来看哪部电影，它们已经开始侵入人格、我们的思想、梦想、愿望、愿景、希望、恐惧和秘密的最深处的圣殿。'''

所列出的后果证明了范式的根本变化:--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 01:38, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

我们需要提高意识，引导青少年留意屏幕时间和网上分享，需要避免沉迷于社交媒体。

'''算法不只是检查建议接下来看哪部电影，它们已经开始侵入人格、我们的思想、梦想、愿望、愿景、希望、恐惧和秘密的最深处的圣殿。'''

所列出的后果证明了范式的基本变化:--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:11, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==
'''The cause-based decision-making by humans with established institutions like politicians, judges etc. is being replaced with correlation-based decision-making by algorithms which often serve the profit interests of tech companies or the political interests of election-manipulators.
'''

AI took the wrong development path, when it changed from serving humans to trying to manipulate humans for economic or political profit. When AI is used to educate citizens – like helping German customers to keep a clean credit history and a good credit score – then it changes the behavior of citizens to an exoskeletal ethic.

==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==
However, animals with an exoskeleton reduce their inside muscles and develop a soft inside, making them totally incapable of living without the exoskeleton. An exoskeletal ethic, giving reward points, for example, for behavior which is deemed positive and subtracting points for behavior which is deemed negative, deprives the human of the natural learning and developing process, in a social environment, of his responsibility and inner ethical judgment. If you were to meet a human with exoskeletal ethics and one who has inner ethics, whom would you trust more?

==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==
If we want to avoid the consequences listed in point 6, the public needs to become aware of this and nations and supranational organizations need to define legislation to a) protect privacy and data security, and b) give the user the control over his/her data including the commercial use of it where they earn a share from the profit made with the usage of his/her data.

==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==
'''9 Outlook'''

We need to accept, that the development is irreversible. Every new technology has created fears. Important is, that we become aware of the developments and adjust where the development heads into the wrong direction. We need set the right framework and incentives that the new technology stays on track to serve humanity.

==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==
New developments open new possibilities. We need to make sure that not only a few tech companies and terrorists use this powerful new technology to achieve their goals, but that the mass of smart device users emancipate themselves from addiction to and manipulation by technology and gain back their dignity, privacy and free will.

'''References
'''
（参考文献不用翻译）

AI-Demand. (2020). www.ai-demand.com/insights/data/big-data/big-data-and-facebook-the-heavenly-pair-that-isnt-quite-in-heaven/

Baecker, Dirk. (2007). ''Studien zur nächsten Gesellschaft''. Frankfurt 2007

Banken-Technologie. (2020). 26. Handelsblatt Jahrestagung. Banken-Technologie. „New Normal” in der Finanzwirtschaft: digital – intelligent – automatisiert – hybrid. 2. und 3.12.2020, Digital [Conference Announcement] https://veranstaltungen.handelsblatt.com/bankentechnologie/ki-machine-learning-finanzanalyse/

Booth, T. "Cambridge Analytica controversy must spur researchers to update data ethics." ''Nature'' 555.7698 (2018): 559-560.

Clickworker. (2019). www.clickworker.com/2019/04/30/ai-for-ecommerce/

Cui, Yu, Qing He, and Alireza Khani. (2018). Travel behavior classification: an approach with social network and deep learning. ''Transportation research record'', 2672(47), 68-80. https://par.nsf.gov/servlets/purl/10109453

Daley, Sam. (2020). 32 Examples of AI in Healthcare that Will Make you Feel better about the Future (July 4, 2019, updated July 29, 2020). builtin.com/artificial-intelligence/artificial-intelligence-healthcare

Euchner, Jim. (2019). Little ai, Big AI—Good AI, Bad AI. Terminology Management 62:3, 10-12. pdf:

https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/08956308.2019.1587280?needAccess=true

Golbeck, Jennifer, Cristina Robles, and Karen Turner. (2011). "Predicting personality with social media." ''CHI'11 extended abstracts on human factors in computing systems''. 2011. 253-262.

Jasso-Medrano, José Luis, and Fuensanta Lopez-Rosales. (2018). "Measuring the relationship between social media use and addictive behavior and depression and suicide ideation among university students." Computers in Human Behavior 87: 183-191.

Luhmann, Niklas. (1997). ''Die Gesellschaft der Gesellschaft''. 1997

Oddleifson, Evan. 2020, The Effects of Modern Data Analytics in Electoral Politics: Cambridge Analytica’s Suppression of Voter Agency and the Implications for Global Politics, ''Political Sciences Undergraduate Review'' 5 (2020) 7, 1-7.

https://journals.library.ualberta.ca/psur/index.php/psur/article/view/130/90/130-Article%20Text-642-1-10-20200401.pdf

Raj Kannan, J., Sabitha, R., Karthik, S., & Shanthini, J. (2020). Mouse Movement Pattern Based Analysis of Customer Behavior (CBA-MMP) Using Cloud Data Analytics. ''Wireless Personal Communications'', OnlineFirst, 1-17.

Ruan, Lotus, et al. "One App, Two Systems: How WeChat uses one censorship policy in China and another internationally." (2016).
Shensa, Ariel, et al. (2017). "Problematic social media use and depressive symptoms among US young adults: A nationally-representative study." ''Social Science & Medicine ''182: 150-157.

Talent Search People. (2020). How Will Artificial Intelligence Affect the Job Market? www.talentsearchpeople.com/en/blog/494-how-will-artificial-intelligence-affect-the-job-market/.

Van Den Eijnden, Regina JJM, Jeroen S. Lemmens, and Patti M. Valkenburg. (2016). "The social media disorder scale." ''Computers in Human Behavior ''61: 478-487.

Verschuere, Bruno, and Bennett Kleinberg. "ID‐check: Online Concealed Information Test reveals true identity." ''Journal of forensic sciences'' 61 (2016): S237-S240.

Vosoughi, Soroush, Deb Roy, and Sinan Aral. (2018). The spread of true and false news online. Science 359.6380: 1146-1151.. science.sciencemag.org/content/359/6380/1146

==Zhu Xu 朱旭==
'''Bio'''

Martin Woesler, PhD, is Jean Monnet Chair in European Studies with Hunan Normal University since 2020. At its Foreign Studies College, he is Distinguished Professor of Chinese Studies, Translation Studies and Comparative Literature since 2019. Woesler was elected Academian of the European Academy of Sciences and Arts, Salzburg in 2019.
Woesler has co-edited the books "China's Digital Dream", "Ethics of Information Society" and Springer has scheduled to publish the book "Diverse Voices in Chinese Translation and Interpretation" including his book chapter "Modern Interpreting with Digital and Technical Aids" in February 2021.

==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==
Woesler was a Senior Fellow of the German Science Foundation's (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft) Research College "Media Cultures of Computer Simulations" 2019‐2020 and hosted a related workshop with Bertelsmann Foundation in 2020. Woesler is also a researcher with Witten/Herdecke University, Germany, investigating the impact of daily screen time of children and of young people on their health.

History of Translation Studies 11

2020-12-21T05:15:29Z

Lin Xin: /* A Comparative Study of Translation Theory between Bell and Liu Zhongde 林鑫 Lin Xin 202020080617 英美文学 */

==Reflections of Translation Theory Books 李丽琴 Li Liqin, Student No.202070080595 MTI ==

===Abstract===

Rooted in translation practice, Chinese and Western translation theories share many similarities. Since they are bred in different cultural soil, they also have their own characteristics. On the basis of reviewing some books and papers on translation theories, this paper gives a detailed overview of the development of Chinese and Western translation theories, and then makes a comparison between them to reveal similarities and differences. In addition, this paper makes a comparative study of translation methods in the Chinese and Western translation circle, aiming to provide readers with a new perspective to have a better understanding of the framework and characteristics of the development of translation theories. In this context, the translation practice and study will be advanced.

===Key Words===

Chinese translation theories; Western translation theories; Translation methods; Similarity; Difference;

===题目===

读翻译理论书籍有感

===摘要===

中西译论根植于翻译实践活动，具有诸多得相似性，但它们孕育在不同的文化土壤之中，故又各具特色。本文在阅读有关翻译理论书籍及论文的基础上，对中西翻译理论的发展历程进行了较为详尽的梳理概述，并在此基础上对中西译论进行对比，揭示其相似性与相异性。此外，本文对中西译界的翻译方法进行对比研究，旨在为读者提供一个全新的视角，认识中西翻译理论发展的框架及各自的特点，有针对性地更好地推动翻译实践以及翻译研究的发展。

===关键词===

中国翻译理论；西方翻译理论；翻译方法；相似性；相异性；

===Introduction===

When it comes to translation, this paper argues that the concepts of translation and translation studies must be distinguished at the first place. On this basis, the relationship between translation theory and translation practice must be explored in depth, so as to better promote the development of translation studies and translation practice.

====Translation and Translation Study====

In 1987, the first National Seminar on Translation Theory was held in Qingdao province, China, which focused on the subject construction and development of translation studies. The issue "since translation studies is a science of translation, whether it should be regarded as an independent disciplinary" was raised and widely discussed at the conference. Tan Zaixi called for the establishment of translation studies after Dong Qiusi, which had a great impact on the translation circle and greatly promoted the development of translation. (Liu Pingjun 2018, 56)

Tan Zaixi believes that translation is a process of expressing the meaning of the source language into the target language. It is mainly a technology or art, but it is not a science. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 7-10) Translation studies is the study of translation. Its task is to reveal the objective laws of translation process and provide guidance for practical translation work. Translation studies is a comprehensive but independent science closely related to semiotics, literature and art, sociology, psychology, information theory, and linguistics. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 12)

A complete translation theory should include the following five parts. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 30-39) First of all, it need to clarify the essence of translation, including what is translation, what is the purpose of translation, what is the function of translation, what are the types of translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 30)

Secondly, a complete translation theory should describe the process of translation. In translation circle, the most influential one is the four-step model put forward by Nida: analysis-transliteration-recombination-test. Specifically, it means to analyse a text from the perspectives of semantics, grammar and style firstly. Then, transform the materials into the target language, and reorganize these converted materials to make them meet the requirements of the target language. Finally, translators should compare the translated text with the original one, thus making the translation as close as possible to the original information and maintaining the fluency and style of the original. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 32)

Thirdly, it need to define the principles and standards of translation, which is the key task of a translation theory. Translation is an activity with certain rules to follow. People summarize translation practice and then conclude principles of universal significance in ways that guide the practical translation process and measure the translation. In order to produce a good translation, the translator must have a clear aim or direction in the process of translation and a clear standard or measurement method to measure the translation. However, since the fact that translation is a complex activity with multiple purposes and functions, it should never be studied from a single perspective. Any attempt to hold a specific standard as the highest standard in the absolute sense or to adhere to dogma is not in line with the translation principles and is unreasonable. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 34)

Fourthly, it should describe the methods of translation. It refers to the methods and techniques adopted in the translation process, which directly influence the choice of words and sentence of the translator and the structure of the translation. There are various translation methods commonly used in translation practice, such as augmentation, ellipsis, repetition, conversion, displacement, segmenting long sentences, and free translation. The translation theory must give a comprehensive and systematic summary of these translation methods to help the translator to better leverage translation methods in translation practice. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 37)

Fifthly, it must present a comprehensive explanation of possible contradictions in translation, including the contradiction between content and form, the contradiction between purpose and method, the contradiction between the author and the translator. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 38)

====Translation Theory and Translation Practice====

Corresponding theories will inevitably emerge when social practice of humanity develops to a certain stage. Translation, as a long-term practice activity, is no exception. Therefore, translation theories must come from translation practice. (Zhou Lingshun 2019, 15) Translation theories will never be generated without the in-depth observation and understanding of translation practice and its influences. There is an interactive relationship between translation theory and translation practice. (Xu Jun, Mu Lei 2009, 104)

In the long-term social practice, people will inevitably encounter problems that need to be solved and generate doubts that need to be explained. Theory is the ideological system explaining social practice, and its purpose is to answer questions and eliminate doubts. In this sense, the fact is that practice calls for theory. (Sun Yifeng 2002, 4-5)

Taking China's current translation situation as an example. As the Belt and Road Initiative proposed by China gains increasing popularity in countries along the route, the desire of other countries to know more about China is getting stronger. In this context, the volume of translating Chinese into foreign languages exceeds that of translating foreign languages into Chinese for the first time in translation history, meanwhile, related problems are also arising. (Yang Mingxing 2014, 103) Specifically, if the translation stays faithful to the original text, it external communication function will not be fully leveraged. Therefore, translators is confused about whether the translation should be faithful to the original text.

Although translation practice does not depend on translation theory for its existence, translation theory inevitably comes from translation practice. Once it comes into being, it will guide translation practice in turn.

===Comparison of Translation Theories between China and the West===

Both Chinese and western translation activities enjoy a long history. In the long course of translation practice, translation theory came into being. Chinese translation theories gradually develops towards the direction of systematic and comprehensive since the start of the translation of Buddhist scriptures. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Meanwhile, western translation theories have witnessed improvement as the advancement of translation practice and translation study. Both the Chinese translation theory and the western translation theory are based on translation practice, and they are gradually developed into systematic theories while guiding translation practice. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)

This chapter first combs the development of Chinese and western translation theories in detail, on this basis, it further reveals the similarities and otherness between the two theories.

====The Development of Western Translation Theory====

The development of Western translation theory can be divided into five stages. (Tan Zaixi 2009, 46-70)

1. Literature and Bible translation theories in ancient Rome

At the end of the 4th century BC, the once flourishing Greek began to decline and Rome grew stronger. However, at that time, the Greek culture was superior to the Roman culture, so it was attractive for Rome. Many of epics of Homer and dramatic works of Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides were translated into Latin by many writers. This was the first translation activity with a large scale in Europe and even in the whole western history, which initiated the translation activity and gave birth to the Roman literature. (Liang Dan 2016, 103)

From the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, religious forces in western countries were strong and stubborn, and the Christian church remained hostile to secular literature and tried its best to develop a religious culture for the interests of themselves. As the source of Christian thought and a spiritual weapon, the Bible became the classic in the religious circles. On this basis, the Bible was translated widely. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 91)

The earliest translation theorist in the West was Cicero in the Roman Empire. For the first time, he distinguished translations "as a translator" and "as a speaker". (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) Cicero viewed translation from the perspectives of a rhetorician and speaker. A translation "as a translator" refers to a translation that is not creative, while a translation "as a speaker" refers to one that is creative and comparable to the original work. After that, the history of western translation theories has been focusing on the issues of literal translation and free translation, word-for-word translation and flexible translation, faithfulness and unfaithfulness, accuracy and inaccuracy. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93)

2. Translation theories from the Middle Ages to Renaissance

Boethius contributed to the introduction of Greek philosophical thoughts by translation, and also had unique views on translation theory. According to Boethius, it is impossible to maintain both content and style in translation. Translators should put aside subjective judgment, especially for some religious translations, which only require accurate content rather than elegant style. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) What’s more, Dante put forward the theory of "literary untranslatability", in which he contended that the characteristics of the original text can hardly be reflected in the translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) Therefore, he believed that literary translation is impossible.

At the end of the Middle Ages, people's demand for national language became urgent. In this context, a large-scale translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the upsurge of nationalism. Bruni, the representative of this period, believed that a translator should act according to his ability. Specifically, a translator should never do anything beyond his capacity for fear that it will waste energy and come to nothing. In addition, he believed that translators should have a wide range of knowledge; the best translation method is to keep the style of the original work as much as possible; translators should figure out the attitude and standpoint of the original author and try to imitate the rhetoric devices and idioms used by the original author. (Wang Songzhen 2015, 61)

3. Theories of literary translation in the Renaissance

The Renaissance refers to the revival of literature, art and science in ancient Greece and Rome. It began in Italy at the end of the 14th century and spread to Europe, especially western European countries, in the 15th and 16th centuries. During this period, many translators compared their achievements in translation to "trophies" of literary knowledge. Besides, they translated many works relating to building a prosperous country into national languages, including political, philosophical, social systems, literature, art and other classic works. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 91) There are also many representatives in this period.

Erasmus did not submit to the authority of theology, and believed that the translation of the Bible depended on the language knowledge of the translator; while Luther put forward that translation must adopt and absorb the humanist thought of popular language. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55) In terms of Amyot, he held the opinion that the translator must fully understand the original text and concentrate efforts to the translation of the content; the writing style of translation must be simple and natural. He emphasized the unity of literal translation and free translation as well as the combination of content and form. (Wang Songzhen 2015, 61)

''On How to Translate Excellently'' was published in 1540. In this article, Dolet proposed five basic principles to be followed in the process of translation. (Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 2008, 163) That is, the translator must understand the original content; the translator must be bilingual; the translator must avoid word-for-word translation, for the reason that word-for-word translation damages the communication and linguistic beauty of the original text; the translator must adopt colloquial forms of language; the translator must pay attention to the diction and adjust word order properly, so as to reproduce the equivalent effects as the original one. (Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 2008, 165)

4.Theories of literary translation in Modern times

Influenced by the impetus of the Renaissance, translation in western countries continued to march forward in modern times. The 18th century was an important period in the course of Western translation. In the 19th century, translation began to shift its focus from ancient works to modern or contemporary works. (Wang Songzhen 2015, 61)

According to Bartow, the original author is the master while the translator is the servant in translation activities. The translator can only follow the original work closely and faithfully reproduce the idea and style of it, instead of creating, modifying and subtracting. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)

Tytler put forward three basic translation principles in his book ''Essay on the Principles of Translation'': a translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; a translation should have all the ease of the original composition. In addition, he also proposed the standards of an excellent translation. (Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 2008, 163)

Schlermacher, one of the leading figures in German romanticism, had extensive knowledge and made great contributions in hermeneutics and translation studies. He proposed two translation methods in ''On the Different Methods of Translating''. One is to do not disturb the author and let the reader get closer to the author, while the other is to make the author approach readers and do not disturb the reader, among which the former is regarded as the source of foreignizing translation by later generations. At the same time, he took the lead in making a clear distinction between interpretation and translation and to elaborate on it. Although his views on interpretation were wrong, they were still of great significance. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)

Humboldt believed that language determines the world view and put forward the theory that language is both translatable and untranslatable. This had a great impact in the 20th century, making the translatability and untranslatability of language once again become one of the hot topics discussed by translation theorists. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)

5.Contemporary translation theories since the World War II

Since the end of the World War II, the world has been in a state of relative peace. After the baptism of the war, western countries began to restore and develop production and economy in full swing. In this context, translation has also entered a new stage of development in which the dimensions, forms, scales and achievements of translation are unparalleled in any other period in history. (Xu Weizhi 2009, 100)

During this period, commercial, diplomatic, scientific and technological and other professional translations witness unprecedented development; translation teaching is widely carried out; many organizations of translators are established and the publications on translation-related studies are increasing; machine translation is emerging; works on translation theory emerge in an endless stream. (Xu Weizhi 2009, 101)

Jakobson, an outstanding Russian linguist, divided translation into three categories from the perspective of semiotics: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. Intralingual translation refers to the use of language signs to explain other language signs in the same language, which is also called "the change of expression"; interlingual translation is the interpretation between two languages, that is, to explain certain language signs with the signs of another language; intersemiotic translation is to interpret linguistic signs through the non-linguistic sign system, or to interpret non-linguistic signs with linguistic signs. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 157)

Nida is an American linguist, translator and translation theorist. On the basis of previous research results, he constantly improved his theory from the practical point of view. The core concept of Nida's theory is "functional equivalence", which means that the translation should achieve functional equivalence between two languages instead of the rigid correspondence of words. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 139)

Levy is a Czech literary theorist and translation theorist. He believed that the process of translation is the process in which the translator makes decisions constantly, and discussed the translator's decision strategies in detail. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)

====The Development of Chinese Translation Theory====

The development of Chinese translation theory can be divided into four stages.(Tan Zaixi 2005, 188)

1. Translation theory of Buddhist in the Late Han, Sui and Tang Dynasties

The first stage mainly focused on classical translation theory, which began in the East Han period and ended in the Opium War. The translation theory of this period mainly discusses the translation of Buddhist scriptures, generating a positive enlightenment to the later translation theory. Zhi Qian, Dao An, Kumarajiva and Xuanzang are the representative figures of this period. (Liang Dan 2016, 103)

Zhi Qian broke the shackles of literal translation and pursued the elegance of the text. Different from Zhi Qian, Dao An advocated literal translation for fear of distortion when he was responsible for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. What’s more, he put forward the famous translation principle of "Five Losses of Source Texts and Three Difficulties in Translation", believing that in translating Buddhist scriptures, there are five circumstances in which the translation will lose its original features and three dimensions that are difficult to achieve in translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 188-189)

Kumarajiva was in charge of over four hundred volumes of Buddhist scriptures translation, which played an important role in the formation and development of Buddhism in China during the Six Dynasties period. His views on translation methods was profound and unique, but unfortunately there are few written records. Xuanzang is regarded as one of the influential figures in the ancient Chinese translation field. He put forward the translation standard of "a good translation should be both faithful to the original and intelligible to the public", believing that the translation must be faithful and smooth. (Li Yuntao 2007, 107)

2. Translation theory of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties

The second stage began with the Opium War and ended with the May 4th Movement. Against the background of domestic turmoil and foreign aggression, translators engaged in scientific and technological translation by adhering to the philosophy of "beat foreigners by learning from their advantages". (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Therefore, the translation theory in this period is practical.

The main representatives were Ma Jianzhong, Yan Fu, Reform Scholars, members of the Westernization School and so on. Ma Jianzhong put forward "good translation" and tried to eliminate the disadvantages of the translation of the Westernization School. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 189) In addition, Yan Fu called for "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", which not only had a great impact at that time, but also generated an unprecedented influence on the entire translation circle for years to come. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 190)

3. Modern translation theory from 1919 to 1949

The third stage began with the May 4th Movement and ended with the founding of the People’s Republic of China in 1949. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 188) During this period, there were a great number of foreign literature being introduced in the translation field, resulting in flourishing literary translation.

Qu Qiubai put forward the concept of "equivalence", that is, translation should deliver the meaning of the original text to Chinese readers in a complete and correct manner, so that the Chinese readers can receive the meaning as the readers of the original text. (Liang Dan 2016, 103)

Chen Xiying drew a conclusion of the three realms of translation--resemblance in form, resemblance in meaning and resemblance in spirit--from the experience of artistic creation and copying. He combined translation theories with the aesthetics of literature and art, directly inspiring the translation theories of Fu Lei and others. (Liang Dan 2016, 103)

Fu Lei emphasized the resemblance of spirit but not of form. Besides, Mao Dun believed that the reproduction of artistic conception is the most important task of literary translation, so that the target readers can receive the same feelings as if reading the original text. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 189)

4. Contemporary translation theory since the 1950s

During this period, translation is considered as a discipline by translators. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) In 1951, Dong Qiusi published On the Construction of Translation Theory, which marked the beginning of the transformation of Chinese translation theory towards a systematic development. In 1990, Liu Miqing published Modern Translation Theories, marking the establishment of a modern translation system in China. (Liang Dan 2016, 103)

====Similarities and Differences====

By sorting out the development of Chinese and Western translation theories, it can be found that due to the differences in economic, political, cultural and social backgrounds between China and the West, there are some differences between Chinese and Western translation theories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 222)

First of all, the purposes of establishing translation theory are different for both sides. Chinese theorists stress the practicality of theories and and emphasize the function of theories to better guide the translation practice. However, theorists in western countries pay more attention to the abstractedness, systematicness and organization of translation theories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 222-224)

Secondly, there are different thinking patterns. The Chinese people attach great importance to understanding ability and sensitivity, while the West is rationality-oriented. Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism require people’s understanding ability and sensitivity; the western philosophy, which originated from Plato and Aristotle, emphasizes rational thinking of humanity. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 226)

Thirdly, they have different ways of expressing translation theories. In China, translation theorists tend to refine their words and condense their meanings, thus giving people more space for understanding. So Chinese theorists explain translation theories in a vague and implicit way. For example, after putting forward the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” in the first half of his great work Evolution and Ethics, Yan Fu did not make any further supplement or explanation for this translation standard. (Xu Weizhi 2009, 101)

Fourthly, China maintains relatively conservative in translation studies while the West pursues innovation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 233) Traditionally, the Chinese people have a strong tendency to worship the ancient and authority, and their thinking pattern is influenced by the philosophy of "universal application". For instance, the “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” proposed by Yan Fu is regarded as an insuperable existence by some people.

The difference is inevitable. Although Chinese and Western translation theorists have their own terminology and experience in translation, there are strikingly similarities in terms of principles, methods, standards and categories of translation. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 163) It reveals the inherent commonness in the thinking mode of translation, and indicates that translation has rules to follow, which are objective and break the shackles of different languages and cultures. (Tan Zaixi, 2005, 213)

First of all, there are similarities in basic translation methods between Chinese and Western translation history. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 216) Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theorists have considered similar issues, including the principle of translation, the purpose of translation, the process of translation, the relationship between the author, the translator and the reader, and so on. In terms of translation methods, it can be found that literal translation and free translation are distinguished by both Chinese and Western theorists in the study of translation methods, and that the commonly used methods are amplification, abridgement, adaptation, interpretation, transliteration and so on. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)

Secondly, issues relating to "faithfulness" have always been the core topic of translation theories in both China and the West since ancient times. (Liang Dan 2016, 104) When expressing the concept of "the translation must be faithful to the original", various terms are used both in China and in the West, mainly including fidelity, loyalty, accuracy, equivalence, correspondence, etc. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 218-219)

Thirdly, the principles and methods of translation have been systematically summarized by both Chinese and Western translation theorists. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 220) For example, Dolet summarized the "five elements of translation"; Tytler put forward "three principles of translation"; Dao An proposed ""Five Losses of Source Texts and Three Difficulties in Translation"; Xuanzang proposed a concrete principle of "Five Categories of Untranslated Terms”. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)

After a detailed analysis of the development of Chinese and Western translation theories, it can be concluded that the difference in philosophical thoughts, value systems, and languages and cultures has always posing an important impact on the development of Chinese and Western translation theories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 193-194) Although Chinese and Western translation theories have different development backgrounds and show some differences, the similarity between them should be observed. Similarity is the main characteristic of the development of translation thoughts, which is not restricted by different languages and cultures. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 193)

It can be reflected in the striking similarity between Chinese and Western translation principles, methods and standards. For example, Yan Fu's translation standard presents similarity with that of Tytler. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) The development of translation theories of the two sides is independent from each other, but they share some commonality. This exactly reveals that translation is objective and transcends the barriers of different languages and cultures.

===Reflections of Translations Methods===

====Domestication and Doreignization====

Domestication and foreignization are proposed by Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, in the Translator's Invisibility in 1995. (Zhang Mei, Wang Rongyuan 2019, 19) As two translation methods, domestication and foreignization are contrary, united and mutually reinforcing.

Domestication is to localize the source language. (Venuti 1995, 19-21) It adopts the expressions that the target reader is accustomed to to convey the content of the source language. In addition, it helps readers to understand the source text better and enhance the readability and appreciation of the translation. Foreignization is to adapt to the language features of foreign cultures, absorb foreign language expressions. (Venuti 1995, 29)

Since this method fully takes the difference and diversity of national cultures into consideration and reflects the characteristics of foreign language styles, its purpose is to preserve and reflect the exoticism. In other words, domestication is oriented toward the target language culture, while foreignization is source language culture oriented. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 13) For example, the sentence”something is springing up like mushrooms”, if handled in foreignizing translation, its Chinese version will be”犹如蘑菇一般”; but if in domestication, it will be “如雨后春笋一般’。

Some scholars believe that translators should only use one translation strategy in entire translation process, and that domestication or foreignization should be separated. However, it is difficult for translators to adhere to it in translation practice. Translation requires us to faithfully reproduce the ideas and styles of the original authors, which are of strong exotic atmosphere, so it is inevitable to adopt the foreignizing method. Meanwhile, the translation should also take the reader's response and the smoothness of the original text into consideration. In this context, the domestication method is essential. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17)

This paper holds the opinion that translation is more likely to be dominated by domestication. The essential purpose of translation is to facilitate communication and help the target readers to understand the meaning of the original. Therefore, in most cases, translation should conform to the norms of the target language, so as to make it possible for readers to understand the foreign cultures and achieve the purpose of translation. However, although the paper contends that domestication is in a dominant role, it doesn’t mean the foreignization method should be abandoned. Actually, foreignization and domestication are not two antagonistic concepts, instead, they are complementary and mutually reinforcing. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17-18)

====The Three Principles of Tytler and Yan Fu’s Theory====

In the long course of translation development in both China and the West, various schools of translators have put forward important translation standards. Among them, Yan Fu proposed "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" and Tytler put forward the “three principles of translation”. These two standards are of great importance and far-reaching influence in the translation circle. More importantly, the similarity between them has drawn wider attention among translators. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)

In 1989, Yan Fu mentioned in the preface of the Evolution and Ethics, "three things are hard to achieve in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance". (Liu Junbiao 2009, 220) However, Yan Fu did not present detailed definition of it, instead, he further stated that "it is difficult to stay faithful to the original text; if the translation is faithful without expressiveness, it is equal to untranslated ones; therefore, expressiveness should be put at priority”. It is the statement that generates controversy of its definition in the academic circle. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)

In 1790, Tytler proposed the three principles of translation in his great work Essay on the Principles of Translation, that is, a translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; a translation should have all the ease of the original composition. (Tytler 1790, 9) It caused extensive repercussions in the translation circle and is considered as a milestone in the history of Western translation. (Ren Qingliang 2016, 201)

The three principles of Tytler pose put requirements on the translator from three aspects: meaning, style and spirit. (Reng Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) In addition, according to Tytler, the three principles are ranked in order of importance. When the three principles are in conflict, the third principle should be abandoned first, the next is the second principle. Tytler contended that at no time should the content of the original be abandoned for the sake of the fluency of the translation. (Liu Junbiao 2009, 220)

Yan Fu believed that translation should pursue faithfulness, but if it is inexpressive, it would be equivalent to untranslated ones. Thus it can be seen that Yan Fu emphasized the relationship and coordination among faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, and elevated importance of “expressiveness” to the same position as "faithfulness". (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)

====Free Translation and Literal Translation====

The central problem of translation has always been whether to translate literally or freely. The argument has been going on since at least the first century BC. (Newmark, Peter 1988, 45) In China, as early as the late Eastern Han Dynasty, a famous translator of Buddhist scriptures Zhi Chen put forward his opinion of literal translation that pays more attention to the preservation of the original intention than wording. He advocated that since scriptures are abstruse and hard to understand, the translation should focus on the content and meaning of the original text rather than the flowery language. However, his disciple Zhi Qian objected to the method of literal translation from the perspective of literary form and called for free translation. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 99)

Literal translation refers to an adequate representation of the original. (Feng Qinghua 2002, 37) It reproduces both the style and the ideological content of the original, and retains as much as possible the figures of speech or sentence structures. Free translation does not adhere strictly to the form or word order of the original while only maintains the content of the original work. (Feng Qinghua 2002, 37) For instance, the Chinese sentence “你不要班门弄斧”, if handled in free translation, it English version will be “don’t teach fish to swim”; but if in literal translation, it will be “don’t display your axe at Lu Ban’s door”.

In the process of translation, only by having a thorough understanding of the thoughts and emotions in the original text and using the two strategies flexibly, can the original text be translated into a fluent and expressive target language. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 99) Both literal translation and free translation should be accurate and reproduce the original meaning both in form and in spirit. There should be no judgement of good or bad between the two strategies. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 100)

Nevertheless, the differences between the two can not be ignored. Literal translation requires higher degree of faithfulness to the original. It is generally used in the science, technology and law-related translations for the reason that such article types require precise words and avoid ambiguity. Free translation, on the other hand, is relatively abstract. It is often used in translating poetry, prose and other literary works, to express the main connotation of the original text with divergent thinking, thus increasing the aesthetic feeling and artistry of translation.(Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 100)

===Conclusion===

Translation is the process of replacing the source language with the target language. (Catford 1965, 20) In the final analysis, translation is an activity closely related to language, while language cannot be separated from thinking ability. It is the overlap of human thought patterns that makes translation possible. However, the difference between Chinese and Western way of thinking is universal, which will be manifested in all fields, including the translation circle. Traditionally, the Chinese people were good at synthesizing, while people in the West were adept in analyzing. Therefore, traditional Chinese translation theories are mostly a summary of experience, which largely depends on the subjective feelings of the translator. However, western translation theories are based on rational analysis and scientific research, instead of relying on subjective feelings.

Translation has its own rules of development, which is proved by the similarity between Chinese and Western translation theories. Since translation theories in China and the West have their own advantages, this paper proposes that more tolerance should be given to the diversity and the essence should be absorbed so as to promote the development of translation theories in the world.

Both Chinese and Western translation theories are important parts of the translation systems, and they provide strong theoretical support for translation practice. There is no superiority or inferiority of translation theories. Translation theories in China and the West are rooted in translation practice but nurtured in different linguistic environments and cultural backgrounds. It must be realized that the similarities are greater than differences, and that the significance of differences more important than similarities. It is because of the differences that China and the West need to draw on strengths and learn from each other.

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==A Brief Introduction to Lu Xun's Translation Theory - 张瑜 Zhang Yu, 202070080625, MTI英语笔译==
<center>张瑜 Zhang Yu </center>

===Abstract===
Lu Xun, as China's renowned writer, thinker and one of founders of Chinese modern literature, has left a great amount of precious spiritual wealth. His representative works include ''Outcry'', ''A Madman's Diary'', ''Dawn Blossoms Plucked at Dusk'', ''Wild Grass'' and so on, which are the bright pearls of Chinese literature. We have a general understanding of his identity as a writer. In fact, as a translator, Lu Xun has also left profound translation works for next generations, including translations of literature and theory works. Even from the time line, the records of his translation activities are far prior to his literary creation. His earliest novel, ''Nostalgia'', was finished in 1911, while his earliest translation, ''Mournful World'', was finished in 1903. In the process of translating different works, Lu Xun gradually formed his own translation theory. Therefore, learning more about his translation theory is conducive to comprehensively recognizing him. This paper mainly introduces Lu Xun's translation theory as well as its formation and development. The purpose is to lead everyone to have a more profound understanding to Lu Xun's theory.

===Key Words===
Lu Xun, Translation Theory, Literal Translation, Hard Translation, Rather to be Faithful than Fluent

===题目===
浅谈鲁迅的翻译思想

===摘要===
鲁迅作为我国著名的文学家、思想家、中国现代文学的奠基人之一，给我们留下了一大批宝贵的精神财富，如他的代表作品《呐喊》、《狂人日记》、《朝花夕拾》、《野草》等，都是我国文学宝库中璀璨的明珠。而我们对他的了解可能始于他的作家身份，但事实上，作为翻译家的鲁迅也给后人留下了内容丰富的翻译作品，其中包括文学作品翻译和理论著作翻译。甚至从时间上来看，他从事翻译活动要远远早于文学创作活动，鲁迅最早的小说《怀旧》创作于1911年，而他最早的译文《哀尘》则完成于1903年。鲁迅在从事翻译活动的过程中，逐渐形成了自己的翻译思想，所以了解鲁迅的翻译思想有助于我们更加全面地了解鲁迅。本章回将主要介绍鲁迅的翻译思想及其形成与发展,以此让大家对鲁迅的翻译思想有一个更深刻的了解。

===关键词===
鲁迅，翻译思想，直译，硬译，宁信不顺

===Introduction===
It is estimated that Lu Xun has translated 144 pieces of works of 110 writers from 15 countries and regions in his whole lifetime. Meanwhile, Lu Xun was engaged in translating foreign literary works from 1903 to 1936, starting from the translation ''Yue Jie Lv Xing'' and ending with the ''Death Souls'', which last a long period. Therefore, his identity as a translator cannot be neglected. In fact, in the process of undertaking translation, Lu Xun has made great contributions to the Chinese translation history, such as coming up with a series of translation theory. This paper intends to introduce Lu Xun's translation theory, including his purpose of translation, literal translation and hard translation, the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent", retranslation and translation criticism. Then it discusses the formation and development of Lu Xun's translation theories from the perspective of "intermediate". At last, it analyzes the social reasons for the formation and development.(Xu Lan 2017,447)

===Lu Xun's Translation Theories===
About the translation theory, Lu Xun had not written a book to expound it. His translation theory is embodied in his numerous translation works, and concluded by late scholars. In this part, it intends to introduce five aspects of his translation theory, namely purposes of translation, literal translation and hard translation, the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent", retranslation as well as translation criticism.

====Purpose of Translation====
From 1903 to 1936, the works and articles translated by Lu Xun can be divided into two categories. One includes scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works; another includes other articles and works such as children's literature. However, the translations of these two categories have different purposes.（Chen 2000, 289）

For the first category, he hoped that these translation works are able to serve for the revolution and serve as the "guide of future revolutions". In the ''Hard translation and Hierarchy of Literature'' published in 1930, Lu Xun responded that "it works for me, for some who claim proletarian literary critics, and for some readers who are willing to learn more about the theory in spite of having difficulties" (Chen 2000,289). From the remarks of Lu Xun, it can be seen that his translations aimed at not only improving and introspecting himself, but also helping those literature workers who stand with him. In his essays, he usually compared the importance of translation to the Greek mythology that the hero Prometheus stole fire from the gods and gave it to earthly mortals. In his views, he believed that these scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works were able to bring "fire and light" for people. For example, the purpose of translating the Russian work, ''Destruction'', was to introduce steel-willed characters and struggles without fear of sacrifice, encourage Chinese people to engage themselves in revolutionizing the old society, and provide references for Chinese revolutionary writers to create more inspiring works. (Chen 2000,289-290)

For the second category, Lu Xun hoped that these translation works were able to provide reference materials for people. In the preface of his translation work, ''Ideology, Landscape, Figure'', he mentioned that "my translation and introduction aim at making partial readers learn the existence of those things, persons, ideology and remarks…Therefore, if I believe that it’s useful and beneficial, I would attempt to translate it (Chen 2000,290)." It’s obvious that as long as Chinese people could learn something from these works translated by him, the value of translations has been achieved. (Chen 2000,290-291)

There are two aspects to explain Lu Xun's translation of children's literature. On the one hand, there was no fairy tales in Chinese literature at that time. Thus, he wanted to make up for the blank. Meanwhile, children, as the future of nation, were deemed to the white paper, which had the boundless possibility to develop and shape. On the other hand, the feudal thoughts of old China had some detrimental effects on cultivating children (Wu 2009,183). Therefore, Lu Xun translated foreign works about children's literature to introduce new educational views and patterns and attract people's attention to dissolve constraints. (Wu 2009, 183-184)

====Free Translation and Hard Translation====
The concept of "literal translation" was proposed by Lu Xun and his brother Zhou Zuoren in the 1920s. In the ''Outside Novels'', they definitely put forward the concept literal translation, which played an important role in the modern history of translation and triggered heated discussion. Their purposes mainly focused on the problem of prevailing translation methods including mistranslation and random correction and deletion at that time. They hoped that the introduction of literal translation could give a definite direction to the chaotic situation. They mentioned that "it is better to choose the word-for-word translation, and if not, it should be translated as a sentence rather than be translated in the middle" (Chen 2000,176) in order to keep the style of the original text. Besides, they also distinguished the differences between literal translation and irresponsible translation. In the preface of his collected translation ''Peg-top'', Zhou Zuoren proposed that "the precondition of literal translation was that it should convey the meaning of the original and preserve its style as much as possible. In other words, it should be "faithful" and "expressiveness". Some people were seemed to misunderstand the meaning of the literal translation and they regarded literal translation as rigid translation word for word. For example, they translated 'lying on his back' into '卧着在他的背上' instead of '仰卧着'. Here, the former was irresponsible translation and the latter was literal translation (Chen 2000,177)." Lu Xun also supported his statement. In the following translation practice, Lu Xun has been sticking to literal translation. (Chen 2000, 176-177)

In 1929, Lu Xun formally proposed the concept of hard translation in ''The Supplement to the Translators of Literature and Criticism''. "Because of the inadequate ability of translators and the shortcomings of the Chinese text, the translation is obscure, making it difficult for readers to comprehend many parts of the translation. If the text was translated word for word, the refined original tone will be lost. However, there is no other methods other than hard translation. The only remaining hope is that the readers are still willing to read it in spite of difficulties (Lu 1958,286)." On September 10, 1929, Liang Shiqiu published ''Discussion on Lu Xun's Hard Translation'' and he believed that "hard translation" was just "rigid translation". In the reply to Liang Shiqiu, Lu Xun expounded his opinions on "hard translation" from the perspective of academy. Firstly, the works used with hard translation including scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works aimed at specific readers. Here, it closely related to the purpose of his translation. Lu Xun hoped that these translation works could awaken insensitive Chinese people and make them learn more about the reality of western countries to change the current situation of old China. Therefore, he chose hard translation and present readers the authentic pictures as much as possible. Secondly, in fact, Lu Xun also confessed that his translation was not satisfactory, but he had not found more appropriate methods to translate these books. And he believed that there were excellent translators who were able to translate faithful articles without using of hard translation or distortions in translation. When the better translation appeared, the version of his translation would be discarded naturally. However, in the period from nothing to good versions, his translation was willing to serve as the intermediate to make up for the blank.(Chen 2000,294-295)

====Rather to be Faithful than Fluent====
In the ''Message About Translation'', Lu Xun definitely proposed the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent" in the process of translating. In Lu Xun's views, he believed that the translation should not only keep the "exoticness" and "foreignness" of the original text in its contents and culture, but also imitate the word order and sentence structures of foreign language, which naturally led to be non-fluent. In the ''Title of Essays are Not Fixed'', Lu Xun pointed out that "every translation must take care of both sides, the first side is that it should be easy to understand, and the other is to preserve the richness of the original. But the second one often contradicts the first one. That means readers can't understand it. The original text is foreign to the target reader. For the sake of the readability, the translator has to change the original structure, but he should not shorten the original expression" (Huang 2018,24). At that time, Zhao Jingshen proposed his own view "rather to be fluent than faithful". His view was criticized by Lu Xun. As for the idea of "rather to be faithful than fluent", readers were able to understand the contents; if not, they could understand when connecting it with practice. While "rather to be fluent than faithful" emphasized the fluency instead of faithfulness, it resulted that readers were unable to understand the original text or even misunderstood based on subjective speculation. It obviously made no sense. For example, due to supporting the idea of "rather to be fluent than faithful", Zhao Jingshen translated the "Milky Way" into "牛奶路" instead of "银河". This kind of translation was ridiculous and easy to misdirect and confuse targeted readers. (Chen 2000, 296)

There were two purposes for Lu Xun to put forward the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent". Firstly, one was to resist ethnocentrism and introduce foreign culture to reform and rebuild the profound impression on Chinese culture. Therefore, he introduced the new vocabulary, new grammas and new expressions from the foreign languages, and then involve the readers into the new foreign context. He pointed out that being non-fluent was temporary. It resulted from unfamiliarity and intolerance of Chinese readers to the foreign language. And then it would change into fluency when native language absorbed the foreign language and people began to be accustomed to it (Li 2019,204). Secondly, another purpose was to change Chinese people's thinking model and language expression. The language controlled people's thinking pattern. It was necessary to reform Chinese language in order to change the national spirit. In the ''Message About Translation'', he said that "in addition to introducing the original contents to Chinese readers, translation had another important function, that is, to help us create new and modern Chinese language (Lu 2005,380)." Lu Xun also mentioned that Chinese had many disadvantages such as a lack of explicitness and accuracy. In the introduction of ''Little Jones'', he said that "European language is explicit, but my ability is limited (Lu 1981,256)." Besides, at that time the development of vernacular was immature. Then Lu Xun also said that "the biggest reason that the Europeanized grammar intruded into the Chinese vernacular was for the necessity rather than curiosity (Lu 1981,520)" Therefore, based on the deep understanding to flaws of Chinese, it was necessary to introduce useful expression and vocabulary to reform Chinese.(Li 2019, 201-209)

In conclusion, although the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent" was attacked by other scholars after its introduction, in fact, this concept showed Lu Xun's progressive thoughts and his tolerance to foreign cultures.

====Retranslation====
Retranslation refers to two kinds of translation, that is, one is using the third language to indirectly translate the original works, and another is having different translation versions for the same work. Although the first type of retranslation is not an ideal method, it's quite common in the history of translation. For example, the translation of Buddhist scriptures was from foreign languages to Chinese instead of being translated directly from Sanskrit. As for Lu Xun's attitude towards retranslation, he believed that the ideal translation should be translated by those who mastered the original-text language. However, in the first quarter of 20th century, no one understood or had a good command of eastern European languages. Therefore, under the circumstance retranslation was the best choice to introduce other nations' literature. In the foreword of the ''Russian Fairy Tales'', Lu Xun even candidly confessed that "I was not satisfied with my version of retranslation, but there are no other translation versions because of objective limitations. My version existed just for the period of vacancy. Once someone directly translated it, and its version must be much better. Then my version was willing to be replaced (Chen 2000,302-303)." In his point of view, he agreed that retranslation was much easier than direct translation. It included two reasons: firstly, the translator who directly translated the original text spent a large amount of time to research and digest the unintelligible and complex contents, and then he was able to express the meaning of the original text as much as possible. Secondly, as for those excellent but indigestible contents, the translator who was faithful to the original text would provide annotations to explain them. (Gu 2009, 26)

The second type of retranslation was having different translation versions for the same work. At the beginning, Lu Xun's attitude towards it was firmly against it. He believed that bookstores and readers at that time were unable to accept two translation versions for the same book. However, later Lu Xun actually put forward the necessity of retranslating the same work. In 1935, he wrote a piece of monograph and explained the reasons (Chen 2000,305). On the one hand, retranslation was the only choice to repel irresponsible translation. If there was only one version for the original text, it was unavoidable for the irresponsible translator to randomly tamper the original meaning or add subjective opinions. On the other hand, retranslation was conducive to improving the levels of new literature. When different versions appeared, comparison and critical analysis appeaered. Consequently, people were willing to choose the better one to read. Besides, Lu Xun also mentioned that the later translators could learn from the previous translation and add their own new ideas in order to make the new translation version closer to the original text. (Gu 2009, 27)

====Translation Criticism====
As for the translation criticism, Lu Xun came up with two questions, that is, the methods of making translation criticism and the importance of translation criticism. Firstly, about the methods of translation criticism, in the ''Defended for Translation Criticism'', Lu Xun proposed that "the major responsibility of translation criticism depended on translator, and circles of readers and publishing should take a part of responsibility. The correct methods of translation criticism were to point out the bad one and reward the best one; if not, the better one could also be considered (Chen 2000,306)." Besides, in order to explain the methods of translation criticism, Lu Xun used a vivid comparison. He compared the translation problems to apples with scars. As for the previous methods, once there were scars in the apples, people would discard them completely, which led to a high price. Later as long as the apples with scars were edible, they were worthwhile to criticize. Then the latter one led to less losses. In other words, previously, if the translation had obvious problems, people would forsake it without hesitation. But people also found that it was likely to waste a great amount of time and energy. The later methods further improved the disadvantage of the first one. If translation problems were found, people were able to exploit the useful part and learn something from the problems to create a better translation. This method not only helped people distinguish the quality of translation, but also saved time and reduced losses. (Chen 2000, 306-307)

Secondly, Lu Xun also expounded the importance of translation criticism. In the ''Rediscussion on translation'', he mentioned that translation criticism "undertook the responsibility of cultivation or deletion, and avoided numerous and miscellaneous translations swarming into the translation field" (Chen 2000,308). In the face of a multitude of translation works, translation criticism was conducive to distinguishing high quality works and dispelling translation of poor quality. Besides, the difficulty of translation criticism also provided great challenges for translation critics. The previous part had mentioned that Lu Xun was in favor of retranslation. Therefore, one foreign work was likely to have several different translation versions, which required translation critics to read all the translation versions, compared their advantages and disadvantages, and then made conclusions. It took a great amount of time and energy to do this work. Meanwhile, the standards of translation criticism were difficult to master. As for the same version, different people had different opinions. The qualification of translation critics should also take into consideration. (Chen 2000, 308)

===The Formation and Development of Lu Xun's Translation Theories===
Lu Xun's translation theory did not take shape in a short time. It took a long time for it to form and develop through long-lasting translation practice and improvement. In this part, it intends to introduce the formation and development of Lu Xun's translation theory from the perspective of "intermediate", and then analyze the social reasons for the changes.

====Philosophy of "Intermediate"====
In the ''Postscript of Tomb'' published in 1926, the philosophy of "intermediate" was firstly proposed. It intended to expound that everything was in the process of change, and it should go through the middle process to eventually reach a higher level. The philosophy originated from the "survival of the fittest" advocated by Darwin, the "gold mean" in traditional Chinese philosophical culture as well as the ideas of Nietzsche's superman (Liu and Luo 2019,34). The philosophy of "intermediate" was embodied in the formation and development of Lu Xun's translation theory and had played a significant role in the process. It intends to analyze his philosophy of "intermediate" from the following two aspects. (Liu and Luo 2019, 34)

=====From the Perspective of Language=====
In the aspect of language, it experienced three phrases, that is, the writings in classical style, vernacular Chinese and modern language (Wu 2009,74). At the beginning, Lu Xun regarded language as the instrument and use native language and style to change original text. Thus, he mixed the writings in classical style and vernacular Chinese to translate foreign literary works such as ''De la terre à la lune'' and ''Voyage au centre de la terre''. In the two scientific novels, he even used the traditional pattern of chapters and delete some psychological descriptions as well as narrations of scientific knowledge in order to cater readers' taste. However, he still founded that the translation was obscure to understand for Chinese people. Later he realized that the flaws of writings in classical style were the primary cause and gradually adopted vernacular Chinese to translate and further improved it. In the ''Classical Books and Vernacular'', Lu Xun said that "the classical language has died; the vernacular Chinese was the bridge in the process of reform (Lu 2005,228)." It obviously showed that vernacular Chinese was just the intermediate or middle process with the development of new culture and literature. (Wu 2009, 74-75)

=====From the Perspective of Translation Strategy=====
In his earlier translation of late Qing Dynasty, Lu Xun mostly adopted free translation or adaptation to translate foreign literary works. For example, when translating two works written by Jules Verne, ''De la terre à la lune'' and ''Voyage au centre de la terre'', there were obvious indications of free translation. In his translation, "''Yue Jie Lv Xing'', a total of 28 chapters of the novel were cut into only 14 chapters, and the article was deleted. The wording and writing style are suitable for Chinese readers (Lu 1981,152)." Then starting from the ''Outside Novels'', Lu Xun changed his translation style and began to use literal translation. Then from his late translation works such as ''Dead Souls'', it can be seen that he still adopted the method of literal translation. The change was that his style of literal translation became more proficient and mature in this period. In conclusion, Lu Xun's translation style changed from free translation into literal translation, and later he even used hard translation and the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent". In the process of exploring the most appropriate translation strategy, Lu Xun began to recognize his own limitations. He mentioned that his translation versions could serve as the "intermediate" to make up for the vacancy. When the better version appeared, his translation version would be discarded naturally. He also confessed that his translations were not satisfied in terms of hard translation and one reason was that his ability was limited and unable to find better translation methods. However, he was willing to provide the "intermediate" for readers and late translators for reference. (Xu 2017, 448)

Another statement was that Lu Xun's translation strategy changed from domestication into foreignization. In the history of Chinese translation, under the trend of "domestication", Lu Xun was the first one to express new and different opinions and advocated the translation strategy of "foreignization". Changing from the domestication into foreignization, his real purpose was to optimize the Chinese language. In fact, the translation strategy of "domestication" included free translation, adaptation and translation in classical style, while the strategy of "foreignization" just referred to the literal translation. Therefore, the first statement and the second one achieved the same effect through different description.(Wu 2009, 82-85)

====Social Reasons for the Formation and Development====
Lu Xun's translation activities lasted about 33 years. His translation theory can be found among his numerous translation works. The following intends to explore the reasons for the formation and development of his translation theory. It intends to mainly expound the social reasons.

In the first stage of his translation activity (1903-1908), affected by Liang Qichao and Lin Shu, Lu Xun adopted the free translation to translate scientific novels. On the one hand, the translation notion advocated by Liang Qichao had a deep influence on selection of translation materials. Liang Qichao believed that translation has played an important role in reforming thinking and pushing Chinese people to make advance. From his early translation works, it can be concluded that the category of these works mainly focused on the scientific novels, which closely related to the ideology that used science to renovate people's ideas. On the other hand, in the late Qing Dynasty, the free translation adopted by Lin Shu was popular and widely accepted. Lu Xun praised that Lin Shu's translation works can convey a kind of fun. Therefore, under the influence of Lin Shu, Lu Xun began to imitate Lin Shu and used free translation to translate foreign scientific works. (Chen 2000, 170-175)

In the second stage (1909-1926), Lu Xun changed his translation method from the free translation into literal translation. At the same time, the materials he selected had also changed into literary works of weakest and oppressed nations. In the ''Youth of Lu Xun'', Zhou Zuoren mentioned that "''Gulliver's Travels'' written by Swift and ''The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon'' written by Irving were valuable books, but the translation versions of them were terrible. ''Don Quijote de la Mancha'' written by Cervantes was renamed as the ''Tale of the Daredevil'' (''Mo Xia Zhuan''), and in the translation, there were lots of mistranslation and irresponsible translation (Wu 2009,104)." It can be seen that Lu Xun criticized the novels translated by Lin Shu as well as the free translation he used. Besides, the translation works translated by Lin Shu mainly focused on the literature of developed countries including Europe and America. In order to change the situation and make up for the blank at that time, Lu Xun put forward the literal translation and translated literary works of weakest and oppressed nations to encourage Chinese people to revolution and change the current situations of old China. Therefore, the Outside Novels, born in this background, symbolized the transformation of Lu Xun's translation style. (Wu 2009, 104-105)

In the third stage (1927-1936), Lu Xun definitely and firmly stuck to literal translation. And the materials he selected mainly focused on the works of Soviet-Russian literary theory. This stage was also the most productive period with the appearance of large number of translation works. In this period, he had a deeper understanding of literal translation and wanted to introduce the new ideas and expressions to reform the shortcomings of early vernacular. In 1930, the league of left-wing was established. Lu Xun, as the leader of the league, took actions to practice his translation theory. At the same time, many opponents opposed his theory, leading to heated debate between different schools. Therefore, the concept of "hard translation" and "rather to be faithful than fluent" were proposed in the following. He still believed that literal translation and hard translation were the most appropriate methods to present foreign literary works. (Wu 2009, 109-111)

===Conclusion===
Lu Xun made great contributions to modern Chinese literature. One of his contributions was his translation theory. In the first part, this paper mainly introduces five aspects of Lu Xun's translation theory, that is, his translation purposes, literal translation and hard translation, the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent", retranslation as well as translation criticism. At that time, when the free translation was prevailing, he put forward the concept of "literal translation" to break the convention and adopted new translation strategy. In the process of practicing his translation theory, he further proposed the concept of "hard translation" and "rather to be faithful than fluent". Although his ideas were opposed by other scholars, his purpose that enlightened Chinese people and save the old China by learning from foreign literary works promoted him to stick his translation theory all the time. Besides, his ideas about retranslation provided possibility for the appearance of more and more translation versions. And the translation criticism was the critical step to prevent miscellaneous and poor translations from circulating among people. Then in the second part, it mainly introduces the formation and development of his translation theory. It put forward the concept of "intermediate" to expound its formation and dynamic development from two perspectives including change of preferential language as well as translation strategy. Finally, it also mentions the social reasons for the formation and development of his translation theory. In conclusion, this paper strives for exploring Lu Xun's translation theory and having a deep understanding of his translation activity.

===References===
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*Huang Xiaojun 黄晓军. "The Difference Between Lawrence Venuti's Foreignization and Lu Xun's Foreignization" [劳伦斯·韦努蒂的异化与鲁迅的异化的差别]. Proceedings of 2018 7th International Conference on Applied Social Science (ICASS 2018)[2018年第七届国际应用社会科学大会论文集]. Ed. 2018.
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*Xu Lan 徐兰. "On Lu Xun's Translation Activities in the 1930s Viewed Through Bourdieu's Sociological Theory" [论从布迪厄的社会学理论看20世纪30年代鲁迅的翻译活动]. Sino-US English Teaching 14[中美英语教学14期]. 2017.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 12:45, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==A Brief Introduction to Eco-translatology Theory 刘怡瑜 Liu Yiyu, 202070080598, MTI==
===Abstract===
Translation is not just an activity that refers to the practice of translation. In translation, theories form an integral part. With translation practice comes translation theory, and advances in theory will better guide practice. Perhaps the translation theories that translators are most familiar with are Skopos theory, domestication and foreignization, dynamic equivalence and the like, but these are all translation theories developed by celebrated foreign scholars.

The foreign translation theories have been introduced to China and have developed in China, perhaps tinged with Chinese characteristics in order to adapt to Chinese translation, but we have always lacked translation theories that originate from China. Eco-translatology is a theory from the local. This thesis is aimed to give a brief introduction to ecological translation theory, embracing the inspiration for ecological translation theory, the three-dimensional transformation as a main strategy and the emphasis on the subjectivity of translators.

In this paper, the translation of the subtitles of the American drama Prison Break will be taken as an application of the ecological translation theory strategy, so as to deepen the readers' understanding of the theory and possibly provide references for other translators on the application of ecological translation theory.

===Keywords is missing===

--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 10:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===题目 is missing===

--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 10:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===摘要===
翻译不仅仅是指翻译实践这样一种活动。在翻译的世界里，翻译理论占了不可或缺的一部分，有了翻译实践就会产生翻译理论，而理论的进步也会更好地指导翻译实践。或许译者最为熟悉的有翻译目的论、异化和归化、动态对等等一些翻译理论，但是这些都是国外著名学者所提出的翻译理论。

国外的翻译理论传到中国，在中国变化发展，也许有了中国特色，从而适应中国翻译，但我们始终缺乏从本土出发的翻译理论。生态翻译理论，就是从本土出发的翻译理论。本篇论文旨在对生态翻译理论进行一个简要地介绍，其中包括生态翻译理论的灵感来源、生态翻译的主要策略三维转换以及该理论对译者主体性的强调与诠释。

理论要应用就少不了实践，本文将会以美剧《越狱》的字幕翻译作为生态翻译理论策略的应用对象，从而深化读者对该理论的理解，也尽可能给其他研究者提供生态翻译理论应用的参考。
===关键词===
Eco-translatology; Subtitle Translation; Three-dimentional transformation
===1 Introduction===
In the study of translation theory, Eco-translatology, as an important methodological tool, a way of interpreting translation activities and a method of exploring translation theories, has increasingly shown its unique function and great charm. It is in the process of dynamic development and continuous improvement.

The theory of Eco-translatology and the proposal of Eco-translatology have undoubtedly achieved breakthroughs and its methods reached a new stage. Therefore, the study and exploration of the ideological basis of Eco-translatology and the three-dimensional transformation of the core methodology of Eco-translatology will help us fully understand the significance of Eco-translatology in contemporary translation studies and theoretical analysis of translation.

In this study, the author will introduce the inspiration of Eco-translatology and its practical translation strategy as multi-dimensional transformations then analyze the subjectivity of translators in the second chapter,. Finally, the author will integrate the theory of Eco-translatology with American TV show Prison Break.
===2 Eco-translatology===
===2.1 Inspiration of Eco-translatology===
Professor Hu Gengshen, driven by Darwin's adaptive selection theory, put forward and further developed the theory of ecological translation. The adaptation theory of translation choice is the core concept of this theory, which defines translation as "the translator's selection activities adapted to the translation ecological environment".(Hu Gengshen, 2010) The ecological environment of translation refers to “the world presented by the source language, the source language and the target language, that is, language, communication, culture, society, authors, readers and clients.”

For instance, Friends as a celebrated sitcom, only its translation must take these specific group of people into consideration can it achieve its purpose. In this process, the translator is the only subject with subjective initiative.(Hu Gengshen, 2010) As the strategy of translation, multi-dimensional adaptation and adaptive selection appear to be crucially significant. The three-dimensional transformation of language, culture and communication dimensions are included in translation methods.

What can be considered as the best translation is that the translation with the highest degree of integration adaptation and selection. The definition of translation ecological environment is the sum of all external conditions that affect the survival and development of translation theme. It includes the author, translator, reader, initiator, sponsor, publisher, and other characters of the original text.

The external environment related to the natural and economic environment, language and culture environment, social and political environment which concerns translation activities. The ecological environment of translation is interwoven by various elements, which is the sum of natural and humanistic factors in the occurrence, existence and development of translation activities. Cultural dimension and communicative dimension into practice by putting the transformation of linguistic dimension.

Three-dimensional transformation reveals its sweeping influence in translation. Language dimension transformation amounts to the translator's adaptation and selection of language forms in the process of translation. This transformation can occur at different stages, levels and aspects of the translation process. To transmit information accurately and faithfully, the translator should choose and transform the language form in an adaptive way.

Cultural dimension transformation adds up to the translator's methods to the transmission and interpretation of bilingual cultural connotations in the process of translation. More crucially, profound comprehension for the cultural discrepancy is the key to communicate accurate information. In this study, it demands translators must take the characteristics of historical and cultural documentary into account, and to use accurate language to transform the expression of cultural characteristics.

Communication dimension transformation emphasizes the adaptation and selection of translators' attention to bilingual communicative intentions in the process of translation. Only through multi-dimensional adaptation and at least three-dimensional selection and transformation can proper translation be carried out. (Hu Gengshen, 2004)

===2.2 Three Dimentional Transformation of Eco-tranlatology===
In order to make sure the precise and correctness of translation, the translator must consider the translation from multiple perspectives, levels and integrate various factors. Only in this way can the translation be closer to the original context. However, it is nearly impossible to achieve this goal in reality. After all, translation concerns a variety of contexts, cultures and other intricate factors. The environment is complex and changeable, which is difficult for translators to grasp those comprehensively.

As long as the translator find the key links and points, appropriate translation can be achieved to a certain extent. According to the theory of Eco-translation, three key dimensions must be transformed during translating the information, which is considered as three-dimensional transformation.(Hu Gengshen, 2006)

What language dimension transformation stresses is that the translator's adaptation and selection of language forms in the process of translation. Since adaptation requires to be achieved, the original text must be understood and analyzed, and the translator must have a full insight of the meaning of the translated text.

What cultural dimension transformation indicates is that the translation process in which the translator pays attention to the transmission and interpretation of bilingual cultural connotations. America and China both has totally different historical background, thus formed very distinguished cultural features. It needs translators to mind the cultural discrepancy between these two countries.

What communicative dimension transformation serves is that it requires translators to focus on the level of communication and whether the communicative intentions of the original text can be reflected in the translation, in addition to the transformation of linguistic information and the transmission of cultural connotations. Communication is unavoidable. If we want to communicate properly, then we should have a proper tone. When translating, the translator must grasp the emotion expressed by the author of the original text and accurately express the message the speaker wants to convey. (Hu Gengshen, 2008)

===2.3 The subjectivity of Translators===
Katherine Reiss proposed the text type theory, which summarized various types of text into informative, expressive and operative types. She believes that almost all texts can find their own classification based on these three types, but there are also mixed text types, such as the autobiography of statesmen, which may have the function of operative as well as informative. Reiss believes that the specific translation method is determined by the text type.

However, as translation theories continue to develop, and more and more translators find that text type theory may be too restrictive, ecological translation theories also propose translator subjectivity, aiming at transforming the translator from an invisible role to an explicit one.

The previously popular textual determinism or other factor determinism may ignore the creativity of the translator to a certain extent, treating the translator as a mere "servant" of the two languages, and the translator's subjectivity is not given full play and many translations lose their vitality.

From the point of view of ecological translation theory, we can re-understand the relationship between the translator and the translation ecological environment in the translation process, so as to highlight the influence of the translator and emphasise that the translator is no longer invisible.

Eco-translatology believes that in the translation process, the translator's subjectivity is primary and the object, the original text, is secondary. This is a significant reversal of the previous theory of focusing on the original text, and is in fact more in line with the reality that the translator plays an active and creative role in actual translation activities. Nowadays, machine translation is developing rapidly, and common economic and trade texts can be edited and modified after translation, greatly improving the efficiency of translation.

However, in literary translations, especially on subjects such as poetry, the subjectivity of the translator cannot be ignored, both in terms of understanding the content and the creativity of the output. In addition, the translation ecosystem boasts some characteristics: The translation as a whole is greater than the sum of its parts. The parts include the various elements of the translation process, such as the original work, the translation ecosystem, the translator and the reader.

Moreover, through the adaptation and choice of the translator, the nature and function of each translation element interacts with each other, which ultimately affects the translation system as a whole and manifests itself in the translator's work.

As we can see from these points, the translator-centred theory does not mean that the translator is completely free to create regardless of the original text. Eco-translation theory emphasises that translators adapt and make choices in an ecological translation environment, and that they should focus on their own creativity as well as the original text in order to produce dynamic translations.(Dong Jie, Yi Yongzhong, 2020)
===3 Application of the Theory in Subtitle Text Analysis of Prison Break===
===3.1 The Characteristics of America Television Show===
After the reform and opening up, people's living standards and quality of life have improved dramatically. People no longer just pursue food and clothing satisfaction, but have started to enrich their spiritual world. With the opening up of the country's policies, not only economic exchanges have been brought in, but also the spread of American films and TV shows has had a deeper impact on the country. It is said that art comes from life, so to a certain extent, American TV shows also reflects its style of life, attitudes and humanistic values.

Subtitle translation of movies and TV plays proves to be a relatively new field of translation. A film with vivid subtitle translation can better convey the complete information to be expressed. As global economy and cultural exchanges advance, a large number of foreign films and TV programs have been introduced into China. As a medium, film and television works have made important contributions to the cultural exchange between China and the West.
Seriousness and colloquialism go hand in hand.

Films and TV dramas are not just for the entertainment. Therefore, translators should take a serious attitude towards the subtitling of American dramas in order to avoid any inadvertent misunderstanding of different cultures. This gives the dialogue of American dramas a certain seriousness. However, seriousness does not mean that the subtitling of American dramas needs to be written throughout, as most of the plots take place in everyday life and the characters' dialogue is as commonplace as when we go out to eat, which requires the translators to avoid written language as much as possible, giving the audience a sense of being close to life and in reality.

Flexibility.
Film and television translation is a special literary form. While choosing accurate and vivid language to reproduce the ideological and artistic features of the original film to ensure the accuracy and vividness of the translated language, the translator should also make it consistent with the expressions and accents of the characters in the play. The most fundamental principle is the flexible handling of retention and innovation in subtitle translation.

First of all, there is a huge difference between Chinese and English languages, so the translator should pay special attention to the language difference when translating, and change the word class flexibly to avoid the situation where the words are not clear and the meaning is difficult to understand. Secondly, intonation is also very important as part of the dialogue.

The seriousness or liveliness, formality or casualness of the dialogue has a direct impact on the character, so the translator should ensure the accuracy of the translation and choose suitable language styles according to the different types of films in order to make the audience feel the same as the original language audience.

In the process of translation, the translator should fully understand the connotation of the film, and flexibly handle the retention and innovation in subtitle translation according to the language characteristics and cultural background of both parties, making the subtitle translation more suitable for the cultural context through vocabulary and word class conversion, to show the charm of the film and retain the artistic value of the film to the greatest extent.（Qian Shaochang, 2000）
===3.2 A Introduction of Prison Break===
Prison Break is a crime-thriller, with an exciting, interlocking plot, adored by national and international audiences,. In this show, Mike (Wentworth Miller) and his brother Lincoln (Dominic Purcell) are interdependent. Lincoln borrows $90,000 from a loan shark to cover the tuition of his brother, and Mike uses the money to become a successful building and structural engineer.

Lincoln, however, reluctantly agrees to shoot a man in order to repay the loan shark, and is then set up as a scapegoat by a senior government official. Mike takes advantage of his career and learns about the prison structural system. After deliberately robbing a bank, he insists that he wants to be put in the same prison as his brother, and then tries his best to save him from being sentenced to death. quotation is missing--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 08:40, 14 December 2020 (UTC)

===3.3 Adaptive Selections in Linguistic Dimension===
After discussed the basis of Eco-translatology, the characteristics of American TV shows, we should put it into practice so as to deepen our understanding.
Chinese and English are two different languages. Chinese emphasizes meaning, while English appears to be in strict accordance with the structure of sentences. Nida said that from a linguistic light, the biggest difference between Chinese and English is hypotaxis and parataxis.(Nida, 2001) In the process of translation, subtitle translators should learn by heart that the specific language characteristics so as to make the information transmission smoothly and authentically.(Hu Gengshen, 2006)

Original and Translation:
-You don't have a violent bone in your body,
我知道你天性善良，
-I said,are you being a smartass?
我问你是不是喜欢讽刺人？
-Just trying to fly low,avoid the radar,boss.
只不过想保持低调，不想引起注意，长官
-Do my time... and get out.
服完刑...就走人
Analysis: Reverse translations can also be considered to be a linguistic translation strategy, which can sometimes have a much more different effect than literal translations. This conversation occurs when Mike chats with a prison guard on arrival at the prison. “Don't have a violent bone in your body” is translated into “天性善良”. The reverse translation here show Mike's desire to impress the guard in order to facilitate a quiet environment in which to carry out his plans. In addition, “do my time” originally meant to pass the time, but the translator has chosen to adapt the translation to make it easier to understand and fit the context.

Original and Translation:
-He just sort of rolled over. He didn't put up a fight.
他就当睡觉翻个身似的，没任何反抗
Analysis: In a particular context, the meaning of a word often transcends its original meaning, and a context-dependent meaning appears, which is regarded as semantic addition. Therefore, the translator should jump out of the original meaning of the word and rely on the context in which the word is located to translate its meaning outside the context. The original meaning of “roll over” was to make a rolling motion or turn, but the phrase was translated to fit the context, adding the meaning of sleep over, which shows Mike's attitude to letting it run its course after being sentenced, and also provides an ambush for the plot to save his brother.

Original and Translation:
-Kellerman: There's a lawyer poking around.
有个律师在多管闲事
-Caroline: Anyone that's a threat is expendable.
对这种人不要心慈手软
Analysis: It is difficult to understand this sentence just by looking at the meaning of the word expendable. But according to the meaning of the whole sentence it is clear that what is meant here is that anyone who is a threat should be dealt with without considering the cost. Sometimes, the meaning of an adjective is far from restricted to its original, which embodies that the context matters.

===3.4 Adaptive Selections in Cultural Dimension===
China and America share dramatically different historical background and culture, thus there are some idioms, jargon, or any other adages that the two countries may has their own definition and explanation. In the process of translation, subtitle translators should bear in mind that the specific cultural characteristics between two countries so as to cause no misunderstanding.(Hu Gengshen, 2006)

Original and Translation:
-Someone wants him dead,Veronica.
有人要置他于死地，Veronica
-Something more is going on here.
这背后有阴谋
-This is desperation,Michael.
你是在孤注一掷，Michael
-You're grabbing at straws.
是想抓救命稻草
Analysis: The above sentences relatively use“want him dead”“desperation”“grab at straws”and the translator relatively selects typical Chinese sayings which are “置于死地”“孤注一掷”“救命稻草”. These Chinese idioms all have specific meanings and historical origins. “置于死地” means to put the opponent in a position to perish. This Chinese idiom is from Sun Wu's The Art of War: A person who falls into the water suddenly finds a straw and is saved by breathing underwater through a hollow straw.

It is now often used in a metaphorical sense to refer to a person's only hope in a difficult situation. The context of this conversation is Mike and his brother's friend discussing the situation in which his brother has been set up and imprisoned, and these idioms are appropriate for the feeling of being set up and yet having no choice.

Original and Translation:
-Look where it got me.I'm not asking you to love me. I already screwed up that chance long ago. I'm asking you to love yourself. You can still put the brakes on this thing.
可看看我现在身处的地方，我不是在恳求你再爱我，很久以前我就失去了这个机会。我是让你要自爱，亡羊补牢，为时不晚。
Analysis: “亡羊补牢，为时不晚” is a Chinese proverb. Once upon a time there was a child called Zhang San whose family had many sheep, but he was sloppy in his work. One day, there came a hole in the railing of the sheep pen. When Zhang San's neighbours saw the hole, they reminded him to repair the sheep pen. He shook his head and said, "It's only a small hole, it doesn't matter, you can fix it in a few days. When Zhang San was about to mend the fence of the sheep pen to see how the baby lambs were growing, he noticed that many of the sheep had run away and there were not many left.

An old man heard Zhang San's cries and asked him with concern. “It is not too late to fix it now, and you can save the remaining sheep.” Zhang San came to his senses. Zhang San thanked the old man, picked up a hammer and repaired the fence on the sheep pen firmly.

Since then, Zhang San has completely changed his bad habit of dragging his feet. Although Zhang San lost a lot of sheep, he learned a great lesson from the incident, and from then on developed a good habit of correcting mistakes as soon as they were made. This proverb is very appropriate in the translation of this paragraph.

When the Mike's brother ends up in prison and his child come to visit and see his father's decadence in prison, he wants to drop out of school, and the father says this to the child to make up for the bad influence he has had on him. The English word literally means you should step on the brakes, but the Chinese idiom is more apt.

Original and Translation:
-Westmoreland: Three days inside,and he's already thinking about turning rabbit.
才在牢里呆了三天，他就想着要大闹天官。
Analysis: In this dialogue, the translator translates turning rabbit as “大闹天宫”. For Chinese audiences, the Great Tribulation is a very familiar episode of Journey to the West. In the original story, Sun Wukong, was sued by the Dragon King for forcibly borrowing the East Sea Needle of the Goddess of Certainty, a treasure of the sea and also a powerful weapon.

After being humiliated and disgraced at the Peach Party, he fought his way to heaven. The Jade Emperor's Heavenly Hall was turned upside down and the immortals were helpless. This Chinese story is more graphic to the Chinese audience than the image of a turning rabbit.

Original and Translation:
-Michael: Van Gogh over there is my new cellmate.
那边的“梵高”是我的新牢友
-Fernando: But you're going to do something about it, right?You're gonna get rid of him.
但我知道你不会坐以待毙的对吗?你会想办法摆脱他的。
Analysis: This dialogue contains an idiom that is “坐以待毙”, which describes a person in extreme difficulty who is not actively trying to find a way out. The idiom is from the book ZhuKo Kungming's Second Memorial to the Throne on his Expedition. In the context of the whole episode, Mike wants to dig a hole to escape, but there is a new cellmate in the prison, who is unable to sleep at night due to mental problems, which makes the job of digging extremely difficult, as night is the only period to be free. So Fernando was worried that the plan could not be carried out, and if it was, most of the condemned prisoners in the prison would indeed be sitting around waiting to die.

Original and Translation:
-Told you not to go around me to the Pop. But you just keep making waves, don't you?
跟你说了别去找狱长，但你还在惹是生非。
Analysis: In this dialogue, “make waves” is translated as to “惹是生非”. This idiom means to stir up trouble, to cause trouble, and is taken from Feng Menglong's Instruction Stories to Enlighten the World. All of the escape partners just want to escape in peace and quiet, but the main character, Mike, has his own agenda, so he keeps the prison warden on his toes to achieve his goal. However, the other inmates think that Mike is just trying to disturb the warden, and “惹是生非” is a very accurate translation here.
===3.5 Adaptive Selections in Communicative Dimension===
Communication proves to be a crucial intention of words. Audience needs to get the idea of what movies or documentaries want to express thus communicative purpose can be achieved.(Yangli, 2013)

Original and Translation:
-Top of your class at Loyola. Magna cum laude, in fact. I can't help wondering what someone with your credentials is doing in a place like this.
Loyola的尖子生，优等成绩，我就纳闷了象你这么优秀的人才，跑到这种鬼地方干什么？
-Michael:Took a wrong turn a few months back,I guess.
也许是几个月前拐错弯了。
-You make it sound like a traffic infraction.
你说的好像是交通违规似的。
-Michael: Like all you did was turn the wrong way up a one-way street. Everyone turns up one sooner or later.
就像在单行道上开错方向，人人迟早都会发生点意外。
Analysis: In the process of translation, it is very important to choose the right words. And proper words refer not only to the correspondence of meaning, but also to the tone in a certain context. This translation method includes mood reproduction. Mood refers to the speaker's attitude towards what he says. It is a grammatical feature in the form of intonation and mood words. In the way of mood expression, there is only exclamation in English, such as oh my god, gosh, oh dear lord, and the like, which tries to show the audience the tone of surprise, praise, pain, but there is a lack of mood words with the same emotional meaning as in Chinese, such as“哦”“呢”“呀”.

Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese translation, the translator should have a keen sense and a deep understanding of the mood in the original English text, managing to transplant the original characters' tone to the translation by appreciating the diverse moods in the ordinary English text. In this dialogue, it is nearly impossible to tell the tone of the speaker by the literal meaning of the words alone.

But the translator has made his own adaptations in the context. The protagonist, a talented student, devises his own plan to rob a bank and get arrested in order to save his wrongly accused brother from prison. The prison governor, after reading the Mike's CV, expresses his own incomprehension. Phrases such as “纳了闷” and “鬼地方” convey the tone of the speaker very well.

Original and Translation:
-Michael:we only got a few minutes. We're gonna spend them spitting on each other, or are we gonna talk some business?
我们只有几分钟，我们是要用这几分钟来互相扯皮，还是我们来谈点儿正经事儿？
Analysis: The dialogue includes the words “互相扯皮” and “谈点儿正经事”, which fits Mike's irritation at the lack of cooperation from his "teammates" at the time. The colloquialisation is also very much in line with the Chinese.

Original and Translation:
-Caroline: Move on the younger brother. Do it preemptively before anything rises up,bites any of us in the ass.
把他弟弟弄走，早做打算。
Analysis: The use of the word “弄” in this dialogue shows Caroline's disregard for human life and the coldness of her character. The officials became a little worried when they found out that Mike was in his brother's prison. A literal translation of “move on” would not have had this effect. In addition, the second sentence does not translate the meaning of every single word, but rather uses only “早做打算”, which is very much in keeping with the leadership style of the person behind the plan.

Original and Translation:
-Michael: I think I've got enough grout out to bust through. I'm going to need you to make some noise.
我想我已经挖得够多了，你得帮我制造点噪音。
-Is that the best you can do?
你就这么点能耐？
-all: Shut up!
闭嘴!
-Berwick: Not one more word!
谁也别出声！
Analysis: This conversation took place when Mike was organising a tunnel excavation for people in the prison. While the digging was going on, Mike was worried that the noise would attract the guards, so he asked his cellmates to make other noises to attract attention. However, when the inmates saw that Mike was digging just a little bit of a tunnel, they shouted at him. The translator has chosen to translate this as “这点能耐”, which is a good way of conveying the impatience and arrogance of the cellmate, both in terms of content and tone. For communicative purposes, it serves as a warning.
===4 Conclusion===
From the perspective of Eco-translatology, this paper analyses the subtitle translation strategies of Prison Break. Under the guidance of this theory, its subtitle translation language can be described as quite refined, from which we can see the translator's cultural connotation and translation ability, and the application of Eco-translatology theory in subtitle translation of the show is in place.

However, this study is still very limited in the use of analytical Eco-translatology theory. The first is that translation studies are scattered but not specialized. Second, this study is still at the stage of quoting relevant terms or general concepts of ecology, and it has not yet given a systematic, in-depth and detailed description and interpretation of translation activities according to the basic connotation of ecology.

Third, the thesis is narrow-minded, lacking multi-dimensional interpretation and generalization of more problems. In addition, some studies are only on the matter, not on the background of global ecological trend and academic trend of thought. Therefore, Eco-translation theory needs to be enriched and developed in subtitle research.

===References===
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[3]胡庚申. 翻译适应选择论[M].武汉:湖北教育出版社，2004.

[4]胡庚申.从术语看译论——翻译适应选择论改观[J].上海翻译, 2008 (2).

[5]胡庚申.例示“适应选择论”的翻译选择和翻译方法[D].外语与外语教学，2006 (3).

[6]钱邵昌.字幕翻译——翻译园地中愈来愈重要的领域[J].中国翻译, 2000(1).

[7]杨丽.文学作品翻译中的语气翻译策略研究[J].语文学刊,2013(9).

[8]董捷,易永忠.生态翻译学视角下译者主体性在字幕翻译中的体现[J].校园英语,2020(19):243-244.

参考文献需要中英双语--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 10:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==A Study of English Translation of HUAWEI’s Advertising Videos from the Eco-translatology Perspective 张宇星 Zhang Yuxing 202070080650 英语口译==

===摘要===

随着经济全球化的发展，越来越多的中国公司步入国际化行列，竞相抢占国际市场。广告片是宣传产品、公司项目，提升企业形象的重要手段之一，对广告片翻译进行研究对企业的国际化发展具有重大意义，因此国际化企业对此十分重视。华为技术有限公司成立于1987年，历经30余年的发展，已成为有国际影响力的大公司。为对产品进行有效的宣传，华为摄制较多高质量的双语宣传片，这些宣传片激发了较多潜在顾客。然而，由于东西方文化差异的存在，宣传片字幕翻译对译者提出了较高的要求。

本文以生态翻译学为理论框架对华为三个宣传片的英译进行了研究。作者根据生态翻译学的三维转换理论，考虑到中英文在语言习惯、文化背景和文本交际意图的差异，分别对华为的三个宣传片，即关于华为Mate20登月的故事，华为海洋，科技普济天下，进行评析。最后通过分析总结发现：译者在进行商务字幕翻译实践时，需要充分了解源语与目的语在语言、文化等方面的差异，充分适应具体的翻译环境，传递文本的交际意图，只有达到了语言维、文化维和交际维三者的统一，才是真正成功的译文。

===关键词===

生态翻译学；三维转换；华为；宣传片；广告语翻译

===Abstract===

With the development of globalization, more and more Chinese enterprises are stepping into the competition of global market. As advertising video contributes a lot to promoting products projects as well as the image of enterprises, its translation is critical to enterprises to go global and has caught businessmen’s attention greatly. Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, founded in 1987, has evolved into an international corporate with profound influence over the last 30 years. In order to advertise products, HUAWEI has shot many high-quality bilingual advertising videos which have attracted many potential customers. However, the subtitle translation of advertising videos requires high professional skills for translators as many cultural differences lie between the West and the East.

This paper aims to study the English translation of advertising videos Eco-translatology theory perspective. Based on three dimensional transformations in Eco-translatology theory, the author gives full consideration to differences in linguistic tradition, cultural background and communicative intention of the text between Chinese and English, and comments the subtitle translation of three HUAWEI’s advertising videos, A Story about the Moonfall of HUAWEI Mate 20, Huawei Marine and TECH4ALL. In the end, the conclusion comes that translators should fully understand the linguistic and cultural differences between the source text and target text and adapt themselves in specific translation environment so as to transmit the whole communicative intention when they translate commercial subtitles. And successful translation texts should be those realizing the unification of linguistic dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension.

===Key Words===

Eco-translatology, three dimensional transformations, HUAWEI, advertising video; subtitle translation

===1 Introduction===

As early as 2001, Hu Gengshen has put forth the notion of “approach to translation as adaptation and selection” and “translation is adaption and selection” in the FIT Third Asian Translators’ Forum (Hu Gengshen, 2001, 5), which marked the birth to Eco-translatology. In Eco-translatology, Hu combined the translation process with Darwinism, “survival of fitness”, and proposed that translators, when they translate a text, should fully adapt themselves to source languages’ environment to understand its specific meaning and find out targeted readers at first, and then, on the basis of good command of the source language and its culture, write down appropriate words so that readers using target language can get the same and correct information about the whole text. As the theory gives an inspiration for many translators, there are an increasing number of translators conducting translation, translation criticism and other activities in accordance with Eco-translatology.

In addition, the background of this paper is that the advent of Internet and convenient transports arouses most enterprises’ awareness of the importance and necessity of advertising videos in products or business promotion. Especially in the era of scientific technology, Internet and advanced transportation are breaking the geographical boundaries to a large extent, therefore, enterprises can expand their operation worldwide, enjoying a larger business scope than ever before (Chen K., Yang F. F, 2019, 21). However, there still exit language and cultural limits when enterprises promote a product, so proper translation is quite important for companies to extend their business scope.

Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, the tech giant enjoying satisfactory reputation coming from both customers and competitors, has shown its presence in many countries and regions with advertising videos presented in various languages. For HUAWEI’s advertising video, there is a common sense that people feel passionate about learning more about the product or the company and even want to buy it after they watch those videos, so undoubtedly, HAEWEI does a good job in advertising videos. Meanwhile, HUAWEI, on behalf of domestic Communications Service Provider, has wide influence over international market. Considering all those facts, the author tends to comment the subtitle translation of HUAWEI’s advertising videos from the perspective of Eco-translatology and hope for some possible enlightenment for subtitle translation.

The thesis applies qualitative analysis, case study and contrastive analysis to study both the Chinese versions and English versions of three videos about HUAWEI. For each video, the author comments them respectively from linguistic dimensional transformation, cultural dimensional transformation and communicative dimensional transformation, the processes of translation in Eco-translatology theory.

===2 Literature Review===

Eco-translatology, put forward by Hu Gengshen, is a systematic translation theory to explain the translation process. It studies and guides the translation practice(practices)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) from the perspective of ecology, which provides a new way for translators to conduct translation, so since its birth, the theory has widely broadened the theoretical researches in both China and abroad (Hu Gengshen, 2001).

===2.1 Eco-translatology===

At the beginning of the 21st century, Hu Gengshen put emphasis on translators’ adaptation and selection when they translate a text, which is the origin of Eco-translatology theory. In Eco-translatology theory, translation process is similar to Darwinism’s “natural selection”. Translators, like all creatures in evolutionary history, also experience the selection and adaptation in translating so as to create masterpieces to satisfy variable purposes and people using different languages (Hu Gengshen, 2001, 17). As well, their works tend to confront the “natural selection”, the market, and finally the best works will be preserved as time goes by. So, in order to create high-quality and ever-lasting translated texts, translators have to bury themselves in different eco-environments so as to get the pure and true understanding of the source text, and translate it into the target language with appropriate words which will meet different needs. During the process, the “natural selection” is the market, or readers’ feedback.

Since Hu proposed the notion of “approach to translation as adaptation and selection” and “translation is adaption and selection” in 2001 (Hu Gengshen, 2001, 103), studies on Eco-translatology began to grow vigorously. In 2004, Hu published a book, An Approach to Translation as Adaptation and Selection. This book focuses on translators’ adaptation and selection, including their relations, mechanisms, basic characteristics and principles, so as to describe or interpret translation process, standards and methods in a new perspective (Hu Gengshen, 2004). After that, Hu continued to study “adaption and selection” and briefly summarized translation principle as multidimensional adaptions and adaptive selection, and translation methods as “three dimensional transformations” (Hu Gengshen, 2006).

As Eco-translatology developed in a positive way, Hu reviewed the development of the theory, including basic connotation, background, current situation and existed limits, and pointed out directions for future research (Hu Gengshen, 2008, 23 ). And then, Hu expounded on nine focuses on research and theoretical tenets from the perspective of Eco-translatology (Hu Gengshen, 2011, 3). As Eco-translatology has widely been accepted by most translators and employed in many fields, Hu, in Eco-translatology: Construction & Interpretation, was commitment to give a general overview and description of the translation ecology and translation theory viewing from ecology (Hu Gengshen, 2013, 11).

In order to provide some inspiration in translation practices, Hu, based on the present research concerning Eco-translatology, put forward different research focus in the future from several angles and aspects in light of Eco-translatology so that scholars could get certain enlightenments and directions for their future studies (Hu Gengshen, 2017, 34).

Apart from Hu’s studies on Eco-translatology, many scholars have conducted a lot of researches in previous years. Tang applied Eco-translatology in advertisement translation and proposed that translators, from linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions, should have focus according to advertisement’s contents, targeted audiences, source language and cultural background of the target text (Tang Yixin, 2015, 52).

The theory has also been employed to analyze the Chinese-English translation of corporate profiles (Xing Yanchao and Dong Hailin, 2017, 142). Just in the same year, in order to assist Chinese films to go global, Zhu researched films’ subtitle translation with the exemplification of “Mr. Six” from three dimensional transformation in Eco-translatology, that is, linguistic dimensions, cultural dimensions and communicative dimensions (Zhu Jingyan, 2017, 78).

Over the past ten years with countless scholars and translators’ efforts, Eco-translatology has developed to cover many points, such as translator-centeredness, eco-paradigm, sequence chain, adaptive selection and selective adaption, eco-environment and post-event penalty (Hu Gengshen, 2011, 5). Viewing from translation process, Eco-translatology theory requires translators to select different translation environments and adapt themselves in it for many times; from translation principles, Eco-translatology theory is multi-dimensional selective adaption and adaptive selection; from translation skill, Eco-translatology promotes the translation from three dimensional transformation, linguistic dimensional transformation, cultural dimensional transformation and communicative dimensional transformation (Hu Gengshen, 2003, 283).

===2.2 Subtitle Translation===

Subtitle translation of advertising videos, an essential part of translation of commercial texts, generally refers to inter-lingual translation. Since the flourishment of domestic films in 21st century, more and more high-quality films with interesting plots compete to go global to boast Chinese traditional culture and tell Chinese stories, which is part of Chinese dream of great rejuvenation. Therefore, in order to promote Chinese culture, provide Chinese solution and tell Chinese story well, quite a few scholars and translators are commitment to subtitle translation and relative studies.

According to Wang (2007, 13), subtitle translation, a special language transformation, should be focused on condensing the oral language in videos into written language. Then, Wu studied language features of subtitle translation, which are instantaneity and popularization, and proposed that translators should pay more attention to logicality, artistry and affection of the words (Wu Wei, 2013, 154). Yu studied the features and technical constraints of dubbing and subtitling English into Chinese, and found that standardization and simplification were two major techniques for subtitling while lip synchronization, gestures and pauses were major constraints for dubbing (Yu Haikuo, 2015, 493).

2019 witnessed the prosperity of not only films but also studies related to subtitle translation. In the same year, several scholars studied the machine translated subtitles, all of which were selected from MOOCs, and found that “participants who were offered full PEMT subtitles scored better overall on our reception metrics than those who were offered raw MT subtitles” (Hu et al., 2019, 13), and Zheng discussed the features and limitations of subtitle translation (Zheng Jie, 2019, 247).

After that, Zheng furthered the study about subtitle translation and proposed that different comments about subtitle translation, be it satisfactory or not, came out when audiences viewed it in different situation and prospects (Zheng Xiqing, 2020), and Wang briefly discussed subtitle translation of Chinese films in ''Western Leather'' by commenting several cases (Wang An, 2020). Just in the same year, Wang analyzed and prospected the subtitling abroad through empirical research, suggesting that the subtitle translation in the future should be focused on the translation in dynamic images (Wang Juan, 2020, 89).

All in all, subtitle translation, as a special part of translation, should be emphasized on not only the basic information of the text but also the emotional awareness, the contextual effects, which are the focus of translators. Moreover, few studies concerning subtitle translation were conducted from the perspective of Eco-translatology theory, so the author comments subtitle translation of advertising videos through three dimensional transformations promoted by Eco-translatology theory.

===3 A Case Study of HUAWEI’s Advertising Videos: Three Dimensional Transformations===

Since the reform and opening-up in China, Chinese enterprises have boosted their business operation all over the world and won worldwide recognition and reputation in over three decades. Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd is a tech giant with commitment to bring digital to every person, home and organization for a fully connected, intelligent world (https://www.huawei.com/en/fully-connected-intelligent-world/ ). As HUAWEI has been expanding business presence in every corner of the world, many advertising videos have been created to promote the products, enhance corporate image and advertise projects. However, according to the author’s research, few studies on subtitle translation of advertising videos are conducted from the perspective of Eco-translatology theory.

According to Eco-translatology theory, translators should conduct translation practices based on the principle of multi-dimensional selective adaption and adaptive selection, while the translation approach is three dimensional transformations, which are linguistic transformation, cultural transformation and communicative transformation (qtd. in Zhu Jingyan, 2017, 80). In the translation process, the translator has to select different eco-environment and adapt himself based on different dimensions. For example, if the translator translates from linguistic dimension, the top priority for translator is to keep syntax and grammar correction and among others; if the translator does translation from cultural dimension, he has to consider the cultural background, local customs etc.; if the translator translates text from communicative dimension, he should pay more attention to the communicative function of the text.

In order to elaborate on subtitle translation of advertising videos from the perspective of Eco-translatology, the author selects three advertising videos of Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, and analyzes them from linguistic dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension respectively.

Three videos are related to mobile phone’s promotion: Mate 20, corporate promotion, Huawei Marine, and projects promotion, TECH4ALL (https://www.huawei.com/minisite/tech4all/cn/ ). The first video, focusing on the release of HUAWEI Mate 20, a smartphone designed by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd in 2018, marked the expansion of Huawei’s commercial landscape in telecommunication all over the world.

In 2018, both domestic and abroad customers have been completely amazed by the performance of Mate 20, and even in 2020 when many new series of masterpieces of mobile-phones were releases, there still exist many customers keeping using HUAWEI Mate 20. In fact, apart from great performance and customers’ excellent experience, what attracts and retains customers includes the contribution of the eye-catching advertising video, A Story about the Moonfall of HUAWEI Mate 20. The video is about the communication between an astronaut and the ground, so the whole eco-environment in linguistic dimension is the daily communication, and every word and sentence should conform to characteristics of daily interactions.

The second advertising video is about Huawei Marine (http://www.huaweimarine.com/cn/Company/CorporateVideo ). Huawei Marine has combined competitive edges of both parent companies with strong commitment to the establishment of submarine cable network globally. And the vision of Huawei Marine, being “Connecting the World, One Ocean at a Time”, has also fully reflected the vision of Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, “Building a Fully Connected, Intelligent World”. This video is selected from the official website of Huawei Marine, aiming to give a brief introduction of the company as well as what they have done over the past decade. As it is an official video concerning Huawei Marine’s corporate image, the words employed in subtitle are very formal, and the same is true to subtitle translation.

The last advertising video introduces HUAWEI’s non-profit project, TECH4ALL (https://www.huawei.com/minisite/tech4all/cn/). It is a non-profit project launched by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd with strong commitment to bring technology to everyone and everywhere, both rich and poor, in the world. It is certain that the wealth people are more likely to get advanced technology and information to catch more wealth while poor people would face the embarrassing situation of getting poorer, which is the application of the Matthew Effect in information era.

In the following analysis, specific comments about the subtitle translation of those advertising videos are offered from linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions, key points of Eco-translatology theory.

===3.1 Linguistic Dimensional Transformations===

The adaptive selection transformation in linguistic dimension means that translators have to focus on the transformation of linguistic form. The basic requirements for translators in linguistic dimensional transformations are grammatically correction, clearness, accuracy and others. The author gave some specific comments about the subtitle translation of selected videos from linguistic dimensional transformation, part of three dimensional transformations in Eco-translatology theory (Tang, 2015, 143). In the following analysis, examples are given with their translations, and the source text is marked as ST and translated target text, TT, and specific comments about those examples, from linguistic dimensional transformation, are provided in the following text.

Eg.1 ST: 在这广阔的海域下，正是这一条条蓝色的信息脉络，传递你我的声音，想法传递着每一份情感，让想象呈现于现实，连接五洲四洋，承载沟通梦想，让世界无界。

TT: Deep under our vast seas, there is a blue highway of information, spreading our voices, ideas, and feelings, allowing our imaginations become reality, carrying our dreams across the oceans, and making a world without boundaries.

It is the last part of the advertising video about Huawei Marine focusing on its vision. This video ends with “连接五洲四洋，承载沟通梦想，让世界无界”, which includes broad words of “洲” and “洋”. In Chinese, “五洲四洋” is a word developed from a Chinese four-character idiom, “五洲四海” which refers to “世界各地”, every corner in the world, and it originates from the essay, 《魔鬼的笛音》 written by Sima Da. Meanwhile, the literal meaning of “五洲四洋” is continents and oceans, while the translator put it into “oceans” solely. The reason behind is that the translator tried to satisfy the requirements of(in)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) corporate promotion.

Just as the advertising video presented before, Huawei Marine aims to promote the image of International enterprises, Huawei Marine, and it gives some basic information about Huawei Marine, such as the business landscape. Most tasks Huawei Marin has conducted are on the ocean, rather than continents, by establishing as much as optical fibers across the ocean to connect the whole world, and the mission of Huawei Marine is “Connecting the World, One Ocean at a Time”. Based on the mission of Huawei Marine and its business landscape, the translator chose the image, ocean, and threw away another image, continent. Just in this way, the action translator conducted echoes to the purpose of this advertising video.

Eg.2

ST: 这里是位于印度洋深处的海洋秘境，仅5万人口，但他们的存在却无法让世界忽视或遗忘

TT: And on one secluded island in the Indian Ocean, that only has a population of 50,000, people have made their existence unforgettable and un-ignorable.

In this example, the translator applies “secluded island” to translate “海洋秘境” in describing the tough situation in Mauritius. “秘境”, in Chinese, is a phrase with many far-reaching meanings. Meanwhile, the conception, “海洋秘境”, conforms to Chinese perceptual knowledge since ancient times. In addition, according to Oxford dictionary, “secluded” also has diverse meanings, such as “(of a place) quiet and private, not used or disturbed by other people” and “without much contact with other people” (Oxford Dictionary, 2018, 297), which are correspondence to secret places of “秘境”. Although “secluded island” is lack of some meaning and the artistic conception of “秘境”, it has fully transmitted the key points in this passage, so the translator performed excellently.

From above examples, it is easy to conclude that translators should fully understand the translation eco-environment, the context or the background, adapt themselves in it, and aim to satisfy the requirements of linguistic style, accuracy, readability, customs and clearness on the basis of local translation eco-environments, when they understand the source text or conduct the translation practices. Otherwise, tedious, boring and untie in with reality may be the likely result of translation.

===3.2 Cultural Dimensional Transformations===

The adaptive selection transformation in cultural dimension requires that translators should pay pay special attention to convey and interpret the cultural connotations in both languages (Hu Gengshen, 2006, 49). As different countries have different history, people in this country have been cultivated with different culture, so it is naturally that people in China and other English-speaking countries own many differences, including opinions, values, cultural backgrounds, attitudes, customs and so many others.

As the existence of cultural differences, the top priority for translators, to broadcast a product or a company, is to eliminate differences or narrow the gap in cognition of people in two different cultural environments. So in order to make customers learn more about and accept the product or an enterprise, translators should exhaust their knowledge and skills to eliminate those cognitive differences towards some specific things, which carry completely different meanings in different cultures. The author has employed the subtitle translation of advertisement video to make specific comments from cultural dimensional transformations. The followings are some examples and comments about the subtitle translation from cultural transformation dimension.

Eg.3

ST: 70%的表面被海洋覆盖，这里孕育着神奇的物种，埋藏着丰富的资源，也成为人类沟通的天堑。

TT: 70% of our world is covered by oceans, which are home to amazing species and rich resources. Now, they will bring a new era of communication.

“天堑” is a literary word referring to natural chasms unable to be conquered easily, most of which are big rivers. In Southern Dynasty, people viewed “天堑” as the Changjiang River. Mr. Fan, a famous writer of the Northern Dynasty, once said that “长江天堑，古来限隔，虏军岂能飞度?”, which means that enemy troops of Sui Dynasty could not pass the Changjiang River, because it separated the north and south. Although the Sui Dynasty succeed in this battle because of militaries of that the Northern Dynasty led a befuddled life while militants in the Sui Dynast, we could still get a glimpse of difficulties of the natural chasm.

After that, people employed “天堑” to describe many natural chasms, especially the Changjiang River. For example, in 1957 when Wuhan Yangtze River Bridge was completed, Mao Zedong wrote a poem 《水调歌头•游泳》 to celebrate the great events. In 《水调歌头•游泳》, there exists a saying of “天堑变通途”, which means that the Changjiang River, the natural chasms are conquered to be clear roads.

In English, there is no specific words corresponding to “天堑”, so the translator turned to the specific meaning of the sentence and rendered it into that the ocean “will bring a new era of communication”. It is also the mission of Huawei Marine. Both Chinese version and English version transform the vision of Huawei Marine differently based on different cultural background.

Meanwhile, as “天堑” has such a few profound meanings, it not only illustrates how hard those places are and how extraordinary achievements Huawei Marine has made, but also creates an artistic conception that there are a lot of challenges lying in Huawei Marine’s projects. The artistic conception refers to the situation which is created by the integration of emotion and scene, void-solid combination and poetic space with profound meanings and the rhythms of vibrant life. For most people, they cannot get the specific points when they read such words, but after watching the whole video and relating those words to specific situation in this video, they would catch a glimpse of the corporate image.

Apart from that, the translator translated “天堑” as “they will bring a new era of communication” in English. These words echo to the beginning words which have shown the rich resources and coverage of the vast ocean, because people may not view the ocean as a way leading to communication era as it is generally accepted that continents are divided by ocean so that ideas are unable to communicate freely. Therefore, “bring a new era of communication” in the video introduces Huawei Marine’s business landscape, showing its presence in creating a new era of communication in the vast ocean. The English version has less twists in the whole passage and targets at the theme, introducing Huawei Marine, directly, which satisfies Westerners’ customs and advocates the corporate image in a more appropriate way.

Eg.4

ST: 科技普济天下。

TT: Tech for all. Pass it on.

This comes from the advertising video about the non-profit project, TECH4ALL. “科技普济天下” can be easily related to a Chinese old saying, “穷则独善其身，达则兼济天下” with the English meaning being “In hard time, try to seek self-development; in success, try to let others be benefited”, which is the highest mission of scholars in ancient China. It tends to arouse Chinese people’s admiration to HUAWEI. The English version, “Tech for all. Pass it on”, is a fixed expression that passes on something from generation to generation or from one man to another. To some extent, the last sentence, being the finishing touch, promotes HUAWEI’s corporate image greatly. And both versions have transferred the theme to the audiences successfully.

From the above analysis, the conclusion emerges. Viewing from cultural dimensions, translators should consider not only the cultural differences between source language and target language, but also the theme of the advertising videos, describing the performance of a company. And as cultural tradition, Chinese version prefers to employ broader words to create an atmosphere while the English version tends to use more specific and direct ones. Only in this way, customers with different cultural background would know the company or product in a correct and positive way.

===3.3 Communicative Dimensional Transformations===

The adaptive selection transformation in communicative dimension focuses on the communicative ability of the text (Hu Gengshen, 2006, 97). In other words, the purpose of an advertising video is to introduce and promote a product, projects or enterprise, so the video would contain the basic information of the product, project or enterprise, so as to enable potential customers to know more about them or engage in the project or join in the company.

In this dimension, it will focus on the translation of the communicative ability. For example, if an advertising video of Chinese version focuses on a mobile phone and introduces its basic information, and most of the domestic customers itch to buy one after watching that video, the translator has to translate not only all of the basic information but also the emotion–appealing. If the translator fails to arouse customers’ impulse to buy the phone, the translation practice is a failure (Hu Gengshen, 2008, 13). However, in this aspect, HUAWEI’s advertising videos are excellent examples, and the followings are some specific analysis of subtitle translation of those advertising videos from communicative dimensional transformation.

Eg.5

ST: 偏远的尼日利亚村民第一次连接外部世界，一根科技木杆，立起数字信号覆盖村落。无法离家的孟加拉农村女性，第一次掌握数字工具，六部培训巴士，带着数字技能穿梭百万公里。特殊的聋哑孩子，第一次享受到阅读的乐趣，一款移动应用，让手机通晓数十种语言。

TT: In remote areas of Nigeria, connectivity brings new life to local communities, opening doors to trade, banking, better education and healthcare. In Bangladesh, digital training has given more than 240,000 women new opportunities in life. With AI, deaf children everywhere can translate written words into sign language, so no child misses out on the joy of story time.

This example is selected from TECH4ALL (https://www.huawei.com/minisite/tech4all/cn/index.html#stories ), a non-profit project. As a non-profit project, the most important point is to elaborate on the purpose of the project and reflect on the corporate’s social responsibility. According to the advertising video, both Chinese and English version, the project focuses on bringing the general access to people with some troubles, such as people in remote areas in Nigeria and Bangladesh, and vulnerable children.

For those villagers in remote Nigeria, the translator translated “第一次连接外部世界” as “connectivity brings new life to local communities”. That is overstatement in the first sight of “new life”, but it conveys that how dramatically that power of Internet is and how great the project, conducted by HUAWEI, is in the information era. Again, women in poor Bangladesh can visit places, break the limit of ignorant and backward idea and “have new opportunities in life” with the power of digital technology. As for those children with self-inability, they miss many joys in the word. However, they “cannot miss out on the joy of story time”, and is able to write a completely new chapter with AI, the digital technology, compared with that when they lack of AI before.

From those three examples, three vulnerable groups with characteristic can meet a brighter world and enjoy the colorful life with the access to technology, Internet and AI. Although they fail to connect and communicate with the world because of geographical limits, financial limits and self-inability, their life can also be changed with the advanced technologies, just as HUAWEI did in this project. From this communicative dimension, the subtitle translation of this advertising video has been conveyed completely and successfully----Technology, to great extent, has changed their life completely.

Eg. 6

ST: 世界并非天生完美，数字包容改变世界。

TT: Our planet may not be perfect, but digital technology can help make it better.

In this example, “世界并非完美，数字包容改变世界” has two implications. The first is that the world has many imperfections, which echoes to those vulnerable group. The second implication is the theme of this advertising video. Meanwhile, the English version is also a fixed expression. The words, “help make it better”, means that something can promote another thing in a more positive way. Apparently, both source text and target text reemphasizes the importance of digital technology and underlines the vision of this project---making a better world.

From the comments above, it seems clear that translators should exhaust their efforts to transform the communicative intention of the text so that customers in both languages would arouse the same or similar emotion and get the same or similar information of the project, product or enterprise, when conducting translation practice. Only in this way, the translation can be deemed as successful translation.

===4 Conclusion===

In the first chapter, this thesis gives a basic overview of the development of Eco-translatology theory and mentions the current fruits of the theory. Then the author gives an overview of studies related to subtitle translation in recent years, and introduces the focus of this paper. With the help of theoretical support listed above, the author researches the subtitle translation of advertising video from three dimensional transformations in Eco-translatology theory.

With the development of technology and Internet, more and more domestic enterprises are going global. Considering HUAWEI is a tech giant with far-reaching influence in both China and the world, the author selects three advertising videos about product, enterprise and project concerning HUAWEI to comment in three dimensions respectively. The product’s advertising video is about HUAWEI Mate 20, a mobile phone catching world’s eye since its release.

The enterprise’s advertising video is that of Huawei Marine, a joint venture established by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd and Global Marine System Limited. And the project’s advertising video concerns a non-profit project launched by HUAWEI, TECH4ALL. The author analyzes those three videos from linguistic dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension respectively, and finds that translators should consider the linguistic customs, cultural background and communicative ability of both cultures so as to enable more people to know more about what advertising videos have advertised and to buy the product, join in the enterprises and engage in the project.

Eco-translatology, an emerging theory put forward by Hu Gengshen, offers an insight to subtitle translation of advertising videos. Although commercial translation is booming in recent years, it seems that not enough attention is given to translation practices from the perspective of Eco-tranlatology. Thus, this paper, with analysis of advertising video from the perspective of Eco-translatology, provides people who are involved in subtitle translation of advertising video and bilingual video makers with new inspiration.

From the perspective of linguistic dimensional transformation, translators should adapt themselves in specific translation ecology so as to ensure the linguistic style, accuracy, readability, and clearness of the translated text; from the perspective of cultural dimensional transformation, translators, in order to make sure target audiences grasp what the advertising video promote in a correct and positive way, should consider the cultural differences between source language and target language more; from the perspective of communicative dimensional transformation, translators need to transmit the communicative intention of the text so that customers in both languages would arouse similar emotion which helps build similar image of the project, product or enterprise.

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--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 13:01, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

='''Translation Theories'''=

==A study on a History of Translation Theory 李梦 Li Meng 202020080613 亚非语言文学==
<center>李梦 Li Meng </center>
===Abstract===
Translation theory guides translation practice, and the technical aspects demonstrated in translation practice are also based on translation theory. Therefore, translation theory is of great importance to both translation teaching and translation practice. To understand a subject, one must first understand its history.By studying the history of Chinese and Western translation theories, this paper analyzes the similarities and characteristics of Chinese and Western translation theories, and expounds the importance of the history of translation theories to translation studies.

===Key words===
Translation Theory, History of Translation, History of Translation Theory, History of Chinese Translation Theory , History of Western Translation Theory

===摘要===
翻译理论指导翻译实践，在翻译实践中所展示的技术层面也是以翻译理论为基础。因此翻译理论对翻译教学和翻译实践都至关重要。而要了解一门学科，必须先读懂它的历史。本文将通过研究中西方翻译理论史，分析中西翻译理论史的共性与特性，阐述翻译理论史对翻译研究重要性。

===关键词===
翻译理论，翻译史，翻译理论史，中国翻译理论史，西方翻译理论史

===1. Introduction===
Translation, as a cross-cultural communication activity, has a history as long as the origin and development of mankind. With the acceleration of human civilization and globalization, translation has gradually shouldered the heavy responsibility of promoting communication and exchange among people of all nationalities in the world and promoting common development and progress. However, as an important part of translation studies, the history of translation theory has received far less attention than the study of translation theories and techniques. (Luo Hui 2017,198)

The study of translation history, translation theory and translation technique is considered to be the three main components of translation research, but from the books on translation research published over the years, we can see that the research achievements and academic theories of translation theory and translation skills far outweigh the research of translation history, which shows that translation history has not attracted enough attention. (Luo Hui 2017,198)

Translation, however, has historical characteristics, and when we study translation, we must examine the translation activities in the long river of human history, so that we can find out more clearly that the form and connotation of translation activities are constantly enriched, and that it plays different roles in different historical stages. Therefore, if you want to do a good translation study, you have to understand the history of translation theory.(Luo Hui 2017,198)

Translation, as a cross-cultural communication activity, has a history as long as the origin and development of mankind. With the acceleration of human civilization and globalization, translation has gradually shouldered the heavy responsibility of promoting communication and exchange among people of all nationalities in the world and promoting common development and progress.However, as an important part of translation research, the history of translation theory is far less important than that of translation theory and translation technology. (Luo Hui 2017,198)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The study of translation history, translation theory and translation technique is considered to be the three main components of translation research, but from the books on translation research published over the years, we can see that the research achievements and academic theories of translation theory and translation skills far outweigh the research of translation history, which shows that translation history has not attracted enough attention. (Luo Hui 2017,198)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

But translation has historical characteristics. In studying translation, it is necessary to examine translation activities in the long river of human history in order to find more clearly that the form and connotation of translation activities are constantly enriched, and it plays different roles in different historical stages. Therefore, if you want to do a good translation study, you must understand the history of translation theory.(Luo Hui 2017,198)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===2. The History of Chinese Translation Theory===
Chinese translation theory was born out of contact with vassal states during the Zhou Dynasty. It developed through translations of Buddhist scripture into Chinese. It is a response to the universals of the experience of translation and to the specifics of the experience of translatingfrom specific source languages into Chinese. It also developed in the context of Chinese literary and intellectual tradition. There have been three high tide of translation in the history of Chinese translation: the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Song Dynasty, the translation of Western studies from the late Ming to the early Qing Dynasty and the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May 4th Movement. (Liang Dan 2016,104)

The Chinese translation theory was born after the Zhou Dynasty came into contact with the client state.It developed through translations of Buddhist scripture into Chinese. It is a response to the universals of the experience of translation and to the specifics of the experience of translatingfrom specific source languages into Chinese. It also developed in the context of Chinese literary and intellectual tradition. There have been three high tide of translation in the history of Chinese translation: the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Song Dynasty, the translation of Western studies from the late Ming to the early Qing Dynasty and the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May 4th Movement. (Liang Dan 2016,104)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.1 The Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Song Dynasty====
From the Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song dynasties, Buddhism was introduced into China and blended with traditional Chinese Confucianism and Taoism.Indian philosophy, literature and art, medicine, astronomy, arithmetic and even language have some influence in our country with the translation of Buddhist scriptures, but the translation activities of this period mainly focus on spreading religion.(Cai jie 2018,1)

From the Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song dynasties, Buddhism was introduced into China and blended with traditional Chinese Confucianism and Taoism.Indian philosophy, literature and art, medicine, astronomy, arithmetic and even language have some influence in our country with the translation of Buddhist scriptures, but the translation activities of this period mainly focus on spreading religion.(Cai jie 2018,1)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Important Translators in this period and their translation theories：

Zhi Qian(3rd c.AD)
Zhi Qian (支谦) 's preface (序)is the first work whose purpose is to express an opinion about translation practice. The preface was included in a work of the Liang Dynasty. It recounts an historical anecdote of 224AD, at the beginning of the Three Kingdoms period. A party of Buddhist monks came to Wuchang. One of them, Zhu Jiangyan by name, was asked to translate some passage from scripture. He did so, in rough Chinese. (Chen Fukang 1996,320)

When Zhi Qian questioned the lack of elegance, another monk, named Wei Qi (维祇), responded that the meaning of Buddha should be translated simply, without loss, in an easy-to-understand manner: literary adornment unnecessary. All present concurred and quoted two traditional maxims: Laozi's "beautiful words are untrue, true words are not beautiful " and Confucius s "speech cannot be fully recorded by writing, and speech cannot fully capture meaning". Zhi Qians own translations of Buddhist texts are elegant and literary, so the "direct translation" advocated in the anecdote is likely Wei Qi's position, not Zhi Qians. (Chen Fukang 1996,320)

Zhi Qian(3rd c.AD)
Zhi Qian 's preface is the first work whose purpose is to express an opinion about translation practice. The preface was included in a work of the Liang Dynasty. It recounts an historical anecdote of 224AD, at the beginning of the Three Kingdoms period. A party of Buddhist monks came to Wuchang. One of them, Zhu Jiangyan by name, was asked to translate some passage from scripture. He did so, in rough Chinese. (Chen Fukang 1996,320)

When Zhi Qian questioned the lack of elegance, another monk, named Wei Qi, responded that the meaning of Buddha should be translated simply, without loss, in an easy-to-understand manner: literary adornment unnecessary. All present concurred and quoted two traditional maxims: Laozi's "beautiful words are untrue, true words are not beautiful " and Confucius s "speech cannot be fully recorded by writing, and speech cannot fully capture meaning". Zhi Qians own translations of Buddhist texts are elegant and literary, so the "direct translation" advocated in the anecdote is likely Wei Qi's position, not Zhi Qians. (Chen Fukang 1996,320)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Dao An(314-385AD)
Dao An focused on loss in translation. His theory is the Five Forms of Loss (五失本).
① Changing the word order. Sanskrit word order is free with a tendency to SOV. Chinese is SO.
② Adding literary embellishment where the original is in plain style.
③ Eliminating repetitiveness in argumentation and panegyric (颂文).
④ Cutting the concluding summary section (义说).
⑤ Cutting the recapitulative material in introductory section.(Chen Fukang 1996,320)

Dao An criticized other translators for loss in translation, asking: how they would feel if a translator cut the boring bits out of classics like the Shi Jing or the Classic of History?
He also expanded upon the difficulty of translation, with his theory of the Three Difficulties (三不易).
① Communicating the Dharma to a different audience from the one the Buddha addressed.
② Translating the words of a saint.
③ Translating texts which have been painstakingly composed by generations of disciples. (Chen Fukang 1996,320)

Dao An(314-385AD)
Dao An focused on loss in translation. His theory is the Five Forms of Loss.
① Changing the word order. Sanskrit word order is free with a tendency to SOV. Chinese is SO.
② Adding literary embellishment where the original is in plain style.
③ Eliminating repetitiveness in argumentation and panegyric.
④ Cutting the concluding summary section.
⑤ Cutting the recapitulative material in introductory section.(Chen Fukang 1996,320)

Dao An criticized other translators for loss in translation, asking: how they would feel if a translator cut the boring bits out of classics like the Shi Jing or the Classic of History?
He also expanded upon the difficulty of translation, with his theory of the Three Difficulties.
① Communicating the Dharma to a different audience from the one the Buddha addressed.
② Translating the words of a saint.
③ Translating texts which have been painstakingly composed by generations of disciples. (Chen Fukang 1996,320)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Kumarajiva(344 - 413AD)
Kumarajiva's translation practice was to translate for meaning. The story goes that one day Kumarajiva criticized his disciple Sengrui for translating "heaven sees man, and man sees heaven"(天见人，人见天). Kumarajiva felt that " man and heaven connect, the two able to see each other"(人天交接，两得相见) would be more idiomatic, though heaven sees man, man sees heaven is perfectly idiomatic. (Chen Fukang 1996,320)

In another tale, Kumarajiva discusses the problem of translating incantations at the end of sutras. In the original there is attention to aesthetics, but the sense of beauty and the literary form (dependent on the particularities of Sanskrit) are lost in translation. It is like chewing up rice and feeding it to people (嚼饭于人).(Chen Fukang 1996,320)

Kumarajiva(344 - 413AD)
Kumarajiva's translation practice was to translate for meaning. The story goes that one day Kumarajiva criticized his disciple Sengrui for translating "heaven sees man, and man sees heaven". Kumarajiva felt that " man and heaven connect, the two able to see each other" would be more idiomatic, though heaven sees man, man sees heaven is perfectly idiomatic. (Chen Fukang 1996,320)

In another tale, Kumarajiva discusses the problem of translating incantations at the end of sutras. In the original there is attention to aesthetics, but the sense of beauty and the literary form (dependent on the particularities of Sanskrit) are lost in translation. It is like chewing up rice and feeding it to people.(Chen Fukang 1996,320)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Huiyuan(334-416AD)
Huiyuan' s theory of translation is middling, in a positive sense. It is a synthesis that avoids extremes of elegant (文雅) and plain (质朴). With elegant translation, " the language goes beyond the meaning"(文过其意)of the original. With plain translation, "the thought surpasses the wording" (理胜其辞). For Huiyuan, "the words should not harm the meaning"(文不害意). A good translator should "strive to preserve the original"(务存其本). (Chen Fukang 1996,321)

Huiyuan(334-416AD)
Huiyuan' s theory of translation is middling, in a positive sense. It is a synthesis that avoids extremes of elegant and plain. With elegant translation, " the language goes beyond the meaning"of the original. With plain translation, "the thought surpasses the wording". For Huiyuan, "the words should not harm the meaning". A good translator should "strive to preserve the original". (Chen Fukang 1996,321)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Sengrui(371-438AD)
Sengrui investigated problems in translating the names of things. This is of course an important traditional concern whose locus classicus is the Confucian exhortation to "rectify names" (正名). This is not merely of academic concern to Sengrui, for poor translation imperils Buddhism. Sengrui was critical of his teacher Kumarajiva's casual approach to translating names, attributing it to Kumarajiva's lack of familiarity with the Chinese tradition of linking names to essences. (Chen Fukang 1996,321)

Sengrui(371-438AD)
Sengrui investigated problems in translating the names of things. This is of course an important traditional concern whose locus classicus is the Confucian exhortation to "rectify names".This is not merely of academic concern to Sengrui, for poor translation imperils Buddhism. Sengrui was critical of his teacher Kumarajiva's casual approach to translating names, attributing it to Kumarajiva's lack of familiarity with the Chinese tradition of linking names to essences. (Chen Fukang 1996,321)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Sengyou(445-518AD)
Much of the early material of earlier translators was gathered by Sengyou and would have been lost but for him. Sengyou's approach to translation resembles Huiyuan's, in that both saw good translation as the middle way between elegance and plainness. However, unlike Huiyuan Sengyou expressed admiration for Kumarajiva's elegant translation. (Chen Fukang 1996,321)

Sengyou(445-518AD)
Much of the early material of earlier translators was gathered by Sengyou and would have been lost but for him. Sengyou's approach to translation resembles Huiyuan's, in that both saw good translation as the middle way between elegance and plainness. However, unlike Huiyuan Sengyou expressed admiration for Kumarajiva's elegant translation. (Chen Fukang 1996,321)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Xuanzang(600-664AD)
Xuanzang's theory is the Five Untranslatables (五不翻). or five instances where one should transliterate:
① Secrets: Dharani (陀罗尼), Sanskrit ritual speech or incantations, which includes mantras.
②Polysemy: bhaga (as in the Bhagavad Gita) (薄伽), which means comfortable, flourishing, dignity, name, lucky, esteemed.
③ None in China: jambu tree (门浮树)，which does not grow in China.
④ Deference to the past: the translation for anuttara-samyak-sambodhi is already established as Anouputi (阿耨菩提).
⑤ To inspire respect and righteousness: Prana (般若) instead of "wisdom"(智慧) (Chen Fukang 1996,325)

Xuanzang(600-664AD)
Xuanzang's theory is the Five Untranslatables. or five instances where one should transliterate:
① Secrets: Dharani, Sanskrit ritual speech or incantations, which includes mantras.
②Polysemy: bhaga (as in the Bhagavad Gita), which means comfortable, flourishing, dignity, name, lucky, esteemed.
③ None in China: jambu tree, which does not grow in China.
④ Deference to the past: the translation for anuttara-samyak-sambodhi is already established as Anouputi.
⑤ To inspire respect and righteousness: Prana instead of "wisdom" (Chen Fukang 1996,325)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.2 The Translation of Western Studies from the Late Ming to the Early Qing Dynasty====
In the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, due to the need for external transportation, Sanyi Hall was established to train translators.At the end of the Ming Dynasty, Western studies gradually began to advance eastward, and translation became more active.But by this time the translation has completely changed, and it is no longer the Buddhist scriptures of India, but rather the classics of astronomy, geometry and medicine in Europe, and the history of Chinese translation has reached a new stage.(Cai jie2018,2)

In the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, Sanyitang was established to train translators.At the end of the Ming Dynasty, Western research gradually progressed eastward, and translation became more active.By this time, however, the translation has completely changed, and it is no longer the Buddhist scriptures of India, but the history of astronomy, geometry, medicine, and Chinese translation in Europe has reached a new stage.(Cai jie2018,2)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.3 The Translation of Western Studies from the Opium War to the May 4th Movement ====
After the Opium War, Chinese intellectuals felt the need to learn from the West in pain, and the translation activities began to rise again, forming a new stage in the history of Chinese translation. After the May 4th Movement, Chinese history entered modern times, and the importance of translation went back to ancient times.The rise of China's new literature is inseparable from translation. (Fang Wenhua 2005,108)

After the Opium War, Chinese intellectuals were painfully learning from the West, and translation activities began to rise again, forming a new stage in the history of Chinese translation. After the May 4th Movement, Chinese history entered modern times, and the importance of translation returned to ancient times.The rise of Chinese new literature cannot be separated from translation. (Fang Wenhua 2005,108)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Important Translators in this period and their translation theories：

Yan Fu(1854-1921)
Yan Fu is famous for his theory of fidelity, clarity and elegance (信达雅), which some believe originated with Tytler. Yan Fu wrote that fidelity is difficult to begin with. Only once the translator has achieved fidelity ane clarity should be attend to elegance. The obvious criticism of this theory is that it implies that inelegant originals should be translated elegantly. Clearly, if the style of the original is not elegant or refined, the style of the translation should not be elegant either. (Fang Wenhua 2005,200)

Yan Fu(1854-1921)
Yan Fu is famous for his theory of fidelity, clarity and elegance, which some believe originated with Tytler. Yan Fu wrote that fidelity is difficult to begin with. Only once the translator has achieved fidelity ane clarity should be attend to elegance. The obvious criticism of this theory is that it implies that inelegant originals should be translated elegantly. Clearly, if the style of the original is not elegant or refined, the style of the translation should not be elegant either. (Fang Wenhua 2005,200)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Liang Qichao(1873-1929)
Liang Qichao put these three qualities of a translation in the same order, fidelity first, then clarity, and only then elegance. (Fang Wenhua 2005,200)

Liang Qichao(1873-1929)
Liang Qichao put these three qualities of a translation in the same order, fidelity first, then clarity, and then elegance. (Fang Wenhua 2005,200)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Lin Yutang(1895-1976)
Lin Yutang stressed the responsibility of the translator to the original, to the reader, and to art. To fulfill responsibility, the translator needs to meet standards of fidelity (忠实), smoothness (通顺) and beauty. (Fang Wenhua 2005,200)

Lin Yutang(1895-1976)
Lin Yutang stressed the responsibility of the translator to the original, to the reader, and to art. To fulfill responsibility, the translator needs to meet standards of fidelity, smoothness and beauty. (Fang Wenhua 2005,200)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Lu Xun(1881-1936)
Lu Xun' s most famous dictim relating to translation is "I'd rather be faithful than smooth"(宁信而不顺). (Fang Wenhua 2005,201)

Lu Xun(1881-1936)
Lu Xun' s most famous dictim relating to translation is "I'd rather be faithful than smooth". (Fang Wenhua 2005,201)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Ai Siqi(1910-1966)
Ai Siqi described the relationship between fidelity, clarity and elegance in terms of Western ontology, where clarify and elegance are to fidelity as qualities are to being. (Fang Wenhua 2005,201)

Ai Siqi(1910-1966)
Ai Siqi described the relationship between fidelity, clarity and elegance in terms of Western ontology, where clarify and elegance are to fidelity as qualities are to being. (Fang Wenhua 2005,201)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Zhou Zuoren(1885-1967)
Zhou Zuoren assigned weightings, 50% of translation is fidelity, 30% is clarity, and 20% elegance. (Fang Wenhua 2005,202)

Zhou Zuoren(1885-1967)
Zhou Zuoren assigned weightings, 50% of translation is fidelity, 30% is clarity, and 20% elegance. (Fang Wenhua 2005,202)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Zhu Guangqian(1897-1986)
Zhu Guangqian wrote that fidelity in translation is the root which you can strive to approach but never reach. This formulation perhaps invokes the traditional idea of returning to the root in Daoist philosophy. (Fang Wenhua 2005,202)

Zhu Guangqian(1897-1986)
Zhu Guangqian wrote that fidelity in translation is the root which you can strive to approach but never reach. This formulation perhaps invokes the traditional idea of returning to the root in Daoist philosophy. (Fang Wenhua 2005,202)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Fu Lei(1908-1966)
Fu Lei held that translation is like painting: what is essential is not formal resemblance but rather spiritual resemblance (神似). (Fang Wenhua 2005,203)

Fu Lei(1908-1966)
Fu Lei held that translation is like painting: what is essential is not formal resemblance but rather spiritual resemblance (神似). (Fang Wenhua 2005,203)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Qian Zhongshu(1910-1998)
Qian Zhongshu wrote that the highest standard of translation is transformation (化, the power of transformat in nature): bodies are sloughed off, but the spirit (精神), appearance and manner (姿致) are the same as before (故我, the old me or the old self). (Fang Wenhua 2005,203)

Qian Zhongshu(1910-1998)
Qian Zhongshu wrote that the highest standard of translation is transformation (the power of transformat in nature): bodies are sloughed off, but the spirit, appearance and manner are the same as before (the old me or the old self). (Fang Wenhua 2005,203)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===3. The History of Western Translation Theory===

====3.1 Translation Studies of the Romans====
Studies on translation go back to the Romans. Eric Jacobson claims that translating is a Roman invention. Cicero and Horace (1st century B.C.) were the first theorists who made an important distinction between word-for-word translation and sense-for-sense translation. Their views on translation influenced successive generations of translators up to the twentieth century.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)

Studies on translation go back to the Romans. Eric Jacobson claims that translating is a Roman invention. Cicero and Horace (1st century B.C.) were the first theorists who made an important distinction between word-for-word translation and sense-for-sense translation. Their views on translation influenced successive generations of translators up to the twentieth century.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 13:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Important Roman Translator and his Translation Theory：

Marcus Tulluis Cicero(106-43B.C.)
①A Translator must, like an oratore, use idiomatic Roman language in expressing what is conveyed by a foreign language.
②A translator must avoid word-for-word translation and try to retain genus omne vimque (meaning).
③One who translates Demosthenes must be Demosthenes as translation means literary production.
④Different rhetorical devices in different languages share smilarities, which enables a translator to achieve correspondence in style.
⑤ The translation should surpass the original and the translator is superior to the original author.(Liu Danna 2016,1)

Marcus Tulluis Cicero(106-43B.C.)
①A Translator must, like an oratore, use idiomatic Roman language in expressing what is conveyed by a foreign language.
②A translator must avoid word-for-word translation and try to retain genus omne vimque (meaning).
③One who translates Demosthenes must be Demosthenes as translation means literary production.
④Different rhetorical devices in different languages share smilarities, which enables a translator to achieve correspondence in style.
⑤ The translation should surpass the original and the translator is superior to the original author.(Liu Danna 2016,1)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 13:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====3.2 Bible Translation in the Middle Ages ====
In the Middle Ages，from the end of the Roman Empireto the Renaissance, the Bible translation holds a very important positionin the Western translation history. With the spread of Christianity, translation came to acquire another role, that of dissemination the word of God. Translation of the New Testment was marked by St Jerome (fourth century CE). His approach to translating the Greek Septuagint Bible into Latin would affect later translations of the scriptures. In the sixteenth century the history of Bible translation acquired new dimensions with the advent of printing. (Fan Ningyu 2017,123)

In the Middle Ages，from the end of the Roman Empireto the Renaissance, the Bible translation holds a very important positionin the Western translation history. With the spread of Christianity, translation came to acquire another role, that of dissemination the word of God. Translation of the New Testment was marked by St Jerome. His approach to translating the Greek Septuagint Bible into Latin would affect later translations of the scriptures. In the sixteenth century the history of Bible translation acquired new dimensions with the advent of printing. (Fan Ningyu 2017,123)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 13:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The sixteenth century saw the translation of the Bible into a large number of European languages, in both Protestant and Roman Catholic versions, and revised version of existing translations continued to appear in English, Dutch, German and French.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)

The sixteenth century saw the translation of the Bible into a large number of European languages, in both Protestant and Roman Catholic versions, and revised version of existing translations continued to appear in English, Dutch, German and French.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 13:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Important Bible Translators and their Translation Theories :

(1)St Jerome(331-420 A.D.)
①Fexibility is a very important principle that must be adopted in translation when word for word rendition is impossible.
②It is necessary to distinguish between literary translation and religious translation.
③Correct translation must depend upon correct understanding of the source text.
④While doing translation, the translator must be as flexible as he can, as flexibility is a very mportant principle that must be adopted in translation when word for word rendition is impossible Languages differ from each other in diction, style, idiomatic usage, syntax and meaning and content. Therefore word-for-word rendition is not workable.
⑤The translator must differentiate between - literary translation and - religious translati. In the former, the translator must adopt what is easier to understand to convey the original thought. However, in the Bible translation, the translator can not always use sense for sense method, but literal rendition. Cicero preferred sense for sense to word for word, but Jerome considered them to be complementary to each other. He applied this to his translation practice.
⑥Correct translation must depend on correct understanding of the source text. He did not believe the inspiration of God.
⑦Jerome's principles and methods of translation greatly influenced the later translation especially the Bible translation in other western countrie.
(Zhang Yan 2011,117)

(1)St Jerome(331-420 A.D.)
①Fexibility is a very important principle that must be adopted in translation when word for word rendition is impossible.
②It is necessary to distinguish between literary translation and religious translation.
③Correct translation must depend upon correct understanding of the source text.
④While doing translation, the translator must be as flexible as he can, as flexibility is a very mportant principle that must be adopted in translation when word for word rendition is impossible Languages differ from each other in diction, style, idiomatic usage, syntax and meaning and content. Therefore word-for-word rendition is not workable.
⑤The translator must differentiate between - literary translation and - religious translati. In the former, the translator must adopt what is easier to understand to convey the original thought. However, in the Bible translation, the translator can not always use sense for sense method, but literal rendition. Cicero preferred sense for sense to word for word, but Jerome considered them to be complementary to each other. He applied this to his translation practice.
⑥Correct translation must depend on correct understanding of the source text. He did not believe the inspiration of God.
⑦Jerome's principles and methods of translation greatly influenced the later translation especially the Bible translation in other western countrie.
(Zhang Yan 2011,117)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 13:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

(2)St. Augustine(345-430A.D.)
①A translator must meet the following requirements:(a)a good command of the two languages,(b)knowledge of the subject matter selected for translation,(c)capability of proofreading.
②Pay full attention to three kinds of style: plain, refined and sublime.
③Pay due attention to the triangle relationship between signified, signifier and the translators judgment.
④The basic level in translation is word.
⑤Translating the Bible must be done under the inspiration of God.(Zhang Yan 2011,118)

(2)St. Augustine(345-430A.D.)
①A translator must meet the following requirements:(a)a good command of the two languages,(b)knowledge of the subject matter selected for translation,(c)capability of proofreading.
②Pay full attention to three kinds of style: plain, refined and sublime.
③Pay due attention to the triangle relationship between signified, signifier and the translators judgment.
④The basic level in translation is word.
⑤Translating the Bible must be done under the inspiration of God.(Zhang Yan 2011,118)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 13:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====3.3 Translation Theory during the Renaissance====
Translation in Renaissance Europe came to play a role of central importance. And translation was by no means a secondary activity, but a primary one, exerting a shaping force on the intellectual life of the age, and at times the figure of the translator appears almost as revolutionary activist rather than the servant of an original author or text. Renaissance is the period in Europe between the 14th and 17 centuries, when the art, literature, and ideas of ancient Greece were discovered again and widely studied, causing a rebirth ofactivity in all these things. The role translation plays in Renaissance: means of transplanting new ideas and thoughts, compared to war trophies in literature and art. (Fan Ningyu 2017,123)

Translation in Renaissance Europe came to play a role of central importance. And translation was by no means a secondary activity, but a primary one, exerting a shaping force on the intellectual life of the age, and at times the figure of the translator appears almost as revolutionary activist rather than the servant of an original author or text. Renaissance is the period in Europe between the 14th and 17 centuries, when the art, literature, and ideas of ancient Greece were discovered again and widely studied, causing a rebirth ofactivity in all these things. The role translation plays in Renaissance: means of transplanting new ideas and thoughts, compared to war trophies in literature and art. (Fan Ningyu 2017,123)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 13:36, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Renaissance in turn influenced translation greatly in terms of attitudes toward translation and translation methods or approaches. The Renaissance period witnessed a considerable increase in the number of translations, due to the stimulating influence of the Renaissance and the introduction of printing technology and perception of translation as a means of disseminating knowledge to a wider audience. In addition, new views on translation appearedand translation activities centered not only on the Bible and classical literary texts, but also on other kinds of texts such as scientific ones and helped develop the national languages.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)

Renaissance in turn influenced translation greatly in terms of attitudes toward translation and translation methods or approaches. The Renaissance period witnessed a considerable increase in the number of translations, due to the stimulating influence of the Renaissance and the introduction of printing technology and perception of translation as a means of disseminating knowledge to a wider audience. In addition, new views on translation appearedand translation activities centered not only on the Bible and classical literary texts, but also on other kinds of texts such as scientific ones and helped develop the national languages.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 13:36, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Important Renaissance Translators and their Translation Theories :

(1)Martin Luther(1483-1546)
①Translation must adopt the language accepted by the people.
②Translation must pay much attention to the relation of grammar to sense.
③Translation must follow seven principles:(a) the translator can change the original word order,( b) the translator can chose proper helping words,(c) the translator can supply necessary words,(d) the translator can omit the words which can not find exact counterparts in TL,(e) the translator can render a word a phrase,(f) the translator can translate metaphorical expressions into nonmetaphorical expressions and vice versa,(g) the translator must pay due attention to the deviation of language and the accuracy of interpretation
④Translation must draw on collective wisdom and absorb all useful ideas. (Zou Yujuan 2019,239)

(1)Martin Luther(1483-1546)
①Translation must adopt the language accepted by the people.
②Translation must pay much attention to the relation of grammar to sense.
③Translation must follow seven principles:(a) the translator can change the original word order,( b) the translator can chose proper helping words,(c) the translator can supply necessary words,(d) the translator can omit the words which can not find exact counterparts in TL,(e) the translator can render a word a phrase,(f) the translator can translate metaphorical expressions into nonmetaphorical expressions and vice versa,(g) the translator must pay due attention to the deviation of language and the accuracy of interpretation
④Translation must draw on collective wisdom and absorb all useful ideas. (Zou Yujuan 2019,239)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 13:36, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

(2)Etienne Dolet(1509-1546)
①The translator must understand what he wants to translate.
②The translator must know SL and TL.
③The translator must avoid word for word rendition, which harms the conveyance of the origina message and the beauty of the language.
④The translator must use the common speech.
⑤The translator must make the version appropriate in effect through diction and adjustment of syntactical components.(Zou Yujuan 2019,239)

(2)Etienne Dolet(1509-1546)
①The translator must understand what he wants to translate.
②The translator must know SL and TL.
③The translator must avoid word for word rendition, which harms the conveyance of the origina message and the beauty of the language.
④The translator must use the common speech.
⑤The translator must make the version appropriate in effect through diction and adjustment of syntactical components.(Zou Yujuan 2019,239)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 13:36, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====3.4 Translation Theory in the Early Modern Times====
17th century - 19th century is a very important period of translation and translation studies in the west. Translation became prosperous because of boosting of production, prosperous economy, more and more people receiving education and being eager to read and write. In this period each period differs from the other and each country differs from the other in translation. Translation is characterized by inaccurate representation of the original message in the TL in many cases in some countries. Translation theories began to develop systematically interms of their framework in the 18th century and foundits center in the 19th century Germany. (Fan Ningyu 2017,123)

The focus of translation practice began to be shifted from classics to modern works. Jesus Christ school: inaccurate translation, making classics religious in translation version. Port-Royal school: stressing the present, often addingsomething to the original content or omitting something of the ST in the translation. The 19th century French translators such as Francoise-Rene de Chateaubriand (1768- 1848), Gerard Nerval(1808-1855) and Charles Baudelaire(1821-1867) focused their attention on translating modern work such as those of Shakespeare and Allen Poe. By the mid-seventeenth century the widening of the gap between traditional Christian Humanism and science had all led to radical changes in the theory ofliterature and hence to the role of translation.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)

17th century - 19th century is a very important period of translation and translation studies in the west. Translation became prosperous because of boosting of production, prosperous economy, more and more people receiving education and being eager to read and write. In this period each period differs from the other and each country differs from the other in translation. Translation is characterized by inaccurate representation of the original message in the TL in many cases in some countries. Translation theories began to develop systematically interms of their framework in the 18th century and foundits center in the 19th century Germany. (Fan Ningyu 2017,123)

The focus of translation practice began to be shifted from classics to modern works. Jesus Christ school: inaccurate translation, making classics religious in translation version. Port-Royal school: stressing the present, often addingsomething to the original content or omitting something of the ST in the translation. The 19th century French translators such as Francoise-Rene de Chateaubriand (1768- 1848), Gerard Nerval(1808-1855) and Charles Baudelaire(1821-1867) focused their attention on translating modern work such as those of Shakespeare and Allen Poe. By the mid-seventeenth century the widening of the gap between traditional Christian Humanism and science had all led to radical changes in the theory ofliterature and hence to the role of translation.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 13:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Important Translators in the Early Modern Times and their Translation Theories：

(1)John Dryden (1631-1700), formulated the trichotomy oftranslation:
① Metaphrase (直译), or turning an author word by word, and line by line, from one language into another.
② Paraphrase (意译), or translation with latitude (flexibility), the Ciceronian "sense-for-sense" view of translation.
③ Imitation (仿译), where the translator can abandon the text of the original as he sees fit.(Zou Yujuan 2019,239)

Of these types Dryden chooses the second (paraphrase) as the more balanced path, provided the translator fulfils certain criteria: To translate poetry, he argues, the translator mustbe a poet, must be a master of both languages, and must understand both the characteristics and spirit ofthe original author, besides conforming to the aesthetic canons of his own age. He uses the metaphor of the translator/portrait painter, that was to reappear so frequently in the eighteenth century, maintaining that the painter has theduty of making his portrait resemble the original.(Zou Yujuan 2019,239)

Dryden's views on translation were followed fairly closely by Alexander Pope (1688 - 1744),who advocates the same middle ground as Dryden, with stress on close reading of the original to note the details of style and manner whilst endeavoring to keep alive the "fire" of the poem. (Zou Yujuan 2019,239)

In the Eighteenth Century, underlying Dryden's and Pope's concept of translation is another element, beyond the problem ofthe debate between overfaithfulness and looseness: the whole question of the moral duty of the translatorto his contemporary readers. The impulse to clarify and make plain the essential spirit of a text led to large scale rewritings of earlier texts to fit them to contemporary standards of language and taste. Hence the famous re-structuring of Shakespearian texts, and the translations of Racine. (Zou Yujuan 2019,239)

(1)John Dryden (1631-1700), formulated the trichotomy oftranslation:
① Metaphrase：or turning an author word by word, and line by line, from one language into another.
② Paraphrase： or translation with latitude (flexibility), the Ciceronian "sense-for-sense" view of translation.
③ Imitation：where the translator can abandon the text of the original as he sees fit.(Zou Yujuan 2019,239)

Of these types Dryden chooses the second (paraphrase) as the more balanced path, provided the translator fulfils certain criteria: To translate poetry, he argues, the translator mustbe a poet, must be a master of both languages, and must understand both the characteristics and spirit ofthe original author, besides conforming to the aesthetic canons of his own age. He uses the metaphor of the translator/portrait painter, that was to reappear so frequently in the eighteenth century, maintaining that the painter has theduty of making his portrait resemble the original.(Zou Yujuan 2019,239)

Dryden's views on translation were followed fairly closely by Alexander Pope (1688 - 1744),who advocates the same middle ground as Dryden, with stress on close reading of the original to note the details of style and manner whilst endeavoring to keep alive the "fire" of the poem. (Zou Yujuan 2019,239)

In the Eighteenth Century, underlying Dryden's and Pope's concept of translation is another element, beyond the problem ofthe debate between overfaithfulness and looseness: the whole question of the moral duty of the translatorto his contemporary readers. The impulse to clarify and make plain the essential spirit of a text led to large scale rewritings of earlier texts to fit them to contemporary standards of language and taste. Hence the famous re-structuring of Shakespearian texts, and the translations of Racine. (Zou Yujuan 2019,239)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 13:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

(2)Alexander Fraser Tytler(1747-1813)published a volume entitled The principles of translation, the first systematic study in English of the translation processes.
Tytler set up three basic principles:
①The translation should give a complete transcript ofthe idea of the original work
②The style and manner of writing should be of thesame character with that of the original.
③The translation should have all the ease of theoriginal composition.(Zou Yujuan 2019,239)

In the Romantic Period, so many texts were translated at this time that were tohave a seminal effect on the TL. Stress on the impact of the translation in the target culture in fact resulted in a shift of interest away from theactual processes of translation. Moreover, two conflicting tendencies can be determined in the early nineteenth century: one exalts translation as a category of thought, with the translator seen as a creative genius in his own right, in touch with the geniusof his original and enriching the literature and language into which he is translating; the other sees translation interms of the more mechanical function of "making known" a text or author.(Liu Danna 2016,3)

2)Alexander Fraser Tytler(1747-1813)published a volume entitled The principles of translation, the first systematic study in English of the translation processes.
Tytler set up three basic principles:
①The translation should give a complete transcript ofthe idea of the original work
②The style and manner of writing should be of thesame character with that of the original.
③The translation should have all the ease of theoriginal composition.(Zou Yujuan 2019,239)

In the Romantic Period, so many texts were translated at this time that were tohave a seminal effect on the TL. Stress on the impact of the translation in the target culture in fact resulted in a shift of interest away from theactual processes of translation. Moreover, two conflicting tendencies can be determined in the early nineteenth century: one exalts translation as a category of thought, with the translator seen as a creative genius in his own right, in touch with the geniusof his original and enriching the literature and language into which he is translating; the other sees translation interms of the more mechanical function of "making known" a text or author.(Liu Danna 2016,3)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 13:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====3.5 Translation Theory in the Twentieth Century====
In the second half of the twentieth century, studies on translation became an important course in language teaching and learning at schools. The grammar-translation model studies the grammatical rules and structures of foreign languages. The cultural model is also a witness for the development of translation studies in the period. It required in translation not only a word-for-word substitution, but also a cultural understanding of the way people in different societies think. With this model, we can distinguish between the ethnographical-semantic method and the dynamic equivalent method.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)

In the second half of the twentieth century, studies on translation became an important course in language teaching and learning at schools. The grammar-translation model studies the grammatical rules and structures of foreign languages. The cultural model is also a witness for the development of translation studies in the period. It required in translation not only a word-for-word substitution, but also a cultural understanding of the way people in different societies think. With this model, we can distinguish between the ethnographical-semantic method and the dynamic equivalent method.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123) --[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 13:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Another model that appears in the period is text-based translation model, which focuses on texts rather than words or sentences in translation process. This model includes avariety of sub-models: the interpretative model, the text linguistic model and models of translation quality assessments that in turnprovide us with many models such as those of Riess,Wilss, Koller, House, North. The period is also characterized by pragmatic andsystematic approach to the study of translation.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)

Another model that appears in the period is text-based translation model, which focuses on texts rather than words or sentences in translation process. This model includes avariety of sub-models: the interpretative model, the text linguistic model and models of translation quality assessments that in turnprovide us with many models such as those of Riess,Wilss, Koller, House, North. The period is also characterized by pragmatic andsystematic approach to the study of translation.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123) --[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 13:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Important Translators in the Twentieth Century and their Translation Theories：

(1)Arne Jacobson(1896-1982)
①Jakobson points out that "there is ordinarily no full equivance between code-units".
②From a lingusitic and semiotic angle, Jakobson approaches the problem of equivance with the following definition: "Equivalence in difference is the cadinal problem of language and the pivotalconcern of linguistics."
③In Jakobson's discussion, the problem of meaning and equivalence thus focuses on differences in the structure and terminology of languages rather than on any inability of one language to render a message that has been written in another verbal language. Thus Russian can still express the full semantic meaning of cheese even if it breaks it down into two seperate concepts.
④For Jakobson, cross-linguistic differences center around obligatory grammatical and lexical forms: "Languages differ essentially in what they must convey and not in what they may convey".
⑤On the basis of semiotic theory, Jacobson divides translation into Intralingual translation, Interlingual translation and Intersemiotic translation.(Zhao Shanshan 2020,143）

(1)Arne Jacobson(1896-1982)
①Jakobson points out that "there is ordinarily no full equivance between code-units".
②From a lingusitic and semiotic angle, Jakobson approaches the problem of equivance with the following definition: "Equivalence in difference is the cadinal problem of language and the pivotalconcern of linguistics."
③In Jakobson's discussion, the problem of meaning and equivalence thus focuses on differences in the structure and terminology of languages rather than on any inability of one language to render a message that has been written in another verbal language. Thus Russian can still express the full semantic meaning of cheese even if it breaks it down into two seperate concepts.
④For Jakobson, cross-linguistic differences center around obligatory grammatical and lexical forms: "Languages differ essentially in what they must convey and not in what they may convey".
⑤On the basis of semiotic theory, Jacobson divides translation into Intralingual translation, Interlingual translation and Intersemiotic translation.(Zhao Shanshan 2020,143)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 13:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

(2)Eugene A. Nida(1914-2011)
Eugene A. Nida's most notable contribution to translation theory is functional equivalence theory. According to Nida's theory, the best translation should never sound like a translation. To studiously avoid." translationese", certain fundamental sets of precedence in translating should be established, such as the precedence of contextual consistency over verbal consistency, the precedence of dynamie equivalence over formal consistency and the precedence of forms that are acceptable to the audience for which a translation is intended over the forms that may be traditionally more practicable. (Jia Xiuhai 2008,25)

Aocording to functional equivalence theory, testing the quality of translation does not consist in a comparison of corresponding lexical meanings, grammatical classes, and rhetorical devices to see the extent of verbal consistency, but in how well the receptors understand and appreciate the translated text. Funetional equivalence focuses on reader's response, which calls for the response of the receptors to translated text is the same as the response of the original receptors to original text.(Jia Xiuhai 2008,25)

(2)Eugene A. Nida(1914-2011)
Eugene A. Nida's most notable contribution to translation theory is functional equivalence theory. According to Nida's theory, the best translation should never sound like a translation. To studiously avoid." translationese", certain fundamental sets of precedence in translating should be established, such as the precedence of contextual consistency over verbal consistency, the precedence of dynamie equivalence over formal consistency and the precedence of forms that are acceptable to the audience for which a translation is intended over the forms that may be traditionally more practicable. (Jia Xiuhai 2008,25)

Aocording to functional equivalence theory, testing the quality of translation does not consist in a comparison of corresponding lexical meanings, grammatical classes, and rhetorical devices to see the extent of verbal consistency, but in how well the receptors understand and appreciate the translated text. Funetional equivalence focuses on reader's response, which calls for the response of the receptors to translated text is the same as the response of the original receptors to original text.(Jia Xiuhai 2008,25)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 13:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

(3)Peter Newmark(1916-?)
Newmark divided the translation into four main categories: semantic translation, communicative translation, literal translation and dead translation. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Semantic translation focuses primarily on the semantic content of the source text. Communicative translation focuses essentially upon the comprehension and response of receptors. (Liang Dan 2016,105）

Newmark argues that translation is both a science and an art, and that translation is a science because something in the language has been standardized, allowing only two types of translation, and that when the two languages are translated into one another, the translation is basically fixed.(Liang Dan 2016,105）

Translation is art because some things in language allow for various options, various translations, and not standardization.resort to other theories to perfect its theoretical foundation and exist as a whole as a whole in terms of artistic appeal and rhetoric. Newmark thought that translation had rules to follow.To make the content of the original the same as the translation, metaphors, proverbs, idioms, slang terms, terms, judicial structures, and orders should be the same as the original in terms of frequency of use of the language.(Liang Dan 2016,105）

(3)Peter Newmark(1916-?)
Newmark divided the translation into four main categories: semantic translation, communicative translation, literal translation and dead translation. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Semantic translation focuses primarily on the semantic content of the source text. Communicative translation focuses essentially upon the comprehension and response of receptors. (Liang Dan 2016,105）

Newmark argues that translation is both a science and an art, and that translation is a science because something in the language has been standardized, allowing only two types of translation, and that when the two languages are translated into one another, the translation is basically fixed.(Liang Dan 2016,105）

Translation is art because some things in language allow for various options, various translations, and not standardization.resort to other theories to perfect its theoretical foundation and exist as a whole as a whole in terms of artistic appeal and rhetoric. Newmark thought that translation had rules to follow.To make the content of the original the same as the translation, metaphors, proverbs, idioms, slang terms, terms, judicial structures, and orders should be the same as the original in terms of frequency of use of the language.(Liang Dan 2016,105)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 13:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===4. The Commonality and Characteristics of Chinese and Western Translation Theory History===
The commonality of the history of Chinese and Western translation theory can be summed up from three aspects: content, process and influence.In terms of content, the West attaches great importance to the translation of the Bible, while China is keen to translate the Buddhist scriptures, both of which belong to the translation of religious documents, and this stage is considered one of the high tide of translation in Chinese and Western history.(Luo Hui 2017,199)

The commonality of the history of Chinese and Western translation theory can be summed up from three aspects: content, process and influence.In terms of content, the West attaches great importance to the translation of the Bible, while China is keen to translate the Buddhist scriptures, both of which belong to the translation of religious documents, and this stage is considered one of the high tide of translation in Chinese and Western history.(Luo Hui 2017,199)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 13:32, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In terms of process and influence, the field of translation of Chinese and Western translation has changed from single to pluralism, from the original translation of religious literature to the translation of historical, political, and literary fields, and has become more and more important, and the people of different regions have become more and more closely intercommunicated, the social culture has spread more rapidly, and the influence on human history has been deepened. (Luo Hui 2017,199)

In terms of process and influence, the field of translation of Chinese and Western translation has changed from single to pluralism, from the original translation of religious literature to the translation of historical, political, and literary fields, and has become more and more important, and the people of different regions have become more and more closely intercommunicated, the social culture has spread more rapidly, and the influence on human history has been deepened. (Luo Hui 2017,199)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 13:32, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Although the translation of religious documents has sparked a high tide in the history of Chinese and Western translation, because religion's position and influence in the two societies are very different, China is far less concerned about translation of Buddhist scriptures than in the West. The effect of translating the Bible cannot be compared with that of translating the Bible. In addition, Ma Zuyi scholars have shown that during the long period of the Zhou and Qing dynasties, there have been three high tides of translation in the history of Chinese translation.Since the third century AD, Western translations have had six high tides in history, and although their translation activities are later than in China, they have developed at a relatively rapid rate.Especially in modern times, Western translation theory and school of thought are increasingly scientific and systematic, and are in the lead position. (Luo Hui 2017,199)

Although，the translation of religious documents has sparked a high tide in the history of Chinese and Western translation, because religion's position and influence in the two societies are very different, China is far less concerned about translation of Buddhist scriptures than in the West. The effect of translating the Bible cannot be compared with that of translating the Bible. In addition,
Ma Zuyi scholars have shown that during the long period of the Zhou and Qing dynasties, there have been three high tides of translation in the history of Chinese translation.Since the third century AD, Western translations have had six high tides in history, and although their translation activities are later than in China, they have developed at a relatively rapid rate.Especially in modern times, Western translation theory and school of thought are increasingly scientific and systematic, and are in the lead position. (Luo Hui 2017,199)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 13:32, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===5. Conclusion===
As a cross-cultural communication activity with a long history, translation has reduced the communication barriers between people of different regions and languages and accelerated the development of human civilization. The history of translation theory is the historical record and witness of the origin and development of translation activities. It is an indispensable part in the process of translation studies and should be paid enough attention to. With the research results of translation theory history, this paper provides a clear and definite guidance for translation studies, thus promoting the vigorous development of translation activities.

As a cross-cultural communication activity with a long history, translation has reduced the communication barriers between different regions and different languages and promoted the development of human civilization.The history of translation theory is the historical record and witness of the origin and development of translation activities. It is an indispensable part in the process of translation studies and should be paid enough attention to. With the research results of translation theory history, this paper provides a clear and definite guidance for translation studies, thus promoting the vigorous development of translation activities.--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 13:23, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===6. References===

Fang Wenhua方文华.(2005). "二十世纪中国翻译史" [History of Chinese Translation in the 20th Century]. "西北大学出版社" [Northwestern University Press].(02):200-203.

Chen Fukang陈福康.(1996). "中国译学理论史稿" [Historical Drafts of Chinese Translation Theory]. "上海外语教育出版社" [Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].(03):320-321.

Cai Jie蔡杰.(2018). "概述中国翻译理论与实践的发展" [Summarize the Development of Chinese Translation Theory and Practice]. "课程研究" [Curriculum Research and Education].(G64):1-2.

Liu Danna刘丹娜.(2016). "西方翻译理论通史述评" [Commentary on the General History of Translation Theory in the West]. "语言研究" [Language Study].(18):1-3.

Zhang Yan张艳. (2011). "从范式理论评介中西翻译理论的发展" [A Study on the Development of Chinese and Western Translation Theory from the Paradigm Theory]. "大学英语" [College English]. (08):117-119.

Zou Yujuan邹雨娟. (2019). "中西翻译简史述评" [Commentary on the Brief History of Chinese and Western Translation]. "校园英语" [Campus English]. (23):239-240

Fan Ningyu樊宁瑜.(2017). "西方翻译简史之浅析" [A Brief Analysis of the History of Western Translators]. "文史纵横" [Literature and History].(18):123.

Liang Dan梁旦.(2016). "中西翻译理论对比" [Comparison between Chinese and Western translation Theory]. "海外英语" [Overseas English]. (04):106-104.

Luo Hui罗辉.(2017). "浅谈研究中西方翻译史对翻译研究的意义" [The Meaning of Studying Chinese and Western Translation History in Translation Research]. "语言文化" [Language and Culture]. (H059):198-199.

Zhao Shanshan赵珊珊.(2020). "翻译理论研究现状与趋势研究" [A Study on the Present Situation and Trend of Translation Theory Research]. "语言艺术研究" [The Study of Language Arts].(059):141-145.

==A Comparative Study of Translation Theory between Bell and Liu Zhongde 林鑫 Lin Xin 202020080617 英美文学==

<center>林鑫 Lin Xin </center>
===Abstract===
Roger T. Bell is recognized as a famous sociolinguist. As a linguist, Bell has framed his translation theories in terms of diagrams and models, and developed unique insights into translation issues. His main work on translation is "Translation and Translating:Theory and Practice". He objects seeing translating as evaluation of the product of translation, but stressing the importance of translation process.

Liu Zhongde is one of the most influential translation theory researchers and translators, and he has made great contribution to translation circle of theory as well as practice. Liu's research on translation theory is comprehensive and profound, and he not only pays attention to traditional Chinese translation theories, but also focuses on introducing and studying new western translation theories.

A comparison of Bell's and Liu's translation theories is useful for comparing the similarities and differences in their translation theories and providing references for the practice of translation theories.

===Key words===
Roger T. Bell; Liu Zhongde; Translation Theory; Comparative Study

===题目===
贝尔与刘重德翻译理论的比较研究

===摘要===
罗杰·贝尔是著名社会语言学家。作为一名语言学家，贝尔用图表和模型来构建他的翻译理论,并对翻译问题形成了独特的见解。他在翻译方面的主要著作是《翻译与翻译过程：理论与实践》。他反对把翻译看作是对翻译结果的评价，而是更加强调翻译过程的重要性。

刘重德是最具影响力的翻译理论研究者和翻译家之一，他对翻译界的理论以及实践都做出了巨大的贡献。刘重德对翻译理论的研究全面而深刻，他不仅重视中国传统的翻译理论,而且注重引进和研究西方新的翻译理论。

对贝尔和刘重德的翻译理论进行对比，有利于对比二者翻译理论中的异同，为翻译理论的实践提供借鉴和参考。

===关键词===
罗杰·贝尔；刘重德；翻译理论；比较研究

===1. Introduction===

====1.1 Introduction to Roger T. Bell's Translation Theory====
As a sociolinguist, Bell is characterized by applying linguistic method in translating. He is trying to set a model to explain and study the translating process, thus put the translator at the center instead of the product. The shift from emphasizing of the translated text to the call of paying attention to the process is significant. When the focus is on the process of translation, Bell inevitably put the translator at the centre of his translation study. From a functional linguistic perspective, Bell describes the translator's working process by using linguistics and psychology. He advocates an investigation of the psycholinguistic mechanisms of decoding and encoding in the context of bilingual rather than monolingual information exchange. He places the translator at the center, because the meaning and memory he discusses in his translation theory must be based on the translator, and it is on this basis that he builds his translation model.(Wu Yicheng Li Yingyuan 1998, 55)

Bell tries to be objective and modest. He gives examples of translation only to conduct the working mode of translating. He is a translation theorists, in my opinion, he studies the study of translation. Because he denies the importance of setting rules and maxims for translation and regards it as superficial. In Bell's opinion, judgement of the quality of translated texts have to be made by translators and translator-trainers and are also made by their readers but he do not wish to become engaged. He is attempting an objective description and explanation of a phenomenon, in the debate which inevitably arises over quality assessment and translation criticism. His purpose is not to give prescriptive laws for the creation of the perfect translation, besides he points out that this is not his purpose nor is it the purpose of the vast majority working in the field of translation studies.(Bell 1987, 10-12)

====1.2 Introduction to Liu Zhongde's Translation Theory====

Critically inherited the translation principles proposed by Yan Fu, Liu Zhongde put forward the translation concept of "faithfulness", "expressiveness" and "closeness". This means faithfulness in content, expressiveness in language, and closeness to the style of the original work. Yan Fu's translation concept is "faithfulness", "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr Liu thinks that if the original text is not elegant, then the translation couldn't be elegant. The two schools: school of science and school of art is influential in translation history. Liu Zhongde's thoughts about translation's essence: translation is of double nature-both a kind of science and an art. Moreover, this is proved and commonly greed by scholars in academic circle. Now many researchers are attempting to probe into translation more scientifically; translators are striving to translate literature works more artistically. (Mao Liyin 2011, 5)

However, we feel regretful that Mr. Liu passed away. Otherwise, he could have been keeping on with this meaningful work arduously. Fortunately, scholars are coming to some agreements on the double nature of translation activity. No matter which one of these two characteristics of translation outweighs the other, we at least confess that on one hand, translation can be discussed from the perspective of natural science, like psychology and physiology; on the other hand, translation can be probed from the perspective of social science, such as linguistics and sociology. Therefore, it can be concluded that Mr. Liu's qualitative research on translation was credible and useful; his opinion on the nature of translation was convincing: translation is both a science and an art.(Guo Meng 2010, 25)

===2. Comparative Study on Bell and Liu Zhongde's Translation Theory===

To do a comparative study on Bell and Liu Zhongde's translation thoery, firstly, it is necessary to take the background of their translation theory into consideration. Understanding the social background of their theory helps better understand what their translation theory is and focuses on. Though very different in study perspective, their thoughts towards translation and practice bear much similarities.This article compares the two people's translation theory in the nature of translation, principles of translation,literal or free translation and literary translation practices in poems.

====2.1 Comparison on Background of Translation Theory====
In the west, since the twentieth century, the phenomenon of translation has been increasingly examined and discussed from a scientific and especially linguistic perspective. Although there are still many misunderstandings and differences between traditional translation studies and linguistic translation studies (but the latter tend to prevail). The former often accuses the latter of being fanciful and out of touch with reality, while the latter considers the former as subjective, arbitrary and unscientific. According to Bell, the essential orientation of translation theory, in the English-speaking world in particular, is still towards the evaluation of translation as product.The situation at that time, however, is one in which translation theory has, for the most part, concentrated on the product to the exclusion of the process and has adopted a normative attitude to it by making inferences back to it through the description and evaluation of the product.(Bell 1987, 3)

The attempt to describe and explain the process and that the process itself is, essentially, mental rather than physical, according to Bell's explanation. Mental aspect here refers to the investigation within the discipline of psychology, or to be more specifically, studies of perception, information processing and memory within the cognitive science and psychological framework. There is no doubt that translation process crucially involves language. Bell draws on the resources of linguistics and, more precisely, those branches of linguistics which are concerned with the psychological and social aspects of language use: psycholinguistics and sociolinguistics. The first of these examines the process in the mind of the translator, the second places the source language text and target language text in their cultural contexts. Although Bell puts forward the importance of putting translation process in cultural contexts, in his "Translation and Translating: Process and Practice", he doesn't stress it in his models. He tells us the importance of cultural importance, but for how to practice it, he doesn't have a deep explanation. (Bell 1991, F30)

In China, There has also been a long debate between three basic principles are the of Yan Fu's "faithfulness", "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr Liu points out that elegance is actually only one of the styles, and translation cannot be uniformly elegant in their style. "Closeness" is a neutral word and it is applicable to various styles. Indeed, the original text is not elegant, so why translate it with elegance? The original poem is not elegant, so how can it be translated with elegance? The fundamental of translation is faithfulness. The content should be remained if the style is hard to copy.(Liu Zhongde 1991, 27-29)

Both Bell and Liu Zhongde critically and creatively tackle problems in translation and they try hard to make perfection, but they are different in their study perspectives, which is due to the difference of their times and social background. Bell is doing linguistic translation studies. In Bell's view, translation theorists almost invariably make little systematic use of contemporary linguistic techniques and perspectives, while linguists either despise translation theory or remain silent about translation studies. His translation mode is an effort and practice to conduct linguistic and psychological ideas in translation process. However, his translation theory does not give enough consideration to the cultural factor in translation activities, which is a hot topic that has gradually become more and more valued by translators. Liu Zhongde is not the first one who doubted about Yan Fu's translation principle, but he develops it and makes it objective and applicable, which is really thoughtful in this aspect.(Weng Tao 2008, 99-100)

====2.2 Comparison on Nature of Translation====
Bell conforms in the definition of regarding translation as "the expression in another language (or target language) of what has been expressed in another, source language, preserving semantic and stylistic equivalences".(Bell,1991:5）So translation can be regarded as the replacement of a representation of a text in one language by a representation of an equivalent text in a second language. Bell holds the view that "Essentially, a theory is judged on the extent to which it is externally and internally adequate. It must correspond with the data (which is external to itself) and also conform to particular (internal) design feature." (Bell 1991, 4-5)

As for the nature of translation, Bell makes comparisons between three different kinds of view. First, the view of translation as product, which means merely translated texts. This would require a study of texts not merely by means of the traditional levels of linguistic analysis syntax and semantics but also making use of stylistics and recent advances in discourse analysis. Second, the view of translation as both process and product, which means a theory of translating and translation. This would require the integrated study of both and such a general theory is, presumably, the long-term goal for translation studies. Third, the view of translation as process. He calls for a shift from only the product to paying attention to translation process. In translation, topics as perception, memory and the encoding and decoding of messages, happens at the same time. It is an information processing and would draw heavily on psychology and on psycholinguistics. (Bell 1991, 14)

His translation mode is based on linguistic and psychological analysis. Clearly, Bell knows that a theory of translation, to be comprehensive and useful, must attempt to describe and explain both the process and the product. But he regards it as a long-term goal for translation studies, which cannot be achieved at present. Bell thinks that overall schema is involved even at the beginning of the translation of a text. Translators shall be very cautious indeed and, on this occasion, try to be as “faithful” as possible to the conception of the original, and moreover to reproduce its forms and meanings, its style and temporal characteristics in a text. By "faithfulness", Bell here means the translation neither adds nor deletes content. (Bell 1991, 11)

As proposed in at the very beginning of “Ten Lectures on Literary Translation”, Liu Zhongde also proposed “translation” means “translating”, which refers to the process of translation, in which something is translated instead of the work translated. Liu Zhongde lists six definition of translation and he thinks they are all true in a specific angle, that is Translation is a science; Translation is an art; Translation is a craft; Translation is a skill; Translation is an operation; Translation is a language activity; Translation is communicating. The view that translation is a science represents the school of science. It holds the view that translating should reproduce the message of the original by means of the transformation of linguistic equivalence. The view that translation is an art represents the school of art. The school advocates recreating a literary work by using expressions of another language. It emphasizes the effect of translation.（Liu Zhongde 1991, 1)

Bell and Liu Zhongde agrees in that their translation all means translating, which means the focus on the process of translation rather than merely the product of translation. Their consensus in this aspect makes their translation theory is comparable in some aspects. Bell objects creating a set of normative maxims for the production of the ideal translation by means of such evaluation. What is proposed by him here is a shift of focus away from the translation as an artifact or a product towards translating as process. His translation is not putting prescriptive rules but offer descriptive linguistic options for translators to choose ad select. Bell thinks that translation should achieve equivalence. The equivalence is similar to Liu’s faithfulness in content. Both of them think that translation should neither deletes nor adds content, because translation is a process of representing the original text rather than creating the original text. Translation is not for showing off the translator’s artistic talent, so the mark of the translator should be reduced to the least necessity. For the lonely debated discussion of whether translation is science or art, obviously, Bell thinks translation is science and discusses it from linguistic perspective. However, Liu thinks translation is both science and art.(Mao Liyin 2011, 6)

====2.3 Comparison on Principles of Translation====
According to Bell, there are three principles in translation. Firstly, the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work. Secondly, the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original. And thirdly the Translation should have all the ease of original composition. However, it doesn't mean that he thinks that translation theory should be prescriptive. Actually, he thinks translation is essentially arbitrary norms of behavior. Nonnative prescriptions deriving directly from the subjective and evaluative description of the “good” translation. These prescriptive translating rules are like the rules of etiquette. Translators are told what they ought and ought not to do in particular translation circumstances. But very rarely, why they are to conform to these dictates, they have not been told the reason. The rules discussed in linguistics seek to be descriptive, a constitutive type. Bell's principles of translation is his effort of seeking descriptive rules in translation from a linguist view. (Bell 1991, 37)

The frequent assumption that the purpose of a theory of translation is to devise and impose prescriptive rules as a means of both regulating the process and evaluating the product. For Bell, his position is (when playing the role of a descriptive linguist), necessarily, the converse; he is in search of descriptive rules which help us to understand the process, not normative rules which we use to monitor and judge the work of others. The notion of the good translator is inherent in any discussion of translation. That, however, is only part of the specification we need. While we would reaffirm our desire not to subscribe to the notion of the good translation, which has dominated translation theory for two centuries, we would not allow our rejection of that position to lead us also to preclude the study of the good translator as one element of an integrated, interdisciplinary, multi-method and multilevel approach to the description of the process.(Bell 1991, 10)

According to Mr. Liu, faithfulness refers to the translation must express the profound meaning of the original. In terms of meaning, the translation must conform to the original text. Besides, the transmission of ideas is the most significant one in the principles of translation. There is no any controversy on this, which is determined by the function and characteristic of translation. Translation is the transformation between two languages, while it is the fact that meaning convection lies in the middle level, and culture transmission is in the depth of translation activity. Correct meaning convection is the basic assurance to the fulfillment of translation function. Therefore, the faithfulness at the content of the original texts by Mr. Liu should be actually “loyalty to the meaning of the original texts”. (Jiang Hongxin 2005, 65)

The faithfulness at the content lies in the correct convection of the meaning. Here is an example of Mr. Liu’s translation practice in two editions for the translation of Emma.

Me! I should be quite in the way. Miss Wood house looks as if she did not want me.”(2009:174)

“我！我会是十分不受欢迎的。但是也许——我在这里也同样不受欢迎。伍德豪斯小姐的神气，好像并不要我。”(Liu Zhongde,1982: 303)

“我！我会是十分不受欢迎的。但是也许——我在这里也同样不受欢迎。伍德豪斯小姐的神气，好像并不欢迎我。”（Liu Zhongde,1993:223）

The translation of “want” as “to be” in the 82nd edition is a direct translation that superficially fits the meaning of the original. The translation of "want" in the 82nd edition is a literal translation, which superficially conforms to the meaning of the original text and expresses the meaning of the English and Chinese languages very aptly. But in fact, it did not fit the context of the time and did not have the effect of expression. The translation of "want" as “welcome", on the other hand, reflects the meaning of the context in which the original text was spoken. The translation of "welcome" is apt, smooth and natural. (Mao Liyin 2011, 7)

Mr. Liu has discussed this translation principle to be as expressive as the original many times in different places. But this is a tough demand. One of the reasons is that there are too many differences between two languages, particularly in the structure of them. Just taking Chinese and English as an example, we will find that Chinese is a typical language depending on its structure. This bamboo-like structure makes Chinese language connect meaning by assembling one word after another in linear form. Conversely, English is grape-like-structure language, which transmits meaning by logical connection. Therefore, we must transform the structure of these two languages so as to translate them well. Otherwise, the translation we do will be unreadable: either loosing meaning or being difficult to be understood.This three-character principle proposed by Mr. Liu is the reflection of his staidness towards academic researches. He held his opinion on how researchers should look on the relationship between inheriting and developing in translation theory research circle. The proper attitude, according to Mr. Liu, should be “making best use of the old theories for reference; taking advantage of foreign thoughts to create”.(Jiang Jiansong 2003, 210)

====2.4 Comparison on Views of Literal Translation and Free Translation====

According to Bell's theory, the choice is between translating word-for-word (literal translation) or meaning-for-meaning (free translation). Pick the first and the translator is criticized for the "ugliness" of a faithful translation; pick the second and there is criticism of the inaccuracy of a "beautiful" translation. Bell doesn't show his personal preference between this two translation method. Actually, he thinks both literal translation and free translation is acceptable. Here Bell stresses the achievement of semantic and stylistic equivalence. The semantic and stylistic equivalence actually is hard to achieve since the source language and target language are much different in their forms. (Bell 1991, 7)

According to functional linguistic perspective, forms contain meaning. Languages are different from each other because they are different in form, thus having distinct codes and rules regulating the construction of grammatical stretches of language. These forms have different meanings. To shift from one language to another is, by definition, to alter the forms. There is even no absolute synonymy between words in the same language, let alone finding synonymy between languages. Furthermore, the contrasting forms convey meanings in two languages cannot but fail to coincide totally. The process of translating from one language to another language actually impair the source language. It is a loss or inappropriate gain for the source language. Something is always lost or gained in the process of translating and translators can find themselves being accused of reproducing only part of the original and so betraying the author's intentions. (Wu Yicheng Li Yingyuan 1998, 56)

Although it is a fallacy to achieve complete equivalence, texts in different languages can be equivalent in different degrees, either highly or partially equivalent.Here Bell bring in the definition of the term: the nature of equivalence for the conducting of semantic and stylistic equivalence. So the equivalence can be fulfilled in respect of different levels of presentation such as equivalent in respect of context, of semantics, of grammar, of lexis, etc. Moreover, it can also be equivalent at different ranks: word-for-word, phrase-for-phrase and sentence-for-sentence. If equivalence is to be preserved at a particular level at all costs, which level is it to be? What are the alternatives? The answer, it turns out, hinges on the dual nature of language itself. Language is a formal structure and also a code, which consists of elements which can combine to signal semantic sense and, at the same time, a communication system which uses the forms of the code to refer to entities (in the world of the senses and the world of the mind) and create signals which possess communicative value. The translator has the option, then, of focusing on finding formal equivalents which preserve the context-free semantic sense of the text at the expense of its context-sensitive communicative value or finding functional equivalents which preserve the context-sensitive communicative value of the text at the expense of its context-free semantic sense. (Bell 1997, 6-10)

The controversy over direct translation and paraphrase has always been a matter of great concern to Mr. Liu, who has put forward his own unique opinion on this issue: the two phenomena and methods of translation, direct translation and paraphrase, have been objectively proven by a large number of historical facts and cannot be denied. Both literal translation and paraphrase must basically be based on the unit of sentence translation and on the premise of successfully realizing the three principles of translation. Here are three versions of translation to a poem in "A Dream of Red Mansions".

《红楼梦》卷头诗

满纸荒唐言，

一把辛酸泪。

都云作者痴，

谁解其中味？

1.Liu Zhongde

The Prologue to A Dream of Red Mansions

Papers here are full of such words as sound queer,

Mixed with a handful of drops of bitter tear,

People, one and all, call the author insane ,

But who understands how his words one should explain?

2. David Hawkes:

Pages full of idle words

Penned with hot and bitter tears

All men call the author fool

None his secret message hears.

3. 杨宪益：

Pages full of fantastic talk

Penned with bitter tears

All men call the author mad

None his message hears.

Xu Yuanchong divided them into three schools: classical school, who translate poems in the form of classical poetry, represented by Giles; free school , who translate poems in the form of free verse, represented by Waley; and creative school, who creatively adapt the original into English, represented by Ezra Pound. According to my opinion, a translated poem should convey the content of the original poem and take the form of the original poem. Only a poem in translation that meets these two requirements can be considered the ideal translated poem. Liu is well aware of the difficulties, so in his technical treatment, he adds, "In most cases, free and literal translations should be used flexibly or in combination." It is obvious that Liu opposes the extreme of scientific translation which falls into dull and unintelligible, as well as the artistic translation which is detached from the original text and pursues the translator's self-expression. In his view, free translation and literal translation are two complementary methods of translation, and of course, literal translation is the main one, while free translation is the supplement, which can be used alternately if necessary.(Jiang Hongxin 2005, 64)

====2.5 Comparison on Literary Translation Practices in Poems====
Bell divided translation of poetry into three steps:
Firstly, the analysis of the source language text;
Secondly, the organization of the semantic representations of the individual clauses of the poem into an integrated schema which contains the whole of the information the reader has been able to accumulate in the course of reading the text;
Thirdly, the synthesis of the new target language text. There are plenty of alternatives and the strategic options available to the literary translator. (Bell 1991, 61)

They can be presented as the extremes of five continua:
(1)to reproduce either the forms (syntax and lexis) or the ideas (the semantic content) of the original;
(2)to retain the style of the original or adopt a different style; retain or abandon the source language form; for example, to translate a poem as a poem or as prose;
(3)to retain the historical stylistic dimension of the original or to render it in contemporary form; to translate Dante into Middle English or into modem English
(4)to produce a text which reads like an original or one which reads like a translation;
(5)to add or omit words, phrases, clauses. . . or to attempt to transfer everything from source to target text.(Bell 1991, 68)

Bell admits the importance of retaining style in translation, but Bell tries to be as objective as possible. He clarifies that the procedure is in no sense being suggested as the best or only way of tackling the text nor are the translations themselves offered as models. He intend to make no judgement, merely to work through the process, indicating, as we do so, what kinds of decision need to be made and what means we have at our disposal for making and realizing our decisions. In Bell's opinion, judgement of the quality of translated texts have to be made by translators and translator-trainers and are also made by their readers but he do not wish to become engaged, in a book which is attempting an objective description and explanation of a phenomenon, in the debate which inevitably arises over quality assessment and translation criticism. His purpose is not to give prescriptive laws for the creation of the perfect translation, besides he points out that This is not his purpose nor is it the purpose of the vast majority working in the field of translation studies.(Bell 1991, 70)

Liu defines the characteristics of translated poetry in a macro way. He concisely summarizes the basic characteristics of poetry translation as poetry translation is not one's own creation, not the translator's own writing of poetry, and not borrowing ideas from the original poem to write poetry. The translation of poetry is obviously different from the creation of poetry. The translation of poetry is only a kind of reworked copy of the poem created by the translator after fully understanding the poet and expressing it again in another language. It goes without saying that in this process of reproduction, the translator inevitably has to exert creative labor in order to effectively and equivalently convey the content and style of the original poem, that is, the translator cannot be completely free from creation in the process of mental activity of translation, but, nevertheless, it is difficult to identify this mental activity as creation in the true sense of the word. (Guo Meng 2011, 9-13)

In the process and practice of poetry translation, Liu also stresses the importance of retaining the style. To show how style influence poetry, he cites a comparison between Li Bai and Du Fu, the style of the former is elegant and forceful and the later is profound and thoughtful. Liu pays much attention to the style of translation, and he compares an excellent translator to a good actor, who should reach the state of forgetfulness in the process of translation and be fully absorbed into the work.(Liu Zhongde 1991, 128)

He firmly holds that it is possible to translate poems though it is difficult to translate poems satisfactorily and successfully. As to the reason why poems are translatable, firstly, Liu said : “There exist many things in common among men. For instance, they all have the thinking powers to reason logically and the feelings to express joy or sorrow, love or hatred , and possess the same nature, world and universe no matter what races they may be. In other words, all human beings are endowed by nature with the same mind which has the same function so that they can commune with one another. Poetry is a literary form by which poets express their thought and emotions. As a consequence, poetry, a product of the mind, is understandable, enjoyable and translatable.” Not only is poetry-translating possible, it is also necessary. Through poetry translating between Chinese and English, English and Chinese poetry have exerted mutual influence and as a result promoted the development of both. For example, Chinese classical poetry deeply influenced the school of imagism in the West, while Chinese new poetry was greatly inspired by West poetry. (Liu Zhongde 1988, 4-9)

Due to differences in language, social customs and cultural background, a translator of poetry, who should represent in another language the beauty of the original in meaning, sound and form, is confronted with many difficulties which may cause obstacles in understanding and expression. The difficulties will be discussed from three aspects. First, there exist linguistic differences in the two languages. From a grammatical perspective, English is a language which is in the main connected in grammar by hypotaxis whereas Chinese by parataxis. Secondly, difference in culture also adds to the difficulty of poetry translating. As English poetry and Chinese poetry take in different cultural backgrounds, some poems with particular cultural factors are extremely hard to handle in translating. For example, poets' selection of images in poems may vary. Concrete images are often used in Chinese poetry while some abstract images are often used in English poetry. Another example is the use of allusion in poetry. Poets sometimes expound their views and express emotions through historical incidents, fairy tales, legends and folk stories. Liu also adopts his new three-character principles to rendering poetry.(Liu Wenbin 1996, 295-298)

Liu Zhongde is an advocator of "rendering poetry as poetry". He puts forward views on three specific situations of poetry translating: translation of Chinese classical rhyming poetry into English, translation of English regular into Chinese and translation of English free verse into Chinese. As for the translation of Chinese classical rhyming poetry into English, Liu holds that the original meaning and artistic conception is most important and on the prerequisite that they are fully conveyed, we may try to reproduce the neatness of the original form and adopt the same or similar rhyme scheme as the original. If necessary, when it is difficult to translate a poem in rhyme, it can also be translated in a loose form, so as not to harm the meaning by rhyme. If the translation looks like a poem but has no poetic meaning, it is better to be in harmony with the appearance. It is much better to make people feel the interest of the original poem than to make it look like a poem. Finally, he believed that the ideal translation of poetry should be a translation of metrical poetry with metrical poetry.However, Liu also pointed out dialectically that one should not be absolute, and when necessary, when the meaning and artistic conception of the original poem must be preserved.(Liu Zhongde 1996, 31-33)

===3.Conclusion===
Bell's and Liu Zhongde's translation theory have many similarities. For the nature of translation, they both agree in translating, namely process, instead of products.Bell puts the focus on generalizing descriptive rules in process. In that way, Bell is trying to study the study of transtion. To understand the equivalence all his theory Bell thinks tranlation shouldn't delete or add content, which is similar to Liu's principle of "faithfulness" in translation. On the question whether translation is science or art, Bell agrees in the former while Liu combines school of science and school of art. The method of literal translation is weighed more by them when compared with free translation. However, Liu adds that when literal translation is difficult to achieve, it is also acceptable to apply free translation into practice. Liu thinks that the shift between literal translation and free tranlation can be flexible under different kinds of texts and styles.

Bell and Liu put their theory into practice in poetry's translation. However, the purpose for Bell's three steps and five schema is to prove the feasibility of his model theory. Though he uses it as an example, which is quite specific. He thinks that poetry translation should be like a poem. That is to say the translated poem should also be made to have a certain poetic form and a certain rhyme scheme and rhythm. He vividly represents the whole translating process and suggests translators should choose from many versions to figure out the closest translation. Bell is tryinng to be objective, so he doesn't give advice on how to achieve "good" translation. He firmly believe that the judgement should be made by translators, tranlator-trainers and readers. Liu's view is not so general but more specific.He thinks poetry translation sometimes can be difficult, but not untranslatable. He gives his preference to poetey which is faithful to the original text.

By comparising Bell's translation theory with Liu Zhongde's, it is found that Bell's translation theory seems to be more objective but less applicable. With a systematic linguistic model, Bell attempts to describe the translation process and the knowledge and skills that translators should acquire. He also apply psychological and information-theoretic models to describe the workings of the translator's brain during the translation process. The effort he makes is based on his hope that these models he created will eventually become a theoretical and practical model for translation research in the broad field of applied linguistics.

If we generalize Liu's translation theory as a summary of translation problems and methods to tackle with it. Then obviously, Bell's research is undoubtedly more difficult than the summary of translation experience or the analysis of translated works. Though whether the model he tries to create really reflects the mental activity of translators in the translation process remains to be further studied. We cannot expect one theoretical model to solve all translation phenomena and all the problems encountered by translators, but Bell's innovative attempt to break through the traditional translation theoretical model and establish a scientific research model is worthy of recognition. His views and model can at least provide useful references for translator's in-depth study of translation phenomena.

===Reference===
Bell, Roger T. Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice. London and New York: Longman.(1991)

Bell, Roger T. Translation Theory: Where Are We Going?. Meta (1987).

Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "文学翻译十讲"[Ten Lectures on Literary Translation]. 中国对外翻译出版公司[China Foreign Translation and Publishing Corporation].1991.

Jiang Hongxin.蒋洪新. "刘重德翻译理论与实践研究"[A Study of Liu Chongde's Translation Theory and Practice]. 外国语第四期[The fouth edition on Jounal of Foreign Language]. 2005:62-67.

Wu Yicheng.Li Yingyuan.吴义诚,李英垣. "贝尔的《翻译与翻译过程:理论与实践》评介"[Review of Bell's Translation and the Translation Process:Theory and Practice].中国翻译(第五期)[The fifth edition on Chinese Translation]. 1998:55-56.

Mao Liyin.毛利尹. "刘重德翻译观研究"[J].[A Study of Liu Chongde's View of Translation]. 传奇:传记文学选刊(第五期)[Legend: Selected Biographical Literature]. 2011:5-7.

Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "论译诗(上)——《中国古诗汉英比译五十三首》序"[J][On the translation of poems (above)--Preface to "Fifty-three Chinese ancient poems in Chinese and English"]. 现代外语(第二期)[Modern Foreign Languages]. 1996:26-30.

Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "论译诗(下)——《中国古诗汉英比译五十三首》序"[J][On the translation of poems (below)--Preface to "Fifty-three Chinese ancient poems in Chinese and English"]. 现代外语(第三期)[Modern Foreign Languages]. 1996:31-33.

Liu Wenbin.刘文彬. "刘重德教授的译诗观"[Professor Liu Zhongde's View on Translating Poetry].中国英汉语比较研究会第二次全国学术研讨会论文集[Proceedings of the Second National Symposium of the Chinese Society for Comparative English and Chinese Studies]. 1996;293-299.

Weng Tao.翁涛. "罗杰·贝尔的翻译理论在汉译英中的应用"[Application of Roger Bell's Translation Theory in Chinese to English Translation]. 大学英语(学术版) [University English] (Academic Edition). 2008:99-101.

Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "翻译原则刍议"[Rumination on Translation Principles]. 中国翻译(第四期）[The fourth period on Chinese Translation]. (1983):9-13.

Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "文学风格翻译问题商榷"[The Question of Literary Style Translation]. 中国翻译（第二期）[Chinese Translation]. (1988):4-9.

Guo Meng.郭猛. "刘重德翻译思想研究"[D][A Probe into Liu Zhongde's Translation Thoughts]. 天津理工大学[Tianjin University of Technology]. 2011.

Jane Austen.简·奥斯汀. 《爱玛》[M][Emma]. 上海:上海世界图书出版公司[Shanghai: Shanghai World Book Publishing Company]. 2009.

Jane Austen. Translated by Liu Zhongde.奥斯汀.爱玛[M][Emma].刘重德译. 桂林:漓江出版社[Guilin: Lijiang Publishing House]. 1982.

Jane Austen. Translated by Liu Zhongde.奥斯汀.爱玛[M][Emma].刘重德译. 广州:广州花城出版社[Guangzhou: Guangzhou Huacheng Publishing House]. 1993.

Jiang Jiansong.Peng Liyuan.蒋坚松,彭利元. 刘重德翻译思想及其他[Liu Chongde's Translation Thought and Others]. 湖南：湖南师范大学出版社[Hunan: Hunan Normal University Press]. 2003.

==A Comparative Study of Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect 罗维嘉 Luo Weijia 202070080600 ( 加专业 )--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 16:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC) ==

<center>罗维嘉 Luo Weijia</center>
===Abstract===

Since the introduction of Nida’s translation theory into China in the 1980s, Jin Di, a Chinese translation scholar, has explored the applicability of “dynamic equivalence” to literary translation between English and Chinese. And on the basis of Nida’s theory he formulated his own theory of “equivalent effect”. When Jin was translating James Joyce’s Ulysses (''Ulysses''--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 16:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)), he put his theory into practice. Jin’s translation practice as well as his exploration of “dynamic equivalence” provides us a good chance to further scrutinize some aspects of Nida’s theory and its application to English-Chinese literary translation. By studying Jin’s theory and his Chinese translation of Ulysses(''Ulysses''--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 16:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)), we will examine the applicability of Nida’s theory to literary translation between Chinese and English. A comparative study on Nida’s theory and Jin’s theory is also made to reveal the differences and similarities between the two theories.

===Key words===

dynamic equivalence; equivalent effect; Eugene Nida; Jin Di

===题目===
A Comparative Study of Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect

===摘要===

自20世纪80年代奈达的翻译理论传入中国以来，中国翻译学者金堤开始探索“动态对等”在英汉文学翻译中的适用性。在奈达理论的基础上，他形成了自己的“等效理论”。金堤的《尤利西斯》翻译实践以及他对“动态对等”翻译理论的探索为我们进一步审视奈达理论及其在英汉文学翻译中的应用提供了良好机会。通过对金堤理论及其汉译《尤利西斯》的研究，我们将分析奈达动态对等理论对中英文学翻译的适用性。通过对奈达与金堤理论的比较研究，揭示两者的异同。

===关键词===

动态对等；等效理论；尤金·奈达；金堤

===Introduction===

Prior to his reception of Nida’s theory, Jin had already been an experienced translator and formed his own views about translation. Jin spelled out how he looked at the nature of translation and the gist of his argument was that “translating must meet requirements of accuracy and smoothness” (Jin Di 1998, 119). Evidently, Jin regarded the combination of accuracy and smoothness as a translation criterion and smoothness played a very important role in accomplishing the goal of accuracy in translating. We can see that before Jin’s reception of Nida’s theory, his focus was still on the old debate over faithfulness and smoothness, which began in the 1930s and continued to the late 1970s.

Before Jin knew Nida’s theory, he had already noticed the important role of target readers in translating in his years of translation experience. When discussing how to achieve the objective of accuracy and smoothness at the same time, he mentioned more than once the close relationship between accuracy and target readers. He wrote:

("--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 16:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC))“A translation should be smooth and natural so that target readers do not feel big gaps between the two languages concerned. Accuracy and smoothness as a translation standard are like two sides of a coin, and one cannot be separated from the other. If the reader cannot understand the so-called “accurate” translation and do not know what it means, there is of little significance for such “accuracy”. If the translator only pays attention to smoothness in his work, but ignores the consistency between the original text and the translated text, his translation is not legitimate (Jin Di 1998, 119). “("--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 16:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC))

Evidently, Jin shared similar views with Nida about the role of target readers in translating. This paved the way for his ready reception of “dynamic equivalence” as soon as he got in touch with it in the late 1970s.

===Introduction of Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect===

====Nida's Translation Theory of Dynamic Equivalence====

“Dynamic equivalence” is a key concept in Nida’s translation theory. The essential idea of “dynamic equivalence” is first mentioned by Nida in his article “Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating” (Nida, Eugene A. 1959, 326). In his attempt to define translating, Nida writes:

A definition of translating... could be stated as follows: "Translating consists in producing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent to the message of the source language, first in meaning and secondly in style.” (Nida, Eugene A. 1975, 33)

In Toward a Science of Translating (1964) Nida distinguishes two types of equivalence and first postulates his concept of “dynamic equivalent” translation as follows:

In such a translation (dynamic equivalent translation) one is not so concerned with matching the receptor-language message with the source-language message, but with the dynamic relationship, that the relationship between receptor and message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the original receptors and the message (Nida, E. A. 1964, 159).

In this book, Nida also proves the legitimacy of dynamic equivalent translation from the viewpoint of information theory and communication theory. However, he does not give a clear definition of " dynamic equivalence" until 1969. In his 1969 textbook The Theory and Practice of Translation, “dynamic equivalence" is defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language" (Nida, E. A. 1969, 24)

In From One Language to Another (De Waard, Jan and E. A. Nida 1986), the expression “dynamic equivalence is superseded by "functional equivalence". But essentially there is not much difference between the two concepts. The substitution of " functional equivalence is just to stress the concept of function and to avoid misunderstandings of the term dynamic", which is mistaken by some persons for something in the sense of impact. In Language, Culture and Translating (1993), “functional equivalence " is further divided into categories on two levels: the minimal level and the maximal level. The minimal level of “functional equivalence" is defined as " The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it". The maximal level is stated as "The readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did" (Nida, E. A. 1993, 118; 1995, 224). The two definitions of equivalence reveal that the minimal level is realistic, whereas the maximal level is ideal. For Nida, good translations always lie somewhere between the two levels (Nida, E. A. 1995, 224). Clearly, “functional equivalence" is a flexible concept with different degrees of adequacy.

In Nida's theory, " dynamic equivalence" is defined with “receptors' response" as its nature. Unlike traditional translation theories, which focus on verbal comparison between the original text and its translation, Nida's concept of translating shifts from "the form of the message" to " the response of the receptor. Thus, the importance of receptors' role in translating is emphasized. In Nida's view, when determining whether a translation is faithful to the original text or not, the critic should not compare the formal structures between the source text and its translation but compare "receptors' response". If he finds that the reader in the receptor language understands and appreciates the translated text in essentially the same manner and to the same degree as the reader in the source language did, such a translation can be evaluated as a dynamic equivalent translation. That is to say, the critic should judge a translation not by verbal correspondence between the two texts in question, but by seeing how the receptor, for whom the translated text is intended, reacts to it. Nida likens his theory of “readers' response to market research. When judging a product, one should test how consumers react to the product, for “regardless of how theoretically good a product might be or how seemingly well it is displayed, if people do not respond favorably to it, then it is not going to be accepted” (Nida and Taber 1969, 162). Similarly, in evaluating a translation, when a high percentage of people misunderstand a rendering, or find it difficult to understand, the critic cannot regard it as a legitimate translation (Nida and Taber 1969, 2). Nida's theory of “readers' response” emphasizes the importance of the acceptance of a translated text by the intended reader in the receptor language and avoids the subjective evaluation of the critic.

"Dynamic equivalence" has been widely adopted by Bible translators since the 1950s and has been successful. Its value, however, is not merely restricted to Bible translation. Some scholars agree that “dynamic equivalence” can be used to guide general translation practice. Jin Di claims that the principle of " equivalent effect", a modified dynamic equivalence, is applicable to all translation practice (Jin Di 1995). Newmark considers the principle of “equivalent effect” an important concept in translating with reservation. He states that “equivalent effect is the desirable result, rather than the aim of any translation...it is an important concept which has a degree of application to any type of text, but not the same degree of importance... in the communicative translation of vocative texts, equivalent effect is not only desirable, it is essential” ( Jin Di 1988, 48). But some scholars express their doubts about the application of “dynamic equivalence” to translation practice, especially literary translation. I suggest that Nida’s theory has practical significance for literary translation in some aspects, but it is a fact that it fails to address the issue of transferring aesthetic values of literary work in literary translation.

====Jin Di's Translation Theory of Equivalent Effect====

Jin Di is renowned for his translation theory of “equivalent effect” and his Chinese version of Ulysses(''Ulysses''). His theoretical study on translation and translation activity contribute a lot to the development of contemporary translation studies. In this section Jin’s theory of “equivalent effect”will be concentrated, for a survey of Jin’s theory may give us insight into some aspects of Nida’s theory and its application to literary translation.

When Nida’s theory was introduced into China, Jin studied intensively Nida’s works on translation and endeavored to apply “dynamic equivalence” to his Chinese-English translation practice. In On Translation(''On Translation''): with special reference to Chinese and English (Jin Di 1984, with Nida), Jin basically adopted Nida's “dynamic equivalence”, which was defined in terms of a dynamic relationship, namely, “the relation of target language receptors to the target language text should be roughly equivalent to the relationship between the original receptors and the original text” (Jin Di 1984, 85, with Nida). As the first author, Jin furnished many convincing examples from his experience as a translator and proved that “dynamic equivalence” could provide practical help for translators in dealing with many difficulties in translating from English into Chinese and from Chinese to English. In fact, this book was acclaimed as “a masterpiece of combination of Nida’s translation theory with Chinese translation practice”. (Lao Long 1987, 56)

When Jin made a further study on Nida's theory, he discerned some biblical elements in it which were not applicable to general translation practice. As a result, a discrepancy appeared between Jin and Nida. According to Jin, when Nida talked about the relationship between message and receptors, he did not make any distinction between “impact” and “response”. For instance, Nida sometimes said“the impact of the message upon the receptors” and sometimes claimed “the receptors’ response to the message”. In Jin's view, Nida further highlighted the term “response” both in his definition of “dynamic equivalence” and his explanation of it. Jin argued that this was because Nida's theory was intended to guide Bible translating for evangelism, and the ultimate purpose of Bible translating was to make receptors “respond to the translated message in action” (Jin Di 1998, 17-18). Thus, according to Jin, the concept of “response” in Nida's theory was not suitable for a theory of general translation. Jin explained:

In terms of the nature of language behavior, the impact of a translation upon receptors and receptors' response or reaction to the translation belong to opposite directions. Although receptors' response could be used as an important feedback to evaluate how the receptors understand and appreciate the translation to some extent, and the translator could test the quality of his translation according to receptors' response, such activity occurs only after the translation is completed. Since each receptor's response and reaction involve a number of subjective and objective personal factors, it is unnecessary for us to explore these factors in our study of translation process. Hence, in our discussion the term “effect refers to the impact of the translated message upon the receptors.” instead of the receptors’ response. (Jin Di 1998, 18)

This was the reason why Jin modified Nida's “dynamic equivalence” and put forward his own theory of “equivalent effect”. Jin also gave specific definition of his principle of “equivalent effect”. He wrote:

The objective of an equivalent effect translation is that although the form of a translated text may be different from that of the original text, the receptor-language reader can obtain a message as substantially the same as the source-language reader does from the original, including main spirit, concrete facts and artistic imagery. This is what I mean by an equivalent effect translation or similar effect translation (Jin Di 1998, 40).

In Jin's view, only when the three essential factors (“main spirit", “concrete facts" and “artistic imagery”) of the original were successfully reproduced in the receptor language could a translation be termed as a translation of equivalent effect. He admitted that it was not always possible for the translator to produce" main spirit", " concrete facts" and "artistic imagery" at the same time, and necessary semantic adjustments should be made on condition that the main spirit of the original was better represented in the translation (Jin Di 1998, 20).

In short, the delimitation of the concept of “effect” as “impact” instead of “response”, and the emphasis on the reproduction of the three factors constitute Jin's theory of “equivalent effect”. We can see that Jin has attempted to improve Nida's “dynamic equivalence” in order to make it more applicable to general translation practice, especially literary translation.

In the 1990s, Jin further developed his theory of " equivalent effect" with insights gained from his translation experience of Ulysses. In his article, “Translating Spirit” (1996), he borrowed two characters from Yan Fu's three-character translation principle (“faithfulness , expressiveness and elegance”) and advanced his theory of “faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit” (信、达、神韵). The term “spirit” in Jin's theory was used in a broad sense, indicating various artistic styles of literary works (Jin Di 1998, 162).

Jin's redefinition of the three-character principle was another way to describe his theory of “equivalent effect”. He elaborated:

The three-character principle of “faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit” indicates faithful representation of the fundamental facts, transference of effect and reproduction of artistic style respectively. I think the goal of making the translated text similar to the original text in the above mentioned three aspects is what I strive for in the art kingdom of translation (Jin Di 1998, 162).

In recent years Jin began to put more emphasis on the " reproduction of artistic style" , and tried to develop his theory of “equivalent effect” by making use of Chinese traditional translation theory and classic literary criticism. It seemed that Jin's theory deviated away from Nida's theory. One may ask, what accounts for such a change? According to Jin, this was because Nida, having changed his theory from “dynamic equivalence” to “functional equivalence”, no longer took the principle of “equivalent effect” as a translation objective (Wang Zhenping 2000, 56). In my opinion, ('' 论文中应该避免用 In my opinion 这样的表达'')the real reason is that Nida's theory fails to adequately address the problem of transference of aesthetic values in literary translation; while Jin, having attempted to solve it, has to absorb Chinese traditional translation theory and classic literary criticism, where discussions about stylistic or aesthetic effects and their transference are abundant. The evolution of Jin's theory of “equivalent effect” reveals his continuous effort to make Nida's theory applicable to literary translation as well as the inadequacy of Nida's theory in guiding literary translation.

===Similarities and Differences===
====Similarities between the Two Theories====
There are several similarities between the two theories. “The relation of target language receptors to the target language text should be roughly equivalent to the relationship between the original receptors and the original text”(Jin Di and Nida 1984,85). Such relationship indicates that translating is not completed unless the translated message is received by the reader in the receptor language in substantially the same manner as the original message is received by the original reader. As we can see, they both emphasized three important concepts of "receptor", "effect" and "equivalence". Jin Di's equivalent effect theory is close to Nida's dynamic equivalence theory, and their views on translation methods are basically consistent with their understanding of equivalent translation.

==== Differences between the Two Theories and the Reasons====

What are the differences between Jin's theory of “equivalent effect” and Nida’s “dynamic equivalence” except that the concept of effect in Jin's theory refers to “impact” rather than“ response”? Jin held that he basically adapted Nida's translation principles, and only made some adjustments in respect of some biblical elements which he found to have originated from religious and particularly missionary demands, and removed a certain residue of the old “free translation” tendency in Nida's theory (Nida 1998: 231). But this is only part of the problem. ln this section we will concentrate on the differences between the two theories from three aspects.

=====Reader-Oriented vs. Text-Oriented=====

“Dynamic equivalence” pays more attention to the target readers, while Jin's theory of “equivalent effect” attaches more importance to the original text. This distinction can be revealed by the definitions of the two translation principles. “Dynamic equivalence” is defined in terms of readers' response. For Nida, to measure “dynamic equivalence”, one should “only rightly compare the equivalence of response”(Nida 1969, 23). Jin's equivalent effect translation, however, requires reproduction of the “main spirit”, “concrete facts” and “artistic imagery” of the original text. Nida's focus on readers' response allows necessary linguistic adjustments. For example, if the expression “white as snow” was rendered into a language that had no corresponding word for “snow”, Nida suggested that the translator could replace it with comparable idioms, such as “white as egret feathers” in the receptor language. In Nida's view, such rendering was a dynamic equivalent translation, for it was functionally equivalent to “white as snow”(Nida 1964, 171-172). According to Jin's theory of “equivalent effect”, however, this rendering of “white as egret feathers” for “white as snow” was not a translation of equivalent effect, for the concrete fact “snow” was not reproduced in the receptor language.

Another example to illustrate Jin's adherence to the concrete fact of the original text is about the rendering of “butter for fish” in his Chinese version of Ulysses:
(1)-And so say all of us, says Jack.
-Thousand a year, Lambert, says Crofton or Crawford.
-Right, says Ned, taking up his John Jameson. And butter for fish. （U12）

-我们大家也都这样说，杰克说。
-一年一千，兰伯特，克罗夫顿或是克罗福德说。
-对，内德拿起自己的约翰.詹姆森威士忌说。吃鱼有黄油。(金译第12章)

The original describes a scene of toast in a drinking party among common Irishmen. In “REVIEWS: ULYSSES, by James Joyce, translated by Jin Di”(Jin Di 1995), Dr. Kun-liang Chuang expressed his views about Jin's translation of the phrase“Butter for fish”:

“Butter for fish,”according to Don Gifford and Robert J. Seidman, is a lower class Dublin toast, also meaning “wealth and good fortune.” Jin's literal, word-for-word translation, “吃鱼有黄油”(pronounced chi yu you huang you) which is definitely not a common Chinese expression, creates more bewilderment than understanding for his Chinese readers. In fact, the Irish toast, “fish for butter”(sic) has a Chinese equivalent, “干杯” (pronounced gan bei). I believe that, in some cases, an appropriate annotation that explains cultural life is needed in terms of slang translation. In Jin's case here, the playfulness of the "toast" is lost in his loyalty to simple verbal equivalence (Chuang, Kun-liang 1995, 765).

Judging by the concept of “dynamic equivalence” , I think Chuang' s suggestion “干杯” for “butter for fish” is adequate. However, Jin did not think so. In his opinion, Chuang disregarded the transference of the concrete fact in the original text, and such translation could not achieve a translational equivalence, though it might attain a pragmatic equivalence (Jin Di 1998, 22). We can see that Jin is unwilling to sacrifice the content for the intelligibility of the translated text to the average target reader, who has not enough background knowledge to understand the implied meanings of the translated message.

Some people held a similar view with Jin. For example, Wang Zhenping said that Jin's rendering “吃鱼有黄油”was justified, because the Chinese reader learn Irish culture when reading this version. Wang argued that if the translator put the three toasts in the dialogue above into “干杯” , the original language variation would be spoiled and the reader be deprived of a chance of learning typical Irish culture and of understanding Joyce (Wang, Zhenping 2000, 35). In my opinion, Wang has pushed his argument to the extreme. If a toast, such as “Thousand a year”, is not a hindrance for the average readers to understanding, there is no reason to render it into “干杯”. This could be verified with Chuang's another suggestion of putting the English saying "[y]ou cannot eat your cake and have it as “鱼与熊掌，不可兼得”(Chuang, Kun-liang 1995, 764) instead of Jin's rendering “一块蛋糕，你不能又吃又拿”(Jin Di 1994, 311). In terms of naturalness and forcefulness, Chuang's suggestion is acceptable. Just as Lin Yuzhen commented, Jin's literal rendering was not so direct and forceful as Chuang's version (Jin Di 1996, 166). Besides, for average Chinese readers, who have little knowledge of Irish culture, it is difficult to understand the specific cultural meaning of “吃鱼有黄油”without the help of any annotation. Yuen Ren Chao, the noted Chinese linguist, expressed his views about a similar case in translating:

“A very important dimension of fidelity which translators often neglect is comparability in frequency of occurrence, or the relatively familiarity of the expressions in the original text and the translation. Too great a discrepancy in this respect will affect fidelity, even though the translation is accurate in other respects. As it is well-known in information theory, the less often a thing is talked about, the more it means to talk about it. Sometimes the very things one talks about may be a familiar thing in one culture and strange and exotic in another. In such a case, if the thing is the main topic of the discourse, it cannot be helped. . . However, in cases where a familiar expression is used casually as a figure of speech, then sometimes a translation by a different figure of speech of the same import but with a comparable degree of familiarity will result in a higher degree of overall fidelity than an apparently faithful translation which is very unfamiliar. For example, to speak of reaching the third base might be rendered, in Chinese, as reaching the “listening stage” in a game of mahjong, where the apparently “free” translation has greater fidelity, because it is a better match in the frequency of occurrence.”

Chao's view about fidelity is dialectical and comprehensive. In fact, it is in accord with Nida's “dynamic equivalence”. To Chao, whether or not naturalizing translation was adopted should depend on the context. If a figure of speech was the main topic of a discourse, the translator should faithfully reproduce it into the receptor language. If it was used in a casual way, it could be replaced with an idiomatic equivalent in the receptor language (such as Nida's suggestion of “white as snow” into “white as egret feathers”, or Liu Zhongde's “as lean as a rake” into “骨瘦如柴”). Jin's disapproval shows that he tends to be text-oriented both in theory and practice.

===== Flexible vs. Inflexible=====
Nida's “dynamic equivalence” is more flexible than Jin's theory of“equivalent effect”. A dynamic equivalent translation tends to be a type of free translation, while Jin's equivalent effect translation tends to be a literal translation, though such a classification is made in a quite loose manner. Jin's literal tendency is clearly reflected in the reviews about his Chinese version of Ulysses by some critics. Liu Junping stated that in translating Ulysses , “Jin insisted on literal translation and paid more attention to the transference of the form of the original text. As a result, his version was stiff to a certain degree in respect of language expression” (Liu Junping 1997, 35). Wang Yougui expressed a similar view in stating that Jin's translation was “like a leech, adhering closely to the original text” (Wang Yougui 1998, 69). In an interview Jin himself admitted that his translation was not so flexible as Nida's dynamic equivalent translation:

“Wang: ... Briefly speaking, the discrepancy between your theory and Nida's theory is that you put more emphasis on loyalty to the original text and the writer, and Nida is more flexible in translating. Do you agree with me?

Jin: Yes. The scope of flexibility in Nida's theory is much greater. That is to say, according to Nida, the translator is not required to adhere closely to the original text. This is because his theory is to guide Bible translation, and his translation purpose is to make people believe in Christianity. So Nida holds that the most important thing in translating is not words or content, but “receptors' response”, namely, their belief in Christianity. In my opinion, such a view is not suitable for literary translation. What I strive for is “effect”,i.e. the impact of the translation upon its readers is similar to the impact of the original text upon its readers (Wang Zhenping 2000, 56).”

In Jin's view, a literary translation must adhere closely to the original text. As long as the three factors of the original text, namely, the “main spirit”, “concrete facts” and “artistic imagery”, are faithfully reproduced, an equivalent effect can be achieved. Evidently, Jin's theory of “equivalent effect is less flexible than Nida's “dynamic equivalence”. To illustrate this point, we may look at some examples from Jin's Chinese version of Ulysses:

(2) Steak, kidney, liver, mashed at meat fit for princes sat princes Bloom and Goulding. Princes at meat they raised and drank Power and cider. (U11)

V1牛排、腰子、肝、马铃薯泥，可供王侯享用的菜肴，坐着享用的王侯是布卢姆和古尔丁。两位用餐的王候，他们举杯喝酒，帕尔威士忌和苹果酒。(金译第11章）

V2布卢姆和古尔丁俨然像王候一般坐下来，牛排、腰子、肝、土豆泥，吃那顿适宜给王侯吃的饭。他们像进餐中的王侯似的举杯而饮鲍尔威士忌和苹果酒。（萧、文译第11章）

Comparing the two versions with the original text, we can find that Jin's version sticks closely to the English syntax, while the Xiao's version reconstructs the original sentences according to normal Chinese syntactical structure. In Jin's version, the objects“牛排、腰子、肝、马铃薯泥” is placed before the verb“坐着”, and the subjects“布卢姆和古尔丁”are placed at the end of sentence; while in the Xiao's version the normal Chinese syntactical structure “Subject + Verb” is adopted.

(3) By the sandwichbell in screening shadow, Lydia her bronze and rose, a lady's grace, gave and withheld: as in cool glaucous eau de Nil Mina to tankards two her pinnacles of gold.

V1 网状阴影中的三明治罩旁站着莉迪亚，古铜衬玫瑰，贵妇风度，欲授又止:同时在清凉的淡湖色的eau de Nil中，米娜的金色高髻向着啤酒缸子两只。（金译第11章）

V2在帘子的遮荫下，钟形三明治容器旁边，莉迪亚胸前插了朵玫瑰。一头褐发淑女的娴雅派头，忽隐忽现; 而头发挽成高髻、沉浸在冰凉而银光闪闪的一片淡绿蓝色中的米娜，在两位举着大酒杯的顾客面前也是这样。（萧、文译第11章）

In this example, Jin's version adheres so closely to the original text that it is difficult for the average Chinese reader to understand such expressions as “古铜衬玫瑰” and“欲授又止”. Moreover, one can recognize at first sight that“向着啤酒缸子两只”is a word-for-word translation even if he does not read the original text. Owing to Jin's inflexibility, some renderings of his Chinese version Ulysses appear unnatural and awkward.

=====Ideal Objective vs. Realistic Goal=====

Some scholars have assumed that Nida's “dynamic equivalence”and Jin's principle of “equivalent effect”are ideal goals, which could not be realized in translating. However, such assertion is too simplistic. In fact, Jin's translation objective is ideal while Nida's “dynamic equivalence” is far more than an ideal goal. Jin emphasized more than once that an equivalent effect translation was an ideal aim, for which the translator must strive in his work. In “Where Is the Spirit of Ulysses?” (Jin Di 1996), Jin stated that an equivalent effect translation was “an ideal objective”. Though there was no perfect translation, it was desirable for a serious translator to work at it (Jin Di 1998, 214). In “What is a Perfet Translation” (Jin Di 1997), he even summarized that “the theory of equivalent effect” was an attempt to define the ideal of the non-existent perfect translation and to explore the approach to approximating it in practice, i.e. t producing a rendition as close to the ideal as possible” (Jin Di 1998, 229). Jin's theory, like Chinese traditional translation theories, is really an ideal translation standard.

However, Nida's “dynamic equivalence” is not an ideal criterion. As we all know that Nida's attitudes toward “dynamic equivalence” / “ functional equivalence” were different from phase to phase. In phase one (1959-1964), Nida simply described the features of two basic translation equivalences: “formal equivalence” and “dynamic equivalence”, and did not point out which equivalence was better. Dynamic equivalent translations were not always good, while formal equivalent translations were not always bad. Rather, some formal equivalent translations were“often perfectly valid translations of certain types of messages for certain types of audiences” , and some dynamic equivalent translations were likely to obscure “the intent of the original” (Nida 1964, 166, 191-192). Both dynamic equivalent translations and formal equivalent translations could be achieved in actual translating. Furthermore, between strict formal equivalence and complete dynamic equivalence, there were“a number of intervening grades, representing various acceptable standards of literary translating” ( Nida 1964: 160). There were also “varying degrees” of dynamic equivalent translations. For example, according to Nida, both J. E. Philips' rendering “a hearty handshake” and “brotherly kiss” in the Today's English Version were dynamic equivalent translations. The difference between the two renderings was only a matter of degree.

A dynamic equivalent translation did not mean that the more a translation approached the original text, the better it was. In fact, there was no such thing as the best dynamic equivalence. If a dynamic equivalent translation went to extremes, the very freedom of form tended to distort the original message as well (Nida 1964, 191-192). For Nida "dynamic equivalence" was not an ideal objective, but just one of the basic types of equivalence, which had varying degrees.

In phase two (1969-1984), Nida discussed "dynamic equivalence" in opposition to "formal correspondence". During this period, he suggested that "dynamic equivalence" was a good translation, in which the form was restructured to preserve the same meaning, whereas "formal correspondence" and "paraphrase" were bad translations, for the former preserved the form but distorted the meaning of the original text, and the latter had addition, deletion, or skewing of the message in the translated text (Nida and Taber 1969, 173). Though Nida in this phase considered dynamic equivalent translations good, he did not take it as an ideal goal for which the translator must strive in his work. This could be verified with his attitudes towards the following three renderings of a verse in the Hebrew text of the Bible:

KJV:
I returned, and saw under the sun, that the race is not to the swift, nor the battle to the strong, neither yet bread to the wise, nor yet riches to men of understanding, nor yet favour to men of skill; but time and chance happeneth to them all. (Ecclesiastes9, 11)

TEV:
I realized another thing, that in this world fast runners do not always win the races, and the brave do not always win the battles. Wise men do not always earn a living, intelligent men do not always get rich, and capable men do not always rise to high positions. Bad luck happens to everyone. (Ecclesiastes 9, 11)

NEB (The New English Bible):
One more thing I have observed here under the sun; speed does not win the race nor strength the battle. Bread does not belong to the wise, nor wealth to the intelligent, nor success to the skillful; time and chance govern all. (Ecclesiastes9, 11)

Both renderings of the NEB and of the TEV were considered by Nida as "dynamic equivalent" translations, though they were at two quite distinct rhetorical levels. The NEB "preserved more the aphoristic style of the passage "while the TEV" adopted a style more characteristic of modern-day practical philosophy". The NEB was "semantically more condensed", while the TEV was expanded with "sufficient redundancy". This was because the former was intended to be read by readers themselves, and the latter was for people who heard the scriptures. "It is essentially for this reason that one can justify two different types of dynamic equivalent translations designed primarily for two rather different purposes" (Jin Di and Nida 1984, 87-89). It is safe for us to say that dynamic equivalent translations are not those that are closest to the original text in lexicon and grammar. Rather, depending on the readers for whom the translation is made, there are more than one dynamic equivalent translations.

At phase three (1984-), " functional equivalence" was divided into two levels of equivalence: the maximal level and the minimal level. The maximal level was an ideal, but Nida did not suggest that the translator must take it as an aim to work at. On the contrary, he claimed that this maximal level of equivalence was "rarely, if ever, achieved, except for text having little or no aesthetic value and involving only routine information" (Nida 1993, 118). In Nida's view, such an ideal goal could only be achieved in certain limited types of texts, and it was impossible to attain such an objective in literary translation. In brief, a functional equivalent translation was not an ideal goal that the translator must pursue in their work. Rather, it had "different degrees of adequacy" from minimal to maximal level and a good translation always lay somewhere in between the two levels (Nida 1993, 1995).

=====Reasons for the Differences between the Two Theories =====

There are mainly two reasons for the differences between Jin's theory and Nida's theory:(1) Jin's theory is, to some extent, very much influenced by traditional Chinese translation theories, and (2) Nida's theory fails to address the issue of transference of aesthetic elements.

Before Jin accepted Nida's theory in the late 1970s, he had formed his own views about translation, and taken the combination of "accuracy and smoothness" as the standard of a good translation. In his view, "accuracy is the ultimate objective of a translation while smoothness is the necessary means to attain it. The translator's objective is to accurately reproduce the content and feeling of the original text in an idiomatic language" (Jin Di 1998, 119- 120). Theoretically, it is desirable to achieve this objective, but in actual translating it is hard to accomplish it. Just as a saying goes: "Translation is like a mistress. If she is beautiful, she is not faithful. If she is faithful, she is not beautiful". Certainly, Jin had to face this dilemma of keeping "accuracy and smoothness" at the same time in his translation practice. After he had contact with Nida's theory, he tried to find the way out of it from the standpoint of readers and communication theory. He wrote:

Accuracy and smoothness in translating are inseparable from target readers. Translating is communicating across two languages. An accurate translation indicates that the message the target reader obtains from the translated text should be substantially the same as the message the original reader has acquired from the original text. A smooth translation indicates that the target reader can understand the translation and receive the translated message e without any difficulty. (Jin Di 1998, 114).

The fact is that even after Jin advanced his own theory of " equivalent effect" in the 1980s, he was not totally free from the bondage of his former translation standard of " accuracy and smoothness". For instance, he held that an equivalent effect translation was to preserve "accuracy and smoothness" at the same time (Jin Di 1998, 39). This explained why he emphasized the importance of transference of "concrete facts" in his definition of equivalent effect translation, and why he was strongly opposed to the alteration of "concrete facts" in his arguments against Phillip's rendering of " a hearty handshake" and Chuang's suggestion of "干杯" .

In the 1990s, Jin's dependence upon Chinese traditional translation theory was more conspicuous. In his article "Translating Spirit" (1996), Jin borrowed "faithfulness and expressiveness" from Yan Fu's three-character translation principle and put forward his translation principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit". He held that to accomplish an equivalent effcet translation, the translator should “make the translated text similar to the original text in terms of faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit" (Jin Di 1998, 162). Clearly, during this period, Jin's theory of "equivalent effect mainly depended on faithful representation of the original text, and the target reader was no longer involved ass the decisive role in translating. It is safe for r us to say that when Jin absorbed the useful elements from traditional Chinese translation theory, Chinese classic literary criticism and aesthetics to discuss his translation objective, his theory went further away from Nida’s "dynamic equivalence", though he claimed that his translation criteria " faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit" were similar to his translation principle of " equivalent effect” (Wang Zhenping 200, 56).

Another reason for the discrepancy ' between the two theories is the limitations of Nida's theory. "Dynamic equivalence" is not restricted to Bible translation, but it has some limitations in guiding literary translation. This is simply because Nida's immediate concern is not about literary translation, hence it fails to address the transference of formal structures possessing stylistic values and aesthetic effects.

As we all know, the general background against which Nida formulated his translation theory in the early 1960 was that the English Revised Version of the Bible and the American Standard Version of the Bible (1901) were very literal to the extent that "they simply did not communicate effectively, owing to their 16th century forms and the literal, awkward syntax" (Nida 1964, 20). Due to this fact, Nida in his theory objected to word-for-word translation of "formal correspondence", and advocated a free approach to translation, i.e. a meaning-oriented dynamic equivalence. This translation approach has great significance for translators, providing them with theoretical support to break the chains of literalism. However, as far as literary translation is concerned, merely translating sense is not enough. Just as Lin Yutang says, there are two types of literary works. One originates from the writer's experience and thoughts, and the other lies in the language itself, i.e. the specific means to express the writer's experience and thoughts. The first type does not rely on the native language of the writer to a certain degree, while the second is inseparable from the spirit of his mother tongue (Luo Xinzhang 1984, 430-431). Jin Yuelin also states: "Translating sense, which only requires expressiveness and faithfulness, is not an easy thing, and in some cases it is very difficult. Nevertheless, the difficulty is only a technical problem. Translating flavor, however, is quite another matter, for it requires recreation in translating" (Luo Xinzhang 1984, 464). When meaning and flavor in the original text cannot be kept at the same time in literary translation, in some cases the translator retains flavor and sacrifices sense. But in Nida's theory translating means translating meaning, and his exploration of style or spirit is very inadequate for literary translation. When Jin translated Joyce's Ulysses, he had to face the problem of spirit transference. This is the reason why Jin eventually turns to Chinese traditional translation theory and classic literary criticism to seek for support for his theory of "equivalent effect".

===Conclusion===

There are some similarities between Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect. They both have profound research and insight into the theory of equivalent translation, and have a lot of common points in their understanding of the theory. There are also some differences between the two theories. Jin Di is deeply influenced by traditional Chinese translation theories and lacks a scientific basis for translation analysis. However, Nida's theory does not mention aesthetics, which has its limitations in guiding literary translation. Therefore, Nida's theory is not applicable to general translation, but only to biblical translation and informative or vocative translation. How to learn from the two translations to better guide translation practice is a task that translation researchers need to do in the future.

===References===

Chuang, Kun-liang 庄坤良. (1995). "Ulysses, by James Joyce, translated by Jin Di." [金堤译<尤利西斯>]James Joyce Quarterly 32.

De Waard, Jan and E. A. Nida 得·瓦得和尤金·奈达. (1986). From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating [从一种语言到另一种语言]. New York: Nelson.

Jin Di 金堤.(1998). In Search of the Principle of Equivalent Effect [等效反应原则]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.

Jin Di and Eugene A. Nida 金堤和尤金·奈达. (1996). On Translation: with special reference to Chinese and English [论翻译]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.

Jin Di 金堤. (1995). Equivalence Effect in Translation [翻译中的等效反应]. Chinese University Press.

Jin Di 金堤. (1994-1996). trans. Ulysses(You Li Xi Si). By James Joyce[尤利西斯]. Beijing: People's Literature Press.

Liu, Junping 刘军平.(1997). "Comments on Two Chinese Versions of Ulysses." [<尤利西斯>两种译文的比较研究]. Chinese Translators Journal 3.
('' [《尤利西斯》两种译文的比较研究]'')

Lao Long. (1988). "Book Review: On Translation by Jin Di and Eugene A. Nida" [书评: 论翻译]. Chinese Translators Journal 2: 56-57.

Luo, Xinzhang 罗新璋. (1984). An Anthology of Writings on Translation [翻译论集]. Beijing: Commercial Press.

Nida, E. A. 尤金·奈达 (1975). Language Structure and Translation: Essays by Eugene A. Nida [语言结构与翻译]. Stanford: Stanford University Press.

Nida, E. A. 尤金·奈达 (1959). Principles of translation as exemplified by bible translating [从圣经翻译看翻译原则]. Bible Translator, 72(4), 323-342.

Nida, Eugene A. 尤金·奈达. (1993).Language, Culture and Translating [语言、文化与翻译]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

Nida, Eugene A. 尤金·奈达. (1964). Towards a Science of Translating: with Special Reference to Principles and Procedures Involved in Bible Translating [翻译的科学探索]. Leiden: Brill.

Nida, Eugene A. and C. R. Taber. 尤金·奈达和查尔斯·泰伯. (1969). The Theory and Practice of Translation [翻译理论与实践]. Leiden: Brill.

Wang, Zhenping 王振平. (2000). "An Interview with Prof. Jin Di." [金堤教授访谈录] Chinese Translators Journal.

Wang, Yougui 王友贵. (1998). "On Two Chinese Versions of Ulysses"[《尤利西斯的两个中译本研究》]. Chinese Comparative Literature 4.

==Translation , Translating and Interpreting 漆凯 Qi Kai, 202020080636 亚非语言文学==

<center>漆凯 Qi Kai </center>
===Abstract===
First of all, this paper briefly introduces the Chinese and western studies of translation theory and translation principles, and then introduces the definitions of translating and interpreting centering on translation and interpretation.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 12:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC) then it discusses what they have in common from four aspects: basic principles, requirements for translators, operational procedures and quality assessment standards. Then it discusses the differences between interpretation and translation in terms of criteria, translation process and requirements for the quality of translators. Mastering the similarities and differences between the two can help us to better deal with different types of translation, which is the only way to become an excellent translator.

===Key words===
Translation; Translation Theory; Translation Principles; Translating; Interpreting

===题目===
翻译，笔译与口译

===摘要===
本文首先以翻译理论和翻译原则为出发点，简要介绍了两者的中西方研究状况，其次以笔译和口译为中心，对两者的定义进行了介绍，然后从基本原则、对译者的要求、操作流程、质量评定标准四个方面论述了两者的共同点，紧接着论述口译和笔译在衡量标准、翻译过程以及对译员的素质要求方面的差异。掌握两者的同于不同，能够帮助我们更好地处理不同类型的翻译，是成为一个优秀翻译工作者的必经之路。

===关键词===
翻译、翻译理论、翻译原则、笔译、口译

===Introduction===
With the enhancement of China's national strength and the increasing complexity of international exchanges, the market needs more and more high-quality translators. The establishment of MTI and BTI majors in colleges and universities in China also meets this demand. Translation includes two different forms: translation and interpretation. many people will be shocked by the real-time translation of the interpreter around the prime minister and admire the ability of the interpreter. Translation plays an important role in Mo Yan's winning the Nobel Prize for Literature. The comparison between interpretation and translation can give us a correct understanding of the relationship between them, so as to better guide the study of translation and improve the ability of translation.(Liu Heping 2009,35)

This paper first defines translation and holds that translation refers to the expression of the meaning of one language in another language, or the expression of symbols or numbers that represent language and literature, and translation is a conversion between two symbols. But this kind of transformation is not only the language transformation at the literal level, but also the transfer of ideas and the transplantation of culture.(Liu Heping 2009,35)

Secondly, it discusses the similarities and differences between translation and interpretation, focusing on the differences between them. Specifically, firstly, the common points of the two are discussed from four aspects: the basic principles, the requirements for the translator, the operation process and the quality evaluation standard. As for the difference between the two, the criteria for evaluating the advantages and disadvantages of translation and interpretation are discussed. Interpretation needs an interpreter to make a quick response because of its immediacy. Then it analyzes the process of the two translation methods and points out their differences.(Liu Heping 2009,35)

Finally, it discusses the different requirements for the quality of interpreters. In view of the particularity of interpretation, it focuses on the requirements for interpreters, including psychological quality, listening, memory and shorthand ability. It is hoped that through the analysis and discussion of this paper, we can once again realize the importance of translation and let readers have a further understanding of the similarities and differences between interpretation and translation.(Liu Heping 2009,35)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 12:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Definition of Translation===
Translation is an activity with a long history. Both Chinese and Western translators have experienced several thousand years of development. During such a long period of time, people have benefited from translation activities; at the same time, people have actively thought about issues related to translation.(Huang Yongchang 2003,36)

First, people need to give a precise definition of translation. As a matter of fact, most of the first translation activities performed by human beings were oral translations. The communication of language and ideas between two primitive tribes was dependent on translation. Later, with the need for narration and communication, translation activities also emerged, and the initial translations were all related to the translation of religious texts.(Huang Yongchang 2003,36)

In modern society, with the development of science and technology, translation activities have covered more colorful forms: human translation and machine translation; literary translation and non-literary translation; excerpt translation, compilation, translation evaluation, etc.; there are also research institutions and training institutions for translation and its works. It can be said that after a long historical development, translation activities have become very diverse in form.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 12:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Therefore, it is very difficult to give a precise definition of translation. Many experts and scholars have made attempts to define translation from various perspectives, such as culture, sociology, semiotics and psychology.(Huang Yongchang 2003,36)

Secondly, according to the Modern Chinese Dictionary, translation refers to expressing the meaning of one - language and literature in another language and literature, or expressing the symbols or digits representing language and literature in language and literature. (Huang Yongchang 2003,36)

Translation is a conversion activity between two symbols. Therefore, in the activity of conversion of two linguistic symbols, that is, in the activity of translation, one's primary task is to work on the regeneration of symbolic meaning. And translation is fundamentally about translating meaning. Then, what is the meaning becomes an important and crucial question.(Huang Yongchang 2003,36)

For example, Ogden and Richards, the British scholars of semantics, published in 1923, put forward a theory of meaning, which represents the typical view of traditional semantics. The theory refers to a mutually constraining and interactive relationship between symbols, meanings and objective things. And this theory has also influenced translation activities. Language philosophers often think about this issue and give an essential requirement to translation, which should not be a literal level of language conversion, but a transfer of ideas and a cultural transplantation.(Liu Heping 2009,37)

Thirdly, the activity of translation, which has undergone thousands of years of development, has played an important role in the evolution of human society, and it is always going on, and the various functions it can achieve are constantly evolving.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 12:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC) Jacobson, one of the founders of the Prague School, divided translation into three types: intra-linguistic translation, interlinguistic translation and inter-rational translation.(Liu Heping 2009,37)

By understanding these three types, it helps us to recognize the functions and roles of translation. There is no doubt that translation facilitates communication between people and enables ideas to be spread. For the ideas and culture of a country to be expanded geographically, it is inevitable to resort to translation. Moreover, translation also plays the function of creation, and through translation activities, the original ideas are developed and extended.(Ma Chao 2010,18)

In the process of translating Buddhist scriptures, our country has made a bold creation, creating. The creation of new vocabulary and new ideas not only expands the substance of the language, but also introduces new ideas and new thoughts. And in the West, especially in the process of translating the Bible, the role of translation for linguistic transformation has been more profoundly highlighted.Therefore, in order to study translation, it is necessary to understand the definition of translation, the content of translation and the function of translation.(Ma Chao 2010,18)

===Research status of Translation principles in China and the West===
From ancient times to the present, Chinese and Western scholars have never stopped exploring the principles of translation. There are also differences between Chinese and Western translation principles in terms of development history, research direction and system integrity.

====Research status of Translation Principles in China====
Yan Fu once spoke in the Theory of Heaven. In the translation example, it has been pointed out that there are three difficulties in translating things: faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance. It is very difficult to ask him to believe himself.(Ma Chao 2010,19)

Although the translation is still not done, "faithfulness" means that the content of the translation does not violate the original and expresses the meaning of the original. "expressiveness" requires that the translation is smooth and easy to understand. "elegance" refers to the literary style, suitability and readability of the choice of words, as well as the proper use of language style. "elegance" refers to the choice of words, suitability and readability, as well as the proper use of language style. In fact, the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" is not completely pioneered by Yan Fu, but is systematically summarized, refined and summarized.(Ma Chao 2010,19)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 12:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Before Yan Fu, there were Zhiqian's "follow this purpose without literary decoration", the "struggle for cultural quality" in the Sui and Tang dynasties, the "five losses and three difficult" by Dao'an, "rather be simple and reasonable, not skillfully but from the source" by Yan Yi. Xuan Zang's "five do not turn", Zanning's "six examples", Ma Jianzhong's "good translation" and so on. (Huang Yongchang 2003,37)After Yan Fu, the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" also has a new development.(Ma Chao 2010,19)

For example, Lu Xun said that "it would rather be faithful than smooth" and "all translators must take into account two sides: one is to strive for ease of understanding, and the other is to preserve the grace of the original work." Lin Yutang put forward the standard of "faithfulness, smoothness and beauty". Fu Lei's "attaching importance to spirit but not form", "harmony between spirit resemblance and form resemblance", Qian Zhongshu's "transformation environment", Jin Shi's "equivalence" translation principle, Liu Zhongde's "faith, reach, cut" regiment, Zhang Jin's "truth, goodness, beauty", and Xu Yuanchong summed up the "beauty of meaning, sound, form" and so on. (Ma Chao 2010,19)

Although various translation standards emerge one after another, the translation standard of "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance" has always been the "golden rule" in the field of translation. The translation standard of "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance" is Yan Fu's summary and sublimation of a great deal of practice,--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 12:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC) raising the translation theory from the dual standard of "literal translation and free translation" to the ternary standard, which is also the development and inheritance of the previous translation theory. At the same time, the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" is also a discussion on the traditional Chinese philosophy of "the unity of man and nature", "the subject is integrated into the object", and it is a "incidental discussion" of translation. (Yang Zijian 1994,52)

Although many other translation standards have appeared after the translation standard of faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance, the scope of influence of faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance. It's always been widespread. This is because the subsequent translation standards are based on the translation criteria of "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance", and the contents of the framework are updated and inherited critically with the development of the times. Although it has some historical limitations, as a translation concept and basic proposition, as Guo Hongan said: as long as we keep pace with the times and constantly update the interpretation of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", we will continue to give it new vitality.(Yang Zijian 1994,55)

====Research status of Translation Principles in the West====
According to different periods, there are many representative translation principles in the West. Such as "translation as a commentator" put forward by Cicero Cicero of the traditional empirical period, Alexander FraserTytler's "completely interpreting the advantages of the source text into another language", the "functional equivalence theory" and the thought circle of "response" and "domestication" advocated by Eugene A. Nida in the period of modern linguistics, CatFord's "equivalent translation", PeterNewmark's semantic translation and communicative translation theory. And the hermeneutics theory "understanding is translation" advocated by GeorgeSteiner in the contemporary pluralistic theory period, Andre Lefevere's "translation is rewriting" Hermans's "the text is manipulated by the translator" and so on.(Yang Zijian 1994,53) --[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 12:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In the process of development, western translation theories pay more attention to the intuitive way of thinking and the integrity of the system. In the process of using and developing translation theory, we can take it as a reference, absorb its essence, and combine it with domestic translation principles and translation practice to form a domestic characteristic translation theory. For example, when using the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", we should comprehensively consider other translation theories at home and abroad, fully consider the style and content of the text, apply the idea of "domestication", and choose suitable translation methods. so that the content and style of the text can be restored to the maximum extent.(Xu Jun 2009,36)

===Definitions of Translating and Interpreting===
Translating is a written process. It converts the written text in the source language into another written language. Translators must have a deep understanding of the source text and accurately translate it into the target language in terms of meaning, structure and style. The translator has enough time, tools and ways to ponder over and over the language sentences so as to complete the translation. In "language and Culture: context in Translation", Eugene A. Nida (2006 105)holds that the first step is for the translator to analyze the source text by reading many times, consulting references or dictionaries and consulting experts in relevant fields in order to deepen their understanding.(Marianne Lederer 2011,12)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 12:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

After the conversion from the source language to the target language, translators also need to transform and improve the target language in order to obtain the satisfaction of the readers or the target audience. Before that, translators can ask people in the target audience to read the translation on behalf of the target audience, so as to get feedback on the translation, and have time to correct and polish it again. In terms of the connotation of translation, translation requires higher satisfaction with accurate grasp of language, creativity, artistic level of language and aesthetic style.(Marianne Lederer 2011,12)

Interpreting can be divided into impromptu translation and simultaneous interpretation. Impromptu translation, also known as consecutive Interpreting or continuous translation, is mainly in the form of segmented expression of what the speaker is going to express, and the translator translates during each pause. The time of each speech varies from a few seconds to a few minutes according to the specific situation. Consecutive Interpreting is widely used, such as tourism translation, banquet speeches and so on.(Sun Sucha 2008, 44)

Simultaneous interpretation, also known as simultaneous interpretation, the interpreter provides instant translation through special interpretation equipment without interrupting the speaker's speech,--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 12:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC) constantly interpreting the contents of his speech to the audience. Simultaneous interpretation is suitable for large-scale seminars and international conferences, usually conducted by two interpreters in rotation.(Sun Sucha 2008, 44)

===Similarities and Differences between Translating and Interpreting===
As two practical forms of translation, the relationship between interpreting and translating is self-evident. If interpreting is the superstructure. Then the written review is the lower building. To put it simply, interpretation is based on written reviews. Before oral training or practice, the written details should be passed (at least step by step): the two not only go hand in hand. And the quality of the former often determines to a large extent the level of interpretation or the potential for development in the future.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 12:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC) Although interpretation and translation have different forms of translation, they share many common basic principles. In some basic translation strategies and techniques.And it is also consistent or similar.(Xie Zhaolin 2012,147)

Fundamentally speaking, these two kinds of translation practices are guided or dominated by general translation theories and principles, which are always accepted and digested first in the training process of written reviews. If the cultivation of oral and detailed talents is not only based on translation training, but also not far away from the training of translation, the cultivation of oral talents is not far away from the basis of translation training. If you ignore the importance of translation. Or the amount of translation training is not enough. In that case, it is bound to be top-heavy and light, and it is difficult to make further progress in interpretation.(Li Jun 2007,54)

====Similarities between Translating and Interpreting====
First of all, the basic principles of translation are the same. In an introduction to Translation, Xu Jun (2009) pointed out that translation is the fundamental meaning of translation; Li Jun (2007) also believes that the basic task of translation is to understand and retell the meaning that the source language is trying to express. It can be seen that as far as its basic principles are concerned, translation should faithfully express the meaning and ideas that the source language wants to express in accordance with the language habits of the target language.(Marianne Lederer 2011,108)

Whether interpreting or translating, it is not the formal translation of words or sentence-by-sentence translation, but the translation of the source language information and the transmission of the original meaning, which is the first basic principle that we should make clear when learning interpreting and translating. The explanation of interpretive translation by French interpretive theory further clarifies this principle: the purpose of translation is to "understand"-"discourse", and then "re-express", the "discourse" (Marianne Lederer 2011,108)

Secondly, the requirements for translators and translators have something in common. From the perspective of software, both translators and translators must have a solid bilingual foundation, profound encyclopedic knowledge accumulation and strong autonomous learning ability; from the perspective of hardware, both must have great enthusiasm for translation. and have good physical fitness.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 12:18, 19 December 2020 (UTC) Since translation is simply a process of understanding and expressing the meaning of the source language in the target language, and understanding requires the reserve of knowledge of the source language and knowledge outside the language, and expression requires both the level of the target language and the level of expression, then the importance of software construction is self-evident.(Sun Sucha 2008,45)

Moreover, in order to do any work well, we need to be enthusiastic about it and put it into practice. Translation is a time-consuming and energy-consuming work that requires the attention of translators and translators. The improvement of hardware is particularly important. To sum up, only when we have both hardware and software, can we do a good job in translation. (Sun Sucha 2008,45)

Thirdly, the translation process is similar. The process of completing the translation work is like the process of producing a certain product, which must be put in place step by step. If you relax a little bit, the final product may be defective. Generally speaking, whether you are an interpreter or a translator, you need to make full preparations before translation, including reading a large number of parallel texts, mastering knowledge in related fields, communicating with experts or scholars, and understanding the key points: to establish your own corpus and corpus so as to be easy to extract and use at any time. And lost-translation feedback and summary are needed after translation, and translation is also subject to one or more post-translation revision.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 12:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC) In addition, in many cases, the same complicated translation work is often done by the cooperation of two or more translators and translators.(Chen Kaisha 2012,134)

Finally, although there is no final conclusion on the evaluation criteria of translation quality, in professional translation, from the results of translation, the evaluation criteria of translation quality are the same between interpretation and translation. (Chen Kaisha 2012,134)These similarities can be simply summarized as "three looks": to see whether the result of the translation accurately conveys the message of the source language; to see whether the result of the translation has produced the desired effect on the audience; finally, in professional translation, we also need to see whether the result of the translation work is satisfactory to the customer.(Chen Kaisha 2012,134)

====Differences between Translating and Interpreting====
(1) Differences in measurement criteria
As two different forms of translation, the criteria for evaluating translation and interpretation are also different. Although translation theorists have not formed a unified opinion on the issue of translation standards, especially after the "cultural turn", a hundred schools of thought contend among translation theorists, the main criteria for evaluating translation quality in China are still faithfulness and fluency,--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 12:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC) which is in line with the "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance" standard put forward by Yan Fu, which requires the translation to be consistent with the source text in terms of content, form, style and style as far as possible. And make it smooth.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 12:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Based on the characteristics of interpretation, some interpretation experts and scholars have put forward corresponding theories to evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of interpretation.(Yang Zijian 1994,62) According to the Dayism theory of French interpretation expert Celeskovic, interpretation is a kind of interpretive translation, its purpose is to achieve meaning, and the standard is to achieve meaning and fluency.(Li Jinze 2010,23)

The interpretation standard put forward by interpretation expert Li Yueran is accurate, smooth and fast. Accuracy is the soul of English interpretation, which requires the interpreter to accurately convey the information of one party to the other in English or Chinese, so as to achieve the purpose of communication between the two parties. Fluency, that is, the interpreter should fluently convey the information obtained, it is easy for people to understand; fast, because the interpretation is immediate, its own time limit requires the interpreter to be able to respond quickly.(Li Jinze 2010,23)

Zhong Weihe, an interpreter, argues that interpretation should be faithful and timely. Faithfulness means that the target language must be faithful to the content of the source language and the emotional color of the language under specific circumstances, while timely communication means timely communication. As a relatively new discipline, the development of interpretation theory is not as complete as translation theory, and the evaluation criteria are not the same.(Yang Zijian 1994,64)

However, the basic requirements for interpretation are as follows: the translation results should be accurate, rather than speculating on the content of the source text according to the interpreter's own understanding; aiming at the recipient of the translation result,--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 12:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC) the expression form of the translation result must conform to the recipient's language habits to facilitate their understanding; in addition, the translator needs to adjust the tone, speed and intonation according to the actual situation.(Yang Zijian 1994,64)

(2) The difference of translation process
The process of translation is the process of correctly understanding the original text and creatively reproducing it in another language. Translation and interpretation have their own characteristics, and the translation process also differs greatly. There are also great differences in the translation process. One of the differences between the two stems from the difference between written and spoken language, with written language being more rigorous and spoken language being more casual and loose.(Zhao Shuo 1999,100)

Interpreting is an activity with strong immediacy. It emphasizes the effectiveness, independence, field, and one-time nature, and belongs to a kind of individual labor (Zhao Shuo 1999,99). The immediacy of interpretation requires the interpreter to analyze, understand and express the speaker's words continuously within a limited time, so that the speaker's meaning can be correctly conveyed to the audience and both parties can communicate with each other. Due to this fundamental characteristic of immediacy, interpreters tend to "use frequently used words and small words with monosyllables or few syllables, as well as words and abbreviations with strong generality" (Zhao Shuo 1999,100)

Due to the time constraint, the interpreter cannot refer to any documents or materials, nor can he or she discuss with others or ask experts for advice. Interpreting in ordinary situations should be as colloquial as possible, and the sentence structure used is relatively simple and in line with the spoken habits. In addition, interpreters generally cannot make a lot of corrections and additions to what has been translated, unless there are major errors or omissions.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 12:18, 19 December 2020 (UTC) The translator, on the other hand, communicates with the reader in the form of text, which is generally not limited by time. The interpreter expresses the original text in written form through a thorough understanding of the text, and then uses the help of the materials, and then repeats the translation until he or she is satisfied.(Liu Heping 2009,37)

In terms of sentence structure, translation requires sentence components to be in place and sentence structure to be complete.(Xie Zhaolin 2012,148) Translators can use parallel sentences, compound sentences and rhetorical methods such as metaphor and prose in order to beautify the translation; translators can also have time to discuss with others and ask for their help before writing the translation.(Liu Heping 2009,37)

Fang Fanquan, an interpreter scholar, proposed the process of translation and interpretation. The basic process of translation is reading - thinking and analyzing - converting and reorganizing - writing and expressing; while the basic process of interpretation is recording - coding - expressing. Recording, or temporary storage, means storing the perceived coded information temporarily; encoding means decoding the information in the source language and assigning it to the expression form of the target language; expression means the interpreter translates the encoded information in the target language through oral expression.(Liu Heping 2009,37)

(3) Different requirements for interpreters
Translators and interpreters have some common basic requirements, for example, they should have good bilingual understanding and expression, and be able to convert between Chinese and English skillfully and accurately; they should have a broad knowledge, especially familiar with Chinese and foreign cultural background; they should go through systematic professional knowledge and skills learning and practical training, and so on. However, in view of the immediacy of interpretation, the requirements for interpreters are different from those for translators, and the special requirements for interpreters are mainly reflected in the following points:(Ma Chao 2010,19)

①Psychological quality
Interpreting is a hard and intense mental work, a complex thinking process. Interpreters are often unprepared to understand the information they hear instantly and then convert it into another language and express it orally, which often puts them under greater pressure (Guo Jirong, 2008: 232). Therefore, interpreters must have good psychological quality. "the psychological factor of the interpreter, although invisible and intangible, plays a role in the translation process."--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 12:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC) The interpreter will undergo psychological changes due to the occasion of interpretation, the level of knowledge, the degree of understanding of the subject matter, etc.(Li Jinze 2010,102)

Interpreters who are still shallow are prone to be in a nervous mood before interpreting, unable to start, and even unable to get into the state immediately after the meeting starts. This psychological state will affect the level of play, and even cause serious adverse consequences. The specific method is to practice more, try to contact with the conference organizers and speakers before the meeting, learn more about the background knowledge of the meeting, and also read some relevant information in advance, so as to have the bottom in mind and prevent the translation quality from being affected by emotional tension. The interpreter can also judge whether he/she understands according to the expression of the audience, and can change the expression or add some explanation, which cannot be done in the translation.(Chen Kaisha 2012,134)

②Listening
Interpreting is built on the basis of "listening" and relies on "listening". To receive information, keen listening is a prerequisite for becoming an excellent interpreter. If you encounter obstacles in receiving information, it will be difficult to carry out the following steps of interpretation.(Xie Zhaolin 2012,148)

Interpreters should have the basic conditions of bilingual communication, good bilingual comprehension and expression ability, be able to use the previously acquired knowledge to understand the new discourse, know how to analyze and synthesize the content while listening, and understand the content of language expression with the help of cognitive knowledge and encyclopedic knowledge, instead of the conditioned reflex or accumulation of language words.(Xie Zhaolin 2012,148)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 12:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In order to express better when interpreting, interpreters must pay attention to listen to more English accents, dialects and variants, pay attention to summarize their characteristics and rules, and learn to reason logically and judge the causes and consequences of speech, and correctly judge the message and intention of the speaker. There are many dialects of Chinese, and there are many dialects and variants of English. British English and American English differ in speech, expression and even the meaning of the same word; even people from the same English-speaking country speak different English due to their social class, educational background and geographical differences.(Xie Zhaolin 2012,149)

For example, there is a big difference in the language used by the aristocracy and the lower class in Britain. For example, the language used by the aristocracy and the lower class in Britain is very different. When foreigners whose mother tongue is not English speak English, it is inevitable that they have their own accent. Therefore, as an interpreter, you must first understand the dialect and accent of the translation target in order to carry out the translation smoothly. In addition, the interpreter must have a pure accent, be fluent in English and Mandarin Chinese, and be familiar with various expressions of foreign languages and Chinese.(Xie Zhaolin 2012,149)

③Memory and shorthand ability
Due to the constraints brought by the immediacy of interpreter communication and the potential influence of the "absence factor" of the context, interpretation work shows its great challenge (Xie Zhaolin 2012,149).--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 12:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC) As an interpreter, it is necessary to have an excellent memory, because it is impossible for the interpreter to consult information during the interpretation process, so he or she must remember a large number of words, abbreviations and idioms.(Xie Zhaolin 2012,149)

===Conclusion===
This paper focuses on the differences between translation and interpretation in terms of measurement standards, translation process and the quality requirements for translators. Mastering the differences between the two can help us to better deal with different types of translation. Want to be a good translator, whether interpreter or interpreter. Both workers and translators must have solid bilingual language skills and rich cultural background knowledge.

In cultivating and improving translation skills, there are more requirements for the accuracy of language expression. Therefore, translators need to read literary classics widely, improve their literary appreciation and their ability to master English and Chinese bilingualism.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 12:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC) It can not only be faithful to the original text but also be accurately conveyed in beautiful and fluent words in translation. The original message. When developing interpreting skills, it is necessary to strengthen the training of English-Chinese bilingual pronunciation, intonation and articulation, strengthen psychological quality, improve adaptability, enhance memory, and train shorthand ability in order to attain a yet higher goal.

===References===

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*Huang Yongchang. 黄勇昌. (2003).对翻译忠实性原则的解构分析[A Deconstructive Analysis of the Translation Fidelity Principle].番禺职业技术学院学报[Journal of Panyu Vocational and Technical College]35-37.

*Liu Heping. 刘和平. (2009). 论本科翻译教学的原则与方法[On the Principles and Methods of Undergraduate Translation Teaching].中国翻译[Translation in China]34-39.

*Li Jinze. 李金泽. (2010). 国内口译研究的历史与现状[The History and Current Situation of Domestic Interpreting Research].边疆经济与文化[Frontier Economy and Culture]101-102.

*Li Jun. 李军. (2007). 英汉汉英翻译训练与解析[Training and Analysis of English-Chinese Chinese-English Translation].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].

*Li Yun. 李云. (2001). 翻译的忠实性[Fidelity of Translation].山东电力高等专科学校学报[Journal of Shandong Electric Power Higher Specialized School]56-57.

*Ma Chao. 马超. (2010). 浅谈中国翻译史中的翻译原则[A Brief Introduction to the Translation Principles in the History of Chinese Translation].科技风[Science and Technology Wind]18-19.

*Marianne Lederer. 玛丽安·莱德尔. (2011). 释意学派口笔译理论[The Theory of Interpretation and Translation in the School of Interpretation and Translation].中国对外翻译出版社[Chinese Foreign Translation and Publication].

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==A Brief Introduction to Chinese Translation Theories in the Late 19th Century 郭露 Guo Lu 202070080588==

<center>郭露 Guo Lu 202070080588</center>--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:44, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

===Abstract===

As China suffered from wars in the late 19th century, western culture was introduced into China inevitably. Chinese intellectuals at that time knew little about western works and were prejudiced against them.

During this period, translation acted as a bridge between China and the rest of the world. There were several translators and scholars who had translated numerous western works and came up with their translation theories, which promoted the development of translation studies and helped people to know more about the western countries.--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 12:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

This paper mainly discusses the translation theories of Yan Fu and Lin Shu who were of great significance at that time, and it also introduces Yan Fu’s and Lin Shu’s translation theories through case analysis, so as to deepen our understanding towards translation theories in this period.--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 12:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

===Key Words===

Translation theory, Chinese translation theory, Yan Fu, Lin Shu

===题目===

19世纪晚期中国翻译理论简介

===摘要===

19世纪晚期，中国遭受战争磨难的同时，外国文化随之涌入中国。当时中国各界人士对于西方作品的了解极少，并对其作品抱有较大的偏见。

在这一时期，翻译充当了中外交流的桥梁，中国涌现出了许多伟大的译者，他们的作品为中国的翻译发展做出极大贡献。

本文旨在讨论当时的翻译发展以及严复和林纾两位在当时具有突出贡献的译者，并通过案例分析对严复和林纾的翻译理论进行了简要概括和介绍，以加深我们对于该时期翻译理论的了解。

=== 关键字===

翻译理论；中国翻译理论；严复；“信达雅”；林纾

===Introduction===

The failure in the First Sino-Japanese War at the end of the Qing Dynasty put China and the Chinese nation as well in great danger. In order to educate people and save the nation, scholars including Yan Fu and Lin Shu realized that they need to learn from Western countries and bring in their culture and advanced thought. (Ouyang Lifeng, Shang Minrui 2002, 1-3) Therefore, those scholars started to translate western works. For example, during the translation of Thomas H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'', Yan Fu quoted the survival of the fittest and called for people to save the nation from subjugation and ensure its survival. (Ouyang Lifeng, Shang Minrui 2002, 1-3)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 12:32, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

In addition, with the growing demand for culture and entertainment, coupled with the improvement of printing technology, the market for books and magazines also underwent rapid development, which also provided room for the development of novels. While scholars favoured classical books, common people preferred novels, providing an opportunity for the development of novel translation.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 34-35)

As many scholars began to translate foreign books, they too formed a variety of translation theories in the process of translation, which made a lot of contributions to the development of translation.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 34-35)

===Yan Fu===

1. Introduction

Yan Fu(1854-1921), courtesy name Ji Dao, is a scholar and translator in modern China. He is famous for introducing Western thoughts, including Darwin’s idea of “natural selection” into China and was singled out among a few who contributed most to China’s knowledge of the West at that period. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:05, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

Yan Fu is especially famous for ''Tianyanlun'', the rendering of Thomas H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics''. The survival of the fittest in this book took wing in time in the fermenting air of nationwide struggle for survival. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91)

Besides that, Yan stated in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethics'' that "there are three difficulties in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance". Although he did not set them as general standards for translation, since the publication of that work, the phrases "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" have been attributed to Yan Fu as standards for any good translation, giving rise to numerous debates. Therefore, it has been the catchword among Chinese translation theories. (Wang Shi 1986, 1321-1322)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:05, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

Yan Fu was also one of the most influential scholars of his generation as he worked to introduce Western social, economic and political ideas to China. During his lifetime, Yan Fu translated the following major works of Western liberal thought: ''Evolution and Ethics'' by Thomas Henry Huxley as ''Tianyan lun'', ''The Wealth of Nations'' by Adam Smith as ''Yuan fu'', and ''The Study of Sociology'' by Herbert Spencer as ''Qunxue yiyan'', most of them inspired later scholars to better learn about Western culture. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91-99)

2. Translation Theory

Yan Fu’s theories, which include faithfulness(''xin''), expressiveness(''da'') and elegance(''ya''), plays a vital important role among Chinese translation theories. Another English version is fidelity, fluency, and elegance. Still, another is fidelity, fluency and flair rendered by Brian Holton, using the alliterative "f" for the sake of memory. They are cited as follows:--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:05, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

(1)Translation involves three difficult requirements to fulfil: faithfulness(''xin''), expressiveness (''da'') and elegance(''ya''). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance.(Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 44-47)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:05, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

(2)In addition to faithfulness and expressiveness, we should strive for elegance in translation. This is not just for extending the effects far. In using the syntax and style of the pre-Han period one actually facilitates the expressiveness of the profound principles and subtle thoughts whereas in using the modern vernacular one finds it difficult to make things comprehensible. (Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 44-47)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:05, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

Here, faithfulness means to be faithful to the content of the original, the translation should be accurate, and translators are not allowed to change the meaning in the original text. “Meanwhile, translators should translate words correctly and concisely, and omission and amplification are not recommended.”(Wang Rui, Wei Shengxin 2020, 1-4)

Furthermore, expressiveness means to be expressive as the original, and the translation should be in accordance with the expression of Chinese habits and be fluent and readable. And as for elegance, which is ''ya'', it originally means the authentic and correct use of the Chinese language. However, with the development of the times, the meaning of ''ya'' has also undergone much development. It doesn’t require translators to keep the syntax and style of the pre-Han period, instead, they should translate the original text depending on its language style. (Wang Shi 1986, 48)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:05, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

3. Case Analysis

Example1: He was an old man who fished alone in a skiff in the Gulf Stream and he had gone eighty-forty days now without taking a fish. (Ernest Hemingway 2016, 1)

Translation 1: 他是一个老头子，一个人划着一只小船，在墨西哥湾大海流打鱼，而他已经有84天没有捕到一条鱼了。 (Zhang Ailing 2015, 5)

Translation 2: 那老人独驾轻舟，在墨西哥湾流里捕鱼，如今出海已有84天仍是一鱼不获。 (Yu Guangzhong 2010, 1)

Translation 3: 他是个独自驾一只小帆船在湾流上捕鱼的老人。到今天为止，老头儿已经接连下海84天，一条鱼也没捕到。 (Zhang Chiheng 2015, 2)

Translation analysis: In this example, the skiff was translated into “小船”, “轻舟” and “小帆船”, and according to the context, we can easily draw a conclusion that the third one is the best, as “小船” didn’t tell the reader what the skiff looks like, so it has a much broader definition. Besides that, “轻舟” in China is a poetic word, which does not conform to the style of the original text. And “小帆船” seems more vivid and specific. (Sun Yanyu 2019, 1)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:05, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

Example 2: The old man was thin and gaunt with deep wrinkles in the back of his neck. The brown blotches of the benevolent skin cancer the sun brings from its reflection on the sides of his face and his hands had the deep-creased scars from handling heavy fish on the cords. (Ernest Hemingway 2016, 1)

Translation 1: 老人瘦而憔悴，颈后有深的皱纹。面颊上生着棕色的肿起一块块，那是热带的海上反射的阳光晒出的一种无害的瘤。顺着脸的两边，全长满了那肿起的一块块。他的手因为拉绳子，拖曳沉重的鱼，有纹路很深的创痕。 (Zhang Ailing 2015, 5)

Translation 2: 老人瘦削而憔悴，颈背皱纹很深。热带海上阳光的反射引起善性的皮癌，那种褐色的疮痍便长满两颊，两手时常用索拉扯大鱼，也留下深折的瘢痕。 (Yu Guangzhong 2010, 1)

Translation 3: 老头儿身形单薄，脖颈子上皱纹很深。从他的腮帮子上一溜顺着颊边往下，长着些褐色的疙瘩，那是太阳在热带海面上的反光晒出来的良性皮肤瘤。他那双手则因为同大鱼较量，被钓索勒出了深深的伤痕。 (Zhang Chiheng 2015, 3)

Translation analysis: Among all the translation versions, the last is the most understandable one for it is in accordance with the logical order and more natural. For example, “较量” in the third version seems very different from the original meaning of “handling”, but considering the context, “较量” is more authentic than “拖曳” or “拉扯” which are just translated literally. This also reflects the importance of expressiveness and elegance. (Sun Yanyu 2019, 2)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:05, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

Example 3: He did not remember when he had first started to talk aloud when he was by himself. He had sung when he was by himself in the old days and he had sung at night sometimes when he was alone steering on his match in the smacks or in the turtle boats. (Ernest Hemingway 2016, 1)

Translation 1: 他记不起自己从什么时候开始，便爱一个人大声自言自语。往日，在孤独的时候，他曾爱唱歌自娱；有时夜间独自在渔船上或龟船上轮班掌舵，他也会唱起歌来。 (Yu Guangzhong 2010, 27)

Translation 2: 他记不得一个人独处的时候是何时开始大声说话的。以前他独个儿时曾唱过歌。在小帆船或者捕龟船里，独自值班掌舵时曾在夜里唱过。 (Huang Yuanshe 2011,16)

Translation 3: 他不记得自己从什么时候起，在独自一人的情形下会大声说话。从前独自一人时，他会唱歌；当年在渔船或捕龟船上轮夜掌舵的时候，他有时也会唱歌。 (Zhang Chiheng 2015, 22)

Translation Analysis: Though these translations are all faithful to the original text, the first one is uncomparable among all the versions. By reading the first one, we can have a deep understanding of the loneliness of the old man who was fishing on the sea and we can also feel his optimism, especially in “自言自语” and “唱歌自娱”. This translation can undoubtedly arouse the sympathy of the readers. (Sun Yanyu 2019, 1-3)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:05, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

4. The Criticism of Yan Fu’s Theory

Though Yan Fu’s translation theory was widely recognized by Chinese scholars, it also provoked heated debates, and elegance, which is ya, was criticized mostly by other scholars. Some of them even believed that it is useless. And the reason why Yan put elegance into his translation theory is that he preferred the writing style of Tong Cheng School. Since this pompous style is obsolete, the standard of ya may also out of fashion. (Gao Xiaopeng 2017, 1-2)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:05, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

Nevertheless, “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” are still one of the most important translation theories in China. Faithfulness means being faithful to the author and conveys the core values and meanings of the work to the readers. Expressiveness means the translation should be plain and fluent. And elegance requires the translation to obey the aesthetic concepts of the target language. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 28-30) This theory has inspired later scholars in translation practice and theoretical exploration. Due to the limit of time and history, the translation study should be conducted in a historical context, so we also need to evaluate Yan Fu’s translation thought and translation works historically.--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:05, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

===Lin Shu===

1. Introduction

Lin Shu(1852-1924) is a traditional Chinese literatus and translator, most famous for introducing the Western literary works into China in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Though being ignorant of foreign languages, Lin Shu collaborated with different interpreters and translated more than 180 western literary works, mostly novels, from England, the United States, France, Russian, Switzerland, Belgium, Spain and Norway, etc. into classical Chinese in his lifetime. (Zhu Yu 2008, 3-7)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:27, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

Because of his ignorance of foreign languages, Lin seldom concerned himself with the original or with the equivalence of any sort. What he cared about most was the functions of his translation works. In Lin’s opinion, to translate books is to enlighten the mind of our people in a contest against foreigners. In his foreword to ''Yilin Monthly'', he stated:--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:27, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

“The inferiority of Asia to Europe can be attributed to the fact that the Europeans are daily intent on learning whereas the Asian peoples moon away in a stupor or, jealous of the European learnings and slandering them as eccentric extremity, throw themselves into blind combats, fancying of victory. That is the so-called landlubber swimming against the good swimmer. As for me, to enlighten the mind of our people, we must begin with the establishment of schools. But the schools work steadily and slowly, so timely speeches in academic associations are preferable. Considering the inconveniences in preparing speeches, translating books becomes the ultimate choice.” (Chen Fukang 1992, 133)

2. Translation Methods

Lin Shu knew no foreign languages, so he had to cooperate with a collaborator who was familiar with foreign languages and worked as an interpreter for him. Though he was an efficient translator, he didn’t come up with any significant translation theories. Having said that, during his translation process, there were four translation methods that he mainly used, which include omission, addition, alteration and adaption. (Chen Jianyong 2013, 20)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:27, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

(1) Omission

In his translation process, Lin deleted some words or sentences for some reasons. Omission is a very common practice in his translation. He deleted some contents for the sake of Chinese literary norms and so as to arose the Chinese reader’s interests. In the late 19th century, Western literature was novel to the Chinese people. As Chinese readers prefer the tradition of story-telling in traditional Chinese fiction like ''The Water Margin'', Lin had to delete the psychological description in the western novel as it has nothing to do with the development of the story.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 36-37)

(2) Addition

During his translation, Lin Shu made some additions to polish and improve the original text so as to help the readers to have a better understanding of the original. Being a writer and a good story-teller, Lin excelled in making the translation more interesting and appealing through addition. Even Qian Zhongshu, another Chinese translator and writer, mentioned Lin's addition in his translations: “When Lin Shu found a perceived void in the source text, he would add here and polish there so that the wording in the version was more concrete, the scene more vivid, and the description more substantial.” (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 36-37)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:27, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

For example: The married couple were enjoying their honeymoon... (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 20)

彼夫妇在蜜月期内，两情忻合无间（蜜月者，西人娶妇时，即挟其妇游历，经月而归） (Lin Shu 1981, 3)

Here, Lin translated “honeymoon” literally into Chinese, but to help his readers better understand the Western tradition, Lin made a specific explanation of this word. Addition is quite a common phenomenon in Lin's translations. He took the readers into consideration, which makes his translation popular in China. In the meantime, he broadened the horizon of his readers and narrowed the gaps between Chinese and Western cultures.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:27, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

(3) Alteration

Due to the social and cultural differences between the source and target languages, alterations are inevitable. Hence Lin Shu made some compensation or replacement in his translation. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)

For example: The slanting light of the setting sun quivers on the sea-like expanse of the river; the shivery canes, and the tall, dark cypress, hung with wreaths of dark, funeral moss, glow in the golden ray. (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 23)

日脚斜穿云罅而出，直射江上芦港。芦叶倒影，万绿荡漾于风漪之内，景物奇丽，江光如拭。 (Lin Shu 1981, 4)

Lin Shu made the alteration considering the Chinese readers' aesthetic tendencies. Although Lin Shu changed the word order of the original, the style and literary effects of the original are reproduced.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:27, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

(4) Adaptation

Considering the Chinese culture and the readers' acceptability, Lin Shu had to retranslate or rewrite the original text, which is similar to domestication. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:27, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

For example: On which Mr. Micawber delivered a eulogium on Mrs. Micawber's character and said she had ever been his guide, philosopher, and friend and that he would recommend me, when I came to marrying time of life, to marry such another woman, if such another woman could be found. (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 18)

密考泊遂历称其妻嘉言懿行，为世贤女，能相夫教子，共处患难，且谓余曰：“汝论娶者，所娶亦当如吾妻。惟不审闺秀中更有贤类吾妻否?” (Lin Shu 1981, 3)

In Lin's time, the wife had a very low status. For her, the most important responsibility was to take care of the husband and rear the children. So here in Lin's version, it was rewritten according to Chinese feudal ethics. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 36-37)

3. Case Analysis

Example 1: In that pleasant district of merry England which is watered by the river Don, there extended in ancient times a large forest, covering the greater part of the beautiful hills and valleys which lie between Sheffield and the pleasant town of Doncaster. The remains of this extensive wood are still to be seen at the noble seats of Wentworth, of Warncliffe Park, and around Rotherham. Here haunted of yore the fabulous Dragon of Wantley; here were fought many of the most desperate battles during the Civil Wars of the Roses; and here also flourished in ancient times those bands of gallant outlaws, whose deeds have been rendered so popular in English song. (Ivanhoe 2009, 25)

Translation 1: 英国东河流域之内，前此有大树林，踞歇非儿、东加斯德二城之间，楼橹雉堞，均为树荫所被。至今老树凋残，尚有一二根株在焉。相传古来有神龙窟蟠其地。当时玫瑰之战，兄弟争立，即以此地为战场。而绿林豪客，仗侠尚义，亦据为寨。至今诗人歌曲恒举其事，播为美谈。 (Lin Shu 1981, 5)

Translation Analysis: In this translation, Lin translated the original text in classical style, which was more acceptable to his readers at that time. Instead of translating the word literally, he even translated the “Dragon of Wantley” and “gallant outlaws” into “神龙窟蟠” and “绿林豪客” respectively, which are two positive phrases. （Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 49）

Example2: Here the door opened, and a small quadroon boy, between four and five years of age, entered the room. There was something in his appearance remarkably beautiful and engaging. His black hair, fine as floss silk, hung in glossy curls about his round, dimpled face, while a pair of large dark eyes, full of fire and softness, looked out from beneath the rich, long lashes, as he peered curiously into the apartment. A gay robe of scarlet and yellow plaid, carefully made and neatly fitted, set off to advantage the dark and rich style of his beauty; and a certain comic air of assurance, blended with bashfulness, showed that he had been not unused to being petted and noticed by his master. (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 5)

Translation 2: 门辟，陡入一稚子，约四五岁，貌绝慧黯，雏发未燥，笑处辄动微涡，两目精光耿然。见海留，意殊骇。海留见其服饰之善，心知此奴必为主。 (Lin Shu 1981, 1)

Translation Analysis: There are many descriptive words in this example like “a gay robe of scarlet and yellow plaid”, “the dark and rich style of his beauty”, and etc., which makes the sentences more appealing and attractive. However, considering the Chinese literary norm, Lin Shu translated all these phrases into “服饰之善”, which is much more concise compared with the original one. (Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 49）

4. The Criticism of Lin Shu’s theory

During the 1917-1919 New Culture and May Fourth movements, Lin Shu was severely criticized and his popularity suffered badly. Many scholars deemed Lin as an unfaithful translator and there exists non-correspondence between his translations and their sources as they thought he deleted and edited the source texts at will, which violates the principle of “faithfulness”. “In Lin Shu’s opinion, however, retelling the story is more important than acting as a faithful intermediary between the writer and his Chinese readers.” (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 38-39)

In the meantime, his translation changed Chinese people’s disregard of foreign literature. During the late 19th century, the intellectuals in China lacked interest to learn from the West.They even thought that they had nothing to learn from there in the areas of art and literature. And Lin was the first translator who introduced such famous writers as Shakespeare and Charles Dickens to Chinese readers. With the help of Lin’s translation, those intellects and the younger generation began to eliminate their prejudice against the Western literature and realized its value. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 39-41)

===Similarities and Differences Between Yan Fu and Lin Shu===

Being two famous translators in the late Qing Dynasty, Yan Fu and Lin Shu achieved remarkable success in translation theories and practice, both of whom played critical roles in China. And there are several similarities and differences between them. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:40, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

After the outbreak of the Sino-Japanese War, Yan Fu started to translate western works so as to introduce western advanced culture to Chinese people. Yan once stated that he wants to serve the nation through translation. Lin Shu, however, started his translation out of interest. But as time went by, he also translated western books to enlighten Chinese people. Therefore, we can say that both of them tried to save the nation through translation. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1)

Besides that, Yan Fu had a higher contribution than Lin Shu in terms of translation thoughts. He is known for “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which is one of the most outstanding translation theories in China while Lin Shu didn’t come up with a systematic translation theory during his lifetime. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1)

Furthermore, as Yan Fu had an opportunity to study abroad while Lin Shu learnt Chinese traditional Confucianism, Yan had a better understanding of western culture. Meanwhile, most of the western works Yan Fu translated were about social science, he was the first person who introduced western social science in the 19th century to all Chinese people. As for Lin Shu, who was especially famous for novel translation, translated ''La Dame aux Camélias'' and was well-received by Chinese readers. They are quite different in terms of translation works. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1-2)

And as for translation theories, Yan Fu once put forward faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. He attached great importance to faithfulness and believed that being faithful to the original text is of great importance during translation. And this translation theory helped people to know more about western society and culture. Meanwhile, Lin Shu preferred faithfulness, too, but during the translation, he tended to delete those unnecessary words and sentences so as to help readers have a better understanding of the text. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1-2)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:40, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

To sum up, while Yan Fu and Lin Shu are similar to each other, they are quite different in some aspects. However, both of them made great contributions to Chinese translation and left a profound impact on later translation theories. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 2)

===Conclusion===

During the 19th century, Chinese people’s lives were filled with untold suffering. Being the two great translators, Yan Fu and Lin Shu had made great contributions to not only the nation but also the whole world. The principle of Yan Fu stands as one of the most significant translation theories in China, which guided numerous translators and scholars as well of later generations. Meanwhile, Lin Shu’s translation works broadened people’s horizon at that time, enriching their lives as well as eliminating their prejudice against Western literature. Although there are several shortcomings in their translation thoughts and translation works, they had a far-reaching influence on future generations. Until now, there are still many scholars that analyze and learn from their translation theories. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 2)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:42, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

===References===

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* Chen Fukang 陈福康. (1992). ''中国译学理论史稿'' [Draft of Chinese translation theory]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.

* Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2010). ''中国译学史'' [A History of Chinese Translation]. Shanghai: Shanghai People’s Publishing House 上海人民出版社.

* Chen Jianyong 陈建永. (2013). 从《黑奴吁天录》看林纾的翻译策略 [A Study of Lin Shu’s Translating Strategies: Taking Uncle Tom’s Cabin as an Example]. 山东大学 Shandong University 20-36.

* Ernest Hemingway. (2016). The Old Man and the Sea. Beijing: Affairs Press知识出版社.

* Gao Xiaopeng 高晓鹏. (2017). 严复翻译标准——“信达雅”再思考 [Yan Fu’s Translation Standard: A Rethinking of “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”]. 四川外国语大学 Sichuan International Studies University 1-2.

* Harriet Beecher Stowe. (2008). Uncle Tom's Cabin. Oxford University Press.

* Huang Yuanshen. (2011). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Nanjing: Yilin Press 译林出版社.

* Li Changbao, Shao Bin 黎昌抱, 邵斌. (2013). ''中外翻译理论教程'' [Translation Theory: A Coursebook]. Hangzhou: Zhejiang University Press 浙江大学出版社.

* Lin Shu 林纾. (1981). ''撒克逊劫后英雄略'' [Ivanhoe]. Shanghai: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.

* Ouyang Lifeng, Shang Minrui 欧阳利锋, 尚敏锐. (2002). 以西方观点解读二十世纪中国翻译理论 [Twentieth--century Chinese Translation Theory Against the Background of Western Views]. 语言与翻译 Language and Translation (01) 1-3.

* Sun Yanyu 孙演玉. (2019). 经典儿童小说的复译与信、达、雅——以《老人与海》为例 [Retranslation of Classical Children’s Fiction and Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance: Taking The Old Man and the Sea as an Example]. 英语广场 English Square (04) 2-3.

* Walter Scott. (2009). Ivanhoe. Signet Classics.

* Wang Rui, Wei Shengxin 王蕊, 韦生鑫. (2020). “信、达、雅”翻译原则在文学翻译中的应用.[Analysis of the Application of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” in Literary Translation]. 吉林化工学院学报 ''Journal of Jilin Institute of Chemical Technology'' (10) 1-4.

* Wang Shi 王栻. (1986). ''严复集'' [Yan Fu Ji]. Shanghai: Zhonghua Book Company 中华书局.

* Wang Tao 王涛. (2016). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Beijing: Qunyan Press 群言出版社.

* Wu Yingli, Li Yan 吴萤丽, 李艳. (2018). 严复与林纾: 中国近代两大翻译家的对比 [Yan Fu and Lin Shu: A Comparison Between Two Chinese Modern Translators]. 开封教育学院学报 ''Journal of Kaifeng Institute of Education'' (09) 1-2.

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* Zhang Chiheng 张炽恒. (2015). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Beijing: Beijing Institute of Technology Press 北京理工大学出版社.

* Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 张政, 彭发胜. (2007). ''中西翻译理论简明教程'' [A Coursebook of Chinese and Western Translation Theories]. Beijing: Tsinghua University Press 清华大学出版社.

* Zhu Yu 朱瑜. (2008). 林纾的翻译和时代 [Lin Shu’s Translation and His Time]. Beijing: 中国现代文学研究丛刊 Modern Chinese Literature Studies (05) 3-7.

='''Comparison of Translation Theories'''=

==Comparison Of Translation Theory Between Yan Fu And Tytler 陈涵 Chen Han 202070080580 英语笔译==
<center> Chen Han 陈涵 202070080580 </center>

===Abstract===

Yan Fu and Tytler are outstanding translators in the history of Chinese and Western translation respectively. Tytler's “Three Principles of Translation” and Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are representatives of the most important translation theories. It is believed that the two theories have a broad and profound impact on Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. Although they lived in different times, their theories were quite similar which aroused much controversy. This paper will expound “Three Principles of Translation” and “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and focus on the similarities and differences between these two theories in terms of content, theoretical basis and culture. It aims to figure out the relationship between the two theories, better apply translation theory to translation practice, and advocate us to view Chinese and Western translation theories from a dialectical perspective, thus making Translation Studies become more systematic and scientific.

===Key words===

Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; Three Principles of Translation; Yan Fu; Tytler

===题目===

严复与泰特勒的翻译理论比较

===摘要===

严复与泰特勒分别是中西方翻译史上的杰出翻译家。严复的“信达雅” 与泰特勒的“翻译三原则”分别是中西翻译史上最重要的翻译理论之一，对翻译理论与实践方面有着广泛深刻的影响。严复与泰特勒二人虽处于不同的时代，但他们的翻译理论却十分相似，从而引起许多争议。本文将系统阐述二人的翻译理论，从这两种理论的内涵、文化背景和理论基础等方面比较二者的相似点和不同点。这种做法有助于理清两个理论之间的关系，更好的将翻译理论应用于翻译实践，并主张我们辩证看待中西方翻译理论，从而使翻译研究更具有系统性与科学性。

===关键词===

信达雅；翻译三原则；严复；泰特勒

===1. Introduction===

In the history of translation, many outstanding scholars and translators have emerged both in China and in the West. They have never stopped discussing translation, and most of them have systematically summarized translation standards (Xu Baoqiang & Yuan Wei 2001, 162). In ancient China, many translation thoughts and translation theories emerged, including Shi Daoan’s “Five Instances of Losing the Source and Three Instances of Difficulties” and Xuan Zang’s “Five Guidelines for Not-Translation a Term” (Martha P.Y. Cheung, 2006). Later, Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” appeared successively. Prominent representatives of Western translation theory include five elements of translation put forward by a French linguist Etienne Dolet in the 16th century, seven rules of translation put forward by a German translation theorist Martin Luther, three principles of translation by a British translation theorist Tytler in the 18th century, semantic translation and communicative translation of Newmark in the 20th century, and the dynamic equivalence of Nida (Tan Zaixi 2004, 213).

In this process, Chinese and Western translation theories developed independently in a relatively isolated state. It was not until about the beginning of the 20th century that initial exchanges and dialogues have begun. Translation standards are the core issue of translation theory and practice. At the beginning of the exchange, the translators were concerned about it (Ren Qingliang & Deng Jingjing 2016, 201). At the end of the 18th century, Tytler proposed three basic principles for translation and evaluation of translation, which had a great impact on later translation theorists. More than 100 years later, Yan Fu’s translation standard of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” was put forward (Di Dongrui 2012, 132). This chapter will discuss two representative translation theories from China and the West — Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s "Three Principles of Translation", and analyze the two theories from the historical and cultural background and their theoretical basis. Through comparison, we can grasp the similarities and differences between the two theories, so as to contribute to translation studies and guide future translation practices.

===2. An Overview of the Two Theories===

Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s "Three Principles of Translation" have had a profound impact on the history of translation at home and abroad. If we compare and analyze the two theories, we must first correctly understand the connotation of each theory.

====2.1 Yan Fu’s "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance"====

Yan Fu was a Chinese scholar and translator, most famous for introducing western ideas. His three translation principles—faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance first made its appearance in Yan’s preface to his own translation of T. H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'' (Liu Miqing 2012, 1).

“Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness (''xin''), expressiveness (''da'') and elegance (''ya''). Faithfulness is difficult to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive, or fluent, is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance. Since China’s opening to foreign trade by Shipping, there has been no lack of interpreters and translators. But if you assign them any book to translate and tell them to meet these two requirements, few can do so.” (Luo Xinzhang & Chen Yingnian 2009, 202)

In his words, the three principles indicate that the translator should be faithful in conveying the message of the original text, fluent in the expression in the target language and elegant in style. Faithfulness emphasizes the fidelity to the original. Yan believes that the translator cannot begin his work until he has mastered the connotation of the original text. Expressiveness stresses the fluency and acceptability of the translation. As for elegance, Yan holds that dictation without elegance cannot reach far. So far, elegance has led some discussions in the study of translation. (Fan Yun 2007, 97)

Based on his understanding of ancient Buddhist Scriptures translation and his own translation practices, Yan Fu put forward “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” which has become the fundamental tenets of 20th Chinese translation theory. (Liu Miqing 2012, 1)

====2.2 Tytler’s "Three Principles of Translation"====

Alexander Fraser Tytler is an eminent British translation theorist. In 1790, he proposed three principles of good translation in his book, ''Essay on the Principles of Translation''. When it comes to a good translation, he described that the merit of the original work is so completely transfused into another language, as to be as distinctly apprehended, and as strongly felt by a native of the country to which that language belongs, as it is by those who speak the language of the original work (Tytler 2007, 8-9).

According to his description of good translation, it can be easily seen that Tytler has attached great importance to mastery of ideas in the original texts. Therefore, he put forward three principles on the basis of good translation: (1) That the Translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; (2) That the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original; (3) That the Translation should have all the ease of original (Tytler 2007, 9).

The first principle is that the translation should be faithful to the content and ideas of the original. The second principle is that the translation should be faithful to the form and style of the original. The faithfulness to the style is not limited to the equivalence of the original style or subject, but consistent with the original author’s personal writing style and the background of the corresponding period. The third principle is to emphasize that the translation should be as natural and smooth as the original writing do. From Tytler’s point of view, the order of these three principles is appropriate and natural, and it is arranged by importance. If translating a text, one cannot pursue the smoothness and elegance at the cost of ignoring the ideas in the source language. (Ren Qingliang & Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)

The appearance of Tytler’s "Three Principles of Translation" laid a good foundation for Western translation studies. And it is not only a very important milestone in the history of British translation theory, but also the entire history of Western translation theory. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 132)

===3. The Social and Theoretical Background of the Two Theories===

Due to the rapid development of social production, the increasing prosperity of the economy and the increasing number of educated people, more and more people have demands for reading, writing and translation (Tan Zaixi 2004, 84).

====3.1 The Social Background====

The emergence of new theories is often related to the prevailing translation practice at that time. Tytler lived in the 18th century. The rise of the industrial revolution and the further development of modern technology have highlighted the importance of translation, especially the demand for scientific and technological translation, which has increased dramatically during this period. In addition, Renaissance and classicism occupy the main position in the literary field, which also played a role in promoting the development of translation activities. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132)

Yan Fu had a solid foundation in Chinese when he was young and then he learned from Wu Rulun, a master of the Tongcheng School, acquiring a rich knowledge of ancient Chinese. In 1877, Yan Fu studied in the United Kingdom to delve deeply into the Western society, and began to come into contact with some important Western classics (Chen Fukang 2010, 91). As a result, profound research on Chinese and Western culture and language has laid a good foundation for Yan Fu’s translation career.

At the end of the 19th century, China suffered from internal and external troubles. The Sino-Japanese War of 1894 to 1895 was an important turning point to Yan Fu. He realized that the backwardness of China included political, economic, social and ideological factors, so that he believed that learning from the West could help the country get rid of the predicament. The political purpose of Yan Fu’s translation was quite clear. He wanted to arm the minds of scholar-officials. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91)

In addition, A large number of people with lofty ideals realized that the only way to save the country was to learn advanced political ideas, economic systems and democratic ideas from the West. Under this circumstance, translation may be the best way to bring those to China, which also promoted the second translation climax in the history of our country. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132)

====3.2 The Theoretical Background====

Both “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and "Three Principles of Translation" were proposed on the basis of other translation theories or thoughts (Di Dongrui 2012, 132). In other words, Yan Fu and Tytler learned from their predecessors and put forward their ideas.

Like many translation theories in the 18th century, Tytler’ s "Three Principles of Translation" was influenced by some ideas from outstanding translation theorists. Etienne Dolet, a French linguist and translation theorist, proposed translation principles in ''La manière de bien traduired d’une langue en autre'' in 1540: The translator must fully understand the content of the original text; the translator must be proficient in both the source language and the target language; the translator must avoid translating word by word, because word-by-word translation is detrimental to convey the original meaning and aesthetic value; the translator must use popular language form; the translator must make the translation produce the appropriate effect by choosing proper words and adjusting the order of them. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 70-71)

John Dryden was a prominent translator in the 17th century and he put forward a number of translation principles and views. From his perspective, translation is an art; translators should master the characteristics of the original; target readers should be taken into consideration; translators need to absolutely follow the original meaning; translation can be divided into three types—metaphrase, paraphrase and imitation (Tan Zaixi 2004, 120-122). It is easy to find that Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation can be partially derived from his theories.

“Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is also not new. The basis of it can date back to the Three Kingdom Period. During the Qing Dynasty, there was another translation theorist, Ma Jianzhong, who was ignored by the public. Before Yan Fu’s translation principles made its first appearance, Ma Jianzhong put forward three requirements for good translations in ''On the Establishment of Translation Academy'': The translator is proficient in foreign languages and Chinese, and knows the similarities and differences between the two languages; the translator should fully understand the meaning, spirit and style of the original text and express these accurately in the translation; there should be no difference between the translation and the original text. That is, the translation and the original are the same. (Chen Fukang 2010, 77-78)

It is shown that Ma Jianzhong sets a high demand for translators which can be summarized by “faithfulness” (''xin''). This word includes not only the faithfulness to the original text and the translation, but also the consistency in style and spirit. Therefore, compared with Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, Ma Jianzhong’s requirements are more comprehensive. However, his translation theory is not as influential as Yan Fu’ principles. Generally, speaking, there are two reasons. One is that Ma is a grammarian, not a translator. The other is that he did not do any translation practice. (Fan Yun 2007, 98)

From the analysis and comparison of Tyler's and Yan Fu’s social and theoretical background, we can see that both of them are affected by political, economic, cultural and other factors. And both of them were influenced by the previous translation theories and put forward their theories similar to the previous ones. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132)

===4. Similarities and Differences Between the Two Theories===

====4.1 Similarities====

Although Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s "Three Principles of Translation" were not put forward during the same era, the two theories could be found some common ground (Di Dongrui 2012, 132).

By comparing the content of the two theories, three similarities can be found. Firstly, both Yan Fu and Tytler emphasize the importance of faithfulness, namely the fidelity to the original. From their perspectives, it is necessary to convey the meaning or ideas of the original text. They both agree that a translator should put faithfulness first. Secondly, both Yan Fu and Tytler stress the importance of fluency and acceptability of translation. Yan believes that a translation which is faithful but not expressive is no translation at all. And in the third principle of Tytler’s theory, all the ease of the original text is highlighted which refers to the translation should be natural, fluent and readable. In other words, translators need to regard their translating process as a re-creating one. It requires that they not only convey the ideas of the original but also make their words smooth and readable. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132)

====4.2 Differences====

Both Chinese and Western translation theories have a long history. At the very beginning, they almost developed independently. It was not until the early 20th century that the two theories began to communicate. As the focus of translation theory research, translation standards have attracted many scholars at the beginning of their exchanges. Some scholars believe that Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is extracted from Ttyler’s “Three Principles of Translation”, which is a copy of Ttyler’s translation theory (Luo Xinzhang 1984, 681-687). In fact, there are indeed similarities between the two theories literally. But a deeper look will present the difference between the two.

=====4.2.1 Differences in Content=====

In the previous chapter, we have discussed the similarities literally in terms of the content. However, the two theories are not quite similar. First of all, the most prominent characteristic of Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is the semantic vagueness (Liu Junbiao 2009, 221). He did not clearly define the three. If “faithfulness” includes the style of the work, the word ''xin'' can cover all the content of Tytler’s "Three Principles of Translation". In Yan Fu’s opinion, “faithfulness” is the core, and achieving the principles of “expressiveness” and “elegance” is on the basis of the core. As for Tytler’s "Three Principles of Translation", although they are arranged by importance, the principles are not presented to tell which one is the most important (Di Dongrui 2012, 132).

Yan Fu’s “faithfulness” and Tytler’s first principle focus on different scopes. According to Yan Fu’s point of view, the translator should accurately reproduce the ideas of the original work, and he also emphasizes the important role of understanding. But Tytler’s “that the Translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work” (Tytler 2007, 9) discusses the fidelity from three aspects: meaning, form and language. (Di Dongrui 2012, 133)

In addition, the main difference between their translation principles is the translation technique and style (Fan Yun 2007, 97). Tytler’s second principle and Yan Fu’s “elegance” both discuss this issue. In Yan Fu’s opinion, “elegance” refers to use elegant words, especially the words before the Han Dynasty. This is a special method used by Yan Fu in a specific historical period to attract specific target readers and achieve specific translation purposes. The “elegance” explained by later generations is equivalent to “consistency in technique and style”, which has actually deviated from Yan Fu’s original intention. But Tytler’s “style and manner of writing” refers to a broad sense. He believes that an outstanding translator should be able to quickly identify the characteristics of the original author’s writing style and apply this style to his translation. In other words, the translation should correspond to what kind of writing style the original work is. (Tytler 2007, 9)

=====4.2.2 Differences in Cultural Origin=====

Yan Fu and Tytler are in different cultural backgrounds, and the formation of their theories have their own cultural characteristics.

It is believed that Yan Fu’s theory of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is deeply rooted in traditional Chinese cultural origin. As we all know, Chinese translation has a long history, and the discussion of translation standards has been recorded in Zhi Qian’s ''Preface to the Translation of he Dharmapada''(''Faju jing xu''). He emphasized that although Jiangyan (将炎) was good at the language of India, he was not necessarily versed in Chinese. Thus, in his translations there were either Sanskrit expressions literally rendered or simply literal transliterations. (Martha P.Y. Cheung 2006, 57)

Zhi Qian used to dislike Jiangyan’s work for lack of elegance. Weidinan (维祗难) argued that the translation of Buddha’s words should be adherent to the meaning, disregarding rhetoric, and we should retain its Dharma, free of rigidity. Those who translate should stress on transparency without losing the original meaning, hence good translations. Laozi said that beautiful words are not faithful and faithful words are not beautiful. And Confucius believed that words fail a book and senses fail a form. What a saint said is the profound of the profoundest. Therefore, Zhi Qian argued that when translating sutras, we should follow the original import without using ornate words. (Martha P.Y. Cheung 2006, 59-60)

It can be seen from the above that traditional Chinese translation theories often appear in the form of prefaces, which are relatively fragmented and conforms to the characteristics of Chinese people’s emphasis on perceptual thinking rather than rational analysis, and personal perception rather than logical reasoning (Ren Qingliang & Deng Jingjing 2016, 202). In addition, it can prove that Yan Fu’s translation principles are not new but put forward on the basis of some thoughts from the ancients. We can see that theories similar to “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” have appeared in the past.

Chinese translation theory is closely related to the words of sages and classic literary theory so that translation theorists often use the words of the ancients to make arguments or the aesthetic standards in literary theory to evaluate good translations. On the one hand, it embodies the inheritance of classical translation theory which advocated the ancients, and on the other hand it reflects the profound literary tradition of classical translation theory. It can be seen that the principles were put forward by Yan Fu in the preface to his own translation of T. H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'', which is consistent with the traditional Chinese tendency to place important points in the preface. In the era when Yan Fu lived, people greatly respected the words of the ancients. The language of Yan Fu’s translation theory is as concise as the traditional literary theory, and the connotation is profound. It often brings endless speculation for future generations with uncertain meaning. (Ren Qingliang & Deng Jingjing 2016, 202)

Different from the Chinese cultural accumulation carried by Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, western translation theories pay much attention to the inherent continuity (Ren Qingliang & Deng Jingjing 2016, 202). In western culture, people emphasize rigorousness in language so that they treat translation as rigorously as science. Scholars have studied on translation standards for a long time and their generalization of standards is much more systematic (Zhao Meiguo 2011, 203).

Eticnne Dolet was the relatively early one who summarized the translation standards systematically. He put forward four principles of a successful translation. Then came Martin Luther’s “Seven Principles for Translation”. An in the 18th century, Charles Batteux, a French translation theorist, put forward twelve rules in ''Principes de littérature'' for dealing with issues such as word order in translation. Compared with the 17th century, although some achievements have been made in the study of translation theory in the 18th century, substantial progress has not been made and some research just focused on the theory of Dryden in the 17th century. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 127)

However, at the end of the 18th century, there was a breakthrough in the history of translation theory. Theoretical research was no longer limited to scattered viewpoints and methods, and monographs on translation issues have begun to appear comprehensively, scientifically and systematically. The first to bring this breakthrough was the translation theorist George Campbell (Tan Zaixi 2004, 127). Before Tytler’s "Three Principles of Translation" appeared, he had put forward the three principles of translation for the first time: translation should accurately reproduce the meaning of the original work; on the premise of conforming to the characteristics of the target language, translation should try to transplant the spirit and style of the original author as much as possible; the translator should make the translation as natural and smooth as the original. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 128)

From the discussion of translation standards by many translation theorists above, we can see that Western translation theories are rigorous in thinking and clear in expression as a whole. They represent a unique academic spirit and character, which deeply reflects the inherent continuity of their thinking and methodology of Western translation theories (Zhao Meiguo 2011, 203). According to the previous discussion, it can be found that there is an obvious relationship between Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation and Dryden’s translation theories. The two theories from Yan Fu and Tytler are from different cultures, featuring Chinese and Western signs respectively.

=====4.2.3 Differences in Thinking Patterns=====

Translation itself is a complex practical activity, and it has a close relation with the way of thinking. The huge differences between Chinese and Western historical and cultural traditions and thinking habits are reflected in language that has such characteristics: Chinese people pay attention to understanding in the way of expression, focusing on grasping things through intuitive understanding of the whole. Chinese are not as good at logical reasoning and experimental argumentation as Westerners. (Ren Qingliang & Deng Jingjing 2016, 202)

The consciousness of subject and object has always been prominent in western thought (Zhao Meiguo 2011, 203). Tytler’s framework of his principles tends to be rational and aims to seek the truth, while Yan Fu’s framework tends to be perceptual and aims to be practical. In the historical context of the Enlightenment, Tytler inherited rationalism of the European continent, thus his three principles of translation all reflected the speculative, logical and systematic nature of philosophy. When he discussed the three principles of translation, they were clear, progressive, and well-organized, but they were too fragmented, ignoring the internal connection. (Di Dongrui 2012, 133)

When it comes to Yan Fu’s proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, although it refers to three simple words in Chinese, it condenses the traditional Chinese doctrine of the golden mean and profoundly embodies the influence of traditional culture on the research of translation theory (Zhao Meiguo 2011, 203). Compared with Western translation theories, Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” includes more humanistic spirit and pays more attention to humanistic care. Although Yan Fu’s translation theory lacks logic, organization and system, its refined and implicit artistic conception bring endless imagination for future generations. If people want to understand “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” comprehensively, it is necessary to have an understanding of the thoughts from our ancestors. (Liu Junbiao 2009, 221)

=====4.2.4 Differences in Motivations=====

When it comes to their motivation, the times where Yan Fu and Tytler lived have a huge impact on their translation studies. Tytler was in a relatively comfortable environment, and the society at that time was relatively relaxed and free, making it possible for him to learn for the sake of academics. Tytler put forward the three principles of translation only for theoretical research, not for practical purposes. (Ren Qingliang & Deng Jingjing 2016, 203)

However, Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” came from the enthusiasm of waking up the world and saving the country. The old China where Yan Fu lived suffered from internal and external troubles. The social and historical environment enabled him to spread Western learning through translation. The works translated by Yan Fu were all Western classics. They either promoted natural selection, survival of the fittest, or explained human rights, democracy and freedom. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91)

Undoubtedly, reading Yan Fu’s translations became a major way for Chinese intellectuals and even the whole society to learn the development of the world. The target readers of these translations were the increasingly decadent feudal ruling class and intellectuals. Feudal thoughts were deeply ingrained in their minds, and they could not immediately accept the advanced thoughts of the West. As a translator, Yan Fu put forward the standards of Faithfulness Expressiveness and Elegance on the basis of summarizing traditional Chinese translation theories. He used the language of Han and Tang dynasties to promote the Western democracy, so as to make the feudal scholar-officials easy to accept. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91) It can be seen that “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” reflects Yan Fu’s desire to save the country and his awareness of difficulties and risks.

In addition, a misunderstanding should be mentioned. After Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” made its first appearance, many scholars gave it various titles such as translation principles, translation standards and translation norms. As a matter of fact, Yan Fu did not describe it as standards or norms. He only realized that there were three requirements difficult to fulfill from his own translation practice. In his opinion, the difficulties of translating were also the ''dao'' (道) of problem-solving (Liu Miqing 2012, 1). Therefore，Yan’s ''dao'' of translation was expressed by “translation principles” in the West. To a certain extent, people tended to regard Yan Fu’s propositions as translation standards, thus deviating from Yan Fu’s motivation.

In short, by comparing the content, cultural origins, thinking and motivation of the two theories, we can see that Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s "Three Principles of Translation" are quite different. In other words, although the two theories are very similar in terms of forms, they are quite different in essence.

===5. Significance of the Comparison===

Generally speaking, different translation principles are essentially the same for they are all determined by the nature of translation (Fan Yun 2007, 98). In a broad sense, translation is a bridge for international communication. It involves the source language and the target language or the original text and the translated text. No one can deny the extraordinary contribution of translation in exchanging ideas, spreading knowledge, and enhancing intercultural communication. As an ancient activity, translation has a history of more than 3,000 years in China and has been popular in the West for more than 2,000 years (Tan Zaixi 2004, 2). Although the translation principles put forward by translators and translation theorists seem to be different, they are essentially the same and cannot be mentioned without translation itself. (Fan Yun 2007, 98)

Through comparison, we can realize the characteristics and development of their translation principles respectively. The Chinese and Western translation principles are the same on the macro level, but different on the micro level. The differences are mainly determined by the characteristics of the Chinese and Western languages and do not reflect the subjective wishes of people. Both the traditional Chinese and Western translation theories focus on faithfulness or truth. They are based on the original texts, and at the same time do not neglect the reception of the readers and the artistic and aesthetic value of the translated texts. (Di Dongrui 2012, 133)

Through the analysis between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s theories and their development, we can know that Chinese and Western translation principles present a diversified pattern of development, but the West seems to be more open in terms of research ideas and academic view. Western theorists place translation in the multi-dimensional space between the original text and the target text, and they are good at analyzing from different perspectives. What’s more, Western theorists have comparatively strong awareness in theory. Any research is carried out under the guidance of a certain theory, making full use of the achievements of related subjects to make translation principles and research methods become truly diversified. (Ren Qingliang & Deng Jingjing 2016, 203) Therefore, the achievements of translation research in the West are more fruitful.

However, we must learn from each other. In fact, there is no gap between Chinese and Western translation theories. Although the study of translation theory in the West is earlier than that in China (Tan Zaixi 2004, 1), we should not belittle ourselves. The development environment of Chinese and Western theories is different so that the theories put forward are definitely different. Through comparison, we can grasp advanced Western theories, and with Western theories as a reference, we can avoid detours and make progress in Chinese translation theories.

===Conclusion===

This chapter compares the similarities and differences between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s theories by reviewing the theories of them and pointing out social and theoretical backgrounds of their theories. The translation theory is often closely related to cultural background, theoretical background and way of thinking. From the above analysis, it can be seen that Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation are different in specific content, cultural origin, theoretical basis, way of thinking and motivation. If these differences are not analyzed and pointed out, it is easy to think that the two theories are roughly the same.

The comparison between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s translation principles gives us the following enlightenment: When studying Chinese and Western translation theories, we must correctly understand the advantages and limitations of traditional Chinese translation theories, and we cannot ignore the achievements of other countries. We should actively absorb the achievements of western translation theories on the basis of developing the traditional Chinese translation theories to make contributions to the translation studies.

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== Comparison between Nida and Newmark 李丽丽 Li Lili NO.202070080594 专业：英语笔译==

===Abstract===

Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark are famous representatives of the Western linguists. Their translation theories are based on linguistics. Nida puts forward the famous "dynamic equivalence" theory and "functional equivalence" theory, which has made outstanding contributions to the translation of the Bible. Newmark devotes himself to teaching and puts forward some famous theories such as semantic translation, communicative translation and relevance translation. Their translation theories have many similarities and differences. This paper will make a systematic comparison from the same and different points and represent my own views on their advantages and disadvantages.

===Key words===

Nida; Newmark; similarities; differences

===摘要===

尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是著名的语言学家。他们的翻译理论建立在语言学的基础上，奈达提出了著名了“动态对等”理论和“功能对等”理论，为翻译《圣经》做出了杰出贡献。纽马克一声致力于教学工作，由此提出了著名的“语义翻译”，“交际翻译”，“关联翻译”等理论。他们的翻译理论有诸多相同之处和不同之处。本论文将从相同以及不同之处来进行系统综合的比较，并就其优缺点提出自己的看法。

===关键词===

奈达；纽马克；相同；不同

===Introduction===

====Eugene Nida====

Eugene Nida is a famous American linguist, a biblical research and a translation expert, as well as one of the outstanding representatives of the western contemporary translation theory research center. Nida's academic activities and achievements are multifaceted, but Nida's main theoretical contribution is that he helps to create a new attitude towards different languages and cultures, so as to improve the language communication and understanding among human beings. （Liao Qiyi 2000，85）

He thinks that what can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another. Different languages and cultures can communicate with each other by searching for translation equivalents and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of information in an appropriate way. With the help of linguistic achievements, Nida has made a descriptive rather than a normative study of various subjects in translation studies, and made a serious discussion on the problems that may be encountered in the theoretical research and practice of translation. His thoughts can be roughly divided into three stages: first， descriptive linguistics; second, communicative theory; third, social semiotics.（Liao Qiyi 2000，85）

=====The Stage of Descriptive Linguistics=====

At this stage, Nida publishes a series of works and articles on the study of English syntax and gramma. Besides, he tries to clarify the structural nature of language through the description of syntax, morphology and language translation. He is greatly influenced by the American structuralist school. In language research, he attaches much importance to the collection and analysis of language materials and collects many examples of differences between different languages. However, he does not regard these differences as insurmountable barriers between languages, but as different phenomena of their same nature. （Liao Qiyi 2000，86）

=====The Stage of Communication Theory =====

Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill, but also a science. Its so-called science refers to the scientific way to deal with language structure, semantic analysis and information when there are problems in translation. Nida applies information theory to translation studies and believes that translation is communication and judgment. Whether a translation activity is successful or not depends on whether it is understood by the receiver or whether it can play the role of communicating thoughts, information and feelings. Nida points out all languages in the world have the same ability of expression and that the first task of translation is to make the readers understand the translation clearly. （Liao Qiyi 2000，87）

That is to say, the translation should be fluent and natural, so that readers can easily understand it even if they do not have the cultural background knowledge of the original language. This requires that in the process of translation, we should use as few rigid words in the source language as possible and use as many expressions as possible coming from the target language. For example, in the language without snow, “白如雪” may be confusing, so we had better change it into something as white as frost or as white as egret hair. （Liao Qiyi 2000，87）

According to Nida, “dynamic equivalence” refers to “the closest natural equivalence to the source language message” (Tan Zaixi 1984,10). Nida thinks that the response made by the target language receptor to the target text should generally be equivalent to the response made by the source language receptor to the source text, so when the translators cannot retain both the form and the content of the original text, they should give priority to the content of the original text and change the form of the source text. （Liao Qiyi 2000，88）

And in response to questions like how and what degree the translator can change the form of the original text, Nida then points out that in translation, there are four aspects in dynamic equivalence, namely, lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence respectively. If a translator can convey the language form, the content and the style of the source text in natural target language, and make the target readers have the same response to the target text as the source language made to the original text, then his translation can be said to have achieved the maximal equivalence. （Liao Qiyi 2000，88）

For example, “black tea” can be literally translated into “黑茶”，but it should be translated into“红茶”to achieve equivalence. Another example: “The old man was the worst form of unluck.” because “worst form” is used to modify “unluck”, it can be translated into “这个老人倒霉到了极点。” instead of “这个老人是倒霉的最高形式。” Such examples achieve lexical equivalence.

=====The Stage of Social Semiotics=====

At this stage, he describes his theory as follows: first, based on the translation theory of social semiotics, he emphasizes that everything in the text has meaning, including language form, which means form cannot be easily overlooked; second, rhetorical features of language play an important role in language communication and should not be underestimated; third, it is to replace the dynamic equivalence theory with the functional equivalence theory in order to make the meaning of the terms clearer and easier to be understood.（Liu Junping 2009,143）

====Newmark====

Peter Newmark is a famous translation theorist and educator in Britain. He has devoted his whole life to the teaching of translation between English and German or English and French. He has made a lot of research on translation theory, applied the research results of cross-cultural communication theory and modern linguistics to translation practice, and made a brilliant exposition on translation theory, teaching translation, linguistics and translation skills. As a result, he puts forward the famous communicative translation and semantic translation method, and then puts forward the correlative translation method, which indicates that his translation theory is becoming more and more systematic and perfect. （Liao Qiyi 2000，123）

Most of his views are reflected in the papers published in the past 20 years. Communicative translation and semantic translation theories, which have a great influence in the field of translation, were introduced into China as early as the 1980s and have aroused great repercussions in the fields of Chinese translation. He focuses on the past and present of western translation studies, states the views of various schools, and then puts forward his own opinions. He is a typical practical theorist. The purpose of his research on translation theory is to solve the practical problems in translation, and he always discusses translation from the details. （Liao Qiyi 2000，123-124）

The classic Romance of the Three Kingdoms writes: “谋事在人，成事在天”. There are two versions for this sentence, which are "man proposals, heaven disposes." and "man proposals, God disposes." Although the translated versions are short, they fully reflect the different translation strategies of translators. In Chinese traditional culture, "heaven" dominates the nature, while in the western world, what controls nature is not heaven, but God. Therefore, different cultural concepts are deeply rooted in the hearts of people in the East and the West. (Hu Aiping 2014,81)

In the first version, the translator translates "天" into "heaven", which faithfully retains the Taoist concept of the original language culture and conveys the meaning of the original text; while the later translation transforms the Taoist concept into Christian culture familiar to westerners on the basis of "communicative translation" strategy, so that the translated version is more acceptable to western readers. (Hu Aiping 2014,81)

For another example ”grandmother”, when it is translated into Chinese, we can put it into”奶奶” or “外婆” according to real situation. That is because people in western culture do not pay much attention to relationship between family members. And they view father’s mother and mother’s mother as the same. By contrast, Chinese have long held the view that families are quite important, especially those sharing the same surname. We often suppose we come from the same family with “奶奶” rather than “外婆”. As a result, we tend to believe that we have a more intimate relationship with father’s mother than mother’s mother. So we need to distinguish “奶奶” from “外婆”.

===Similarities and Differences===

====The Similarities Between the Theories by Nida and the Theories by Newmark====

=====Both Are Translatable=====

Nida believes that "translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning, and secondly in terms of style. " (Nida 1969,1）Newmark thinks that: "translation is to take the meaning of a text into another language according to its original author." (Newmark 1988,21) Nida's and Newmark's translation theories have similar theoretical basis, and they both think that there are similarities between different languages. Nida's translation theory is "Anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another Language. " (Nida 1969,4）He believes that although different nationalities have different languages and cultures, yet the commonness is more than the individuality. Because language of any nation can be used to describe the objective world. No matter what the language form is, the object can be basically reflected. (Lin Minyu 2008,61)

In his "About Translation" , Newmark also points out clearly that “the every layer of meaning can be interpreted in the original text, so everything is translatable. “(Newmark 1991,28）Therefore, both Nida and Newmark recognize translatability in different languages. At the same time, they both realize that translatability is limited because it is impossible to achieve absolute equivalence. In the process of translation, a certain degree of meaning will be missing, so one of the most important tasks of the translators is to minimize the loss after language conversion. (Lin Minyu 2008,61)

=====Both Attach Great Importance to the Target Receptor’s Status=====

Newmark's text category theory divides the text into three categories. Among them, the appealing text thinks readers are the most important, putting readers in the first place, and taking full account of readers' needs, knowledge level and background. Newmark also divides readers into experts, ordinary educators and illiterates. Nida, on the other hand, believes that the success of a translation activity depends on whether it can be accepted by the target readers. The target readers are object of translation services. Nida also divides readers into children readers, primary readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)

For example, for the phrase“鱼米之乡，丝绸之府”, when translated into “the land of rice and fish, and the home of silk”, it may cause confusion among western readers who have no idea what is the meaning of “the land of rice and milk”. Therefore, in order to arouse the similar reaction between the target readers and the original readers, it is better for the translators to change it as follows: "a land of honey and milk", which is in line with British and American culture. In this way, western readers and Chinese readers will be able to respond to the phrase in the same way, so as to achieve the purpose of conversion. (Yang Shanqing, Rao Jialin 2010(1),41-)

Another example: “济公劫富济贫，深受穷苦人民爱戴。” It is translated into" Ji Gong, Robin Hood in China, robbed the rich and helped the poor and was deeply loved by the poor people". In this case, the translator compares Ji Gong to the hero Robin Hood in western countries. When western readers see Robin Hood, they would have roughly the same reaction as Chinese readers. (Yang Shanqing, Rao Jialin 2010(1),41-42)

=====Both Constantly Develop Their Theories=====

Nida and Newmark are real theorists. In their own translation practice, they constantly improve and perfect their own theories. In his initial interpretation of dynamic equivalence, Nida highlights the idea of "content first, form second". This has caused people's misunderstanding so that they think translation is only the content of translation, without considering the form of language expression. Therefore, all kinds of free translation are characterized by dynamic equivalence. Later, in his book From One Language to Another, he changes "dynamic equivalence" into "functional equivalence". In functional equivalence, Nida further defines "information", stating that information includes not only ideological content but also linguistic form. The translation of functional equivalence is not only the equivalence of information content, but also the equivalence of form as much as possible. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),108)

What’s more, Nida makes a further elaboration on "functional equivalence" and hence "the highest level of equivalence" and "the lowest level of equivalence" are proposed. In short, the highest level of equivalence refers to a high degree of equivalence in the translation, which makes the response of the target language readers and that of the source language readers basically the same when they appreciate and understand a text. But this is almost impossible. Equivalence at the lowest level refers to the full equivalence of the translated text, so that the target language readers can appreciate the source language readers' understanding for the original text. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),108)

Newmark's semantic translation and communicative translation are prone to bringing misunderstanding and criticism. Therefore, Newmark later puts forward "correlative translation". In the past, he believed that language, linguistics and text typology were the main themes of text study. It does not need to always consider the text, discourse, author, reader, source language and target language. （Fang Mengzhi 2011, 534）

But by summarizing the translation activities, he finds that translation is mainly reflected in the details of the text processing, that is, when the text is adjusted and changed, there will be under translation. If the metaphor is converted or not translated, there will be over translation. So the method of translation should not only depend on the whole text. The definition of "correlative translation" is that the more important the language of the original text or the target text is, the more closely it should be translated.（Fang Mengzhi 2011, 534）

====The Differences Between the Theories by Nida and the Theories by Newmark====

=====Different Definition of Translation=====

Translation, as an independent discipline, should first answer the question of what is translation? Nida points out: "the so-called translation refers to the reproduction of the source language information in the receiving language with the most appropriate and natural equivalence from semantics to style" (Nida, 1969:1). Newmark's interpretation of translation is: "translation is to translate the meaning of a text into another language in the way the original author intends. " (Newmark, 1988:21) After comparing the two definitions, it can be seen that Nida emphasizes "equivalence", "information", "meaning" and "style", while Newmark focuses on "meaning" and "text". （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）

Nida's definition seems to be more comprehensive and specific than Newmark's, but throughout their theoretical systems, we realize that the actual starting point of the two definitions is different. On the basis of semantics and information theory, the former emphasizes the communicative function of translation. Although "information" includes "meaning" and "style", it only exists at the level of communication. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）

On the contrary, the latter emphasizes "textual meaning", which is complex, multi-level and rich. Therefore, it can be said that "text-oriented theory" is the pillar of Newmark's translation theory framework, while Nida's theory is "functional equivalence" at its root. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）

=====Different Nature of Translation=====

The nature of translation has been long discussed. Both Nida and Newmark have changed in their understanding of whether translation is a science or an art. Nida's understanding of translation has gone through a process from regarding translation as a science to viewing it as an art. In the second stage of Nida's translation theory- communicative theory stage, translation is a science, which is a scientific description of translation. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88)

At the same time, he also admits that the description of translation can be carried out at three functional levels: science, skill and art. In the third stage of Nida's translation, that is, the stage of social semiotics, he tends to see translation as an art. He believes that translation is an art at its root, and excellent translators are born with it. Meanwhile, he changes the original "translation is science" into "translation research is science". In the 1990s, he proposed that translation is basically a skill. He believes that translation is not only an art, but also a science and a skill. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88)

Newmark's understanding of translation has also undergone some kinds of changes. At first, he believes that translation is not only a science but also an art and a skill. Later, he thinks that translation is partly a science, a skill, an art. He divides language into standard language and non-standard language. He says that translation is a science, because there is usually only one correct translation method for standard language, and there are rules to follow, which shows that translation is scientific. This is really true in technical terms.（Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88)

By contrast, there are many correct translation methods in non-standard language. How to choose the appropriate translation method depends on the translator's own vision and ability, which reflects the nature of translation as an art. But the translation must also be scientifically tested to avoid obvious mistakes in content and wording, and the style should be natural. As a result, although Newmark believes that translation is a science, he thinks with a lack of unified and all-round systems in current translation theories, there are no scientific translation. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）

=====Different Translation Theories=====

The core of Nida's translation theory is equivalence theory, including formal equivalence and functional equivalence. Formal equivalence, with the source language as its center, requires to reproduce the form and content of the original text. The equivalence theory pays more attention to readers' reflection and requires the closest and most natural response in order to make the target readers and the original readers get the same information as much as possible. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)

The center of Newmark's translation theory is semantic translation and communicative translation. In his opinion, translators should adopt different translation strategies according to different types of texts. Semantic translation is mainly used to translate expressive texts (such as literary works, essays, autobiographies and personal letters). Communicative translation is mainly put into translating informative texts (such as academic papers and teaching subjects, books, newspapers, etc.) and appealing texts (such as advertisements and notices). (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)

Semantic translation, from the perspective of the original texts, demands the author pays attention to the meaning and form, and keeps the style and features of the original text as far as possible. Communicative translation takes the target readers as the starting point and focuses on the effect of the translation on the readers. As a result, appropriate rewriting or adaptation is allowed in the translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)

=====Application for Different Kinds of Text=====

Nida puts forward "formal equivalence" and "dynamic equivalence" in guiding the practice of Bible translation, but he really advocates the latter one and believes that dynamic equivalence is applicable to all text types. Nida's translation theory focuses too much on the intelligibility and communicability of the translation, which limits its application. It is reasonable to emphasize the intelligibility of the translated version in the translation of the Bible and similar original works aimed at expressing information. However, if it is used in literary translation, it will inevitably lead to the simplification of language and the loss of literary charm. So it has only been applied to some specific texts. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)

Newmark points out that the translation method should depend on different text types. He divides the text into expression function, information function and calling function. On the one hand, in the texts with expressive function, such as literary works and private letters, the priority is to express the meaning, and the form and content of language are equally important, so semantic translation should be mainly adopted. On the other hand, texts with information function, such as textbooks and academic papers, whose core is the real world outside the language, should adopt communicative approach; For texts with calling function, such as notices and advertisements, its core is to call on readers to act and think, so communicative approach should be put into use. Therefore, we can see that Newmark's translation theory is more applicable than Nida’s. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)

=====Different Attitudes towards Translators=====

When seeing translation as an art, Newmark puts forward the following three requirements that an brilliant translator should be equipped with: first, one should be able to master rich vocabulary and various sentence patterns, and be excellent in writing elegant, lively and concise articles in the aspect of native language; second, be proficient in foreign languages, and have abilities to distinguish common sayings from original ideas and innovations; third, be able to express the meaning obtained from the original works with accurate wording. Thus, Newmark believes that good translators can be developed through hard work. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 89）

However, Nida doesn’t agree with him. He thinks that most translators with outstanding achievements and creative spirit seldom use translation theory. In fact, he thinks that only those who can't do translation well do translation theory. Outstanding translators are born, not made. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 89）

=====Different Level of Emphasis on Readers' Response=====

Although Newmark thinks that readers' acceptance should be taken into account in the process of translating informative texts and appealing texts, but the reader is only a part of the translation criteria. During translating expressive texts, it is necessary to ensure the "sacred status of the original author", and different readers may have different understandings and reactions to a text because of their different educational level, mode of thinking and cultural background. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)

On the contrary, Nida believes that the reader's response is the only criterion to judge whether the translated version is good or not. This is because, from the perspective of information theory, he believes that "translation is communication". If the original information cannot be fully transmitted to the target text in the process of translation, the translation activity will not be successful. It can be seen that Nida pays more attention to reader response than Newmark. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)

===My Views on Their Theories===

Before the new translation principles were put forward, translation was mainly divided into literal translation and free translation. Functional equivalence theory by Nida and semantic translation and communicative translation strategies by Newmark have exerted great influence on the western translation circles. Their theories end the endless debate between literal translation and free translation in the west, and provide a new perspective for the guiding translation practice. (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 131 )

The principle of "dynamic equivalence" plays an important role in guiding the translation of the Bible. It can also be applied to the translation of some texts that mainly convey information. However, it overemphasizes the communicative nature of the translation, so it has certainly limitations. If applied to literary translation, it may lead to the loss of literariness. One of the defects of Nida's functional equivalence is that the translator not only changes the original information according to his own understanding, but also covers up the cultural differences between different languages. He equates translation with simple language conversion and blurs the cultural characteristics of language. (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 131)

For example, due to the different geographical locations between China and Britain, their monsoon and wind direction are not the same, and hence there are also differences between their translations. Chinese poems mainly praise east wind while English poems focus on west wind. For example, for “东风破早梅，向暖一枝开” and “小楼昨夜又东风，故国不堪回首月明中”, “东风” should be converted into “west wind” in order to achieve equivalence. (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 131)

Besides, the absence of culture-loaded words is another defect of functional equivalence. As we all know, the concepts expressed by culture-loaded words in the source language may not correspond to those in the target language because many English words are derived from religious allusions. In the sentence "John can be relieved on. He eats no fish and plays the game", “eat no fish “comes from the following allusion: in the era of Queen Elizabeth in England, in order to show their loyalty to the government, the Jesuits refused to abide by the anti-government Rome Catholics’ habit of eating fish on every Friday, so “eat no fish” means loyalty. " (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 132)

There are a lot of allusions from the Bible in English. But if you don't understand its symbolic meaning, you may be confused. For example: “thirty pieces of silver” means getting money from betraying others and “apple” means temptation. (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 132)

Newmark's greatest theoretical contribution is communicative translation and semantic translation, and he believes that all translation is both semantic translation and communicative translation to a certain extent, which makes up for the defects of Eugene Nida's theory. Newmark advocates that communicative translation and semantic translation should not be viewed in the same way, but should be combined together. Actually, during translating an article, the two are often used together. At the same time, determining the type of text before translation is helpful to select appropriate translation methods. (Newmark 2001, 40)

However, there are following limitations for his communicative translation: first, the translator has an imaginary reader in his mind. If he wants to conform to the readers’ expression habits, his expression will get out of the original form or meaning; second, it is difficult to determine to what extent basic information is simplified and emphasized, because the knowledge and emotion of readers are difficult to define; third, it is not objective to examine a text only through the readers’ reaction. (Newmark 2001, 40)

===Conclusion===

There is no universally applicable theory in the world. Nida and Newmark have been developing their own theories. We should treat them dialectically. It is undeniable that Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's semantic translation and communicative translation are very rich in content and have practical value for the majority of later translators. But we should also see the shortcomings of these theories. We should extract their essence and then we will further study and learn more valuable things in practice of translation and further improve our translation theory. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)

===References===

*Tam Jae-hee 谭载喜.(1984).''奈达论翻译'' [Nida on Translation] 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司 Beijing: [China Foreign Translation and Publishing Company]
*Liao Qiyi 廖七一.（2000). ''当代西方翻译理论探索''[Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory] 译林出版社[Translating Forest Press]
*Liu Junping 刘军平.（2009). ''西方翻译理论通史''[Translation and translation] 武汉：武汉大学出版社Wuhan: [Wuhan University Press]
**Fang Mengzhi 方梦之.（2011). ''中国译学大辞典'' [Dictionary of Chinese Translation] 上海：上海外语教育出版社 Shanghai: [Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 534
*Lin Min-yu 林敏煜.（2008). 浅议纽马克与奈达翻译理论之异同 [The similarities and differences between Newmark and Nadar translation theories] 文教资料[Journal of Translation and Education] 61-62
*Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 崔建周，卢静.（2006). 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较 [ A Comparison of the Translation Thought of Eugene Nadar and Peter Newmark ] 河南商业高等专科学校学报[Journal of Henan Higher Commercial College] 106-108
**Xu Xianghui 徐向晖.（2010). 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想之对比探讨[A Comparative Discussion of the Translation Thought of Eugene Nadar and Peter Newmark] 漯河职业技术学院学报[Journal of Luohe Institute of Vocational Technology] 88-89
*Yang Shanqing, Rao Jialin 杨山青，饶家林.（2010). 奈达与纽马克的翻译理论在旅游资料翻译中的运用[The Application of Neda and Newmark's Translation Theory in the Translation of Tourism Materials] 黔西南民族师范高等专科学校学报[Journal of Qianxi Southwest China's National Teachers College] 41-42
*Hu Aiping 胡爱萍.（2014). 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译理论对比研究[A comparative study of Eugene Neda and Peter Newmark's translation theory ] 铜陵学院学报 [Journal of Tongling College] 81
*Wang Xiaodan 王小丹.（2009). 奈达的功能对等论及其评价[Naida's functional equivalence theory and its evaluation] 陕西师范大学学报[Journal of Shaanxi Normal University ] 131-132
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*Eugene A. Nida. (1986). ''From One Language to Another'' Thomas Nelson Incorporated
*Eugene A. Nida. (1964). ''Towards a Science of Translating'' Leiden: E. J. Brill
*Eugene A. Nida, (1969). Charles Taber. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' Leiden: the Netherlands, E. J. Brill
*Peter Newmark. (1991). ''About Translation'' Clevedon: Multilingual Matters Ltd,
*Peter Newmark. (1988). ''A Text Book of Translation'' London: Prentice Hall International (UK)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 03:44, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==A Study On The Division Of Western Translation Theories - 刘柳 Liu Liu, 202070080596 MTI==

<center>刘柳 Liu Liu </center>

===Abstract===

Western transaltion theories have been paid more and more attention in modern times and will be of graet help and value to our translation practice and further development of transaltion.Western translation theories have a strict methodology, precise theoretical description, delicate and qualitative and quantitative analysis. Western translation studies have flourished with a variety of translation schools and outstanding translators after the World War Ⅱ, as well as a great many of translation thoughts, translation methods, and views of research.Based on this background, this paper discusses and analyzes a great number of schools of western translation theories, its representative translators and their representative works, and expresses opinions on the significance and value of western translation theories from a historical perspective.

===Keywords===

Western translation theories; translation schools; translation theorists

===题目===

西方翻译理论划分之研究

===摘要===

西方翻译理论在现代受到越来越多的关注，其对我们的翻译实践和翻译的进一步发展有很大的帮助和价值。西方翻译理论具有严谨的方法论、精确的理论描述、细腻的定性和定量分析。西方翻译研究在二战后蓬勃发展，出现了各种翻译流派和优秀的翻译家，也出现了大量的翻译思想、翻译方法和研究观点。本文基于此背景，讨论并分析了西方翻译理论诸多流派及其代表人物和代表译作，并从历史的角度对西方翻译理论的意义和价值陈述相关意见。

===关键词===

西方翻译理论; 翻译流派; 翻译理论家

===Ⅰ.Introduction===

Throughout the development of Western translation studies in the past 30 years, there are many transaltion schools and excellent translators. Western translation theorists had different points of view towards the division of western translation theories. Peter Newmark divided the development of translation theories by major translation activities. According to the development of translation thoughts, Nida divided western translation into philological translation, linguistic translation, communicative translation and socio-semantic translation.(Nida 1984, 9-15)

According to George Steiner, the study of Western translation theories has gone through four periods: 1) from classical translation theory to the publication of the "three principles of translation" by Tytler and Campbell at the end of the eighteenth century, 2) from Schleiermacher to the middle of the twentieth century, 3) from the post-war period to the 1970s, marked by the rise of the translation linguistics school, represented by Nida, Mounin and Catford, 4) from the 1970s to the present, marked by the emergence of new schools of thoughts and the flourishing of interdisciplinary research.

Liu Miqing basically adopts this classification method. Tan Zaixi divided western translation into six periods: 1) the beginning of the fourth century B.C., 2) from the late period of Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, 3) the Middle Ages, 4) the Renaissance, 5) the modern translation period, i.e., from the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, 6) from the period after World War II to the present. E. Gentzler divided modern translation theories into five schools based on translation thoughts, which is The American Translation Workshop, The Science of Translation, Early Translation Studies, Polysystem Theory and Deconstruction.

Western translation theories research realizes the transition from linguistics to literary, and to culture and science of international politics. Accordingly, the trend of translation research has changed from the source language text to target language text, from the prescriptive to the descriptive, and the status of target language text has changed from inferior to the source language text to be equal to it,and in the end, more important than the source language text, and the status of translator has changed from less important than the author of source language to play a decisive part in translation activities and so on.(Pan Wenguo, 2002)

Li Wenge analyzed and studied eight schools of translation, including the literary theory of translation, the linguistic school, the translation studies school, the Hermeneutics, the deconstruction, the American Translation Workshop, the French interpretive theory, etc. The literary theory of western translation includes: the literary theory of western translation before the 20th century, such as the literary theory of Russian translation, the literary theory of translation in the former Soviet Union, and the literary theory of western translation in the 20th century.

The linguistic school of translation includes the Prague School of Jakobson, the London School of Catford and Newmark, the American Structuralists of Quine, the Communicative Theory of Nida and Wilss, the German Functionalists translation theory of Nord, and the Soviet Linguistic School of Federov and Barkhudarov. The Translation Studies school includes the Early translation Studies school of Holmes, the Polysystem Theory of Even-Zohar, the Descriptive Translation Studies of Toury, the Cultural School of Lefevere and Bassenett, the Integrated School of Snell-Hornby, Feminism, "Cannibalism", and post-colonial translation studies.

The Hermeneutics includes two ways of translation of Schleiermacher, the hermeneutic model of translation of Steiner, and the hermeneutic view of understanding of Heidegger and Gadamer. The deconstruction of translation includes the idea of "différance" deconstruction translation of Derrida, the idea of "pure language" deconstruction translation of Benjamin, and the deconstruction translation strategy of Venuti. The American Translation Workshop includes the theoretical foundation of Translation Workshop of Richards, detailed translation theory of Pound, contradictory view of translation of Will.

The French interpretative theory includes the basic problems of interpretative theory, translation procedure, translation evaluation criteria, interpretative theory and translation teaching. From the ancient Roman Empire to the European Union, from the establishment of nation-states to the foundation of the United Nations, cultural (including philosophy, literature, art, science, technology, etc.) exchanges between countries and political and economic exchanges and communication have been increasingly expanded and strengthened through the participation of translators.(Tan Zaixi 2004,15)

===Ⅱ.The division of western translation theories===

====2.1 Translation in Ancient Times====

The history of Western translation started in the third century B.C. The translation activities in ancient Rome was the first great upsurge in the history of Western translation, with a distinctive literary character. In the late Roman Empire, religious translation gradually became the mainstream of the western translation. In a broad sense, the earliest western translation was the translation of ''Old Testament'', i.e. ''Septuagint'', which was translated by 72 Jewish scholars in Alexandria, Egypt, between the third and second century B.C.. Strictly speaking, the first western translation work was the Homer's Epic ''Odyssey'' translated in Latin by Andronicos in Rome around the middle of the third century B.C..(Tan Zaixi 1991, 4)

=====2.1.1 Marcuss Tullirs Cicero=====

The earliest theorist of translation in the West was Marcuss Tullirs Cicero in the Roman Empire. He first made a distinction between translation as interpreter and translation as orator. He wrote in Volume 5, Chapter 14 in ''De Optimo Genere Oratorum'', "...And I did not translate them as an interpreter, but as an orator, keeping the same ideas and the forms, or as one might say, the 'figures’of thought, but in language which conforms to our usage.And in so doing , I did not hold it necessary to render word for word, but I preserved the general style and force of the language. For I did not think I ought to count them out to the reader like coins, but to pay for them by weight, as it were.(Robinson 1997, 9)

Cicero viewed translation from the perspective of a rhetorician and an orator. Translation as interpreter is a translation without creativity, while a translation as orator is a translation that is creative and comparable to the source language text. In this way, Cicero set the seal on the two basic methods of translation, thus pioneered in the field of theory and methodology of translation studies. Subsequently, the history of western translation theories has developed centred on the issues of literal translation and free translation, word-by-word translation and flexible translation, faithfulness and unfaithfulness, accuracy and inaccuracy.

=====2.1.2 Quintus Heratius Flaccus=====

Quintus Heratius Flaccus was deeply influenced by Marcuss Tullirs Cicero in the aspect of literary criticism and translation theory, he insisted that translation should be flexible, and opposed word-by-word translation and sentence-by-sentence translation. He also believed that translation should be "sense for sense". At the same time, Heratius advocated to create new words or introduce foreign words in creation and translation when necessary in order to enrich the national language and enhance the expressive power of the work. He advocated that "a translator who is faithful to the original text is not fit to translate word for word". This sentence is often quoted to criticize those of literal translation by those of free translation."(Tan Zaixi 1991, 26).

=====2.1.3 St. Jerome=====

St. Jerome is considered one of the four leading theologians in the West, who was proficient in Hebrew and Latin, and was fond of Latin literature.He translated ''The Vulgate'' in the late Roman Empire and proposed that literary translation and religious translation should be treated differently, arguing that when translating ''The Bible'', literal translation should not be used in the whole text, but mainly in literal translation.But in literary translation, translators could and should convey the meaning of the original text in an understandable style, so as to use one's own style and language to make the translation as beautiful as the original text. It is a good idea to use a combination of literal transaltion and free translation.

=====2.1.4 St. Augustine=====

St. Augustine did not translate many works, only revised some parts of ''The Vulgate'', but his translation theories are extremely valuable, which can be mainly found in ''On Christian Education'', as well as several interpretations of the ''Psalms'' and two letters, one of which is to his son Adeodatus.He believed that a good translator must be proficient in two languages, familiar with the material to be translated and have the ability to revise. He suggested that people should use "simple", "elegant", or "sacred" style according to different readers.

He related the style of target language text to targeted readers, holding that people should use "simple" style when translating enlightment texts, use "elegant" style when it comes to texts praising the God, and use "sacred" style to translate texts with the characteristic of exhortation and guidance. He quoted the "semiotics theory" of Aristotle and emphasized the triangular relationship of the "significatio", "sonus" and "judgment" in translation. He is regarded as the originator of the linguistic school in the history of western translation, whose theories have exerted profound influence on linguistics and translation studies.

====2.2 Translation in the Middle Ages====

Between the eleventh and twelfth centuries A.D., Western translators gathered in Toledo, Spain, to translate a large number of works from Arabic into Latin. As a result, Toledo became the center of European academic world (similar to the "Translation Institute" in Baghdad), its translation and academic activities has continued for more than a hundred years with far-reaching effects.

=====2.2.1 Manlius Boethius=====

Manlius Boethius contributed not only to translating and introducing Greek philosophical thoughts, but also to translation theories. His views can be mainly found in the preface to the translation of Porphyrius's work (Boethius, 1906; referring to Kelly, 1979: 71, 134-135, 204, 222-224), which can be summarized as follows: 1) Content and style are contrary, either style or content can be preserved. 2) Translation is centralized on objective things, and the translator should abandon subjective judgment. In the translation of some works, what the translator seek is accurate content rather than elegant style. Therefore, in order to express "truth without error", the translator should use word-for-word translation.

Manlius Boethius contributed not only to translating and introducing Greek philosophical thoughts, but also to translation theories. His views can be mainly found in the preface to the translation of Porphyrius's work (Kelly 1979, 71, 134-135, 204, 222-224), which can be summarized as follows: 1) Content and style are contrary, either style or content can be preserved. 2) Translation is centralized on objective things, and the translator should abandon subjective judgment. In the translation of some works, what the translator seek is accurate content rather than elegant style. Therefore, in order to express "truth without error", the translator should use word-for-word translation.--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 13:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=====2.2.2 Dante=====

Dante held a pessimistic view on translation in his work ''The Banquet'', holding the view that poetry is untranslatable. The significance of this viewpoint strated the long debate on translatability and untranslatability of literary translation in the history of western translation, and at the same time, it drew people's attention to the organic connection between poetry and language in poetry translation, which was very helpful for future generations to establish the correct principles of poetry translation. Don Quixote, the protagonist in the Spanish writer Cervantes's novel ''Don Quixote'', held the similar point of view.

====2.3 Translation in Renaissance====

The Renaissance Movement that took place in Europe from the fourteenth to the sixteenth centuries was a major movement of intellectual and literary innovation, it was also a major development in the history of Western translation. Especially in the sixteenth century and the period afterwards, when the Renaissance Movement was widespread in Western European countries, translation activities reached an unprecedented peak, involving various fields such as thought, politics, philosophy, literature and religion, covering major works of ancient times and contemporary times, and a large number of outstanding translators and a series of excellent translation works emerged at that time.

=====2.3.1 Martin Luther=====

Martin Luther was a German translator and the leader of Religious Reform. His translations of ''The New Testament'', which was written in Greek and ''The Old Testament'' written in Hebrew were published in 1522 and 1534 respectively, and his translation of ''The Bible'' in German became the model of German, exerting an unprecedented influence on the development of the national language in German. In addition, his translation of ''Aesop's Fables'' is also of high literary value. His outstanding contributions to translation theories can be summarized as follows: First, he held the view that people should translate in a language that is straightaway and easy to understand, and is acceptable to the public.

He insisted on the humanistic view of language, believing that different languages cannot be equated absolutely in terms of structure and vocabulary. Since the target readers of The Bible is the public, "we must use authentic German instead of Latinized German." (Tan Zaixi 1991, 81), and get rid of the traditional principles that ''The Bible'' can only be translated in Latin, "let the prophets of ''The Old Testament'' use natural German." (Nida 1984, 10) Secondly, Luther believed that the form, style, and spiritual essence of the original text can only be reproduced in free translation to some extent. Thirdly, translators should respect the original text, understand its spiritual essence in depth, and should not be credulous about the traditional explanations of priests.

In order to reproduce the spiritual essence of the original text, the translator can add some meanings which are implicit between the lines but not literally Fourth, translators ought to put heads together. Finally, he proposed seven principles that translators should follow: they can change the word order of the original text; they can use modal particles; they can add conjunctions; they can omit words; they can substitute words with phrases; they can replace metaphor with non-metaphor and vice versa; and they should pay attention to the variation of words and the accuracy of translation. (Tan Zaixi 1991, 83)

=====2.3.2 Etienne Dolet=====

Etienne Dolet was the first person who put forward translation theory in a systematic way in the history of modern western translation. Apart from several translations and monographs on Greek and Latin, his contributions to translation can mainly be reflected in his famous paper ''La manière de bien traduire d'une langue en autre'', which was published in 1540. The paper was short but innovative, and the issues involved have already been connected to the matters of principle which were raised by later translation theorists.

The basic principles of translation he listed in his paper were as follows: 1) The translator must fully understand the content of the texts to be translated. 2) The translator must have a good knowledge of source language and target lanuage. 3) The translator should avoid word-for-word translation, which can not express the original meaning of the text accurately and the sense of beauty of the language. 4) The translator must translate in an understandable way. 5) The translator must make the target language text an appropriate one through diction and adjustment of word order.

====2.4 Translation in the Early Modern Times====

After the Renaissance, from the second half of the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, Western translation kept on moving forward. Although in terms of scale and influence, translation in this period was not as good as that of the Renaissance, a large number of excellent translation works emerged. Its most important character was that translators not only continued to translate classical works, but also developed a great interest in modern and contemporary works. The works of great writers such as Cervantes, Shakespeare, Balzac, and Goethe were repeatedly translated into various languages, and translations of Oriental literature came out one after another.

=====2.4.1 John Dryden=====

John Dryden was a famous poet, translator and translation theorist, whose contributions to translation exceeded that of his predecessors and other contemporaries, with a large number of translation works and systematic theories. His most well-known translation work is Virgil's ''Aeneid'', which was published in 1697. In his numerous papers and prefaces, he clearly put forward comprehensive and systematic views of translation.

First of all, translation is an art, translators must have the temperament of an artist, a keen appreciation of art and a rich expressive power, only in this way can they grasp and reproduce the artistic features of the original text. Secondly, translators must consider target readers. When translating dialects, translators should focus on the fact that whether target readers can accept and understand it or not, and can appropriately borrow some foreign words, but these words should be carefully considered. Thirdly, translators are slaves of the original author, "only working in other's manor, fertilizing and pruning the grapes, but the wine is for the master's". (Tan Zaixi 1991, 153)

Finally, he roughly divided translation into three categories: metaphrase, paraphrase and imitation,arguring that imitation was close to creation, which broke away from the original text. Therefore, he advocated paraphrase that emphasizes the meaning while neglects the linguistic form. His division of translation broke through the limitations of traditional classificationof translation, i.e. free translation and literal translation, which was a major development in the history of western translation and was of great significance.

=====2.4.2 Alexander Fraser Tytler=====

Alexander Fraser Tytler's translation theories and thoughts can be mainly found in the book ''Essay on the Principles of Translation''. In this book, which was the first monograph of western translation theory, Tytler put forward the famous three principles of translation. The translator should be proficient in the language and subject matter of the original work, and completely reproduce the thoughts of the original work. In translation, the translator can limitedly add essential contents to the original work and reduce unnecessary contents that are bad for the original work.

The translator should have the ability to accurately judge and appreciate the style and writing technique of the original work, and imagine how the original author would express himself if he composed in target language to make the style and writing technique of the translation be equal to that of the original work. The translation should be as fluent as the original work. Although the translator is engaged in imitation as well as the painter, the translator can't copy the original's brushwork and use the same colors, instead, he must use his own techniques and another language to express the soul of the original work.

In addition, Tytler believed that poetry can only be translated in the form of poem, idioms can be transformed into meaning and translated in an understandable language, and good translations must make the readers appreciate the merits of the original work and get "the same strong feeling" (Tan Zaixi 1991, 164). The three principles of translation, which are "the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work", "the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original" and "the translation should have all the ease of original composition" became the tenet followed by numerous translators later, and had a positive influence on translation theories in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.

=====2.4.3 Matthew Arnold=====

In modern English translation theories, the debate between Arnold and Newman on the translation of ''Homer's Epic'' is of positive significance. Matthew Arnold put forward his insights in the following six aspects: 1) Translating ''Homer's Epic'' must first clarify the characteristics of Homer. 2) The essential features of ''Homer's Epic'' must be preserved. 3)Translating poem must have the insight of a poet. 4)The translation must resemble a poem. 5)The translation must have the same appeal as the original text. 6)It is the scholars, not the general readers, who test the fidelity of the translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 134-135)

=====2.4.4 Francis W. Newman=====

Newman evaluated Arnold's translation based on his points of view, his viewpoints are as follows: 1) Homer is a poet, and the translation must reproduce him as a poet. 2) The criterion for measuring the translation is mainly the reaction of general readers rather than scholars. 3) The translation is a kind of compromise, and the more outstanding the original work is, the less the translation work can be compared with it. Their differences lie in their respective translation principles, techniques and viewing perspectives, so it is difficult for us to to say which is right and which is better. Their arguments have played an active role in enlivening the academic atmosphere and promoting the study of translation theory from multiple perspectives and multiple aspects.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 135-136)

=====2.4.5 Friedrich Schleiermacher=====

Friedrich Schleiermacher published his paper ''On the Methods of Translation'', which discussed the close relationship between translation and understanding from a hermeneutical point of view, theoretically discussed the principles and approaches of translation.He put forward the hermeneutic proposition of examining semantics, including grammatical interpretation and psychological interpretation, and believed that the translator cannot accept the original work passively, but must create it actively, "and must grasp a 'pre-structure' beyond the text according to the original author's mental process and thought track" (Liu Miqing 1989, 3).

He proposed the differences between interpreting and translation for the first time, believing that interpreting is similar to a mechanical activity, while translation is a creative activity. Similarly, translation can be divided into literary translation and mechanical translation. The former is the translation of works of literature, art and natural science, which requires independent thinking and creativity of the translator, and strong comprehension and expression skills. While the latter involves only commercial and business interpreting, which "can be done with a general command of two languages" (Wells 1988, 24), and is not of high quality because it involves something tangible and clearly defined.

In addition, Schleiermacher divided translation into two approaches: obedience to the original work and obedience to the translation work. The former is to let the readers approach the original author, and the translator only "fills in the blanks where the readers don't understand the language of the original work" (Tan Zaixi 1991, 135), i.e., using literal translation to let the readers understand the meaning of the original work. The translator usually adopts flexible translation and free translation, so that the readers can easily understand the original work.

His thoughts has inspired the classification of prospective and retrospective of Postgate in the twentieth century.Friedrich Schleiermacher's translation theories had a great impact in the 19th century and is still significant even today. Although he was the first theorist to distinguish between interpreting and translation, his views on interpreting were wrong. From the perspective of modern translation theories, interpreting is not a mechanical activity, but also a skill that requires a high level of language expression ability and the ability to recreate, and because interpreting is a kind of simultaneous interpretation, there is no room for careful thinking, and it is even more difficult than translation in many aspects.

=====2.4.6 Wilhelm von Humboldt=====

Wilhelm von Humboldt's translation theory was based on his unique philosophy of language. He believed that language is only the "external manifestation of the spirit of each nation", and that the language of each nation is their spirit, and the spirit of each nation is also their language. Due to the differences of each language, translators are in a dilemma of either following the original tex too closely and losing the charm of their own language, or sticking to their own language and sacrificing the elegance of the original work (Wells 1988, 27-28).

However, Humboldt also suggested that "there is nothing that language cannot express" and that "language is the nature of human, and all languages hold the key to understanding any other languages" (Wells, 1988:29). This dialectical thinking on the issues of translatability and untranslatability, language as system and language as speech act has greatly influenced linguists such as Saussure and Chomsky in the twenties century.

However, Humboldt also suggested that "there is nothing that language cannot express" and that "language is the nature of human, and all languages hold the key to understanding any other languages" (Wells 1988, 29). This dialectical thinking on the issues of translatability and untranslatability, language as system and language as speech act has greatly influenced linguists such as Saussure and Chomsky in the twenties century.--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 13:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.5 Translation in Contemporary Times====

After the World War II, the West entered a relatively stable period, production got developed, the economy gradually recovered, and science and technology were changing day by day. This was the material basis of the prosperity of translation. Due to the evolution of the times, the characteristics of translation have also changed a lot. The translation in the new period differs from that of any period in the past in scope, scale, function and form and has made great progress.

The first change is the expansion of translation scope. While the traditional translation mainly focused on the translation of literary and religious works, the translation in the new period expands to other fields, especially in science, technology and commerce fields.

Secondly, the scale of translation greatly exceeds that of the past. In the past, only a few literary giants worked on translation, but now translation has become a specialized profession, with not only litterateur, philosophers and theologians engaging in translation, but also a specially trained professional team undertaking various translation tasks. Moreover, the function of translation is unparalleled in the past.

Especially after the foundation of the United Nations and the European Common Market, exchanges among Western countries in various fields, such as literature, art, science, technology, politics and economics, have become increasingly frequent and close, and all these communications are carried out through translation, because translation plays an increasingly practical role in the process. Finally, the form of translation has also changed and progressed greatly. The three changes are in fact an important sign of the development of the new period.

=====2.5.1 Roman Jakobson=====

Roman Jakobson was originally from Russia, then moved to the Czech Republic, and then moved to the United States during World War II and became an American citizen. As one of the founders of the linguistic school, his contributions to translation theory is mainly reflected in his article ''On Linguistic Aspects of Translation''. From the perspective of linguistics, the article provided a detailed analysis and discussion of the relationship between language and translation, the importance of translation, and the problems in translation. Since its publication in 1959, this article has been regarded as one of the classics of translation studies in western theoretical field.

There are five main points of Jakobson's discussion. Translation is divided into three categories: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The so-called intersemiotic translation refers to the interpretation of some linguistic symbols by other linguistic symbols in the same language, that is rewording. Interlingual translation refers to the interpretation of the symbols of one language into the symbols of another language between two languages, i.e., translation in the strict sense. Intersemiotic translation refers to the interpretation of linguistic symbols by non-linguistic symbol systems, or the interpretation of non-linguistic symbols by linguistic symbols, such as the transformation from semaphore or gesture into verbal expressions.

The understanding of the meaning of words depends on translation. He believed that translation plays a decisive role in the process of language learning and language comprehension. Accurate translation depends on information symmetry. What translation involves is the reciprocal information in two different speech symbols. All languages have equal expressive power. If there is a lack of vocabulary in a language, the language can be processed by borrowing words, creating words or paraphrasing them. The grammatical category is the most complex issue in translation.

=====2.5.2 John Catford=====

John Catford, a linguist and translation theorist of University of Edinburgh, published ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' in 1965, in which he interpreted the previous problems of translation from a novel modern linguistic perspective and created the new approach to the study of translation theory in the West, thus exerting a great influence in Western linguistic and translation theory circles. John Catford used the "Scale and Category Grammar" of the descriptive linguist Han Lide to describe translation.

He focused on the central question of "what is translation" in terms of the nature, categories, equivalence, shifts, and limits of translation. The nature of translation. According to Catford's definition, translation is "the substitution of textual material from one language (source language) for its equivalent in another language (target language)". (Catford 1965, 20-21) The categories of translation. In terms of its extent, it can be divided into "full translation" and "partial translation". In terms of language level, it can be divided into "total translation" and "restricted translation". In terms of the level of linguistic structure, it can be divided into "level restricted" translation and "level unlimited" translation.

The equivalence of translation. It is the center of translation practice and translation theoretical research, and must be explained in two ways. On the one hand, translation equivalence is an empirically based phenomenon that is found on the basis of a comparison between two languages. On the other hand, translation equivalence must make sure that whether the target text and the source text have the same or at least partially the same substantive features. The shifts of translation. It refers to the deviation from formal correspondence when turning the source text into the target text. There are two main types of shifts,which are level shifts and category shifts.

The limits of translation. It refers to untranslatability. There are two types of untranslatability in translation. The first one is linguistic untranslatability, which includes puns and ambiguous grammatical structures. The other is cultural untranslatability which is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs and different backgrounds of the times.

John Catford's translation theory has injected fresh blood into translation studies in Britain and even the West as a whole, and it has advanced the modern linguistic consciousness in the field of contemporary Western translation studies. In a sense, all kinds of contemporary Western translation theories that have emerged so far have benefited from this increased linguistic consciousness. No matter whether, or to what extent and within what limits, his proposition of using the linguistic theory of "Scale and Category" to explain translation problems is effective or not, the proposition itself has made a contribution to the development of contemporary Western translation theories.

=====2.5.3 Eugene A. Nida=====

Eugene A. Nida was one of the most important representatives of the linguistic school who published two famous translation theoretical works ''Toward A Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1964 and 1965 respectively and proposed the concept of "the science of translation", whose theory has made great contributions to contemporary translation studies in the West. He proposed "dynamic equivalence" theory, and then proposed "functional equivalence" theory from the viewpoint of sociolinguistics and communicative function of language.

He proposed the four-step model of "analysis", "transformation", "reorganization" and "examination" of the translation process. His main academic activities in his life were centered on the translation of ''The Bible''. In the process of translating ''The Bible'', Nida developed his own translation theory from a practical point of view, which eventually became one of the classics of translation studies. Nida's most important theory is "functional equivalence" theory,which means that the translation should not seek for a rigid correspondence between words on the surface, but to achieve functional equivalence between two languages.

In this theory, he pointed out that "translation is the reproduction of the information of source language from semantics to style in the most appropriate, natural and reciprocal language" (Guo Jianzhong 2000, 65). The "dynamic equivalence" theory includes four aspects, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, chapter equivalence and stylistic equivalence. Among these four aspects, Nida believed that "meaning is the most important, and form is the second" (Guo Jianzhong 2000, 67).

Form is likely to conceal the cultural meaning of the source language and hinder cultural communication. Therefore, in literary translation, according to Nida's theory, the translator should take the four aspects of "dynamic equivalence" theory as the principle of translation to accurately reproduce the cultural connotation of source language in target language.

=====2.5.4 James Holmes=====

James Holmes is the founder of Translation Studies, and his book, ''The Name and Nature of Translation Studies''(1972), is the founding manifesto of Translation Studies. He first argued that translation theory should arise from the scientific description of the translation process, and then apply the theory to translation practice and translation teaching. The translation of poetry can be regarded as a kind of meta-literature, which is both an evaluation and interpretation of the original work, and at the same time a new and independent literary work itself. Translation studies should focus on the relationships between the translated text and the original work and between the translated text and the target language culture, rather than the traditional equivalence or fidelity.

ames Holmes is the founder of Translation Studies, and his book, ''The Name and Nature of Translation Studies'' (1972), is the founding manifesto of Translation Studies. He first argued that translation theory should arise from the scientific description of the translation process, and then apply the theory to translation practice and translation teaching. The translation of poetry can be regarded as a kind of meta-literature, which is both an evaluation and interpretation of the original work, and at the same time a new and independent literary work itself. Translation studies should focus on the relationships between the translated text and the original work and between the translated text and the target language culture, rather than the traditional equivalence or fidelity.--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 13:23, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=====2.5.5 Peter Newmark=====

Peter Newmark is a professor of modern linguistics at the University of Surrey, who is mainly engaged in teaching translation theory and practice. After the publication of his masterpieces ''Approaches to Translation''(1981) and ''A Textbook of Translation''(1988), semantic and communicative translation theory has been highly regarded by the translation circles. In 1991, his another famous work ''About Translation'' was published, which collected Newmark's most important translation theoretical findings in recent years. ''Paragraphs on Translation'', which was published in 1991, is a collection of detailed discussions of translation theory, translation teaching, translation linguistics, and translation techniques that were published in the journal ''The Linguist'' from 1989 to 1992.

Peter Newmark is a professor of modern linguistics at the University of Surrey, who is mainly engaged in teaching translation theory and practice. After the publication of his masterpieces ''Approaches to Translation'' (1981) and ''A Textbook of Translation'' (1988), semantic and communicative translation theory has been highly regarded by the translation circles. In 1991, his another famous work ''About Translation'' was published, which collected Newmark's most important translation theoretical findings in recent years. ''Paragraphs on Translation'', which was published in 1991, is a collection of detailed discussions of translation theory, translation teaching, translation linguistics, and translation techniques that were published in the journal ''The Linguist'' from 1989 to 1992.--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 13:23, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Ⅲ.Discussion===

The Western translation theory system consists of two main theories. One is the literature and art translation theory. It is the oldest theory, extending from ancient dramatic translators such as Terrence to modern translation theorists (e.g. Levy in the Czech Republic, Gachechiladze in the former Soviet Union, Steiner in the UK, etc.), and it focused on how to translate literary texts in order to realize literary and cultural exchanges in the ideal sense. In this theory, translation was considered as literarature and art, and the focus of translation was on recreation. The theorists not only discussed the pros and cons of literal translation and free translation, word-for-word translation and flexible translation, but analyzed the purposes and effects of translation.

They also emphasized respecting target language culture, paid attention to the style and literariness of target texts, and required the translators to have a natural literary talent. The other is the linguistic translation theory. It extended from Augustine in ancient times to the structural linguistics school in the 20th century, which closely combined translation theories with the analysis of semantics and grammar, discussed translation in terms of language usage techniques, believing that translation aims to produce a text that is semantically equivalent to the original, and seeked to explain how to produce such semantic equivalence in terms of vocabulary and grammatical structure.

It was more concerned with how to realize the transformation of the words of the two languages in order to convey the information in source language. Looking back at the history of Western translation theories over the past two thousand years, especially the above two main theories constituting the Western translation theory system, we can easily find that, from ancient times to contemporary times, although each period has its own peak of development, on the whole, the contemporary times since the end of World War II in the middle of the 20th century can be regarded as the highest peak of the development of Western translation theories so far.

===Ⅳ.Conclusion===

We should study the outline, changes and development of Western translation theories, and state our opinions on the significance and value of the study of Western translation theories from a historical perspective. On the one hand, we should absorb the relevant contemporary research results at home and abroad, make comments on the representative figures and their representative works, schools of thought and important historical events in Western translation of various historical periods, especially in the 20th century.On the other hand, we should make an in-depth analysis and discussion on the mutual promotion, evolution and the development process of translation practice and translation theory, and elaborate our basic understanding on the nature and direction of the development of translation thoughts and theories.

===References===

Guo Jianzhong.郭建中.(2000).''当代美国翻译理论''. [Contemporary Translation Studies In USA].湖北教育出版社[Hubei Education Press].

Liao Qiyi. 廖七一.(2002).''当代西方翻译理论探索''. 译林出版社[Yilin Press].

Liu Miqing.刘宓庆.(1989).''文体与翻译（第二版）''.[English Varieties and Translation(2nd Edition)].中国对外翻译出版公司[China Translation and Publishing Corporation].

Pan Wenguo.潘文国.(2002).''字本位与汉语研究''.华东师范大学出版社[East China Normal University Press].

Tan Zaixi.谭载喜.(1991).''西方翻译简史''.[A Short History Of Translation in the West].商务印书馆[The Commercial Press].

Tan Zaixi.谭载喜.(2004).''西方翻译简史(增订版)''.[A Short History Of Translation in the West(Revised Edition)].商务印书馆[The Commercial Press].

Catford,J.C.约翰·坎尼森·卡特福德.(1965).''翻译的语言学理论''.[A Linguistic Theory of Translation].牛津大学出版社[Oxford University Press].

Nida, Eugene A.尤金·A·奈达.(1984).''论翻译''.[On Translation].中国对外翻译出版公司[China Translation and Publishing Corporation].

--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 08:45, 14 December 2020 (UTC)

== A Comparison of the Translation Theory of Eugene. A. Nida and J. C. Catford – 陈莎 Chen Sha, 202020080596==
<center>陈莎 Chen Sha </center>
<center>Foreign Linguistics and Applied Linguistics </center>

===Abstract===
This paper made a comparison between Eugene. A. Nida's translation theories and J. C. Catford's translation theories from three perspectives, that is, their linguistic foundations, their perspectives regarding some important concepts such as meaning, form, equivalence and untranslatability, and the impact of their translation theories in the realm of translation. Although both of them are representatives of the linguistic schools of Western translation theory, Nida and Catford elaborate their respective translation theories from different perspectives and even the same term has been endowed with different meanings in the two translation theories, thus having different influences on the academic world. A clear grasp of the differences between the two theories will be conducive to the further understanding of translation theory.

===Key words===
Eugene. A. Nida; J. C. Catford; Translation Theory; Comparison

===题目===
尤金•奈达和约翰•卡特福德翻译理论之比较

===摘要===
本文比较了尤金•奈达和约翰•卡特福德各自的翻译理论中所涉及的语言学基础、对意义、形式、对等以及不可译性等概念的观点以及他们的翻译理论对学界产生的影响。尽管同属于西方翻译理论语言学派的代表人物，奈达和卡特福德却分别从不同的角度论述各自的翻译理论，甚至同一个术语在两种译论中具有不同含义的现象也常有见之，因此不免对学界产生了不同的影响。清晰地把握这两种译论中的不同之处，将有利于我们对翻译理论的进一步认识。

===关键词===
尤金•奈达；约翰•卡特福德；翻译理论；比较

===1. Introduction===
Nowadays, it has become an irreversible trend to integrate the translation theory researches into the field of linguistics, which broke through the traditional translation theories and created a new approach to explore them. Nida and Catford are two prominent representatives in this field. As to Nida, he is a famous contemporary American translation theorist, known as the father of modern Western translation theory, with ''Toward a Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''as his major works. As to Catford, he is a famous English linguist and translation theorist, with ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' as his masterpiece.

From what I have mentioned above, it can be seen clearly that both Nida and Catford are representatives of the linguistic schools of Western translation theories. However, in spite of this fact, their respective translation theories are actually based on different linguistic schools. As a result, it is no wonder that they have different understandings and interpretations in terms of the same concept and the acceptability of their respective translation theories are largely varied in the academic world. Therefore, this paper will elaborate the differences of the translation theories between Eugene. A. Nida and J. C. Catford from these three perspectives, namely, their linguistic foundations, their perspectives regarding some concepts such as meaning, form, equivalence and untranslatability, and the impact of their translation theories in the realm of translation.

===2. Linguistic Foundation===
Both Nida's and Catford's translation theories are systematic and scientific due to the fact that both of them are rooted in linguistics. However, what deserves noticing is that they are actually based on different linguistic schools.

Specifically speaking, Nida's translation theories are mainly based on Noam Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar, in which grammatical structure is divided into deep structure and surface structure, kernel sentences and a series of transformational rules are put forward and a whole set of grammatical system is established.(Jiang Li 2010, 44)

Based on transformational-generative grammar, especially the principle of kernel sentences, a new model of translation is put forward by Nida, that is, to translate on the level of deep structure. Therefore, a complete inter-lingual conversion process is created, which can be generally divided into three steps. The first step is to convert the surface structure of the source language to the deep structure of the source language; the second step is to identify a deep structure that is equivalent to the deep structure of the source language in the target language; the final step is to convert the deep structure of the target language to the surface structure of the target language. Generally speaking, this process can be viewed as such a transformational mode:(Jiang Li 2010, 44)

[[File:chenshachenshachensha111.jpg]]

In addition, through the analysis of the semantic relations of vocabularies in the context, Nida broke through the limitations of the traditional translation view holding that the parts of speech should be correspondent between source language and target language. He puts forward four semantic categories, namely objects that correspond roughly to nouns, events that correspond roughly to verbs, abstracts that correspond roughly to the modifiers of objects and events and relations that correspond roughly to the prepositions and connectives in Indo-European languages. (Lin Shuwu 1981, 5) And then based on his semantic categories, Nida comes up with seven kernel sentences that are used to discuss the inner relationship of sentences. (Jiang Li 2010, 44)

In summary, Nida broke through the limitations of the traditional translation views that pursues the correspondence of words or sentence patterns on the level of surface structure. He believes that there are great similarities among the kernel structure of different languages, and these similarities are much more pronounced in terms of their deep structure than their surface structure. What’s more, he holds the opinion that the transformation between languages on the level of deep structure can guarantee the faithfulness of the translated text to the original text to the greatest extent. In addition, since the surface structure of the target language is the free expression transformed from the deep structure of the target language, the smoothness of the translated text can also be guaranteed to some extent. (Shi Xishu & Du Ping 2004, 70) In this way, Nida's translation theories broke through the formal constraints in translation and retained the content of the original text, which plays a great guiding role in the specific translation practices.

In contrast, Catford's translation theories are mainly based on Michael A.K. Halliday's systematic linguistics, which consists of two basic points. Firstly, it emphasizes the systematicness of language and holds that languages are systems containing many subsystems. Secondly, systematic linguistics emphasizes the close relationship between language and society, so it holds the opinion that the study of language should start from the society. (Jiang Li 2010, 45)

However, Catford does not adopt the two points completely. Based on the first point that different languages are actually different systems, Catford concludes that translation cannot convey one hundred percent of the meaning of the original text. Nevertheless, when it comes to the second point, it seems that Catford does not delve into the relationship between language and society, and some people even think that his theoretical research is purely static language comparison and serves only for computers. What’s more, Catford focuses on analyzing the relationship among such substances as phonic substance, graphic substance and situation substance from such four levels as phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary, based on which, Catford stresses that under no circumstances can complete translation be achieved, that is, translation cannot be carried out on the four levels of phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary simultaneously. He also holds that even if the translation is carried out at only one level, the complete translation is impossible. (Jiang Li 2010, 45)

In summary, Catford's translation theories are based on Halliday’s systematic linguistics, but he does not confine himself within the scope of systematic linguistics. Instead, he applies systematic linguistics to his translation theories in a selective way, which makes his translation theories innovative and in turn has a positive effect on Halliday's systematic linguistics.

===3. Different Perspectives Regarding Some Important Concepts===

====3. 1 Different Perspectives Regarding Meaning====
Nida's translation theories mainly serve the translation of ''The Bible'', with the ultimate aim of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of ''the Bible'', the transmission of information is the most important goal. In order to spread the doctrine, Nida not only regards meaning as translatable, but even as sacrosanct because he wants to convey the will of God. (Jiang Li 2010, 46)

In Nida's opinion, “translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style.” (Nida 1969, 13) Nida's definition regarding translation clearly pointed out the relationship between meaning and form, claiming that meaning comes first while form comes second. In the analysis of meaning, Nida refined it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning and connotative meaning, which is the basis for the four modes of analysis, transformation, reorganization and verification in the process of translation. As a faithful supporter of language universality, Nida always maintains that the information contained in one language can be conveyed into another language, that is to say, the meaning is fixed. (Jiang Li 2010, 46) In the communication between different languages and cultures, equivalent words and expressions can be found. There is no such thing as an unbridgeable gap between languages. (Xiong Demi 2001, 88)

Compared with Nida's translation theories, Catford's translation theories does not discuss the specific problems encountered in the process of translation, but focuses on the essence of translation, that is, what the translation is. Catford emphasizes the individuality of different languages and that each language has its own unique semantic system formed under the influence of its unique culture and the lexical and grammatical systems which embody the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship among languages, and analyzes the root causes of their differences.(Jiang Li 2010, 46)

According to Catford, meaning is a property of language, so the source language and the target language have their respective meanings. The opinion that the source language has the same meaning as the target language or that there is transfer of meaning in the process of translation is untenable. Obviously, this argument is a kind of deconstruction and subversion of people’s perspectives regarding meaning in traditional translation theory, which is why his translation theories arouse suspicion of other scholars. Actually, readers who do not carefully read his original work tend to come to their lopsided conclusions according to its literal meaning, so there is no wonder why they will misunderstand Catford and his translation theories. (Jiang Li 2010, 46)

====3. 2 Different Perspectives Regarding Form ====
Both Nida and Catford have involved form in their translation theories. However, the term has different meanings in the two theories.

In Nida's translation theories, form mainly refers to the concept corresponding to content, including prosody, word selection, duality, parallelism and other grammatical structures with distinct features. For biblical translation, meaning must be prioritized in order to convey content and information,so its translation can sometimes be greatly altered in form. In other words, if form and content cannot be retained at the same time, then the content should be retained while the form be discarded. (Jiang Li 2010, 46) Of course, this does not mean that Nida thinks that form is not important at all in the process of translation. On the contrary, Nida believes that when it comes to some cases in which form is very important to the original text, like poetry, the original form should be retained as far as possible.

As for Catford, he regards language as forms, a concept corresponding to entities. In his opinion, forms include phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary, which are all linguistic aspects while entities refer to such raw materials as phonic substance, graphic substance and situation substance, which are all non-linguistic aspects. He also holds the opinion that a form always corresponds to an objective entity in the real world. In Carford translation theories, forms can actually be understood as systems, that is, each language is composed of different systems, which in turn include numerous subsystems.(Jiang Li 2010, 46)

Thus, to translate between two languages belonging to different systems is to look for entity features that are identical (at least partially identical) in both the source language and the target language. Since there can never be a completely identical system among different languages and even the most closely related languages have their own unique forms, the forms and meanings of different languages can never be completely the same. Therefore, in the process of translation, meaning cannot be fully conveyed from one language to another, which is also an important point that makes Catford's translation theories different from others’. (Jiang Li 2010, 46)

====3. 3 Different Perspectives Regarding Equivalence====
Nida believes that the reason why there is equivalence in the process of translation is that different languages can perform exactly the same function. Based on this belief, Nida put forward the concept of dynamic equivalence, which is “defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptor in the source language.” (Nida 1969, 25) What’s more, in elaborating functional equivalence, which is the modified version of dynamic equivalence, considering the differences in terms of languages and cultures in bilingual communication, Nida divided functional equivalence into two levels, namely, the maximum level of equivalence which refers to the one in which the readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it essentially the same as the original readers did and the minimal level of equivalence which refers to the one in which the readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it. (Xiong Demi 2001, 88)

In addition, Nida pointed out that the translation should not excessively pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should shift the attention to accurately convey the meaning of the original text. Therefore, translators can be allowed to change the form of the original text when readers are prone to misunderstand the original text. (Jiang Li 2010, 45)

In summary, Nida's dynamic equivalence theory broke the previous static model of focusing solely on text comparison and held that only by getting the receptors of the target language to completely understand the translated text, can they respond in much the same way as the receptors of the source language. That is to say, dynamic equivalence emphasizes readers' response.

As for Catford, he believes that "translation is the replacement of textual materials in one language by equivalent textual materials in another language." (Catford 1965, 13) In his definition, Catford did not use the word "text", but "textual materials", because he believes that the meaning of a text could not be completely translated into another text, at least when it comes to the meaning at two or more levels, the equivalence could not be found, but only a substitute is available. Catford regards translation equivalence in traditional translation theory as an empirical phenomenon and puts forward the conditions for translation equivalence,that is, in order to get the text or words of the source language and the target language to be equivalent, there must be some consistency between the entities they refer to.(Jiang Li 2010, 45)

Apparently, according to Catford's theory, equivalence can only exist if the entities involved in the two languages share some common characteristics. Moreover, such equivalence can only exist on the same level, that is, phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary. Equivalence on the four levels cannot be achieved simultaneously, because there are different entities on different levels, and it is impossible for two equivalent words to have the exactly identical entity characteristics. In other words, perfect equivalence does not exist. This also explains why there is no complete translation in Catford's point of view. At this point, Catford's translation theories seem to go deeper into the nature of language. (Jiang Li 2010, 46)

In short, Nida's perspective regarding equivalence is not the same as Catford's. By emphasizing equivalence, Nida means emphasizing the effect of translation. In order to achieve the desired effect of translation, the form sometimes can be abandoned; while Catford’s translation theories focus on the fact that there is no such a thing called perfect translation. Despite their different emphasis, both of them are of guiding significance to the translation practices.

====3. 4 Different Perspectives Regarding Untranslatability====
No discussion of untranslatability can avoid the subject of the essence of translation, which also applies to the translation theories of Nida and Catford.

In the book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'', Nida pointed out that translation refers to the reproduction of source language information with the closest and most natural equivalent in the target language from the semantic to the stylistic. (Nida 1969, 13) In his opinion, the maximum equivalence that can be achieved in translation is only the so-called "closest" and no real equivalence can be achieved. In other words, Nida holds that untranslatability is ubiquitous and the complete equivalence both on the level of meaning and style can only be impossible. Translation is like a seesaw, and the two ends of the board are the meaning and the style of source language, which in most cases cannot be completely retained at the same time.(Cui Yangtong 2018, 241)

Therefore, translators should make a choice and decide whether to care more about the meaning of the source language or the style of the source language. In Nida’s opinion, meaning should come first while style should come later. In short, as far as Nida’s translation theories are concerned, the equivalence refers to the one hundred percent transmission of the information of the source language in the target language, while the correspondence means that both the information and the style of the source language are one hundred percent transmitted into the target language, which is of course impossible. Hence, Nida chooses to use equivalence to describe the translatability rather than correspondence. (Cui Yangtong 2018, 241)

Catford, on the other hand, is more pessimistic about translatability. In his book ''A linguistic Theory of Translation'', he defines translation as the process of replacement of the textual materials of source language with the equivalent textual materials of the target language,(Catford 1965, 13) Catford uses "replacement" to correspond to Nida's "reproduction", just because he realizes that different languages are actually different systems that can never be coincided with each other. As a result, there will never be the so-called transformation and reproduction between two languages. Whether the equivalence can be achieved depends on the degree of coincidence of the described entities in the two languages.(Cui Yangtong 2018, 241)

Catford also further elaborates in this book that the idea that the source language and the target language have the same meaning or there exists such a thing called transmission in the process of translation is untenable. In order to better prove his point of view, Catford introduced a new viewpoint, that is, different languages are actually different systems and each system has its own unique linguistic forms, syntactic relations and grammatical relations. In general, there are basically two kinds of untranslatability in the broad sense. One is the untranslatability on the level of language and the other is the untranslatability on the level of culture. (Cui Yangtong 2018, 241)

All in all, we can draw a conclusion regarding Nida’s and Catfort’s views of untranslatability. On the one hand, Catford’s idea that linguistic forms refer to the formal characteristics of the original text is very close to what Nida calls style. However, on the other hand, what Catford calls the untranslatability on the level of culture is totally different from what Nida calls information. Therefore, we can see that Catfort has a much more strict standard towards translation equivalence.

===4. Significance===

====4.1 Contributions to Translation Studies ====
Nida views the communication and integration between different languages and cultures with a new perspective. He jumped out of the bondage of language and instead paid attention to the pragmatic function of language and the external linguistic equivalence. As a faithful supporter of language universality, he insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can also be expressed in another and that communication can be achieved by looking for translation equivalence among different languages and cultures and reorganizing the form of the original text and semantic structure in an appropriate way, which is also the basis for his establishment of equivalence translation theory. In short, Nida's dynamic equivalence theory breaks the previous static mode of solely emphasizing text comparison and creates a new mode of fully respecting the response of the receptors of the target language to translated text. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)

Catford believes that the main concern of translation practice is to find equivalent components and the central task of translation theory is to define the nature and conditions of these equivalent components. His equivalence theory mainly focuses on the study of language, which relates the analysis of translation theory closely to the analysis of the functions of semantics and grammar, aiming at explaining how such a semantic equivalence on the level of vocabulary and grammatical structure is achieved. In his opinion, translators’ main task is to seek content equivalence rather than form correspondence, which is exactly what Catford calls translation conversion. In summary, as a means to realize the equivalence in terms of text, Catford’s translation theory has its positive significance in specific historical periods. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)

=====4.2 Influences in China=====
In the early 1980s, Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories were introduced into China almost at the same time, but their occasions in China were quite different.

As soon as Nida’s translation theories were introduced, the research and citation of them achieved a climax. From 1980 to 2000, 147 papers citing Nida's translation theories were published on ''China Translation'', the core journal of Chinese translation circle. According to the statistics of Wanfang database, 25 papers on Nida’s translation theories were published on such core journals as ''Chinese Science and Technology Translation'' from 2000 to 2012. In 2012 alone, there were 80 journal papers, doctoral papers and master's papers on Nida translation theory. (Li Zhidan 2014, 95)

Compared with Nida's translation theories, Catford's translation theories have not attracted enough attention in domestic academic circles. According to the statistics of Wanfang database, only 3 papers on the Catford’s translation theories were published on ''Chinese Science and Technology Translation'' from 2000 to 2012 and there were only 8 journal papers, doctoral papers, master's papers and bachelor's papers on Catford's translation theories. (Li Zhidan 2014, 95) What’s more, from the number of Chinese papers published on CNKI regarding Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, the domestic influence of the two theories are also evident.

[[File:Chenshachenshachensha222.jpg]]

[[File:Chenshachenshachensha333.jpg]]

In summary, compared with Catford's translation theories, which are abstract and difficult to understand due to its professionalism, Nida's translation theories are more easily accepted and play a greater guiding role in Chinese-English translation.(Li Zhidan 2014, 95)

====4.3 Limitations====
Nida's research is mainly carried out from a macro perspective and is about the universal principle, which will inevitably ignore the research and discussion of specific skills at the micro level. As a result, the theories obtained will also inevitably be out of touch with practice. Nida's equivalence theory is mainly applicable to the translation of ''The Bible'', and the specific purpose of ''The Bible'' to educate and influence people makes it reasonable to sacrifice the form equivalence and strengthen the functional equivalence in a moderate way.(Li Zhidan 2014, 94)

However, if this theory is used to guide the translation of those texts whose forms cannot be ignored, such as the translation of poems, the limitations show up. What’s more, equivalence theory is based on the assumption that readers will have a consistent response, but the problem is that the reader's response is not uniform in any case. It is difficult or almost impossible for readers with different cultural levels, ideologies and positions to produce the same or similar response to the same translation in real life. Therefore, it is difficult to measure the translation effect with this standard. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)

As for Catford, as soon as his theory of equivalence translation was put forward, severe criticism in academic circles was brought about, with most of which focusing on the abstraction and idealization of Catford's examples used to prove his theory. In addition, Newmark pointed out that the interpretation of comparative linguistics conducted by Catford was conducive to translators' judgment and selection in translation practices, but had little contribution to translation theory. Venuti pointed out that the words, sentences and instances used by Cadford were created by himself rather than real. Hornby pointed out that the examples used by Catford were simple and decontextualized, while in fact, the process of translation cannot be simply viewed as language practices, actually, it wiould also be influenced by such factors as text, culture and environment. At the same time, she did not agree with Catford's view that linguistics is the only support of translation research. In addition, Mu Lei believes that the examples Catford used to support his theory are mainly the translation within Germanic languages or Slavic languages, or between Germanic and Slavic languages, so his theory does not have universally guiding significance. In other words, whether Catford’s theory is applicable to the translation between different language families, especially the translation between Chinese and English or not still needs to be discussed. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)

===5. Conclusion===
In summary, although both Nida and Catford are representatives of the linguistic schools of Western translation theory, their translation theories are actually different in many aspects. Firstly, their translation theories are based on different linguistic schools, with Nida’s based on Noam Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar and Catford’s on Halliday’s systematic linguistics. Secondly, their perspectives in terms of some important concepts are different, such as their perspectives regarding meaning, form, equivalence and untranslatability. Last but not least, their translation theories have caused different impact on the field of translation and this difference is especially prominent in China.

Of course, due to their different linguistic foundations, the two translation theories also have different limitations. It seems that Nida’s translation theories are more widely accepted than Catford’s in China because it is a theoretical system that is more compatible to the traditional Chinese translation theories. However, what we should keep in mind is that when we introduce foreign translation theories, in order to broaden our horizon, translation theories that seem to be incompatible to our traditional opinions are as important as those that are similar to our traditional translation views. Only in this way, can the translation theories be improved and developed further.

===References===
Cui Yangtong. 崔洋通. (2018). 不可译性:奈达与卡特福德之对比研究. [Untranslatability: A Comparative Study of Nida and Catford]. ''“校园英语” [Campus English]'' 241.

Jiang Li. 姜丽. (2010). 奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较. [A Comparison of Several Concepts in Nida's and Catford's Translation Theories]. ''“文教资料” [Cultural and Educational Materials]'' 44-46.

Lin Shuwu. 林书武. (1981). 奈达的翻译理论简介. [An Introduction to Nida's Translation Theory]. ''“国外语言学” [Foreign Linguistics]'' 1-7.

Li Zhidan. 李志丹. (2014). 卡特福德和奈达“对等”翻译理论思辨. [A Speculation on Catford’s and Nida's "Equivalence" Translation Theory]. ''“哈尔滨学院学报” [Journal of Harbin Institute]'' 93-95.

Shi Xishu & Du Ping. 石锡书 & 杜平. (2004). 辩证地看待奈达的“功能对等”理论. [A Critical Look at Nida's "Functional Equivalence" Theory]. ''“翻译科学初探” [A Preliminary Study on Translation Science]'' 69-71.

Xiong Demi. 熊德米. (2001). 奈达翻译理论评述. [A Review of Nida's Translation Theory]. ''“重庆大学学报” [Journal of Chongqing University]'' 85-89.

Catford, J. C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Nida, Eugene A. & Charles R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: E.J. Brill.

==Comparison of Ezra Pound's and Wen Yiduo's Poetry Translation Principles 徐梦蝶 Xu Mengdie 202020080657 英美文学==

<center> 徐梦蝶 Xu Mengdie </center>

===Abstract===
Ezra Pound is a representative poet and literary critic at the beginning of 20th Century in western literary world. Together with important literary figures such as T.S. Eliot, he started a new trend in poetry creation and study, and at the same period, China was also undergoing an essential transition from old style poetry to free verse written in vernacular language. Inevitably, associations were made between them. Wen Yiduo's poetic theory is thought to be deeply influenced by Pound's, but growing out of specific cultural and social background, Wen's theory still has his own features which should be distinguished from Pound's. Therefore, it's necessary for us to distinguish their principles in poetry translation so as to better comprehend their contributions.

This paper aims to analyze the differences and similarities between Ezra Pound's and Wen Yiduo's principles in poetry translation from comparisons of their translation principles in rhyme, image, and structure.

===Key words===
Poetry translation; Wen Yiduo; Ezra Pound

===题目===
埃兹拉·庞德和闻一多诗歌翻译原则的对比研究

===摘要===
20世纪初,埃兹拉·庞德是西方文坛一位具有代表性的诗人和文学批评家。他和艾略特等其他重要的文坛人物一起开创了诗歌创作和研究的新潮流。在同一时期的中国，一场重要的文化运动也正在进行，即从旧诗向白话新诗的转变。这两场运动之间也难以避免地有所联系。人们认为闻一多的诗歌理论深受庞德的影响，但是考虑到闻一多诗歌理论诞生的文化和社会背景，他的一些诗歌翻译原则和庞德的有不同之处。因此，为了更好地理解两者，我们有必要进行对比研究。

本文通过对比分析闻一多和庞德在诗歌韵律，意象，结构三方面的翻译原则，来看两者观点的异同。

===关键词===
诗歌翻译理论；闻一多；埃兹拉·庞德

===I.Introduction===

1. Research Background

With the fast development, China began to play a much more important role on world stage, naturally giving rise to the need of recommending Chinese culture to the world. From traditional Chinese literary creation to today's modern culture, it's vernacular literary movement that deserves our attention. At the beginning of 20th century, China was in an urgent need of opening up and learning from the western world. Some extreme ideas even caused the split between classical Chinese literary compositions and modern compositions， but at the same time， traditional Chinese culture was revived by western scholars like Ezra Pound， Amy Lowell, etc. Ezra Pound published ''Cathy''in 1915, setting off Imagist Movement (1909-1917). Wen Yiduo is a representative of the vernacular writing movement, and his first new poetic compositions might be ''A Rainy Night'' (雨夜) and ''Moon and Men'' (月亮和人)(Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993(1),172-173).

Wen distinguished himself from the other representatives of vernacular writing movement by his relative complete frame both in literary composition as well as in literary criticism. Besides, Wen Yiduo's personal painting learning experience and his contact with western poets at that time are materials also worthy of discussion (Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（12），432-433).

The reasons why these two figures are chosen to be compared in this paper are because, first, they two lived in the same time period ,and participated in two important literary movements of the time; second, both of them interpreted and applied Chinese traditional poems into modern composition but in different ways. Therefore, comparison on their understanding of poetic translation is a way to learn the role of Chinese traditional culture in modern times and to know these two poets and translators better.

2. Research Method

Close reading: this paper has collected relative works of Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound and papers on them. Through close reading, we come to know their ways of poem composing and their principles of poetry translation. Works covered in this chapter are, ''Complete Collections of Wen Yiduo'', ''Biography of Wen Yiduo'', ''Cathy'' of Ezra Pound, etc.

Comparative study: since there are some common points between these two poets and translators, comparisons are made between them to better distinguish their roles in relatively vernacular writing movement and imagist movement, in inheriting the old and making the new, and lastly in their poem translation principles(Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（2），37).

===II.Literature Review===

Wen Yiduo has been widely studied as a composer of new poetry, a painter, a researcher of classical poetry, as well as a revolutionist. Papers on Wen Yiduo focused more on his identity as a poetry composer than as a translator, so this chapter mainly studies his identity as a translator, complemented by his identity as a poet.

[[File:A.png]]

Papers on Wen Yiduo cover almost all aspects including his multiple identities as well as his further studies of traditional Chinese mythologies, classical poetry, etc. From the 1970s to present, this chapter chose recent papers on Wen Yiduo's translation. We can see from the picture below that studies of Wen Yiduo are still favored by scholars and in recent years even more papers on his translation principles were published. In 2005, a paper by Lv Jing is a watershed, for he announced the dawn of a new age of modern metrical poetry. Wen Yiduo is a pioneer of metrical poetry at the beginning of 20th century but he is inevitably constrained by his time. With the development of culture , now we are gradually entering a new era of modern metrical poetry(Lv Jing 2005，133-134).

[[File:8.png]]

Major works often cited by scholars are these two biggest black dots in the picture, works of Qian Liqun's (1998) ''Chinese Literature in Recent 30 Years''(中国现代文学30年)and ''Collection on Translation Theories''(1984).

As for papers about comparison between Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound,there are 18 papers published in recent years in China.

Among the 18 papers, the most mentioned phrases are "Chinese new poetry", "poetry in translation", "the beauty of painting" in these papers. Most of these papers study on Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound from a general comparison between two movements (vernacular writing movement and imagist movement) with only one paper directly comparing the two figures in a comprehensive manner. It was written by Fu Jianan and Zhang Li in 2019. In this paper, the authors pointed out that Wen Yiduo was heavily influenced by Ezra Pound, which can be seen from his three principles of beauty: the beauty of music, the beauty of painting, and the beauty of architecture. Besides, they also believed that Wen Yiduo was influenced by the national and creative features of Ezra Pound's literary creation and criticism (Fu Jianan, Zhang Li 2019,101-102).

====III.Discussion====

Wen Yiduo is a representative poet and translator in China at the beginning of 20th Century. At that time, China was experiencing a social and cultural upheaval with collapse of the old and emerging of the new. Since Wen Yiduo was born in a family with avant-garde thoughts, he came to get revolutionary idea at an early age. Although Wen Yiduo didn't participate directly in the May 4th movement, he demonstrated his firm support of students through a passionate patriotic poem. Clearly, Wen Yiduo's literary creation is indispensable from his social ideas. This could be revealed in subjects of his poems, for instance, ''Songs of Seven Sons'' (七子之歌), ''Song of the Sun''（太阳吟）, ''Silent Night'' (静夜), etc. As for his ideas in translation which are also closely associated with his understanding of poem composing, based on his personal learning and experiences (Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（1）,92).

Wen Yiduo experienced several transitions in his poetic writing throughout his life. He was at first a poet of classical poems (1916-1925) with works like, ''Ode on Horse'' (马赋), ''Ode on Pine'' （松赋), ''Spring Willow'' （春柳), etc. Later influenced by Hu Shi and vernacular writing movement, he devoted himself to new poem writing and criticized that classical poem shouldn't be composed and it should be totally abandoned (评本学年《周刊》里的新诗). After several tries in composing new poems, Wen Yiduo later went to America to continue his study on painting and literature. Here he came into contact with the Chicago poets and the American Imagists, which made his another transition. He then again criticized Hu Shi's absolute abandonment of rhyme and rhythm and advocated retrospectively drawing on classical Chinese culture, partly enlightened by his painting and classical poem study experiences in Chicago. After he was back to China, he pioneered in creating metrical poems, which associated western new poems' features together with image and structure of classical Chinese verses. He asked for beauty in music, beauty in image, and beauty in Architecture. His best work which realized his principles is ''Dead Water'' (死水) (Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（1），275-277).

Ezra Pound had a same starting point of translation, which was to find an answer for his epoch and to solve problems existing in society. He even leveled the importance of Confucianism to that of Christianism, which is of immense importance in Western culture. He believed that the "order" and "benevolence" mentioned by Confucius were exactly what was needed, to conquer the social plight brought by industrialism, periodic economic crisis, isolation between human beings, etc (Jiang Hongxin 2001,78-79). Ezra Pound denied that poem translation should be word-to-word but maintain connotations behind it. He decided the name "imagism" for the writing movement in 1912 and later published ''Cathy''in 1915. He was delighted when he discovered that Chinese characters were full of beauty of images and classical poems like ''The Books of Songs''all could be a good source for imagist movement.

In ''A Pact'', Pound likened Whitman as his father in literature and himself as his son. Although he held some disagreements with his father, they two had to share the same root and sap. Whitman is like Hu Shi in China, who highlighted the importance of free expression, direct use of vernacular language, and relatively neglected the significance of structure, rhyme, and rhythm. Wen Yiduo had also mentioned that, he disagreed with Hu Shi's composition of absolute free verses in his ''Experiment'' (尝试集). In Wen Yiduo's view, sound and music are what contained within words, and only a concise expression like poem can produce powerful emotions with its natural, artistic syllables (Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（2），62).

====1. Contrast of Wen Yiduo's and Pound's principles in image translation====

Wen Yiduo started painting when he was young and continued his study of painting in Chicago Academy of Fine Arts. All these experience provided him a chance to paint poems and he had a unique understanding of images based on his study on both classical Chinese poems and new poems. At the beginning of his composing of new poems, poems on nature took a great part of them. Yet he later found that his direct use of a lot of common images in classical poems made his poem too direct and superficial. He therefore decided to use more uncommon images. When he came to America and knew Chicago poets like Carl Sandburg as well as imagists like Amy Lowell, he was affected by their ideas in poem composing. The Chicago poets use direct language and free verse to paint out the world in a vivid way. Images are important to Chicago poets but they put rhythm and rhyme in a non-essential position (Jiao Jianping 2001,134-135). Wen Yiduo therefore, at the earlier period of his poem composing, he paid great attention to image use and also disregarded rhythm and rhyme. Here we have one short excerpt of his earlier composition:

太阳辛苦了一天，
赚得一个平安的黄昏，
喜得满面通红，
一气直往山洼里狂奔。

This excerpt was from one of his earlier vernacular poem and it's very direct and daily, yet lacking beauty in music, image, and depth, and he soon gave up this style. He agreed with Hu Shi's idea in liberating human mind by literature revolution, but he still enhanced the importance of literary form (Bei Ta 2011,105-106). Wen Yiduo therefore, criticize Hu Shi's writing for lacking beauty in music and in image. As a translator, his principles of poem translation are heavily impacted by his identity as a poet. He believed that translator of poem should be a poet himself and the process of translation could be viewed as a process of recreation. Wen Yiduo compared poem composing as traditional Chinese painting; the blending of colors creates a new harmonious image and words should be like colors (Sun Dandbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（2），202).

Take Wen Yiduo's poem ''Red Candler''as an example, he used the image of red candler to praise the selfless spirit of sacrifice and affirmed his belief in brightness. In Wen Yiduo's own writing, we could see the transition in his using of color image, which shifted from bright ones to dim ones as we can discover from ''Red Candler'' (红烛), ''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊) and ''Color'' (色彩) to ''Dead Water'' (死水). Images of colors in his poems are often studied by scholars. And it is taken as a clear combination of his idea on both painting and poetry composing. And as we've mentioned above, Wen Yiduo's poetry contained his patriotic idea which is not only shown in subjects but also in his insistence on the form of poetry. As we can see in both ''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊) and ''Dead Water'' (死水), Wen Yiduo pursued a visual presentation of descriptive pictures. Although Wen Yiduo had studied painting in America, he had shown more freehand sketch in his poem rather then western fine brush work (Xin Chunsheng 2011,28-29). All his principles in poem composition were applied to his translation later. Wen Yiduo asked for concrete image rather than mystery one which also coincides with Pound's idea.

''"这种空空疏疏模模糊糊的描写法使读者丝毫得不着一点具体的印象，当然是弱于幻想力底结果。" （Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（2），62).

"Don’t use such an expression as "dim lands of peace." It dulls the image. It mixes an abstraction with the concrete. It comes from the writer’s not realizing that the natural object is always the adequate symbol." (A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste)''

Ezra Pound can be taken as an orientalist for his love and study on eastern cultures. Before he came to know Chinese, he was captured by the conciseness but rich connotation contained in Chinese traditional culture. His interests in traditional Chinese poems was started by ''A History of Chinese Literature ''(Herbert Giles) and later became addicted to it for Fenollosa's introduction of oriental art (Guo Wei 1988,110). In the process of translating Chinese traditional poem, he formed his poem composing principles. He believed that poem should not be written in superfluous words; abstraction should not be mixed with concrete natural symbols; and expressions should be polished with good ornaments (Ezra Pound, A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste). Pound had many practices of image-using and he was known for his superimposition of images.

“落叶依于重扃。（''落叶哀蝉曲'' 刘彻）”"A wet leaf that clings to the threshold."

This sentence has shown Pound's superimposition of images well. Here "wet leaf" and "threshold" are two different images but the verb "cling" is used well to paint a picture of deep autumn and to arouse the feeling of departure. Even the leaf is hesitating of leaving, how about humans? Both "fallen leaf" and "threshold" are classical images used in Chinese poems. Pound chose concrete images to convey the abstract melancholy just as Chinese classical poem did. In ''Cathy'', ''The Beauiful Toilet'' has shown that Ezra Pound also had his own understanding of color image. "Blue, blue is the grass about the river", "White, white of face, hesitates, passing the door." There are 6 duplicated words in original poem but Pound only kept the duplicated forms of the color words "青青" and "皎皎", which reflects his high attention to color image although he didn't mentioned that in his essay (''Cathy'').

Both Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound drew nourishment from classical Chinese poems and attached great importance to image using. Yet, since Wen Yiduo had experiences as a painter, he was more sensitive to color images than Pound, though Pound also had his own preference to images. Therefore, we may assume that Wen Yiduo was affected by imagism and Ezra Pound, but Wen Yiduo also had his personally preference and choice of image application based on his understanding of classical Chinese poems and painting just as what was shown in ''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊) (Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（1），94).

====2. Contrast of Wen Yiduo's and Pound's principles in rhyme translation====

Wen Yiduo composed poems in classical Chinese with traditional style at first, when he was at school. Later deeply affected by ideas of vernacular poem composing as highlighted by Hu Shi, he accepted that we should liberate citizen's mind from constraints of classical writing and shifted his composing from classical style to vernacular free verse. When Wen Yiduo started to compose his new poem, he realized too direct an expression was would lose the hazy beauty. Different from Hu Shi, Wen Yiguo attached great importance to rhyme and rhythm of poems. This might have some association with his experience of Tang poem studies. He appreciated the beauty of classical poem and even believed that it's almost impossible for us to translate these poems into English, otherwise it woud be a waste of classical poems. To translate Yuefu folksongs, free verse is thought to be the best choice to him, for their similarity in form. And translator is given more space to think about rhyme (Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（2），54).

In his comment on Shigeyoshi Obata's translation on Li Po's poems, Wen blamed the translator for using free verse to translate Li Po's metrical poems. Because Wen himself is a big fan of Li Po, he denied that Li Po's grander style and imposing manner could be kept in free verses (Huang Yanjie 2014,611). He then practiced his translation believes into his own writings. In the next year(1927), he translated a poem of John Masefield.

Sea Fever (1902)
by： John Masefield

I must go down to the seas again, to the lonely sea and the sky,

And all I ask is a tall ship and a star to steer her by,

And the wheel's kick and the wind's song and the white sail's shaking,

And a gray mist on the sea's face, and a gray dawn breaking.

I must go down to the seas again, for the call of the running tide

Is a wild call and a clear call that may not be denied;

And all I ask is a windy day with the white clouds flying,

And the flung spray and the blown spume, and the sea-gulls crying.

I must go down to the seas again, to the vagrant gypsy life,

To the gull's way and the whale's way, where the wind's like a whetted knife;

And all I ask is a merry yarn from a laughing fellow-rover,

And quiet sleep and a sweet dream when the long trick's over.

我要回海上去

我要回海上去，再回到荒凉的天涯海角，

我要求的是一只楼船，一颗星儿做她的向导，

还有龙骨破着浪，风声唱着歌，白帆在风里摇，

海面上一阵灰色的雾，一个灰色的破晓。

我要回海上去，因为那一阵潮水的呼声

是狂暴的呼声，嘹亮的呼声，你没有法子否认

我要求的是一个刮风的天儿，还飞着些白云，

再加上海水翻着浪花儿，海鸥也在叫你。

我要回海上去，再过那漂泊的生涯才好！

走上海鸥的道，鲸鱼的道，那里的风像把快刀；

我要的是做完了的活，大伙儿谈着天儿说着笑，

临了，来一场甜蜜的梦，一宿安稳的觉。（''时事新报·学灯'' 1927）

John Masefield's Sea Fever is a rhymed poetry and Wen chose end rhyme to echo the original version, in order to achieve the musical beauty in poem. Besides a lot alliterations "a star to steer/ a clear call, etc." are used in the original poem to form the enormous power and repetition is another figure of speech in this poem, "I must go down to the seas again", which could emphasize the poet's emotion.

To maintain the original features, Wen Yiduo preserved the original repetition and parallels in his translation. Wen Yidou thought that art is an artificial decoration together with natural beauty. In his translation, to achieve the parallel structure and concise expression, he had chopped off unnecessary conjunctions and shift the order of words. For example, "I must go down to the seas again, to the lonely sea and the sky, And all I ask is a tall ship and a star to steer her by," "again" this world was shifted into the latter part of the translation and "lonely sea and the sky " was translated into a Chinese four-character idiom "天涯海角". The infinitive "To steer" was translated into a verb-object structure-"做她的向导" to ensure the balance of translation. (Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（2），54).

Compared with the original version, we can discover the translated version is even more concise and has clear beats to form music. To form a parallel structure and the clear rhythm, Wen Yiduo added some decorative elements or deleted some unimportant ones to achieve his ideal music. “龙骨”，“风声”，“白帆”are words chosen by translator based on original expression, in order to match both requirements of images and readability. “还”，“临了”，“天儿”， these are words added by the translator which are rich in Chinese culture and are tainted by vernacular feature. This can help to achieve an effect of a balance between the looseness and the tense within poem. Wen Yiduo believes that poems should have multiple rhythms serving for one theme, which can catch reader's attention and arouse emotions. It's more natural (Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（2），54). In this poem, Wen wanted to present the poem in the rhythm of waves.

Different from Wen Yiduo's insistence on the rhyme and rhythm of poems, Ezra Pound believed that "It is not necessary that a poem should rely on its music, but if it does rely on its music that music must be such as will delight the expert" (Ezra Pound, ''A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste'',1913). Take ''The River-Merchant's Wife: a Letter'' as an example, Pound translated Chinese poem into a prose than a rhymed poem, and to this extent his emphasis is more on the other side as himself said that he agreed that music was important but he didn't take it as a priority. He believed that poems could be divided into three kinds, and poems of sounds is one of them. Poems of sounds could be appreciated without being translated, for its musicality to some extent is untranslatable. But he regarded images as conveyable and was devoted to convey images in Chinese poems to English translations.

Thus we can see, the rhyme and rhythm are as important as images to Wen Yiduo, for he thought these were indispensable ways to convey emotion and arouse feeling. Wen Yiduo asked for not only beauty in image but also beauty in music, and he showed no preference between the two, yet, to Pound, as said in ''A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste'', "It is not necessary that a poem should rely on its music". Wen Yiduo attached so much importance to music, so that he once said, some five-character quatrains of Li Po could not be translated into another language for he believed that Li Po's five-character quatrains were ancient soul in modern cover with decorations added. The beats and syllables form the imposing manner of his poem and once these verses were transplanted into another container, the favor might be lost (Wen Yiduo 1926，1).

====3. Contrast of Wen Yiduo's and Pound's principles in translation of architecture====

Pound studied both Chinese and Japanese poems. Therefore, the structure of his translations can often be traced back to parallelism of Chinese poem as well as the Japanese Haiku.

In a Station of the Metro
The Apparition of these faces in the crowd;
Petals on a wet, black bough.

This is one of Pound's most famous poems and Pound regarded it as his masterpiece of imitation of Japanese Haiku. However, some scholars hold a different view, such as Wu Di, who believed that this poem is closer to an imitation of Chinese parallelism. He listed the reasons as follows: First, the poem has parallel compositions of time and space and contrasts of colors of flower petals and branches. Second, Wu thought that metrical unit of this poem is "word", which is distinct from "syllable" in English poems and Japanese Haiku. Haiku highlighted more on artistic conception than metrical harmony. Besides, this poem paid more attention to the conceptual words than functional words (Wu Di 2007，55-56).

Pound's translation of poems are influenced by forms of folk songs, sonnets, Greek-style lyric poems, and elegy, etc. and it can be traced back to Provence love song, Japanese Haiku and Chinese traditional poetry (Wang Guiming, Liujia 2006，85).

Wen Yiduo is the pioneer of new metrical poems in China and he asked poets to learn from western metrics and combined them with Chinese traditional poems. He advocated that the highest form of art should be "pure form". That is why he called for "beauty of architecture". In Chinese architecture, balance is taken as beauty in tidy form, which is also asked for in poem composed by himself (Cheng Liming 2016，72-73). Wen Yiduo once said that balance was very essential in Chinese aesthetic appreciation, and we could see it in both Chinese architectures and poems. Pattern, syntax, diction and coordination are elements required in a well composed poem.

Thursday
——Edna St. Vincent Millay

And if I loved you Wednesday,

Well, what is that to you?

I do not love you Thursday—

So much is true.

And why you come complaining

Is more than I can see.

I loved you Wednesday,

—yes—but what Is that to me?

礼拜四

即使我礼拜三爱你，

你管它做什么？

礼拜四我并不爱你，

却一点也不错。

我真不懂，你何为还

找着我来纠缠。

礼拜三我爱你—对—

可是那与我又何干？（　——原载1927年11月5日上海《时事新报文艺周刊》第9期）

This is a poem translated by Wen Yiduo which reflects his ideas in poem translation, especially in achieving beauty in architecture. First, this poem consists of two stanzas and in each stanza, the second and the fourth lines are shorter than the first and the third lines. We can see that the translator transferred the original form of the poem into the translation but did a little alternation to achieve a better presentation. In this sentence, "—yes—but what/Is that to me?", to balance the length of sentences, the translator shift the word "—yes—" to the verse before the last one, "礼拜三我爱你—对—" to match the number of words. Another instance in this poem is this sentence -"And why you come complaining/Is more than I can see". To ensure the balance of two stanzas, the translator broke the sentence, "你何为还找着我来纠缠" into two verses, "你何为还/找着我来纠缠"(Fan Shouyi 2004，101-102).

Besides, there is a semantic symmetry designed by the translator. There is no obvious transitional word before the last line of the first stanza but a dash to indicate it. Therefore the author added "却" to echo "可是" in the last line of the last stanza and replaced the dash to achieve the balance in form as well as in meaning. All these efforts of the translator are devoted to achieve the aesthetic sense in architecture(Fan Shouyi 2004，101-102).

In a word, both Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound ask for beauty in form but they draw their nourishment from different places with different focus, for example, Ezra Pound studied and composed Provence love poems and Japanese Haiku. In ''Cathy'', we can see that many classical Chinese poems were translated into prose which are more loose in form, but in Wen Yiduo's translation, he highlighted the structural balance and was stick to Chinese traditional sense of beauty in architecture (Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（2），3).

====4.Conclusion====
To sum up, Ezra Pound as a imagist had absorbed elements in Chinese traditional culture and reinterpreted Chinese images in his translation. What should be emphasized is that his understanding of Chinese poems and images comes from Fenollosa, and ''Cathy'' is rewriting of Fenollosa's writing. In his translation, Ezra Pound calls for artistic conception through the image superimposition. And as for his form of translation, it's more loose than that of Wen Yiduo's, for Ezra Pound though required order in literary works, he didn't take "order" as "balance". His order may exist in his position of images but it does not have to be balance in number of words or pattern of expressions. Being a fan of Li Po, Wen Yiduo even though influenced by vernacular writing movements, Chicago poets, and imagist movements, he advocated the importance of form and highlighted artistic feature of poems, the metric, which was a combination of the old and the new.

Basing on comparisons of Ezra Pound and Wen Yiduo in these three aspects, we come to know that Wen Yiduo was influenced by the imagist movement and he did pay high attention to image-using later in his works, but Wen Yiduo's literary understanding should also be attributed to his family background, China's social environment at that time, and his life experiences. Before he becomes a poet, he is a patriotic citizen. Wen Yiduo's literary works have a solid patriotic foundation and that's why he always tried to maintain Chinese traditional culture and to spread it through literary creations. This explains the elements of traditional Chinese painting and Chinese aesthetic sense of architecture in his poems, as well as the specific Chinese images contained in his poems like chrysanthemum, candler, red bean, etc. It's better to say that Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound are two poets and translators born in a similar social environment than to say that one is an exact imitator of the other. Since they two have their unique cultural background and are both passionate lover of Chinese poems, they naturally share some common features in literary presentations, but there are also distinctions reflecting their own cultural identity like what we discovered in both their own writings and translations.

===V.Reference===

*Ezra Pound. Cathy. ''London: Elkin Mathews, Cork Street Mcmxv.伦敦:埃尔金·马修斯，科克街 Mcmxv''

*Ezra Pound (1913).A Few Don’ts by an Imagiste.[意象派不该做的几件事]. ''Poetry 诗歌''.

*Bei Ta 北塔.(2011).略论闻一多诗歌之英文翻译[On the English Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poems].''中国现代文学研究丛刊 Modern Chinese Literature Researches Series''(12):97-108.

*Cheng Liming 陈历明.(2016).闻一多的诗歌翻译与格律诗学的生成[On Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poetry and the Generation of Metrical Poetics].''文艺理论研究 Theoretical Studies in Literature and Art'' 36(01):64-75.

*Fan Shouyi 范守义.(2004).论诗歌的句法结构美──汉英诗歌比较研究[On the Syntactic Structure of Poetry -- A Comparative Study of Chinese and English Poetry].''外交学院学报 Journal of China *Foreign Affairs University''(04):98-107.

Fu Jianan Zhangli 傅建安,张立.(2019). 论艾兹拉·庞德对闻一多的诗学影响[On Ezra Pound's influence on Wen Yiduo's poetics].''城市学刊 Urban Journal'' 40(05):99-102.

*Guo Wei 郭为.(1988).埃兹拉·庞德的中国汤[The Chinese Soup of Ezra Pound].''读书 Reading''(10):104-110.

*Jiang Hongxin 蒋洪新.(2001).庞德的翻译理论研究[Study on Pound's Translation Theory ].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)Foreign Languages (Journal of Shanghai International Studies University)''(04):77-80.

*Bei Ta 北塔.(2011).略论闻一多诗歌之英文翻译[On the English Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poems].''中国现代文学研究丛刊 Modern Chinese Literature Researches Series''(12):97-108.

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==A Comparative Study of Two Chinese Versions of ''The Moon and Sixpence'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory 彭丹 Peng Dan==
<center> 彭丹 Peng Dan 202020080631 日语语言文学</center>

===Abstract===
With the development of cultural exchanges among all countries, more and more famous works, novels and films have been translated into many versions for people to enjoy. It has become a headache for many translators to realize the original style. In 1969, Eugene Nida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward the theory of functional equivalence, which focuses on the realization of communication between different cultures and languages. This thesis, from the perspective of functional equivalence, through comparing Fu Weici's and Li Jihong's two Chinese versions of ''The Moon and Sixpence'', which written by Maugham, sums up the way to realize the equivalence of words, sentences and semantics during the translation and the way to present the readers' response. Some scholars think that the functional equivalence theory ignores the equivalence of form and the style of the original work. However, the theory of functional equivalence is derived from practice, so its achievements are obvious and it makes great contribution to translation. In this paper, the author will propose that the form equivalence does not affect the reader's understanding of the original work. This paper focuses on the application of functional equivalence theory in the two versions and describes how translators realize the equivalence of meaning, form and cultural equivalence. In the end, the author will give opinions on the theory of functional equivalence and have a commentation on which version is more suitable for readers

===KEY WORDS:===
Functional Equivalence; Formal Equivalence; Reader's Response

===题目===
功能对等理论视角下《月亮与六便士》的两个汉译本对比研究

===摘要===
随着各国文化交流的发展，越来越多的名著、小说或影视作品被译成多种版本供人们欣赏。如何完美地展现原著的风采是让众多译者感到头疼的事情。1969年，美国著名翻译理论学家尤金.奈达提出的功能对等理论，强调实现不同文化、语言之间的沟通对等，侧重读者的反映。本文从功能对等理论的视角，通过对比研究傅惟慈和李继宏关于《月亮与六便士》的两个中文译本，总结出译者在小说翻译的过程中是如何实现单词、句子、语义和文化的对等以及实现读者的反映。有学者认为功能对等理论忽略了形式的对等和原著的文体，但功能对等理论源于实践，它的成果有目共睹并为翻译界做出了巨大贡献。本文会提及译者在翻译过程中所忽略的形式对等并不影响读者对原著的理解，侧重描写功能对等理论在这两本译文中的应用，并详细描写它是如何实现意思、形式以及文化的对等。最后我会提出自己对于功能对等理论的见解，并评判出我认为更加适合读者的译本。
===关键词===

功能对等；沟通对等；读者反映

===1. Introduction===

====1.1 Research Background====

Coincident with the development of cultural globalization, more and more foreign literary works are translated into Chinese for domestic people to read and appreciate. Whereas after reading the original works which have been translated frequently, we may still feel that there are many regrets in most works. On the one hand, if the translators only quest corresponding words, it may limit the reader's thought in a large aspect so that the readers couldn't deeply understand the emotion that the author wants to express. On the other hand, if the translators only pursue semantics and thought, it probably can not reflect the profound meaning of a word which the author wants to express. Furthermore, there are many differences between eastern and western cultures and everyone has their own style of expression. If a translator has polarity style for the original author to translate his works, the difference between the two may be obvious. In order to show the original works better and reduce the difference between source language and target language, Eugene Nida, according to the nature of translation, puts forward the famous Functional Equivalence Theory. It states that translation is not only the equivalence of words, but also the equivalence of style, semantic and type of writing. The information conveyed by translation not only includes the surface information but also the deepe culture information.(Nida 1984,21）

====1.2 Literature Review====

In 1969, Eugene Nida put forward the functional equivalence theory. In 1986, he published a book which called From One Language to Another. This work is a representative in his theoretical pursuit of translation. He also made numerous amendments and supplements according with his previous translation theories. He used the "functional equivalence" to replace the "dynamic equivalence".

From nearly five years of development at home and abroad, we can see that the functional equivalence theory not only involves the translation of novels but also the news, politics, traditional Chinese medical name, the loaded culture words, the road science and technology, drama and other related aspects of text translation and film translation etc.. After searching the published papers, we could find some papers which use the perspective of functional equivalence theory. Such as Zhou Xiaohui's "Translating Strategies of Movie and TV Scripts from English to Chinese from the Perspective of Functionalist Equivalence: as Shown in the Translation of the Script of Crash", published in Beijing Foreign Studies University. And Chen Anqi's "Applying Nida's Functional Equivalence to the Translation of the Non-Technical Part of Sci-tech Texts", published in Beijing Foreign Studies University and etc.

In 1919, Maugham's ''The Moon and Sixpence'' was published which described a British painter went to south Pacific Tahiti and had the primitive life with the Indigenous people here. And ultimately he became the successful painter. In China, there are numerous translation versions about ''The Moon and Sixpence''. In this thesis, I want to introduce Fu Weici's translation version and Li Jihong's tra versions in particular and compare these two Chinese versions.

====1.3 Research Methodology====

1. Literature study: in order to get the first-hand information of the functional equivalence theory, it is necessary for us to read many literature such as taking the thesis and journals in the CNKI or VIP. Through these materials, we can learn a lot unknown and complete the thesis more comprehensive.

2. Example-analysis: in this thesis, I will list a majority of examples. These examples are classified on words, sentences and semantics etc.. At the same time, this thesis will also illustrate some examples which do not seem to achieve the functional equivalence. Through these examples we can get a better understanding of the functional equivalence theory and its characteristic in application.

3. Comparative study: in this thesis, I will choose Fu Weici's and Li Jihong's Chinese versions to make comparison in words, style, culture and semantics. By comparing the differences of the two Chinese versions, we can have a deeper understanding on the functional equivalence theory in application.

4. Summarize experience: This thesis will take the summarize experience of two Chinese versions to show their relation with functional equivalence and the difference between them. This thesis will also list some summarize experience which maybe not be suitable for translation.

===2. The Functional Equivalence Theory===

====2.1 Introduction of Eugene Nida====

Eugene Nida is an outstanding theorist in translation in American. And his translation theory largely influence on the translation works in both foreign countries and domestic land. His theory on the translation is a landmark of studies in modern translation. Moreover, in contrast to contemporary theorists, he is evaluated as the most noted theorist.

Eugene Nida was born in a city of Oklahoma on the November 11, 1914. He went to university in Los Angeles where he elected the Greek as the major degree and he found that he liked the Bible. Then he created outstanding academic records during the university. Afterwards, he got master's degree in Greek new translation at Southern California. In 1943, he got his doctor degree after graduation. Then he was employed by American Bible Society and his duty was to check and estimate the publications of the Bible. He needed to provide the services for the missionary translators and given the advices to them about how to translate better. To help the translator to solve the questions about translation and different culture, he went to 85 countries and experienced various aspects of culture and language. In 1970, Eugene Nida was elected as the coordinator for the translations research in United Bible Society. His responsibility is to write the translators handbooks and prepare the materials for teaching the translators and test them. After long, there were many new versions about the bible were sold well all around the world. These new versions about the bible all translated by guidance of the Nida's dynamic equivalence. Eugene Nida has devoted decades to bible translation and he has contributed to the flourishing of the bible translation in twentieth century.

====2.2 Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory====

In the early period of Nida's essays, he emphasized that there were not complete equivalence between two languages so that there were no absolute translation. Subsequently, he devoted to finding the closest equivalence about the nature, on the basis of that, he developed three translation theories which were the formal equivalence theory, the dynamic equivalence theory and the functional equivalence theory.

The formal equivalence that mainly emphasizes the equivalence of language's formal and content. Therefore, in the translation process, the translators often due to excessively focus the grammatical structure of the source language, word's coherence and interior literal meaning so that neglect the target language reader's response, the different culture is the ascribed leads to the target language readers couldn't understand the original meaning. But it also has its own strength like Kelly said it could indicate how the meaning was expressed in original works, preserving un-translated idiom and rhetorical.

The dynamic equivalence theory has no essential difference with functional equivalence theory and it develops from formal equivalence. For avoiding it is often misunderstood that Nida uses the expression of functional equivalence to describe the accuracy of the translation. The former emphasizes the importance of formal and content, the latter more emphasizes on the communication with language and culture.

The functional equivalence is defined as "a term referring to the type of equivalence reflected in a target text which seeks to adapt the functional of the original to suit the specific context in and for which it was produced" in the dictionary. From this definition it indicated functional equivalence not only emphasizes the linguistics and form but also emphasizes the communication of different background. Such as we could translate the "white as frost" to replace the "white as snow" if there isn't snow this word. If both of them are impracticable we could translate into "very very white". Form this example we could deeply understand the definition of the functional equivalence about communication. This theory pays attention to the target language reads' response under the different cultural and language. So he used "the functional equivalence" to replace "the dynamic equivalence" in the year of 1969.(Zhang Dongdong 2015,5)

The functional equivalence had made a great contribution for translation field. But there are also some critics about it by some translation scholars with different perspectives. First some scholars think it pays too attention about readers' repose that neglects the authority of text. They point out that sometimes the reader's response is subjective so it impossible to realize the equivalence of target language according to the readers' response. Secondly some scholars it is the superior to the form equivalence. Therefore it has litter emphasis on the form. As we all known that different countries have the different cultures and there are also great difference on the people's abilities about learning. So it means that it is not necessary to reduce much original difficulty to realize the communicative purpose.(Zhang 2015,7)

Although there are many critics about it, his theories come from the practice and these theories had strong guiding for our translation. What's more, the functional equivalence had solved the long-standing argument between the "literal translation" and the "liberal translation".

====2.3 Research of Functional Equivalence at Home and Abroad====

Presently at home and abroad, the functional equivalence theory's research is mainly focused on the study of translation's guidance of literary works. As opposed to business letters and legal materials, the functional equivalence theory is more inclined to convey the original works' content and connotation rather than grammatical forms. Currently there are majority researches on the versions about ''The Moon and Sixpence'' at home and aboard. However most of them are analyzing the protagonist's characteristic or the author's background and living condition. There are few researches that are about the compassion-studying and analyzing ''The Moon and sixpence'' from the perspective of the functional equivalence theory of Nida.(Liu Qiong 2016,14)

=== 3. Introduction of ''The Moon and Sixpence'' and Its Two Chinese versions===

====3.1 Brief Introduction of ''The Moon and sixpence''====

The moon and sixpence is one of the great works of William Somerset Maugham, a British novelist, written in 1919. The book is sold subject to the condition that is shall not, by way of trade or otherwise, be lent, resold, hired out, or otherwise circulated without the publisher's prior consent in any form of binding or cover other than that in which it is published and without a similar condition. First it published in Great Britain by William Heinemann in 1919. In this novel, Maugham tells the whole story in the first person narrative. This book is based on the French impressionist painter Gauguin's life who originally is a securities broker at the middle-aged. However he gave up everything to the South Pacific island of Tahiti and lived with the indigenous people. Finally he got inspiration and created many masterpieces of art. This novel became popular in the twentieth Century and it revealed the theme of escaping the reality. (Fu Weici 1994,12)

The work relates the content by the first person perspective. The protagonist is a writer who knows about Charles Strickland's family. The family looked happiness and perfectly satisfactory, however, Charles Strickland was always lacking in energy. After long, he left home to Paris that to decide look for his own art.

The protagonist goes to aboard and founds the Charles Strickland who denotes to struggle out of this life which he couldn't drawing absolutely obey his own heart. He firmly left his wife and children with nothing left. Fortunately, his wife found the skills to live well with the children. After five years, the protagonist met Charles Strickland in Paris that he lived in poverty and no friends with him but he still immersed his dream and never felt regret. His talent increasingly got the recognition during the progress of quest the art. (Fu 1994,136)

Latterly he decided to abandon the civilized life to the original islands in the South Pacific island of Tahiti where the protagonist met by chance. Charles Strickland married a native girl and had three children, spending three years short of happiness.

Finally the children died and he also had leprosy. Eventually, he finished a piece of work on the wall when he was blind. The native wife buried him, according to his wishes, destroyed his work on the wall which makes the protagonist feel regret. However the protagonist understood his pursuit in his paintings. (Fu 1994,198)

After the publishing of ''The Moon and Sixpence'', it attracts the readers by the plots and profound words and it makes a noise in the world.

====3.2 The Characteristics of the language====

Maugham is recognized the British with deeply influence of French literary. The largest characteristic of his work is that the language is humorous and interesting for readers. This mainly comes down to the fact that he is good at conceiving and telling stories. What's more it also in addition to what he often shows in his novels. Maugham's text is not tense and there are always cold tone of a British style detached from outside the novels and readers.

His works inevitably have some acrimonious words which could accurately describe the social reality by he own sees and hears. For in ''The Moon and Sixpence'' when he describes the success of the Charles Strickland that he write "I do not speak of that greatness which is achieved by the fortunate politician or the successful soldier; that is a quality which belongs to the place he occupies rather than to the man; and a change of circumstance reduces it to very discreet proportions. The prime Minister out of office is seen, too often, to have been but a pompous rhetorician, and the General without an army is but the tame hero of a market town. The greatness of Charles Strickland was authentic. It may be that you do not like his art, but at all events you can hardly refuse it the tribute of your interest. He disturbs and arrests." By these sentences we can know about the success clearly of the Charles Strickland by comparison. It may be that these languages are too direct to attack politicians and generals, but we can't deny the fact. Maugham's writing style is short and humorous and we can see the reality of society quickly by his text. (Guo Xiaoling 2014,4)

The novel describes Charles Strickland's feeling with three different women's. These three women basically represent the characteristics of the world most women. The first woman is most common who quest the materialistic, selfish, good face, and with a direct survival instinct. The second women considers the love is supremacy and she is weak and locking the ability to survive. The most pure is his third women. Maybe we couldn't define her feeling to Charles Strickland. Their marriage is like a merger of similar items, she lived just for him and she has been with him together. In my opinion, these three women are sympathy-worthy and pitiful. Since if eventually Charles Strickland said “Women are strange little beasts. You can treat them like dogs, you can beat them till your arm aches, and still they love you." These sentences are very simple neither too many gorgeous words nor long winded repetition words. However it is always able to impress deeply you from the heart and it can let you know what the emotion the author wants to express. (Guo 2014,4)

Likely these instances, Charles Strickland took keen to pursuit his own dream and he does not care these things around him so that he can't understand why women will follow him without any condition. He thinks they are sympathy-worthy and stupid. In order to vividly embody this feeling, the woman is compared to a dog. Even though you treat them as the dog, they still do not abandon you and love you as before. Through these words I believe that although you haven't read this book you could also understand the meaning which the author wants to express. Charles Strickland hates the limit of loving and family and he also couldn't feel the women's feeling. (Cao Jing 2013,2)

Charles Strickland shrugged his shoulders and said "Of course, it is one of the most absurd illusions of Christianity that they have souls." This sentence through the description of that they have the soul reflected that the pure in his heart. And he pitied them only because he thinks people have more important things to pursue and the people should follow their own heart to do what they want to do. He thinks women have souls, but they don't realize what they really want to do. Maugham's character and the inner world of the characters reflected in the simple humorous sentences have to admit that a simple sentence has a huge amount of information.

====3.3 Introduction of Fu Weici's and Li Jihong's Chinese Versions====

Fu Weici was born in Harbin in 1923. He is the remarkable translator of modern literary. Fu Weici worked in western language and literature respectively in the Fu Jen Catholic University, Zhejiang University and Peking University. He graduated from Peking University in 1950 and worked in Tsinghua University and Peking University for the job of Chinese teaching. Eventually he died in March 16, 2014 at the age of 91. As far as I am concerned and researching from computer, Fu Weici' version is more simple and there are a lot of language are very straightforward and particularly close to the social situation at that time. There are even a lot of vernacular and dialect. But this version is more close to the original so that the story does not seem boring.

Li Jihong was born in 1980 and his native is Guangdong, now resides in Shanghai. He is also remarkable translator but younger than Fu Weici. His publication has millions of best-selling translation of Kite Runne, conversations with God, the great Gatsby, the little prince and so on. His contributions are covering novels, prose, translations of sociology, economics, philosophy and religion etc. Comparing Fu Weici's version, Li Jihong's version is more close to people's voice habits and there are many languages are very smooth and complete, giving people a sense of comfort and in the language it has also increased a lot of modern elements. The specific differences of the two translations will be put forward in the following article.

===4. A Comparative Study of ''The Moon and Sixpence'''s Two Chinese versions===

====4.1 A Comparative Study on the Meaning====

=====4.1.1 A Comparative Study on the Designative Meaning=====

The designative meaning refers to referents in the realistic world. It is mainly based on observation of world's objects and experience and it is objective and easy to understand. The translators are easy to achievement equivalence of expression in another language to translate the word's designative meaning.

There are some instances of the two versions of ''The Moon and Sixpence'' following.

Example 1: "All we know is that the blackguard gone to Paris."

Fu Weici's version: "我们只知道那个流氓跑到巴黎去了。"

Li Jihong's version: "我们只知道那混蛋去了巴黎。"

In this word, we can see that either 流氓 Or 混蛋 are all to describe Charles Strickland and expresses the people's resentful to him. In the original work the author uses blackguard to describe Charles Strickland. The most meaning of this word is 流氓 and there is rarely 混蛋 this meaning on the Internet. If we translate it into 流氓 that we could understand that this people are homeless and are derelict in duty and run irrelevant business. And this people show low-down means or break the law and so on. Another if we translate into 混蛋 that expresses this person are unreasonable and are impervious to reason. In the original work the Charles Strickland abandon his wife and children without leaving anything and there are not any wrongs with his wife. We can learn from the post that he just to pursuit his dream and he considers the loving is the obstacle for him. The people around his wife all mostly think that he had mistress and he is heartless. From this we can see that he did not do the heinous thing or violate the law, merely because what he has done attracted people's discontent. Therefore I consist it is more appropriated to translate the blackguard into 混蛋. The 流氓 just release the equivalence of meaning. However the 混蛋 release the equivalence of functuionsal. (Cao Jing 2013,23)

Example 2: "It was about five years after this."

Fu Weici's version: "这件事过去大约五年之后。"

Li JIhong's version: "大概过了五年。"

The after five years it has happened a important thing and it points the Charles Strickland abandon his wife and children with nothing to left. The author mostly emphasize the protagonist had underwent this thing and it had influenced him. Moreover the main plot of this article is to express Charles Strickland's experience and his life of persuading his dream.

In first version Fu Weici points this thing but it doesn't be referred in Li Jihong's. So I think when the translators translating this sentence they need translate this thing.

Example 3: "The satyr in him suddenly took possession, and he was powerless in the grip of an instinct which had all the strength of the primitive forces of nature."

Fu Weici's version: "他内心深处的那个半人半兽的东西把他捉到手里,在这种具有大自然的原始力量的天性的掌心里他完全无能威力。"

Li Jihong's version: "他内心的兽欲猝然发难，而他根本无力摆脱那种本能的操控。"

The satyr of this sentence points to thought that he does not want love and he hasn't time for it but he is a man and sometimes he wants a woman. He hates this state but he couldn't control himself. By comparing the two versions, I think Li Jihong's translation is better than Fu Weici's. In the dictionary the satyr points a man who has strong sexual desire and is amorist. And in the Myths of Greece and Rome it points the God of half man and half beast. The first version reflects the equivalence of words' meaning. And later he used the power of nature to indicate this power. We can see that he mostly translates by word to word and it closes to the original's language characteristic. The second translators pay more attention to cultural equivalence and the influence of modern elements. Li Jihong translates the satyr into sexual desire and he describes this power is the instinct of the people. As far as I am concerned, the satyr points the sexual desire and it is the instinct which people couldn't control. (Cao Jing 2013,2)

=====4.1.2 A Comparative Study on the Associative Meaning=====

The associative meaning is an expression of the speakers by individual mental understandings. Sometimes the correct and faithful translation needs correct translating of designative Meaning and it is basis of language. However the associative meaning also is very important. There are different associative meanings though the terms have the same images. Because with the different culture and language that the readers have the different understanding. A closest equivalence of natural translation requires the target readers to fully and positively appreciate corresponding message of source text. For translating the source language's associative meaning, the translators need figure out correct associative meaning's expression. And they need do proper responses to original readers that can get from source text. Eventually the translators make the equivalence between the source text readers and target text readers.(Sun Zhili 1997,2）

Example 1: "Yes, she hadn't a drop of white blood in her."

Fu Weici's version: "是的,一滴白人的血液也没有。"

Li Jihong's version: "是的,她的身上没有半滴白人的血。"

It's about the last journey of Strickland's life, he met his wife who was indigent and without a drop of white. This sentence emphasizes she is born at here and she doesn't touch the white at all. In the Fu Weici's version, he translates a drop of white into 一滴白人的血,however in Li Jihong's, it is translated 半滴白人的血. Comparing to the original description of a drop of a blood, the later more reflects the equivalence of associative meaning and more vividly describing that she was native. 半滴 always is translated into half a drop in English. Although the translation here uses a half drop instead of a drop, I still don't think there is any not equivalence. There is not much difference between a drop and a half drop in the number, but in the degree of modification the half a drop more deeply to embody the noting. And the half drop is more strengthening the tone. From without a drop or a half drop of white to describe she is native, which indicates the equivalence of associative meaning. As far as I concerned, in this sentence, Li Jihong's version is better than Fu Weici's version.(Sun 1997,2）

Example 2: "Strickland had burst the bonds that hitherto had held him."

Fu Weici's version: "思特里克兰德已经把那一直束缚着的桎梏打碎了。"

Li Jihong's version: "思特里克兰已经打破了禁锢他的桎梏。"

"桎梏" is instruments of torture in ancient China and it is called "桎" when is worn on hand, on the contrast, it is called "梏" when is worn on foot. This thing usually used to punish the people who had committed a crime. In this part, the original work used the bonds to describe "桎梏". In the dictionary the bonds point to imprison or confine somebody to do something and make people not free. Foreigners who don't understand the Chinese culture maybe can't understand what the shackles are. However in China, almost every reader knows it and the meaning what it wants to express if they know the shackles is instruments of torture. In original work, the author wants to express Strickland had burst the bonds of thought that hitherto had held him. In the version of Fu Weici and Li Jihong, they both translate the Strickland broke the shackles which always constrained him on the thought. As we all know, thought is a thing which we could not see and grasp, and it is impossible for us to restrain a thing which is not exist with instruments of torture. Yet the translators translate that the shackles that constrain the thought. From using a real thing to show a thing which is not existing, we could deeply feel the thing that does not exist as if it were real. Although the shackles are different with bonds in the surface meaning, they both express the confine of thought and they are equivalence in associative meaning.（Wang Jia 2014,31）

====4.2 A Comparative Study on the Level of Style====

=====4.2.1 A Comparative Study on the Metaphor or Simile=====

Example 1: "He reminded you of a frightened sheep running aimlessly hither and thither."

Fu Weici's version: "像一只受了惊的小羊，没有目的地东跑西窜，张皇失措，晕头转向。"

Li Jihong's version: "他像慌不择路、到处乱跑的绵羊。"

The "小羊" refers to the sheep which small and relating thin, it does not specifically what kind of sheep. By comparing it the "绵羊" is more specific. When it comes to "绵羊", the first impression is timid and easily bullied. In the original work, the author described him like a frightened sheep. He did not point which kind of sheep but we could feel the sheep's fear and weak. Even more we could fell the sheep is timid and fearsome. Fu weici describes the sheep is little sheep. From little sheep we also could feel the meaning what the author wants to express. In Li jiong's version, he translates the sheep into Bujumbura. From Bujumbura we could know the sheep's character. Nowadays, when we express one person is timid and obedient. Usually we could use the Bujumbura. From sheep to little sheep or Bujumbura, we all were able to realize the Strickland's friend respects him and cherishes his talent. When he met Strickland’s work he felt that he was a clown. He wanted to destroy it but he is afraid. He loved his work and talent from the heart. From this sentence we know that the author and translators all use the way of metaphor. They compared Strickland friend to frightened sheep running aimlessly hither and thither. In my opinion, I more like the Li Jihong’s version because the jumbuck is more closed to our modern life. Although the original work doesn't show the kind of sheep however through metaphor we could realize the degree of the people's fear.（Wang 2014,31）

Example 2: "She was desire."

Fu Weici's version: "成了欲念的化身。"

Li Jihong's version: "她变成了欲望的化身。"

The author uses the rhetorical devices of simile in the sentence. He is desire that the two translators both compared him to the embodiment of desire. There aren't essential difference between the "欲念" and "欲望". They both express the desire for getting something. The former most points the desire of getting something in thought. The latter more inclined to express the desire for a specific thing. In original work, the author describes Strickland just pursuit the satisfaction of physiology. He only uses women to satisfy his desire and not really love them. He hated the woman just pursuit the love in life especially when he met the second woman. He didn't give her any more birthright and he didn't get married with her. He just wanted her to satisfy his desire of physiology. So when he was asked why he was with her he said that he just wanted her. The two translators both realize the equivalence of simile through compare him to the embodiment of desire.（Wang 2014,32）

Example 3: "I don't disapprove of the boa-constrictor; on the contrary, I'm interested in his mental processes."

Fu Weici's version: "我对蟒蛇的习性并不反对，相反我对它的心理活动倒很感兴趣。"

Li Jihong's version: "我并不鄙视毒蛇，恰恰相反，我对他的思维过程很有兴趣。"

The main features of "蟒蛇" is thick and long and it is the largest snakes compared to more primitive snakes in the world. "毒蛇" refers to the snakes which could secrete special venom. They are found of using stratagem to attract the vicious. They are beautiful animals, but also the embodiment of evil. In the original work, the author wants to express the protagonist’s dissatisfaction with his action. He abandoned his wife and two lovely children with leaving nothing. Even more he didn't feel this mistake and he had no need to take responsibility for them. In the eyes of ordinary people this is totally inconsistent with common sense. The true husband should love his wife and take care of the family. So many people think he is cold-bloode and the protagonist is no exception. The author uses the boa to describe. The Strickland's action calls the opposition from the people. Fu Weici translates the boa into the "蟒蛇". According to the introduction of the python, we can see that the boa is larger and they are carnivores. But these maybe the result of natural selection and these are not their nature is bad. On the contrary, the "毒蛇" are different and they are the real bad guys and they are devil incarnate. Through the description of the original text, we can know that the hero complained that he abandoned his family and he was not human. So I think compare him to "毒蛇" is more appropriate. It reflects his cold-bloodedness and unfeeling.（Wang 2014,33）

=====4.2.2 A Comparative Study on the Repetition=====

Example 2: "I will never have him in my house-never."

Fu Weici's version: "我永远也不让他进咱们的家门-永远也不让。"

Li Jihong's version: "我绝不让他踏进我的家-绝不。"

Never and absolutely not both describe the no. However the latter tone is more serious. Repetition is to emphasize a certain meaning and it is to highlight a certain emotion. Especially when using some certain repetition of words, sentences or paragraphs. Through this chapter, we can see that Strickland is ill, however, Mrs. Stroeve against him to move to her home. She says "I will never have him in my house-never". Two repetition of "never" shows the Mrs. Stroeve's firm attitude. After reading, we can know the reason why she firmly opposed because she did not want to admit that she was falling in love with a penniless pauper, and he does not have what advantage. She was afraid to see him because she was afraid that it would come true. So we can know that she is very reluctant Strickland to come to her house for recuperating. The repetition of never and absolutely not both could reflect this feeling.（Zhao Dandan 2011,54）

====4.3 A Comparative Study on the Cultural Transmission====

The culture is very complicated and it refers to the entire way of life in the society. It involves many aspects that knowledge, art, law, translation and other habits in the society. Eugene Nida depicts the relationship between the culture and language in the translating practice like that in whole translating and interpreting, the source language and the target language should be implicitly or explicitly compared, but all such interlinguas communication extend far beyond the mechanizes of linguistic similarities and difference. The main reason is that the meaning of verbal symbols on every level depends on the communication of culture and language. The language also is a part of culture, and it is the most complicated part of the habits comparing the other culture factors. Language provides access to the culture, reflects culture and in the some aspects it constitutes a model of culture. Eugene Nida also indicates that if there were not so many misunderstandings about the language and the function within a society relation between the culture and the language couldn't constitute such difficulties for intersecting culture understanding.（Zhao 2011,55）

From Eugene Nida's perspective, the language and the culture are closely related. He thinks the words should denote to show the corresponding culture. The language is loaded by culture and the culture is expressed, transmitted, preserved and promoted by language. Thus the translator should take considerable account of the culture factors in their translation. That means the translators should try to find the closed equivalence in the translation of the culture connotation. The translation couldn't beyond the target language readers' acceptance or give them a distorted understanding. On the contrast, the translators need make sure their translations can enable the target language readers to accurately and adequately understand the source texts. "Eugene Nida considers culture as the totality of the beliefs and practices of a society, and classifies culture into five categories: ecological culture, material culture, social culture, religious culture and linguistic culture." (Nida 1964,91)

===5. Conclusion===

====5.1 Evaluation of the Two Chinese Versions====

Through the comparison of the two papers, I prefer to Li Jihong's version. It is more closed to modern reading habits. In this version, functional equivalence is used in many place, which not only the pursuit of literal meaning but the pursuit of the original expression of emotion. By comparing Li Jihong's version, the Fu Weici's version is more reflecting the equivalence of the meaning and sometimes pursuit the equivalence of words. On the other hand, the two versions differ 19 years. With the change of time, cultural background and the reader's preferences also changed. By comparing, the latter's translation is more closed to modern readers' reading habit. More accurately, the latter is more in line with my reading habits.

To summarize, the author hopes that this study may contribute a little to the research field of ''The Moon and Sixpence'' and its translation. What is done in this thesis is just an elementary study concerning translation strategy. There are much more needed to be explored in this field.

====5.2 The Limitation of Present Study====

As all above, this thesis has studied the translation of ''The Moon and Sixpence'' on the aspects on meaning, study and culture. Some examples are analyzed under each type of device to evaluate the two versions of translation based on the functional equivalence theory. However there are too much pages of these two translations, and just some parts of them are taken as examples to discuss in the study in the chapter three of this paper. Therefore, this study may not be comprehensive and it has to be confined due to the author's personal perspective and the limitation of research material and time.

===References===

*W.Somerset Maugham. The Moon and Sixpence[M].England: Vintage Classics Press, 2008-5-1.

*Halliday, M.A.K. Language Structure and Language Function[M].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2008.

*Nida, Eugene. On Translation[M]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Cooperation, 1984.

*Nida, Eugene. Toward a Science of Translating[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.

*Halliday, M.A.K. An Introduction to Function Grammar [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2008.

*Nida, Eugene.A. & Jan De Ward. From One Language to Another[M]. Nashville: Thomas Nelson Inc, 1986.

*Nida, Eugene.A. Language, Culture and Translating[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1993.

*Ma Huijuan. A Study on Nida’s Translation Thery[M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2003.

*傅惟慈.月亮与六便士[M].上海：上海译文出版社，1994.

*李继宏.月亮与六便士[M].天津：天津人民出版社，2015.

*张东东，姜立维.功能翻译理论与应用笔译研究[M].黑龙江：哈尔滨工程大学出版社，2015-5.

*刘琼.“功能对等理论”指导下文化负载词的翻译--以《金翅雀》为例[D].北京：北京外国语大学，2016.

*孙致礼.关于我国翻译理论建设的几点思考[J]. 中国翻译, 2(1997).

*刘宓庆.当代翻译理论[M].北京: 中国对外翻译出版社， 2005.

*顾维勇.实用文体翻译[M].北京: 国防工业出版社, 2005.

*陈安琪.用奈达功能对等理论指导当代科技文本非技术部分的翻译[D].北京：北京外国语学院，2014.

*王佳.从功能对等理论看《爱玛》的翻译[J]. 2014（10）：31-33.

*赵丹丹.浅论奈达的功能对等理论[J]. 2011（03）：54-55.

*王德春.语言学概论[M].上海: 上海外语教育出版, 1997.

*马会娟.奈达翻译理论研究[M].北京: 中国对外翻译出版社，2003.

==Differences in style and language expression in Japanese-English narrative translation 谢子熠 Xie Ziyi==

--[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 14:01, 9 December 2020 (UTC)

'''Abstract:''' When Japanese narrative texts translated into English, the translated versions often have different forms and syntax from the original texts. From the perspective of cognitive linguistics, it is thought that the difference in form and structure is due to the difference in cognitive practices of the actors who recognize and conceptualize the situation in the narrative as a linguistic expression. In the present paper, mainly based on Langacker 's theory, I argue that there are two opposing modes of situation recognition, one in which the conceptualize　perceives the situation objectively from outside and the other in which the conceptualize perceives it subjectively from inside the situation, and that before and after translation, the former is dominant in the English narrative and the latter in the Japanese This study confirms the fact that the trend appears in the trend. The paper concludes with the following points: (1) the present tense in the past-tense story, (2) the clarification of the person who experienced the situation (mainly the subject), and (3) the use of onomatopoeia and mimetic words as useful objects for future contrastive analysis in Japanese and English.

'''Key words:''' Conceptualization, conceptualization, subject (gender), perspective, Japanese-English translation

'''1. Introduction'''

In one study, I contrasted Soseki Natsume's "I am a Cat" with its Chinese translation, focusing on the use of poses, and found that there were far more examples of translating the original passive sentence into the active voice than the reverse. This means that it is essentially a misuse (or non-use) of Chinese to express its context passively. It can be said that I consciously changed the form of expression to the Chinese form from the perspective that it would be a good fit. Even if the Japanese conception is natural for the passive, it may be an unnatural idea that does not fit in with the Chinese language. The same can be said for the translation of narrative text in Japanese and English. Japanese to English and vice versa. In both cases, the forms and syntax used in the translated language are often different from those in the original.

In one study, I contrasted Soseki Natsume's "I am a Cat" with its Chinese translation, focusing on the use of poses, and found that there were far more examples of translating the original passive sentence into the active voice than the reverse. This means that it is essentially a misuse (or non-use) of Chinese to express its context passively. It can be said that I consciously changed the form of expression to the Chinese form from the perspective that it would be a good fit. Even if the Japanese conception is natural for the passive, it may be an unnatural idea that does not fit in with the Chinese language. The same can be said for the translation of narrative text in Japanese and English. Japanese to English and vice versa. In both cases, the forms and syntax used in the translated language are often different from those in the original.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

This paper considers the above-mentioned problems in the translation of Japanese and English narrative texts within the framework of cognitive linguistics. In cognitive linguistics, every linguistic expression reflects the subject's interpretation of the situation it represents; in other words, the subject conceptualizes the situation it perceives on its own initiative, and the product of that interpretation is the linguistic expression. In other words, subjects conceptualize the situation they perceive on their own, and the product is their linguistic expression. If different forms of expression and syntax used to express the same situation before and after Japanese/English translation, the degree of subjectivity of the cognitive subject's interpretation is different.

This paper considers the above-mentioned problems in the translation of Japanese and English narrative texts within the framework of cognitive linguistics. In cognitive linguistics, every linguistic expression reflects the subject's interpretation of the situation it represents; in other words, the subject conceptualizes the situation it perceives on its own initiative, and the product of that interpretation is the linguistic expression. In other words, subjects conceptualize the situation they perceive on their own, and the product is their linguistic expression. If different forms of expression and syntax used to express the same situation before and after Japanese/English translation, the degree of subjectivity of the cognitive subject's interpretation is different.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Based on this concept, the present paper structured as follows. First, we mainly support previous studies and this "subjectivity" and "conceptualization" and their closely related "perspectives" and "perspectives". The concepts of cognitive linguistics that form the basis of the analysis are presented, and at the same time, these concepts are used as the basis for the analysis of Japanese and English. I will describe the differences in the style of situation recognition in the language. Next, we will describe them in the narrative sentences of Japanese and English. In the following section, we present the framework of "cognitive narrative" contrastive research, which is applied to the contrastive analysis of The following are some examples of the use of the present tense in past tense stories in Japanese and English narratives via translation use, the clarification of the cognoscenti, and the use of onomatopoeia and mimetic words. We have shown that differences found in English and that it is the style of situational awareness in Japanese and English differences. In addition, in Section 4, we will show a concrete example of this in the actual Japanese English Briefly presented with examples of analysis of the translation of narrative sentences, and in the final section as the cornerstone of the subsequent specific linguistic analysis. We shall describe the prospects. In other words, this thesis is the first of many Japanese English narrative texts and their adaptations in the future. Contrast analysis with the translated version and consider the stylistic and syntactic differences between the Japanese and English versions. In doing so, we will focus on the above perspectives from the framework of cognitive linguistics, and thus we will be able to translate the narrative text into Japanese and English The purpose is to describe the basis for trying to explore contributions to language typology in terms of it is.

Based on this concept, the present paper structured as follows. First, we mainly support previous studies and this "subjectivity" and "conceptualization" and their closely related "perspectives" and "perspectives". The concepts of cognitive linguistics that form the basis of the analysis are presented, and at the same time, these concepts are used as the basis for the analysis of Japanese and English. I will describe the differences in the style of situation recognition in the language. Next, we will describe them in the narrative sentences of Japanese and English. In the following section, we present the framework of "cognitive narrative" contrastive research, which is applied to the contrastive analysis.

The following are some examples of the use of the present tense in past tense stories in Japanese and English narratives via translation use, the clarification of the cognoscenti, and the use of onomatopoeia and mimetic words. We have shown that differences found in English and that it is the style of situational awareness in Japanese and English differences. In addition, in Section 4, we will show a concrete example of this in the actual Japanese English Briefly presented with examples of analysis of the translation of narrative sentences, and in the final section as the cornerstone of the subsequent specific linguistic analysis. We shall describe the prospects. In other words, this thesis is the first of many Japanese English narrative texts and their adaptations in the future. Contrast analysis with the translated version and consider the stylistic and syntactic differences between the Japanese and English versions. In doing so, we will focus on the above perspectives from the framework of cognitive linguistics, and thus we will be able to translate the narrative text into Japanese and English The purpose is to describe the basis for trying to explore contributions to language typology in terms of it is.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

'''2. Definitions of cognitive linguistic concepts'''

Since language is a product of human activities, it is not in itself independent of the language user. Rather, all linguistic expressions reflect the subjective and subjective interpretation of the language user subject. The "subject" is, specifically, the language in which a situation verbalized. It is the subject of conceptualization, and at the same time, it is the conceptualizer that interprets the situation that the linguistic expression represents. In other words, as a conceptualizer, the language user is the subject that first recognizes the situation around him or her, conceptualizes it subjectively, and then expresses it in language. Behind every linguistic expression, there is always a conceptualizer who interprets the situation it represents. Perspective" is a concept that focuses on the role of this conceptualizer. It includes (i) orientation, (ii) vantage point, (iii) directonality, (iv) how subjectively or objectively one interprets an entity (i.e., how subjectively or objectively It contains four elements: (anentity is construed). To recognize a situation, the conceptualizer stands on a standpoint and perceives the situation from there. The concept that encompasses the conceptualizer's standpoint and the direction of his or her gaze is the "viewpoint" (viewpoint). In other words, "viewpoint" is a concept that encompasses not only the position from which one looks at an object, but also the extent to which one interprets an object as subject-object. The subject interprets the situation by focusing on the subjectively selected perspective, and reflects it in words. And then individual language expressions are produced on that basis.

Since language is a product of human activities, it is not in itself independent of the language user. Rather, all linguistic expressions reflect the subjective and subjective interpretation of the language user subject. The "subject" is, specifically, the language in which a situation verbalized. It is the subject of conceptualization, and at the same time, it is the conceptualizer that interprets the situation that the linguistic expression represents. In other words, as a conceptualizer, the language user is the subject that first recognizes the situation around him or her, conceptualizes it subjectively, and then expresses it in language.

Behind every linguistic expression, there is always a conceptualizer who interprets the situation it represents. Perspective" is a concept that focuses on the role of this conceptualizer. It includes (i) orientation, (ii) vantage point, (iii) directonality, (iv) how subjectively or objectively one interprets an entity (i.e., how subjectively or objectively It contains four elements: (anentity is construed). To recognize a situation, the conceptualizer stands on a standpoint and perceives the situation from there. The concept that encompasses the conceptualizer's standpoint and the direction of his or her gaze is the "viewpoint" (viewpoint). In other words, "viewpoint" is a concept that encompasses not only the position from which one looks at an object, but also the extent to which one interprets an object as subject-object. The subject interprets the situation by focusing on the subjectively selected perspective, and reflects it in words. And then individual language expressions are produced on that basis.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In cognitive linguistics, these concepts considered to produce linguistic expressions, and it is known that the subject that produces the linguistic expressions perceives the situation in various cognitive modes when it conceptualizes the situation. There are cases in which the subject grasps the object of conceptualization objectively from the outside, and there are cases in which the subject grasps the situation as a part of the situation. There are also cases in which the situation is grasped as neither subject nor object, but rather as an existence that forms the situation. In other words, depending on the perspective of the subject, the same situation can be interpreted in several ways.

In cognitive linguistics, these concepts considered to produce linguistic expressions, and it is known that the subject that produces the linguistic expressions perceives the situation in various cognitive modes when it conceptualizes the situation. There are cases in which the subject grasps the object of conceptualization objectively from the outside, and there are cases in which the subject grasps the situation as a part of the situation. There are also cases in which the situation is grasped as neither subject nor object, but rather as an existence that forms the situation. In other words, depending on the perspective of the subject, the same situation can be interpreted in several ways.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Based on the above conceptualization and discussion, I will confirm the facts that have been pointed out in the previous Japanese/English contrastive studies. It has been said that English is a language that prefers objective expressions, while Japanese is a language that prefers subjective expressions. While English native speakers tend to grasp the situation objectively, Japanese native speakers tend to grasp the situation subjectively. Unlike English native speakers, Japanese native speakers tend to place themselves in a situation and directly grasp the situation as a whole by feeling it with their own bodies. In Japanese, there are many linguistic expressions that express subjective meanings that reflect this kind of cognition of a situation. In other words, in English, linguistic expressions that reflect a point of view taken outside of a situation are prototypical, and linguistic expressions that express subjective meanings established through the special process of manifesting conceptual operations. On the other hand, at least in Japanese, it is more prototypical to take a point of view into a situation and express a subjective and subjective understanding of the situation through it.

Based on the above conceptualization and discussion, I will confirm the facts that have been pointed out in the previous Japanese/English contrastive studies. It has been said that English is a language that prefers objective expressions, while Japanese is a language that prefers subjective expressions. While English native speakers tend to grasp the situation objectively, Japanese native speakers tend to grasp the situation subjectively. Unlike English native speakers, Japanese native speakers tend to place themselves in a situation and directly grasp the situation as a whole by feeling it with their own bodies.

In Japanese, there are many linguistic expressions that express subjective meanings that reflect this kind of cognition of a situation. In other words, in English, linguistic expressions that reflect a point of view taken outside of a situation are prototypical, and linguistic expressions that express subjective meanings established through the special process of manifesting conceptual operations. On the other hand, at least in Japanese, it is more prototypical to take a point of view into a situation and express a subjective and subjective understanding of the situation through it.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Furthermore, the following facts have been identified as characteristic characteristics of the linguistic representation of Japanese stories. There are two attitudes to narrative expression in Japanese writing: one is to explain the development of the situation from the standpoint of an observer, and the other is to describe it as such from the author's point of view. In addition, there is a proactive narrative attitude of accepting events from the point of view of the characters in the story. Moreover, one is allowed to use them all at will, sometimes even shifting to a different level of narrative attitude. For example, in addition to the author, there may be another person in the story, and the story described from that person's point of view. In other words, there is a shift in perspective in the relationship between the two parties in the story. In other words, there is a shift in point of view from a bystander to a character in the story. In other cases, when explaining a topical scene, the author does not look down on the overall geographical situation with the eyes of a bystander, but rather passively perceives the scene from his own point of view within the realm of the story. Here, too, we can see the peculiarity of the Japanese language way of thinking. In any case, what is prototypical in the Japanese language is a mode of situational awareness that conceptualizes and expresses a situation from a point of view within the context of a situation.

Furthermore, the following facts have been identified as characteristic characteristics of the linguistic representation of Japanese stories. There are two attitudes to narrative expression in Japanese writing: one is to explain the development of the situation from the standpoint of an observer, and the other is to describe it as such from the author's point of view. In addition, there is a proactive narrative attitude of accepting events from the point of view of the characters in the story. Moreover, one is allowed to use them all at will, sometimes even shifting to a different level of narrative attitude. For example, in addition to the author, there may be another person in the story, and the story described from that person's point of view.

In other words, there is a shift in perspective in the relationship between the two parties in the story. In other words, there is a shift in point of view from a bystander to a character in the story. In other cases, when explaining a topical scene, the author does not look down on the overall geographical situation with the eyes of a bystander, but rather passively perceives the scene from his own point of view within the realm of the story. Here, too, we can see the peculiarity of the Japanese language way of thinking. In any case, what is prototypical in the Japanese language is a mode of situational awareness that conceptualizes and expresses a situation from a point of view within the context of a situation.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

'''3. Cognitive Narrative Theory'''

Before going into a specific translation analysis of Japanese and English narrative sentences, it is necessary to describe here the basic idea of cognitive narrative theory as its foundation.

If we define narrative as a formal text in which a speaker, who is a cognitive subject, manipulates the narrator to convey the situation he or she grasps (constructs) to the receiver, the problematic aspect of cognitive narrative theory is how the cognitive subject perceives and expresses the event or event. From this perspective, it can be said that the perspective of how we perceive a situation plays an important role in narrative structure. Even when describing the same object, the way of describing it differs depending on the viewpoint from which the object viewed. The narrative world reflects the dynamic cognitive process of the subject presenting that world. This kind of cognitive process is created by the subject's mode of interpretation, such as viewpoint projection, gaze movement/transformation, etc. The subject's cognitive processes constrain various aspects of narrative representation, including form and structure.

Before going into a specific translation analysis of Japanese and English narrative sentences, it is necessary to describe here the basic idea of cognitive narrative theory as its foundation.

If we define narrative as a formal text in which a speaker, who is a cognitive subject, manipulates the narrator to convey the situation he or she grasps (constructs) to the receiver, the problematic aspect of cognitive narrative theory is how the cognitive subject perceives and expresses the event or event. From this perspective, it can be said that the perspective of how we perceive a situation plays an important role in narrative structure. Even when describing the same object, the way of describing it differs depending on the viewpoint from which the object viewed. The narrative world reflects the dynamic cognitive process of the subject presenting that world. This kind of cognitive process is created by the subject's mode of interpretation, such as viewpoint projection, gaze movement/transformation, etc. The subject's cognitive processes constrain various aspects of narrative representation, including form and structure.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

If we apply Nishitaya's cognitive narrative theory, a study of Japanese and English narrative texts in terms of translation and contrast will ultimately depend on the differences in cognitive styles between languages, how the subject and conceptualizer of a situation perceives and expresses the situation in language, as well as the form of expression and syntax before and after translation. It can be considered to make a difference above. Hence, in the following, we will first describe typical human cognitive styles and then identify which cognitive style predominantly adopted by Japanese and English as the dominant language. If differences in the predominant tendency of the cognitive style of the situation reflected in both languages clarified, it can be a basis for differences in the forms and syntax produced before and after translation of the same situation.

If we apply Nishitaya's cognitive narrative theory, a study of Japanese and English narrative texts in terms of translation and contrast will ultimately depend on the differences in cognitive styles between languages, how the subject and conceptualizer of a situation perceives and expresses the situation in language, as well as the form of expression and syntax before and after translation. It can be considered to make a difference above. Hence, in the following, we will first describe typical human cognitive styles and then identify which cognitive style predominantly adopted by Japanese and English as the dominant language. If differences in the predominant tendency of the cognitive style of the situation reflected in both languages clarified, it can be a basis for differences in the forms and syntax produced before and after translation of the same situation.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

'''4. Findings from translation studies'''

As mentioned above, the subjective interpretation of the translator enters into the translation. It is impossible in principle for a source text to be objectively interpreted, objectively represented in its meaning, and objectively textualized in the target language on the basis of these objective representations. The act of translation is (1) a single, on-the-spot act of interpretation by the individual translator, which is subject to the indeterminacy of meaning, and (2) a single, on-the-spot act of interpretation by the translator. That is to say, there is an inherent indeterminacy of interpretation of the original text itself, as well as of the linguistic structure of its expression in the target language. Second, at the micro level, the habitus acquired by the individual translator in the professional field of translation plays a role as a control factor and influences the translator's disposition to act in a greater or lesser degree. There are also translation instructions and power dynamics from publishers and clients, as well as political, social, and cultural macro-contextual factors (the main ones being "norms" and "purpose," which will be discussed below) that are behind the translator's disposition to translate. At the same time, the indeterminacy and subjective bias of the translator inherent in the act of translation will inevitably lead to different results in the translation. Therefore, when we make a translation into a counter-language study, we need to pay attention to the (1) linguistic and social actions of the translation act, and (2) the interpretive tendencies of the individual translator.

As mentioned above, the subjective interpretation of the translator enters into the translation. It is impossible in principle for a source text to be objectively interpreted, objectively represented in its meaning, and objectively textualized in the target language on the basis of these objective representations. The act of translation is (1) a single, on-the-spot act of interpretation by the individual translator, which is subject to the indeterminacy of meaning, and (2) a single, on-the-spot act of interpretation by the translator. That is to say, there is an inherent indeterminacy of interpretation of the original text itself, as well as of the linguistic structure of its expression in the target language.

Second, at the micro level, the habitus acquired by the individual translator in the professional field of translation plays a role as a control factor and influences the translator's disposition to act in a greater or lesser degree. There are also translation instructions and power dynamics from publishers and clients, as well as political, social, and cultural macro-contextual factors (the main ones being "norms" and "purpose," which will be discussed below) that are behind the translator's disposition to translate. At the same time, the indeterminacy and subjective bias of the translator inherent in the act of translation will inevitably lead to different results in the translation. Therefore, when we make a translation into a counter-language study, we need to pay attention to the (1) linguistic and social actions of the translation act, and (2) the interpretive tendencies of the individual translator.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The following is a summary of the changing trends in translation studies. There are two aspects of translation: linguistic action and social action, and theories have been shifting their analysis from the former to the latter. Theories that focus on the linguistic action of translation are the linguistic stages of translation studies: equivalence, translation shift, translation strategies, and text-type theory. When socio-actionality was added to these theories, Scopos theory, register analysis, systems theory, and normative theory were developed, which became the next generation of the linguistic stage. However, as translation studies experienced a "cultural and ideological turn" from its textual analysis-centered era, it began to focus on "translation as rewriting," "translation of gender," "postcolonial translation theory," "(non)visibility of translation," and "power networks of translation," among others. This covers not only translation but also the social, cultural, and historical significance and role of the social practice of representation. In recent years, research has also focused on "people," with a focus on the translator's life history and life story, and an analysis of how the individual translator's habitus affects the translation. To summarize this trend, we can see a shift from (1) focusing on the linguistic action of translation to (2) social action, and (3) research that takes into account the interpretive tendencies of individual translators.

The following is a summary of the changing trends in translation studies. There are two aspects of translation: linguistic action and social action, and theories have been shifting their analysis from the former to the latter. Theories that focus on the linguistic action of translation are the linguistic stages of translation studies: equivalence, translation shift, translation strategies, and text-type theory. When socio-actionality was added to these theories, Scopos theory, register analysis, systems theory, and normative theory were developed, which became the next generation of the linguistic stage.

However, as translation studies experienced a "cultural and ideological turn" from its textual analysis-centered era, it began to focus on "translation as rewriting," "translation of gender," "postcolonial translation theory," "(non)visibility of translation," and "power networks of translation," among others. This covers not only translation but also the social, cultural, and historical significance and role of the social practice of representation. In recent years, research has also focused on "people," with a focus on the translator's life history and life story, and an analysis of how the individual translator's habitus affects the translation. To summarize this trend, we can see a shift from (1) focusing on the linguistic action of translation to (2) social action, and (3) research that takes into account the interpretive tendencies of individual translators.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

On the basis of the above, let's first discuss the aforementioned case of Ikegami (2007) in the context of translation studies. For now, the case of Snow Country can be reduced to the issue of equivalence and shift. The concept of equivalence itself is disputed and has been defined and characterized in numerous ways (see Pym 2010, pp. 7-42), but I will operationally define it as the same linguistic and cultural value between the source and target texts. Five levels can be assumed for this equivalence: word level, phrase level, grammatical level, textual level (thematic progression and cohesion), and pragmatic level (Baker 1992), and this paper will mainly focus on the grammatical level. The "shift" is a linguistic shift between the source and target texts due to structural differences between the source and target languages (Catford 1965). In this connection, "conversion operations" refer to various operations to achieve a translation shift, either obligatory because of linguistic structure, or selective in order to achieve target language identity or certain stylistic effects.

On the basis of the above, let's first discuss the aforementioned case of Ikegami (2007) in the context of translation studies. For now, the case of Snow Country can be reduced to the issue of equivalence and shift. The concept of equivalence itself is disputed and has been defined and characterized in numerous ways (see Pym 2010, pp. 7-42), but I will operationally define it as the same linguistic and cultural value between the source and target texts. Five levels can be assumed for this equivalence: word level, phrase level, grammatical level, textual level (thematic progression and cohesion), and pragmatic level (Baker 1992), and this paper will mainly focus on the grammatical level. The "shift" is a linguistic shift between the source and target texts due to structural differences between the source and target languages (Catford 1965). In this connection, "conversion operations" refer to various operations to achieve a translation shift, either obligatory because of linguistic structure, or selective in order to achieve target language identity or certain stylistic effects.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Let's apply this to the case of Ikegami (2007). If we assume that there is a certain situation objectively portrayed in the original text, then if we can faithfully reproduce that situation in the target text, we have achieved an "equivalent" translation. However, because of the difference in linguistic structure between Japanese and English, and the different grammatical categories that must be expressed as linguistic expressions, obligatory conversion operations must be performed to conform to the linguistic norms of the target language (for example, the subject is zeroed in Japanese, but in English it is basically, because the subject is obligatory, do the operation of making the subject stand up).

Let's apply this to the case of Ikegami (2007). If we assume that there is a certain situation objectively portrayed in the original text, then if we can faithfully reproduce that situation in the target text, we have achieved an "equivalent" translation. However, because of the difference in linguistic structure between Japanese and English, and the different grammatical categories that must be expressed as linguistic expressions, obligatory conversion operations must be performed to conform to the linguistic norms of the target language (for example, the subject is zeroed in Japanese, but in English it is basically, because the subject is obligatory, do the operation of making the subject stand up).

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In practice, however, there is a process of chronological translation involved, which means that there are more than just static differences in linguistic structure. (1) The translator first interprets the source text (interpretation; a situation from the words). Then, (2) based on this interpretation, he or she contextualizes it in the target language (construal).

In practice, however, there is a process of chronological translation involved, which means that there are more than just static differences in linguistic structure. (1) The translator first interprets the source text (interpretation; a situation from the words). Then, (2) based on this interpretation, he or she contextualizes it in the target language (construal).

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

'''5. Subject's Perspective and Style of Situational Awareness in Japanese and English'''

In general, there are two kinds of opposing modes of conceptualizer subject's perception of a situation.

''Form A. Subject (C) grasps a situation (O) in which it is not a participant from outside the situation, corresponding to Langacker's optimal viewing arrangement, Ikegami's "objective grasping," and Nakamura's "D mode.

''Form B. The subject (C) enters a situation and grasps its situation (O), corresponding to Langacker's egocentric viewing arrangement, Ikegami's "subjective grasping" and Nakamura's "I-mode".

In general, there are two kinds of opposing modes of conceptualizer subject's perception of a situation.

''Form A. Subject (C) grasps a situation (O) in which it is not a participant from outside the situation, corresponding to Langacker's optimal viewing arrangement, Ikegami's "objective grasping," and Nakamura's "D mode.

''Form B. The subject (C) enters a situation and grasps its situation (O), corresponding to Langacker's egocentric viewing arrangement, Ikegami's "subjective grasping" and Nakamura's "I-mode".

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In terms of these viewpoint arrays, English tends to prefer the optimal viewpoint array and Japanese tends to prefer the egocentric viewpoint array.
When the subject takes a perspective, as in Form B, where the language subject enters a situation that is the object of conceptualization and interprets it subjectively and subjectively, the degree of subjectivity is very high in the language expression reflecting that subjectivity, e.g., in (1) a. below. On the other hand, when the subject interprets the object of conceptualization objectively from the outside, as in Form A, the linguistic expressions reflecting the subjectivity of the subjectivity are less subjective (or in other words, more objective), such as b. and c. below. In b., the existence of the subject as a reference point is explicitly stated, but here the subject "conceptually splits" itself up and objectively perceives another real self in the situation from outside the situation. In other words, the speaker plays the role of both the subject of conceptualization and the object of conceptualization. In contrast, in c., the subject, as the subject of the conceptualization, perceives it objectively from the outside without entering the object of the conceptualization. Therefore, c. has a lower degree of subjectivity than b. It is the linguistic expression that expresses the most object-oriented meaning among the three linguistic expressions. The degree of subjectivity reflected in each linguistic expression depends on the degree to which the linguistic expression reflects the subjective and subjective interpretation of the subject. In other words, differences in the degree of subjectivity based on each cognitive style embodied in differences in the form and syntax of the resulting language expressions.

In terms of these viewpoint arrays, English tends to prefer the optimal viewpoint array and Japanese tends to prefer the egocentric viewpoint array.
When the subject takes a perspective, as in Form B, where the language subject enters a situation that is the object of conceptualization and interprets it subjectively and subjectively, the degree of subjectivity is very high in the language expression reflecting that subjectivity, e.g., in (1) a. below. On the other hand, when the subject interprets the object of conceptualization objectively from the outside, as in Form A, the linguistic expressions reflecting the subjectivity of the subjectivity are less subjective (or in other words, more objective), such as b. and c. below. In b., the existence of the subject as a reference point is explicitly stated, but here the subject "conceptually splits" itself up and objectively perceives another real self in the situation from outside the situation.

In other words, the speaker plays the role of both the subject of conceptualization and the object of conceptualization. In contrast, in c., the subject, as the subject of the conceptualization, perceives it objectively from the outside without entering the object of the conceptualization. Therefore, c. has a lower degree of subjectivity than b. It is the linguistic expression that expresses the most object-oriented meaning among the three linguistic expressions. The degree of subjectivity reflected in each linguistic expression depends on the degree to which the linguistic expression reflects the subjective and subjective interpretation of the subject. In other words, differences in the degree of subjectivity based on each cognitive style embodied in differences in the form and syntax of the resulting language expressions.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

⑴ a. Vanessa is sitting across the table.
b. Vanessa is sitting across the table from me.
c. Vanessa is sitting across the table from Veronica.
（深田・仲本2008：171-172）

As seen in the present example, multiple linguistic expressions based on cognitive styles with different degrees of subjectivity are possible in English as well, but as mentioned earlier, style A tends to be used relatively more often than style B.
I will now mention what Langacker calls the "stage model". The "stage model" is a cognitive model that idealizes the meaning of linguistic expressions and the typical positioning of "speakers". According to this model, the speaker typically observes what is on the stage from the outside and encodes the conceptualization of it into a linguistic representation. In this case, the speaker is the "subject" of the concept and the object of expression is the "object" of the conceptualization, and their roles completely separated. In other words, we can say that the speaker's perspective is "off-stage". From this point of view, subjectivization is a phenomenon in which the speaker that not directly depicted, but rather the speaker that is non-explicitly incorporated into part of the semantic structure of the object of description (the object). In other words, in subjectivized, highly subjective linguistic expressions, the speaker's perspective is "on-stage". A relative comparison between English and Japanese shows that the "off-stage" type is more prevalent in English forms and syntax, while the "on-stage" type is more prevalent in Japanese.

As seen in the present example, multiple linguistic expressions based on cognitive styles with different degrees of subjectivity are possible in English as well, but as mentioned earlier, style A tends to be used relatively more often than style B.

I will now mention what Langacker calls the "stage model". The "stage model" is a cognitive model that idealizes the meaning of linguistic expressions and the typical positioning of "speakers". According to this model, the speaker typically observes what is on the stage from the outside and encodes the conceptualization of it into a linguistic representation. In this case, the speaker is the "subject" of the concept and the object of expression is the "object" of the conceptualization, and their roles completely separated.

In other words, we can say that the speaker's perspective is "off-stage". From this point of view, subjectivization is a phenomenon in which the speaker that not directly depicted, but rather the speaker that is non-explicitly incorporated into part of the semantic structure of the object of description (the object). In other words, in subjectivized, highly subjective linguistic expressions, the speaker's perspective is "on-stage". A relative comparison between English and Japanese shows that the "off-stage" type is more prevalent in English forms and syntax, while the "on-stage" type is more prevalent in Japanese.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Next, let us look at the two cognitive modes presented by Nakamura. This is also true for Japanese and English. Tendentious differences which is found according to Nakamura, from the aspect of subjectivity, there are two types of human perception of the situation, two modes of cognition, and each syntax (linguistic representation) is thought to reflect one of these two modes more strongly. The first is called "I-mode" (situationally attuned cognitive mode), which is the predominant mode in Japanese for situational perspective; in relation to Langacker, it is "on-stage" and is often viewed as "situation-centered" and the speaker is the participant in the situation (S-perspective). Also, because the perspective is within the situation, it is "direct experience" and its expression is "non-reporting" in that it is experiential and not reportive in tone. These are exactly the features that have been revealed to predominant in the linguistic expressions of Japanese narrative sentences. In contrast, the "D-mode" (cognitive mode from outside the situation) is the predominant mode in English that places the perspective outside the situation; in relation to Langacker, it is an "off-stage" and "out-of-situation" mode, so the perspective is literally "extrinsic" and "external" to each participant in the situation, which will be the focus of attention (the "person-centered" view, O-Perspective). Thus, the expression is "reportive". These are, if anything, the predominant features of linguistic representation in English narrative writing.

Next, let us look at the two cognitive modes presented by Nakamura. This is also true for Japanese and English. Tendentious differences which is found according to Nakamura, from the aspect of subjectivity, there are two types of human perception of the situation, two modes of cognition, and each syntax (linguistic representation) is thought to reflect one of these two modes more strongly. The first is called "I-mode" (situationally attuned cognitive mode), which is the predominant mode in Japanese for situational perspective; in relation to Langacker, it is "on-stage" and is often viewed as "situation-centered" and the speaker is the participant in the situation (S-perspective).

Also, because the perspective is within the situation, it is "direct experience" and its expression is "non-reporting" in that it is experiential and not reportive in tone. These are exactly the features that have been revealed to predominant in the linguistic expressions of Japanese narrative sentences. In contrast, the "D-mode" (cognitive mode from outside the situation) is the predominant mode in English that places the perspective outside the situation; in relation to Langacker, it is an "off-stage" and "out-of-situation" mode, so the perspective is literally "extrinsic" and "external" to each participant in the situation, which will be the focus of attention (the "person-centered" view, O-Perspective). Thus, the expression is "reportive". These are, if anything, the predominant features of linguistic representation in English narrative writing.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The predominant cognition in Japanese, where the speaker interacts with the situation/object, is the situation-based cognition, or "I-mode," which is a subjective cognition in which the speaker and the experiencer assimilate (and thus the speaker himself becomes the cognitive subject). In other words, it is a state in which the cognitive subject and the object of cognition fused together, which called "subject-object unity. On the other hand, the cognitive mode of objective recognition of a situation/object, which is dominant in English, is the extrinsic cognitive mode, or the "D-mode", which does not presuppose the interaction between the subject and the situation/object. This is characterized by the point that the cognitive subject goes outside the interactive cognitive field and takes a viewpoint as if it were viewed objectively from the outside. In that sense, this one is a "separation of subject and guest," so to speak, against the former.

The predominant cognition in Japanese, where the speaker interacts with the situation/object, is the situation-based cognition, or "I-mode," which is a subjective cognition in which the speaker and the experiencer assimilate (and thus the speaker himself becomes the cognitive subject). In other words, it is a state in which the cognitive subject and the object of cognition fused together, which called "subject-object unity. On the other hand, the cognitive mode of objective recognition of a situation/object, which is dominant in English, is the extrinsic cognitive mode, or the "D-mode", which does not presuppose the interaction between the subject and the situation/object. This is characterized by the point that the cognitive subject goes outside the interactive cognitive field and takes a viewpoint as if it were viewed objectively from the outside. In that sense, this one is a "separation of subject and guest," so to speak, against the former.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The Japanese language has a self-centered viewpoint arrangement and Mode I dominance, while the English language has an optimal viewpoint arrangement and Mode D dominance, and for this reason, the following differences in linguistic expressions expected to appear in the narrative as a tendency. This difference in cognitive mode is thought to be the basis of the different structures and forms of expression in translation, which may lead to the selection of linguistic expressions, and thus to the differences in expression between the source and target texts.

The Japanese language has a self-centered viewpoint arrangement and Mode I dominance, while the English language has an optimal viewpoint arrangement and Mode D dominance, and for this reason, the following differences in linguistic expressions expected to appear in the narrative as a tendency. This difference in cognitive mode is thought to be the basis of the different structures and forms of expression in translation, which may lead to the selection of linguistic expressions, and thus to the differences in expression between the source and target texts.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The reason for (1) and (2) in the Japanese language, where the I-mode is predominant, is that the narrator describes the situation in a way that puts him or her in it. The following argument about the frequent use of the present tense in Japanese narrative writing will also reinforce this point. The underlined part of the sentence is only possible when the narrator puts himself in the situation.

The reason for (1) and (2) in the Japanese language, where the I-mode is predominant, is that the narrator describes the situation in a way that puts him or her in it. The following argument about the frequent use of the present tense in Japanese narrative writing will also reinforce this point. The underlined part of the sentence is only possible when the narrator puts himself in the situation.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The use of the non-present present tense effectively moves past events to the present moment, so the reader or listener can re-experience the story.
The use of the present tense in Japanese narratives has the effect of giving immediacy, making the reader feel the suspense and assimilate into the author's inner world in the time in which the story is going on.

The use of the non-present present tense effectively moves past events to the present moment, so the reader or listener can re-experience the story.
The use of the present tense in Japanese narratives has the effect of giving immediacy, making the reader feel the suspense and assimilate into the author's inner world in the time in which the story is going on.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The reason for (3) is that onomatopoeia and mimetic words are situationally relevant forms of expression. In general, onomatopoeia and mimetic words which used more frequently in Japanese than in English and other languages. In Japanese, onomatopoeia and mimetic words which used more frequently than in English and other languages, such as "pochan" and "shito", respectively. A linguistic expression that expresses the phenomenon in its entirety, without the need for the subject to enter into the situation and adhere to it. If we consider that a situation cannot be grasped as a whole unless the subject enters into the situation and follows it closely, we can say that Japanese onomatopoeia and mimetic words are linguistic expressions expressing subjective meanings that manifest the existence of the subject who recognizes and interprets the situation subjectively. Therefore, they can be considered to be forms reflecting the I-mode. In Japanese narratives, which are much richer in onomatopoeia and mimetic words than in English, the I-mode is dominant.

The reason for (3) is that onomatopoeia and mimetic words are situationally relevant forms of expression. In general, onomatopoeia and mimetic words which used more frequently in Japanese than in English and other languages. In Japanese, onomatopoeia and mimetic words which used more frequently than in English and other languages, such as "pochan" and "shito", respectively. A linguistic expression that expresses the phenomenon in its entirety, without the need for the subject to enter into the situation and adhere to it. If we consider that a situation cannot be grasped as a whole unless the subject enters into the situation and follows it closely, we can say that Japanese onomatopoeia and mimetic words are linguistic expressions expressing subjective meanings that manifest the existence of the subject who recognizes and interprets the situation subjectively. Therefore, they can be considered to be forms reflecting the I-mode. In Japanese narratives, which are much richer in onomatopoeia and mimetic words than in English, the I-mode is dominant.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

'''6. Japanese and English Narrative Sentence Contrastive Analysis'''

In order to confirm the previous discussion, I will look at and analyze the actual narrative text in Japanese and English through translation. The purpose of this paper is to examine how the cognitive style of the situation in the narrative texts of Japanese and English before and after translation reflected in the linguistic expressions and how it leads to the differences in the linguistic expressions in Japanese and English, especially in the three points mentioned in the previous section. The quantitative and quantitative data analysis itself will be done another time due to space constraints. Therefore, in this section, we will limit ourselves to a fact-finding exercise.

In order to confirm the previous discussion, I will look at and analyze the actual narrative text in Japanese and English through translation. The purpose of this paper is to examine how the cognitive style of the situation in the narrative texts of Japanese and English before and after translation reflected in the linguistic expressions and how it leads to the differences in the linguistic expressions in Japanese and English, especially in the three points mentioned in the previous section. The quantitative and quantitative data analysis itself will be done another time due to space constraints. Therefore, in this section, we will limit ourselves to a fact-finding exercise.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

First, let's see how explicit and non-explicit tenses and situation recognizers in past-tense narratives differ between Japanese and English, depending on the conceptualizer's perspective. These perspectives correspond to those of (1) and (2) in the previous section. I will use Kawabata Yasunari's novel Yukiguni (Snow Country) and its English translation as the subject matter. From the previous discussion, it can be seen that the degree of subjectivity increases as we go from 1. to 4. below. In other words, 1. is the typical D-mode, which is dominant in English, and 4. is the typical I-mode, which is dominant in Japanese.

First, let's see how explicit and non-explicit tenses and situation recognizers in past-tense narratives differ between Japanese and English, depending on the conceptualizer's perspective. These perspectives correspond to those of (1) and (2) in the previous section. I will use Kawabata Yasunari's novel Yukiguni (Snow Country) and its English translation as the subject matter. From the previous discussion, it can be seen that the degree of subjectivity increases as we go from 1. to 4. below. In other words, 1. is the typical D-mode, which is dominant in English, and 4. is the typical I-mode, which is dominant in Japanese.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

1.Past tense, experienced person clarification, and perspective. "Off Stage”
2.Past tense, experienced non-explicit, perspective. "Off Stage”
3.Present tense, experienced person clarification, and perspective. "On Stage”
4.Present tense, experienced person non-explicit, point of view. "On Stage”

1.Past tense, experienced person clarification, and perspective. "Off Stage”
2.Past tense, experienced non-explicit, perspective. "Off Stage”
3.Present tense, experienced person clarification, and perspective. "On Stage”
4.Present tense, experienced person non-explicit, point of view. "On Stage”

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

⑵ a. …女はぷいと窓へ立っていって国境の山々を眺めたが、そのうちに頰を染めて、…
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)
b. She stood up abruptly and went over to the window, her face reddening as she looked out at the mountains.
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)

⑶ a. …島村が内湯から上がって来ると、もう全く寝静まっていた。古びた廊下は彼の踏む度にガラス戸を微かに鳴らした。その長いはずれの帳場の曲り角に、裾を冷え冷えと黒光りの板の上へ拡げて、女が高く立っていた。
(Past tense; empiricist non-explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)
b. ...and by the time Shimamura had come up from the bath the place seemed to be asleep. The glass doors rattled slightly each time he took a step down the sagging corridor. At the end, where it turned past the office, he saw the tall figure of the woman, her skirts trailing coldly off across the dark floor.
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)

⑷ a. …島村はなぜかそれが心のどこかで見えるような気持ちもする。
(Present tense; empiricist explicit: the conceptualizer's Perspective is "On Stage”.)
b. Somewhere in his heart Shimamura saw a question, as clearly as if it were standing there before him.
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)

⑸ a. 島村はその方を見て、ひょっと首を縮めた。鏡の奥が真白に光っているのは雪である。その雪のなかに女の真赤な頰が浮んでいる。
(Present tense; empiricist non-explicit: the conceptualizer's perspective is "On stage”.)
b. Shimamura glanced up at her, and immediately lowered his head. The white in the depths of the mirror was the snow, and floating in the middle of it were the womanʼs bright red cheeks.
(Past tense; empiricist non-explicit; conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)

⑵ a. …女はぷいと窓へ立っていって国境の山々を眺めたが、そのうちに頰を染めて、…
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)
b. She stood up abruptly and went over to the window, her face reddening as she looked out at the mountains.
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)

⑶ a. …島村が内湯から上がって来ると、もう全く寝静まっていた。古びた廊下は彼の踏む度にガラス戸を微かに鳴らした。その長いはずれの帳場の曲り角に、裾を冷え冷えと黒光りの板の上へ拡げて、女が高く立っていた。
(Past tense; empiricist non-explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)
b. ...and by the time Shimamura had come up from the bath the place seemed to be asleep. The glass doors rattled slightly each time he took a step down the sagging corridor. At the end, where it turned past the office, he saw the tall figure of the woman, her skirts trailing coldly off across the dark floor.
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)

⑷ a. …島村はなぜかそれが心のどこかで見えるような気持ちもする。
(Present tense; empiricist explicit: the conceptualizer's Perspective is "On Stage”.)
b. Somewhere in his heart Shimamura saw a question, as clearly as if it were standing there before him.
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)

⑸ a. 島村はその方を見て、ひょっと首を縮めた。鏡の奥が真白に光っているのは雪である。その雪のなかに女の真赤な頰が浮んでいる。
(Present tense; empiricist non-explicit: the conceptualizer's perspective is "On stage”.)
b. Shimamura glanced up at her, and immediately lowered his head. The white in the depths of the mirror was the snow, and floating in the middle of it were the womanʼs bright red cheeks.
(Past tense; empiricist non-explicit; conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

From the above example, it can be seen that the English translation has a reduced degree of subjectivity in its form compared to the original Japanese.
Now let's look at the perspective in the previous section (3), i.e., examples of onomatopoeia and mimetic words. The following is the original English text of Hemingway's "The Old Man and the Sea" and its translation into Japanese, in which the situation is expressed subjectively in Japanese as onomatopoeia and mimetic words, respectively. In the Japanese translation, the subject's point of view penetrates into the situation and which is closely connected to it to understand the situation as a whole. In this respect, it can be said that the degree of subjectivity of the cognizant subject is relatively greater than in English.

From the above example, it can be seen that the English translation has a reduced degree of subjectivity in its form compared to the original Japanese.
Now let's look at the perspective in the previous section (3), i.e., examples of onomatopoeia and mimetic words. The following is the original English text of Hemingway's "The Old Man and the Sea" and its translation into Japanese, in which the situation is expressed subjectively in Japanese as onomatopoeia and mimetic words, respectively. In the Japanese translation, the subject's point of view penetrates into the situation and which is closely connected to it to understand the situation as a whole. In this respect, it can be said that the degree of subjectivity of the cognizant subject is relatively greater than in English.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

⑹ a. ...and he loved to walk on them on the beach after a storm and hear them pop when he stepped on them with the horny soles of his feet.
b. また彼は嵐のあとなど、海岸に打ちあげられた浮袋を、角のように硬くなった踵で踏みつけては、それがプスッ、プスッと音をたてるのをききながら歩くのが好きだった。

⑺ a. In the dark, the old man could feel the morning coming and as he rowed he heard the trembling sound as flying fish left the water and the hissing that their stiff set wings made as they soared away in the darkness.
b. 老人は暗黒のうちに朝の近寄る気配を感じとっていた。飛魚が水を離れるときに生じるブルンという音、その硬い翼が暗い空をよぎるヒューという音、オールを操りながら老人はそれらの物音をはっきりききとっていた。

⑻ a. It floated cheerfully as a bubble with its long deadly purple filaments trailing a yard behind it in the water.
b. 黒ずんだ紫色の細い糸が水中に一ヤードも尾を引いていたが、それはまるで水泡のように、のんきにふわふわと漂っていた。

⑼ a. The bird went higher in the air and circled again, his wings motionless.
b. 鳥はさらに上空めがけて舞いあがり、ふたたびぐるぐる輪を描きはじめた。

'''7. Conclusion'''

In this paper, the framework and considerations of the contrastive study of Japanese and English narrative texts through translation are presented from the perspective of cognitive linguistics, with a particular focus on the concepts of "perspective" and "subjectivation," and some of the possibilities, methods, and examples of the analysis of linguistic representations of situation recognition in Japanese and English narrative texts have been seen. In particular, the contrastive analysis of Japanese and English The analysis from the standpoint of the opposition between the self-centered viewpoint arrangement and the optimal viewpoint arrangement proposed by Langacker, the I-mode and the D-mode proposed by Nakamura, and the subjective and objective grasping that Ikegami advocates seems to be effective, but it is necessary to collect data and attempt a quantitative analysis of more works in the future. In particular, with regard to item (1) of section 3, the position of the conceptualizer's point of view differs between the past and present tenses, with the former in the off-stage and the latter in the on-stage. Also, the item (2) in section 3, i.e., whether or not the perceiver of the situation is explicitly stated in the linguistic representation, may be explained by whether or not it is profiled in the direct scope. Further data analysis is needed to verify these as well. It should be noted that this Japanese-English controlled study may contribute to the further advancement of Nakamura's "cognitive typology".

In this paper, the framework and considerations of the contrastive study of Japanese and English narrative texts through translation are presented from the perspective of cognitive linguistics, with a particular focus on the concepts of "perspective" and "subjectivation," and some of the possibilities, methods, and examples of the analysis of linguistic representations of situation recognition in Japanese and English narrative texts have been seen. In particular, the contrastive analysis of Japanese and English The analysis from the standpoint of the opposition between the self-centered viewpoint arrangement and the optimal viewpoint arrangement proposed by Langacker, the I-mode and the D-mode proposed by Nakamura, and the subjective and objective grasping that Ikegami advocates seems to be effective, but it is necessary to collect data and attempt a quantitative analysis of more works in the future. In particular, with regard to item (1) of section 3, the position of the conceptualizer's point of view differs between the past and present tenses, with the former in the off-stage and the latter in the on-stage. Also, the item (2) in section 3, i.e., whether or not the perceiver of the situation is explicitly stated in the linguistic representation, may be explained by whether or not it is profiled in the direct scope. Further data analysis is needed to verify these as well. It should be noted that this Japanese-English controlled study may contribute to the further advancement of Nakamura's "cognitive typology".

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

'''Bibliography:'''

[1] 川端康成『雪国』、岩波書店、1952年.

[2] Kawabata Yasunari Snow Country. translated by Edward G. Seidensticker, Charles E. Tuttle Company, 1957.

[3] Hemingway Ernest The Old Man and the Sea. Kodansha International, 1991.

[4] アーネスト，ヘミングウェイ『老人と海』（福田恒在訳）、新潮社、1966.

[5] 森田良行『話者の視点がつくる日本語』ひつじ書房、2006年

[6] 籾山洋介・深田智「意味の拡張」松本曜編著『認知意味論』大修館書店

[7] 深田智・仲本康一郎『概念化と意味の世界』研究社、2008年

[8] 本多啓『アフォーダンスの認知意味論』、東京大学出版会、2005年

[9] 西口純代「物語文の現在時制における視点と文脈の変化」河上誓作・谷口一美共編『ことばと視点』、英宝社、2007年

[10] ベルク，オギュスタン『空間の日本文化』（宮原信訳、ちくま学芸文庫）、筑摩書房、1994年

==The Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Chinese-English Communication 莫南 Mo Nan,202020080627,比较文学==
'''文化负载词在中英交流中的翻译'''
'''摘要：'''文化负载词是民族文化智慧的结晶，蕴含着深厚的民族文化遗产。文化负载词的准确翻译不仅可以促进跨文化交际的顺利进行，而且有助于传播民族文化，保持民族特色，促进各民族之间的友好交流。尽管文化负载词的翻译存在困难，但它仍然是可译的。前进模型、块模型、标注模型、集成模型和自适应模型是有效的转换模型;直译、意译和音译都是有效的翻译策略。译者应根据不同情况选择合适的翻译模式和翻译策略。
'''关键词：'''文化负载词，翻译，交际

'''Abstract:''' Culture-loaded words are the crystallization of national cultural wisdom and contain deep national cultural heritage. Accurate translation of culture-loaded words can not only promote smooth cross-cultural communication, but also help spread national culture, maintain national characteristics and promote friendly exchanges among ethnic groups. Although there are difficulties in translation of culture-loaded words, it is still translatable. The go-ahead model, block model, annotation model, integration model and adaption model are effective translation models; literal translation, liberal translation and transliteration are all effective translation strategies. Translators should choose the appropriate translation models and strategies in different situations.

'''Key words:''' Culture-loaded words; translation, communication

As we all know, translation plays an important role in intercultural communication. A good translator can help to promote the communication between two different cultures. With the process of globalization, intercultural communication is becoming more and more frequent. However, there exist plenty of cultural differences between different cultures, especially between the East and the West. Cultural differences make it hard for translators to translate well. Culture-loaded words belong to one of the differences between different cultures. Therefore, it is of great significance to be aware of the appropriate translation of culture-loaded words. This is because it can help translators translate better and thus make two different cultures communicate better.

'''1 Introduction'''
Culture refers to all the activities of a nation, including clothes, food, production, education, law, politics, customs, historical allusions, temperament and emotion, modes of thinking, values, religious mentality and many other factors. Language is one of the most fundamental systems of culture, with the function of storing, describing, expressing and spreading cultural information. Vocabulary, as the basic unit of language, is the most direct reflection of the cultural factors.
Culture-loaded words are words, phrases and idioms that signify things unique to a certain culture. These vocabularies reflect the unique activities of a particular nation that have been gradually accumulated in the long historical process and are different from other nations. Culture-load words have strong national colors and distinctive cultural personalities, and in the language system they can best reflect the cultural information carried and inherited by language and the social life of human beings. Culture-loaded words are important carriers to reflect national culture, and they are a special kind of information text, which has both textual meaning and rich cultural connotation.
Nowadays, economic and cultural exchanges among various ethnic groups are becoming more and more frequent. In order to better promote friendly exchanges between Chinese and Western nations, eliminate cultural barriers and conflicts caused by cultural differences, and smoothly carry out cross-cultural communication, it is especially important to understand national cultures and characteristics, especially to study the translation of culture-loaded vocabularies.

'''2 Definition, Classification and Translatability of Culture-loaded Words'''
'''2.1 Definition of Culture-loaded Words'''
Since Professor Xu Guozhang (1980) published “Culture Loaded Words and English Language Teaching” in Modern Foreign Languages, the study of culture-loaded words has attracted great attention from the academic circles. However, scholars in China have different opinions on the definition of culture-loaded words. In his book Contemporary Western Translation Theory, Liao Qiyi (2000) argues that it “refers to the words, phrases and idioms that signify things unique to a certain culture. These vocabularies reflect the unique activities of a particular nation that have been gradually accumulated in the long historical process and are different from other nations.” This kind of vocabulary carries a lot of cultural information and is very regional and national, i.e. “culture-loaded words”. Some scholars inherited and developed Mr. Liao’s definition, for example, Hu Wenzhong (1999) pointed out that “culture-loaded words are vocabularies of a specific cultural category, which are directly or indirectly reflected in the vocabulary level of national culture”. Since then, some scholars have argued that culture-loaded words are the phenomenon of lexical vacancies, that is, cultural information in the source language cannot find a corresponding word in the target language.
Culture-loaded words signify the changes of a country and a nation. In both domestic and foreign social life, culture-loaded words are a kind of words that cannot be ignored, which are conducive to the export of local culture and the introduction of foreign culture, so as to achieve the purpose of communication and integration between different cultures. The connotation of culture-loaded words determines that they have many distinctive features. The first characteristic is that it is very rich in meaning. In different contexts, it can express ever-changing and rich meanings. The second characteristic is that its usage is very flexible. It can not only play a significant role in longer and more complex sentences, but also play a similar role as a metaphor in short and sharp sentences. The third characteristic is that it is short and flexible. A few words can express a customary thing, so it can be applied separately to news and notifications, while ensuring that it does not deviate from the subject of news or notifications.
'''2.2 Classification of Culture-loaded Words'''
The classification of culture-loaded words is as diverse as the definition of it, but most scholars classify culture-loaded words on the basis of cultural categorization. Wang Rongpei (2002) classifies culture-loaded words into eight categories based on various aspects of human life: political words, social words, color words, legendary allusion words, human body words, animal and plant words, food words, and other words. Based on the classification of cultural factors in language by the famous American translation theorist Eugene A. Naida, Li Xuejun (2015) classifies culture-loaded words into material culture words, ecological culture words, linguistic culture words, social cultural words and religious culture words. The words themselves are characterized by generality, ambiguity and ethnicity in their meanings, an they are constantly changing with the development of society. The vocabulary is rich and the classification standards are difficult to unify, which hinders the classification of culturally loaded words.
'''2.3 Translatability of Culture-loaded Words '''
On the question of whether culture is translatable, Steiner, a well-known translation theorist, argues that “Human commonalities make translation possible” (2001: 259). Translatability and untranslatability is a crucial issue for translation studies to establish its principles and make it an independent discipline. Firstly, to deny the translatability of translation is essentially to deny the ability of language to express and describe the unknown. Secondly, untranslatability originates from the limited knowledge and ability of the translator, which is actually unknowable. Thirdly, translation cannot be classified as untranslatable just because it is difficult. The so-called untranslatable actually means that when the source language is translated into the target language, the loss of the source language is great. In addition, it is believed that only by understanding the differences between national cultures and acknowledging the translatability of culture-loaded words, can we effectively communicate with each other and achieve the goal of communication. Translatability is the mark of human language, and the development of human language and culture is built on the basis of translatability, without which there is no way to talk about human cultural exchange.
Due to the great linguistic and cultural differences between the source culture and the translated culture, the translator can only translate on the basis of making the translation as close to the original as possible. The translation of culture-loaded words should follow the following principles (Liao Qiyi, 2000): a. the reproduction of the meaning of the original words is better than the reproduction of the form; b. the context in which the original words are used must be taken into account in the choice of words; c. the key implied meaning of the original words should be converted into non-implied meaning in the translation. All these principles require us to: a. translate the connotation of the original language; b. pay attention to the cultural context of the original language; c. transform the more difficult cultural vocabulary in the original text into easily acceptable vocabulary in the target language. In view of this, when dealing with culture-loaded words, it is important for the content of the translation to be faithful to the original, but the cultural connotation should be paid more attention to. A translation without cultural connotation will make the readers of a different language get a wrong understanding.
'''3 Difficulties in the translation of culture-loaded words'''
'''3.1 Differences in Worldview and Ideology'''
Worldview refers to how people perceive the universe, nature, and how they perceive the relationship between humans and nature. As such, it affects all aspects of human perception, such as beliefs, ideas and behaviors. Chinese and Western cultures with different worldviews may contain different values and perceptions of the same objective thing. Generally speaking, China emphasizes unity, while the West emphasizes independence, which is the biggest difference between China and the West in terms of worldview. For example, the Chinese preach “harmony is precious” and advocate and glorify “collectivism”. However, Western culture focuses on individual independence, individual freedom and individual rights. It encourages people to realize and express themselves, believing that “everyone is unique”.
'''3.2 Differences in the Natural and Geographical Environment'''
Language is a reflection of the objective world in real life, and the environment in which people live produces the languages they speak. In the process of producing and developing a language, any nation is influenced to varying degrees by the geographical environment and climatic conditions in which it lives. Therefore, differences in the natural and geographical environment are also important factors in the formation of different culture-loaded words. For example, the true meaning of the phrase “east wind” and “west wind” in Chinese is very different from that in English. The “east wind” in the minds of the Chinese is warm and can make the grass and trees grow, similar to the spring wind. Because China’s topography is high in the west and low in the east, facing the sea in the east. In China, the east wind is given the cultural connotation of “vitality”, “spring”, “new life” and so on. In the Chinese winter, however, the northwest wind from Siberia is bitterly cold and harsh. In the West, for example, in the United Kingdom, the east wind comes from the northern part of the European continent and is extremely cold, while the west wind from the Atlantic Ocean is warm, humid and pleasant. This is why the famous English poet Shelley’s lyrical poem Ode to the West Wind appeared.
'''3.3 Differences in Historical Culture'''
There are significant differences in the historical culture backgrounds of China and the West. China’s feudal ruling system lasted for more than 3,000 years, and before 1840, China’s traditional philosophical thinking was mainly based on Confucianism, with the addition of Taoism. In the West, for example, the United Kingdom has been developing in the transition to capitalism since 1640. Due to the different historical development backgrounds of the two cultures, their cultural differences are also reflected in the use of words. For example, the English idiom “is it necessary to use a steam hammer to crack nuts?” means “no need to make a fuss”, which is equivalent to the Chinese saying “why use a cow's knife when killing a chicken? (杀鸡焉用牛刀)”. This idiom shows that Britain had entered the industrial age, while China was still in a backward production based on agriculture.
'''3.4 Differences in Religious Beliefs'''
China is a country that mainly believes in Buddhism, and Buddhism has a very wide influence in people’s social life. For example, the Chinese idioms “菩萨心肠”, “跑得了和尚跑不了庙”, “临时抱佛脚” and “借花献佛” are accompanied by connotations of Chinese culture, which are difficult for Westerners to understand. In the West, religion occupies an extremely important position in social life, thought and culture, and is one of the main characteristics of Western culture. For example, for the Chinese, the “End of World” can easily be understood as a terrifying moment when a catastrophe is imminent and mankind is about to be destroyed. However, for Westerners, it does not mean terror, but it means that one day the world will finally end, and everyone will accept God’s final judgment, which means that the time for justice is coming.
'''4 Approaches to Translate Culture-loaded Words'''
'''4.1 Translation on the Macro Basis of the Values of the Source Language Region'''
The word “worldview” encompasses a large category that reflects people’s understanding of the universe, the world, nature and the relationship between human beings and nature. At the same time, the influence of worldview is also very broad and significant. It affects people’s recognition of the value of things, and influences the way people perceive and think about things. Therefore, if someone want the translation of culture-loaded words to make the target readers feel the same as the readers in the source language, he or she should translate them on the premise of understanding the worldview and values of the source language.
'''4.2 Explanation of the Social and Historical Background and Religious Culture'''
The English-speaking countries of the West believe in the spirit and values transmitted by the ancient Greek and Roman cultures, while China mainly believes in the spirit transmitted by the Confucian culture, which also includes the spirit of Taoist culture. China has a history and culture of 5,000 years, more than half of which has been ruled by the feudal monarchy, while the feudal system in Western countries was established later and developed mainly towards capitalism after the Industrial Revolution. Such differences will be shown in the English vocabulary, so in the translation of culture-loaded words, explanation of the different social and historical backgrounds and religious and cultural beliefs is very necessary.
'''4.3 Understanding of the Natural and Humanistic Environment'''
The differences in the natural environment between the East and the West have a very important impact on the differences in English and Chinese culture-loaded words. For example, “east wind” in China means a good implied meaning, whereas “east wind” in the western population means desperate. It is mainly caused by geographical environment factors and climate factors in the east and west. The humanistic environment here refers mainly to customs and habits, and more specifically in the appellation of relatives and the use of honorific expressions. Easterners pay more attention to respect and courtesy, while Westerners emphasize equality.
'''4.4 Guided by the Semantic Basis of the English-Chinese Culture-loaded Words'''
Through various comparative studies between English and Chinese, linguists have found that there are four main types of culture-loaded words: vacancy words, conflict words, reciprocity words and iterative words. Among them, iterative words are divided into two types, one is words with the same meaning but different shapes, and the other is words with the same shape but different meanings. For example, in English, “red” (红) is not only used as “red”, but also as “black” (black tea 红茶) and “brown” (brown sugar 红糖) in some fixed words. It is a common phenomenon that people associate the same word with different meanings. For example, in the West, the English word “dog” is used in a sentence describing a person to express praise. While from the Chinese people’s perspective, the word “dog” is often used in a derogatory way, such as “走狗” (flunky/lackey).
'''5 Translation Models of Culture-loaded Words'''
Each language has many words that are used to express its own specific cultural concepts, and their signified is the clearest only in a particular cultural context. The problem of translation may arise once one moves out of a specific cultural context into one that is quite different from one’s own. The principle of translating culture-loaded mainly depends on the cultural background of the source language, the social background, the translator’s cultural concept and the cultural acceptance mentality of the targeted readers, and other factors, which are closely related and mutually reinforcing. In dealing with the translation of culture-loaded words, translators can take the following models.
'''5.1 Go-ahead Model'''
The go-ahead model refers to the direct entry of cultural expressions from the source language into the translation. Many cultural words are translated with the go-ahead model, which means that transliteration or literal translation is used in translation. There are transliterated words such as microphone, yin and yang, sofa, fans and the literal translation of words such as hot dog and three representations.
'''5.2 Block Model'''
The cultural expression of the source language fades away and its cultural meaning is not adopted by the targeted culture, which is the cultural block or block model. Some cultural words are blocked from the target language culture because of the limitation of language function. The most obvious example is some expressions that express self-effacement in Chinese, such as “鄙人”, “拙文” and “贵姓”. Even in the title of an article, people will often find expressions such as “浅谈”, “初探” and “刍议” to indicate one’s immature views. In addition, there are also some honorific expressions, such as “令堂”, “大作”, and “光临”, etc. When translating into English, the cultural connotations of such expressions can be appropriately reflected in the context of China, but it is not necessary to translate every word, i.e., the cultural connotations of the Chinese language can be blocked.
'''5.3 Annotation Model'''
Annotation model refers that the target language provides information about the cultural context of the source language cultural expression, that is, the method of interpretation of the target language provides a little but important context or situational information for foreign cultural concepts in the target language. For example, cynicism, as a foreign word, is one of the four major philosophical schools of ancient Greece, represented by the figure of Diogenes of Sinop. There is no existing equivalent in Chinese. At that time, the philosophers or thinkers who practiced cynicism seemed to behave, speak, act and even live in a way that was uninhibited, unscrupulous and shameless, but they were loyal, reliable, sensitive and clear-cut, which were very similar to some characteristics of dogs. So people call these philosophers or thinkers who practiced cynicism as “犬儒”.
'''5.4 Integration Model'''
The integration model refers to the fusion of cultural expressions in the source language and the target language, which enters the target language in a novel linguistic form. Obviously, the integration model is closely related to the openness of different cultures and the frequency of interaction. The terms “X-ray”, “typeB ultrasonic”, “T-shirt” and “Coca Cola” imported from the Western seem to be named directly in Chinese. This kind of translation method that integrates transliteration and free translation is undoubtedly an effective way for foreign culture to integrate into the target language culture.
'''5.5 Adaption Model'''
When the cultural expression of the source language is omitted and replaced by a translated one, the cultural meaning of the source language disappears, which is the process of adaption model. The domestication translation method aims to minimize the exoticism in the translation and provide a natural and smooth translation for the target language readers, according to Venuti (1995). The cultural domestication model is usually used together with the annotation model when it is used to translate cultural words. For example, the English expression for “拳击练习” is “shadow boxing”. If it is borrowed to express “太极拳” in Chinese, the word “Chinese” must be added before the expression to become “Chinese shadow boxing”.
'''6 Translation Strategies of Culture-loaded Words'''
'''6.1 Literal Translation: to Convey Cultural Connotations'''
As the name implies, "literal translation" is the direct conversion of the meaning and structure of the source language words into the target language words, including literal translation and literal translation with annotations. Human beings live on the same earth, and although there are huge differences between Chinese and English national cultures, there are also certain similarities. For some Chinese-English culture-loaded words, the literal translation method can not only retain the cultural connotation of the source language words, but also transmit them to the target language culture, thus achieving the cross-cultural communication purpose of cultural exchange.
There are many examples of literal translation in both Chinese and English languages, and almost no trace of translation can be seen, reflecting the successful fusion of Chinese and Western cultures. For example, “fast food” in English is directly translated as “快餐”, and “all roads lead to Rome” is translated as “条条大路通罗马”. In English, there are also vocabulary expressions directly translated from Chinese, such as “paper tiger (纸老虎)”, “one country, two systems (一国两制)”, and “keep pace with the times (与时俱进)” and so on. The above examples vividly illustrate that appropriate literal translation of culture-loaded words can not only maintain the unique national flavor of the source language vocabulary, but also enrich the vocabulary of the target language to a certain extent, provided that the literal translation does not cause misunderstanding among the target language readers.
The Chinese traditional culture is broad and profound, and the Chinese language is full of words with strong cultural connotations. In order to better retain the connotation and flavor of these culture-loaded words, and to make the traditional culture of the Chinese nation acceptable to the whole world, the translators very often adopt the literal translation method for such words. For example, “四书” is translated as “Four Books”, “五经” as “Five Classics”, “文房四宝” as “Scholar’s Four Jewels”, “龙舟” as “Dragon Boat” and “剪纸” as “paper-cut”, and so on. This kind of literal translation can preserve the profound connotation and infinite charm of traditional Chinese culture in the process of cross-cultural communication between East and West.
'''6.2 Free Translation: to Seek Functional Equivalence'''
Due to different cultural backgrounds and ways of thinking, there are many culture-loaded words with specific connotations in both Chinese and English languages, and if a literal translation is used, it is likely to cause misunderstanding among the target language readers and even cultural conflicts. Therefore, the translation of these words can be used to seek functional equivalence of the free translation method, without pursuing the language form of the source language, only to convey the meaning of the source language. As the name implies, free translation means translating according to the meaning of the words. The advantage of the free translation method is that the translator is not limited by the construction pattern of the words, and translators can translate by inferring the deeper meaning and cultural connotation of the words in the source language. Take the typical Chinese dishes with strong Chinese culture as an example, if the expressions such as “四喜丸子”, “醉蟹” and “红烧狮子头” directly translated into English in literal translation, they will definitely make foreign guests who do not understand Chinese culture feel more confused. Therefore, when translating the names of such Chinese dishes into English, the principle of free translation should be followed, indicating the ingredients and the method of preparation, so that foreigners can easily understand and accept them. For example, “红烧狮子头” could be translated as “braised pork ball in brown sauce”, “四喜丸子” as “braised pork balls in gravy” and “蚂蚁上树” as “vermicelli with spicy minced pork”, and so on.
In addition, there are many idioms containing historical allusions in Chinese. Such culturally loaded words cannot find the corresponding cultural connotations in English. If they are literally translated, they will often find it difficult for target language readers who know little about Chinese history and culture. In this case, it is a wise choice for translators to adopt free translation. For example, “悬梁刺股” can be translated as “to be extremely hard-working in one’s study”, “东施效颦” as “crude imitation with ludicrous effect”, and “塞翁失马，焉知非福” as “a loss may turn out to be a gain”, and so on.
By the same token, there are some words in English that are closely related to the characteristics of their national culture, but these words in Chinese do not have similar cultural connotations. In ancient England, the land was mainly ploughed by horses, so there are many slang expressions related to “horse” in English. However, the image of “horse” has no similar associative meaning in Chinese, so when translating from English to Chinese, one should only need to explain its meaning. For example, “horse doctor” can be translated as “蹩脚医生”, “horse sense” as “基本常识” and “work for a dead horse” as “徒劳无益”, and so on.
'''6.3 Transliteration: to Preserve Cultural Identity'''
Transliteration is a translation method that is parallel to literal translation and free translation, and it has an irreplaceable function in certain situations. According to Jin Huikang (2003), translators should not use words with different concepts because of vocabulary vacancies, and he points out that “the most prominent role of transliteration is that it can overcome the expression barriers brought about by linguistic and cultural gaps, bridge the two languages, spread foreign cultures, reduce the loss of information in translation, and thus promote language and cultural communication.” The two languages of Chinese and English have absorbed a large number of foreign words from each other, and these foreign words retain the unique cultural personality of the source language vocabulary. Foreign words are the inevitable product of cultural exchange and integration, and to a certain extent, they are the result of translators’ transliteration strategies in translation activities. The purpose of translation is to break through the language barrier between the source language and the target language and promote effective cross-cultural communication. Therefore, for some words carrying the cultural characteristics of the native language, the translator uses the translation strategy of transliteration or transliteration with annotation, which is effective in preserving the cultural characteristics of the source language words and integrating them into the cultural system of the target language, so that the target language readers can understand the foreign culture to the maximum extent and promote cultural intercommunication and integration.
There are many words in Chinese that are directly transliterated from English culture-loaded words, such as “沙发” (sofa), “汉堡” (hamburger), “吉他” (guitar), “爵士” (jazz) and “麦克风” (microphone). Accordingly, there are a large number of culture-loaded words in Chinese that have been transliterated into English. Most of them are everyday words with Chinese cultural characteristics, cultural specific items and some words related to Chinese politics. For example, “tofu” (豆腐), “chowmein” (炒面), “litchi”(荔枝), “fengshui” (风水), “wushu” (武术) and “erhu” (二胡) in English are all directly transliterated from Chinese culture-loaded words.
When some vocabularies are first introduced into the English context, the target language readers are not familiar with their cultural connotations, so it is difficult for them to be understood only by transliteration. Therefore, the method of transliteration with annotation is adopted, which not only preserves the cultural characteristics of Chinese words through transliteration, but also enables the target language readers to clearly understand their meanings through annotation. With the in-depth development of cross-cultural communication between East and West and the increase of Western understanding of Chinese culture, the annotation of these culture-loaded words can be omitted and only transliteration can be used. For example, for the Chinese term “阴阳”, translators initially adopted the strategy of transliteration with annotation to translate it, that is, “yin and yang, the two opposing principles in nature, the former feminine or negative, the latter masculine or positive”. Nowadays, most western readers have already understood the cultural connotation of “阴阳”, so many translators directly transliterate it as “yin and yang”.
'''7 Conclusion'''
Culture is national, special and complex. As a special linguistic phenomenon, “culture-loaded words” are rich in cultural connotations and record the influence and penetration of a nation on language in various aspects. This poses a challenge to translators, who are required to be flexible in dealing with culture-loaded words. American scholar Venuti (1992) advocates the use of resistant translation to reveal the gap between the original culture and the target culture, in contrast to the previous reader-centered domestication or transparent translation methods. When translating culture-loaded vocabularies,the original culture should be taken as the core, and the national characteristics of the original culture should be preserved in the translation process, which is respectful of the original culture on the one hand, and meets the requirements of translation standards on the other hand.
In a word, the go-ahead model, block model, annotation model, integration model and adaption model are effective translation models for culture-loaded words; literal translation, free translation and transliteration are effective translation strategies for overcoming culture-loaded word translation barriers. As to which translation model and translation strategy to choose, the translator should make a decision at the right time according to different situations. Every model and strategy has its advantages and limitations, but the translator should be flexible in choosing the right one to make the translation as meaningful and effective as possible.
'''References'''

*Chunyan XIANG. On Translation Strategies of Chinese Culture-Loaded Words[J]. Canadian Social Science, 2016, 12(6).
*Hua S. An Interpreting Study of Chinese Culture-loaded Words from the Perspective of Relevance-Adaptation Model[J]. Language and Translation, 2012, 1.
*Lin Yuewu,Yang Qin. An Investigation into the Culture-Loaded Words Learning by English Majors in a Vocational College in China[J]. English Language Teaching, 2015, 8(8).
*Juan Bai. A Brief Analysis of Culture-Loaded Words C-E Interpretation Based on the Interpretive Theory--Taking the COVID-19 Chinese-English Glossary as an Example[J]. Frontiers in Educational Research, 2020, 3(8).
*Steiner, G. After Babel: Aspects of Language and Translation[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 2001: 259.
*Venuti, L. (ed.). Rethinking Translation[M]. London & New York: Routledge, 1992: 12-13.
*Venuti. The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation[M]. Routledge, 1995: 19-20.
*陈喜荣. 从功能语法语境理论看文化负载词的翻译[J]. 外国语文, 1998 (1): 96-100.
*胡文仲. 跨文化交际学概论[M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社, 1999: 1-7.
*景芳, 段成. 从语域理论视角浅谈文化负载词的翻译[J]. 中华文化论坛, 2017(03): 110-116.
*金惠康. 跨文化交际翻译[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司, 2003.
*李雪君. 以汉、英“水”语义对比研究为例看跨文化交际背景汉语文化负载词的教学[D]. 兰州: 西北师范大学, 2015.
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*汪榕培. 英语词汇学高级教程[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社, 2002: 67-69.
*郑德虎. 中国文化走出去与文化负载词的翻译[J]. 上海翻译, 2016 (02): 53-56.

History of Translation Studies 11

2020-12-21T05:02:57Z

Lin Xin: /* A Comparative Study of Translation Theory between Bell and Liu Zhongde 林鑫 Lin Xin 202020080617 */

==Reflections of Translation Theory Books 李丽琴 Li Liqin, Student No.202070080595 MTI ==

===Abstract===

Rooted in translation practice, Chinese and Western translation theories share many similarities. Since they are bred in different cultural soil, they also have their own characteristics. On the basis of reviewing some books and papers on translation theories, this paper gives a detailed overview of the development of Chinese and Western translation theories, and then makes a comparison between them to reveal similarities and differences. In addition, this paper makes a comparative study of translation methods in the Chinese and Western translation circle, aiming to provide readers with a new perspective to have a better understanding of the framework and characteristics of the development of translation theories. In this context, the translation practice and study will be advanced.

===Key Words===

Chinese translation theories; Western translation theories; Translation methods; Similarity; Difference;

===题目===

读翻译理论书籍有感

===摘要===

中西译论根植于翻译实践活动，具有诸多得相似性，但它们孕育在不同的文化土壤之中，故又各具特色。本文在阅读有关翻译理论书籍及论文的基础上，对中西翻译理论的发展历程进行了较为详尽的梳理概述，并在此基础上对中西译论进行对比，揭示其相似性与相异性。此外，本文对中西译界的翻译方法进行对比研究，旨在为读者提供一个全新的视角，认识中西翻译理论发展的框架及各自的特点，有针对性地更好地推动翻译实践以及翻译研究的发展。

===关键词===

中国翻译理论；西方翻译理论；翻译方法；相似性；相异性；

===Introduction===

When it comes to translation, this paper argues that the concepts of translation and translation studies must be distinguished at the first place. On this basis, the relationship between translation theory and translation practice must be explored in depth, so as to better promote the development of translation studies and translation practice.

====Translation and Translation Study====

In 1987, the first National Seminar on Translation Theory was held in Qingdao province, China, which focused on the subject construction and development of translation studies. The issue "since translation studies is a science of translation, whether it should be regarded as an independent disciplinary" was raised and widely discussed at the conference. Tan Zaixi called for the establishment of translation studies after Dong Qiusi, which had a great impact on the translation circle and greatly promoted the development of translation. (Liu Pingjun 2018, 56)

Tan Zaixi believes that translation is a process of expressing the meaning of the source language into the target language. It is mainly a technology or art, but it is not a science. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 7-10) Translation studies is the study of translation. Its task is to reveal the objective laws of translation process and provide guidance for practical translation work. Translation studies is a comprehensive but independent science closely related to semiotics, literature and art, sociology, psychology, information theory, and linguistics. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 12)

A complete translation theory should include the following five parts. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 30-39) First of all, it need to clarify the essence of translation, including what is translation, what is the purpose of translation, what is the function of translation, what are the types of translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 30)

Secondly, a complete translation theory should describe the process of translation. In translation circle, the most influential one is the four-step model put forward by Nida: analysis-transliteration-recombination-test. Specifically, it means to analyse a text from the perspectives of semantics, grammar and style firstly. Then, transform the materials into the target language, and reorganize these converted materials to make them meet the requirements of the target language. Finally, translators should compare the translated text with the original one, thus making the translation as close as possible to the original information and maintaining the fluency and style of the original. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 32)

Thirdly, it need to define the principles and standards of translation, which is the key task of a translation theory. Translation is an activity with certain rules to follow. People summarize translation practice and then conclude principles of universal significance in ways that guide the practical translation process and measure the translation. In order to produce a good translation, the translator must have a clear aim or direction in the process of translation and a clear standard or measurement method to measure the translation. However, since the fact that translation is a complex activity with multiple purposes and functions, it should never be studied from a single perspective. Any attempt to hold a specific standard as the highest standard in the absolute sense or to adhere to dogma is not in line with the translation principles and is unreasonable. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 34)

Fourthly, it should describe the methods of translation. It refers to the methods and techniques adopted in the translation process, which directly influence the choice of words and sentence of the translator and the structure of the translation. There are various translation methods commonly used in translation practice, such as augmentation, ellipsis, repetition, conversion, displacement, segmenting long sentences, and free translation. The translation theory must give a comprehensive and systematic summary of these translation methods to help the translator to better leverage translation methods in translation practice. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 37)

Fifthly, it must present a comprehensive explanation of possible contradictions in translation, including the contradiction between content and form, the contradiction between purpose and method, the contradiction between the author and the translator. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 38)

====Translation Theory and Translation Practice====

Corresponding theories will inevitably emerge when social practice of humanity develops to a certain stage. Translation, as a long-term practice activity, is no exception. Therefore, translation theories must come from translation practice. (Zhou Lingshun 2019, 15) Translation theories will never be generated without the in-depth observation and understanding of translation practice and its influences. There is an interactive relationship between translation theory and translation practice. (Xu Jun, Mu Lei 2009, 104)

In the long-term social practice, people will inevitably encounter problems that need to be solved and generate doubts that need to be explained. Theory is the ideological system explaining social practice, and its purpose is to answer questions and eliminate doubts. In this sense, the fact is that practice calls for theory. (Sun Yifeng 2002, 4-5)

Taking China's current translation situation as an example. As the Belt and Road Initiative proposed by China gains increasing popularity in countries along the route, the desire of other countries to know more about China is getting stronger. In this context, the volume of translating Chinese into foreign languages exceeds that of translating foreign languages into Chinese for the first time in translation history, meanwhile, related problems are also arising. (Yang Mingxing 2014, 103) Specifically, if the translation stays faithful to the original text, it external communication function will not be fully leveraged. Therefore, translators is confused about whether the translation should be faithful to the original text.

Although translation practice does not depend on translation theory for its existence, translation theory inevitably comes from translation practice. Once it comes into being, it will guide translation practice in turn.

===Comparison of Translation Theories between China and the West===

Both Chinese and western translation activities enjoy a long history. In the long course of translation practice, translation theory came into being. Chinese translation theories gradually develops towards the direction of systematic and comprehensive since the start of the translation of Buddhist scriptures. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Meanwhile, western translation theories have witnessed improvement as the advancement of translation practice and translation study. Both the Chinese translation theory and the western translation theory are based on translation practice, and they are gradually developed into systematic theories while guiding translation practice. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)

This chapter first combs the development of Chinese and western translation theories in detail, on this basis, it further reveals the similarities and otherness between the two theories.

====The Development of Western Translation Theory====

The development of Western translation theory can be divided into five stages. (Tan Zaixi 2009, 46-70)

1. Literature and Bible translation theories in ancient Rome

At the end of the 4th century BC, the once flourishing Greek began to decline and Rome grew stronger. However, at that time, the Greek culture was superior to the Roman culture, so it was attractive for Rome. Many of epics of Homer and dramatic works of Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides were translated into Latin by many writers. This was the first translation activity with a large scale in Europe and even in the whole western history, which initiated the translation activity and gave birth to the Roman literature. (Liang Dan 2016, 103)

From the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, religious forces in western countries were strong and stubborn, and the Christian church remained hostile to secular literature and tried its best to develop a religious culture for the interests of themselves. As the source of Christian thought and a spiritual weapon, the Bible became the classic in the religious circles. On this basis, the Bible was translated widely. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 91)

The earliest translation theorist in the West was Cicero in the Roman Empire. For the first time, he distinguished translations "as a translator" and "as a speaker". (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) Cicero viewed translation from the perspectives of a rhetorician and speaker. A translation "as a translator" refers to a translation that is not creative, while a translation "as a speaker" refers to one that is creative and comparable to the original work. After that, the history of western translation theories has been focusing on the issues of literal translation and free translation, word-for-word translation and flexible translation, faithfulness and unfaithfulness, accuracy and inaccuracy. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93)

2. Translation theories from the Middle Ages to Renaissance

Boethius contributed to the introduction of Greek philosophical thoughts by translation, and also had unique views on translation theory. According to Boethius, it is impossible to maintain both content and style in translation. Translators should put aside subjective judgment, especially for some religious translations, which only require accurate content rather than elegant style. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) What’s more, Dante put forward the theory of "literary untranslatability", in which he contended that the characteristics of the original text can hardly be reflected in the translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) Therefore, he believed that literary translation is impossible.

At the end of the Middle Ages, people's demand for national language became urgent. In this context, a large-scale translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the upsurge of nationalism. Bruni, the representative of this period, believed that a translator should act according to his ability. Specifically, a translator should never do anything beyond his capacity for fear that it will waste energy and come to nothing. In addition, he believed that translators should have a wide range of knowledge; the best translation method is to keep the style of the original work as much as possible; translators should figure out the attitude and standpoint of the original author and try to imitate the rhetoric devices and idioms used by the original author. (Wang Songzhen 2015, 61)

3. Theories of literary translation in the Renaissance

The Renaissance refers to the revival of literature, art and science in ancient Greece and Rome. It began in Italy at the end of the 14th century and spread to Europe, especially western European countries, in the 15th and 16th centuries. During this period, many translators compared their achievements in translation to "trophies" of literary knowledge. Besides, they translated many works relating to building a prosperous country into national languages, including political, philosophical, social systems, literature, art and other classic works. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 91) There are also many representatives in this period.

Erasmus did not submit to the authority of theology, and believed that the translation of the Bible depended on the language knowledge of the translator; while Luther put forward that translation must adopt and absorb the humanist thought of popular language. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55) In terms of Amyot, he held the opinion that the translator must fully understand the original text and concentrate efforts to the translation of the content; the writing style of translation must be simple and natural. He emphasized the unity of literal translation and free translation as well as the combination of content and form. (Wang Songzhen 2015, 61)

''On How to Translate Excellently'' was published in 1540. In this article, Dolet proposed five basic principles to be followed in the process of translation. (Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 2008, 163) That is, the translator must understand the original content; the translator must be bilingual; the translator must avoid word-for-word translation, for the reason that word-for-word translation damages the communication and linguistic beauty of the original text; the translator must adopt colloquial forms of language; the translator must pay attention to the diction and adjust word order properly, so as to reproduce the equivalent effects as the original one. (Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 2008, 165)

4.Theories of literary translation in Modern times

Influenced by the impetus of the Renaissance, translation in western countries continued to march forward in modern times. The 18th century was an important period in the course of Western translation. In the 19th century, translation began to shift its focus from ancient works to modern or contemporary works. (Wang Songzhen 2015, 61)

According to Bartow, the original author is the master while the translator is the servant in translation activities. The translator can only follow the original work closely and faithfully reproduce the idea and style of it, instead of creating, modifying and subtracting. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)

Tytler put forward three basic translation principles in his book ''Essay on the Principles of Translation'': a translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; a translation should have all the ease of the original composition. In addition, he also proposed the standards of an excellent translation. (Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 2008, 163)

Schlermacher, one of the leading figures in German romanticism, had extensive knowledge and made great contributions in hermeneutics and translation studies. He proposed two translation methods in ''On the Different Methods of Translating''. One is to do not disturb the author and let the reader get closer to the author, while the other is to make the author approach readers and do not disturb the reader, among which the former is regarded as the source of foreignizing translation by later generations. At the same time, he took the lead in making a clear distinction between interpretation and translation and to elaborate on it. Although his views on interpretation were wrong, they were still of great significance. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)

Humboldt believed that language determines the world view and put forward the theory that language is both translatable and untranslatable. This had a great impact in the 20th century, making the translatability and untranslatability of language once again become one of the hot topics discussed by translation theorists. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)

5.Contemporary translation theories since the World War II

Since the end of the World War II, the world has been in a state of relative peace. After the baptism of the war, western countries began to restore and develop production and economy in full swing. In this context, translation has also entered a new stage of development in which the dimensions, forms, scales and achievements of translation are unparalleled in any other period in history. (Xu Weizhi 2009, 100)

During this period, commercial, diplomatic, scientific and technological and other professional translations witness unprecedented development; translation teaching is widely carried out; many organizations of translators are established and the publications on translation-related studies are increasing; machine translation is emerging; works on translation theory emerge in an endless stream. (Xu Weizhi 2009, 101)

Jakobson, an outstanding Russian linguist, divided translation into three categories from the perspective of semiotics: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. Intralingual translation refers to the use of language signs to explain other language signs in the same language, which is also called "the change of expression"; interlingual translation is the interpretation between two languages, that is, to explain certain language signs with the signs of another language; intersemiotic translation is to interpret linguistic signs through the non-linguistic sign system, or to interpret non-linguistic signs with linguistic signs. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 157)

Nida is an American linguist, translator and translation theorist. On the basis of previous research results, he constantly improved his theory from the practical point of view. The core concept of Nida's theory is "functional equivalence", which means that the translation should achieve functional equivalence between two languages instead of the rigid correspondence of words. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 139)

Levy is a Czech literary theorist and translation theorist. He believed that the process of translation is the process in which the translator makes decisions constantly, and discussed the translator's decision strategies in detail. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)

====The Development of Chinese Translation Theory====

The development of Chinese translation theory can be divided into four stages.(Tan Zaixi 2005, 188)

1. Translation theory of Buddhist in the Late Han, Sui and Tang Dynasties

The first stage mainly focused on classical translation theory, which began in the East Han period and ended in the Opium War. The translation theory of this period mainly discusses the translation of Buddhist scriptures, generating a positive enlightenment to the later translation theory. Zhi Qian, Dao An, Kumarajiva and Xuanzang are the representative figures of this period. (Liang Dan 2016, 103)

Zhi Qian broke the shackles of literal translation and pursued the elegance of the text. Different from Zhi Qian, Dao An advocated literal translation for fear of distortion when he was responsible for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. What’s more, he put forward the famous translation principle of "Five Losses of Source Texts and Three Difficulties in Translation", believing that in translating Buddhist scriptures, there are five circumstances in which the translation will lose its original features and three dimensions that are difficult to achieve in translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 188-189)

Kumarajiva was in charge of over four hundred volumes of Buddhist scriptures translation, which played an important role in the formation and development of Buddhism in China during the Six Dynasties period. His views on translation methods was profound and unique, but unfortunately there are few written records. Xuanzang is regarded as one of the influential figures in the ancient Chinese translation field. He put forward the translation standard of "a good translation should be both faithful to the original and intelligible to the public", believing that the translation must be faithful and smooth. (Li Yuntao 2007, 107)

2. Translation theory of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties

The second stage began with the Opium War and ended with the May 4th Movement. Against the background of domestic turmoil and foreign aggression, translators engaged in scientific and technological translation by adhering to the philosophy of "beat foreigners by learning from their advantages". (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Therefore, the translation theory in this period is practical.

The main representatives were Ma Jianzhong, Yan Fu, Reform Scholars, members of the Westernization School and so on. Ma Jianzhong put forward "good translation" and tried to eliminate the disadvantages of the translation of the Westernization School. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 189) In addition, Yan Fu called for "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", which not only had a great impact at that time, but also generated an unprecedented influence on the entire translation circle for years to come. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 190)

3. Modern translation theory from 1919 to 1949

The third stage began with the May 4th Movement and ended with the founding of the People’s Republic of China in 1949. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 188) During this period, there were a great number of foreign literature being introduced in the translation field, resulting in flourishing literary translation.

Qu Qiubai put forward the concept of "equivalence", that is, translation should deliver the meaning of the original text to Chinese readers in a complete and correct manner, so that the Chinese readers can receive the meaning as the readers of the original text. (Liang Dan 2016, 103)

Chen Xiying drew a conclusion of the three realms of translation--resemblance in form, resemblance in meaning and resemblance in spirit--from the experience of artistic creation and copying. He combined translation theories with the aesthetics of literature and art, directly inspiring the translation theories of Fu Lei and others. (Liang Dan 2016, 103)

Fu Lei emphasized the resemblance of spirit but not of form. Besides, Mao Dun believed that the reproduction of artistic conception is the most important task of literary translation, so that the target readers can receive the same feelings as if reading the original text. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 189)

4. Contemporary translation theory since the 1950s

During this period, translation is considered as a discipline by translators. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) In 1951, Dong Qiusi published On the Construction of Translation Theory, which marked the beginning of the transformation of Chinese translation theory towards a systematic development. In 1990, Liu Miqing published Modern Translation Theories, marking the establishment of a modern translation system in China. (Liang Dan 2016, 103)

====Similarities and Differences====

By sorting out the development of Chinese and Western translation theories, it can be found that due to the differences in economic, political, cultural and social backgrounds between China and the West, there are some differences between Chinese and Western translation theories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 222)

First of all, the purposes of establishing translation theory are different for both sides. Chinese theorists stress the practicality of theories and and emphasize the function of theories to better guide the translation practice. However, theorists in western countries pay more attention to the abstractedness, systematicness and organization of translation theories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 222-224)

Secondly, there are different thinking patterns. The Chinese people attach great importance to understanding ability and sensitivity, while the West is rationality-oriented. Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism require people’s understanding ability and sensitivity; the western philosophy, which originated from Plato and Aristotle, emphasizes rational thinking of humanity. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 226)

Thirdly, they have different ways of expressing translation theories. In China, translation theorists tend to refine their words and condense their meanings, thus giving people more space for understanding. So Chinese theorists explain translation theories in a vague and implicit way. For example, after putting forward the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” in the first half of his great work Evolution and Ethics, Yan Fu did not make any further supplement or explanation for this translation standard. (Xu Weizhi 2009, 101)

Fourthly, China maintains relatively conservative in translation studies while the West pursues innovation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 233) Traditionally, the Chinese people have a strong tendency to worship the ancient and authority, and their thinking pattern is influenced by the philosophy of "universal application". For instance, the “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” proposed by Yan Fu is regarded as an insuperable existence by some people.

The difference is inevitable. Although Chinese and Western translation theorists have their own terminology and experience in translation, there are strikingly similarities in terms of principles, methods, standards and categories of translation. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 163) It reveals the inherent commonness in the thinking mode of translation, and indicates that translation has rules to follow, which are objective and break the shackles of different languages and cultures. (Tan Zaixi, 2005, 213)

First of all, there are similarities in basic translation methods between Chinese and Western translation history. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 216) Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theorists have considered similar issues, including the principle of translation, the purpose of translation, the process of translation, the relationship between the author, the translator and the reader, and so on. In terms of translation methods, it can be found that literal translation and free translation are distinguished by both Chinese and Western theorists in the study of translation methods, and that the commonly used methods are amplification, abridgement, adaptation, interpretation, transliteration and so on. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)

Secondly, issues relating to "faithfulness" have always been the core topic of translation theories in both China and the West since ancient times. (Liang Dan 2016, 104) When expressing the concept of "the translation must be faithful to the original", various terms are used both in China and in the West, mainly including fidelity, loyalty, accuracy, equivalence, correspondence, etc. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 218-219)

Thirdly, the principles and methods of translation have been systematically summarized by both Chinese and Western translation theorists. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 220) For example, Dolet summarized the "five elements of translation"; Tytler put forward "three principles of translation"; Dao An proposed ""Five Losses of Source Texts and Three Difficulties in Translation"; Xuanzang proposed a concrete principle of "Five Categories of Untranslated Terms”. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)

After a detailed analysis of the development of Chinese and Western translation theories, it can be concluded that the difference in philosophical thoughts, value systems, and languages and cultures has always posing an important impact on the development of Chinese and Western translation theories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 193-194) Although Chinese and Western translation theories have different development backgrounds and show some differences, the similarity between them should be observed. Similarity is the main characteristic of the development of translation thoughts, which is not restricted by different languages and cultures. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 193)

It can be reflected in the striking similarity between Chinese and Western translation principles, methods and standards. For example, Yan Fu's translation standard presents similarity with that of Tytler. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) The development of translation theories of the two sides is independent from each other, but they share some commonality. This exactly reveals that translation is objective and transcends the barriers of different languages and cultures.

===Reflections of Translations Methods===

====Domestication and Doreignization====

Domestication and foreignization are proposed by Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, in the Translator's Invisibility in 1995. (Zhang Mei, Wang Rongyuan 2019, 19) As two translation methods, domestication and foreignization are contrary, united and mutually reinforcing.

Domestication is to localize the source language. (Venuti 1995, 19-21) It adopts the expressions that the target reader is accustomed to to convey the content of the source language. In addition, it helps readers to understand the source text better and enhance the readability and appreciation of the translation. Foreignization is to adapt to the language features of foreign cultures, absorb foreign language expressions. (Venuti 1995, 29)

Since this method fully takes the difference and diversity of national cultures into consideration and reflects the characteristics of foreign language styles, its purpose is to preserve and reflect the exoticism. In other words, domestication is oriented toward the target language culture, while foreignization is source language culture oriented. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 13) For example, the sentence”something is springing up like mushrooms”, if handled in foreignizing translation, its Chinese version will be”犹如蘑菇一般”; but if in domestication, it will be “如雨后春笋一般’。

Some scholars believe that translators should only use one translation strategy in entire translation process, and that domestication or foreignization should be separated. However, it is difficult for translators to adhere to it in translation practice. Translation requires us to faithfully reproduce the ideas and styles of the original authors, which are of strong exotic atmosphere, so it is inevitable to adopt the foreignizing method. Meanwhile, the translation should also take the reader's response and the smoothness of the original text into consideration. In this context, the domestication method is essential. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17)

This paper holds the opinion that translation is more likely to be dominated by domestication. The essential purpose of translation is to facilitate communication and help the target readers to understand the meaning of the original. Therefore, in most cases, translation should conform to the norms of the target language, so as to make it possible for readers to understand the foreign cultures and achieve the purpose of translation. However, although the paper contends that domestication is in a dominant role, it doesn’t mean the foreignization method should be abandoned. Actually, foreignization and domestication are not two antagonistic concepts, instead, they are complementary and mutually reinforcing. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17-18)

====The Three Principles of Tytler and Yan Fu’s Theory====

In the long course of translation development in both China and the West, various schools of translators have put forward important translation standards. Among them, Yan Fu proposed "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" and Tytler put forward the “three principles of translation”. These two standards are of great importance and far-reaching influence in the translation circle. More importantly, the similarity between them has drawn wider attention among translators. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)

In 1989, Yan Fu mentioned in the preface of the Evolution and Ethics, "three things are hard to achieve in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance". (Liu Junbiao 2009, 220) However, Yan Fu did not present detailed definition of it, instead, he further stated that "it is difficult to stay faithful to the original text; if the translation is faithful without expressiveness, it is equal to untranslated ones; therefore, expressiveness should be put at priority”. It is the statement that generates controversy of its definition in the academic circle. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)

In 1790, Tytler proposed the three principles of translation in his great work Essay on the Principles of Translation, that is, a translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; a translation should have all the ease of the original composition. (Tytler 1790, 9) It caused extensive repercussions in the translation circle and is considered as a milestone in the history of Western translation. (Ren Qingliang 2016, 201)

The three principles of Tytler pose put requirements on the translator from three aspects: meaning, style and spirit. (Reng Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) In addition, according to Tytler, the three principles are ranked in order of importance. When the three principles are in conflict, the third principle should be abandoned first, the next is the second principle. Tytler contended that at no time should the content of the original be abandoned for the sake of the fluency of the translation. (Liu Junbiao 2009, 220)

Yan Fu believed that translation should pursue faithfulness, but if it is inexpressive, it would be equivalent to untranslated ones. Thus it can be seen that Yan Fu emphasized the relationship and coordination among faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, and elevated importance of “expressiveness” to the same position as "faithfulness". (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)

====Free Translation and Literal Translation====

The central problem of translation has always been whether to translate literally or freely. The argument has been going on since at least the first century BC. (Newmark, Peter 1988, 45) In China, as early as the late Eastern Han Dynasty, a famous translator of Buddhist scriptures Zhi Chen put forward his opinion of literal translation that pays more attention to the preservation of the original intention than wording. He advocated that since scriptures are abstruse and hard to understand, the translation should focus on the content and meaning of the original text rather than the flowery language. However, his disciple Zhi Qian objected to the method of literal translation from the perspective of literary form and called for free translation. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 99)

Literal translation refers to an adequate representation of the original. (Feng Qinghua 2002, 37) It reproduces both the style and the ideological content of the original, and retains as much as possible the figures of speech or sentence structures. Free translation does not adhere strictly to the form or word order of the original while only maintains the content of the original work. (Feng Qinghua 2002, 37) For instance, the Chinese sentence “你不要班门弄斧”, if handled in free translation, it English version will be “don’t teach fish to swim”; but if in literal translation, it will be “don’t display your axe at Lu Ban’s door”.

In the process of translation, only by having a thorough understanding of the thoughts and emotions in the original text and using the two strategies flexibly, can the original text be translated into a fluent and expressive target language. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 99) Both literal translation and free translation should be accurate and reproduce the original meaning both in form and in spirit. There should be no judgement of good or bad between the two strategies. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 100)

Nevertheless, the differences between the two can not be ignored. Literal translation requires higher degree of faithfulness to the original. It is generally used in the science, technology and law-related translations for the reason that such article types require precise words and avoid ambiguity. Free translation, on the other hand, is relatively abstract. It is often used in translating poetry, prose and other literary works, to express the main connotation of the original text with divergent thinking, thus increasing the aesthetic feeling and artistry of translation.(Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 100)

===Conclusion===

Translation is the process of replacing the source language with the target language. (Catford 1965, 20) In the final analysis, translation is an activity closely related to language, while language cannot be separated from thinking ability. It is the overlap of human thought patterns that makes translation possible. However, the difference between Chinese and Western way of thinking is universal, which will be manifested in all fields, including the translation circle. Traditionally, the Chinese people were good at synthesizing, while people in the West were adept in analyzing. Therefore, traditional Chinese translation theories are mostly a summary of experience, which largely depends on the subjective feelings of the translator. However, western translation theories are based on rational analysis and scientific research, instead of relying on subjective feelings.

Translation has its own rules of development, which is proved by the similarity between Chinese and Western translation theories. Since translation theories in China and the West have their own advantages, this paper proposes that more tolerance should be given to the diversity and the essence should be absorbed so as to promote the development of translation theories in the world.

Both Chinese and Western translation theories are important parts of the translation systems, and they provide strong theoretical support for translation practice. There is no superiority or inferiority of translation theories. Translation theories in China and the West are rooted in translation practice but nurtured in different linguistic environments and cultural backgrounds. It must be realized that the similarities are greater than differences, and that the significance of differences more important than similarities. It is because of the differences that China and the West need to draw on strengths and learn from each other.

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==A Brief Introduction to Lu Xun's Translation Theory - 张瑜 Zhang Yu, 202070080625, MTI英语笔译==
<center>张瑜 Zhang Yu </center>

===Abstract===
Lu Xun, as China's renowned writer, thinker and one of founders of Chinese modern literature, has left a great amount of precious spiritual wealth. His representative works include ''Outcry'', ''A Madman's Diary'', ''Dawn Blossoms Plucked at Dusk'', ''Wild Grass'' and so on, which are the bright pearls of Chinese literature. We have a general understanding of his identity as a writer. In fact, as a translator, Lu Xun has also left profound translation works for next generations, including translations of literature and theory works. Even from the time line, the records of his translation activities are far prior to his literary creation. His earliest novel, ''Nostalgia'', was finished in 1911, while his earliest translation, ''Mournful World'', was finished in 1903. In the process of translating different works, Lu Xun gradually formed his own translation theory. Therefore, learning more about his translation theory is conducive to comprehensively recognizing him. This paper mainly introduces Lu Xun's translation theory as well as its formation and development. The purpose is to lead everyone to have a more profound understanding to Lu Xun's theory.

===Key Words===
Lu Xun, Translation Theory, Literal Translation, Hard Translation, Rather to be Faithful than Fluent

===题目===
浅谈鲁迅的翻译思想

===摘要===
鲁迅作为我国著名的文学家、思想家、中国现代文学的奠基人之一，给我们留下了一大批宝贵的精神财富，如他的代表作品《呐喊》、《狂人日记》、《朝花夕拾》、《野草》等，都是我国文学宝库中璀璨的明珠。而我们对他的了解可能始于他的作家身份，但事实上，作为翻译家的鲁迅也给后人留下了内容丰富的翻译作品，其中包括文学作品翻译和理论著作翻译。甚至从时间上来看，他从事翻译活动要远远早于文学创作活动，鲁迅最早的小说《怀旧》创作于1911年，而他最早的译文《哀尘》则完成于1903年。鲁迅在从事翻译活动的过程中，逐渐形成了自己的翻译思想，所以了解鲁迅的翻译思想有助于我们更加全面地了解鲁迅。本章回将主要介绍鲁迅的翻译思想及其形成与发展,以此让大家对鲁迅的翻译思想有一个更深刻的了解。

===关键词===
鲁迅，翻译思想，直译，硬译，宁信不顺

===Introduction===
It is estimated that Lu Xun has translated 144 pieces of works of 110 writers from 15 countries and regions in his whole lifetime. Meanwhile, Lu Xun was engaged in translating foreign literary works from 1903 to 1936, starting from the translation ''Yue Jie Lv Xing'' and ending with the ''Death Souls'', which last a long period. Therefore, his identity as a translator cannot be neglected. In fact, in the process of undertaking translation, Lu Xun has made great contributions to the Chinese translation history, such as coming up with a series of translation theory. This paper intends to introduce Lu Xun's translation theory, including his purpose of translation, literal translation and hard translation, the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent", retranslation and translation criticism. Then it discusses the formation and development of Lu Xun's translation theories from the perspective of "intermediate". At last, it analyzes the social reasons for the formation and development.(Xu Lan 2017,447)

===Lu Xun's Translation Theories===
About the translation theory, Lu Xun had not written a book to expound it. His translation theory is embodied in his numerous translation works, and concluded by late scholars. In this part, it intends to introduce five aspects of his translation theory, namely purposes of translation, literal translation and hard translation, the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent", retranslation as well as translation criticism.

====Purpose of Translation====
From 1903 to 1936, the works and articles translated by Lu Xun can be divided into two categories. One includes scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works; another includes other articles and works such as children's literature. However, the translations of these two categories have different purposes.（Chen 2000, 289）

For the first category, he hoped that these translation works are able to serve for the revolution and serve as the "guide of future revolutions". In the ''Hard translation and Hierarchy of Literature'' published in 1930, Lu Xun responded that "it works for me, for some who claim proletarian literary critics, and for some readers who are willing to learn more about the theory in spite of having difficulties" (Chen 2000,289). From the remarks of Lu Xun, it can be seen that his translations aimed at not only improving and introspecting himself, but also helping those literature workers who stand with him. In his essays, he usually compared the importance of translation to the Greek mythology that the hero Prometheus stole fire from the gods and gave it to earthly mortals. In his views, he believed that these scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works were able to bring "fire and light" for people. For example, the purpose of translating the Russian work, ''Destruction'', was to introduce steel-willed characters and struggles without fear of sacrifice, encourage Chinese people to engage themselves in revolutionizing the old society, and provide references for Chinese revolutionary writers to create more inspiring works. (Chen 2000,289-290)

For the second category, Lu Xun hoped that these translation works were able to provide reference materials for people. In the preface of his translation work, ''Ideology, Landscape, Figure'', he mentioned that "my translation and introduction aim at making partial readers learn the existence of those things, persons, ideology and remarks…Therefore, if I believe that it’s useful and beneficial, I would attempt to translate it (Chen 2000,290)." It’s obvious that as long as Chinese people could learn something from these works translated by him, the value of translations has been achieved. (Chen 2000,290-291)

There are two aspects to explain Lu Xun's translation of children's literature. On the one hand, there was no fairy tales in Chinese literature at that time. Thus, he wanted to make up for the blank. Meanwhile, children, as the future of nation, were deemed to the white paper, which had the boundless possibility to develop and shape. On the other hand, the feudal thoughts of old China had some detrimental effects on cultivating children (Wu 2009,183). Therefore, Lu Xun translated foreign works about children's literature to introduce new educational views and patterns and attract people's attention to dissolve constraints. (Wu 2009, 183-184)

====Free Translation and Hard Translation====
The concept of "literal translation" was proposed by Lu Xun and his brother Zhou Zuoren in the 1920s. In the ''Outside Novels'', they definitely put forward the concept literal translation, which played an important role in the modern history of translation and triggered heated discussion. Their purposes mainly focused on the problem of prevailing translation methods including mistranslation and random correction and deletion at that time. They hoped that the introduction of literal translation could give a definite direction to the chaotic situation. They mentioned that "it is better to choose the word-for-word translation, and if not, it should be translated as a sentence rather than be translated in the middle" (Chen 2000,176) in order to keep the style of the original text. Besides, they also distinguished the differences between literal translation and irresponsible translation. In the preface of his collected translation ''Peg-top'', Zhou Zuoren proposed that "the precondition of literal translation was that it should convey the meaning of the original and preserve its style as much as possible. In other words, it should be "faithful" and "expressiveness". Some people were seemed to misunderstand the meaning of the literal translation and they regarded literal translation as rigid translation word for word. For example, they translated 'lying on his back' into '卧着在他的背上' instead of '仰卧着'. Here, the former was irresponsible translation and the latter was literal translation (Chen 2000,177)." Lu Xun also supported his statement. In the following translation practice, Lu Xun has been sticking to literal translation. (Chen 2000, 176-177)

In 1929, Lu Xun formally proposed the concept of hard translation in ''The Supplement to the Translators of Literature and Criticism''. "Because of the inadequate ability of translators and the shortcomings of the Chinese text, the translation is obscure, making it difficult for readers to comprehend many parts of the translation. If the text was translated word for word, the refined original tone will be lost. However, there is no other methods other than hard translation. The only remaining hope is that the readers are still willing to read it in spite of difficulties (Lu 1958,286)." On September 10, 1929, Liang Shiqiu published ''Discussion on Lu Xun's Hard Translation'' and he believed that "hard translation" was just "rigid translation". In the reply to Liang Shiqiu, Lu Xun expounded his opinions on "hard translation" from the perspective of academy. Firstly, the works used with hard translation including scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works aimed at specific readers. Here, it closely related to the purpose of his translation. Lu Xun hoped that these translation works could awaken insensitive Chinese people and make them learn more about the reality of western countries to change the current situation of old China. Therefore, he chose hard translation and present readers the authentic pictures as much as possible. Secondly, in fact, Lu Xun also confessed that his translation was not satisfactory, but he had not found more appropriate methods to translate these books. And he believed that there were excellent translators who were able to translate faithful articles without using of hard translation or distortions in translation. When the better translation appeared, the version of his translation would be discarded naturally. However, in the period from nothing to good versions, his translation was willing to serve as the intermediate to make up for the blank.(Chen 2000,294-295)

====Rather to be Faithful than Fluent====
In the ''Message About Translation'', Lu Xun definitely proposed the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent" in the process of translating. In Lu Xun's views, he believed that the translation should not only keep the "exoticness" and "foreignness" of the original text in its contents and culture, but also imitate the word order and sentence structures of foreign language, which naturally led to be non-fluent. In the ''Title of Essays are Not Fixed'', Lu Xun pointed out that "every translation must take care of both sides, the first side is that it should be easy to understand, and the other is to preserve the richness of the original. But the second one often contradicts the first one. That means readers can't understand it. The original text is foreign to the target reader. For the sake of the readability, the translator has to change the original structure, but he should not shorten the original expression" (Huang 2018,24). At that time, Zhao Jingshen proposed his own view "rather to be fluent than faithful". His view was criticized by Lu Xun. As for the idea of "rather to be faithful than fluent", readers were able to understand the contents; if not, they could understand when connecting it with practice. While "rather to be fluent than faithful" emphasized the fluency instead of faithfulness, it resulted that readers were unable to understand the original text or even misunderstood based on subjective speculation. It obviously made no sense. For example, due to supporting the idea of "rather to be fluent than faithful", Zhao Jingshen translated the "Milky Way" into "牛奶路" instead of "银河". This kind of translation was ridiculous and easy to misdirect and confuse targeted readers. (Chen 2000, 296)

There were two purposes for Lu Xun to put forward the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent". Firstly, one was to resist ethnocentrism and introduce foreign culture to reform and rebuild the profound impression on Chinese culture. Therefore, he introduced the new vocabulary, new grammas and new expressions from the foreign languages, and then involve the readers into the new foreign context. He pointed out that being non-fluent was temporary. It resulted from unfamiliarity and intolerance of Chinese readers to the foreign language. And then it would change into fluency when native language absorbed the foreign language and people began to be accustomed to it (Li 2019,204). Secondly, another purpose was to change Chinese people's thinking model and language expression. The language controlled people's thinking pattern. It was necessary to reform Chinese language in order to change the national spirit. In the ''Message About Translation'', he said that "in addition to introducing the original contents to Chinese readers, translation had another important function, that is, to help us create new and modern Chinese language (Lu 2005,380)." Lu Xun also mentioned that Chinese had many disadvantages such as a lack of explicitness and accuracy. In the introduction of ''Little Jones'', he said that "European language is explicit, but my ability is limited (Lu 1981,256)." Besides, at that time the development of vernacular was immature. Then Lu Xun also said that "the biggest reason that the Europeanized grammar intruded into the Chinese vernacular was for the necessity rather than curiosity (Lu 1981,520)" Therefore, based on the deep understanding to flaws of Chinese, it was necessary to introduce useful expression and vocabulary to reform Chinese.(Li 2019, 201-209)

In conclusion, although the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent" was attacked by other scholars after its introduction, in fact, this concept showed Lu Xun's progressive thoughts and his tolerance to foreign cultures.

====Retranslation====
Retranslation refers to two kinds of translation, that is, one is using the third language to indirectly translate the original works, and another is having different translation versions for the same work. Although the first type of retranslation is not an ideal method, it's quite common in the history of translation. For example, the translation of Buddhist scriptures was from foreign languages to Chinese instead of being translated directly from Sanskrit. As for Lu Xun's attitude towards retranslation, he believed that the ideal translation should be translated by those who mastered the original-text language. However, in the first quarter of 20th century, no one understood or had a good command of eastern European languages. Therefore, under the circumstance retranslation was the best choice to introduce other nations' literature. In the foreword of the ''Russian Fairy Tales'', Lu Xun even candidly confessed that "I was not satisfied with my version of retranslation, but there are no other translation versions because of objective limitations. My version existed just for the period of vacancy. Once someone directly translated it, and its version must be much better. Then my version was willing to be replaced (Chen 2000,302-303)." In his point of view, he agreed that retranslation was much easier than direct translation. It included two reasons: firstly, the translator who directly translated the original text spent a large amount of time to research and digest the unintelligible and complex contents, and then he was able to express the meaning of the original text as much as possible. Secondly, as for those excellent but indigestible contents, the translator who was faithful to the original text would provide annotations to explain them. (Gu 2009, 26)

The second type of retranslation was having different translation versions for the same work. At the beginning, Lu Xun's attitude towards it was firmly against it. He believed that bookstores and readers at that time were unable to accept two translation versions for the same book. However, later Lu Xun actually put forward the necessity of retranslating the same work. In 1935, he wrote a piece of monograph and explained the reasons (Chen 2000,305). On the one hand, retranslation was the only choice to repel irresponsible translation. If there was only one version for the original text, it was unavoidable for the irresponsible translator to randomly tamper the original meaning or add subjective opinions. On the other hand, retranslation was conducive to improving the levels of new literature. When different versions appeared, comparison and critical analysis appeaered. Consequently, people were willing to choose the better one to read. Besides, Lu Xun also mentioned that the later translators could learn from the previous translation and add their own new ideas in order to make the new translation version closer to the original text. (Gu 2009, 27)

====Translation Criticism====
As for the translation criticism, Lu Xun came up with two questions, that is, the methods of making translation criticism and the importance of translation criticism. Firstly, about the methods of translation criticism, in the ''Defended for Translation Criticism'', Lu Xun proposed that "the major responsibility of translation criticism depended on translator, and circles of readers and publishing should take a part of responsibility. The correct methods of translation criticism were to point out the bad one and reward the best one; if not, the better one could also be considered (Chen 2000,306)." Besides, in order to explain the methods of translation criticism, Lu Xun used a vivid comparison. He compared the translation problems to apples with scars. As for the previous methods, once there were scars in the apples, people would discard them completely, which led to a high price. Later as long as the apples with scars were edible, they were worthwhile to criticize. Then the latter one led to less losses. In other words, previously, if the translation had obvious problems, people would forsake it without hesitation. But people also found that it was likely to waste a great amount of time and energy. The later methods further improved the disadvantage of the first one. If translation problems were found, people were able to exploit the useful part and learn something from the problems to create a better translation. This method not only helped people distinguish the quality of translation, but also saved time and reduced losses. (Chen 2000, 306-307)

Secondly, Lu Xun also expounded the importance of translation criticism. In the ''Rediscussion on translation'', he mentioned that translation criticism "undertook the responsibility of cultivation or deletion, and avoided numerous and miscellaneous translations swarming into the translation field" (Chen 2000,308). In the face of a multitude of translation works, translation criticism was conducive to distinguishing high quality works and dispelling translation of poor quality. Besides, the difficulty of translation criticism also provided great challenges for translation critics. The previous part had mentioned that Lu Xun was in favor of retranslation. Therefore, one foreign work was likely to have several different translation versions, which required translation critics to read all the translation versions, compared their advantages and disadvantages, and then made conclusions. It took a great amount of time and energy to do this work. Meanwhile, the standards of translation criticism were difficult to master. As for the same version, different people had different opinions. The qualification of translation critics should also take into consideration. (Chen 2000, 308)

===The Formation and Development of Lu Xun's Translation Theories===
Lu Xun's translation theory did not take shape in a short time. It took a long time for it to form and develop through long-lasting translation practice and improvement. In this part, it intends to introduce the formation and development of Lu Xun's translation theory from the perspective of "intermediate", and then analyze the social reasons for the changes.

====Philosophy of "Intermediate"====
In the ''Postscript of Tomb'' published in 1926, the philosophy of "intermediate" was firstly proposed. It intended to expound that everything was in the process of change, and it should go through the middle process to eventually reach a higher level. The philosophy originated from the "survival of the fittest" advocated by Darwin, the "gold mean" in traditional Chinese philosophical culture as well as the ideas of Nietzsche's superman (Liu and Luo 2019,34). The philosophy of "intermediate" was embodied in the formation and development of Lu Xun's translation theory and had played a significant role in the process. It intends to analyze his philosophy of "intermediate" from the following two aspects. (Liu and Luo 2019, 34)

=====From the Perspective of Language=====
In the aspect of language, it experienced three phrases, that is, the writings in classical style, vernacular Chinese and modern language (Wu 2009,74). At the beginning, Lu Xun regarded language as the instrument and use native language and style to change original text. Thus, he mixed the writings in classical style and vernacular Chinese to translate foreign literary works such as ''De la terre à la lune'' and ''Voyage au centre de la terre''. In the two scientific novels, he even used the traditional pattern of chapters and delete some psychological descriptions as well as narrations of scientific knowledge in order to cater readers' taste. However, he still founded that the translation was obscure to understand for Chinese people. Later he realized that the flaws of writings in classical style were the primary cause and gradually adopted vernacular Chinese to translate and further improved it. In the ''Classical Books and Vernacular'', Lu Xun said that "the classical language has died; the vernacular Chinese was the bridge in the process of reform (Lu 2005,228)." It obviously showed that vernacular Chinese was just the intermediate or middle process with the development of new culture and literature. (Wu 2009, 74-75)

=====From the Perspective of Translation Strategy=====
In his earlier translation of late Qing Dynasty, Lu Xun mostly adopted free translation or adaptation to translate foreign literary works. For example, when translating two works written by Jules Verne, ''De la terre à la lune'' and ''Voyage au centre de la terre'', there were obvious indications of free translation. In his translation, "''Yue Jie Lv Xing'', a total of 28 chapters of the novel were cut into only 14 chapters, and the article was deleted. The wording and writing style are suitable for Chinese readers (Lu 1981,152)." Then starting from the ''Outside Novels'', Lu Xun changed his translation style and began to use literal translation. Then from his late translation works such as ''Dead Souls'', it can be seen that he still adopted the method of literal translation. The change was that his style of literal translation became more proficient and mature in this period. In conclusion, Lu Xun's translation style changed from free translation into literal translation, and later he even used hard translation and the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent". In the process of exploring the most appropriate translation strategy, Lu Xun began to recognize his own limitations. He mentioned that his translation versions could serve as the "intermediate" to make up for the vacancy. When the better version appeared, his translation version would be discarded naturally. He also confessed that his translations were not satisfied in terms of hard translation and one reason was that his ability was limited and unable to find better translation methods. However, he was willing to provide the "intermediate" for readers and late translators for reference. (Xu 2017, 448)

Another statement was that Lu Xun's translation strategy changed from domestication into foreignization. In the history of Chinese translation, under the trend of "domestication", Lu Xun was the first one to express new and different opinions and advocated the translation strategy of "foreignization". Changing from the domestication into foreignization, his real purpose was to optimize the Chinese language. In fact, the translation strategy of "domestication" included free translation, adaptation and translation in classical style, while the strategy of "foreignization" just referred to the literal translation. Therefore, the first statement and the second one achieved the same effect through different description.(Wu 2009, 82-85)

====Social Reasons for the Formation and Development====
Lu Xun's translation activities lasted about 33 years. His translation theory can be found among his numerous translation works. The following intends to explore the reasons for the formation and development of his translation theory. It intends to mainly expound the social reasons.

In the first stage of his translation activity (1903-1908), affected by Liang Qichao and Lin Shu, Lu Xun adopted the free translation to translate scientific novels. On the one hand, the translation notion advocated by Liang Qichao had a deep influence on selection of translation materials. Liang Qichao believed that translation has played an important role in reforming thinking and pushing Chinese people to make advance. From his early translation works, it can be concluded that the category of these works mainly focused on the scientific novels, which closely related to the ideology that used science to renovate people's ideas. On the other hand, in the late Qing Dynasty, the free translation adopted by Lin Shu was popular and widely accepted. Lu Xun praised that Lin Shu's translation works can convey a kind of fun. Therefore, under the influence of Lin Shu, Lu Xun began to imitate Lin Shu and used free translation to translate foreign scientific works. (Chen 2000, 170-175)

In the second stage (1909-1926), Lu Xun changed his translation method from the free translation into literal translation. At the same time, the materials he selected had also changed into literary works of weakest and oppressed nations. In the ''Youth of Lu Xun'', Zhou Zuoren mentioned that "''Gulliver's Travels'' written by Swift and ''The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon'' written by Irving were valuable books, but the translation versions of them were terrible. ''Don Quijote de la Mancha'' written by Cervantes was renamed as the ''Tale of the Daredevil'' (''Mo Xia Zhuan''), and in the translation, there were lots of mistranslation and irresponsible translation (Wu 2009,104)." It can be seen that Lu Xun criticized the novels translated by Lin Shu as well as the free translation he used. Besides, the translation works translated by Lin Shu mainly focused on the literature of developed countries including Europe and America. In order to change the situation and make up for the blank at that time, Lu Xun put forward the literal translation and translated literary works of weakest and oppressed nations to encourage Chinese people to revolution and change the current situations of old China. Therefore, the Outside Novels, born in this background, symbolized the transformation of Lu Xun's translation style. (Wu 2009, 104-105)

In the third stage (1927-1936), Lu Xun definitely and firmly stuck to literal translation. And the materials he selected mainly focused on the works of Soviet-Russian literary theory. This stage was also the most productive period with the appearance of large number of translation works. In this period, he had a deeper understanding of literal translation and wanted to introduce the new ideas and expressions to reform the shortcomings of early vernacular. In 1930, the league of left-wing was established. Lu Xun, as the leader of the league, took actions to practice his translation theory. At the same time, many opponents opposed his theory, leading to heated debate between different schools. Therefore, the concept of "hard translation" and "rather to be faithful than fluent" were proposed in the following. He still believed that literal translation and hard translation were the most appropriate methods to present foreign literary works. (Wu 2009, 109-111)

===Conclusion===
Lu Xun made great contributions to modern Chinese literature. One of his contributions was his translation theory. In the first part, this paper mainly introduces five aspects of Lu Xun's translation theory, that is, his translation purposes, literal translation and hard translation, the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent", retranslation as well as translation criticism. At that time, when the free translation was prevailing, he put forward the concept of "literal translation" to break the convention and adopted new translation strategy. In the process of practicing his translation theory, he further proposed the concept of "hard translation" and "rather to be faithful than fluent". Although his ideas were opposed by other scholars, his purpose that enlightened Chinese people and save the old China by learning from foreign literary works promoted him to stick his translation theory all the time. Besides, his ideas about retranslation provided possibility for the appearance of more and more translation versions. And the translation criticism was the critical step to prevent miscellaneous and poor translations from circulating among people. Then in the second part, it mainly introduces the formation and development of his translation theory. It put forward the concept of "intermediate" to expound its formation and dynamic development from two perspectives including change of preferential language as well as translation strategy. Finally, it also mentions the social reasons for the formation and development of his translation theory. In conclusion, this paper strives for exploring Lu Xun's translation theory and having a deep understanding of his translation activity.

===References===
*鲁迅 Lu Xun.《鲁迅全集》 [''The Complete Works of Lu Xun'']. 北京：人民文学出版社[People's Literature Publishing House]. 1981年.
*鲁迅 Lu Xun.《鲁迅全集补遗》 [''Supplement to the Complete Works of Lu Xun'']. 天津：天津人民出版社[Tianjin People's Publishing House]. 2018年.
*陈福康 Chen Fukang.《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》 [''Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory (Revised)'']. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000年.
*顾钧 Gu Jun.《鲁迅翻译研究》 [''Study of Lu Xun's Translation''].福建：福建教育出版社[Fujian Education Publishing House]. 2009年.
*吴钧 Wu Jun.《鲁迅翻译文学研究》 [''Study of Lu Xun's Literature in Translation'']. 齐鲁书社[Shandong Book Club]. 2009年.
*李文革 Li Wenge.“重释鲁迅的‘宁信而不顺’——西方解构主义的视角” [Reinterpreting Lu Xun's "Rather to be Faithful Than Fluent: a Western Deconstructionist Perspective]. 跨语言文化研究[Cross Linguistic and Cultural Studies]. 2019年.
*刘孔喜，骆贤凤 Liu Kongxi and Luo Xianfeng.“鲁迅翻译思想的‘中间物’哲学理据” [The Philosophical Justification of 'Intermediates' in Lu Xun's Thought on Translation]. 绍兴文理学院学报[Journal of Shaoxing College of Arts and Sciences]. 2019年.
*黄琼英 Huang Qiongying. “鲁迅语言观与翻译策略关系初探” [A Preliminary Study on the Relationship between Lu Xun's View of Language and Translation Strategy]. 曲靖师范学院学报 [Journal of Qujing Normal College]. 2008年.
*Huang Xiaojun 黄晓军. "The Difference Between Lawrence Venuti's Foreignization and Lu Xun's Foreignization" [劳伦斯·韦努蒂的异化与鲁迅的异化的差别]. Proceedings of 2018 7th International Conference on Applied Social Science (ICASS 2018)[2018年第七届国际应用社会科学大会论文集]. Ed. 2018.
*Zhu Xiaodong 朱晓东 and Ding Ting 丁婷. "The Influence of Lu Xun's 'Hard Translation' Concept on the Transformation of Modern Chinese Culture" [鲁迅的 "硬译 "理念对中国现代文化转型的影响]. Proceedings of 7th International Workshop on Arts, Culture, Literature, and Education (IWACLE 2018) [2018年第七届国际艺术、文化、文学和教育研讨会论文集]. 2018.
*Xu Lan 徐兰. "On Lu Xun's Translation Activities in the 1930s Viewed Through Bourdieu's Sociological Theory" [论从布迪厄的社会学理论看20世纪30年代鲁迅的翻译活动]. Sino-US English Teaching 14[中美英语教学14期]. 2017.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 12:45, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==A Brief Introduction to Eco-translatology Theory 刘怡瑜 Liu Yiyu, 202070080598, MTI==
===Abstract===
Translation is not just an activity that refers to the practice of translation. In translation, theories form an integral part. With translation practice comes translation theory, and advances in theory will better guide practice. Perhaps the translation theories that translators are most familiar with are Skopos theory, domestication and foreignization, dynamic equivalence and the like, but these are all translation theories developed by celebrated foreign scholars.

The foreign translation theories have been introduced to China and have developed in China, perhaps tinged with Chinese characteristics in order to adapt to Chinese translation, but we have always lacked translation theories that originate from China. Eco-translatology is a theory from the local. This thesis is aimed to give a brief introduction to ecological translation theory, embracing the inspiration for ecological translation theory, the three-dimensional transformation as a main strategy and the emphasis on the subjectivity of translators.

In this paper, the translation of the subtitles of the American drama Prison Break will be taken as an application of the ecological translation theory strategy, so as to deepen the readers' understanding of the theory and possibly provide references for other translators on the application of ecological translation theory.

===Keywords is missing===

--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 10:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===题目 is missing===

--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 10:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===摘要===
翻译不仅仅是指翻译实践这样一种活动。在翻译的世界里，翻译理论占了不可或缺的一部分，有了翻译实践就会产生翻译理论，而理论的进步也会更好地指导翻译实践。或许译者最为熟悉的有翻译目的论、异化和归化、动态对等等一些翻译理论，但是这些都是国外著名学者所提出的翻译理论。

国外的翻译理论传到中国，在中国变化发展，也许有了中国特色，从而适应中国翻译，但我们始终缺乏从本土出发的翻译理论。生态翻译理论，就是从本土出发的翻译理论。本篇论文旨在对生态翻译理论进行一个简要地介绍，其中包括生态翻译理论的灵感来源、生态翻译的主要策略三维转换以及该理论对译者主体性的强调与诠释。

理论要应用就少不了实践，本文将会以美剧《越狱》的字幕翻译作为生态翻译理论策略的应用对象，从而深化读者对该理论的理解，也尽可能给其他研究者提供生态翻译理论应用的参考。
===关键词===
Eco-translatology; Subtitle Translation; Three-dimentional transformation
===1 Introduction===
In the study of translation theory, Eco-translatology, as an important methodological tool, a way of interpreting translation activities and a method of exploring translation theories, has increasingly shown its unique function and great charm. It is in the process of dynamic development and continuous improvement.

The theory of Eco-translatology and the proposal of Eco-translatology have undoubtedly achieved breakthroughs and its methods reached a new stage. Therefore, the study and exploration of the ideological basis of Eco-translatology and the three-dimensional transformation of the core methodology of Eco-translatology will help us fully understand the significance of Eco-translatology in contemporary translation studies and theoretical analysis of translation.

In this study, the author will introduce the inspiration of Eco-translatology and its practical translation strategy as multi-dimensional transformations then analyze the subjectivity of translators in the second chapter,. Finally, the author will integrate the theory of Eco-translatology with American TV show Prison Break.
===2 Eco-translatology===
===2.1 Inspiration of Eco-translatology===
Professor Hu Gengshen, driven by Darwin's adaptive selection theory, put forward and further developed the theory of ecological translation. The adaptation theory of translation choice is the core concept of this theory, which defines translation as "the translator's selection activities adapted to the translation ecological environment".(Hu Gengshen, 2010) The ecological environment of translation refers to “the world presented by the source language, the source language and the target language, that is, language, communication, culture, society, authors, readers and clients.”

For instance, Friends as a celebrated sitcom, only its translation must take these specific group of people into consideration can it achieve its purpose. In this process, the translator is the only subject with subjective initiative.(Hu Gengshen, 2010) As the strategy of translation, multi-dimensional adaptation and adaptive selection appear to be crucially significant. The three-dimensional transformation of language, culture and communication dimensions are included in translation methods.

What can be considered as the best translation is that the translation with the highest degree of integration adaptation and selection. The definition of translation ecological environment is the sum of all external conditions that affect the survival and development of translation theme. It includes the author, translator, reader, initiator, sponsor, publisher, and other characters of the original text.

The external environment related to the natural and economic environment, language and culture environment, social and political environment which concerns translation activities. The ecological environment of translation is interwoven by various elements, which is the sum of natural and humanistic factors in the occurrence, existence and development of translation activities. Cultural dimension and communicative dimension into practice by putting the transformation of linguistic dimension.

Three-dimensional transformation reveals its sweeping influence in translation. Language dimension transformation amounts to the translator's adaptation and selection of language forms in the process of translation. This transformation can occur at different stages, levels and aspects of the translation process. To transmit information accurately and faithfully, the translator should choose and transform the language form in an adaptive way.

Cultural dimension transformation adds up to the translator's methods to the transmission and interpretation of bilingual cultural connotations in the process of translation. More crucially, profound comprehension for the cultural discrepancy is the key to communicate accurate information. In this study, it demands translators must take the characteristics of historical and cultural documentary into account, and to use accurate language to transform the expression of cultural characteristics.

Communication dimension transformation emphasizes the adaptation and selection of translators' attention to bilingual communicative intentions in the process of translation. Only through multi-dimensional adaptation and at least three-dimensional selection and transformation can proper translation be carried out. (Hu Gengshen, 2004)

===2.2 Three Dimentional Transformation of Eco-tranlatology===
In order to make sure the precise and correctness of translation, the translator must consider the translation from multiple perspectives, levels and integrate various factors. Only in this way can the translation be closer to the original context. However, it is nearly impossible to achieve this goal in reality. After all, translation concerns a variety of contexts, cultures and other intricate factors. The environment is complex and changeable, which is difficult for translators to grasp those comprehensively.

As long as the translator find the key links and points, appropriate translation can be achieved to a certain extent. According to the theory of Eco-translation, three key dimensions must be transformed during translating the information, which is considered as three-dimensional transformation.(Hu Gengshen, 2006)

What language dimension transformation stresses is that the translator's adaptation and selection of language forms in the process of translation. Since adaptation requires to be achieved, the original text must be understood and analyzed, and the translator must have a full insight of the meaning of the translated text.

What cultural dimension transformation indicates is that the translation process in which the translator pays attention to the transmission and interpretation of bilingual cultural connotations. America and China both has totally different historical background, thus formed very distinguished cultural features. It needs translators to mind the cultural discrepancy between these two countries.

What communicative dimension transformation serves is that it requires translators to focus on the level of communication and whether the communicative intentions of the original text can be reflected in the translation, in addition to the transformation of linguistic information and the transmission of cultural connotations. Communication is unavoidable. If we want to communicate properly, then we should have a proper tone. When translating, the translator must grasp the emotion expressed by the author of the original text and accurately express the message the speaker wants to convey. (Hu Gengshen, 2008)

===2.3 The subjectivity of Translators===
Katherine Reiss proposed the text type theory, which summarized various types of text into informative, expressive and operative types. She believes that almost all texts can find their own classification based on these three types, but there are also mixed text types, such as the autobiography of statesmen, which may have the function of operative as well as informative. Reiss believes that the specific translation method is determined by the text type.

However, as translation theories continue to develop, and more and more translators find that text type theory may be too restrictive, ecological translation theories also propose translator subjectivity, aiming at transforming the translator from an invisible role to an explicit one.

The previously popular textual determinism or other factor determinism may ignore the creativity of the translator to a certain extent, treating the translator as a mere "servant" of the two languages, and the translator's subjectivity is not given full play and many translations lose their vitality.

From the point of view of ecological translation theory, we can re-understand the relationship between the translator and the translation ecological environment in the translation process, so as to highlight the influence of the translator and emphasise that the translator is no longer invisible.

Eco-translatology believes that in the translation process, the translator's subjectivity is primary and the object, the original text, is secondary. This is a significant reversal of the previous theory of focusing on the original text, and is in fact more in line with the reality that the translator plays an active and creative role in actual translation activities. Nowadays, machine translation is developing rapidly, and common economic and trade texts can be edited and modified after translation, greatly improving the efficiency of translation.

However, in literary translations, especially on subjects such as poetry, the subjectivity of the translator cannot be ignored, both in terms of understanding the content and the creativity of the output. In addition, the translation ecosystem boasts some characteristics: The translation as a whole is greater than the sum of its parts. The parts include the various elements of the translation process, such as the original work, the translation ecosystem, the translator and the reader.

Moreover, through the adaptation and choice of the translator, the nature and function of each translation element interacts with each other, which ultimately affects the translation system as a whole and manifests itself in the translator's work.

As we can see from these points, the translator-centred theory does not mean that the translator is completely free to create regardless of the original text. Eco-translation theory emphasises that translators adapt and make choices in an ecological translation environment, and that they should focus on their own creativity as well as the original text in order to produce dynamic translations.(Dong Jie, Yi Yongzhong, 2020)
===3 Application of the Theory in Subtitle Text Analysis of Prison Break===
===3.1 The Characteristics of America Television Show===
After the reform and opening up, people's living standards and quality of life have improved dramatically. People no longer just pursue food and clothing satisfaction, but have started to enrich their spiritual world. With the opening up of the country's policies, not only economic exchanges have been brought in, but also the spread of American films and TV shows has had a deeper impact on the country. It is said that art comes from life, so to a certain extent, American TV shows also reflects its style of life, attitudes and humanistic values.

Subtitle translation of movies and TV plays proves to be a relatively new field of translation. A film with vivid subtitle translation can better convey the complete information to be expressed. As global economy and cultural exchanges advance, a large number of foreign films and TV programs have been introduced into China. As a medium, film and television works have made important contributions to the cultural exchange between China and the West.
Seriousness and colloquialism go hand in hand.

Films and TV dramas are not just for the entertainment. Therefore, translators should take a serious attitude towards the subtitling of American dramas in order to avoid any inadvertent misunderstanding of different cultures. This gives the dialogue of American dramas a certain seriousness. However, seriousness does not mean that the subtitling of American dramas needs to be written throughout, as most of the plots take place in everyday life and the characters' dialogue is as commonplace as when we go out to eat, which requires the translators to avoid written language as much as possible, giving the audience a sense of being close to life and in reality.

Flexibility.
Film and television translation is a special literary form. While choosing accurate and vivid language to reproduce the ideological and artistic features of the original film to ensure the accuracy and vividness of the translated language, the translator should also make it consistent with the expressions and accents of the characters in the play. The most fundamental principle is the flexible handling of retention and innovation in subtitle translation.

First of all, there is a huge difference between Chinese and English languages, so the translator should pay special attention to the language difference when translating, and change the word class flexibly to avoid the situation where the words are not clear and the meaning is difficult to understand. Secondly, intonation is also very important as part of the dialogue.

The seriousness or liveliness, formality or casualness of the dialogue has a direct impact on the character, so the translator should ensure the accuracy of the translation and choose suitable language styles according to the different types of films in order to make the audience feel the same as the original language audience.

In the process of translation, the translator should fully understand the connotation of the film, and flexibly handle the retention and innovation in subtitle translation according to the language characteristics and cultural background of both parties, making the subtitle translation more suitable for the cultural context through vocabulary and word class conversion, to show the charm of the film and retain the artistic value of the film to the greatest extent.（Qian Shaochang, 2000）
===3.2 A Introduction of Prison Break===
Prison Break is a crime-thriller, with an exciting, interlocking plot, adored by national and international audiences,. In this show, Mike (Wentworth Miller) and his brother Lincoln (Dominic Purcell) are interdependent. Lincoln borrows $90,000 from a loan shark to cover the tuition of his brother, and Mike uses the money to become a successful building and structural engineer.

Lincoln, however, reluctantly agrees to shoot a man in order to repay the loan shark, and is then set up as a scapegoat by a senior government official. Mike takes advantage of his career and learns about the prison structural system. After deliberately robbing a bank, he insists that he wants to be put in the same prison as his brother, and then tries his best to save him from being sentenced to death. quotation is missing--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 08:40, 14 December 2020 (UTC)

===3.3 Adaptive Selections in Linguistic Dimension===
After discussed the basis of Eco-translatology, the characteristics of American TV shows, we should put it into practice so as to deepen our understanding.
Chinese and English are two different languages. Chinese emphasizes meaning, while English appears to be in strict accordance with the structure of sentences. Nida said that from a linguistic light, the biggest difference between Chinese and English is hypotaxis and parataxis.(Nida, 2001) In the process of translation, subtitle translators should learn by heart that the specific language characteristics so as to make the information transmission smoothly and authentically.(Hu Gengshen, 2006)

Original and Translation:
-You don't have a violent bone in your body,
我知道你天性善良，
-I said,are you being a smartass?
我问你是不是喜欢讽刺人？
-Just trying to fly low,avoid the radar,boss.
只不过想保持低调，不想引起注意，长官
-Do my time... and get out.
服完刑...就走人
Analysis: Reverse translations can also be considered to be a linguistic translation strategy, which can sometimes have a much more different effect than literal translations. This conversation occurs when Mike chats with a prison guard on arrival at the prison. “Don't have a violent bone in your body” is translated into “天性善良”. The reverse translation here show Mike's desire to impress the guard in order to facilitate a quiet environment in which to carry out his plans. In addition, “do my time” originally meant to pass the time, but the translator has chosen to adapt the translation to make it easier to understand and fit the context.

Original and Translation:
-He just sort of rolled over. He didn't put up a fight.
他就当睡觉翻个身似的，没任何反抗
Analysis: In a particular context, the meaning of a word often transcends its original meaning, and a context-dependent meaning appears, which is regarded as semantic addition. Therefore, the translator should jump out of the original meaning of the word and rely on the context in which the word is located to translate its meaning outside the context. The original meaning of “roll over” was to make a rolling motion or turn, but the phrase was translated to fit the context, adding the meaning of sleep over, which shows Mike's attitude to letting it run its course after being sentenced, and also provides an ambush for the plot to save his brother.

Original and Translation:
-Kellerman: There's a lawyer poking around.
有个律师在多管闲事
-Caroline: Anyone that's a threat is expendable.
对这种人不要心慈手软
Analysis: It is difficult to understand this sentence just by looking at the meaning of the word expendable. But according to the meaning of the whole sentence it is clear that what is meant here is that anyone who is a threat should be dealt with without considering the cost. Sometimes, the meaning of an adjective is far from restricted to its original, which embodies that the context matters.

===3.4 Adaptive Selections in Cultural Dimension===
China and America share dramatically different historical background and culture, thus there are some idioms, jargon, or any other adages that the two countries may has their own definition and explanation. In the process of translation, subtitle translators should bear in mind that the specific cultural characteristics between two countries so as to cause no misunderstanding.(Hu Gengshen, 2006)

Original and Translation:
-Someone wants him dead,Veronica.
有人要置他于死地，Veronica
-Something more is going on here.
这背后有阴谋
-This is desperation,Michael.
你是在孤注一掷，Michael
-You're grabbing at straws.
是想抓救命稻草
Analysis: The above sentences relatively use“want him dead”“desperation”“grab at straws”and the translator relatively selects typical Chinese sayings which are “置于死地”“孤注一掷”“救命稻草”. These Chinese idioms all have specific meanings and historical origins. “置于死地” means to put the opponent in a position to perish. This Chinese idiom is from Sun Wu's The Art of War: A person who falls into the water suddenly finds a straw and is saved by breathing underwater through a hollow straw.

It is now often used in a metaphorical sense to refer to a person's only hope in a difficult situation. The context of this conversation is Mike and his brother's friend discussing the situation in which his brother has been set up and imprisoned, and these idioms are appropriate for the feeling of being set up and yet having no choice.

Original and Translation:
-Look where it got me.I'm not asking you to love me. I already screwed up that chance long ago. I'm asking you to love yourself. You can still put the brakes on this thing.
可看看我现在身处的地方，我不是在恳求你再爱我，很久以前我就失去了这个机会。我是让你要自爱，亡羊补牢，为时不晚。
Analysis: “亡羊补牢，为时不晚” is a Chinese proverb. Once upon a time there was a child called Zhang San whose family had many sheep, but he was sloppy in his work. One day, there came a hole in the railing of the sheep pen. When Zhang San's neighbours saw the hole, they reminded him to repair the sheep pen. He shook his head and said, "It's only a small hole, it doesn't matter, you can fix it in a few days. When Zhang San was about to mend the fence of the sheep pen to see how the baby lambs were growing, he noticed that many of the sheep had run away and there were not many left.

An old man heard Zhang San's cries and asked him with concern. “It is not too late to fix it now, and you can save the remaining sheep.” Zhang San came to his senses. Zhang San thanked the old man, picked up a hammer and repaired the fence on the sheep pen firmly.

Since then, Zhang San has completely changed his bad habit of dragging his feet. Although Zhang San lost a lot of sheep, he learned a great lesson from the incident, and from then on developed a good habit of correcting mistakes as soon as they were made. This proverb is very appropriate in the translation of this paragraph.

When the Mike's brother ends up in prison and his child come to visit and see his father's decadence in prison, he wants to drop out of school, and the father says this to the child to make up for the bad influence he has had on him. The English word literally means you should step on the brakes, but the Chinese idiom is more apt.

Original and Translation:
-Westmoreland: Three days inside,and he's already thinking about turning rabbit.
才在牢里呆了三天，他就想着要大闹天官。
Analysis: In this dialogue, the translator translates turning rabbit as “大闹天宫”. For Chinese audiences, the Great Tribulation is a very familiar episode of Journey to the West. In the original story, Sun Wukong, was sued by the Dragon King for forcibly borrowing the East Sea Needle of the Goddess of Certainty, a treasure of the sea and also a powerful weapon.

After being humiliated and disgraced at the Peach Party, he fought his way to heaven. The Jade Emperor's Heavenly Hall was turned upside down and the immortals were helpless. This Chinese story is more graphic to the Chinese audience than the image of a turning rabbit.

Original and Translation:
-Michael: Van Gogh over there is my new cellmate.
那边的“梵高”是我的新牢友
-Fernando: But you're going to do something about it, right?You're gonna get rid of him.
但我知道你不会坐以待毙的对吗?你会想办法摆脱他的。
Analysis: This dialogue contains an idiom that is “坐以待毙”, which describes a person in extreme difficulty who is not actively trying to find a way out. The idiom is from the book ZhuKo Kungming's Second Memorial to the Throne on his Expedition. In the context of the whole episode, Mike wants to dig a hole to escape, but there is a new cellmate in the prison, who is unable to sleep at night due to mental problems, which makes the job of digging extremely difficult, as night is the only period to be free. So Fernando was worried that the plan could not be carried out, and if it was, most of the condemned prisoners in the prison would indeed be sitting around waiting to die.

Original and Translation:
-Told you not to go around me to the Pop. But you just keep making waves, don't you?
跟你说了别去找狱长，但你还在惹是生非。
Analysis: In this dialogue, “make waves” is translated as to “惹是生非”. This idiom means to stir up trouble, to cause trouble, and is taken from Feng Menglong's Instruction Stories to Enlighten the World. All of the escape partners just want to escape in peace and quiet, but the main character, Mike, has his own agenda, so he keeps the prison warden on his toes to achieve his goal. However, the other inmates think that Mike is just trying to disturb the warden, and “惹是生非” is a very accurate translation here.
===3.5 Adaptive Selections in Communicative Dimension===
Communication proves to be a crucial intention of words. Audience needs to get the idea of what movies or documentaries want to express thus communicative purpose can be achieved.(Yangli, 2013)

Original and Translation:
-Top of your class at Loyola. Magna cum laude, in fact. I can't help wondering what someone with your credentials is doing in a place like this.
Loyola的尖子生，优等成绩，我就纳闷了象你这么优秀的人才，跑到这种鬼地方干什么？
-Michael:Took a wrong turn a few months back,I guess.
也许是几个月前拐错弯了。
-You make it sound like a traffic infraction.
你说的好像是交通违规似的。
-Michael: Like all you did was turn the wrong way up a one-way street. Everyone turns up one sooner or later.
就像在单行道上开错方向，人人迟早都会发生点意外。
Analysis: In the process of translation, it is very important to choose the right words. And proper words refer not only to the correspondence of meaning, but also to the tone in a certain context. This translation method includes mood reproduction. Mood refers to the speaker's attitude towards what he says. It is a grammatical feature in the form of intonation and mood words. In the way of mood expression, there is only exclamation in English, such as oh my god, gosh, oh dear lord, and the like, which tries to show the audience the tone of surprise, praise, pain, but there is a lack of mood words with the same emotional meaning as in Chinese, such as“哦”“呢”“呀”.

Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese translation, the translator should have a keen sense and a deep understanding of the mood in the original English text, managing to transplant the original characters' tone to the translation by appreciating the diverse moods in the ordinary English text. In this dialogue, it is nearly impossible to tell the tone of the speaker by the literal meaning of the words alone.

But the translator has made his own adaptations in the context. The protagonist, a talented student, devises his own plan to rob a bank and get arrested in order to save his wrongly accused brother from prison. The prison governor, after reading the Mike's CV, expresses his own incomprehension. Phrases such as “纳了闷” and “鬼地方” convey the tone of the speaker very well.

Original and Translation:
-Michael:we only got a few minutes. We're gonna spend them spitting on each other, or are we gonna talk some business?
我们只有几分钟，我们是要用这几分钟来互相扯皮，还是我们来谈点儿正经事儿？
Analysis: The dialogue includes the words “互相扯皮” and “谈点儿正经事”, which fits Mike's irritation at the lack of cooperation from his "teammates" at the time. The colloquialisation is also very much in line with the Chinese.

Original and Translation:
-Caroline: Move on the younger brother. Do it preemptively before anything rises up,bites any of us in the ass.
把他弟弟弄走，早做打算。
Analysis: The use of the word “弄” in this dialogue shows Caroline's disregard for human life and the coldness of her character. The officials became a little worried when they found out that Mike was in his brother's prison. A literal translation of “move on” would not have had this effect. In addition, the second sentence does not translate the meaning of every single word, but rather uses only “早做打算”, which is very much in keeping with the leadership style of the person behind the plan.

Original and Translation:
-Michael: I think I've got enough grout out to bust through. I'm going to need you to make some noise.
我想我已经挖得够多了，你得帮我制造点噪音。
-Is that the best you can do?
你就这么点能耐？
-all: Shut up!
闭嘴!
-Berwick: Not one more word!
谁也别出声！
Analysis: This conversation took place when Mike was organising a tunnel excavation for people in the prison. While the digging was going on, Mike was worried that the noise would attract the guards, so he asked his cellmates to make other noises to attract attention. However, when the inmates saw that Mike was digging just a little bit of a tunnel, they shouted at him. The translator has chosen to translate this as “这点能耐”, which is a good way of conveying the impatience and arrogance of the cellmate, both in terms of content and tone. For communicative purposes, it serves as a warning.
===4 Conclusion===
From the perspective of Eco-translatology, this paper analyses the subtitle translation strategies of Prison Break. Under the guidance of this theory, its subtitle translation language can be described as quite refined, from which we can see the translator's cultural connotation and translation ability, and the application of Eco-translatology theory in subtitle translation of the show is in place.

However, this study is still very limited in the use of analytical Eco-translatology theory. The first is that translation studies are scattered but not specialized. Second, this study is still at the stage of quoting relevant terms or general concepts of ecology, and it has not yet given a systematic, in-depth and detailed description and interpretation of translation activities according to the basic connotation of ecology.

Third, the thesis is narrow-minded, lacking multi-dimensional interpretation and generalization of more problems. In addition, some studies are only on the matter, not on the background of global ecological trend and academic trend of thought. Therefore, Eco-translation theory needs to be enriched and developed in subtitle research.

===References===
[1]Nida, Eugene A. 2001. Language and culture: Context in translating[M].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,114.

[2]胡庚申.生态翻译学:产生的背景与发展的基础[J].外语研究,2010(4).

[3]胡庚申. 翻译适应选择论[M].武汉:湖北教育出版社，2004.

[4]胡庚申.从术语看译论——翻译适应选择论改观[J].上海翻译, 2008 (2).

[5]胡庚申.例示“适应选择论”的翻译选择和翻译方法[D].外语与外语教学，2006 (3).

[6]钱邵昌.字幕翻译——翻译园地中愈来愈重要的领域[J].中国翻译, 2000(1).

[7]杨丽.文学作品翻译中的语气翻译策略研究[J].语文学刊,2013(9).

[8]董捷,易永忠.生态翻译学视角下译者主体性在字幕翻译中的体现[J].校园英语,2020(19):243-244.

参考文献需要中英双语--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 10:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==A Study of English Translation of HUAWEI’s Advertising Videos from the Eco-translatology Perspective 张宇星 Zhang Yuxing 202070080650 英语口译==

===摘要===

随着经济全球化的发展，越来越多的中国公司步入国际化行列，竞相抢占国际市场。广告片是宣传产品、公司项目，提升企业形象的重要手段之一，对广告片翻译进行研究对企业的国际化发展具有重大意义，因此国际化企业对此十分重视。华为技术有限公司成立于1987年，历经30余年的发展，已成为有国际影响力的大公司。为对产品进行有效的宣传，华为摄制较多高质量的双语宣传片，这些宣传片激发了较多潜在顾客。然而，由于东西方文化差异的存在，宣传片字幕翻译对译者提出了较高的要求。

本文以生态翻译学为理论框架对华为三个宣传片的英译进行了研究。作者根据生态翻译学的三维转换理论，考虑到中英文在语言习惯、文化背景和文本交际意图的差异，分别对华为的三个宣传片，即关于华为Mate20登月的故事，华为海洋，科技普济天下，进行评析。最后通过分析总结发现：译者在进行商务字幕翻译实践时，需要充分了解源语与目的语在语言、文化等方面的差异，充分适应具体的翻译环境，传递文本的交际意图，只有达到了语言维、文化维和交际维三者的统一，才是真正成功的译文。

===关键词===

生态翻译学；三维转换；华为；宣传片；广告语翻译

===Abstract===

With the development of globalization, more and more Chinese enterprises are stepping into the competition of global market. As advertising video contributes a lot to promoting products projects as well as the image of enterprises, its translation is critical to enterprises to go global and has caught businessmen’s attention greatly. Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, founded in 1987, has evolved into an international corporate with profound influence over the last 30 years. In order to advertise products, HUAWEI has shot many high-quality bilingual advertising videos which have attracted many potential customers. However, the subtitle translation of advertising videos requires high professional skills for translators as many cultural differences lie between the West and the East.

This paper aims to study the English translation of advertising videos Eco-translatology theory perspective. Based on three dimensional transformations in Eco-translatology theory, the author gives full consideration to differences in linguistic tradition, cultural background and communicative intention of the text between Chinese and English, and comments the subtitle translation of three HUAWEI’s advertising videos, A Story about the Moonfall of HUAWEI Mate 20, Huawei Marine and TECH4ALL. In the end, the conclusion comes that translators should fully understand the linguistic and cultural differences between the source text and target text and adapt themselves in specific translation environment so as to transmit the whole communicative intention when they translate commercial subtitles. And successful translation texts should be those realizing the unification of linguistic dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension.

===Key Words===

Eco-translatology, three dimensional transformations, HUAWEI, advertising video; subtitle translation

===1 Introduction===

As early as 2001, Hu Gengshen has put forth the notion of “approach to translation as adaptation and selection” and “translation is adaption and selection” in the FIT Third Asian Translators’ Forum (Hu Gengshen, 2001, 5), which marked the birth to Eco-translatology. In Eco-translatology, Hu combined the translation process with Darwinism, “survival of fitness”, and proposed that translators, when they translate a text, should fully adapt themselves to source languages’ environment to understand its specific meaning and find out targeted readers at first, and then, on the basis of good command of the source language and its culture, write down appropriate words so that readers using target language can get the same and correct information about the whole text. As the theory gives an inspiration for many translators, there are an increasing number of translators conducting translation, translation criticism and other activities in accordance with Eco-translatology.

In addition, the background of this paper is that the advent of Internet and convenient transports arouses most enterprises’ awareness of the importance and necessity of advertising videos in products or business promotion. Especially in the era of scientific technology, Internet and advanced transportation are breaking the geographical boundaries to a large extent, therefore, enterprises can expand their operation worldwide, enjoying a larger business scope than ever before (Chen K., Yang F. F, 2019, 21). However, there still exit language and cultural limits when enterprises promote a product, so proper translation is quite important for companies to extend their business scope.

Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, the tech giant enjoying satisfactory reputation coming from both customers and competitors, has shown its presence in many countries and regions with advertising videos presented in various languages. For HUAWEI’s advertising video, there is a common sense that people feel passionate about learning more about the product or the company and even want to buy it after they watch those videos, so undoubtedly, HAEWEI does a good job in advertising videos. Meanwhile, HUAWEI, on behalf of domestic Communications Service Provider, has wide influence over international market. Considering all those facts, the author tends to comment the subtitle translation of HUAWEI’s advertising videos from the perspective of Eco-translatology and hope for some possible enlightenment for subtitle translation.

The thesis applies qualitative analysis, case study and contrastive analysis to study both the Chinese versions and English versions of three videos about HUAWEI. For each video, the author comments them respectively from linguistic dimensional transformation, cultural dimensional transformation and communicative dimensional transformation, the processes of translation in Eco-translatology theory.

===2 Literature Review===

Eco-translatology, put forward by Hu Gengshen, is a systematic translation theory to explain the translation process. It studies and guides the translation practice(practices)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) from the perspective of ecology, which provides a new way for translators to conduct translation, so since its birth, the theory has widely broadened the theoretical researches in both China and abroad (Hu Gengshen, 2001).

===2.1 Eco-translatology===

At the beginning of the 21st century, Hu Gengshen put emphasis on translators’ adaptation and selection when they translate a text, which is the origin of Eco-translatology theory. In Eco-translatology theory, translation process is similar to Darwinism’s “natural selection”. Translators, like all creatures in evolutionary history, also experience the selection and adaptation in translating so as to create masterpieces to satisfy variable purposes and people using different languages (Hu Gengshen, 2001, 17). As well, their works tend to confront the “natural selection”, the market, and finally the best works will be preserved as time goes by. So, in order to create high-quality and ever-lasting translated texts, translators have to bury themselves in different eco-environments so as to get the pure and true understanding of the source text, and translate it into the target language with appropriate words which will meet different needs. During the process, the “natural selection” is the market, or readers’ feedback.

Since Hu proposed the notion of “approach to translation as adaptation and selection” and “translation is adaption and selection” in 2001 (Hu Gengshen, 2001, 103), studies on Eco-translatology began to grow vigorously. In 2004, Hu published a book, An Approach to Translation as Adaptation and Selection. This book focuses on translators’ adaptation and selection, including their relations, mechanisms, basic characteristics and principles, so as to describe or interpret translation process, standards and methods in a new perspective (Hu Gengshen, 2004). After that, Hu continued to study “adaption and selection” and briefly summarized translation principle as multidimensional adaptions and adaptive selection, and translation methods as “three dimensional transformations” (Hu Gengshen, 2006).

As Eco-translatology developed in a positive way, Hu reviewed the development of the theory, including basic connotation, background, current situation and existed limits, and pointed out directions for future research (Hu Gengshen, 2008, 23 ). And then, Hu expounded on nine focuses on research and theoretical tenets from the perspective of Eco-translatology (Hu Gengshen, 2011, 3). As Eco-translatology has widely been accepted by most translators and employed in many fields, Hu, in Eco-translatology: Construction & Interpretation, was commitment to give a general overview and description of the translation ecology and translation theory viewing from ecology (Hu Gengshen, 2013, 11).

In order to provide some inspiration in translation practices, Hu, based on the present research concerning Eco-translatology, put forward different research focus in the future from several angles and aspects in light of Eco-translatology so that scholars could get certain enlightenments and directions for their future studies (Hu Gengshen, 2017, 34).

Apart from Hu’s studies on Eco-translatology, many scholars have conducted a lot of researches in previous years. Tang applied Eco-translatology in advertisement translation and proposed that translators, from linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions, should have focus according to advertisement’s contents, targeted audiences, source language and cultural background of the target text (Tang Yixin, 2015, 52).

The theory has also been employed to analyze the Chinese-English translation of corporate profiles (Xing Yanchao and Dong Hailin, 2017, 142). Just in the same year, in order to assist Chinese films to go global, Zhu researched films’ subtitle translation with the exemplification of “Mr. Six” from three dimensional transformation in Eco-translatology, that is, linguistic dimensions, cultural dimensions and communicative dimensions (Zhu Jingyan, 2017, 78).

Over the past ten years with countless scholars and translators’ efforts, Eco-translatology has developed to cover many points, such as translator-centeredness, eco-paradigm, sequence chain, adaptive selection and selective adaption, eco-environment and post-event penalty (Hu Gengshen, 2011, 5). Viewing from translation process, Eco-translatology theory requires translators to select different translation environments and adapt themselves in it for many times; from translation principles, Eco-translatology theory is multi-dimensional selective adaption and adaptive selection; from translation skill, Eco-translatology promotes the translation from three dimensional transformation, linguistic dimensional transformation, cultural dimensional transformation and communicative dimensional transformation (Hu Gengshen, 2003, 283).

===2.2 Subtitle Translation===

Subtitle translation of advertising videos, an essential part of translation of commercial texts, generally refers to inter-lingual translation. Since the flourishment of domestic films in 21st century, more and more high-quality films with interesting plots compete to go global to boast Chinese traditional culture and tell Chinese stories, which is part of Chinese dream of great rejuvenation. Therefore, in order to promote Chinese culture, provide Chinese solution and tell Chinese story well, quite a few scholars and translators are commitment to subtitle translation and relative studies.

According to Wang (2007, 13), subtitle translation, a special language transformation, should be focused on condensing the oral language in videos into written language. Then, Wu studied language features of subtitle translation, which are instantaneity and popularization, and proposed that translators should pay more attention to logicality, artistry and affection of the words (Wu Wei, 2013, 154). Yu studied the features and technical constraints of dubbing and subtitling English into Chinese, and found that standardization and simplification were two major techniques for subtitling while lip synchronization, gestures and pauses were major constraints for dubbing (Yu Haikuo, 2015, 493).

2019 witnessed the prosperity of not only films but also studies related to subtitle translation. In the same year, several scholars studied the machine translated subtitles, all of which were selected from MOOCs, and found that “participants who were offered full PEMT subtitles scored better overall on our reception metrics than those who were offered raw MT subtitles” (Hu et al., 2019, 13), and Zheng discussed the features and limitations of subtitle translation (Zheng Jie, 2019, 247).

After that, Zheng furthered the study about subtitle translation and proposed that different comments about subtitle translation, be it satisfactory or not, came out when audiences viewed it in different situation and prospects (Zheng Xiqing, 2020), and Wang briefly discussed subtitle translation of Chinese films in ''Western Leather'' by commenting several cases (Wang An, 2020). Just in the same year, Wang analyzed and prospected the subtitling abroad through empirical research, suggesting that the subtitle translation in the future should be focused on the translation in dynamic images (Wang Juan, 2020, 89).

All in all, subtitle translation, as a special part of translation, should be emphasized on not only the basic information of the text but also the emotional awareness, the contextual effects, which are the focus of translators. Moreover, few studies concerning subtitle translation were conducted from the perspective of Eco-translatology theory, so the author comments subtitle translation of advertising videos through three dimensional transformations promoted by Eco-translatology theory.

===3 A Case Study of HUAWEI’s Advertising Videos: Three Dimensional Transformations===

Since the reform and opening-up in China, Chinese enterprises have boosted their business operation all over the world and won worldwide recognition and reputation in over three decades. Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd is a tech giant with commitment to bring digital to every person, home and organization for a fully connected, intelligent world (https://www.huawei.com/en/fully-connected-intelligent-world/ ). As HUAWEI has been expanding business presence in every corner of the world, many advertising videos have been created to promote the products, enhance corporate image and advertise projects. However, according to the author’s research, few studies on subtitle translation of advertising videos are conducted from the perspective of Eco-translatology theory.

According to Eco-translatology theory, translators should conduct translation practices based on the principle of multi-dimensional selective adaption and adaptive selection, while the translation approach is three dimensional transformations, which are linguistic transformation, cultural transformation and communicative transformation (qtd. in Zhu Jingyan, 2017, 80). In the translation process, the translator has to select different eco-environment and adapt himself based on different dimensions. For example, if the translator translates from linguistic dimension, the top priority for translator is to keep syntax and grammar correction and among others; if the translator does translation from cultural dimension, he has to consider the cultural background, local customs etc.; if the translator translates text from communicative dimension, he should pay more attention to the communicative function of the text.

In order to elaborate on subtitle translation of advertising videos from the perspective of Eco-translatology, the author selects three advertising videos of Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, and analyzes them from linguistic dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension respectively.

Three videos are related to mobile phone’s promotion: Mate 20, corporate promotion, Huawei Marine, and projects promotion, TECH4ALL (https://www.huawei.com/minisite/tech4all/cn/ ). The first video, focusing on the release of HUAWEI Mate 20, a smartphone designed by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd in 2018, marked the expansion of Huawei’s commercial landscape in telecommunication all over the world.

In 2018, both domestic and abroad customers have been completely amazed by the performance of Mate 20, and even in 2020 when many new series of masterpieces of mobile-phones were releases, there still exist many customers keeping using HUAWEI Mate 20. In fact, apart from great performance and customers’ excellent experience, what attracts and retains customers includes the contribution of the eye-catching advertising video, A Story about the Moonfall of HUAWEI Mate 20. The video is about the communication between an astronaut and the ground, so the whole eco-environment in linguistic dimension is the daily communication, and every word and sentence should conform to characteristics of daily interactions.

The second advertising video is about Huawei Marine (http://www.huaweimarine.com/cn/Company/CorporateVideo ). Huawei Marine has combined competitive edges of both parent companies with strong commitment to the establishment of submarine cable network globally. And the vision of Huawei Marine, being “Connecting the World, One Ocean at a Time”, has also fully reflected the vision of Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, “Building a Fully Connected, Intelligent World”. This video is selected from the official website of Huawei Marine, aiming to give a brief introduction of the company as well as what they have done over the past decade. As it is an official video concerning Huawei Marine’s corporate image, the words employed in subtitle are very formal, and the same is true to subtitle translation.

The last advertising video introduces HUAWEI’s non-profit project, TECH4ALL (https://www.huawei.com/minisite/tech4all/cn/). It is a non-profit project launched by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd with strong commitment to bring technology to everyone and everywhere, both rich and poor, in the world. It is certain that the wealth people are more likely to get advanced technology and information to catch more wealth while poor people would face the embarrassing situation of getting poorer, which is the application of the Matthew Effect in information era.

In the following analysis, specific comments about the subtitle translation of those advertising videos are offered from linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions, key points of Eco-translatology theory.

===3.1 Linguistic Dimensional Transformations===

The adaptive selection transformation in linguistic dimension means that translators have to focus on the transformation of linguistic form. The basic requirements for translators in linguistic dimensional transformations are grammatically correction, clearness, accuracy and others. The author gave some specific comments about the subtitle translation of selected videos from linguistic dimensional transformation, part of three dimensional transformations in Eco-translatology theory (Tang, 2015, 143). In the following analysis, examples are given with their translations, and the source text is marked as ST and translated target text, TT, and specific comments about those examples, from linguistic dimensional transformation, are provided in the following text.

Eg.1 ST: 在这广阔的海域下，正是这一条条蓝色的信息脉络，传递你我的声音，想法传递着每一份情感，让想象呈现于现实，连接五洲四洋，承载沟通梦想，让世界无界。

TT: Deep under our vast seas, there is a blue highway of information, spreading our voices, ideas, and feelings, allowing our imaginations become reality, carrying our dreams across the oceans, and making a world without boundaries.

It is the last part of the advertising video about Huawei Marine focusing on its vision. This video ends with “连接五洲四洋，承载沟通梦想，让世界无界”, which includes broad words of “洲” and “洋”. In Chinese, “五洲四洋” is a word developed from a Chinese four-character idiom, “五洲四海” which refers to “世界各地”, every corner in the world, and it originates from the essay, 《魔鬼的笛音》 written by Sima Da. Meanwhile, the literal meaning of “五洲四洋” is continents and oceans, while the translator put it into “oceans” solely. The reason behind is that the translator tried to satisfy the requirements of(in)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) corporate promotion.

Just as the advertising video presented before, Huawei Marine aims to promote the image of International enterprises, Huawei Marine, and it gives some basic information about Huawei Marine, such as the business landscape. Most tasks Huawei Marin has conducted are on the ocean, rather than continents, by establishing as much as optical fibers across the ocean to connect the whole world, and the mission of Huawei Marine is “Connecting the World, One Ocean at a Time”. Based on the mission of Huawei Marine and its business landscape, the translator chose the image, ocean, and threw away another image, continent. Just in this way, the action translator conducted echoes to the purpose of this advertising video.

Eg.2

ST: 这里是位于印度洋深处的海洋秘境，仅5万人口，但他们的存在却无法让世界忽视或遗忘

TT: And on one secluded island in the Indian Ocean, that only has a population of 50,000, people have made their existence unforgettable and un-ignorable.

In this example, the translator applies “secluded island” to translate “海洋秘境” in describing the tough situation in Mauritius. “秘境”, in Chinese, is a phrase with many far-reaching meanings. Meanwhile, the conception, “海洋秘境”, conforms to Chinese perceptual knowledge since ancient times. In addition, according to Oxford dictionary, “secluded” also has diverse meanings, such as “(of a place) quiet and private, not used or disturbed by other people” and “without much contact with other people” (Oxford Dictionary, 2018, 297), which are correspondence to secret places of “秘境”. Although “secluded island” is lack of some meaning and the artistic conception of “秘境”, it has fully transmitted the key points in this passage, so the translator performed excellently.

From above examples, it is easy to conclude that translators should fully understand the translation eco-environment, the context or the background, adapt themselves in it, and aim to satisfy the requirements of linguistic style, accuracy, readability, customs and clearness on the basis of local translation eco-environments, when they understand the source text or conduct the translation practices. Otherwise, tedious, boring and untie in with reality may be the likely result of translation.

===3.2 Cultural Dimensional Transformations===

The adaptive selection transformation in cultural dimension requires that translators should pay pay special attention to convey and interpret the cultural connotations in both languages (Hu Gengshen, 2006, 49). As different countries have different history, people in this country have been cultivated with different culture, so it is naturally that people in China and other English-speaking countries own many differences, including opinions, values, cultural backgrounds, attitudes, customs and so many others.

As the existence of cultural differences, the top priority for translators, to broadcast a product or a company, is to eliminate differences or narrow the gap in cognition of people in two different cultural environments. So in order to make customers learn more about and accept the product or an enterprise, translators should exhaust their knowledge and skills to eliminate those cognitive differences towards some specific things, which carry completely different meanings in different cultures. The author has employed the subtitle translation of advertisement video to make specific comments from cultural dimensional transformations. The followings are some examples and comments about the subtitle translation from cultural transformation dimension.

Eg.3

ST: 70%的表面被海洋覆盖，这里孕育着神奇的物种，埋藏着丰富的资源，也成为人类沟通的天堑。

TT: 70% of our world is covered by oceans, which are home to amazing species and rich resources. Now, they will bring a new era of communication.

“天堑” is a literary word referring to natural chasms unable to be conquered easily, most of which are big rivers. In Southern Dynasty, people viewed “天堑” as the Changjiang River. Mr. Fan, a famous writer of the Northern Dynasty, once said that “长江天堑，古来限隔，虏军岂能飞度?”, which means that enemy troops of Sui Dynasty could not pass the Changjiang River, because it separated the north and south. Although the Sui Dynasty succeed in this battle because of militaries of that the Northern Dynasty led a befuddled life while militants in the Sui Dynast, we could still get a glimpse of difficulties of the natural chasm.

After that, people employed “天堑” to describe many natural chasms, especially the Changjiang River. For example, in 1957 when Wuhan Yangtze River Bridge was completed, Mao Zedong wrote a poem 《水调歌头•游泳》 to celebrate the great events. In 《水调歌头•游泳》, there exists a saying of “天堑变通途”, which means that the Changjiang River, the natural chasms are conquered to be clear roads.

In English, there is no specific words corresponding to “天堑”, so the translator turned to the specific meaning of the sentence and rendered it into that the ocean “will bring a new era of communication”. It is also the mission of Huawei Marine. Both Chinese version and English version transform the vision of Huawei Marine differently based on different cultural background.

Meanwhile, as “天堑” has such a few profound meanings, it not only illustrates how hard those places are and how extraordinary achievements Huawei Marine has made, but also creates an artistic conception that there are a lot of challenges lying in Huawei Marine’s projects. The artistic conception refers to the situation which is created by the integration of emotion and scene, void-solid combination and poetic space with profound meanings and the rhythms of vibrant life. For most people, they cannot get the specific points when they read such words, but after watching the whole video and relating those words to specific situation in this video, they would catch a glimpse of the corporate image.

Apart from that, the translator translated “天堑” as “they will bring a new era of communication” in English. These words echo to the beginning words which have shown the rich resources and coverage of the vast ocean, because people may not view the ocean as a way leading to communication era as it is generally accepted that continents are divided by ocean so that ideas are unable to communicate freely. Therefore, “bring a new era of communication” in the video introduces Huawei Marine’s business landscape, showing its presence in creating a new era of communication in the vast ocean. The English version has less twists in the whole passage and targets at the theme, introducing Huawei Marine, directly, which satisfies Westerners’ customs and advocates the corporate image in a more appropriate way.

Eg.4

ST: 科技普济天下。

TT: Tech for all. Pass it on.

This comes from the advertising video about the non-profit project, TECH4ALL. “科技普济天下” can be easily related to a Chinese old saying, “穷则独善其身，达则兼济天下” with the English meaning being “In hard time, try to seek self-development; in success, try to let others be benefited”, which is the highest mission of scholars in ancient China. It tends to arouse Chinese people’s admiration to HUAWEI. The English version, “Tech for all. Pass it on”, is a fixed expression that passes on something from generation to generation or from one man to another. To some extent, the last sentence, being the finishing touch, promotes HUAWEI’s corporate image greatly. And both versions have transferred the theme to the audiences successfully.

From the above analysis, the conclusion emerges. Viewing from cultural dimensions, translators should consider not only the cultural differences between source language and target language, but also the theme of the advertising videos, describing the performance of a company. And as cultural tradition, Chinese version prefers to employ broader words to create an atmosphere while the English version tends to use more specific and direct ones. Only in this way, customers with different cultural background would know the company or product in a correct and positive way.

===3.3 Communicative Dimensional Transformations===

The adaptive selection transformation in communicative dimension focuses on the communicative ability of the text (Hu Gengshen, 2006, 97). In other words, the purpose of an advertising video is to introduce and promote a product, projects or enterprise, so the video would contain the basic information of the product, project or enterprise, so as to enable potential customers to know more about them or engage in the project or join in the company.

In this dimension, it will focus on the translation of the communicative ability. For example, if an advertising video of Chinese version focuses on a mobile phone and introduces its basic information, and most of the domestic customers itch to buy one after watching that video, the translator has to translate not only all of the basic information but also the emotion–appealing. If the translator fails to arouse customers’ impulse to buy the phone, the translation practice is a failure (Hu Gengshen, 2008, 13). However, in this aspect, HUAWEI’s advertising videos are excellent examples, and the followings are some specific analysis of subtitle translation of those advertising videos from communicative dimensional transformation.

Eg.5

ST: 偏远的尼日利亚村民第一次连接外部世界，一根科技木杆，立起数字信号覆盖村落。无法离家的孟加拉农村女性，第一次掌握数字工具，六部培训巴士，带着数字技能穿梭百万公里。特殊的聋哑孩子，第一次享受到阅读的乐趣，一款移动应用，让手机通晓数十种语言。

TT: In remote areas of Nigeria, connectivity brings new life to local communities, opening doors to trade, banking, better education and healthcare. In Bangladesh, digital training has given more than 240,000 women new opportunities in life. With AI, deaf children everywhere can translate written words into sign language, so no child misses out on the joy of story time.

This example is selected from TECH4ALL (https://www.huawei.com/minisite/tech4all/cn/index.html#stories ), a non-profit project. As a non-profit project, the most important point is to elaborate on the purpose of the project and reflect on the corporate’s social responsibility. According to the advertising video, both Chinese and English version, the project focuses on bringing the general access to people with some troubles, such as people in remote areas in Nigeria and Bangladesh, and vulnerable children.

For those villagers in remote Nigeria, the translator translated “第一次连接外部世界” as “connectivity brings new life to local communities”. That is overstatement in the first sight of “new life”, but it conveys that how dramatically that power of Internet is and how great the project, conducted by HUAWEI, is in the information era. Again, women in poor Bangladesh can visit places, break the limit of ignorant and backward idea and “have new opportunities in life” with the power of digital technology. As for those children with self-inability, they miss many joys in the word. However, they “cannot miss out on the joy of story time”, and is able to write a completely new chapter with AI, the digital technology, compared with that when they lack of AI before.

From those three examples, three vulnerable groups with characteristic can meet a brighter world and enjoy the colorful life with the access to technology, Internet and AI. Although they fail to connect and communicate with the world because of geographical limits, financial limits and self-inability, their life can also be changed with the advanced technologies, just as HUAWEI did in this project. From this communicative dimension, the subtitle translation of this advertising video has been conveyed completely and successfully----Technology, to great extent, has changed their life completely.

Eg. 6

ST: 世界并非天生完美，数字包容改变世界。

TT: Our planet may not be perfect, but digital technology can help make it better.

In this example, “世界并非完美，数字包容改变世界” has two implications. The first is that the world has many imperfections, which echoes to those vulnerable group. The second implication is the theme of this advertising video. Meanwhile, the English version is also a fixed expression. The words, “help make it better”, means that something can promote another thing in a more positive way. Apparently, both source text and target text reemphasizes the importance of digital technology and underlines the vision of this project---making a better world.

From the comments above, it seems clear that translators should exhaust their efforts to transform the communicative intention of the text so that customers in both languages would arouse the same or similar emotion and get the same or similar information of the project, product or enterprise, when conducting translation practice. Only in this way, the translation can be deemed as successful translation.

===4 Conclusion===

In the first chapter, this thesis gives a basic overview of the development of Eco-translatology theory and mentions the current fruits of the theory. Then the author gives an overview of studies related to subtitle translation in recent years, and introduces the focus of this paper. With the help of theoretical support listed above, the author researches the subtitle translation of advertising video from three dimensional transformations in Eco-translatology theory.

With the development of technology and Internet, more and more domestic enterprises are going global. Considering HUAWEI is a tech giant with far-reaching influence in both China and the world, the author selects three advertising videos about product, enterprise and project concerning HUAWEI to comment in three dimensions respectively. The product’s advertising video is about HUAWEI Mate 20, a mobile phone catching world’s eye since its release.

The enterprise’s advertising video is that of Huawei Marine, a joint venture established by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd and Global Marine System Limited. And the project’s advertising video concerns a non-profit project launched by HUAWEI, TECH4ALL. The author analyzes those three videos from linguistic dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension respectively, and finds that translators should consider the linguistic customs, cultural background and communicative ability of both cultures so as to enable more people to know more about what advertising videos have advertised and to buy the product, join in the enterprises and engage in the project.

Eco-translatology, an emerging theory put forward by Hu Gengshen, offers an insight to subtitle translation of advertising videos. Although commercial translation is booming in recent years, it seems that not enough attention is given to translation practices from the perspective of Eco-tranlatology. Thus, this paper, with analysis of advertising video from the perspective of Eco-translatology, provides people who are involved in subtitle translation of advertising video and bilingual video makers with new inspiration.

From the perspective of linguistic dimensional transformation, translators should adapt themselves in specific translation ecology so as to ensure the linguistic style, accuracy, readability, and clearness of the translated text; from the perspective of cultural dimensional transformation, translators, in order to make sure target audiences grasp what the advertising video promote in a correct and positive way, should consider the cultural differences between source language and target language more; from the perspective of communicative dimensional transformation, translators need to transmit the communicative intention of the text so that customers in both languages would arouse similar emotion which helps build similar image of the project, product or enterprise.

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--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 13:01, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

='''Translation Theories'''=

==A study on a History of Translation Theory 李梦 Li Meng 202020080613 亚非语言文学==
<center>李梦 Li Meng </center>
===Abstract===
Translation theory guides translation practice, and the technical aspects demonstrated in translation practice are also based on translation theory. Therefore, translation theory is of great importance to both translation teaching and translation practice. To understand a subject, one must first understand its history.By studying the history of Chinese and Western translation theories, this paper analyzes the similarities and characteristics of Chinese and Western translation theories, and expounds the importance of the history of translation theories to translation studies.

===Key words===
Translation Theory, History of Translation, History of Translation Theory, History of Chinese Translation Theory , History of Western Translation Theory

===摘要===
翻译理论指导翻译实践，在翻译实践中所展示的技术层面也是以翻译理论为基础。因此翻译理论对翻译教学和翻译实践都至关重要。而要了解一门学科，必须先读懂它的历史。本文将通过研究中西方翻译理论史，分析中西翻译理论史的共性与特性，阐述翻译理论史对翻译研究重要性。

===关键词===
翻译理论，翻译史，翻译理论史，中国翻译理论史，西方翻译理论史

===1. Introduction===
Translation, as a cross-cultural communication activity, has a history as long as the origin and development of mankind. With the acceleration of human civilization and globalization, translation has gradually shouldered the heavy responsibility of promoting communication and exchange among people of all nationalities in the world and promoting common development and progress. However, as an important part of translation studies, the history of translation theory has received far less attention than the study of translation theories and techniques. (Luo Hui 2017,198)

The study of translation history, translation theory and translation technique is considered to be the three main components of translation research, but from the books on translation research published over the years, we can see that the research achievements and academic theories of translation theory and translation skills far outweigh the research of translation history, which shows that translation history has not attracted enough attention. (Luo Hui 2017,198)

Translation, however, has historical characteristics, and when we study translation, we must examine the translation activities in the long river of human history, so that we can find out more clearly that the form and connotation of translation activities are constantly enriched, and that it plays different roles in different historical stages. Therefore, if you want to do a good translation study, you have to understand the history of translation theory.(Luo Hui 2017,198)

Translation, as a cross-cultural communication activity, has a history as long as the origin and development of mankind. With the acceleration of human civilization and globalization, translation has gradually shouldered the heavy responsibility of promoting communication and exchange among people of all nationalities in the world and promoting common development and progress.However, as an important part of translation research, the history of translation theory is far less important than that of translation theory and translation technology. (Luo Hui 2017,198)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The study of translation history, translation theory and translation technique is considered to be the three main components of translation research, but from the books on translation research published over the years, we can see that the research achievements and academic theories of translation theory and translation skills far outweigh the research of translation history, which shows that translation history has not attracted enough attention. (Luo Hui 2017,198)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

But translation has historical characteristics. In studying translation, it is necessary to examine translation activities in the long river of human history in order to find more clearly that the form and connotation of translation activities are constantly enriched, and it plays different roles in different historical stages. Therefore, if you want to do a good translation study, you must understand the history of translation theory.(Luo Hui 2017,198)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===2. The History of Chinese Translation Theory===
Chinese translation theory was born out of contact with vassal states during the Zhou Dynasty. It developed through translations of Buddhist scripture into Chinese. It is a response to the universals of the experience of translation and to the specifics of the experience of translatingfrom specific source languages into Chinese. It also developed in the context of Chinese literary and intellectual tradition. There have been three high tide of translation in the history of Chinese translation: the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Song Dynasty, the translation of Western studies from the late Ming to the early Qing Dynasty and the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May 4th Movement. (Liang Dan 2016,104)

The Chinese translation theory was born after the Zhou Dynasty came into contact with the client state.It developed through translations of Buddhist scripture into Chinese. It is a response to the universals of the experience of translation and to the specifics of the experience of translatingfrom specific source languages into Chinese. It also developed in the context of Chinese literary and intellectual tradition. There have been three high tide of translation in the history of Chinese translation: the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Song Dynasty, the translation of Western studies from the late Ming to the early Qing Dynasty and the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May 4th Movement. (Liang Dan 2016,104)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.1 The Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Song Dynasty====
From the Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song dynasties, Buddhism was introduced into China and blended with traditional Chinese Confucianism and Taoism.Indian philosophy, literature and art, medicine, astronomy, arithmetic and even language have some influence in our country with the translation of Buddhist scriptures, but the translation activities of this period mainly focus on spreading religion.(Cai jie 2018,1)

From the Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song dynasties, Buddhism was introduced into China and blended with traditional Chinese Confucianism and Taoism.Indian philosophy, literature and art, medicine, astronomy, arithmetic and even language have some influence in our country with the translation of Buddhist scriptures, but the translation activities of this period mainly focus on spreading religion.(Cai jie 2018,1)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Important Translators in this period and their translation theories：

Zhi Qian(3rd c.AD)
Zhi Qian (支谦) 's preface (序)is the first work whose purpose is to express an opinion about translation practice. The preface was included in a work of the Liang Dynasty. It recounts an historical anecdote of 224AD, at the beginning of the Three Kingdoms period. A party of Buddhist monks came to Wuchang. One of them, Zhu Jiangyan by name, was asked to translate some passage from scripture. He did so, in rough Chinese. (Chen Fukang 1996,320)

When Zhi Qian questioned the lack of elegance, another monk, named Wei Qi (维祇), responded that the meaning of Buddha should be translated simply, without loss, in an easy-to-understand manner: literary adornment unnecessary. All present concurred and quoted two traditional maxims: Laozi's "beautiful words are untrue, true words are not beautiful " and Confucius s "speech cannot be fully recorded by writing, and speech cannot fully capture meaning". Zhi Qians own translations of Buddhist texts are elegant and literary, so the "direct translation" advocated in the anecdote is likely Wei Qi's position, not Zhi Qians. (Chen Fukang 1996,320)

Zhi Qian(3rd c.AD)
Zhi Qian 's preface is the first work whose purpose is to express an opinion about translation practice. The preface was included in a work of the Liang Dynasty. It recounts an historical anecdote of 224AD, at the beginning of the Three Kingdoms period. A party of Buddhist monks came to Wuchang. One of them, Zhu Jiangyan by name, was asked to translate some passage from scripture. He did so, in rough Chinese. (Chen Fukang 1996,320)

When Zhi Qian questioned the lack of elegance, another monk, named Wei Qi, responded that the meaning of Buddha should be translated simply, without loss, in an easy-to-understand manner: literary adornment unnecessary. All present concurred and quoted two traditional maxims: Laozi's "beautiful words are untrue, true words are not beautiful " and Confucius s "speech cannot be fully recorded by writing, and speech cannot fully capture meaning". Zhi Qians own translations of Buddhist texts are elegant and literary, so the "direct translation" advocated in the anecdote is likely Wei Qi's position, not Zhi Qians. (Chen Fukang 1996,320)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Dao An(314-385AD)
Dao An focused on loss in translation. His theory is the Five Forms of Loss (五失本).
① Changing the word order. Sanskrit word order is free with a tendency to SOV. Chinese is SO.
② Adding literary embellishment where the original is in plain style.
③ Eliminating repetitiveness in argumentation and panegyric (颂文).
④ Cutting the concluding summary section (义说).
⑤ Cutting the recapitulative material in introductory section.(Chen Fukang 1996,320)

Dao An criticized other translators for loss in translation, asking: how they would feel if a translator cut the boring bits out of classics like the Shi Jing or the Classic of History?
He also expanded upon the difficulty of translation, with his theory of the Three Difficulties (三不易).
① Communicating the Dharma to a different audience from the one the Buddha addressed.
② Translating the words of a saint.
③ Translating texts which have been painstakingly composed by generations of disciples. (Chen Fukang 1996,320)

Dao An(314-385AD)
Dao An focused on loss in translation. His theory is the Five Forms of Loss.
① Changing the word order. Sanskrit word order is free with a tendency to SOV. Chinese is SO.
② Adding literary embellishment where the original is in plain style.
③ Eliminating repetitiveness in argumentation and panegyric.
④ Cutting the concluding summary section.
⑤ Cutting the recapitulative material in introductory section.(Chen Fukang 1996,320)

Dao An criticized other translators for loss in translation, asking: how they would feel if a translator cut the boring bits out of classics like the Shi Jing or the Classic of History?
He also expanded upon the difficulty of translation, with his theory of the Three Difficulties.
① Communicating the Dharma to a different audience from the one the Buddha addressed.
② Translating the words of a saint.
③ Translating texts which have been painstakingly composed by generations of disciples. (Chen Fukang 1996,320)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Kumarajiva(344 - 413AD)
Kumarajiva's translation practice was to translate for meaning. The story goes that one day Kumarajiva criticized his disciple Sengrui for translating "heaven sees man, and man sees heaven"(天见人，人见天). Kumarajiva felt that " man and heaven connect, the two able to see each other"(人天交接，两得相见) would be more idiomatic, though heaven sees man, man sees heaven is perfectly idiomatic. (Chen Fukang 1996,320)

In another tale, Kumarajiva discusses the problem of translating incantations at the end of sutras. In the original there is attention to aesthetics, but the sense of beauty and the literary form (dependent on the particularities of Sanskrit) are lost in translation. It is like chewing up rice and feeding it to people (嚼饭于人).(Chen Fukang 1996,320)

Kumarajiva(344 - 413AD)
Kumarajiva's translation practice was to translate for meaning. The story goes that one day Kumarajiva criticized his disciple Sengrui for translating "heaven sees man, and man sees heaven". Kumarajiva felt that " man and heaven connect, the two able to see each other" would be more idiomatic, though heaven sees man, man sees heaven is perfectly idiomatic. (Chen Fukang 1996,320)

In another tale, Kumarajiva discusses the problem of translating incantations at the end of sutras. In the original there is attention to aesthetics, but the sense of beauty and the literary form (dependent on the particularities of Sanskrit) are lost in translation. It is like chewing up rice and feeding it to people.(Chen Fukang 1996,320)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Huiyuan(334-416AD)
Huiyuan' s theory of translation is middling, in a positive sense. It is a synthesis that avoids extremes of elegant (文雅) and plain (质朴). With elegant translation, " the language goes beyond the meaning"(文过其意)of the original. With plain translation, "the thought surpasses the wording" (理胜其辞). For Huiyuan, "the words should not harm the meaning"(文不害意). A good translator should "strive to preserve the original"(务存其本). (Chen Fukang 1996,321)

Huiyuan(334-416AD)
Huiyuan' s theory of translation is middling, in a positive sense. It is a synthesis that avoids extremes of elegant and plain. With elegant translation, " the language goes beyond the meaning"of the original. With plain translation, "the thought surpasses the wording". For Huiyuan, "the words should not harm the meaning". A good translator should "strive to preserve the original". (Chen Fukang 1996,321)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Sengrui(371-438AD)
Sengrui investigated problems in translating the names of things. This is of course an important traditional concern whose locus classicus is the Confucian exhortation to "rectify names" (正名). This is not merely of academic concern to Sengrui, for poor translation imperils Buddhism. Sengrui was critical of his teacher Kumarajiva's casual approach to translating names, attributing it to Kumarajiva's lack of familiarity with the Chinese tradition of linking names to essences. (Chen Fukang 1996,321)

Sengrui(371-438AD)
Sengrui investigated problems in translating the names of things. This is of course an important traditional concern whose locus classicus is the Confucian exhortation to "rectify names".This is not merely of academic concern to Sengrui, for poor translation imperils Buddhism. Sengrui was critical of his teacher Kumarajiva's casual approach to translating names, attributing it to Kumarajiva's lack of familiarity with the Chinese tradition of linking names to essences. (Chen Fukang 1996,321)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Sengyou(445-518AD)
Much of the early material of earlier translators was gathered by Sengyou and would have been lost but for him. Sengyou's approach to translation resembles Huiyuan's, in that both saw good translation as the middle way between elegance and plainness. However, unlike Huiyuan Sengyou expressed admiration for Kumarajiva's elegant translation. (Chen Fukang 1996,321)

Sengyou(445-518AD)
Much of the early material of earlier translators was gathered by Sengyou and would have been lost but for him. Sengyou's approach to translation resembles Huiyuan's, in that both saw good translation as the middle way between elegance and plainness. However, unlike Huiyuan Sengyou expressed admiration for Kumarajiva's elegant translation. (Chen Fukang 1996,321)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Xuanzang(600-664AD)
Xuanzang's theory is the Five Untranslatables (五不翻). or five instances where one should transliterate:
① Secrets: Dharani (陀罗尼), Sanskrit ritual speech or incantations, which includes mantras.
②Polysemy: bhaga (as in the Bhagavad Gita) (薄伽), which means comfortable, flourishing, dignity, name, lucky, esteemed.
③ None in China: jambu tree (门浮树)，which does not grow in China.
④ Deference to the past: the translation for anuttara-samyak-sambodhi is already established as Anouputi (阿耨菩提).
⑤ To inspire respect and righteousness: Prana (般若) instead of "wisdom"(智慧) (Chen Fukang 1996,325)

Xuanzang(600-664AD)
Xuanzang's theory is the Five Untranslatables. or five instances where one should transliterate:
① Secrets: Dharani, Sanskrit ritual speech or incantations, which includes mantras.
②Polysemy: bhaga (as in the Bhagavad Gita), which means comfortable, flourishing, dignity, name, lucky, esteemed.
③ None in China: jambu tree, which does not grow in China.
④ Deference to the past: the translation for anuttara-samyak-sambodhi is already established as Anouputi.
⑤ To inspire respect and righteousness: Prana instead of "wisdom" (Chen Fukang 1996,325)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.2 The Translation of Western Studies from the Late Ming to the Early Qing Dynasty====
In the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, due to the need for external transportation, Sanyi Hall was established to train translators.At the end of the Ming Dynasty, Western studies gradually began to advance eastward, and translation became more active.But by this time the translation has completely changed, and it is no longer the Buddhist scriptures of India, but rather the classics of astronomy, geometry and medicine in Europe, and the history of Chinese translation has reached a new stage.(Cai jie2018,2)

In the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, Sanyitang was established to train translators.At the end of the Ming Dynasty, Western research gradually progressed eastward, and translation became more active.By this time, however, the translation has completely changed, and it is no longer the Buddhist scriptures of India, but the history of astronomy, geometry, medicine, and Chinese translation in Europe has reached a new stage.(Cai jie2018,2)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.3 The Translation of Western Studies from the Opium War to the May 4th Movement ====
After the Opium War, Chinese intellectuals felt the need to learn from the West in pain, and the translation activities began to rise again, forming a new stage in the history of Chinese translation. After the May 4th Movement, Chinese history entered modern times, and the importance of translation went back to ancient times.The rise of China's new literature is inseparable from translation. (Fang Wenhua 2005,108)

After the Opium War, Chinese intellectuals were painfully learning from the West, and translation activities began to rise again, forming a new stage in the history of Chinese translation. After the May 4th Movement, Chinese history entered modern times, and the importance of translation returned to ancient times.The rise of Chinese new literature cannot be separated from translation. (Fang Wenhua 2005,108)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Important Translators in this period and their translation theories：

Yan Fu(1854-1921)
Yan Fu is famous for his theory of fidelity, clarity and elegance (信达雅), which some believe originated with Tytler. Yan Fu wrote that fidelity is difficult to begin with. Only once the translator has achieved fidelity ane clarity should be attend to elegance. The obvious criticism of this theory is that it implies that inelegant originals should be translated elegantly. Clearly, if the style of the original is not elegant or refined, the style of the translation should not be elegant either. (Fang Wenhua 2005,200)

Yan Fu(1854-1921)
Yan Fu is famous for his theory of fidelity, clarity and elegance, which some believe originated with Tytler. Yan Fu wrote that fidelity is difficult to begin with. Only once the translator has achieved fidelity ane clarity should be attend to elegance. The obvious criticism of this theory is that it implies that inelegant originals should be translated elegantly. Clearly, if the style of the original is not elegant or refined, the style of the translation should not be elegant either. (Fang Wenhua 2005,200)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Liang Qichao(1873-1929)
Liang Qichao put these three qualities of a translation in the same order, fidelity first, then clarity, and only then elegance. (Fang Wenhua 2005,200)

Liang Qichao(1873-1929)
Liang Qichao put these three qualities of a translation in the same order, fidelity first, then clarity, and then elegance. (Fang Wenhua 2005,200)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Lin Yutang(1895-1976)
Lin Yutang stressed the responsibility of the translator to the original, to the reader, and to art. To fulfill responsibility, the translator needs to meet standards of fidelity (忠实), smoothness (通顺) and beauty. (Fang Wenhua 2005,200)

Lin Yutang(1895-1976)
Lin Yutang stressed the responsibility of the translator to the original, to the reader, and to art. To fulfill responsibility, the translator needs to meet standards of fidelity, smoothness and beauty. (Fang Wenhua 2005,200)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Lu Xun(1881-1936)
Lu Xun' s most famous dictim relating to translation is "I'd rather be faithful than smooth"(宁信而不顺). (Fang Wenhua 2005,201)

Lu Xun(1881-1936)
Lu Xun' s most famous dictim relating to translation is "I'd rather be faithful than smooth". (Fang Wenhua 2005,201)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Ai Siqi(1910-1966)
Ai Siqi described the relationship between fidelity, clarity and elegance in terms of Western ontology, where clarify and elegance are to fidelity as qualities are to being. (Fang Wenhua 2005,201)

Ai Siqi(1910-1966)
Ai Siqi described the relationship between fidelity, clarity and elegance in terms of Western ontology, where clarify and elegance are to fidelity as qualities are to being. (Fang Wenhua 2005,201)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Zhou Zuoren(1885-1967)
Zhou Zuoren assigned weightings, 50% of translation is fidelity, 30% is clarity, and 20% elegance. (Fang Wenhua 2005,202)

Zhou Zuoren(1885-1967)
Zhou Zuoren assigned weightings, 50% of translation is fidelity, 30% is clarity, and 20% elegance. (Fang Wenhua 2005,202)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Zhu Guangqian(1897-1986)
Zhu Guangqian wrote that fidelity in translation is the root which you can strive to approach but never reach. This formulation perhaps invokes the traditional idea of returning to the root in Daoist philosophy. (Fang Wenhua 2005,202)

Zhu Guangqian(1897-1986)
Zhu Guangqian wrote that fidelity in translation is the root which you can strive to approach but never reach. This formulation perhaps invokes the traditional idea of returning to the root in Daoist philosophy. (Fang Wenhua 2005,202)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Fu Lei(1908-1966)
Fu Lei held that translation is like painting: what is essential is not formal resemblance but rather spiritual resemblance (神似). (Fang Wenhua 2005,203)

Fu Lei(1908-1966)
Fu Lei held that translation is like painting: what is essential is not formal resemblance but rather spiritual resemblance (神似). (Fang Wenhua 2005,203)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Qian Zhongshu(1910-1998)
Qian Zhongshu wrote that the highest standard of translation is transformation (化, the power of transformat in nature): bodies are sloughed off, but the spirit (精神), appearance and manner (姿致) are the same as before (故我, the old me or the old self). (Fang Wenhua 2005,203)

Qian Zhongshu(1910-1998)
Qian Zhongshu wrote that the highest standard of translation is transformation (the power of transformat in nature): bodies are sloughed off, but the spirit, appearance and manner are the same as before (the old me or the old self). (Fang Wenhua 2005,203)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===3. The History of Western Translation Theory===

====3.1 Translation Studies of the Romans====
Studies on translation go back to the Romans. Eric Jacobson claims that translating is a Roman invention. Cicero and Horace (1st century B.C.) were the first theorists who made an important distinction between word-for-word translation and sense-for-sense translation. Their views on translation influenced successive generations of translators up to the twentieth century.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)

Studies on translation go back to the Romans. Eric Jacobson claims that translating is a Roman invention. Cicero and Horace (1st century B.C.) were the first theorists who made an important distinction between word-for-word translation and sense-for-sense translation. Their views on translation influenced successive generations of translators up to the twentieth century.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 13:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Important Roman Translator and his Translation Theory：

Marcus Tulluis Cicero(106-43B.C.)
①A Translator must, like an oratore, use idiomatic Roman language in expressing what is conveyed by a foreign language.
②A translator must avoid word-for-word translation and try to retain genus omne vimque (meaning).
③One who translates Demosthenes must be Demosthenes as translation means literary production.
④Different rhetorical devices in different languages share smilarities, which enables a translator to achieve correspondence in style.
⑤ The translation should surpass the original and the translator is superior to the original author.(Liu Danna 2016,1)

Marcus Tulluis Cicero(106-43B.C.)
①A Translator must, like an oratore, use idiomatic Roman language in expressing what is conveyed by a foreign language.
②A translator must avoid word-for-word translation and try to retain genus omne vimque (meaning).
③One who translates Demosthenes must be Demosthenes as translation means literary production.
④Different rhetorical devices in different languages share smilarities, which enables a translator to achieve correspondence in style.
⑤ The translation should surpass the original and the translator is superior to the original author.(Liu Danna 2016,1)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 13:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====3.2 Bible Translation in the Middle Ages ====
In the Middle Ages，from the end of the Roman Empireto the Renaissance, the Bible translation holds a very important positionin the Western translation history. With the spread of Christianity, translation came to acquire another role, that of dissemination the word of God. Translation of the New Testment was marked by St Jerome (fourth century CE). His approach to translating the Greek Septuagint Bible into Latin would affect later translations of the scriptures. In the sixteenth century the history of Bible translation acquired new dimensions with the advent of printing. (Fan Ningyu 2017,123)

In the Middle Ages，from the end of the Roman Empireto the Renaissance, the Bible translation holds a very important positionin the Western translation history. With the spread of Christianity, translation came to acquire another role, that of dissemination the word of God. Translation of the New Testment was marked by St Jerome. His approach to translating the Greek Septuagint Bible into Latin would affect later translations of the scriptures. In the sixteenth century the history of Bible translation acquired new dimensions with the advent of printing. (Fan Ningyu 2017,123)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 13:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The sixteenth century saw the translation of the Bible into a large number of European languages, in both Protestant and Roman Catholic versions, and revised version of existing translations continued to appear in English, Dutch, German and French.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)

The sixteenth century saw the translation of the Bible into a large number of European languages, in both Protestant and Roman Catholic versions, and revised version of existing translations continued to appear in English, Dutch, German and French.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 13:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Important Bible Translators and their Translation Theories :

(1)St Jerome(331-420 A.D.)
①Fexibility is a very important principle that must be adopted in translation when word for word rendition is impossible.
②It is necessary to distinguish between literary translation and religious translation.
③Correct translation must depend upon correct understanding of the source text.
④While doing translation, the translator must be as flexible as he can, as flexibility is a very mportant principle that must be adopted in translation when word for word rendition is impossible Languages differ from each other in diction, style, idiomatic usage, syntax and meaning and content. Therefore word-for-word rendition is not workable.
⑤The translator must differentiate between - literary translation and - religious translati. In the former, the translator must adopt what is easier to understand to convey the original thought. However, in the Bible translation, the translator can not always use sense for sense method, but literal rendition. Cicero preferred sense for sense to word for word, but Jerome considered them to be complementary to each other. He applied this to his translation practice.
⑥Correct translation must depend on correct understanding of the source text. He did not believe the inspiration of God.
⑦Jerome's principles and methods of translation greatly influenced the later translation especially the Bible translation in other western countrie.
(Zhang Yan 2011,117)

(1)St Jerome(331-420 A.D.)
①Fexibility is a very important principle that must be adopted in translation when word for word rendition is impossible.
②It is necessary to distinguish between literary translation and religious translation.
③Correct translation must depend upon correct understanding of the source text.
④While doing translation, the translator must be as flexible as he can, as flexibility is a very mportant principle that must be adopted in translation when word for word rendition is impossible Languages differ from each other in diction, style, idiomatic usage, syntax and meaning and content. Therefore word-for-word rendition is not workable.
⑤The translator must differentiate between - literary translation and - religious translati. In the former, the translator must adopt what is easier to understand to convey the original thought. However, in the Bible translation, the translator can not always use sense for sense method, but literal rendition. Cicero preferred sense for sense to word for word, but Jerome considered them to be complementary to each other. He applied this to his translation practice.
⑥Correct translation must depend on correct understanding of the source text. He did not believe the inspiration of God.
⑦Jerome's principles and methods of translation greatly influenced the later translation especially the Bible translation in other western countrie.
(Zhang Yan 2011,117)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 13:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

(2)St. Augustine(345-430A.D.)
①A translator must meet the following requirements:(a)a good command of the two languages,(b)knowledge of the subject matter selected for translation,(c)capability of proofreading.
②Pay full attention to three kinds of style: plain, refined and sublime.
③Pay due attention to the triangle relationship between signified, signifier and the translators judgment.
④The basic level in translation is word.
⑤Translating the Bible must be done under the inspiration of God.(Zhang Yan 2011,118)

(2)St. Augustine(345-430A.D.)
①A translator must meet the following requirements:(a)a good command of the two languages,(b)knowledge of the subject matter selected for translation,(c)capability of proofreading.
②Pay full attention to three kinds of style: plain, refined and sublime.
③Pay due attention to the triangle relationship between signified, signifier and the translators judgment.
④The basic level in translation is word.
⑤Translating the Bible must be done under the inspiration of God.(Zhang Yan 2011,118)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 13:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====3.3 Translation Theory during the Renaissance====
Translation in Renaissance Europe came to play a role of central importance. And translation was by no means a secondary activity, but a primary one, exerting a shaping force on the intellectual life of the age, and at times the figure of the translator appears almost as revolutionary activist rather than the servant of an original author or text. Renaissance is the period in Europe between the 14th and 17 centuries, when the art, literature, and ideas of ancient Greece were discovered again and widely studied, causing a rebirth ofactivity in all these things. The role translation plays in Renaissance: means of transplanting new ideas and thoughts, compared to war trophies in literature and art. (Fan Ningyu 2017,123)

Translation in Renaissance Europe came to play a role of central importance. And translation was by no means a secondary activity, but a primary one, exerting a shaping force on the intellectual life of the age, and at times the figure of the translator appears almost as revolutionary activist rather than the servant of an original author or text. Renaissance is the period in Europe between the 14th and 17 centuries, when the art, literature, and ideas of ancient Greece were discovered again and widely studied, causing a rebirth ofactivity in all these things. The role translation plays in Renaissance: means of transplanting new ideas and thoughts, compared to war trophies in literature and art. (Fan Ningyu 2017,123)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 13:36, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Renaissance in turn influenced translation greatly in terms of attitudes toward translation and translation methods or approaches. The Renaissance period witnessed a considerable increase in the number of translations, due to the stimulating influence of the Renaissance and the introduction of printing technology and perception of translation as a means of disseminating knowledge to a wider audience. In addition, new views on translation appearedand translation activities centered not only on the Bible and classical literary texts, but also on other kinds of texts such as scientific ones and helped develop the national languages.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)

Renaissance in turn influenced translation greatly in terms of attitudes toward translation and translation methods or approaches. The Renaissance period witnessed a considerable increase in the number of translations, due to the stimulating influence of the Renaissance and the introduction of printing technology and perception of translation as a means of disseminating knowledge to a wider audience. In addition, new views on translation appearedand translation activities centered not only on the Bible and classical literary texts, but also on other kinds of texts such as scientific ones and helped develop the national languages.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 13:36, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Important Renaissance Translators and their Translation Theories :

(1)Martin Luther(1483-1546)
①Translation must adopt the language accepted by the people.
②Translation must pay much attention to the relation of grammar to sense.
③Translation must follow seven principles:(a) the translator can change the original word order,( b) the translator can chose proper helping words,(c) the translator can supply necessary words,(d) the translator can omit the words which can not find exact counterparts in TL,(e) the translator can render a word a phrase,(f) the translator can translate metaphorical expressions into nonmetaphorical expressions and vice versa,(g) the translator must pay due attention to the deviation of language and the accuracy of interpretation
④Translation must draw on collective wisdom and absorb all useful ideas. (Zou Yujuan 2019,239)

(1)Martin Luther(1483-1546)
①Translation must adopt the language accepted by the people.
②Translation must pay much attention to the relation of grammar to sense.
③Translation must follow seven principles:(a) the translator can change the original word order,( b) the translator can chose proper helping words,(c) the translator can supply necessary words,(d) the translator can omit the words which can not find exact counterparts in TL,(e) the translator can render a word a phrase,(f) the translator can translate metaphorical expressions into nonmetaphorical expressions and vice versa,(g) the translator must pay due attention to the deviation of language and the accuracy of interpretation
④Translation must draw on collective wisdom and absorb all useful ideas. (Zou Yujuan 2019,239)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 13:36, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

(2)Etienne Dolet(1509-1546)
①The translator must understand what he wants to translate.
②The translator must know SL and TL.
③The translator must avoid word for word rendition, which harms the conveyance of the origina message and the beauty of the language.
④The translator must use the common speech.
⑤The translator must make the version appropriate in effect through diction and adjustment of syntactical components.(Zou Yujuan 2019,239)

(2)Etienne Dolet(1509-1546)
①The translator must understand what he wants to translate.
②The translator must know SL and TL.
③The translator must avoid word for word rendition, which harms the conveyance of the origina message and the beauty of the language.
④The translator must use the common speech.
⑤The translator must make the version appropriate in effect through diction and adjustment of syntactical components.(Zou Yujuan 2019,239)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 13:36, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====3.4 Translation Theory in the Early Modern Times====
17th century - 19th century is a very important period of translation and translation studies in the west. Translation became prosperous because of boosting of production, prosperous economy, more and more people receiving education and being eager to read and write. In this period each period differs from the other and each country differs from the other in translation. Translation is characterized by inaccurate representation of the original message in the TL in many cases in some countries. Translation theories began to develop systematically interms of their framework in the 18th century and foundits center in the 19th century Germany. (Fan Ningyu 2017,123)

The focus of translation practice began to be shifted from classics to modern works. Jesus Christ school: inaccurate translation, making classics religious in translation version. Port-Royal school: stressing the present, often addingsomething to the original content or omitting something of the ST in the translation. The 19th century French translators such as Francoise-Rene de Chateaubriand (1768- 1848), Gerard Nerval(1808-1855) and Charles Baudelaire(1821-1867) focused their attention on translating modern work such as those of Shakespeare and Allen Poe. By the mid-seventeenth century the widening of the gap between traditional Christian Humanism and science had all led to radical changes in the theory ofliterature and hence to the role of translation.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)

17th century - 19th century is a very important period of translation and translation studies in the west. Translation became prosperous because of boosting of production, prosperous economy, more and more people receiving education and being eager to read and write. In this period each period differs from the other and each country differs from the other in translation. Translation is characterized by inaccurate representation of the original message in the TL in many cases in some countries. Translation theories began to develop systematically interms of their framework in the 18th century and foundits center in the 19th century Germany. (Fan Ningyu 2017,123)

The focus of translation practice began to be shifted from classics to modern works. Jesus Christ school: inaccurate translation, making classics religious in translation version. Port-Royal school: stressing the present, often addingsomething to the original content or omitting something of the ST in the translation. The 19th century French translators such as Francoise-Rene de Chateaubriand (1768- 1848), Gerard Nerval(1808-1855) and Charles Baudelaire(1821-1867) focused their attention on translating modern work such as those of Shakespeare and Allen Poe. By the mid-seventeenth century the widening of the gap between traditional Christian Humanism and science had all led to radical changes in the theory ofliterature and hence to the role of translation.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 13:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Important Translators in the Early Modern Times and their Translation Theories：

(1)John Dryden (1631-1700), formulated the trichotomy oftranslation:
① Metaphrase (直译), or turning an author word by word, and line by line, from one language into another.
② Paraphrase (意译), or translation with latitude (flexibility), the Ciceronian "sense-for-sense" view of translation.
③ Imitation (仿译), where the translator can abandon the text of the original as he sees fit.(Zou Yujuan 2019,239)

Of these types Dryden chooses the second (paraphrase) as the more balanced path, provided the translator fulfils certain criteria: To translate poetry, he argues, the translator mustbe a poet, must be a master of both languages, and must understand both the characteristics and spirit ofthe original author, besides conforming to the aesthetic canons of his own age. He uses the metaphor of the translator/portrait painter, that was to reappear so frequently in the eighteenth century, maintaining that the painter has theduty of making his portrait resemble the original.(Zou Yujuan 2019,239)

Dryden's views on translation were followed fairly closely by Alexander Pope (1688 - 1744),who advocates the same middle ground as Dryden, with stress on close reading of the original to note the details of style and manner whilst endeavoring to keep alive the "fire" of the poem. (Zou Yujuan 2019,239)

In the Eighteenth Century, underlying Dryden's and Pope's concept of translation is another element, beyond the problem ofthe debate between overfaithfulness and looseness: the whole question of the moral duty of the translatorto his contemporary readers. The impulse to clarify and make plain the essential spirit of a text led to large scale rewritings of earlier texts to fit them to contemporary standards of language and taste. Hence the famous re-structuring of Shakespearian texts, and the translations of Racine. (Zou Yujuan 2019,239)

(1)John Dryden (1631-1700), formulated the trichotomy oftranslation:
① Metaphrase：or turning an author word by word, and line by line, from one language into another.
② Paraphrase： or translation with latitude (flexibility), the Ciceronian "sense-for-sense" view of translation.
③ Imitation：where the translator can abandon the text of the original as he sees fit.(Zou Yujuan 2019,239)

Of these types Dryden chooses the second (paraphrase) as the more balanced path, provided the translator fulfils certain criteria: To translate poetry, he argues, the translator mustbe a poet, must be a master of both languages, and must understand both the characteristics and spirit ofthe original author, besides conforming to the aesthetic canons of his own age. He uses the metaphor of the translator/portrait painter, that was to reappear so frequently in the eighteenth century, maintaining that the painter has theduty of making his portrait resemble the original.(Zou Yujuan 2019,239)

Dryden's views on translation were followed fairly closely by Alexander Pope (1688 - 1744),who advocates the same middle ground as Dryden, with stress on close reading of the original to note the details of style and manner whilst endeavoring to keep alive the "fire" of the poem. (Zou Yujuan 2019,239)

In the Eighteenth Century, underlying Dryden's and Pope's concept of translation is another element, beyond the problem ofthe debate between overfaithfulness and looseness: the whole question of the moral duty of the translatorto his contemporary readers. The impulse to clarify and make plain the essential spirit of a text led to large scale rewritings of earlier texts to fit them to contemporary standards of language and taste. Hence the famous re-structuring of Shakespearian texts, and the translations of Racine. (Zou Yujuan 2019,239)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 13:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

(2)Alexander Fraser Tytler(1747-1813)published a volume entitled The principles of translation, the first systematic study in English of the translation processes.
Tytler set up three basic principles:
①The translation should give a complete transcript ofthe idea of the original work
②The style and manner of writing should be of thesame character with that of the original.
③The translation should have all the ease of theoriginal composition.(Zou Yujuan 2019,239)

In the Romantic Period, so many texts were translated at this time that were tohave a seminal effect on the TL. Stress on the impact of the translation in the target culture in fact resulted in a shift of interest away from theactual processes of translation. Moreover, two conflicting tendencies can be determined in the early nineteenth century: one exalts translation as a category of thought, with the translator seen as a creative genius in his own right, in touch with the geniusof his original and enriching the literature and language into which he is translating; the other sees translation interms of the more mechanical function of "making known" a text or author.(Liu Danna 2016,3)

2)Alexander Fraser Tytler(1747-1813)published a volume entitled The principles of translation, the first systematic study in English of the translation processes.
Tytler set up three basic principles:
①The translation should give a complete transcript ofthe idea of the original work
②The style and manner of writing should be of thesame character with that of the original.
③The translation should have all the ease of theoriginal composition.(Zou Yujuan 2019,239)

In the Romantic Period, so many texts were translated at this time that were tohave a seminal effect on the TL. Stress on the impact of the translation in the target culture in fact resulted in a shift of interest away from theactual processes of translation. Moreover, two conflicting tendencies can be determined in the early nineteenth century: one exalts translation as a category of thought, with the translator seen as a creative genius in his own right, in touch with the geniusof his original and enriching the literature and language into which he is translating; the other sees translation interms of the more mechanical function of "making known" a text or author.(Liu Danna 2016,3)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 13:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====3.5 Translation Theory in the Twentieth Century====
In the second half of the twentieth century, studies on translation became an important course in language teaching and learning at schools. The grammar-translation model studies the grammatical rules and structures of foreign languages. The cultural model is also a witness for the development of translation studies in the period. It required in translation not only a word-for-word substitution, but also a cultural understanding of the way people in different societies think. With this model, we can distinguish between the ethnographical-semantic method and the dynamic equivalent method.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)

In the second half of the twentieth century, studies on translation became an important course in language teaching and learning at schools. The grammar-translation model studies the grammatical rules and structures of foreign languages. The cultural model is also a witness for the development of translation studies in the period. It required in translation not only a word-for-word substitution, but also a cultural understanding of the way people in different societies think. With this model, we can distinguish between the ethnographical-semantic method and the dynamic equivalent method.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123) --[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 13:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Another model that appears in the period is text-based translation model, which focuses on texts rather than words or sentences in translation process. This model includes avariety of sub-models: the interpretative model, the text linguistic model and models of translation quality assessments that in turnprovide us with many models such as those of Riess,Wilss, Koller, House, North. The period is also characterized by pragmatic andsystematic approach to the study of translation.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)

Another model that appears in the period is text-based translation model, which focuses on texts rather than words or sentences in translation process. This model includes avariety of sub-models: the interpretative model, the text linguistic model and models of translation quality assessments that in turnprovide us with many models such as those of Riess,Wilss, Koller, House, North. The period is also characterized by pragmatic andsystematic approach to the study of translation.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123) --[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 13:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Important Translators in the Twentieth Century and their Translation Theories：

(1)Arne Jacobson(1896-1982)
①Jakobson points out that "there is ordinarily no full equivance between code-units".
②From a lingusitic and semiotic angle, Jakobson approaches the problem of equivance with the following definition: "Equivalence in difference is the cadinal problem of language and the pivotalconcern of linguistics."
③In Jakobson's discussion, the problem of meaning and equivalence thus focuses on differences in the structure and terminology of languages rather than on any inability of one language to render a message that has been written in another verbal language. Thus Russian can still express the full semantic meaning of cheese even if it breaks it down into two seperate concepts.
④For Jakobson, cross-linguistic differences center around obligatory grammatical and lexical forms: "Languages differ essentially in what they must convey and not in what they may convey".
⑤On the basis of semiotic theory, Jacobson divides translation into Intralingual translation, Interlingual translation and Intersemiotic translation.(Zhao Shanshan 2020,143）

(1)Arne Jacobson(1896-1982)
①Jakobson points out that "there is ordinarily no full equivance between code-units".
②From a lingusitic and semiotic angle, Jakobson approaches the problem of equivance with the following definition: "Equivalence in difference is the cadinal problem of language and the pivotalconcern of linguistics."
③In Jakobson's discussion, the problem of meaning and equivalence thus focuses on differences in the structure and terminology of languages rather than on any inability of one language to render a message that has been written in another verbal language. Thus Russian can still express the full semantic meaning of cheese even if it breaks it down into two seperate concepts.
④For Jakobson, cross-linguistic differences center around obligatory grammatical and lexical forms: "Languages differ essentially in what they must convey and not in what they may convey".
⑤On the basis of semiotic theory, Jacobson divides translation into Intralingual translation, Interlingual translation and Intersemiotic translation.(Zhao Shanshan 2020,143)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 13:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

(2)Eugene A. Nida(1914-2011)
Eugene A. Nida's most notable contribution to translation theory is functional equivalence theory. According to Nida's theory, the best translation should never sound like a translation. To studiously avoid." translationese", certain fundamental sets of precedence in translating should be established, such as the precedence of contextual consistency over verbal consistency, the precedence of dynamie equivalence over formal consistency and the precedence of forms that are acceptable to the audience for which a translation is intended over the forms that may be traditionally more practicable. (Jia Xiuhai 2008,25)

Aocording to functional equivalence theory, testing the quality of translation does not consist in a comparison of corresponding lexical meanings, grammatical classes, and rhetorical devices to see the extent of verbal consistency, but in how well the receptors understand and appreciate the translated text. Funetional equivalence focuses on reader's response, which calls for the response of the receptors to translated text is the same as the response of the original receptors to original text.(Jia Xiuhai 2008,25)

(2)Eugene A. Nida(1914-2011)
Eugene A. Nida's most notable contribution to translation theory is functional equivalence theory. According to Nida's theory, the best translation should never sound like a translation. To studiously avoid." translationese", certain fundamental sets of precedence in translating should be established, such as the precedence of contextual consistency over verbal consistency, the precedence of dynamie equivalence over formal consistency and the precedence of forms that are acceptable to the audience for which a translation is intended over the forms that may be traditionally more practicable. (Jia Xiuhai 2008,25)

Aocording to functional equivalence theory, testing the quality of translation does not consist in a comparison of corresponding lexical meanings, grammatical classes, and rhetorical devices to see the extent of verbal consistency, but in how well the receptors understand and appreciate the translated text. Funetional equivalence focuses on reader's response, which calls for the response of the receptors to translated text is the same as the response of the original receptors to original text.(Jia Xiuhai 2008,25)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 13:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

(3)Peter Newmark(1916-?)
Newmark divided the translation into four main categories: semantic translation, communicative translation, literal translation and dead translation. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Semantic translation focuses primarily on the semantic content of the source text. Communicative translation focuses essentially upon the comprehension and response of receptors. (Liang Dan 2016,105）

Newmark argues that translation is both a science and an art, and that translation is a science because something in the language has been standardized, allowing only two types of translation, and that when the two languages are translated into one another, the translation is basically fixed.(Liang Dan 2016,105）

Translation is art because some things in language allow for various options, various translations, and not standardization.resort to other theories to perfect its theoretical foundation and exist as a whole as a whole in terms of artistic appeal and rhetoric. Newmark thought that translation had rules to follow.To make the content of the original the same as the translation, metaphors, proverbs, idioms, slang terms, terms, judicial structures, and orders should be the same as the original in terms of frequency of use of the language.(Liang Dan 2016,105）

(3)Peter Newmark(1916-?)
Newmark divided the translation into four main categories: semantic translation, communicative translation, literal translation and dead translation. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Semantic translation focuses primarily on the semantic content of the source text. Communicative translation focuses essentially upon the comprehension and response of receptors. (Liang Dan 2016,105）

Newmark argues that translation is both a science and an art, and that translation is a science because something in the language has been standardized, allowing only two types of translation, and that when the two languages are translated into one another, the translation is basically fixed.(Liang Dan 2016,105）

Translation is art because some things in language allow for various options, various translations, and not standardization.resort to other theories to perfect its theoretical foundation and exist as a whole as a whole in terms of artistic appeal and rhetoric. Newmark thought that translation had rules to follow.To make the content of the original the same as the translation, metaphors, proverbs, idioms, slang terms, terms, judicial structures, and orders should be the same as the original in terms of frequency of use of the language.(Liang Dan 2016,105)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 13:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===4. The Commonality and Characteristics of Chinese and Western Translation Theory History===
The commonality of the history of Chinese and Western translation theory can be summed up from three aspects: content, process and influence.In terms of content, the West attaches great importance to the translation of the Bible, while China is keen to translate the Buddhist scriptures, both of which belong to the translation of religious documents, and this stage is considered one of the high tide of translation in Chinese and Western history.(Luo Hui 2017,199)

The commonality of the history of Chinese and Western translation theory can be summed up from three aspects: content, process and influence.In terms of content, the West attaches great importance to the translation of the Bible, while China is keen to translate the Buddhist scriptures, both of which belong to the translation of religious documents, and this stage is considered one of the high tide of translation in Chinese and Western history.(Luo Hui 2017,199)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 13:32, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In terms of process and influence, the field of translation of Chinese and Western translation has changed from single to pluralism, from the original translation of religious literature to the translation of historical, political, and literary fields, and has become more and more important, and the people of different regions have become more and more closely intercommunicated, the social culture has spread more rapidly, and the influence on human history has been deepened. (Luo Hui 2017,199)

In terms of process and influence, the field of translation of Chinese and Western translation has changed from single to pluralism, from the original translation of religious literature to the translation of historical, political, and literary fields, and has become more and more important, and the people of different regions have become more and more closely intercommunicated, the social culture has spread more rapidly, and the influence on human history has been deepened. (Luo Hui 2017,199)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 13:32, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Although the translation of religious documents has sparked a high tide in the history of Chinese and Western translation, because religion's position and influence in the two societies are very different, China is far less concerned about translation of Buddhist scriptures than in the West. The effect of translating the Bible cannot be compared with that of translating the Bible. In addition, Ma Zuyi scholars have shown that during the long period of the Zhou and Qing dynasties, there have been three high tides of translation in the history of Chinese translation.Since the third century AD, Western translations have had six high tides in history, and although their translation activities are later than in China, they have developed at a relatively rapid rate.Especially in modern times, Western translation theory and school of thought are increasingly scientific and systematic, and are in the lead position. (Luo Hui 2017,199)

Although，the translation of religious documents has sparked a high tide in the history of Chinese and Western translation, because religion's position and influence in the two societies are very different, China is far less concerned about translation of Buddhist scriptures than in the West. The effect of translating the Bible cannot be compared with that of translating the Bible. In addition,
Ma Zuyi scholars have shown that during the long period of the Zhou and Qing dynasties, there have been three high tides of translation in the history of Chinese translation.Since the third century AD, Western translations have had six high tides in history, and although their translation activities are later than in China, they have developed at a relatively rapid rate.Especially in modern times, Western translation theory and school of thought are increasingly scientific and systematic, and are in the lead position. (Luo Hui 2017,199)--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 13:32, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===5. Conclusion===
As a cross-cultural communication activity with a long history, translation has reduced the communication barriers between people of different regions and languages and accelerated the development of human civilization. The history of translation theory is the historical record and witness of the origin and development of translation activities. It is an indispensable part in the process of translation studies and should be paid enough attention to. With the research results of translation theory history, this paper provides a clear and definite guidance for translation studies, thus promoting the vigorous development of translation activities.

As a cross-cultural communication activity with a long history, translation has reduced the communication barriers between different regions and different languages and promoted the development of human civilization.The history of translation theory is the historical record and witness of the origin and development of translation activities. It is an indispensable part in the process of translation studies and should be paid enough attention to. With the research results of translation theory history, this paper provides a clear and definite guidance for translation studies, thus promoting the vigorous development of translation activities.--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 13:23, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===6. References===

Fang Wenhua方文华.(2005). "二十世纪中国翻译史" [History of Chinese Translation in the 20th Century]. "西北大学出版社" [Northwestern University Press].(02):200-203.

Chen Fukang陈福康.(1996). "中国译学理论史稿" [Historical Drafts of Chinese Translation Theory]. "上海外语教育出版社" [Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].(03):320-321.

Cai Jie蔡杰.(2018). "概述中国翻译理论与实践的发展" [Summarize the Development of Chinese Translation Theory and Practice]. "课程研究" [Curriculum Research and Education].(G64):1-2.

Liu Danna刘丹娜.(2016). "西方翻译理论通史述评" [Commentary on the General History of Translation Theory in the West]. "语言研究" [Language Study].(18):1-3.

Zhang Yan张艳. (2011). "从范式理论评介中西翻译理论的发展" [A Study on the Development of Chinese and Western Translation Theory from the Paradigm Theory]. "大学英语" [College English]. (08):117-119.

Zou Yujuan邹雨娟. (2019). "中西翻译简史述评" [Commentary on the Brief History of Chinese and Western Translation]. "校园英语" [Campus English]. (23):239-240

Fan Ningyu樊宁瑜.(2017). "西方翻译简史之浅析" [A Brief Analysis of the History of Western Translators]. "文史纵横" [Literature and History].(18):123.

Liang Dan梁旦.(2016). "中西翻译理论对比" [Comparison between Chinese and Western translation Theory]. "海外英语" [Overseas English]. (04):106-104.

Luo Hui罗辉.(2017). "浅谈研究中西方翻译史对翻译研究的意义" [The Meaning of Studying Chinese and Western Translation History in Translation Research]. "语言文化" [Language and Culture]. (H059):198-199.

Zhao Shanshan赵珊珊.(2020). "翻译理论研究现状与趋势研究" [A Study on the Present Situation and Trend of Translation Theory Research]. "语言艺术研究" [The Study of Language Arts].(059):141-145.

==A Comparative Study of Translation Theory between Bell and Liu Zhongde 林鑫 Lin Xin 202020080617 英美文学==

<center>林鑫 Lin Xin </center>
===Abstract===
Roger T. Bell is recognized as a famous sociolinguist. As a linguist, Bell has framed his translation theories in terms of diagrams and models, and developed unique insights into translation issues. His main work on translation is "Translation and Translating:Theory and Practice". He objects seeing translating as evaluation of the product of translation, but stressing the importance of translation process.

Liu Zhongde is one of the most influential translation theory researchers and translators, and he has made great contribution to translation circle of theory as well as practice. Liu's research on translation theory is comprehensive and profound, and he not only pays attention to traditional Chinese translation theories, but also focuses on introducing and studying new western translation theories.

A comparison of Bell's and Liu's translation theories is useful for comparing the similarities and differences in their translation theories and providing references for the practice of translation theories.

===Key words===
Roger T. Bell; Liu Zhongde; Translation Theory; Comparative Study

===题目===
贝尔与刘重德翻译理论的比较研究

===摘要===
罗杰·贝尔是著名社会语言学家。作为一名语言学家，贝尔用图表和模型来构建他的翻译理论,并对翻译问题形成了独特的见解。他在翻译方面的主要著作是《翻译与翻译过程：理论与实践》。他反对把翻译看作是对翻译结果的评价，而是更加强调翻译过程的重要性。

刘重德是最具影响力的翻译理论研究者和翻译家之一，他对翻译界的理论以及实践都做出了巨大的贡献。刘重德对翻译理论的研究全面而深刻，他不仅重视中国传统的翻译理论,而且注重引进和研究西方新的翻译理论。

对贝尔和刘重德的翻译理论进行对比，有利于对比二者翻译理论中的异同，为翻译理论的实践提供借鉴和参考。

===关键词===
罗杰·贝尔；刘重德；翻译理论；比较研究

===1. Introduction===

====1.1 Introduction to Roger T. Bell's Translation Theory====
As a sociolinguist, Bell is characterized by applying linguistic method in translating. He is trying to set a model to explain and study the translating process, thus put the translator at the center instead of the product. The shift from emphasizing of the translated text to the call of paying attention to the process is significant. When the focus is on the process of translation, Bell inevitably put the translator at the centre of his translation study. From a functional linguistic perspective, Bell describes the translator's work process through the use of linguistics and psychology. He advocates an investigation of the psycholinguistic mechanisms of decoding and encoding in the context of bilingual rather than monolingual information exchange. He places the translator at the center, because the meaning and memory he discusses in his translation theory must be based on the translator, and it is on this basis that he builds his translation model.(Wu Yicheng Li Yingyuan,1998:55)

As a sociolinguist, Bell is characterized by applying linguistic method in translating. He is trying to set a model to explain and study the translating process, thus put the translator at the center instead of the product. The shift from emphasizing on the translated text to the call of paying attention to the process is significant. When the focus is on the process of translation, Bell inevitably put the translator at the centre of his translation study. From a functional linguistic perspective, Bell describes the translator's work process through the use of linguistics and psychology. He advocates an investigation into the psycholinguistic mechanisms of decoding and encoding in the context of bilingual rather than monolingual information exchange. He places the translator at the center, because the meaning and memory he discusses in his translation theory must be based on the translator, and it is on this basis that he builds his translation model.(Wu Yicheng Li Yingyuan,1998:55) --[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 07:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

Bell tries to be objective and modest. He gives examples of translation only to conduct the working mode of translating. He is a translation theorists, in my opinion, he studies the study of translation. Because he denies the importance of setting rules and maxims for translation and regards it as superficial. In Bell's opinion, judgement of the quality of translated texts have to be made by translators and translator-trainers and are also made by their readers but he do not wish to become engaged. He is attempting an objective description and explanation of a phenomenon, in the debate which inevitably arises over quality assessment and translation criticism. His purpose is not to give prescriptive laws for the creation of the perfect translation, besides he points out that this is not his purpose nor is it the purpose of the vast majority working in the field of translation studies.(Bell,1987:10-12)

Bell tries to be objective and modest. He gives examples of translation only to conduct the working mode of translating. He is a translation theorist, in my opinion, he studies the study of translation. Because he denies the importance of setting rules and maxims for translation and regards it as superficial. In Bell's opinion, judgement of the quality of translated texts have to be made by translators and translator-trainers and are also made by their readers but he do not wish to become engaged. He is attempting an objective description and explanation of a phenomenon, in the debate which inevitably arises over quality assessment and translation criticism. His purpose is not to give prescriptive laws for the creation of the perfect translation, besides he points out that this is not his purpose nor is it the purpose of the vast majority working in the field of translation studies.(Bell,1987:10-12)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 07:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

====1.2 Introduction to Liu Zhongde's Translation Theory====

Critically inherited the translation principles proposed by Yan Fu, Liu Zhongde put forward the translation concept of "faithfulness", "expressiveness" and "closeness". This means faithfulness in content, expressiveness in language, and closeness to the style of the original work. Yan Fu's translation concept is "faithfulness", "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr Liu thinks that if the original text is not elegant, then the translation couldn't be elegant. The two schools: school of science and school of art is influential in translation history. Liu Zhongde's thoughts about translation's essence: translation is of double nature-both a kind of science and an art. Moreover, this is proved and commonly greed by scholars in academic circle. Now many researchers are attempting to probe into translation more scientifically; translators are striving to translate literature works more artistically. (Mao Liyin,2011:5)

Critically inherited the translation ideals proposed by Yan Fu, Liu Zhongde put forward the translation concept of "faithfulness", "expressiveness" and "closeness". This means faithfulness in content, expressiveness in language, and closeness to the style of the original work. Yan Fu's translation concept is "faithfulness", "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr Liu thinks that if the original text is not elegant, then the translation couldn't be elegant. The two schools: school of science and school of art are influential in translation history. Liu Zhongde's thoughts about translation's essence: translation is of double nature-both a kind of science and an art. Moreover, this is proved and commonly greed by scholars in academic circle. Now many researchers are attempting to probe into translation more scientifically; translators are striving to translate literature works more artistically. (Mao Liyin,2011:5)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 07:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

However, we feel regretful that Mr. Liu passed away. Otherwise, he could have been keeping on with this meaningful work arduously. Fortunately, scholars are coming to some agreements on the double nature of translation activity. No matter which one of these two characteristics of translation outweighs the other, we at least confess that on one hand, translation can be discussed from the perspective of natural science, like psychology and physiology; on the other hand, translation can be probed from the perspective of social science, such as linguistics and sociology. Therefore, it can be concluded that Mr. Liu's qualitative research on translation was credible and useful; his opinion on the nature of translation was convincing: translation is both a science and an art.(Guo Meng,2010:25)

However, we feel regretful that Mr. Liu passed away. Otherwise, he could have been keeping on with this meaningful work arduously. Fortunately, scholars are coming to some agreements on the double nature of translation activity. No matter which one of these two characteristics of translation outweighs the other, we at least confess that to one hand, translation can be discussed from the perspective of natural science, like psychology and physiology; on the other hand, translation can be probed for the perspective of social science, such as linguistics and sociology. Therefore, it can be concluded that Mr. Liu's qualitative research on translation was credible and useful; his opinion on the nature of translation was convincing: translation is both a science and an art.(Guo Meng,2010:25)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 07:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

===2. Comparative Study on Bell and Liu Zhongde's Translation Theory===

To do a comparative study on Bell and Liu Zhongde's translation thoery, firstly, it is necessary to take the background of their translation theory into consideration. Understanding the social background of their theory helps better understand what their translation theory is and focuses on. Though very different in study perspective, their thoughts towards translation and practice bear much similarities.This article compares the two people's translation theory in the nature of translation, principles of translation,literal or free translation and literary translation practices in poems.

To do a comparative study on Bell and Liu Zhongde's translation theory, firstly, it is necessary to take the background of their translation theory into consideration. Understanding the social background of their theory helps better understands what their translation theory is and focuses on. Though very different to study perspective, their thoughts towards translation and practice bear much similarities.This article compares the two people's translation theory in the nature of translation, principles of translation,literal or free translation and literary translation practices in poems.--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

====2.1 Comparison on Background of Translation Theory====
In the west, since the twentieth century, the phenomenon of translation has been increasingly examined and discussed from a scientific and especially linguistic perspective. Although there are still many misunderstandings and differences between traditional translation studies and linguistic translation studies (but the latter tend to prevail). The former often accuses the latter of being fanciful and out of touch with reality, while the latter considers the former as subjective, arbitrary and unscientific. According to Bell, the essential orientation of translation theory, in the English-speaking world in particular, is still towards the evaluation of translation as product.The situation at that time, however, is one in which translation theory has, for the most part, concentrated on the product to the exclusion of the process and has adopted a normative attitude to it by making inferences back to it through the description and evaluation of the product.(Bell,1987:3)

In the west, since the twentieth century, the phenomenon of translation has been increasingly examined and discussed from a scientific and especially linguistic perspective. Although there are still many misunderstandings and differences between traditional translation studies and linguistic translation studies (but the latter tend to prevail). The former often accuses the latter of being fanciful and out of touch with reality, while the latter considers the former as subjective, arbitrary and unscientific. According to Bell, the essential orientation of translation theory, in the English-speaking world in particular, is still towards the evaluation of translation as product.The situation at that time, however, is one in which translation theory has, for the most part, concentrated on the product to the exclusion of the process and has adopted a normative attitude to it by making inferences back to it through the description and evaluation of the product.(Bell,1987:3)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

The attempt to describe and explain the process and that the process itself is, essentially, mental rather than physical, according to Bell's explanation. Mental aspect here refers to the investigation within the discipline of psychology, or to be more specifically, studies of perception, information processing and memory within the cognitive science and psychological framework. There is no doubt that translation process crucially involves language. Bell draws on the resources of linguistics and, more precisely, those branches of linguistics which are concerned with the psychological and social aspects of language use: psycholinguistics and sociolinguistics. The first of these examines the process in the mind of the translator, the second places the source language text and target language text in their cultural contexts. Although Bell puts forward the importance of putting translation process in cultural contexts, in his "Translation and Translating: Process and Practice", he doesn't stress it in his models. He tells us the importance of cultural importance, but for how to practice it, he doesn't have a deep explanation. (Bell,1991:F30)

The attempt to describe and explain the process and that the process itself is, essentially, mental rather than physical, according to Bell's explanation. Mental aspect here refers to the investigation into the discipline of psychology, or to be more specifically, studies of perception, information processing and memory within the cognitive science and psychological framework. There is no doubt that translation process crucially involves language. Bell draws on the resources of linguistics and, more precisely, those branches of linguistics which are concerned with the psychological and social aspects of language use: psycholinguistics and sociolinguistics. The first of these examine the process of the mind of the translator, the second places the source language text and target language text in their cultural contexts. Although Bell puts forward the importance of putting translation process of cultural contexts, in his "Translation and Translating: Process and Practice", he doesn't stress it in his models. He tells us the importance of cultural importance, but for how to practice it, he doesn't have a deep explanation. (Bell,1991:F30)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

In China, There has also been a long debate between three basic principles are the of Yan Fu's "faithfulness", "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr Liu points out that elegance is actually only one of the styles, and translation cannot be uniformly elegant in their style. "Closeness" is a neutral word and it is applicable to various styles. Indeed, the original text is not elegant, so why translate it with elegance? The original poem is not elegant, so how can it be translated with elegance? The fundamental of translation is faithfulness. The content should be remained if the style is hard to copy.(Liu Zhongde,1991:27-29)

In China, There has also been a long debate about three basic principles are the of Yan Fu's "faithfulness", "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr Liu points out that elegance is actually only one of the styles, and translation cannot be uniformly elegant in their style. "Closeness" is a neutral word and it is applicable to various styles. Indeed, the original text is not elegant, so why translate it with elegance? The original poem is not elegant, so how can it be translated with elegance? The fundamental of translation are faithfulness. The content should be remained if the style is hard to copy.(Liu Zhongde,1991:27-29)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

Both Bell and Liu Zhongde critically and creatively tackle problems in translation and they try hard to make perfection, but they are different in their study perspectives, which is due to the difference of their times and social background. Bell is doing linguistic translation studies. In Bell's view, translation theorists almost invariably make little systematic use of contemporary linguistic techniques and perspectives, while linguists either despise translation theory or remain silent about translation studies. His translation mode is an effort and practice to conduct linguistic and psychological ideas in translation process. However, his translation theory does not give enough consideration to the cultural factor in translation activities, which is a hot topic that has gradually become more and more valued by translators. Liu Zhongde is not the first one who doubted about Yan Fu's translation principle, but he develops it and makes it objective and applicable, which is really thoughtful in this aspect.(Weng Tao,2008:99-100)

Both Bell and Liu Zhongde critically and creatively tackle problems in translation and they try hard to make perfection, but they are different in their study perspectives, which is due to the difference between their time and social background. Bell is doing linguistic translation studies. In Bell's view, translation theorists almost invariably make little systematic use of contemporary linguistic techniques and perspectives, while linguists either despise translation theory or remain silent about translation studies. His translation mode is an effort and practice to conducting linguistic and psychological ideas in translation process. However, his translation theory does not give enough consideration to the cultural factor in translation activities, which is a hot topic that has gradually become more and more valued by translators. Liu Zhongde is not the first one that doubted about Yan Fu's translation principle, but he develops it and makes it objective and applicable, which is really thoughtful of this aspect.(Weng Tao,2008:99-100)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

====2.2 Comparison on Nature of Translation====
Bell conforms in the definition of regarding translation as "the expression in another language (or target language) of what has been expressed in another, source language, preserving semantic and stylistic equivalences".(Bell,1991:5）So translation can be regarded as the replacement of a representation of a text in one language by a representation of an equivalent text in a second language. Bell holds the view that "Essentially, a theory is judged on the extent to which it is externally and internally adequate. It must correspond with the data (which is external to itself) and also conform to particular (internal) design feature." (Bell,1991:4-5)

Bell conforms to the definition of regarding translation as "the expression of another language (or target language) of what has been expressed in another, source language, preserving semantic and stylistic equivalences".(Bell,1991:5）So translation can be regarded as the replacement of a representation of a text in one language by a representation of an equivalent text in a second language. Bell holds the view that "Essentially, a theory is judged on the extent to which it is externally and internally adequate. It must correspond with the data (which is external to itself) and also conform to particular (internal) design feature." (Bell,1991:4-5)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

As for the nature of translation, Bell makes comparisons between three different kinds of view. First, the view of translation as product, which means merely translated texts. This would require a study of texts not merely by means of the traditional levels of linguistic analysis syntax and semantics but also making use of stylistics and recent advances in discourse analysis. Second, the view of translation as both process and product, which means a theory of translating and translation. This would require the integrated study of both and such a general theory is, presumably, the long-term goal for translation studies. Third, the view of translation as process. He calls for a shift from only the product to paying attention to translation process. In translation, topics as perception, memory and the encoding and decoding of messages, happens at the same time. It is an information processing and would draw heavily on psychology and on psycholinguistics. (Bell,1991:14)

As for the nature of translation, Bell makes comparisons between three different kinds of view. First, the view of translation as product, which means merely translated texts. This would require a study of texts not merely by means of the traditional levels of linguistic analysis syntax and semantics but also making use of stylistics and recent advances in discourse analysis. Second, the view of translation as both process and product, which means a theory of translating and translation. This would require the integrated study of both and such a general theory is, presumably, the long-term goal for translation studies. Third, the view of translation as process. He calls for a shift from only the product of paying attention to translation process. In translation, topics as perception, memory and the encoding and decoding of messages, happens at the same time. It is an information processing and would draw heavily on psychology and on psycholinguistics. (Bell,1991:14)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

His translation mode is based on linguistic and psychological analysis. Clearly, Bell knows that a theory of translation, to be comprehensive and useful, must attempt to describe and explain both the process and the product. But he regards it as a long-term goal for translation studies, which cannot be achieved at present. Bell thinks that overall schema is involved even at the beginning of the translation of a text. Translators shall be very cautious indeed and, on this occasion, try to be as “faithful” as possible to the conception of the original, and moreover to reproduce its forms and meanings, its style and temporal characteristics in a text. By "faithfulness", Bell here means the translation neither adds nor deletes content. (Bell,1991:11)

His translation mode is based on linguistic and psychological analysis. Clearly, Bell knows that a theory of translation, to be comprehensive and useful, must attempt to describe and explain both the process and the product. But he regards it as a long-term goal for translation studies, which cannot be achieved at present. Bell thinks that overall schema is involved even in the beginning of the translation of a text. Translators shall be very cautious indeed and, on this occasion, try to be as “faithful” as possible to the conception of the original, and moreover to reproduce its forms and meanings, its style and temporal characteristics in a text. By "faithfulness", Bell here means the translation neither adds nor deletes content. (Bell,1991:11)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

As proposed in at the very beginning of “Ten Lectures on Literary Translation”, Liu Zhongde also proposed “translation” means “translating”, which refers to the process of translation, in which something is translated instead of the work translated. Liu Zhongde lists six definition of translation and he thinks they are all true in a specific angle, that is Translation is a science; Translation is an art; Translation is a craft; Translation is a skill; Translation is an operation; Translation is a language activity; Translation is communicating. The view that translation is a science represents the school of science. It holds the view that translating should reproduce the message of the original by means of the transformation of linguistic equivalence. The view that translation is an art represents the school of art. The school advocates recreating a literary work by using expressions of another language. It emphasizes the effect of translation.（Liu Zhongde,1991:1)

As proposed in to the very beginning of “Ten Lectures on Literary Translation”, Liu Zhongde also proposed “translation” means “translating”, which refers to the process of translation, in which something is translated instead of the work translated. Liu Zhongde lists six definitions of translation and he thinks they are all true in a specific angle, that is Translation is a science; Translation is an art; Translation is a craft; Translation is a skill; Translation is an operation; Translation is a language activity; Translation is communicating. The view that translation is a science represents the school of science. It holds the view that translating should reproduce the message of the original by means of the transformation of linguistic equivalence. The view that translation is an art represents the school of art. The school advocates recreating a literary work by using expressions of another language. It emphasizes the effect of translation.（Liu Zhongde,1991:1)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

Bell and Liu Zhongde agrees in that their translation all means translating, which means the focus on the process of translation rather than merely the product of translation. Their consensus in this aspect makes their translation theory is comparable in some aspects. Bell objects creating a set of normative maxims for the production of the ideal translation by means of such evaluation. What is proposed by him here is a shift of focus away from the translation as an artifact or a product towards translating as process. His translation is not putting prescriptive rules but offer descriptive linguistic options for translators to choose ad select. Bell thinks that translation should achieve equivalence. The equivalence is similar to Liu’s faithfulness in content. Both of them think that translation should neither deletes nor adds content, because translation is a process of representing the original text rather than creating the original text. Translation is not for showing off the translator’s artistic talent, so the mark of the translator should be reduced to the least necessity. For the lonely debated discussion of whether translation is science or art, obviously, Bell thinks translation is science and discusses it from linguistic perspective. However, Liu thinks translation is both science and art.(Mao Liyin,2011:6)

Bell and Liu Zhongde agrees in that their translation all means translating, which means the focus on the process of translation rather than merely the product of translation. Their consensus in this aspect makes their translation theory is comparable in some aspects. Bell objects creating a set of normative maxims for the production of the ideal translation by means of such evaluation. What is proposed by him here is a shift of focus away from the translation as an artifact or a product towards translating as process. His translation is not putting prescriptive rules but offer descriptive linguistic options for translators to choose ad select. Bell thinks that translation should achieve equivalence. The equivalence is similar to Liu’s faithfulness in content. Both of them think that translation should neither delete nor adds content, because translation is a process of representing the original text rather than creating the original text. Translation is not for showing off the translator’s artistic talent, so the mark of the translator should be reduced to the least necessity. For the lonely debated discussion of whether translation is science or art, obviously, Bell thinks translation is science and discusses it from linguistic perspective. However, Liu thinks translation is both science and art.(Mao Liyin,2011:6)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

====2.3 Comparison on Principles of Translation====
According to Bell, there are three principles in translation. Firstly, the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work. Secondly, the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original. And thirdly the Translation should have all the ease of original composition. However, it doesn't mean that he thinks that translation theory should be prescriptive. Actually, he thinks translation is essentially arbitrary norms of behavior. Nonnative prescriptions deriving directly from the subjective and evaluative description of the “good” translation. These prescriptive translating rules are like the rules of etiquette. Translators are told what they ought and ought not to do in particular translation circumstances. But very rarely, why they are to conform to these dictates, they have not been told the reason. The rules discussed in linguistics seek to be descriptive, a constitutive type. Bell's principles of translation is his effort of seeking descriptive rules in translation from a linguist view. (Bell,1991:37)

According to Bell, there are three principles in translation. Firstly, the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work. Secondly, the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original. And thirdly the Translation should have all the ease of original composition. However, it doesn't mean that he thinks that translation theory should be prescriptive. Actually, he thinks translation is essentially arbitrary norms of behavior. Nonnative prescriptions deriving directly from the subjective and evaluative description of the “good” translation. These prescriptive translating rules are like the rules of etiquette. Translators are told what they ought and ought not to do in particular translation circumstances. But very rarely, why they are to conform to these dictates, they have not been told the reason. The rules discussed in linguistics seek to be descriptive, a constitutive type. Bell's principles of translation are his efforts of seeking descriptive rules in translation from a linguist view. (Bell,1991:37) --[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:09, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

The frequent assumption that the purpose of a theory of translation is to devise and impose prescriptive rules as a means of both regulating the process and evaluating the product. For Bell, his position is (when playing the role of a descriptive linguist), necessarily, the converse; he is in search of descriptive rules which help us to understand the process, not normative rules which we use to monitor and judge the work of others. The notion of the good translator is inherent in any discussion of translation. That, however, is only part of the specification we need. While we would reaffirm our desire not to subscribe to the notion of the good translation, which has dominated translation theory for two centuries, we would not allow our rejection of that position to lead us also to preclude the study of the good translator as one element of an integrated, interdisciplinary, multi-method and multilevel approach to the description of the process.(Bell,1991:10)

The frequent assumption that the purpose of a theory of translation is to devise and impose prescriptive rules as a means of both regulating the process and evaluating the product. For Bell, his position is (when playing the role of a descriptive linguist), necessarily, the converse; he is in search of descriptive rules which help us to understand the process, not normative rules which we use to monitor and judge the work of others. The notion of the good translator is inherent in any discussion of translation. That, however, is only part of the specification we need. While we would reaffirm our desire not to subscribe to the notion of the good translation, which has dominated translation theory for two centuries, we would not allow our rejection of that position to lead us also to preclude the study of the good translator as one element of an integrated, interdisciplinary, multi-method and multilevel approach to the description of the process.(Bell,1991:10)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:09, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

According to Mr. Liu, faithfulness refers to the translation must express the profound meaning of the original. In terms of meaning, the translation must conform to the original text. Besides, the transmission of ideas is the most significant one in the principles of translation. There is no any controversy on this, which is determined by the function and characteristic of translation. Translation is the transformation between two languages, while it is the fact that meaning convection lies in the middle level, and culture transmission is in the depth of translation activity. Correct meaning convection is the basic assurance to the fulfillment of translation function. Therefore, the faithfulness at the content of the original texts by Mr. Liu should be actually “loyalty to the meaning of the original texts”. (Jiang Hongxin,2005:65)

According to Mr. Liu, faithfulness refers to the translation must express the profound meaning of the original. In terms of meaning, the translation must conform to the original text. Besides, the transmission of ideas is the most significant one in the principles of translation. There is no any controversy about this, which is determined by the function and characteristic of translation. Translation is the transformation between two languages, while it is the fact that meaning convection lies in the middle level, and culture transmission is in depth of translation activity. Correct meaning convection is the basic assurance to the fulfillment of translation function. Therefore, the faithfulness at the content of the original texts by Mr. Liu should be actually “loyalty to the meaning of the original texts”. (Jiang Hongxin,2005:65)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:09, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

The faithfulness at the content lies in the correct convection of the meaning. Here is an example of Mr. Liu’s translation practice in two editions for the translation of Emma.

Me! I should be quite in the way. Miss Wood house looks as if she did not want me.”(2009:174)

“我！我会是十分不受欢迎的。但是也许——我在这里也同样不受欢迎。伍德豪斯小姐的神气，好像并不要我。”(Liu Zhongde,1982: 303)

“我！我会是十分不受欢迎的。但是也许——我在这里也同样不受欢迎。伍德豪斯小姐的神气，好像并不欢迎我。”（Liu Zhongde,1993:223）

The translation of “want” as “to be” in the 82nd edition is a direct translation that superficially fits the meaning of the original. The translation of "want" in the 82nd edition is a literal translation, which superficially conforms to the meaning of the original text and expresses the meaning of the English and Chinese languages very aptly. But in fact, it did not fit the context of the time and did not have the effect of expression. The translation of "want" as “welcome", on the other hand, reflects the meaning of the context in which the original text was spoken. The translation of "welcome" is apt, smooth and natural. (Mao Liyin,2011:7)

The translation of “want” as “to be” in the 82nd edition is a direct translation that superficially fits the meaning of the original. The translation of "want" in the 82nd edition is a literal translation, which superficially conforms to the meaning of the original text and expresses the meaning of the English and Chinese languages very aptly. But in fact, it did not fit the context of the time and did not have the effect of expression. The translation of "want" as “welcome", on the other hand, reflects the meaning of the context in which the original text was spoken. The translation of "welcome" is apt, smooth and natural. (Mao Liyin,2011:7)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:09, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

Mr. Liu has discussed this translation principle to be as expressive as the original many times in different places. But this is a tough demand. One of the reasons is that there are too many differences between two languages, particularly in the structure of them. Just taking Chinese and English as an example, we will find that Chinese is a typical language depending on its structure. This bamboo-like structure makes Chinese language connect meaning by assembling one word after another in linear form. Conversely, English is grape-like-structure language, which transmits meaning by logical connection. Therefore, we must transform the structure of these two languages so as to translate them well. Otherwise, the translation we do will be unreadable: either loosing meaning or being difficult to be understood.This three-character principle proposed by Mr. Liu is the reflection of his staidness towards academic researches. He held his opinion on how researchers should look on the relationship between inheriting and developing in translation theory research circle. The proper attitude, according to Mr. Liu, should be “making best use of the old theories for reference; taking advantage of foreign thoughts to create”.(Jiang Jiansong,2003:210)

Mr. Liu has discussed this translation principle to be as expressive as the original many times in different places. But this is a tough demand. One of the reasons is that there are too many differences between two languages, particularly in the structure of them. Just taking Chinese and English as an example, we will find that Chinese is a typical language depending on its structure. This bamboo-like structure makes Chinese language connect meaning by assembling one word after another in linear form. Conversely, English is grape-like-structure language, which transmits meaning by logical connection. Therefore, we must transform the structure of these two languages so as to translate them well. Otherwise, the translation we do will be unreadable: either loosing meaning or being difficult to be understood.This three-character principle proposed by Mr. Liu is the reflection of his staidness towards academic researches. He held his opinion on how researchers should look on the relationship between inheriting and developing in translation theory research circle. The proper attitude, according to Mr. Liu, should be “making best use of the old theories about reference; taking advantage of foreign thoughts to create”.(Jiang Jiansong,2003:210)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:09, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

====2.4 Comparison on Views of Literal Translation and Free Translation====

According to Bell's theory, the choice is between translating word-for-word (literal translation) or meaning-for-meaning (free translation). Pick the first and the translator is criticized for the "ugliness" of a faithful translation; pick the second and there is criticism of the inaccuracy of a "beautiful" translation. Bell doesn't show his personal preference between this two translation method. Actually, he thinks both literal translation and free translation is acceptable. Here Bell stresses the achievement of semantic and stylistic equivalence. The semantic and stylistic equivalence actually is hard to achieve since the source language and target language are much different in their forms. (Bell,1991:7)

According to Bell's theory, the choice is between translating word-for-word (literal translation) or meaning-for-meaning (free translation). Pick the first and the translator is criticized for the "ugliness" of a faithful translation; pick the second and there is criticism of the inaccuracy of a "beautiful" translation. Bell doesn't show his personal preference between this two translation methods. Actually, he thinks both literal translation and free translation is acceptable. Here Bell stresses the achievement of semantic and stylistic equivalence. The semantic and stylistic equivalence actually is hard to achieve since the source language and target language are much different in their forms. (Bell,1991:7)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

According to functional linguistic perspective, forms contain meaning. Languages are different from each other because they are different in form, thus having distinct codes and rules regulating the construction of grammatical stretches of language. These forms have different meanings. To shift from one language to another is, by definition, to alter the forms. There is even no absolute synonymy between words in the same language, let alone finding synonymy between languages. Furthermore, the contrasting forms convey meanings in two languages cannot but fail to coincide totally. The process of translating from one language to another language actually impair the source language. It is a loss or inappropriate gain for the source language. Something is always lost or gained in the process of translating and translators can find themselves being accused of reproducing only part of the original and so betraying the author's intentions. (Wu Yicheng Li Yingyuan,1998:56)

According to functional linguistic perspective, forms contain meaning. Languages are different from each other because they are different in form, thus having distinct codes and rules regulating the construction of grammatical stretches of language. These forms have different meanings. To shift from one language to another is, by definition, to alter the forms. There is even no absolute synonymy for words in the same language, let alone finding synonymy between languages. Furthermore, the contrasting forms convey meanings in two languages cannot but fail to coincide totally. The process of translating from one language to another language actually impairs the source language. It is a loss or inappropriate gain for the source language. Something is always lost or gained in the process of translating and translators can find themselves being accused of reproducing only part of the original and so betraying the author's intentions. (Wu Yicheng Li Yingyuan,1998:56)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

Although it is a fallacy to achieve complete equivalence, texts in different languages can be equivalent in different degrees, either highly or partially equivalent.Here Bell bring in the definition of the term: the nature of equivalence for the conducting of semantic and stylistic equivalence. So the equivalence can be fulfilled in respect of different levels of presentation such as equivalent in respect of context, of semantics, of grammar, of lexis, etc. Moreover, it can also be equivalent at different ranks: word-for-word, phrase-for-phrase and sentence-for-sentence. If equivalence is to be preserved at a particular level at all costs, which level is it to be? What are the alternatives? The answer, it turns out, hinges on the dual nature of language itself. Language is a formal structure and also a code, which consists of elements which can combine to signal semantic sense and, at the same time, a communication system which uses the forms of the code to refer to entities (in the world of the senses and the world of the mind) and create signals which possess communicative value. The translator has the option, then, of focusing on finding formal equivalents which preserve the context-free semantic sense of the text at the expense of its context-sensitive communicative value or finding functional equivalents which preserve the context-sensitive communicative value of the text at the expense of its context-free semantic sense. (Bell,1997:6-10)

Although it is a fallacy to achieve complete equivalence, texts in different languages can be equivalent in different degrees, either highly or partially equivalent.Here Bell brings in the definition of the term: the nature of equivalence for the conducting of semantic and stylistic equivalence. So the equivalence can be fulfilled in respect of different levels of presentation such as equivalent in respect of context, of semantics, of grammar, of lexis, etc. Moreover, it can also be equivalent to different ranks: word-for-word, phrase-for-phrase and sentence-for-sentence. If equivalence is to be preserved at a particular level at all costs, which level is it to be? What are the alternatives? The answer, it turns out, hinges on the dual nature of language itself. Language is a formal structure and also a code, which consists of elements which can combine to signal semantic sense and, at the same time, a communication system which uses the forms of the code to refer to entities (in the world of the senses and the world of the mind) and create signals which possess communicative value. The translator has the option, then, of focusing on finding formal equivalents which preserve the context-free semantic sense of the text at the expense of its context-sensitive communicative value or finding functional equivalents which preserve the context-sensitive communicative value of the text at the expense of its context-free semantic sense. (Bell,1997:6-10)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

The controversy over direct translation and paraphrase has always been a matter of great concern to Mr. Liu, who has put forward his own unique opinion on this issue: the two phenomena and methods of translation, direct translation and paraphrase, have been objectively proven by a large number of historical facts and cannot be denied. Both literal translation and paraphrase must basically be based on the unit of sentence translation and on the premise of successfully realizing the three principles of translation. Here are three versions of translation to a poem in "A Dream of Red Mansions".

The controversy over direct translation and paraphrase has always been a matter of great concern to Mr. Liu, who has put forward his own unique opinion on this issue: the two phenomena and methods of translation, direct translation and paraphrase, have been objectively proven by a large number of historical facts and cannot be denied. Both literal translation and paraphrase must basically be based on the unit of sentence translation and on the premise of successfully realizing the three principles of translation. Here are three versions of translation to a poem in "A Dream of Red Mansions". --[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

《红楼梦》卷头诗

满纸荒唐言，

一把辛酸泪。

都云作者痴，

谁解其中味？

1.Liu Zhongde

The Prologue to A Dream of Red Mansions

Papers here are full of such words as sound queer,

Mixed with a handful of drops of bitter tear,

People, one and all, call the author insane ,

But who understands how his words one should explain?

2. David Hawkes:

Pages full of idle words

Penned with hot and bitter tears

All men call the author fool

None his secret message hears.

3. 杨宪益：

Pages full of fantastic talk

Penned with bitter tears

All men call the author mad

None his message hears.

Xu Yuanchong divided them into three schools: classical school, who translate poems in the form of classical poetry, represented by Giles; free school , who translate poems in the form of free verse, represented by Waley; and creative school, who creatively adapt the original into English, represented by Ezra Pound. According to my opinion, a translated poem should convey the content of the original poem and take the form of the original poem. Only a poem in translation that meets these two requirements can be considered the ideal translated poem. Liu is well aware of the difficulties, so in his technical treatment, he adds, "In most cases, free and literal translations should be used flexibly or in combination." It is obvious that Liu opposes the extreme of scientific translation which falls into dull and unintelligible, as well as the artistic translation which is detached from the original text and pursues the translator's self-expression. In his view, free translation and literal translation are two complementary methods of translation, and of course, literal translation is the main one, while free translation is the supplement, which can be used alternately if necessary.(Jiang Hongxin,2005:64)

Xu Yuanchong divided them into three schools: classical school, who translate poems in the form of classical poetry, represented by Giles; free school , who translate poems in the form of free verse, represented by Waley; and creative school, who creatively adapt the original into English, represented by Ezra Pound. According to my opinion, a translated poem should convey the content of the original poem and take the form of the original poem. Only a poem in translation that meets these two requirements can be considered the ideal translated poem. Liu is well aware of the difficulties, so in his technical treatment, he adds, "In most cases, free and literal translations should be used flexibly or in combination." It is obvious that Liu opposes the extreme of scientific translation which falls into dull and unintelligible, as well as the artistic translation which is detached from the original text and pursues the translator's self-expression. In his view, free translation and literal translation are two complementary methods of translation, and of course, literal translation is the main one, while free translation is the supplement, which can be used alternately if necessary.(Jiang Hongxin,2005:64)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

====2.5 Comparison on Literary Translation Practices in Poems====
Bell divided translation of poetry into three steps:
Firstly, the analysis of the source language text;
Secondly, the organization of the semantic representations of the individual clauses of the poem into an integrated schema which contains the whole of the information the reader has been able to accumulate in the course of reading the text;
Thirdly, the synthesis of the new target language text. There are plenty of alternatives and the strategic options available to the literary translator. (Bell,1991:61)

They can be presented as the extremes of five continua:
(1)to reproduce either the forms (syntax and lexis) or the ideas (the semantic content) of the original;
(2)to retain the style of the original or adopt a different style; retain or abandon the source language form; for example, to translate a poem as a poem or as prose;
(3)to retain the historical stylistic dimension of the original or to render it in contemporary form; to translate Dante into Middle English or into modem English
(4)to produce a text which reads like an original or one which reads like a translation;
(5)to add or omit words, phrases, clauses. . . or to attempt to transfer everything from source to target text.(Bell,1991:68)

Bell admits the importance of retaining style in translation, but Bell tries to be as objective as possible. He clarifies that the procedure is in no sense being suggested as the best or only way of tackling the text nor are the translations themselves offered as models. He intend to make no judgement, merely to work through the process, indicating, as we do so, what kinds of decision need to be made and what means we have at our disposal for making and realizing our decisions. In Bell's opinion, judgement of the quality of translated texts have to be made by translators and translator-trainers and are also made by their readers but he do not wish to become engaged, in a book which is attempting an objective description and explanation of a phenomenon, in the debate which inevitably arises over quality assessment and translation criticism. His purpose is not to give prescriptive laws for the creation of the perfect translation, besides he points out that This is not his purpose nor is it the purpose of the vast majority working in the field of translation studies.(Bell,1991:70)

Bell admits the importance of retaining style in translation, but Bell tries to be as objective as possible. He clarifies that the procedure is in no sense being suggested as the best or only way of tackling the text nor are the translations themselves offered as models. He intends to make no judgement, merely to work through the process, indicating, as we do so, what kinds of decision need to be made and what means we have at our disposal for making and realizing our decisions. In Bell's opinion, judgement of the quality of translated texts have to be made by translators and translator-trainers and are also made by their readers but he do not wish to become engaged, in a book which is attempting an objective description and explanation of a phenomenon, in the debate which inevitably arises over quality assessment and translation criticism. His purpose is not to give prescriptive laws for the creation of the perfect translation, besides he points out that This is not his purpose nor is it the purpose of the vast majority working in the field of translation studies.(Bell,1991:70)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

Liu defines the characteristics of translated poetry in a macro way. He concisely summarizes the basic characteristics of poetry translation as poetry translation is not one's own creation, not the translator's own writing of poetry, and not borrowing ideas from the original poem to write poetry. The translation of poetry is obviously different from the creation of poetry. The translation of poetry is only a kind of reworked copy of the poem created by the translator after fully understanding the poet and expressing it again in another language. It goes without saying that in this process of reproduction, the translator inevitably has to exert creative labor in order to effectively and equivalently convey the content and style of the original poem, that is, the translator cannot be completely free from creation in the process of mental activity of translation, but, nevertheless, it is difficult to identify this mental activity as creation in the true sense of the word. (Guo Meng,2011:9-13)

Liu defines the characteristics of translated poetry in a macro way. He concisely summarizes the basic characteristics of poetry translation as poetry translation is not one's own creation, not the translator's own writing of poetry, and not borrowing ideas about the original poem to write poetry. The translation of poetry is obviously different from the creation of poetry. The translation of poetry is only a kind of reworked copy of the poem created by the translator after fully understanding the poet and expressing it again in another language. It goes without saying that in this process of reproduction, the translator inevitably has to exert creative labor in order to effectively and equivalently conveying the content and style of the original poem, that is, the translator cannot be completely free from creation in the process of mental activity of translation, but, nevertheless, it is difficult to identify this mental activity as creation in the true sense of the word. (Guo Meng,2011:9-13)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

In the process and practice of poetry translation, Liu also stresses the importance of retaining the style. To show how style influence poetry, he cites a comparison between Li Bai and Du Fu, the style of the former is elegant and forceful and the later is profound and thoughtful. Liu pays much attention to the style of translation, and he compares an excellent translator to a good actor, who should reach the state of forgetfulness in the process of translation and be fully absorbed into the work.(Liu Zhongde,1991:128)

In the process and practice of poetry translation, Liu also stresses the importance of retaining the style. To show how styles influence poetry, he cites a comparison between Li Bai and Du Fu, the style of the former is elegant and forceful and the later are profound and thoughtful. Liu pays much attention to the style of translation, and he compares an excellent translator to a good actor, who should reach the state of forgetfulness in the process of translation and be fully absorbed into the work.(Liu Zhongde,1991:128)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

He firmly holds that it is possible to translate poems though it is difficult to translate poems satisfactorily and successfully. As to the reason why poems are translatable, firstly, Liu said : “There exist many things in common among men. For instance, they all have the thinking powers to reason logically and the feelings to express joy or sorrow, love or hatred , and possess the same nature, world and universe no matter what races they may be. In other words, all human beings are endowed by nature with the same mind which has the same function so that they can commune with one another. Poetry is a literary form by which poets express their thought and emotions. As a consequence, poetry, a product of the mind, is understandable, enjoyable and translatable.” Not only is poetry-translating possible, it is also necessary. Through poetry translating between Chinese and English, English and Chinese poetry have exerted mutual influence and as a result promoted the development of both. For example, Chinese classical poetry deeply influenced the school of imagism in the West, while Chinese new poetry was greatly inspired by West poetry. (Liu Zhongde,1988:4-9)

He firmly holds that it is possible to translate poems though it is difficult to translate poems satisfactorily and successfully. As to the reason why poems are translatable, firstly, Liu said : “There exist many things in common among men. For instance, they all have the thinking powers to reason logically and the feelings to express joy or sorrow, love or hatred , and possess the same nature, world and universe no matter what races they may be. In other words, all human beings are endowed by nature with the same mind which has the same functions so that they can commune with one another. Poetry is a literary form by which poets express their thought and emotions. As a consequence, poetry, a product of the mind, is understandable, enjoyable and translatable.” Not only is poetry-translating possible, it is also necessary. Through poetry translating between Chinese and English, English and Chinese poetry have exerted mutual influence and as a result promoted the development of both. For example, Chinese classical poetry deeply influenced the school of imagism in the West, while Chinese new poetry was greatly inspired by West poetry. (Liu Zhongde,1988:4-9)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

Due to differences in language, social customs and cultural background, a translator of poetry, who should represent in another language the beauty of the original in meaning, sound and form, is confronted with many difficulties which may cause obstacles in understanding and expression. The difficulties will be discussed from three aspects. First, there exist linguistic differences in the two languages. From a grammatical perspective, English is a language which is in the main connected in grammar by hypotaxis whereas Chinese by parataxis. Secondly, difference in culture also adds to the difficulty of poetry translating. As English poetry and Chinese poetry take in different cultural backgrounds, some poems with particular cultural factors are extremely hard to handle in translating. For example, poets' selection of images in poems may vary. Concrete images are often used in Chinese poetry while some abstract images are often used in English poetry. Another example is the use of allusion in poetry. Poets sometimes expound their views and express emotions through historical incidents, fairy tales, legends and folk stories. Liu also adopts his new three-character principles to rendering poetry.(Liu Wenbin,1996:295-298)

Due to differences in language, social customs and cultural background, a translator of poetry, who should represent in another language the beauty of the original in meaning, sound and form, is confronted with many difficulties which may cause obstacles in understanding and expression. The difficulties will be discussed from three aspects. First, there exist linguistic differences in the two languages. From a grammatical perspective, English is a language which is in the main connected in grammar by hypotaxis whereas Chinese by parataxis. Secondly, difference in culture also adds to the difficulty of poetry translating. As English poetry and Chinese poetry take in different cultural backgrounds, some poems with particular cultural factors are extremely hard to handle in translating. For example, poets' selection of images in poems may vary. Concrete images are often used in Chinese poetry while some abstract images are often used in English poetry. Another example is the use of allusion in poetry. Poets sometimes expound their views and express emotions through historical incidents, fairy tales, legends and folk stories. Liu also adopts his new three-character principles to rendering poetry.(Liu Wenbin,1996:295-298)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

Liu Zhongde is an advocator of "rendering poetry as poetry". He puts forward views on three specific situations of poetry translating: translation of Chinese classical rhyming poetry into English, translation of English regular into Chinese and translation of English free verse into Chinese. As for the translation of Chinese classical rhyming poetry into English, Liu holds that the original meaning and artistic conception is most important and on the prerequisite that they are fully conveyed, we may try to reproduce the neatness of the original form and adopt the same or similar rhyme scheme as the original. If necessary, when it is difficult to translate a poem in rhyme, it can also be translated in a loose form, so as not to harm the meaning by rhyme. If the translation looks like a poem but has no poetic meaning, it is better to be in harmony with the appearance. It is much better to make people feel the interest of the original poem than to make it look like a poem. Finally, he believed that the ideal translation of poetry should be a translation of metrical poetry with metrical poetry.However, Liu also pointed out dialectically that one should not be absolute, and when necessary, when the meaning and artistic conception of the original poem must be preserved.(Liu Zhongde,1996:31-33)

Liu Zhongde is an advocator of "rendering poetry as poetry". He puts forward views on three specific situations of poetry translating: translation of Chinese classical rhyming poetry into English, translation of English regular into Chinese and translation of English free verse into Chinese. As for the translation of Chinese classical rhyming poetry into English, Liu holds that the original meaning and artistic conception is most important and on the prerequisite that they are fully conveyed, we may try to reproduce the neatness of the original form and adopt the same or similar rhyme scheme as the original. If necessary, when it is difficult to translate a poem in rhyme, it can also be translated in a loose form, so as not to harm the meaning by rhyme. If the translation looks like a poem but has no poetic meaning, it is better to be in harmony with the appearance. It is much better to make people feel the interest in the original poem than to make it look like a poem. Finally, he believed that the ideal translation of poetry should be a translation of metrical poetry with metrical poetry.However, Liu also pointed out dialectically that one should not be absolute, and when necessary, when the meaning and artistic conception of the original poem must be preserved.(Liu Zhongde,1996:31-33)--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

===3.Conclusion===
Bell's and Liu Zhongde's translation theory have many similarities. For the nature of translation, they both agree in translating, namely process, instead of products.Bell puts the focus on generalizing descriptive rules in process. In that way, Bell is trying to study the study of transtion. To understand the equivalence all his theory Bell thinks tranlation shouldn't delete or add content, which is similar to Liu's principle of "faithfulness" in translation. On the question whether translation is science or art, Bell agrees in the former while Liu combines school of science and school of art. The method of literal translation is weighed more by them when compared with free translation. However, Liu adds that when literal translation is difficult to achieve, it is also acceptable to apply free translation into practice. Liu thinks that the shift between literal translation and free tranlation can be flexible under different kinds of texts and styles.

Bell's and Liu Zhongde's translation theory have many similarities. For the nature of translation, they both agree in translating, namely process, instead of products.Bell puts the focus on generalizing descriptive rules in the process. In that way, Bell is trying to study the study of translation. To understand the equivalence all his theory Bell thinks translation shouldn't delete or add content, which is similar to Liu's principle of "faithfulness" in translation. On the question whether translation is science or art, Bell agrees in the former while Liu combines school of science and school of art. The method of literal translation is weighed more by them when compared with free translation. However, Liu adds that when literal translation is difficult to achieve, it is also acceptable to apply free translation into practice. Liu thinks that the shift between literal translation and free translation can be flexible under different kinds of texts and styles.--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

Bell and Liu put their theory into practice in poetry's translation. However, the purpose for Bell's three steps and five schema is to prove the feasibility of his model theory. Though he uses it as an example, which is quite specific. He thinks that poetry translation should be like a poem. That is to say the translated poem should also be made to have a certain poetic form and a certain rhyme scheme and rhythm. He vividly represents the whole translating process and suggests translators should choose from many versions to figure out the closest translation. Bell is tryinng to be objective, so he doesn't give advice on how to achieve "good" translation. He firmly believe that the judgement should be made by translators, tranlator-trainers and readers. Liu's view is not so general but more specific.He thinks poetry translation sometimes can be difficult, but not untranslatable. He gives his preference to poetey which is faithful to the original text.

Bell and Liu put their theory into practice in poetry's translation. However, the purpose of Bell's three steps and five schema is to prove the feasibility of his model theory. Though he uses it as an example, which is quite specific. He thinks that poetry translation should be like a poem. That is to say the translated poem should also be made to have a certain poetic form and a certain rhyme scheme and rhythm. He vividly represents the whole translating process and suggests translators should choose from many versions to figure out the closest translation. Bell is trying to be objective, so he doesn't give advice on how to achieve "good" translation. He firmly believes that the judgement should be made by translators, translator-trainers and readers. Liu's view is not so general but more specific.He thinks poetry translation sometimes can be difficult, but not untranslatable. He gives his preference to poetry which is faithful to the original text.--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

By comparising Bell's translation theory with Liu Zhongde's, it is found that Bell's translation theory seems to be more objective but less applicable. With a systematic linguistic model, Bell attempts to describe the translation process and the knowledge and skills that translators should acquire. He also apply psychological and information-theoretic models to describe the workings of the translator's brain during the translation process. The effort he makes is based on his hope that these models he created will eventually become a theoretical and practical model for translation research in the broad field of applied linguistics.

By comprising Bell's translation theory with Liu Zhongde's, it is found that Bell's translation theory seems to be more objective but less applicable. With a systematic linguistic model, Bell attempts to describe the translation process and the knowledge and skills that translators should acquire. He also applies psychological and information-theoretic models to describe the workings of the translator's brain during the translation process. The effort he makes is based on his hope that these models he created will eventually become a theoretical and practical model for translation research in the broad field of applied linguistics. --[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

If we generalize Liu's translation theory as a summary of translation problems and methods to tackle with it. Then obviously, Bell's research is undoubtedly more difficult than the summary of translation experience or the analysis of translated works. Though whether the model he tries to create really reflects the mental activity of translators in the translation process remains to be further studied. We cannot expect one theoretical model to solve all translation phenomena and all the problems encountered by translators, but Bell's innovative attempt to break through the traditional translation theoretical model and establish a scientific research model is worthy of recognition. His views and model can at least provide useful references for translator's in-depth study of translation phenomena.

If we generalize Liu's translation theory as a summary of translation problems and methods to tackle with it. Then obviously, Bell's research is undoubtedly more difficult than the summary of translation experience or the analysis of translated works. Though whether the model he tries to create really reflects the mental activity of translators in the translation processes remains to be further studied. We cannot expect one theoretical model to solve all translation phenomena and all the problems encountered by translators, but Bell's innovative attempt to break through the traditional translation theoretical model and establish a scientific research model is worthy of recognition. His views and model can at least provide useful references for translator's in-depth study of translation phenomena.--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

===Reference===
Bell, Roger T. Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice. London and New York: Longman.(1991)

Bell, Roger T. Translation Theory: Where Are We Going?. Meta (1987).

Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "文学翻译十讲"[Ten Lectures on Literary Translation]. 中国对外翻译出版公司[China Foreign Translation and Publishing Corporation].1991.

Jiang Hongxin.蒋洪新. "刘重德翻译理论与实践研究"[A Study of Liu Chongde's Translation Theory and Practice]. 外国语第四期[The fouth edition on Jounal of Foreign Language]. 2005:62-67.

Wu Yicheng.Li Yingyuan.吴义诚,李英垣. "贝尔的《翻译与翻译过程:理论与实践》评介"[Review of Bell's Translation and the Translation Process:Theory and Practice].中国翻译(第五期)[The fifth edition on Chinese Translation]. 1998:55-56.

Mao Liyin.毛利尹. "刘重德翻译观研究"[J].[A Study of Liu Chongde's View of Translation]. 传奇:传记文学选刊(第五期)[Legend: Selected Biographical Literature]. 2011:5-7.

Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "论译诗(上)——《中国古诗汉英比译五十三首》序"[J][On the translation of poems (above)--Preface to "Fifty-three Chinese ancient poems in Chinese and English"]. 现代外语(第二期)[Modern Foreign Languages]. 1996:26-30.

Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "论译诗(下)——《中国古诗汉英比译五十三首》序"[J][On the translation of poems (below)--Preface to "Fifty-three Chinese ancient poems in Chinese and English"]. 现代外语(第三期)[Modern Foreign Languages]. 1996:31-33.

Liu Wenbin.刘文彬. "刘重德教授的译诗观"[Professor Liu Zhongde's View on Translating Poetry].中国英汉语比较研究会第二次全国学术研讨会论文集[Proceedings of the Second National Symposium of the Chinese Society for Comparative English and Chinese Studies]. 1996;293-299.

Weng Tao.翁涛. "罗杰·贝尔的翻译理论在汉译英中的应用"[Application of Roger Bell's Translation Theory in Chinese to English Translation]. 大学英语(学术版) [University English] (Academic Edition). 2008:99-101.

Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "翻译原则刍议"[Rumination on Translation Principles]. 中国翻译(第四期）[The fourth period on Chinese Translation]. (1983):9-13.

Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "文学风格翻译问题商榷"[The Question of Literary Style Translation]. 中国翻译（第二期）[Chinese Translation]. (1988):4-9.

Guo Meng.郭猛. "刘重德翻译思想研究"[D][A Probe into Liu Zhongde's Translation Thoughts]. 天津理工大学[Tianjin University of Technology]. 2011.

Jane Austen.简·奥斯汀. 《爱玛》[M][Emma]. 上海:上海世界图书出版公司[Shanghai: Shanghai World Book Publishing Company]. 2009.

Jane Austen. Translated by Liu Zhongde.奥斯汀.爱玛[M][Emma].刘重德译. 桂林:漓江出版社[Guilin: Lijiang Publishing House]. 1982.

Jane Austen. Translated by Liu Zhongde.奥斯汀.爱玛[M][Emma].刘重德译. 广州:广州花城出版社[Guangzhou: Guangzhou Huacheng Publishing House]. 1993.

Jiang Jiansong.Peng Liyuan.蒋坚松,彭利元. 刘重德翻译思想及其他[Liu Chongde's Translation Thought and Others]. 湖南：湖南师范大学出版社[Hunan: Hunan Normal University Press]. 2003.

==A Comparative Study of Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect 罗维嘉 Luo Weijia 202070080600 ( 加专业 )--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 16:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC) ==

<center>罗维嘉 Luo Weijia</center>
===Abstract===

Since the introduction of Nida’s translation theory into China in the 1980s, Jin Di, a Chinese translation scholar, has explored the applicability of “dynamic equivalence” to literary translation between English and Chinese. And on the basis of Nida’s theory he formulated his own theory of “equivalent effect”. When Jin was translating James Joyce’s Ulysses (''Ulysses''--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 16:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)), he put his theory into practice. Jin’s translation practice as well as his exploration of “dynamic equivalence” provides us a good chance to further scrutinize some aspects of Nida’s theory and its application to English-Chinese literary translation. By studying Jin’s theory and his Chinese translation of Ulysses(''Ulysses''--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 16:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)), we will examine the applicability of Nida’s theory to literary translation between Chinese and English. A comparative study on Nida’s theory and Jin’s theory is also made to reveal the differences and similarities between the two theories.

===Key words===

dynamic equivalence; equivalent effect; Eugene Nida; Jin Di

===题目===
A Comparative Study of Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect

===摘要===

自20世纪80年代奈达的翻译理论传入中国以来，中国翻译学者金堤开始探索“动态对等”在英汉文学翻译中的适用性。在奈达理论的基础上，他形成了自己的“等效理论”。金堤的《尤利西斯》翻译实践以及他对“动态对等”翻译理论的探索为我们进一步审视奈达理论及其在英汉文学翻译中的应用提供了良好机会。通过对金堤理论及其汉译《尤利西斯》的研究，我们将分析奈达动态对等理论对中英文学翻译的适用性。通过对奈达与金堤理论的比较研究，揭示两者的异同。

===关键词===

动态对等；等效理论；尤金·奈达；金堤

===Introduction===

Prior to his reception of Nida’s theory, Jin had already been an experienced translator and formed his own views about translation. Jin spelled out how he looked at the nature of translation and the gist of his argument was that “translating must meet requirements of accuracy and smoothness” (Jin Di 1998, 119). Evidently, Jin regarded the combination of accuracy and smoothness as a translation criterion and smoothness played a very important role in accomplishing the goal of accuracy in translating. We can see that before Jin’s reception of Nida’s theory, his focus was still on the old debate over faithfulness and smoothness, which began in the 1930s and continued to the late 1970s.

Before Jin knew Nida’s theory, he had already noticed the important role of target readers in translating in his years of translation experience. When discussing how to achieve the objective of accuracy and smoothness at the same time, he mentioned more than once the close relationship between accuracy and target readers. He wrote:

("--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 16:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC))“A translation should be smooth and natural so that target readers do not feel big gaps between the two languages concerned. Accuracy and smoothness as a translation standard are like two sides of a coin, and one cannot be separated from the other. If the reader cannot understand the so-called “accurate” translation and do not know what it means, there is of little significance for such “accuracy”. If the translator only pays attention to smoothness in his work, but ignores the consistency between the original text and the translated text, his translation is not legitimate (Jin Di 1998, 119). “("--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 16:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC))

Evidently, Jin shared similar views with Nida about the role of target readers in translating. This paved the way for his ready reception of “dynamic equivalence” as soon as he got in touch with it in the late 1970s.

===Introduction of Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect===

====Nida's Translation Theory of Dynamic Equivalence====

“Dynamic equivalence” is a key concept in Nida’s translation theory. The essential idea of “dynamic equivalence” is first mentioned by Nida in his article “Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating” (Nida, Eugene A. 1959, 326). In his attempt to define translating, Nida writes:

A definition of translating... could be stated as follows: "Translating consists in producing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent to the message of the source language, first in meaning and secondly in style.” (Nida, Eugene A. 1975, 33)

In Toward a Science of Translating (1964) Nida distinguishes two types of equivalence and first postulates his concept of “dynamic equivalent” translation as follows:

In such a translation (dynamic equivalent translation) one is not so concerned with matching the receptor-language message with the source-language message, but with the dynamic relationship, that the relationship between receptor and message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the original receptors and the message (Nida, E. A. 1964, 159).

In this book, Nida also proves the legitimacy of dynamic equivalent translation from the viewpoint of information theory and communication theory. However, he does not give a clear definition of " dynamic equivalence" until 1969. In his 1969 textbook The Theory and Practice of Translation, “dynamic equivalence" is defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language" (Nida, E. A. 1969, 24)

In From One Language to Another (De Waard, Jan and E. A. Nida 1986), the expression “dynamic equivalence is superseded by "functional equivalence". But essentially there is not much difference between the two concepts. The substitution of " functional equivalence is just to stress the concept of function and to avoid misunderstandings of the term dynamic", which is mistaken by some persons for something in the sense of impact. In Language, Culture and Translating (1993), “functional equivalence " is further divided into categories on two levels: the minimal level and the maximal level. The minimal level of “functional equivalence" is defined as " The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it". The maximal level is stated as "The readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did" (Nida, E. A. 1993, 118; 1995, 224). The two definitions of equivalence reveal that the minimal level is realistic, whereas the maximal level is ideal. For Nida, good translations always lie somewhere between the two levels (Nida, E. A. 1995, 224). Clearly, “functional equivalence" is a flexible concept with different degrees of adequacy.

In Nida's theory, " dynamic equivalence" is defined with “receptors' response" as its nature. Unlike traditional translation theories, which focus on verbal comparison between the original text and its translation, Nida's concept of translating shifts from "the form of the message" to " the response of the receptor. Thus, the importance of receptors' role in translating is emphasized. In Nida's view, when determining whether a translation is faithful to the original text or not, the critic should not compare the formal structures between the source text and its translation but compare "receptors' response". If he finds that the reader in the receptor language understands and appreciates the translated text in essentially the same manner and to the same degree as the reader in the source language did, such a translation can be evaluated as a dynamic equivalent translation. That is to say, the critic should judge a translation not by verbal correspondence between the two texts in question, but by seeing how the receptor, for whom the translated text is intended, reacts to it. Nida likens his theory of “readers' response to market research. When judging a product, one should test how consumers react to the product, for “regardless of how theoretically good a product might be or how seemingly well it is displayed, if people do not respond favorably to it, then it is not going to be accepted” (Nida and Taber 1969, 162). Similarly, in evaluating a translation, when a high percentage of people misunderstand a rendering, or find it difficult to understand, the critic cannot regard it as a legitimate translation (Nida and Taber 1969, 2). Nida's theory of “readers' response” emphasizes the importance of the acceptance of a translated text by the intended reader in the receptor language and avoids the subjective evaluation of the critic.

"Dynamic equivalence" has been widely adopted by Bible translators since the 1950s and has been successful. Its value, however, is not merely restricted to Bible translation. Some scholars agree that “dynamic equivalence” can be used to guide general translation practice. Jin Di claims that the principle of " equivalent effect", a modified dynamic equivalence, is applicable to all translation practice (Jin Di 1995). Newmark considers the principle of “equivalent effect” an important concept in translating with reservation. He states that “equivalent effect is the desirable result, rather than the aim of any translation...it is an important concept which has a degree of application to any type of text, but not the same degree of importance... in the communicative translation of vocative texts, equivalent effect is not only desirable, it is essential” ( Jin Di 1988, 48). But some scholars express their doubts about the application of “dynamic equivalence” to translation practice, especially literary translation. I suggest that Nida’s theory has practical significance for literary translation in some aspects, but it is a fact that it fails to address the issue of transferring aesthetic values of literary work in literary translation.

====Jin Di's Translation Theory of Equivalent Effect====

Jin Di is renowned for his translation theory of “equivalent effect” and his Chinese version of Ulysses(''Ulysses''). His theoretical study on translation and translation activity contribute a lot to the development of contemporary translation studies. In this section Jin’s theory of “equivalent effect”will be concentrated, for a survey of Jin’s theory may give us insight into some aspects of Nida’s theory and its application to literary translation.

When Nida’s theory was introduced into China, Jin studied intensively Nida’s works on translation and endeavored to apply “dynamic equivalence” to his Chinese-English translation practice. In On Translation(''On Translation''): with special reference to Chinese and English (Jin Di 1984, with Nida), Jin basically adopted Nida's “dynamic equivalence”, which was defined in terms of a dynamic relationship, namely, “the relation of target language receptors to the target language text should be roughly equivalent to the relationship between the original receptors and the original text” (Jin Di 1984, 85, with Nida). As the first author, Jin furnished many convincing examples from his experience as a translator and proved that “dynamic equivalence” could provide practical help for translators in dealing with many difficulties in translating from English into Chinese and from Chinese to English. In fact, this book was acclaimed as “a masterpiece of combination of Nida’s translation theory with Chinese translation practice”. (Lao Long 1987, 56)

When Jin made a further study on Nida's theory, he discerned some biblical elements in it which were not applicable to general translation practice. As a result, a discrepancy appeared between Jin and Nida. According to Jin, when Nida talked about the relationship between message and receptors, he did not make any distinction between “impact” and “response”. For instance, Nida sometimes said“the impact of the message upon the receptors” and sometimes claimed “the receptors’ response to the message”. In Jin's view, Nida further highlighted the term “response” both in his definition of “dynamic equivalence” and his explanation of it. Jin argued that this was because Nida's theory was intended to guide Bible translating for evangelism, and the ultimate purpose of Bible translating was to make receptors “respond to the translated message in action” (Jin Di 1998, 17-18). Thus, according to Jin, the concept of “response” in Nida's theory was not suitable for a theory of general translation. Jin explained:

In terms of the nature of language behavior, the impact of a translation upon receptors and receptors' response or reaction to the translation belong to opposite directions. Although receptors' response could be used as an important feedback to evaluate how the receptors understand and appreciate the translation to some extent, and the translator could test the quality of his translation according to receptors' response, such activity occurs only after the translation is completed. Since each receptor's response and reaction involve a number of subjective and objective personal factors, it is unnecessary for us to explore these factors in our study of translation process. Hence, in our discussion the term “effect refers to the impact of the translated message upon the receptors.” instead of the receptors’ response. (Jin Di 1998, 18)

This was the reason why Jin modified Nida's “dynamic equivalence” and put forward his own theory of “equivalent effect”. Jin also gave specific definition of his principle of “equivalent effect”. He wrote:

The objective of an equivalent effect translation is that although the form of a translated text may be different from that of the original text, the receptor-language reader can obtain a message as substantially the same as the source-language reader does from the original, including main spirit, concrete facts and artistic imagery. This is what I mean by an equivalent effect translation or similar effect translation (Jin Di 1998, 40).

In Jin's view, only when the three essential factors (“main spirit", “concrete facts" and “artistic imagery”) of the original were successfully reproduced in the receptor language could a translation be termed as a translation of equivalent effect. He admitted that it was not always possible for the translator to produce" main spirit", " concrete facts" and "artistic imagery" at the same time, and necessary semantic adjustments should be made on condition that the main spirit of the original was better represented in the translation (Jin Di 1998, 20).

In short, the delimitation of the concept of “effect” as “impact” instead of “response”, and the emphasis on the reproduction of the three factors constitute Jin's theory of “equivalent effect”. We can see that Jin has attempted to improve Nida's “dynamic equivalence” in order to make it more applicable to general translation practice, especially literary translation.

In the 1990s, Jin further developed his theory of " equivalent effect" with insights gained from his translation experience of Ulysses. In his article, “Translating Spirit” (1996), he borrowed two characters from Yan Fu's three-character translation principle (“faithfulness , expressiveness and elegance”) and advanced his theory of “faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit” (信、达、神韵). The term “spirit” in Jin's theory was used in a broad sense, indicating various artistic styles of literary works (Jin Di 1998, 162).

Jin's redefinition of the three-character principle was another way to describe his theory of “equivalent effect”. He elaborated:

The three-character principle of “faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit” indicates faithful representation of the fundamental facts, transference of effect and reproduction of artistic style respectively. I think the goal of making the translated text similar to the original text in the above mentioned three aspects is what I strive for in the art kingdom of translation (Jin Di 1998, 162).

In recent years Jin began to put more emphasis on the " reproduction of artistic style" , and tried to develop his theory of “equivalent effect” by making use of Chinese traditional translation theory and classic literary criticism. It seemed that Jin's theory deviated away from Nida's theory. One may ask, what accounts for such a change? According to Jin, this was because Nida, having changed his theory from “dynamic equivalence” to “functional equivalence”, no longer took the principle of “equivalent effect” as a translation objective (Wang Zhenping 2000, 56). In my opinion, ('' 论文中应该避免用 In my opinion 这样的表达'')the real reason is that Nida's theory fails to adequately address the problem of transference of aesthetic values in literary translation; while Jin, having attempted to solve it, has to absorb Chinese traditional translation theory and classic literary criticism, where discussions about stylistic or aesthetic effects and their transference are abundant. The evolution of Jin's theory of “equivalent effect” reveals his continuous effort to make Nida's theory applicable to literary translation as well as the inadequacy of Nida's theory in guiding literary translation.

===Similarities and Differences===
====Similarities between the Two Theories====
There are several similarities between the two theories. “The relation of target language receptors to the target language text should be roughly equivalent to the relationship between the original receptors and the original text”(Jin Di and Nida 1984,85). Such relationship indicates that translating is not completed unless the translated message is received by the reader in the receptor language in substantially the same manner as the original message is received by the original reader. As we can see, they both emphasized three important concepts of "receptor", "effect" and "equivalence". Jin Di's equivalent effect theory is close to Nida's dynamic equivalence theory, and their views on translation methods are basically consistent with their understanding of equivalent translation.

==== Differences between the Two Theories and the Reasons====

What are the differences between Jin's theory of “equivalent effect” and Nida’s “dynamic equivalence” except that the concept of effect in Jin's theory refers to “impact” rather than“ response”? Jin held that he basically adapted Nida's translation principles, and only made some adjustments in respect of some biblical elements which he found to have originated from religious and particularly missionary demands, and removed a certain residue of the old “free translation” tendency in Nida's theory (Nida 1998: 231). But this is only part of the problem. ln this section we will concentrate on the differences between the two theories from three aspects.

=====Reader-Oriented vs. Text-Oriented=====

“Dynamic equivalence” pays more attention to the target readers, while Jin's theory of “equivalent effect” attaches more importance to the original text. This distinction can be revealed by the definitions of the two translation principles. “Dynamic equivalence” is defined in terms of readers' response. For Nida, to measure “dynamic equivalence”, one should “only rightly compare the equivalence of response”(Nida 1969, 23). Jin's equivalent effect translation, however, requires reproduction of the “main spirit”, “concrete facts” and “artistic imagery” of the original text. Nida's focus on readers' response allows necessary linguistic adjustments. For example, if the expression “white as snow” was rendered into a language that had no corresponding word for “snow”, Nida suggested that the translator could replace it with comparable idioms, such as “white as egret feathers” in the receptor language. In Nida's view, such rendering was a dynamic equivalent translation, for it was functionally equivalent to “white as snow”(Nida 1964, 171-172). According to Jin's theory of “equivalent effect”, however, this rendering of “white as egret feathers” for “white as snow” was not a translation of equivalent effect, for the concrete fact “snow” was not reproduced in the receptor language.

Another example to illustrate Jin's adherence to the concrete fact of the original text is about the rendering of “butter for fish” in his Chinese version of Ulysses:
(1)-And so say all of us, says Jack.
-Thousand a year, Lambert, says Crofton or Crawford.
-Right, says Ned, taking up his John Jameson. And butter for fish. （U12）

-我们大家也都这样说，杰克说。
-一年一千，兰伯特，克罗夫顿或是克罗福德说。
-对，内德拿起自己的约翰.詹姆森威士忌说。吃鱼有黄油。(金译第12章)

The original describes a scene of toast in a drinking party among common Irishmen. In “REVIEWS: ULYSSES, by James Joyce, translated by Jin Di”(Jin Di 1995), Dr. Kun-liang Chuang expressed his views about Jin's translation of the phrase“Butter for fish”:

“Butter for fish,”according to Don Gifford and Robert J. Seidman, is a lower class Dublin toast, also meaning “wealth and good fortune.” Jin's literal, word-for-word translation, “吃鱼有黄油”(pronounced chi yu you huang you) which is definitely not a common Chinese expression, creates more bewilderment than understanding for his Chinese readers. In fact, the Irish toast, “fish for butter”(sic) has a Chinese equivalent, “干杯” (pronounced gan bei). I believe that, in some cases, an appropriate annotation that explains cultural life is needed in terms of slang translation. In Jin's case here, the playfulness of the "toast" is lost in his loyalty to simple verbal equivalence (Chuang, Kun-liang 1995, 765).

Judging by the concept of “dynamic equivalence” , I think Chuang' s suggestion “干杯” for “butter for fish” is adequate. However, Jin did not think so. In his opinion, Chuang disregarded the transference of the concrete fact in the original text, and such translation could not achieve a translational equivalence, though it might attain a pragmatic equivalence (Jin Di 1998, 22). We can see that Jin is unwilling to sacrifice the content for the intelligibility of the translated text to the average target reader, who has not enough background knowledge to understand the implied meanings of the translated message.

Some people held a similar view with Jin. For example, Wang Zhenping said that Jin's rendering “吃鱼有黄油”was justified, because the Chinese reader learn Irish culture when reading this version. Wang argued that if the translator put the three toasts in the dialogue above into “干杯” , the original language variation would be spoiled and the reader be deprived of a chance of learning typical Irish culture and of understanding Joyce (Wang, Zhenping 2000, 35). In my opinion, Wang has pushed his argument to the extreme. If a toast, such as “Thousand a year”, is not a hindrance for the average readers to understanding, there is no reason to render it into “干杯”. This could be verified with Chuang's another suggestion of putting the English saying "[y]ou cannot eat your cake and have it as “鱼与熊掌，不可兼得”(Chuang, Kun-liang 1995, 764) instead of Jin's rendering “一块蛋糕，你不能又吃又拿”(Jin Di 1994, 311). In terms of naturalness and forcefulness, Chuang's suggestion is acceptable. Just as Lin Yuzhen commented, Jin's literal rendering was not so direct and forceful as Chuang's version (Jin Di 1996, 166). Besides, for average Chinese readers, who have little knowledge of Irish culture, it is difficult to understand the specific cultural meaning of “吃鱼有黄油”without the help of any annotation. Yuen Ren Chao, the noted Chinese linguist, expressed his views about a similar case in translating:

“A very important dimension of fidelity which translators often neglect is comparability in frequency of occurrence, or the relatively familiarity of the expressions in the original text and the translation. Too great a discrepancy in this respect will affect fidelity, even though the translation is accurate in other respects. As it is well-known in information theory, the less often a thing is talked about, the more it means to talk about it. Sometimes the very things one talks about may be a familiar thing in one culture and strange and exotic in another. In such a case, if the thing is the main topic of the discourse, it cannot be helped. . . However, in cases where a familiar expression is used casually as a figure of speech, then sometimes a translation by a different figure of speech of the same import but with a comparable degree of familiarity will result in a higher degree of overall fidelity than an apparently faithful translation which is very unfamiliar. For example, to speak of reaching the third base might be rendered, in Chinese, as reaching the “listening stage” in a game of mahjong, where the apparently “free” translation has greater fidelity, because it is a better match in the frequency of occurrence.”

Chao's view about fidelity is dialectical and comprehensive. In fact, it is in accord with Nida's “dynamic equivalence”. To Chao, whether or not naturalizing translation was adopted should depend on the context. If a figure of speech was the main topic of a discourse, the translator should faithfully reproduce it into the receptor language. If it was used in a casual way, it could be replaced with an idiomatic equivalent in the receptor language (such as Nida's suggestion of “white as snow” into “white as egret feathers”, or Liu Zhongde's “as lean as a rake” into “骨瘦如柴”). Jin's disapproval shows that he tends to be text-oriented both in theory and practice.

===== Flexible vs. Inflexible=====
Nida's “dynamic equivalence” is more flexible than Jin's theory of“equivalent effect”. A dynamic equivalent translation tends to be a type of free translation, while Jin's equivalent effect translation tends to be a literal translation, though such a classification is made in a quite loose manner. Jin's literal tendency is clearly reflected in the reviews about his Chinese version of Ulysses by some critics. Liu Junping stated that in translating Ulysses , “Jin insisted on literal translation and paid more attention to the transference of the form of the original text. As a result, his version was stiff to a certain degree in respect of language expression” (Liu Junping 1997, 35). Wang Yougui expressed a similar view in stating that Jin's translation was “like a leech, adhering closely to the original text” (Wang Yougui 1998, 69). In an interview Jin himself admitted that his translation was not so flexible as Nida's dynamic equivalent translation:

“Wang: ... Briefly speaking, the discrepancy between your theory and Nida's theory is that you put more emphasis on loyalty to the original text and the writer, and Nida is more flexible in translating. Do you agree with me?

Jin: Yes. The scope of flexibility in Nida's theory is much greater. That is to say, according to Nida, the translator is not required to adhere closely to the original text. This is because his theory is to guide Bible translation, and his translation purpose is to make people believe in Christianity. So Nida holds that the most important thing in translating is not words or content, but “receptors' response”, namely, their belief in Christianity. In my opinion, such a view is not suitable for literary translation. What I strive for is “effect”,i.e. the impact of the translation upon its readers is similar to the impact of the original text upon its readers (Wang Zhenping 2000, 56).”

In Jin's view, a literary translation must adhere closely to the original text. As long as the three factors of the original text, namely, the “main spirit”, “concrete facts” and “artistic imagery”, are faithfully reproduced, an equivalent effect can be achieved. Evidently, Jin's theory of “equivalent effect is less flexible than Nida's “dynamic equivalence”. To illustrate this point, we may look at some examples from Jin's Chinese version of Ulysses:

(2) Steak, kidney, liver, mashed at meat fit for princes sat princes Bloom and Goulding. Princes at meat they raised and drank Power and cider. (U11)

V1牛排、腰子、肝、马铃薯泥，可供王侯享用的菜肴，坐着享用的王侯是布卢姆和古尔丁。两位用餐的王候，他们举杯喝酒，帕尔威士忌和苹果酒。(金译第11章）

V2布卢姆和古尔丁俨然像王候一般坐下来，牛排、腰子、肝、土豆泥，吃那顿适宜给王侯吃的饭。他们像进餐中的王侯似的举杯而饮鲍尔威士忌和苹果酒。（萧、文译第11章）

Comparing the two versions with the original text, we can find that Jin's version sticks closely to the English syntax, while the Xiao's version reconstructs the original sentences according to normal Chinese syntactical structure. In Jin's version, the objects“牛排、腰子、肝、马铃薯泥” is placed before the verb“坐着”, and the subjects“布卢姆和古尔丁”are placed at the end of sentence; while in the Xiao's version the normal Chinese syntactical structure “Subject + Verb” is adopted.

(3) By the sandwichbell in screening shadow, Lydia her bronze and rose, a lady's grace, gave and withheld: as in cool glaucous eau de Nil Mina to tankards two her pinnacles of gold.

V1 网状阴影中的三明治罩旁站着莉迪亚，古铜衬玫瑰，贵妇风度，欲授又止:同时在清凉的淡湖色的eau de Nil中，米娜的金色高髻向着啤酒缸子两只。（金译第11章）

V2在帘子的遮荫下，钟形三明治容器旁边，莉迪亚胸前插了朵玫瑰。一头褐发淑女的娴雅派头，忽隐忽现; 而头发挽成高髻、沉浸在冰凉而银光闪闪的一片淡绿蓝色中的米娜，在两位举着大酒杯的顾客面前也是这样。（萧、文译第11章）

In this example, Jin's version adheres so closely to the original text that it is difficult for the average Chinese reader to understand such expressions as “古铜衬玫瑰” and“欲授又止”. Moreover, one can recognize at first sight that“向着啤酒缸子两只”is a word-for-word translation even if he does not read the original text. Owing to Jin's inflexibility, some renderings of his Chinese version Ulysses appear unnatural and awkward.

=====Ideal Objective vs. Realistic Goal=====

Some scholars have assumed that Nida's “dynamic equivalence”and Jin's principle of “equivalent effect”are ideal goals, which could not be realized in translating. However, such assertion is too simplistic. In fact, Jin's translation objective is ideal while Nida's “dynamic equivalence” is far more than an ideal goal. Jin emphasized more than once that an equivalent effect translation was an ideal aim, for which the translator must strive in his work. In “Where Is the Spirit of Ulysses?” (Jin Di 1996), Jin stated that an equivalent effect translation was “an ideal objective”. Though there was no perfect translation, it was desirable for a serious translator to work at it (Jin Di 1998, 214). In “What is a Perfet Translation” (Jin Di 1997), he even summarized that “the theory of equivalent effect” was an attempt to define the ideal of the non-existent perfect translation and to explore the approach to approximating it in practice, i.e. t producing a rendition as close to the ideal as possible” (Jin Di 1998, 229). Jin's theory, like Chinese traditional translation theories, is really an ideal translation standard.

However, Nida's “dynamic equivalence” is not an ideal criterion. As we all know that Nida's attitudes toward “dynamic equivalence” / “ functional equivalence” were different from phase to phase. In phase one (1959-1964), Nida simply described the features of two basic translation equivalences: “formal equivalence” and “dynamic equivalence”, and did not point out which equivalence was better. Dynamic equivalent translations were not always good, while formal equivalent translations were not always bad. Rather, some formal equivalent translations were“often perfectly valid translations of certain types of messages for certain types of audiences” , and some dynamic equivalent translations were likely to obscure “the intent of the original” (Nida 1964, 166, 191-192). Both dynamic equivalent translations and formal equivalent translations could be achieved in actual translating. Furthermore, between strict formal equivalence and complete dynamic equivalence, there were“a number of intervening grades, representing various acceptable standards of literary translating” ( Nida 1964: 160). There were also “varying degrees” of dynamic equivalent translations. For example, according to Nida, both J. E. Philips' rendering “a hearty handshake” and “brotherly kiss” in the Today's English Version were dynamic equivalent translations. The difference between the two renderings was only a matter of degree.

A dynamic equivalent translation did not mean that the more a translation approached the original text, the better it was. In fact, there was no such thing as the best dynamic equivalence. If a dynamic equivalent translation went to extremes, the very freedom of form tended to distort the original message as well (Nida 1964, 191-192). For Nida "dynamic equivalence" was not an ideal objective, but just one of the basic types of equivalence, which had varying degrees.

In phase two (1969-1984), Nida discussed "dynamic equivalence" in opposition to "formal correspondence". During this period, he suggested that "dynamic equivalence" was a good translation, in which the form was restructured to preserve the same meaning, whereas "formal correspondence" and "paraphrase" were bad translations, for the former preserved the form but distorted the meaning of the original text, and the latter had addition, deletion, or skewing of the message in the translated text (Nida and Taber 1969, 173). Though Nida in this phase considered dynamic equivalent translations good, he did not take it as an ideal goal for which the translator must strive in his work. This could be verified with his attitudes towards the following three renderings of a verse in the Hebrew text of the Bible:

KJV:
I returned, and saw under the sun, that the race is not to the swift, nor the battle to the strong, neither yet bread to the wise, nor yet riches to men of understanding, nor yet favour to men of skill; but time and chance happeneth to them all. (Ecclesiastes9, 11)

TEV:
I realized another thing, that in this world fast runners do not always win the races, and the brave do not always win the battles. Wise men do not always earn a living, intelligent men do not always get rich, and capable men do not always rise to high positions. Bad luck happens to everyone. (Ecclesiastes 9, 11)

NEB (The New English Bible):
One more thing I have observed here under the sun; speed does not win the race nor strength the battle. Bread does not belong to the wise, nor wealth to the intelligent, nor success to the skillful; time and chance govern all. (Ecclesiastes9, 11)

Both renderings of the NEB and of the TEV were considered by Nida as "dynamic equivalent" translations, though they were at two quite distinct rhetorical levels. The NEB "preserved more the aphoristic style of the passage "while the TEV" adopted a style more characteristic of modern-day practical philosophy". The NEB was "semantically more condensed", while the TEV was expanded with "sufficient redundancy". This was because the former was intended to be read by readers themselves, and the latter was for people who heard the scriptures. "It is essentially for this reason that one can justify two different types of dynamic equivalent translations designed primarily for two rather different purposes" (Jin Di and Nida 1984, 87-89). It is safe for us to say that dynamic equivalent translations are not those that are closest to the original text in lexicon and grammar. Rather, depending on the readers for whom the translation is made, there are more than one dynamic equivalent translations.

At phase three (1984-), " functional equivalence" was divided into two levels of equivalence: the maximal level and the minimal level. The maximal level was an ideal, but Nida did not suggest that the translator must take it as an aim to work at. On the contrary, he claimed that this maximal level of equivalence was "rarely, if ever, achieved, except for text having little or no aesthetic value and involving only routine information" (Nida 1993, 118). In Nida's view, such an ideal goal could only be achieved in certain limited types of texts, and it was impossible to attain such an objective in literary translation. In brief, a functional equivalent translation was not an ideal goal that the translator must pursue in their work. Rather, it had "different degrees of adequacy" from minimal to maximal level and a good translation always lay somewhere in between the two levels (Nida 1993, 1995).

=====Reasons for the Differences between the Two Theories =====

There are mainly two reasons for the differences between Jin's theory and Nida's theory:(1) Jin's theory is, to some extent, very much influenced by traditional Chinese translation theories, and (2) Nida's theory fails to address the issue of transference of aesthetic elements.

Before Jin accepted Nida's theory in the late 1970s, he had formed his own views about translation, and taken the combination of "accuracy and smoothness" as the standard of a good translation. In his view, "accuracy is the ultimate objective of a translation while smoothness is the necessary means to attain it. The translator's objective is to accurately reproduce the content and feeling of the original text in an idiomatic language" (Jin Di 1998, 119- 120). Theoretically, it is desirable to achieve this objective, but in actual translating it is hard to accomplish it. Just as a saying goes: "Translation is like a mistress. If she is beautiful, she is not faithful. If she is faithful, she is not beautiful". Certainly, Jin had to face this dilemma of keeping "accuracy and smoothness" at the same time in his translation practice. After he had contact with Nida's theory, he tried to find the way out of it from the standpoint of readers and communication theory. He wrote:

Accuracy and smoothness in translating are inseparable from target readers. Translating is communicating across two languages. An accurate translation indicates that the message the target reader obtains from the translated text should be substantially the same as the message the original reader has acquired from the original text. A smooth translation indicates that the target reader can understand the translation and receive the translated message e without any difficulty. (Jin Di 1998, 114).

The fact is that even after Jin advanced his own theory of " equivalent effect" in the 1980s, he was not totally free from the bondage of his former translation standard of " accuracy and smoothness". For instance, he held that an equivalent effect translation was to preserve "accuracy and smoothness" at the same time (Jin Di 1998, 39). This explained why he emphasized the importance of transference of "concrete facts" in his definition of equivalent effect translation, and why he was strongly opposed to the alteration of "concrete facts" in his arguments against Phillip's rendering of " a hearty handshake" and Chuang's suggestion of "干杯" .

In the 1990s, Jin's dependence upon Chinese traditional translation theory was more conspicuous. In his article "Translating Spirit" (1996), Jin borrowed "faithfulness and expressiveness" from Yan Fu's three-character translation principle and put forward his translation principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit". He held that to accomplish an equivalent effcet translation, the translator should “make the translated text similar to the original text in terms of faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit" (Jin Di 1998, 162). Clearly, during this period, Jin's theory of "equivalent effect mainly depended on faithful representation of the original text, and the target reader was no longer involved ass the decisive role in translating. It is safe for r us to say that when Jin absorbed the useful elements from traditional Chinese translation theory, Chinese classic literary criticism and aesthetics to discuss his translation objective, his theory went further away from Nida’s "dynamic equivalence", though he claimed that his translation criteria " faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit" were similar to his translation principle of " equivalent effect” (Wang Zhenping 200, 56).

Another reason for the discrepancy ' between the two theories is the limitations of Nida's theory. "Dynamic equivalence" is not restricted to Bible translation, but it has some limitations in guiding literary translation. This is simply because Nida's immediate concern is not about literary translation, hence it fails to address the transference of formal structures possessing stylistic values and aesthetic effects.

As we all know, the general background against which Nida formulated his translation theory in the early 1960 was that the English Revised Version of the Bible and the American Standard Version of the Bible (1901) were very literal to the extent that "they simply did not communicate effectively, owing to their 16th century forms and the literal, awkward syntax" (Nida 1964, 20). Due to this fact, Nida in his theory objected to word-for-word translation of "formal correspondence", and advocated a free approach to translation, i.e. a meaning-oriented dynamic equivalence. This translation approach has great significance for translators, providing them with theoretical support to break the chains of literalism. However, as far as literary translation is concerned, merely translating sense is not enough. Just as Lin Yutang says, there are two types of literary works. One originates from the writer's experience and thoughts, and the other lies in the language itself, i.e. the specific means to express the writer's experience and thoughts. The first type does not rely on the native language of the writer to a certain degree, while the second is inseparable from the spirit of his mother tongue (Luo Xinzhang 1984, 430-431). Jin Yuelin also states: "Translating sense, which only requires expressiveness and faithfulness, is not an easy thing, and in some cases it is very difficult. Nevertheless, the difficulty is only a technical problem. Translating flavor, however, is quite another matter, for it requires recreation in translating" (Luo Xinzhang 1984, 464). When meaning and flavor in the original text cannot be kept at the same time in literary translation, in some cases the translator retains flavor and sacrifices sense. But in Nida's theory translating means translating meaning, and his exploration of style or spirit is very inadequate for literary translation. When Jin translated Joyce's Ulysses, he had to face the problem of spirit transference. This is the reason why Jin eventually turns to Chinese traditional translation theory and classic literary criticism to seek for support for his theory of "equivalent effect".

===Conclusion===

There are some similarities between Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect. They both have profound research and insight into the theory of equivalent translation, and have a lot of common points in their understanding of the theory. There are also some differences between the two theories. Jin Di is deeply influenced by traditional Chinese translation theories and lacks a scientific basis for translation analysis. However, Nida's theory does not mention aesthetics, which has its limitations in guiding literary translation. Therefore, Nida's theory is not applicable to general translation, but only to biblical translation and informative or vocative translation. How to learn from the two translations to better guide translation practice is a task that translation researchers need to do in the future.

===References===

Chuang, Kun-liang 庄坤良. (1995). "Ulysses, by James Joyce, translated by Jin Di." [金堤译<尤利西斯>]James Joyce Quarterly 32.

De Waard, Jan and E. A. Nida 得·瓦得和尤金·奈达. (1986). From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating [从一种语言到另一种语言]. New York: Nelson.

Jin Di 金堤.(1998). In Search of the Principle of Equivalent Effect [等效反应原则]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.

Jin Di and Eugene A. Nida 金堤和尤金·奈达. (1996). On Translation: with special reference to Chinese and English [论翻译]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.

Jin Di 金堤. (1995). Equivalence Effect in Translation [翻译中的等效反应]. Chinese University Press.

Jin Di 金堤. (1994-1996). trans. Ulysses(You Li Xi Si). By James Joyce[尤利西斯]. Beijing: People's Literature Press.

Liu, Junping 刘军平.(1997). "Comments on Two Chinese Versions of Ulysses." [<尤利西斯>两种译文的比较研究]. Chinese Translators Journal 3.
('' [《尤利西斯》两种译文的比较研究]'')

Lao Long. (1988). "Book Review: On Translation by Jin Di and Eugene A. Nida" [书评: 论翻译]. Chinese Translators Journal 2: 56-57.

Luo, Xinzhang 罗新璋. (1984). An Anthology of Writings on Translation [翻译论集]. Beijing: Commercial Press.

Nida, E. A. 尤金·奈达 (1975). Language Structure and Translation: Essays by Eugene A. Nida [语言结构与翻译]. Stanford: Stanford University Press.

Nida, E. A. 尤金·奈达 (1959). Principles of translation as exemplified by bible translating [从圣经翻译看翻译原则]. Bible Translator, 72(4), 323-342.

Nida, Eugene A. 尤金·奈达. (1993).Language, Culture and Translating [语言、文化与翻译]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

Nida, Eugene A. 尤金·奈达. (1964). Towards a Science of Translating: with Special Reference to Principles and Procedures Involved in Bible Translating [翻译的科学探索]. Leiden: Brill.

Nida, Eugene A. and C. R. Taber. 尤金·奈达和查尔斯·泰伯. (1969). The Theory and Practice of Translation [翻译理论与实践]. Leiden: Brill.

Wang, Zhenping 王振平. (2000). "An Interview with Prof. Jin Di." [金堤教授访谈录] Chinese Translators Journal.

Wang, Yougui 王友贵. (1998). "On Two Chinese Versions of Ulysses"[《尤利西斯的两个中译本研究》]. Chinese Comparative Literature 4.

==Translation , Translating and Interpreting 漆凯 Qi Kai, 202020080636 亚非语言文学==

<center>漆凯 Qi Kai </center>
===Abstract===
First of all, this paper briefly introduces the Chinese and western studies of translation theory and translation principles, and then introduces the definitions of translating and interpreting centering on translation and interpretation.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 12:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC) then it discusses what they have in common from four aspects: basic principles, requirements for translators, operational procedures and quality assessment standards. Then it discusses the differences between interpretation and translation in terms of criteria, translation process and requirements for the quality of translators. Mastering the similarities and differences between the two can help us to better deal with different types of translation, which is the only way to become an excellent translator.

===Key words===
Translation; Translation Theory; Translation Principles; Translating; Interpreting

===题目===
翻译，笔译与口译

===摘要===
本文首先以翻译理论和翻译原则为出发点，简要介绍了两者的中西方研究状况，其次以笔译和口译为中心，对两者的定义进行了介绍，然后从基本原则、对译者的要求、操作流程、质量评定标准四个方面论述了两者的共同点，紧接着论述口译和笔译在衡量标准、翻译过程以及对译员的素质要求方面的差异。掌握两者的同于不同，能够帮助我们更好地处理不同类型的翻译，是成为一个优秀翻译工作者的必经之路。

===关键词===
翻译、翻译理论、翻译原则、笔译、口译

===Introduction===
With the enhancement of China's national strength and the increasing complexity of international exchanges, the market needs more and more high-quality translators. The establishment of MTI and BTI majors in colleges and universities in China also meets this demand. Translation includes two different forms: translation and interpretation. many people will be shocked by the real-time translation of the interpreter around the prime minister and admire the ability of the interpreter. Translation plays an important role in Mo Yan's winning the Nobel Prize for Literature. The comparison between interpretation and translation can give us a correct understanding of the relationship between them, so as to better guide the study of translation and improve the ability of translation.(Liu Heping 2009,35)

This paper first defines translation and holds that translation refers to the expression of the meaning of one language in another language, or the expression of symbols or numbers that represent language and literature, and translation is a conversion between two symbols. But this kind of transformation is not only the language transformation at the literal level, but also the transfer of ideas and the transplantation of culture.(Liu Heping 2009,35)

Secondly, it discusses the similarities and differences between translation and interpretation, focusing on the differences between them. Specifically, firstly, the common points of the two are discussed from four aspects: the basic principles, the requirements for the translator, the operation process and the quality evaluation standard. As for the difference between the two, the criteria for evaluating the advantages and disadvantages of translation and interpretation are discussed. Interpretation needs an interpreter to make a quick response because of its immediacy. Then it analyzes the process of the two translation methods and points out their differences.(Liu Heping 2009,35)

Finally, it discusses the different requirements for the quality of interpreters. In view of the particularity of interpretation, it focuses on the requirements for interpreters, including psychological quality, listening, memory and shorthand ability. It is hoped that through the analysis and discussion of this paper, we can once again realize the importance of translation and let readers have a further understanding of the similarities and differences between interpretation and translation.(Liu Heping 2009,35)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 12:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Definition of Translation===
Translation is an activity with a long history. Both Chinese and Western translators have experienced several thousand years of development. During such a long period of time, people have benefited from translation activities; at the same time, people have actively thought about issues related to translation.(Huang Yongchang 2003,36)

First, people need to give a precise definition of translation. As a matter of fact, most of the first translation activities performed by human beings were oral translations. The communication of language and ideas between two primitive tribes was dependent on translation. Later, with the need for narration and communication, translation activities also emerged, and the initial translations were all related to the translation of religious texts.(Huang Yongchang 2003,36)

In modern society, with the development of science and technology, translation activities have covered more colorful forms: human translation and machine translation; literary translation and non-literary translation; excerpt translation, compilation, translation evaluation, etc.; there are also research institutions and training institutions for translation and its works. It can be said that after a long historical development, translation activities have become very diverse in form.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 12:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Therefore, it is very difficult to give a precise definition of translation. Many experts and scholars have made attempts to define translation from various perspectives, such as culture, sociology, semiotics and psychology.(Huang Yongchang 2003,36)

Secondly, according to the Modern Chinese Dictionary, translation refers to expressing the meaning of one - language and literature in another language and literature, or expressing the symbols or digits representing language and literature in language and literature. (Huang Yongchang 2003,36)

Translation is a conversion activity between two symbols. Therefore, in the activity of conversion of two linguistic symbols, that is, in the activity of translation, one's primary task is to work on the regeneration of symbolic meaning. And translation is fundamentally about translating meaning. Then, what is the meaning becomes an important and crucial question.(Huang Yongchang 2003,36)

For example, Ogden and Richards, the British scholars of semantics, published in 1923, put forward a theory of meaning, which represents the typical view of traditional semantics. The theory refers to a mutually constraining and interactive relationship between symbols, meanings and objective things. And this theory has also influenced translation activities. Language philosophers often think about this issue and give an essential requirement to translation, which should not be a literal level of language conversion, but a transfer of ideas and a cultural transplantation.(Liu Heping 2009,37)

Thirdly, the activity of translation, which has undergone thousands of years of development, has played an important role in the evolution of human society, and it is always going on, and the various functions it can achieve are constantly evolving.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 12:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC) Jacobson, one of the founders of the Prague School, divided translation into three types: intra-linguistic translation, interlinguistic translation and inter-rational translation.(Liu Heping 2009,37)

By understanding these three types, it helps us to recognize the functions and roles of translation. There is no doubt that translation facilitates communication between people and enables ideas to be spread. For the ideas and culture of a country to be expanded geographically, it is inevitable to resort to translation. Moreover, translation also plays the function of creation, and through translation activities, the original ideas are developed and extended.(Ma Chao 2010,18)

In the process of translating Buddhist scriptures, our country has made a bold creation, creating. The creation of new vocabulary and new ideas not only expands the substance of the language, but also introduces new ideas and new thoughts. And in the West, especially in the process of translating the Bible, the role of translation for linguistic transformation has been more profoundly highlighted.Therefore, in order to study translation, it is necessary to understand the definition of translation, the content of translation and the function of translation.(Ma Chao 2010,18)

===Research status of Translation principles in China and the West===
From ancient times to the present, Chinese and Western scholars have never stopped exploring the principles of translation. There are also differences between Chinese and Western translation principles in terms of development history, research direction and system integrity.

====Research status of Translation Principles in China====
Yan Fu once spoke in the Theory of Heaven. In the translation example, it has been pointed out that there are three difficulties in translating things: faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance. It is very difficult to ask him to believe himself.(Ma Chao 2010,19)

Although the translation is still not done, "faithfulness" means that the content of the translation does not violate the original and expresses the meaning of the original. "expressiveness" requires that the translation is smooth and easy to understand. "elegance" refers to the literary style, suitability and readability of the choice of words, as well as the proper use of language style. "elegance" refers to the choice of words, suitability and readability, as well as the proper use of language style. In fact, the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" is not completely pioneered by Yan Fu, but is systematically summarized, refined and summarized.(Ma Chao 2010,19)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 12:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Before Yan Fu, there were Zhiqian's "follow this purpose without literary decoration", the "struggle for cultural quality" in the Sui and Tang dynasties, the "five losses and three difficult" by Dao'an, "rather be simple and reasonable, not skillfully but from the source" by Yan Yi. Xuan Zang's "five do not turn", Zanning's "six examples", Ma Jianzhong's "good translation" and so on. (Huang Yongchang 2003,37)After Yan Fu, the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" also has a new development.(Ma Chao 2010,19)

For example, Lu Xun said that "it would rather be faithful than smooth" and "all translators must take into account two sides: one is to strive for ease of understanding, and the other is to preserve the grace of the original work." Lin Yutang put forward the standard of "faithfulness, smoothness and beauty". Fu Lei's "attaching importance to spirit but not form", "harmony between spirit resemblance and form resemblance", Qian Zhongshu's "transformation environment", Jin Shi's "equivalence" translation principle, Liu Zhongde's "faith, reach, cut" regiment, Zhang Jin's "truth, goodness, beauty", and Xu Yuanchong summed up the "beauty of meaning, sound, form" and so on. (Ma Chao 2010,19)

Although various translation standards emerge one after another, the translation standard of "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance" has always been the "golden rule" in the field of translation. The translation standard of "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance" is Yan Fu's summary and sublimation of a great deal of practice,--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 12:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC) raising the translation theory from the dual standard of "literal translation and free translation" to the ternary standard, which is also the development and inheritance of the previous translation theory. At the same time, the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" is also a discussion on the traditional Chinese philosophy of "the unity of man and nature", "the subject is integrated into the object", and it is a "incidental discussion" of translation. (Yang Zijian 1994,52)

Although many other translation standards have appeared after the translation standard of faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance, the scope of influence of faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance. It's always been widespread. This is because the subsequent translation standards are based on the translation criteria of "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance", and the contents of the framework are updated and inherited critically with the development of the times. Although it has some historical limitations, as a translation concept and basic proposition, as Guo Hongan said: as long as we keep pace with the times and constantly update the interpretation of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", we will continue to give it new vitality.(Yang Zijian 1994,55)

====Research status of Translation Principles in the West====
According to different periods, there are many representative translation principles in the West. Such as "translation as a commentator" put forward by Cicero Cicero of the traditional empirical period, Alexander FraserTytler's "completely interpreting the advantages of the source text into another language", the "functional equivalence theory" and the thought circle of "response" and "domestication" advocated by Eugene A. Nida in the period of modern linguistics, CatFord's "equivalent translation", PeterNewmark's semantic translation and communicative translation theory. And the hermeneutics theory "understanding is translation" advocated by GeorgeSteiner in the contemporary pluralistic theory period, Andre Lefevere's "translation is rewriting" Hermans's "the text is manipulated by the translator" and so on.(Yang Zijian 1994,53) --[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 12:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In the process of development, western translation theories pay more attention to the intuitive way of thinking and the integrity of the system. In the process of using and developing translation theory, we can take it as a reference, absorb its essence, and combine it with domestic translation principles and translation practice to form a domestic characteristic translation theory. For example, when using the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", we should comprehensively consider other translation theories at home and abroad, fully consider the style and content of the text, apply the idea of "domestication", and choose suitable translation methods. so that the content and style of the text can be restored to the maximum extent.(Xu Jun 2009,36)

===Definitions of Translating and Interpreting===
Translating is a written process. It converts the written text in the source language into another written language. Translators must have a deep understanding of the source text and accurately translate it into the target language in terms of meaning, structure and style. The translator has enough time, tools and ways to ponder over and over the language sentences so as to complete the translation. In "language and Culture: context in Translation", Eugene A. Nida (2006 105)holds that the first step is for the translator to analyze the source text by reading many times, consulting references or dictionaries and consulting experts in relevant fields in order to deepen their understanding.(Marianne Lederer 2011,12)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 12:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

After the conversion from the source language to the target language, translators also need to transform and improve the target language in order to obtain the satisfaction of the readers or the target audience. Before that, translators can ask people in the target audience to read the translation on behalf of the target audience, so as to get feedback on the translation, and have time to correct and polish it again. In terms of the connotation of translation, translation requires higher satisfaction with accurate grasp of language, creativity, artistic level of language and aesthetic style.(Marianne Lederer 2011,12)

Interpreting can be divided into impromptu translation and simultaneous interpretation. Impromptu translation, also known as consecutive Interpreting or continuous translation, is mainly in the form of segmented expression of what the speaker is going to express, and the translator translates during each pause. The time of each speech varies from a few seconds to a few minutes according to the specific situation. Consecutive Interpreting is widely used, such as tourism translation, banquet speeches and so on.(Sun Sucha 2008, 44)

Simultaneous interpretation, also known as simultaneous interpretation, the interpreter provides instant translation through special interpretation equipment without interrupting the speaker's speech,--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 12:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC) constantly interpreting the contents of his speech to the audience. Simultaneous interpretation is suitable for large-scale seminars and international conferences, usually conducted by two interpreters in rotation.(Sun Sucha 2008, 44)

===Similarities and Differences between Translating and Interpreting===
As two practical forms of translation, the relationship between interpreting and translating is self-evident. If interpreting is the superstructure. Then the written review is the lower building. To put it simply, interpretation is based on written reviews. Before oral training or practice, the written details should be passed (at least step by step): the two not only go hand in hand. And the quality of the former often determines to a large extent the level of interpretation or the potential for development in the future.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 12:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC) Although interpretation and translation have different forms of translation, they share many common basic principles. In some basic translation strategies and techniques.And it is also consistent or similar.(Xie Zhaolin 2012,147)

Fundamentally speaking, these two kinds of translation practices are guided or dominated by general translation theories and principles, which are always accepted and digested first in the training process of written reviews. If the cultivation of oral and detailed talents is not only based on translation training, but also not far away from the training of translation, the cultivation of oral talents is not far away from the basis of translation training. If you ignore the importance of translation. Or the amount of translation training is not enough. In that case, it is bound to be top-heavy and light, and it is difficult to make further progress in interpretation.(Li Jun 2007,54)

====Similarities between Translating and Interpreting====
First of all, the basic principles of translation are the same. In an introduction to Translation, Xu Jun (2009) pointed out that translation is the fundamental meaning of translation; Li Jun (2007) also believes that the basic task of translation is to understand and retell the meaning that the source language is trying to express. It can be seen that as far as its basic principles are concerned, translation should faithfully express the meaning and ideas that the source language wants to express in accordance with the language habits of the target language.(Marianne Lederer 2011,108)

Whether interpreting or translating, it is not the formal translation of words or sentence-by-sentence translation, but the translation of the source language information and the transmission of the original meaning, which is the first basic principle that we should make clear when learning interpreting and translating. The explanation of interpretive translation by French interpretive theory further clarifies this principle: the purpose of translation is to "understand"-"discourse", and then "re-express", the "discourse" (Marianne Lederer 2011,108)

Secondly, the requirements for translators and translators have something in common. From the perspective of software, both translators and translators must have a solid bilingual foundation, profound encyclopedic knowledge accumulation and strong autonomous learning ability; from the perspective of hardware, both must have great enthusiasm for translation. and have good physical fitness.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 12:18, 19 December 2020 (UTC) Since translation is simply a process of understanding and expressing the meaning of the source language in the target language, and understanding requires the reserve of knowledge of the source language and knowledge outside the language, and expression requires both the level of the target language and the level of expression, then the importance of software construction is self-evident.(Sun Sucha 2008,45)

Moreover, in order to do any work well, we need to be enthusiastic about it and put it into practice. Translation is a time-consuming and energy-consuming work that requires the attention of translators and translators. The improvement of hardware is particularly important. To sum up, only when we have both hardware and software, can we do a good job in translation. (Sun Sucha 2008,45)

Thirdly, the translation process is similar. The process of completing the translation work is like the process of producing a certain product, which must be put in place step by step. If you relax a little bit, the final product may be defective. Generally speaking, whether you are an interpreter or a translator, you need to make full preparations before translation, including reading a large number of parallel texts, mastering knowledge in related fields, communicating with experts or scholars, and understanding the key points: to establish your own corpus and corpus so as to be easy to extract and use at any time. And lost-translation feedback and summary are needed after translation, and translation is also subject to one or more post-translation revision.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 12:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC) In addition, in many cases, the same complicated translation work is often done by the cooperation of two or more translators and translators.(Chen Kaisha 2012,134)

Finally, although there is no final conclusion on the evaluation criteria of translation quality, in professional translation, from the results of translation, the evaluation criteria of translation quality are the same between interpretation and translation. (Chen Kaisha 2012,134)These similarities can be simply summarized as "three looks": to see whether the result of the translation accurately conveys the message of the source language; to see whether the result of the translation has produced the desired effect on the audience; finally, in professional translation, we also need to see whether the result of the translation work is satisfactory to the customer.(Chen Kaisha 2012,134)

====Differences between Translating and Interpreting====
(1) Differences in measurement criteria
As two different forms of translation, the criteria for evaluating translation and interpretation are also different. Although translation theorists have not formed a unified opinion on the issue of translation standards, especially after the "cultural turn", a hundred schools of thought contend among translation theorists, the main criteria for evaluating translation quality in China are still faithfulness and fluency,--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 12:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC) which is in line with the "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance" standard put forward by Yan Fu, which requires the translation to be consistent with the source text in terms of content, form, style and style as far as possible. And make it smooth.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 12:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Based on the characteristics of interpretation, some interpretation experts and scholars have put forward corresponding theories to evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of interpretation.(Yang Zijian 1994,62) According to the Dayism theory of French interpretation expert Celeskovic, interpretation is a kind of interpretive translation, its purpose is to achieve meaning, and the standard is to achieve meaning and fluency.(Li Jinze 2010,23)

The interpretation standard put forward by interpretation expert Li Yueran is accurate, smooth and fast. Accuracy is the soul of English interpretation, which requires the interpreter to accurately convey the information of one party to the other in English or Chinese, so as to achieve the purpose of communication between the two parties. Fluency, that is, the interpreter should fluently convey the information obtained, it is easy for people to understand; fast, because the interpretation is immediate, its own time limit requires the interpreter to be able to respond quickly.(Li Jinze 2010,23)

Zhong Weihe, an interpreter, argues that interpretation should be faithful and timely. Faithfulness means that the target language must be faithful to the content of the source language and the emotional color of the language under specific circumstances, while timely communication means timely communication. As a relatively new discipline, the development of interpretation theory is not as complete as translation theory, and the evaluation criteria are not the same.(Yang Zijian 1994,64)

However, the basic requirements for interpretation are as follows: the translation results should be accurate, rather than speculating on the content of the source text according to the interpreter's own understanding; aiming at the recipient of the translation result,--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 12:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC) the expression form of the translation result must conform to the recipient's language habits to facilitate their understanding; in addition, the translator needs to adjust the tone, speed and intonation according to the actual situation.(Yang Zijian 1994,64)

(2) The difference of translation process
The process of translation is the process of correctly understanding the original text and creatively reproducing it in another language. Translation and interpretation have their own characteristics, and the translation process also differs greatly. There are also great differences in the translation process. One of the differences between the two stems from the difference between written and spoken language, with written language being more rigorous and spoken language being more casual and loose.(Zhao Shuo 1999,100)

Interpreting is an activity with strong immediacy. It emphasizes the effectiveness, independence, field, and one-time nature, and belongs to a kind of individual labor (Zhao Shuo 1999,99). The immediacy of interpretation requires the interpreter to analyze, understand and express the speaker's words continuously within a limited time, so that the speaker's meaning can be correctly conveyed to the audience and both parties can communicate with each other. Due to this fundamental characteristic of immediacy, interpreters tend to "use frequently used words and small words with monosyllables or few syllables, as well as words and abbreviations with strong generality" (Zhao Shuo 1999,100)

Due to the time constraint, the interpreter cannot refer to any documents or materials, nor can he or she discuss with others or ask experts for advice. Interpreting in ordinary situations should be as colloquial as possible, and the sentence structure used is relatively simple and in line with the spoken habits. In addition, interpreters generally cannot make a lot of corrections and additions to what has been translated, unless there are major errors or omissions.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 12:18, 19 December 2020 (UTC) The translator, on the other hand, communicates with the reader in the form of text, which is generally not limited by time. The interpreter expresses the original text in written form through a thorough understanding of the text, and then uses the help of the materials, and then repeats the translation until he or she is satisfied.(Liu Heping 2009,37)

In terms of sentence structure, translation requires sentence components to be in place and sentence structure to be complete.(Xie Zhaolin 2012,148) Translators can use parallel sentences, compound sentences and rhetorical methods such as metaphor and prose in order to beautify the translation; translators can also have time to discuss with others and ask for their help before writing the translation.(Liu Heping 2009,37)

Fang Fanquan, an interpreter scholar, proposed the process of translation and interpretation. The basic process of translation is reading - thinking and analyzing - converting and reorganizing - writing and expressing; while the basic process of interpretation is recording - coding - expressing. Recording, or temporary storage, means storing the perceived coded information temporarily; encoding means decoding the information in the source language and assigning it to the expression form of the target language; expression means the interpreter translates the encoded information in the target language through oral expression.(Liu Heping 2009,37)

(3) Different requirements for interpreters
Translators and interpreters have some common basic requirements, for example, they should have good bilingual understanding and expression, and be able to convert between Chinese and English skillfully and accurately; they should have a broad knowledge, especially familiar with Chinese and foreign cultural background; they should go through systematic professional knowledge and skills learning and practical training, and so on. However, in view of the immediacy of interpretation, the requirements for interpreters are different from those for translators, and the special requirements for interpreters are mainly reflected in the following points:(Ma Chao 2010,19)

①Psychological quality
Interpreting is a hard and intense mental work, a complex thinking process. Interpreters are often unprepared to understand the information they hear instantly and then convert it into another language and express it orally, which often puts them under greater pressure (Guo Jirong, 2008: 232). Therefore, interpreters must have good psychological quality. "the psychological factor of the interpreter, although invisible and intangible, plays a role in the translation process."--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 12:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC) The interpreter will undergo psychological changes due to the occasion of interpretation, the level of knowledge, the degree of understanding of the subject matter, etc.(Li Jinze 2010,102)

Interpreters who are still shallow are prone to be in a nervous mood before interpreting, unable to start, and even unable to get into the state immediately after the meeting starts. This psychological state will affect the level of play, and even cause serious adverse consequences. The specific method is to practice more, try to contact with the conference organizers and speakers before the meeting, learn more about the background knowledge of the meeting, and also read some relevant information in advance, so as to have the bottom in mind and prevent the translation quality from being affected by emotional tension. The interpreter can also judge whether he/she understands according to the expression of the audience, and can change the expression or add some explanation, which cannot be done in the translation.(Chen Kaisha 2012,134)

②Listening
Interpreting is built on the basis of "listening" and relies on "listening". To receive information, keen listening is a prerequisite for becoming an excellent interpreter. If you encounter obstacles in receiving information, it will be difficult to carry out the following steps of interpretation.(Xie Zhaolin 2012,148)

Interpreters should have the basic conditions of bilingual communication, good bilingual comprehension and expression ability, be able to use the previously acquired knowledge to understand the new discourse, know how to analyze and synthesize the content while listening, and understand the content of language expression with the help of cognitive knowledge and encyclopedic knowledge, instead of the conditioned reflex or accumulation of language words.(Xie Zhaolin 2012,148)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 12:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In order to express better when interpreting, interpreters must pay attention to listen to more English accents, dialects and variants, pay attention to summarize their characteristics and rules, and learn to reason logically and judge the causes and consequences of speech, and correctly judge the message and intention of the speaker. There are many dialects of Chinese, and there are many dialects and variants of English. British English and American English differ in speech, expression and even the meaning of the same word; even people from the same English-speaking country speak different English due to their social class, educational background and geographical differences.(Xie Zhaolin 2012,149)

For example, there is a big difference in the language used by the aristocracy and the lower class in Britain. For example, the language used by the aristocracy and the lower class in Britain is very different. When foreigners whose mother tongue is not English speak English, it is inevitable that they have their own accent. Therefore, as an interpreter, you must first understand the dialect and accent of the translation target in order to carry out the translation smoothly. In addition, the interpreter must have a pure accent, be fluent in English and Mandarin Chinese, and be familiar with various expressions of foreign languages and Chinese.(Xie Zhaolin 2012,149)

③Memory and shorthand ability
Due to the constraints brought by the immediacy of interpreter communication and the potential influence of the "absence factor" of the context, interpretation work shows its great challenge (Xie Zhaolin 2012,149).--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 12:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC) As an interpreter, it is necessary to have an excellent memory, because it is impossible for the interpreter to consult information during the interpretation process, so he or she must remember a large number of words, abbreviations and idioms.(Xie Zhaolin 2012,149)

===Conclusion===
This paper focuses on the differences between translation and interpretation in terms of measurement standards, translation process and the quality requirements for translators. Mastering the differences between the two can help us to better deal with different types of translation. Want to be a good translator, whether interpreter or interpreter. Both workers and translators must have solid bilingual language skills and rich cultural background knowledge.

In cultivating and improving translation skills, there are more requirements for the accuracy of language expression. Therefore, translators need to read literary classics widely, improve their literary appreciation and their ability to master English and Chinese bilingualism.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 12:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC) It can not only be faithful to the original text but also be accurately conveyed in beautiful and fluent words in translation. The original message. When developing interpreting skills, it is necessary to strengthen the training of English-Chinese bilingual pronunciation, intonation and articulation, strengthen psychological quality, improve adaptability, enhance memory, and train shorthand ability in order to attain a yet higher goal.

===References===

*Chen Kaisha. 程凯莎. (2012). 浅析英语口笔译之异同.[A brief Analysis of the similarities and differences between English interpreting and Translating].科教文汇[Cultural exchange of science and education]133-134.

*Huang Yongchang. 黄勇昌. (2003).对翻译忠实性原则的解构分析[A Deconstructive Analysis of the Translation Fidelity Principle].番禺职业技术学院学报[Journal of Panyu Vocational and Technical College]35-37.

*Liu Heping. 刘和平. (2009). 论本科翻译教学的原则与方法[On the Principles and Methods of Undergraduate Translation Teaching].中国翻译[Translation in China]34-39.

*Li Jinze. 李金泽. (2010). 国内口译研究的历史与现状[The History and Current Situation of Domestic Interpreting Research].边疆经济与文化[Frontier Economy and Culture]101-102.

*Li Jun. 李军. (2007). 英汉汉英翻译训练与解析[Training and Analysis of English-Chinese Chinese-English Translation].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].

*Li Yun. 李云. (2001). 翻译的忠实性[Fidelity of Translation].山东电力高等专科学校学报[Journal of Shandong Electric Power Higher Specialized School]56-57.

*Ma Chao. 马超. (2010). 浅谈中国翻译史中的翻译原则[A Brief Introduction to the Translation Principles in the History of Chinese Translation].科技风[Science and Technology Wind]18-19.

*Marianne Lederer. 玛丽安·莱德尔. (2011). 释意学派口笔译理论[The Theory of Interpretation and Translation in the School of Interpretation and Translation].中国对外翻译出版社[Chinese Foreign Translation and Publication].

*Sun Sucha. 孙素茶. (2008). 口译与笔译之区别[The Difference between Interpreting and Translating].商情[Business Information]44-45.

*Xu Jun. 许钧. (2009). 翻译概论[Introduction to Translation].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].

*Xie Zhaolin. 谢昭霖. (2012). 论口笔译学习的异同[On the Similarities and Differences between Interpreting and Translating Studies].海外英语[English Abroad]147-149.

*Yang Zijian. 杨自俭. (1994). 翻译新论[New Theory of Translation].湖北教育出版社出版[Hubei Education Press].

*Zhao Shuo. 赵硕. (1999). 探讨翻译过程中的忠实性问题[Exploring the Problem of Fidelity in Translation].西北工业大学学报[Journal of Northwestern Polytechnic University]99-100.

==A Brief Introduction to Chinese Translation Theories in the Late 19th Century 郭露 Guo Lu 202070080588==

<center>郭露 Guo Lu 202070080588</center>--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:44, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

===Abstract===

As China suffered from wars in the late 19th century, western culture was introduced into China inevitably. Chinese intellectuals at that time knew little about western works and were prejudiced against them.

During this period, translation acted as a bridge between China and the rest of the world. There were several translators and scholars who had translated numerous western works and came up with their translation theories, which promoted the development of translation studies and helped people to know more about the western countries.--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 12:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

This paper mainly discusses the translation theories of Yan Fu and Lin Shu who were of great significance at that time, and it also introduces Yan Fu’s and Lin Shu’s translation theories through case analysis, so as to deepen our understanding towards translation theories in this period.--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 12:22, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

===Key Words===

Translation theory, Chinese translation theory, Yan Fu, Lin Shu

===题目===

19世纪晚期中国翻译理论简介

===摘要===

19世纪晚期，中国遭受战争磨难的同时，外国文化随之涌入中国。当时中国各界人士对于西方作品的了解极少，并对其作品抱有较大的偏见。

在这一时期，翻译充当了中外交流的桥梁，中国涌现出了许多伟大的译者，他们的作品为中国的翻译发展做出极大贡献。

本文旨在讨论当时的翻译发展以及严复和林纾两位在当时具有突出贡献的译者，并通过案例分析对严复和林纾的翻译理论进行了简要概括和介绍，以加深我们对于该时期翻译理论的了解。

=== 关键字===

翻译理论；中国翻译理论；严复；“信达雅”；林纾

===Introduction===

The failure in the First Sino-Japanese War at the end of the Qing Dynasty put China and the Chinese nation as well in great danger. In order to educate people and save the nation, scholars including Yan Fu and Lin Shu realized that they need to learn from Western countries and bring in their culture and advanced thought. (Ouyang Lifeng, Shang Minrui 2002, 1-3) Therefore, those scholars started to translate western works. For example, during the translation of Thomas H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'', Yan Fu quoted the survival of the fittest and called for people to save the nation from subjugation and ensure its survival. (Ouyang Lifeng, Shang Minrui 2002, 1-3)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 12:32, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

In addition, with the growing demand for culture and entertainment, coupled with the improvement of printing technology, the market for books and magazines also underwent rapid development, which also provided room for the development of novels. While scholars favoured classical books, common people preferred novels, providing an opportunity for the development of novel translation.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 34-35)

As many scholars began to translate foreign books, they too formed a variety of translation theories in the process of translation, which made a lot of contributions to the development of translation.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 34-35)

===Yan Fu===

1. Introduction

Yan Fu(1854-1921), courtesy name Ji Dao, is a scholar and translator in modern China. He is famous for introducing Western thoughts, including Darwin’s idea of “natural selection” into China and was singled out among a few who contributed most to China’s knowledge of the West at that period. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:05, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

Yan Fu is especially famous for ''Tianyanlun'', the rendering of Thomas H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics''. The survival of the fittest in this book took wing in time in the fermenting air of nationwide struggle for survival. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91)

Besides that, Yan stated in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethics'' that "there are three difficulties in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance". Although he did not set them as general standards for translation, since the publication of that work, the phrases "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" have been attributed to Yan Fu as standards for any good translation, giving rise to numerous debates. Therefore, it has been the catchword among Chinese translation theories. (Wang Shi 1986, 1321-1322)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:05, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

Yan Fu was also one of the most influential scholars of his generation as he worked to introduce Western social, economic and political ideas to China. During his lifetime, Yan Fu translated the following major works of Western liberal thought: ''Evolution and Ethics'' by Thomas Henry Huxley as ''Tianyan lun'', ''The Wealth of Nations'' by Adam Smith as ''Yuan fu'', and ''The Study of Sociology'' by Herbert Spencer as ''Qunxue yiyan'', most of them inspired later scholars to better learn about Western culture. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91-99)

2. Translation Theory

Yan Fu’s theories, which include faithfulness(''xin''), expressiveness(''da'') and elegance(''ya''), plays a vital important role among Chinese translation theories. Another English version is fidelity, fluency, and elegance. Still, another is fidelity, fluency and flair rendered by Brian Holton, using the alliterative "f" for the sake of memory. They are cited as follows:--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:05, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

(1)Translation involves three difficult requirements to fulfil: faithfulness(''xin''), expressiveness (''da'') and elegance(''ya''). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance.(Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 44-47)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:05, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

(2)In addition to faithfulness and expressiveness, we should strive for elegance in translation. This is not just for extending the effects far. In using the syntax and style of the pre-Han period one actually facilitates the expressiveness of the profound principles and subtle thoughts whereas in using the modern vernacular one finds it difficult to make things comprehensible. (Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 44-47)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:05, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

Here, faithfulness means to be faithful to the content of the original, the translation should be accurate, and translators are not allowed to change the meaning in the original text. “Meanwhile, translators should translate words correctly and concisely, and omission and amplification are not recommended.”(Wang Rui, Wei Shengxin 2020, 1-4)

Furthermore, expressiveness means to be expressive as the original, and the translation should be in accordance with the expression of Chinese habits and be fluent and readable. And as for elegance, which is ''ya'', it originally means the authentic and correct use of the Chinese language. However, with the development of the times, the meaning of ''ya'' has also undergone much development. It doesn’t require translators to keep the syntax and style of the pre-Han period, instead, they should translate the original text depending on its language style. (Wang Shi 1986, 48)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:05, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

3. Case Analysis

Example1: He was an old man who fished alone in a skiff in the Gulf Stream and he had gone eighty-forty days now without taking a fish. (Ernest Hemingway 2016, 1)

Translation 1: 他是一个老头子，一个人划着一只小船，在墨西哥湾大海流打鱼，而他已经有84天没有捕到一条鱼了。 (Zhang Ailing 2015, 5)

Translation 2: 那老人独驾轻舟，在墨西哥湾流里捕鱼，如今出海已有84天仍是一鱼不获。 (Yu Guangzhong 2010, 1)

Translation 3: 他是个独自驾一只小帆船在湾流上捕鱼的老人。到今天为止，老头儿已经接连下海84天，一条鱼也没捕到。 (Zhang Chiheng 2015, 2)

Translation analysis: In this example, the skiff was translated into “小船”, “轻舟” and “小帆船”, and according to the context, we can easily draw a conclusion that the third one is the best, as “小船” didn’t tell the reader what the skiff looks like, so it has a much broader definition. Besides that, “轻舟” in China is a poetic word, which does not conform to the style of the original text. And “小帆船” seems more vivid and specific. (Sun Yanyu 2019, 1)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:05, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

Example 2: The old man was thin and gaunt with deep wrinkles in the back of his neck. The brown blotches of the benevolent skin cancer the sun brings from its reflection on the sides of his face and his hands had the deep-creased scars from handling heavy fish on the cords. (Ernest Hemingway 2016, 1)

Translation 1: 老人瘦而憔悴，颈后有深的皱纹。面颊上生着棕色的肿起一块块，那是热带的海上反射的阳光晒出的一种无害的瘤。顺着脸的两边，全长满了那肿起的一块块。他的手因为拉绳子，拖曳沉重的鱼，有纹路很深的创痕。 (Zhang Ailing 2015, 5)

Translation 2: 老人瘦削而憔悴，颈背皱纹很深。热带海上阳光的反射引起善性的皮癌，那种褐色的疮痍便长满两颊，两手时常用索拉扯大鱼，也留下深折的瘢痕。 (Yu Guangzhong 2010, 1)

Translation 3: 老头儿身形单薄，脖颈子上皱纹很深。从他的腮帮子上一溜顺着颊边往下，长着些褐色的疙瘩，那是太阳在热带海面上的反光晒出来的良性皮肤瘤。他那双手则因为同大鱼较量，被钓索勒出了深深的伤痕。 (Zhang Chiheng 2015, 3)

Translation analysis: Among all the translation versions, the last is the most understandable one for it is in accordance with the logical order and more natural. For example, “较量” in the third version seems very different from the original meaning of “handling”, but considering the context, “较量” is more authentic than “拖曳” or “拉扯” which are just translated literally. This also reflects the importance of expressiveness and elegance. (Sun Yanyu 2019, 2)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:05, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

Example 3: He did not remember when he had first started to talk aloud when he was by himself. He had sung when he was by himself in the old days and he had sung at night sometimes when he was alone steering on his match in the smacks or in the turtle boats. (Ernest Hemingway 2016, 1)

Translation 1: 他记不起自己从什么时候开始，便爱一个人大声自言自语。往日，在孤独的时候，他曾爱唱歌自娱；有时夜间独自在渔船上或龟船上轮班掌舵，他也会唱起歌来。 (Yu Guangzhong 2010, 27)

Translation 2: 他记不得一个人独处的时候是何时开始大声说话的。以前他独个儿时曾唱过歌。在小帆船或者捕龟船里，独自值班掌舵时曾在夜里唱过。 (Huang Yuanshe 2011,16)

Translation 3: 他不记得自己从什么时候起，在独自一人的情形下会大声说话。从前独自一人时，他会唱歌；当年在渔船或捕龟船上轮夜掌舵的时候，他有时也会唱歌。 (Zhang Chiheng 2015, 22)

Translation Analysis: Though these translations are all faithful to the original text, the first one is uncomparable among all the versions. By reading the first one, we can have a deep understanding of the loneliness of the old man who was fishing on the sea and we can also feel his optimism, especially in “自言自语” and “唱歌自娱”. This translation can undoubtedly arouse the sympathy of the readers. (Sun Yanyu 2019, 1-3)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:05, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

4. The Criticism of Yan Fu’s Theory

Though Yan Fu’s translation theory was widely recognized by Chinese scholars, it also provoked heated debates, and elegance, which is ya, was criticized mostly by other scholars. Some of them even believed that it is useless. And the reason why Yan put elegance into his translation theory is that he preferred the writing style of Tong Cheng School. Since this pompous style is obsolete, the standard of ya may also out of fashion. (Gao Xiaopeng 2017, 1-2)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:05, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

Nevertheless, “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” are still one of the most important translation theories in China. Faithfulness means being faithful to the author and conveys the core values and meanings of the work to the readers. Expressiveness means the translation should be plain and fluent. And elegance requires the translation to obey the aesthetic concepts of the target language. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 28-30) This theory has inspired later scholars in translation practice and theoretical exploration. Due to the limit of time and history, the translation study should be conducted in a historical context, so we also need to evaluate Yan Fu’s translation thought and translation works historically.--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:05, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

===Lin Shu===

1. Introduction

Lin Shu(1852-1924) is a traditional Chinese literatus and translator, most famous for introducing the Western literary works into China in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Though being ignorant of foreign languages, Lin Shu collaborated with different interpreters and translated more than 180 western literary works, mostly novels, from England, the United States, France, Russian, Switzerland, Belgium, Spain and Norway, etc. into classical Chinese in his lifetime. (Zhu Yu 2008, 3-7)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:27, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

Because of his ignorance of foreign languages, Lin seldom concerned himself with the original or with the equivalence of any sort. What he cared about most was the functions of his translation works. In Lin’s opinion, to translate books is to enlighten the mind of our people in a contest against foreigners. In his foreword to ''Yilin Monthly'', he stated:--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:27, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

“The inferiority of Asia to Europe can be attributed to the fact that the Europeans are daily intent on learning whereas the Asian peoples moon away in a stupor or, jealous of the European learnings and slandering them as eccentric extremity, throw themselves into blind combats, fancying of victory. That is the so-called landlubber swimming against the good swimmer. As for me, to enlighten the mind of our people, we must begin with the establishment of schools. But the schools work steadily and slowly, so timely speeches in academic associations are preferable. Considering the inconveniences in preparing speeches, translating books becomes the ultimate choice.” (Chen Fukang 1992, 133)

2. Translation Methods

Lin Shu knew no foreign languages, so he had to cooperate with a collaborator who was familiar with foreign languages and worked as an interpreter for him. Though he was an efficient translator, he didn’t come up with any significant translation theories. Having said that, during his translation process, there were four translation methods that he mainly used, which include omission, addition, alteration and adaption. (Chen Jianyong 2013, 20)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:27, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

(1) Omission

In his translation process, Lin deleted some words or sentences for some reasons. Omission is a very common practice in his translation. He deleted some contents for the sake of Chinese literary norms and so as to arose the Chinese reader’s interests. In the late 19th century, Western literature was novel to the Chinese people. As Chinese readers prefer the tradition of story-telling in traditional Chinese fiction like ''The Water Margin'', Lin had to delete the psychological description in the western novel as it has nothing to do with the development of the story.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 36-37)

(2) Addition

During his translation, Lin Shu made some additions to polish and improve the original text so as to help the readers to have a better understanding of the original. Being a writer and a good story-teller, Lin excelled in making the translation more interesting and appealing through addition. Even Qian Zhongshu, another Chinese translator and writer, mentioned Lin's addition in his translations: “When Lin Shu found a perceived void in the source text, he would add here and polish there so that the wording in the version was more concrete, the scene more vivid, and the description more substantial.” (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 36-37)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:27, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

For example: The married couple were enjoying their honeymoon... (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 20)

彼夫妇在蜜月期内，两情忻合无间（蜜月者，西人娶妇时，即挟其妇游历，经月而归） (Lin Shu 1981, 3)

Here, Lin translated “honeymoon” literally into Chinese, but to help his readers better understand the Western tradition, Lin made a specific explanation of this word. Addition is quite a common phenomenon in Lin's translations. He took the readers into consideration, which makes his translation popular in China. In the meantime, he broadened the horizon of his readers and narrowed the gaps between Chinese and Western cultures.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:27, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

(3) Alteration

Due to the social and cultural differences between the source and target languages, alterations are inevitable. Hence Lin Shu made some compensation or replacement in his translation. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)

For example: The slanting light of the setting sun quivers on the sea-like expanse of the river; the shivery canes, and the tall, dark cypress, hung with wreaths of dark, funeral moss, glow in the golden ray. (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 23)

日脚斜穿云罅而出，直射江上芦港。芦叶倒影，万绿荡漾于风漪之内，景物奇丽，江光如拭。 (Lin Shu 1981, 4)

Lin Shu made the alteration considering the Chinese readers' aesthetic tendencies. Although Lin Shu changed the word order of the original, the style and literary effects of the original are reproduced.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:27, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

(4) Adaptation

Considering the Chinese culture and the readers' acceptability, Lin Shu had to retranslate or rewrite the original text, which is similar to domestication. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:27, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

For example: On which Mr. Micawber delivered a eulogium on Mrs. Micawber's character and said she had ever been his guide, philosopher, and friend and that he would recommend me, when I came to marrying time of life, to marry such another woman, if such another woman could be found. (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 18)

密考泊遂历称其妻嘉言懿行，为世贤女，能相夫教子，共处患难，且谓余曰：“汝论娶者，所娶亦当如吾妻。惟不审闺秀中更有贤类吾妻否?” (Lin Shu 1981, 3)

In Lin's time, the wife had a very low status. For her, the most important responsibility was to take care of the husband and rear the children. So here in Lin's version, it was rewritten according to Chinese feudal ethics. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 36-37)

3. Case Analysis

Example 1: In that pleasant district of merry England which is watered by the river Don, there extended in ancient times a large forest, covering the greater part of the beautiful hills and valleys which lie between Sheffield and the pleasant town of Doncaster. The remains of this extensive wood are still to be seen at the noble seats of Wentworth, of Warncliffe Park, and around Rotherham. Here haunted of yore the fabulous Dragon of Wantley; here were fought many of the most desperate battles during the Civil Wars of the Roses; and here also flourished in ancient times those bands of gallant outlaws, whose deeds have been rendered so popular in English song. (Ivanhoe 2009, 25)

Translation 1: 英国东河流域之内，前此有大树林，踞歇非儿、东加斯德二城之间，楼橹雉堞，均为树荫所被。至今老树凋残，尚有一二根株在焉。相传古来有神龙窟蟠其地。当时玫瑰之战，兄弟争立，即以此地为战场。而绿林豪客，仗侠尚义，亦据为寨。至今诗人歌曲恒举其事，播为美谈。 (Lin Shu 1981, 5)

Translation Analysis: In this translation, Lin translated the original text in classical style, which was more acceptable to his readers at that time. Instead of translating the word literally, he even translated the “Dragon of Wantley” and “gallant outlaws” into “神龙窟蟠” and “绿林豪客” respectively, which are two positive phrases. （Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 49）

Example2: Here the door opened, and a small quadroon boy, between four and five years of age, entered the room. There was something in his appearance remarkably beautiful and engaging. His black hair, fine as floss silk, hung in glossy curls about his round, dimpled face, while a pair of large dark eyes, full of fire and softness, looked out from beneath the rich, long lashes, as he peered curiously into the apartment. A gay robe of scarlet and yellow plaid, carefully made and neatly fitted, set off to advantage the dark and rich style of his beauty; and a certain comic air of assurance, blended with bashfulness, showed that he had been not unused to being petted and noticed by his master. (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 5)

Translation 2: 门辟，陡入一稚子，约四五岁，貌绝慧黯，雏发未燥，笑处辄动微涡，两目精光耿然。见海留，意殊骇。海留见其服饰之善，心知此奴必为主。 (Lin Shu 1981, 1)

Translation Analysis: There are many descriptive words in this example like “a gay robe of scarlet and yellow plaid”, “the dark and rich style of his beauty”, and etc., which makes the sentences more appealing and attractive. However, considering the Chinese literary norm, Lin Shu translated all these phrases into “服饰之善”, which is much more concise compared with the original one. (Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 49）

4. The Criticism of Lin Shu’s theory

During the 1917-1919 New Culture and May Fourth movements, Lin Shu was severely criticized and his popularity suffered badly. Many scholars deemed Lin as an unfaithful translator and there exists non-correspondence between his translations and their sources as they thought he deleted and edited the source texts at will, which violates the principle of “faithfulness”. “In Lin Shu’s opinion, however, retelling the story is more important than acting as a faithful intermediary between the writer and his Chinese readers.” (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 38-39)

In the meantime, his translation changed Chinese people’s disregard of foreign literature. During the late 19th century, the intellectuals in China lacked interest to learn from the West.They even thought that they had nothing to learn from there in the areas of art and literature. And Lin was the first translator who introduced such famous writers as Shakespeare and Charles Dickens to Chinese readers. With the help of Lin’s translation, those intellects and the younger generation began to eliminate their prejudice against the Western literature and realized its value. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 39-41)

===Similarities and Differences Between Yan Fu and Lin Shu===

Being two famous translators in the late Qing Dynasty, Yan Fu and Lin Shu achieved remarkable success in translation theories and practice, both of whom played critical roles in China. And there are several similarities and differences between them. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:40, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

After the outbreak of the Sino-Japanese War, Yan Fu started to translate western works so as to introduce western advanced culture to Chinese people. Yan once stated that he wants to serve the nation through translation. Lin Shu, however, started his translation out of interest. But as time went by, he also translated western books to enlighten Chinese people. Therefore, we can say that both of them tried to save the nation through translation. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1)

Besides that, Yan Fu had a higher contribution than Lin Shu in terms of translation thoughts. He is known for “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which is one of the most outstanding translation theories in China while Lin Shu didn’t come up with a systematic translation theory during his lifetime. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1)

Furthermore, as Yan Fu had an opportunity to study abroad while Lin Shu learnt Chinese traditional Confucianism, Yan had a better understanding of western culture. Meanwhile, most of the western works Yan Fu translated were about social science, he was the first person who introduced western social science in the 19th century to all Chinese people. As for Lin Shu, who was especially famous for novel translation, translated ''La Dame aux Camélias'' and was well-received by Chinese readers. They are quite different in terms of translation works. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1-2)

And as for translation theories, Yan Fu once put forward faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. He attached great importance to faithfulness and believed that being faithful to the original text is of great importance during translation. And this translation theory helped people to know more about western society and culture. Meanwhile, Lin Shu preferred faithfulness, too, but during the translation, he tended to delete those unnecessary words and sentences so as to help readers have a better understanding of the text. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1-2)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:40, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

To sum up, while Yan Fu and Lin Shu are similar to each other, they are quite different in some aspects. However, both of them made great contributions to Chinese translation and left a profound impact on later translation theories. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 2)

===Conclusion===

During the 19th century, Chinese people’s lives were filled with untold suffering. Being the two great translators, Yan Fu and Lin Shu had made great contributions to not only the nation but also the whole world. The principle of Yan Fu stands as one of the most significant translation theories in China, which guided numerous translators and scholars as well of later generations. Meanwhile, Lin Shu’s translation works broadened people’s horizon at that time, enriching their lives as well as eliminating their prejudice against Western literature. Although there are several shortcomings in their translation thoughts and translation works, they had a far-reaching influence on future generations. Until now, there are still many scholars that analyze and learn from their translation theories. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 2)--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:42, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

===References===

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* Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2010). ''中国译学史'' [A History of Chinese Translation]. Shanghai: Shanghai People’s Publishing House 上海人民出版社.

* Chen Jianyong 陈建永. (2013). 从《黑奴吁天录》看林纾的翻译策略 [A Study of Lin Shu’s Translating Strategies: Taking Uncle Tom’s Cabin as an Example]. 山东大学 Shandong University 20-36.

* Ernest Hemingway. (2016). The Old Man and the Sea. Beijing: Affairs Press知识出版社.

* Gao Xiaopeng 高晓鹏. (2017). 严复翻译标准——“信达雅”再思考 [Yan Fu’s Translation Standard: A Rethinking of “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”]. 四川外国语大学 Sichuan International Studies University 1-2.

* Harriet Beecher Stowe. (2008). Uncle Tom's Cabin. Oxford University Press.

* Huang Yuanshen. (2011). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Nanjing: Yilin Press 译林出版社.

* Li Changbao, Shao Bin 黎昌抱, 邵斌. (2013). ''中外翻译理论教程'' [Translation Theory: A Coursebook]. Hangzhou: Zhejiang University Press 浙江大学出版社.

* Lin Shu 林纾. (1981). ''撒克逊劫后英雄略'' [Ivanhoe]. Shanghai: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.

* Ouyang Lifeng, Shang Minrui 欧阳利锋, 尚敏锐. (2002). 以西方观点解读二十世纪中国翻译理论 [Twentieth--century Chinese Translation Theory Against the Background of Western Views]. 语言与翻译 Language and Translation (01) 1-3.

* Sun Yanyu 孙演玉. (2019). 经典儿童小说的复译与信、达、雅——以《老人与海》为例 [Retranslation of Classical Children’s Fiction and Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance: Taking The Old Man and the Sea as an Example]. 英语广场 English Square (04) 2-3.

* Walter Scott. (2009). Ivanhoe. Signet Classics.

* Wang Rui, Wei Shengxin 王蕊, 韦生鑫. (2020). “信、达、雅”翻译原则在文学翻译中的应用.[Analysis of the Application of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” in Literary Translation]. 吉林化工学院学报 ''Journal of Jilin Institute of Chemical Technology'' (10) 1-4.

* Wang Shi 王栻. (1986). ''严复集'' [Yan Fu Ji]. Shanghai: Zhonghua Book Company 中华书局.

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* Wu Yingli, Li Yan 吴萤丽, 李艳. (2018). 严复与林纾: 中国近代两大翻译家的对比 [Yan Fu and Lin Shu: A Comparison Between Two Chinese Modern Translators]. 开封教育学院学报 ''Journal of Kaifeng Institute of Education'' (09) 1-2.

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* Zhu Yu 朱瑜. (2008). 林纾的翻译和时代 [Lin Shu’s Translation and His Time]. Beijing: 中国现代文学研究丛刊 Modern Chinese Literature Studies (05) 3-7.

='''Comparison of Translation Theories'''=

==Comparison Of Translation Theory Between Yan Fu And Tytler 陈涵 Chen Han 202070080580 英语笔译==
<center> Chen Han 陈涵 202070080580 </center>

===Abstract===

Yan Fu and Tytler are outstanding translators in the history of Chinese and Western translation respectively. Tytler's “Three Principles of Translation” and Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are representatives of the most important translation theories. It is believed that the two theories have a broad and profound impact on Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. Although they lived in different times, their theories were quite similar which aroused much controversy. This paper will expound “Three Principles of Translation” and “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and focus on the similarities and differences between these two theories in terms of content, theoretical basis and culture. It aims to figure out the relationship between the two theories, better apply translation theory to translation practice, and advocate us to view Chinese and Western translation theories from a dialectical perspective, thus making Translation Studies become more systematic and scientific.

===Key words===

Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; Three Principles of Translation; Yan Fu; Tytler

===题目===

严复与泰特勒的翻译理论比较

===摘要===

严复与泰特勒分别是中西方翻译史上的杰出翻译家。严复的“信达雅” 与泰特勒的“翻译三原则”分别是中西翻译史上最重要的翻译理论之一，对翻译理论与实践方面有着广泛深刻的影响。严复与泰特勒二人虽处于不同的时代，但他们的翻译理论却十分相似，从而引起许多争议。本文将系统阐述二人的翻译理论，从这两种理论的内涵、文化背景和理论基础等方面比较二者的相似点和不同点。这种做法有助于理清两个理论之间的关系，更好的将翻译理论应用于翻译实践，并主张我们辩证看待中西方翻译理论，从而使翻译研究更具有系统性与科学性。

===关键词===

信达雅；翻译三原则；严复；泰特勒

===1. Introduction===

In the history of translation, many outstanding scholars and translators have emerged both in China and in the West. They have never stopped discussing translation, and most of them have systematically summarized translation standards (Xu Baoqiang & Yuan Wei 2001, 162). In ancient China, many translation thoughts and translation theories emerged, including Shi Daoan’s “Five Instances of Losing the Source and Three Instances of Difficulties” and Xuan Zang’s “Five Guidelines for Not-Translation a Term” (Martha P.Y. Cheung, 2006). Later, Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” appeared successively. Prominent representatives of Western translation theory include five elements of translation put forward by a French linguist Etienne Dolet in the 16th century, seven rules of translation put forward by a German translation theorist Martin Luther, three principles of translation by a British translation theorist Tytler in the 18th century, semantic translation and communicative translation of Newmark in the 20th century, and the dynamic equivalence of Nida (Tan Zaixi 2004, 213).

In this process, Chinese and Western translation theories developed independently in a relatively isolated state. It was not until about the beginning of the 20th century that initial exchanges and dialogues have begun. Translation standards are the core issue of translation theory and practice. At the beginning of the exchange, the translators were concerned about it (Ren Qingliang & Deng Jingjing 2016, 201). At the end of the 18th century, Tytler proposed three basic principles for translation and evaluation of translation, which had a great impact on later translation theorists. More than 100 years later, Yan Fu’s translation standard of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” was put forward (Di Dongrui 2012, 132). This chapter will discuss two representative translation theories from China and the West — Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s "Three Principles of Translation", and analyze the two theories from the historical and cultural background and their theoretical basis. Through comparison, we can grasp the similarities and differences between the two theories, so as to contribute to translation studies and guide future translation practices.

===2. An Overview of the Two Theories===

Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s "Three Principles of Translation" have had a profound impact on the history of translation at home and abroad. If we compare and analyze the two theories, we must first correctly understand the connotation of each theory.

====2.1 Yan Fu’s "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance"====

Yan Fu was a Chinese scholar and translator, most famous for introducing western ideas. His three translation principles—faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance first made its appearance in Yan’s preface to his own translation of T. H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'' (Liu Miqing 2012, 1).

“Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness (''xin''), expressiveness (''da'') and elegance (''ya''). Faithfulness is difficult to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive, or fluent, is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance. Since China’s opening to foreign trade by Shipping, there has been no lack of interpreters and translators. But if you assign them any book to translate and tell them to meet these two requirements, few can do so.” (Luo Xinzhang & Chen Yingnian 2009, 202)

In his words, the three principles indicate that the translator should be faithful in conveying the message of the original text, fluent in the expression in the target language and elegant in style. Faithfulness emphasizes the fidelity to the original. Yan believes that the translator cannot begin his work until he has mastered the connotation of the original text. Expressiveness stresses the fluency and acceptability of the translation. As for elegance, Yan holds that dictation without elegance cannot reach far. So far, elegance has led some discussions in the study of translation. (Fan Yun 2007, 97)

Based on his understanding of ancient Buddhist Scriptures translation and his own translation practices, Yan Fu put forward “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” which has become the fundamental tenets of 20th Chinese translation theory. (Liu Miqing 2012, 1)

====2.2 Tytler’s "Three Principles of Translation"====

Alexander Fraser Tytler is an eminent British translation theorist. In 1790, he proposed three principles of good translation in his book, ''Essay on the Principles of Translation''. When it comes to a good translation, he described that the merit of the original work is so completely transfused into another language, as to be as distinctly apprehended, and as strongly felt by a native of the country to which that language belongs, as it is by those who speak the language of the original work (Tytler 2007, 8-9).

According to his description of good translation, it can be easily seen that Tytler has attached great importance to mastery of ideas in the original texts. Therefore, he put forward three principles on the basis of good translation: (1) That the Translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; (2) That the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original; (3) That the Translation should have all the ease of original (Tytler 2007, 9).

The first principle is that the translation should be faithful to the content and ideas of the original. The second principle is that the translation should be faithful to the form and style of the original. The faithfulness to the style is not limited to the equivalence of the original style or subject, but consistent with the original author’s personal writing style and the background of the corresponding period. The third principle is to emphasize that the translation should be as natural and smooth as the original writing do. From Tytler’s point of view, the order of these three principles is appropriate and natural, and it is arranged by importance. If translating a text, one cannot pursue the smoothness and elegance at the cost of ignoring the ideas in the source language. (Ren Qingliang & Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)

The appearance of Tytler’s "Three Principles of Translation" laid a good foundation for Western translation studies. And it is not only a very important milestone in the history of British translation theory, but also the entire history of Western translation theory. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 132)

===3. The Social and Theoretical Background of the Two Theories===

Due to the rapid development of social production, the increasing prosperity of the economy and the increasing number of educated people, more and more people have demands for reading, writing and translation (Tan Zaixi 2004, 84).

====3.1 The Social Background====

The emergence of new theories is often related to the prevailing translation practice at that time. Tytler lived in the 18th century. The rise of the industrial revolution and the further development of modern technology have highlighted the importance of translation, especially the demand for scientific and technological translation, which has increased dramatically during this period. In addition, Renaissance and classicism occupy the main position in the literary field, which also played a role in promoting the development of translation activities. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132)

Yan Fu had a solid foundation in Chinese when he was young and then he learned from Wu Rulun, a master of the Tongcheng School, acquiring a rich knowledge of ancient Chinese. In 1877, Yan Fu studied in the United Kingdom to delve deeply into the Western society, and began to come into contact with some important Western classics (Chen Fukang 2010, 91). As a result, profound research on Chinese and Western culture and language has laid a good foundation for Yan Fu’s translation career.

At the end of the 19th century, China suffered from internal and external troubles. The Sino-Japanese War of 1894 to 1895 was an important turning point to Yan Fu. He realized that the backwardness of China included political, economic, social and ideological factors, so that he believed that learning from the West could help the country get rid of the predicament. The political purpose of Yan Fu’s translation was quite clear. He wanted to arm the minds of scholar-officials. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91)

In addition, A large number of people with lofty ideals realized that the only way to save the country was to learn advanced political ideas, economic systems and democratic ideas from the West. Under this circumstance, translation may be the best way to bring those to China, which also promoted the second translation climax in the history of our country. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132)

====3.2 The Theoretical Background====

Both “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and "Three Principles of Translation" were proposed on the basis of other translation theories or thoughts (Di Dongrui 2012, 132). In other words, Yan Fu and Tytler learned from their predecessors and put forward their ideas.

Like many translation theories in the 18th century, Tytler’ s "Three Principles of Translation" was influenced by some ideas from outstanding translation theorists. Etienne Dolet, a French linguist and translation theorist, proposed translation principles in ''La manière de bien traduired d’une langue en autre'' in 1540: The translator must fully understand the content of the original text; the translator must be proficient in both the source language and the target language; the translator must avoid translating word by word, because word-by-word translation is detrimental to convey the original meaning and aesthetic value; the translator must use popular language form; the translator must make the translation produce the appropriate effect by choosing proper words and adjusting the order of them. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 70-71)

John Dryden was a prominent translator in the 17th century and he put forward a number of translation principles and views. From his perspective, translation is an art; translators should master the characteristics of the original; target readers should be taken into consideration; translators need to absolutely follow the original meaning; translation can be divided into three types—metaphrase, paraphrase and imitation (Tan Zaixi 2004, 120-122). It is easy to find that Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation can be partially derived from his theories.

“Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is also not new. The basis of it can date back to the Three Kingdom Period. During the Qing Dynasty, there was another translation theorist, Ma Jianzhong, who was ignored by the public. Before Yan Fu’s translation principles made its first appearance, Ma Jianzhong put forward three requirements for good translations in ''On the Establishment of Translation Academy'': The translator is proficient in foreign languages and Chinese, and knows the similarities and differences between the two languages; the translator should fully understand the meaning, spirit and style of the original text and express these accurately in the translation; there should be no difference between the translation and the original text. That is, the translation and the original are the same. (Chen Fukang 2010, 77-78)

It is shown that Ma Jianzhong sets a high demand for translators which can be summarized by “faithfulness” (''xin''). This word includes not only the faithfulness to the original text and the translation, but also the consistency in style and spirit. Therefore, compared with Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, Ma Jianzhong’s requirements are more comprehensive. However, his translation theory is not as influential as Yan Fu’ principles. Generally, speaking, there are two reasons. One is that Ma is a grammarian, not a translator. The other is that he did not do any translation practice. (Fan Yun 2007, 98)

From the analysis and comparison of Tyler's and Yan Fu’s social and theoretical background, we can see that both of them are affected by political, economic, cultural and other factors. And both of them were influenced by the previous translation theories and put forward their theories similar to the previous ones. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132)

===4. Similarities and Differences Between the Two Theories===

====4.1 Similarities====

Although Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s "Three Principles of Translation" were not put forward during the same era, the two theories could be found some common ground (Di Dongrui 2012, 132).

By comparing the content of the two theories, three similarities can be found. Firstly, both Yan Fu and Tytler emphasize the importance of faithfulness, namely the fidelity to the original. From their perspectives, it is necessary to convey the meaning or ideas of the original text. They both agree that a translator should put faithfulness first. Secondly, both Yan Fu and Tytler stress the importance of fluency and acceptability of translation. Yan believes that a translation which is faithful but not expressive is no translation at all. And in the third principle of Tytler’s theory, all the ease of the original text is highlighted which refers to the translation should be natural, fluent and readable. In other words, translators need to regard their translating process as a re-creating one. It requires that they not only convey the ideas of the original but also make their words smooth and readable. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132)

====4.2 Differences====

Both Chinese and Western translation theories have a long history. At the very beginning, they almost developed independently. It was not until the early 20th century that the two theories began to communicate. As the focus of translation theory research, translation standards have attracted many scholars at the beginning of their exchanges. Some scholars believe that Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is extracted from Ttyler’s “Three Principles of Translation”, which is a copy of Ttyler’s translation theory (Luo Xinzhang 1984, 681-687). In fact, there are indeed similarities between the two theories literally. But a deeper look will present the difference between the two.

=====4.2.1 Differences in Content=====

In the previous chapter, we have discussed the similarities literally in terms of the content. However, the two theories are not quite similar. First of all, the most prominent characteristic of Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is the semantic vagueness (Liu Junbiao 2009, 221). He did not clearly define the three. If “faithfulness” includes the style of the work, the word ''xin'' can cover all the content of Tytler’s "Three Principles of Translation". In Yan Fu’s opinion, “faithfulness” is the core, and achieving the principles of “expressiveness” and “elegance” is on the basis of the core. As for Tytler’s "Three Principles of Translation", although they are arranged by importance, the principles are not presented to tell which one is the most important (Di Dongrui 2012, 132).

Yan Fu’s “faithfulness” and Tytler’s first principle focus on different scopes. According to Yan Fu’s point of view, the translator should accurately reproduce the ideas of the original work, and he also emphasizes the important role of understanding. But Tytler’s “that the Translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work” (Tytler 2007, 9) discusses the fidelity from three aspects: meaning, form and language. (Di Dongrui 2012, 133)

In addition, the main difference between their translation principles is the translation technique and style (Fan Yun 2007, 97). Tytler’s second principle and Yan Fu’s “elegance” both discuss this issue. In Yan Fu’s opinion, “elegance” refers to use elegant words, especially the words before the Han Dynasty. This is a special method used by Yan Fu in a specific historical period to attract specific target readers and achieve specific translation purposes. The “elegance” explained by later generations is equivalent to “consistency in technique and style”, which has actually deviated from Yan Fu’s original intention. But Tytler’s “style and manner of writing” refers to a broad sense. He believes that an outstanding translator should be able to quickly identify the characteristics of the original author’s writing style and apply this style to his translation. In other words, the translation should correspond to what kind of writing style the original work is. (Tytler 2007, 9)

=====4.2.2 Differences in Cultural Origin=====

Yan Fu and Tytler are in different cultural backgrounds, and the formation of their theories have their own cultural characteristics.

It is believed that Yan Fu’s theory of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is deeply rooted in traditional Chinese cultural origin. As we all know, Chinese translation has a long history, and the discussion of translation standards has been recorded in Zhi Qian’s ''Preface to the Translation of he Dharmapada''(''Faju jing xu''). He emphasized that although Jiangyan (将炎) was good at the language of India, he was not necessarily versed in Chinese. Thus, in his translations there were either Sanskrit expressions literally rendered or simply literal transliterations. (Martha P.Y. Cheung 2006, 57)

Zhi Qian used to dislike Jiangyan’s work for lack of elegance. Weidinan (维祗难) argued that the translation of Buddha’s words should be adherent to the meaning, disregarding rhetoric, and we should retain its Dharma, free of rigidity. Those who translate should stress on transparency without losing the original meaning, hence good translations. Laozi said that beautiful words are not faithful and faithful words are not beautiful. And Confucius believed that words fail a book and senses fail a form. What a saint said is the profound of the profoundest. Therefore, Zhi Qian argued that when translating sutras, we should follow the original import without using ornate words. (Martha P.Y. Cheung 2006, 59-60)

It can be seen from the above that traditional Chinese translation theories often appear in the form of prefaces, which are relatively fragmented and conforms to the characteristics of Chinese people’s emphasis on perceptual thinking rather than rational analysis, and personal perception rather than logical reasoning (Ren Qingliang & Deng Jingjing 2016, 202). In addition, it can prove that Yan Fu’s translation principles are not new but put forward on the basis of some thoughts from the ancients. We can see that theories similar to “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” have appeared in the past.

Chinese translation theory is closely related to the words of sages and classic literary theory so that translation theorists often use the words of the ancients to make arguments or the aesthetic standards in literary theory to evaluate good translations. On the one hand, it embodies the inheritance of classical translation theory which advocated the ancients, and on the other hand it reflects the profound literary tradition of classical translation theory. It can be seen that the principles were put forward by Yan Fu in the preface to his own translation of T. H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'', which is consistent with the traditional Chinese tendency to place important points in the preface. In the era when Yan Fu lived, people greatly respected the words of the ancients. The language of Yan Fu’s translation theory is as concise as the traditional literary theory, and the connotation is profound. It often brings endless speculation for future generations with uncertain meaning. (Ren Qingliang & Deng Jingjing 2016, 202)

Different from the Chinese cultural accumulation carried by Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, western translation theories pay much attention to the inherent continuity (Ren Qingliang & Deng Jingjing 2016, 202). In western culture, people emphasize rigorousness in language so that they treat translation as rigorously as science. Scholars have studied on translation standards for a long time and their generalization of standards is much more systematic (Zhao Meiguo 2011, 203).

Eticnne Dolet was the relatively early one who summarized the translation standards systematically. He put forward four principles of a successful translation. Then came Martin Luther’s “Seven Principles for Translation”. An in the 18th century, Charles Batteux, a French translation theorist, put forward twelve rules in ''Principes de littérature'' for dealing with issues such as word order in translation. Compared with the 17th century, although some achievements have been made in the study of translation theory in the 18th century, substantial progress has not been made and some research just focused on the theory of Dryden in the 17th century. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 127)

However, at the end of the 18th century, there was a breakthrough in the history of translation theory. Theoretical research was no longer limited to scattered viewpoints and methods, and monographs on translation issues have begun to appear comprehensively, scientifically and systematically. The first to bring this breakthrough was the translation theorist George Campbell (Tan Zaixi 2004, 127). Before Tytler’s "Three Principles of Translation" appeared, he had put forward the three principles of translation for the first time: translation should accurately reproduce the meaning of the original work; on the premise of conforming to the characteristics of the target language, translation should try to transplant the spirit and style of the original author as much as possible; the translator should make the translation as natural and smooth as the original. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 128)

From the discussion of translation standards by many translation theorists above, we can see that Western translation theories are rigorous in thinking and clear in expression as a whole. They represent a unique academic spirit and character, which deeply reflects the inherent continuity of their thinking and methodology of Western translation theories (Zhao Meiguo 2011, 203). According to the previous discussion, it can be found that there is an obvious relationship between Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation and Dryden’s translation theories. The two theories from Yan Fu and Tytler are from different cultures, featuring Chinese and Western signs respectively.

=====4.2.3 Differences in Thinking Patterns=====

Translation itself is a complex practical activity, and it has a close relation with the way of thinking. The huge differences between Chinese and Western historical and cultural traditions and thinking habits are reflected in language that has such characteristics: Chinese people pay attention to understanding in the way of expression, focusing on grasping things through intuitive understanding of the whole. Chinese are not as good at logical reasoning and experimental argumentation as Westerners. (Ren Qingliang & Deng Jingjing 2016, 202)

The consciousness of subject and object has always been prominent in western thought (Zhao Meiguo 2011, 203). Tytler’s framework of his principles tends to be rational and aims to seek the truth, while Yan Fu’s framework tends to be perceptual and aims to be practical. In the historical context of the Enlightenment, Tytler inherited rationalism of the European continent, thus his three principles of translation all reflected the speculative, logical and systematic nature of philosophy. When he discussed the three principles of translation, they were clear, progressive, and well-organized, but they were too fragmented, ignoring the internal connection. (Di Dongrui 2012, 133)

When it comes to Yan Fu’s proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, although it refers to three simple words in Chinese, it condenses the traditional Chinese doctrine of the golden mean and profoundly embodies the influence of traditional culture on the research of translation theory (Zhao Meiguo 2011, 203). Compared with Western translation theories, Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” includes more humanistic spirit and pays more attention to humanistic care. Although Yan Fu’s translation theory lacks logic, organization and system, its refined and implicit artistic conception bring endless imagination for future generations. If people want to understand “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” comprehensively, it is necessary to have an understanding of the thoughts from our ancestors. (Liu Junbiao 2009, 221)

=====4.2.4 Differences in Motivations=====

When it comes to their motivation, the times where Yan Fu and Tytler lived have a huge impact on their translation studies. Tytler was in a relatively comfortable environment, and the society at that time was relatively relaxed and free, making it possible for him to learn for the sake of academics. Tytler put forward the three principles of translation only for theoretical research, not for practical purposes. (Ren Qingliang & Deng Jingjing 2016, 203)

However, Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” came from the enthusiasm of waking up the world and saving the country. The old China where Yan Fu lived suffered from internal and external troubles. The social and historical environment enabled him to spread Western learning through translation. The works translated by Yan Fu were all Western classics. They either promoted natural selection, survival of the fittest, or explained human rights, democracy and freedom. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91)

Undoubtedly, reading Yan Fu’s translations became a major way for Chinese intellectuals and even the whole society to learn the development of the world. The target readers of these translations were the increasingly decadent feudal ruling class and intellectuals. Feudal thoughts were deeply ingrained in their minds, and they could not immediately accept the advanced thoughts of the West. As a translator, Yan Fu put forward the standards of Faithfulness Expressiveness and Elegance on the basis of summarizing traditional Chinese translation theories. He used the language of Han and Tang dynasties to promote the Western democracy, so as to make the feudal scholar-officials easy to accept. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91) It can be seen that “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” reflects Yan Fu’s desire to save the country and his awareness of difficulties and risks.

In addition, a misunderstanding should be mentioned. After Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” made its first appearance, many scholars gave it various titles such as translation principles, translation standards and translation norms. As a matter of fact, Yan Fu did not describe it as standards or norms. He only realized that there were three requirements difficult to fulfill from his own translation practice. In his opinion, the difficulties of translating were also the ''dao'' (道) of problem-solving (Liu Miqing 2012, 1). Therefore，Yan’s ''dao'' of translation was expressed by “translation principles” in the West. To a certain extent, people tended to regard Yan Fu’s propositions as translation standards, thus deviating from Yan Fu’s motivation.

In short, by comparing the content, cultural origins, thinking and motivation of the two theories, we can see that Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s "Three Principles of Translation" are quite different. In other words, although the two theories are very similar in terms of forms, they are quite different in essence.

===5. Significance of the Comparison===

Generally speaking, different translation principles are essentially the same for they are all determined by the nature of translation (Fan Yun 2007, 98). In a broad sense, translation is a bridge for international communication. It involves the source language and the target language or the original text and the translated text. No one can deny the extraordinary contribution of translation in exchanging ideas, spreading knowledge, and enhancing intercultural communication. As an ancient activity, translation has a history of more than 3,000 years in China and has been popular in the West for more than 2,000 years (Tan Zaixi 2004, 2). Although the translation principles put forward by translators and translation theorists seem to be different, they are essentially the same and cannot be mentioned without translation itself. (Fan Yun 2007, 98)

Through comparison, we can realize the characteristics and development of their translation principles respectively. The Chinese and Western translation principles are the same on the macro level, but different on the micro level. The differences are mainly determined by the characteristics of the Chinese and Western languages and do not reflect the subjective wishes of people. Both the traditional Chinese and Western translation theories focus on faithfulness or truth. They are based on the original texts, and at the same time do not neglect the reception of the readers and the artistic and aesthetic value of the translated texts. (Di Dongrui 2012, 133)

Through the analysis between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s theories and their development, we can know that Chinese and Western translation principles present a diversified pattern of development, but the West seems to be more open in terms of research ideas and academic view. Western theorists place translation in the multi-dimensional space between the original text and the target text, and they are good at analyzing from different perspectives. What’s more, Western theorists have comparatively strong awareness in theory. Any research is carried out under the guidance of a certain theory, making full use of the achievements of related subjects to make translation principles and research methods become truly diversified. (Ren Qingliang & Deng Jingjing 2016, 203) Therefore, the achievements of translation research in the West are more fruitful.

However, we must learn from each other. In fact, there is no gap between Chinese and Western translation theories. Although the study of translation theory in the West is earlier than that in China (Tan Zaixi 2004, 1), we should not belittle ourselves. The development environment of Chinese and Western theories is different so that the theories put forward are definitely different. Through comparison, we can grasp advanced Western theories, and with Western theories as a reference, we can avoid detours and make progress in Chinese translation theories.

===Conclusion===

This chapter compares the similarities and differences between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s theories by reviewing the theories of them and pointing out social and theoretical backgrounds of their theories. The translation theory is often closely related to cultural background, theoretical background and way of thinking. From the above analysis, it can be seen that Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation are different in specific content, cultural origin, theoretical basis, way of thinking and motivation. If these differences are not analyzed and pointed out, it is easy to think that the two theories are roughly the same.

The comparison between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s translation principles gives us the following enlightenment: When studying Chinese and Western translation theories, we must correctly understand the advantages and limitations of traditional Chinese translation theories, and we cannot ignore the achievements of other countries. We should actively absorb the achievements of western translation theories on the basis of developing the traditional Chinese translation theories to make contributions to the translation studies.

===References===

* Alexander Fraser Tytler. (2007). ''Essays on Principles of Translation''. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社.
* Martha P.Y. Cheung. (2006). ''An Anthology of Chinese Discourse on Translation''. London/New York: Routledge.
* Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2010). ''中国译学史'' [History of Chinese Translation] Shanghai: Shanghai People's Publishing House 上海人民出版社.
* Di Dongrui 狄东睿. (2012). 论“翻译三原则”与“信达雅” [On the Three Principles of Translation and "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance"] ''海外英语'' Overseas English (06) 132-133.
* Fan Yun 樊云. (2007). 泰特勒和严复翻译原则的比较 [A comparison of the translation principles of Tytler and Yan Fu] ''宿州教育学院学报'' Journal of Suzhou Education Institute (02) 97-98.
* Liu Junbiao 刘俊标. (2009). 辨析严复“信达雅”说与泰特勒翻译三原则 [Discussing Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance" and Tytler's Three Principles of Translation] ''经济研究导刊'' Economic Research (09) 220-221.
* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2012). ''中西翻译思想比较研究'' [Translation Thinking: In China and in the West] Beijing: China Translation&Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版有限公司.
* Luo Xinzhang 罗新璋. (1984). ''翻译论集'' [On Translation] Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.
* Luo Xinzhang 罗新璋, Chen Yingnian 陈应年. (2009). ''翻译论集'' [On Translation] Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.
* Ren Qingliang 任庆亮, Deng Jingjing 邓晶晶. (2016). 严复“信达雅”与泰特勒翻译三原则的比较 [A comparison of Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance" and Tytler's Three Principles of Translation] ''太原城市职业技术学院学报'' Journal of Taiyuan Urban Vocational College (05) 201-203.
* Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2004). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short History of Translation in the West] Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.
* Xu Baoqiang 许宝强, Yuan Wei 袁伟. (2001). ''语言与翻译的政治'' [The Politics of Language and Translation] Beijing: Central Compilation&Translation Press 中央编译出版社.
* Zhao Meiguo 赵美国. (2011). 从思维方式看严复与泰特勒翻译原则比较 [A comparison of Yan Fu and Tytler's translation principles from a mindset perspective] ''海外英语'' Overseas English (02) 203-204.

== Comparison between Nida and Newmark 李丽丽 Li Lili NO.202070080594 专业：英语笔译==

===Abstract===

Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark are famous representatives of the Western linguists. Their translation theories are based on linguistics. Nida puts forward the famous "dynamic equivalence" theory and "functional equivalence" theory, which has made outstanding contributions to the translation of the Bible. Newmark devotes himself to teaching and puts forward some famous theories such as semantic translation, communicative translation and relevance translation. Their translation theories have many similarities and differences. This paper will make a systematic comparison from the same and different points and represent my own views on their advantages and disadvantages.

===Key words===

Nida; Newmark; similarities; differences

===摘要===

尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是著名的语言学家。他们的翻译理论建立在语言学的基础上，奈达提出了著名了“动态对等”理论和“功能对等”理论，为翻译《圣经》做出了杰出贡献。纽马克一声致力于教学工作，由此提出了著名的“语义翻译”，“交际翻译”，“关联翻译”等理论。他们的翻译理论有诸多相同之处和不同之处。本论文将从相同以及不同之处来进行系统综合的比较，并就其优缺点提出自己的看法。

===关键词===

奈达；纽马克；相同；不同

===Introduction===

====Eugene Nida====

Eugene Nida is a famous American linguist, a biblical research and a translation expert, as well as one of the outstanding representatives of the western contemporary translation theory research center. Nida's academic activities and achievements are multifaceted, but Nida's main theoretical contribution is that he helps to create a new attitude towards different languages and cultures, so as to improve the language communication and understanding among human beings. （Liao Qiyi 2000，85）

He thinks that what can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another. Different languages and cultures can communicate with each other by searching for translation equivalents and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of information in an appropriate way. With the help of linguistic achievements, Nida has made a descriptive rather than a normative study of various subjects in translation studies, and made a serious discussion on the problems that may be encountered in the theoretical research and practice of translation. His thoughts can be roughly divided into three stages: first， descriptive linguistics; second, communicative theory; third, social semiotics.（Liao Qiyi 2000，85）

=====The Stage of Descriptive Linguistics=====

At this stage, Nida publishes a series of works and articles on the study of English syntax and gramma. Besides, he tries to clarify the structural nature of language through the description of syntax, morphology and language translation. He is greatly influenced by the American structuralist school. In language research, he attaches much importance to the collection and analysis of language materials and collects many examples of differences between different languages. However, he does not regard these differences as insurmountable barriers between languages, but as different phenomena of their same nature. （Liao Qiyi 2000，86）

=====The Stage of Communication Theory =====

Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill, but also a science. Its so-called science refers to the scientific way to deal with language structure, semantic analysis and information when there are problems in translation. Nida applies information theory to translation studies and believes that translation is communication and judgment. Whether a translation activity is successful or not depends on whether it is understood by the receiver or whether it can play the role of communicating thoughts, information and feelings. Nida points out all languages in the world have the same ability of expression and that the first task of translation is to make the readers understand the translation clearly. （Liao Qiyi 2000，87）

That is to say, the translation should be fluent and natural, so that readers can easily understand it even if they do not have the cultural background knowledge of the original language. This requires that in the process of translation, we should use as few rigid words in the source language as possible and use as many expressions as possible coming from the target language. For example, in the language without snow, “白如雪” may be confusing, so we had better change it into something as white as frost or as white as egret hair. （Liao Qiyi 2000，87）

According to Nida, “dynamic equivalence” refers to “the closest natural equivalence to the source language message” (Tan Zaixi 1984,10). Nida thinks that the response made by the target language receptor to the target text should generally be equivalent to the response made by the source language receptor to the source text, so when the translators cannot retain both the form and the content of the original text, they should give priority to the content of the original text and change the form of the source text. （Liao Qiyi 2000，88）

And in response to questions like how and what degree the translator can change the form of the original text, Nida then points out that in translation, there are four aspects in dynamic equivalence, namely, lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence respectively. If a translator can convey the language form, the content and the style of the source text in natural target language, and make the target readers have the same response to the target text as the source language made to the original text, then his translation can be said to have achieved the maximal equivalence. （Liao Qiyi 2000，88）

For example, “black tea” can be literally translated into “黑茶”，but it should be translated into“红茶”to achieve equivalence. Another example: “The old man was the worst form of unluck.” because “worst form” is used to modify “unluck”, it can be translated into “这个老人倒霉到了极点。” instead of “这个老人是倒霉的最高形式。” Such examples achieve lexical equivalence.

=====The Stage of Social Semiotics=====

At this stage, he describes his theory as follows: first, based on the translation theory of social semiotics, he emphasizes that everything in the text has meaning, including language form, which means form cannot be easily overlooked; second, rhetorical features of language play an important role in language communication and should not be underestimated; third, it is to replace the dynamic equivalence theory with the functional equivalence theory in order to make the meaning of the terms clearer and easier to be understood.（Liu Junping 2009,143）

====Newmark====

Peter Newmark is a famous translation theorist and educator in Britain. He has devoted his whole life to the teaching of translation between English and German or English and French. He has made a lot of research on translation theory, applied the research results of cross-cultural communication theory and modern linguistics to translation practice, and made a brilliant exposition on translation theory, teaching translation, linguistics and translation skills. As a result, he puts forward the famous communicative translation and semantic translation method, and then puts forward the correlative translation method, which indicates that his translation theory is becoming more and more systematic and perfect. （Liao Qiyi 2000，123）

Most of his views are reflected in the papers published in the past 20 years. Communicative translation and semantic translation theories, which have a great influence in the field of translation, were introduced into China as early as the 1980s and have aroused great repercussions in the fields of Chinese translation. He focuses on the past and present of western translation studies, states the views of various schools, and then puts forward his own opinions. He is a typical practical theorist. The purpose of his research on translation theory is to solve the practical problems in translation, and he always discusses translation from the details. （Liao Qiyi 2000，123-124）

The classic Romance of the Three Kingdoms writes: “谋事在人，成事在天”. There are two versions for this sentence, which are "man proposals, heaven disposes." and "man proposals, God disposes." Although the translated versions are short, they fully reflect the different translation strategies of translators. In Chinese traditional culture, "heaven" dominates the nature, while in the western world, what controls nature is not heaven, but God. Therefore, different cultural concepts are deeply rooted in the hearts of people in the East and the West. (Hu Aiping 2014,81)

In the first version, the translator translates "天" into "heaven", which faithfully retains the Taoist concept of the original language culture and conveys the meaning of the original text; while the later translation transforms the Taoist concept into Christian culture familiar to westerners on the basis of "communicative translation" strategy, so that the translated version is more acceptable to western readers. (Hu Aiping 2014,81)

For another example ”grandmother”, when it is translated into Chinese, we can put it into”奶奶” or “外婆” according to real situation. That is because people in western culture do not pay much attention to relationship between family members. And they view father’s mother and mother’s mother as the same. By contrast, Chinese have long held the view that families are quite important, especially those sharing the same surname. We often suppose we come from the same family with “奶奶” rather than “外婆”. As a result, we tend to believe that we have a more intimate relationship with father’s mother than mother’s mother. So we need to distinguish “奶奶” from “外婆”.

===Similarities and Differences===

====The Similarities Between the Theories by Nida and the Theories by Newmark====

=====Both Are Translatable=====

Nida believes that "translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning, and secondly in terms of style. " (Nida 1969,1）Newmark thinks that: "translation is to take the meaning of a text into another language according to its original author." (Newmark 1988,21) Nida's and Newmark's translation theories have similar theoretical basis, and they both think that there are similarities between different languages. Nida's translation theory is "Anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another Language. " (Nida 1969,4）He believes that although different nationalities have different languages and cultures, yet the commonness is more than the individuality. Because language of any nation can be used to describe the objective world. No matter what the language form is, the object can be basically reflected. (Lin Minyu 2008,61)

In his "About Translation" , Newmark also points out clearly that “the every layer of meaning can be interpreted in the original text, so everything is translatable. “(Newmark 1991,28）Therefore, both Nida and Newmark recognize translatability in different languages. At the same time, they both realize that translatability is limited because it is impossible to achieve absolute equivalence. In the process of translation, a certain degree of meaning will be missing, so one of the most important tasks of the translators is to minimize the loss after language conversion. (Lin Minyu 2008,61)

=====Both Attach Great Importance to the Target Receptor’s Status=====

Newmark's text category theory divides the text into three categories. Among them, the appealing text thinks readers are the most important, putting readers in the first place, and taking full account of readers' needs, knowledge level and background. Newmark also divides readers into experts, ordinary educators and illiterates. Nida, on the other hand, believes that the success of a translation activity depends on whether it can be accepted by the target readers. The target readers are object of translation services. Nida also divides readers into children readers, primary readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)

For example, for the phrase“鱼米之乡，丝绸之府”, when translated into “the land of rice and fish, and the home of silk”, it may cause confusion among western readers who have no idea what is the meaning of “the land of rice and milk”. Therefore, in order to arouse the similar reaction between the target readers and the original readers, it is better for the translators to change it as follows: "a land of honey and milk", which is in line with British and American culture. In this way, western readers and Chinese readers will be able to respond to the phrase in the same way, so as to achieve the purpose of conversion. (Yang Shanqing, Rao Jialin 2010(1),41-)

Another example: “济公劫富济贫，深受穷苦人民爱戴。” It is translated into" Ji Gong, Robin Hood in China, robbed the rich and helped the poor and was deeply loved by the poor people". In this case, the translator compares Ji Gong to the hero Robin Hood in western countries. When western readers see Robin Hood, they would have roughly the same reaction as Chinese readers. (Yang Shanqing, Rao Jialin 2010(1),41-42)

=====Both Constantly Develop Their Theories=====

Nida and Newmark are real theorists. In their own translation practice, they constantly improve and perfect their own theories. In his initial interpretation of dynamic equivalence, Nida highlights the idea of "content first, form second". This has caused people's misunderstanding so that they think translation is only the content of translation, without considering the form of language expression. Therefore, all kinds of free translation are characterized by dynamic equivalence. Later, in his book From One Language to Another, he changes "dynamic equivalence" into "functional equivalence". In functional equivalence, Nida further defines "information", stating that information includes not only ideological content but also linguistic form. The translation of functional equivalence is not only the equivalence of information content, but also the equivalence of form as much as possible. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),108)

What’s more, Nida makes a further elaboration on "functional equivalence" and hence "the highest level of equivalence" and "the lowest level of equivalence" are proposed. In short, the highest level of equivalence refers to a high degree of equivalence in the translation, which makes the response of the target language readers and that of the source language readers basically the same when they appreciate and understand a text. But this is almost impossible. Equivalence at the lowest level refers to the full equivalence of the translated text, so that the target language readers can appreciate the source language readers' understanding for the original text. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),108)

Newmark's semantic translation and communicative translation are prone to bringing misunderstanding and criticism. Therefore, Newmark later puts forward "correlative translation". In the past, he believed that language, linguistics and text typology were the main themes of text study. It does not need to always consider the text, discourse, author, reader, source language and target language. （Fang Mengzhi 2011, 534）

But by summarizing the translation activities, he finds that translation is mainly reflected in the details of the text processing, that is, when the text is adjusted and changed, there will be under translation. If the metaphor is converted or not translated, there will be over translation. So the method of translation should not only depend on the whole text. The definition of "correlative translation" is that the more important the language of the original text or the target text is, the more closely it should be translated.（Fang Mengzhi 2011, 534）

====The Differences Between the Theories by Nida and the Theories by Newmark====

=====Different Definition of Translation=====

Translation, as an independent discipline, should first answer the question of what is translation? Nida points out: "the so-called translation refers to the reproduction of the source language information in the receiving language with the most appropriate and natural equivalence from semantics to style" (Nida, 1969:1). Newmark's interpretation of translation is: "translation is to translate the meaning of a text into another language in the way the original author intends. " (Newmark, 1988:21) After comparing the two definitions, it can be seen that Nida emphasizes "equivalence", "information", "meaning" and "style", while Newmark focuses on "meaning" and "text". （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）

Nida's definition seems to be more comprehensive and specific than Newmark's, but throughout their theoretical systems, we realize that the actual starting point of the two definitions is different. On the basis of semantics and information theory, the former emphasizes the communicative function of translation. Although "information" includes "meaning" and "style", it only exists at the level of communication. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）

On the contrary, the latter emphasizes "textual meaning", which is complex, multi-level and rich. Therefore, it can be said that "text-oriented theory" is the pillar of Newmark's translation theory framework, while Nida's theory is "functional equivalence" at its root. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）

=====Different Nature of Translation=====

The nature of translation has been long discussed. Both Nida and Newmark have changed in their understanding of whether translation is a science or an art. Nida's understanding of translation has gone through a process from regarding translation as a science to viewing it as an art. In the second stage of Nida's translation theory- communicative theory stage, translation is a science, which is a scientific description of translation. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88)

At the same time, he also admits that the description of translation can be carried out at three functional levels: science, skill and art. In the third stage of Nida's translation, that is, the stage of social semiotics, he tends to see translation as an art. He believes that translation is an art at its root, and excellent translators are born with it. Meanwhile, he changes the original "translation is science" into "translation research is science". In the 1990s, he proposed that translation is basically a skill. He believes that translation is not only an art, but also a science and a skill. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88)

Newmark's understanding of translation has also undergone some kinds of changes. At first, he believes that translation is not only a science but also an art and a skill. Later, he thinks that translation is partly a science, a skill, an art. He divides language into standard language and non-standard language. He says that translation is a science, because there is usually only one correct translation method for standard language, and there are rules to follow, which shows that translation is scientific. This is really true in technical terms.（Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88)

By contrast, there are many correct translation methods in non-standard language. How to choose the appropriate translation method depends on the translator's own vision and ability, which reflects the nature of translation as an art. But the translation must also be scientifically tested to avoid obvious mistakes in content and wording, and the style should be natural. As a result, although Newmark believes that translation is a science, he thinks with a lack of unified and all-round systems in current translation theories, there are no scientific translation. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）

=====Different Translation Theories=====

The core of Nida's translation theory is equivalence theory, including formal equivalence and functional equivalence. Formal equivalence, with the source language as its center, requires to reproduce the form and content of the original text. The equivalence theory pays more attention to readers' reflection and requires the closest and most natural response in order to make the target readers and the original readers get the same information as much as possible. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)

The center of Newmark's translation theory is semantic translation and communicative translation. In his opinion, translators should adopt different translation strategies according to different types of texts. Semantic translation is mainly used to translate expressive texts (such as literary works, essays, autobiographies and personal letters). Communicative translation is mainly put into translating informative texts (such as academic papers and teaching subjects, books, newspapers, etc.) and appealing texts (such as advertisements and notices). (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)

Semantic translation, from the perspective of the original texts, demands the author pays attention to the meaning and form, and keeps the style and features of the original text as far as possible. Communicative translation takes the target readers as the starting point and focuses on the effect of the translation on the readers. As a result, appropriate rewriting or adaptation is allowed in the translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)

=====Application for Different Kinds of Text=====

Nida puts forward "formal equivalence" and "dynamic equivalence" in guiding the practice of Bible translation, but he really advocates the latter one and believes that dynamic equivalence is applicable to all text types. Nida's translation theory focuses too much on the intelligibility and communicability of the translation, which limits its application. It is reasonable to emphasize the intelligibility of the translated version in the translation of the Bible and similar original works aimed at expressing information. However, if it is used in literary translation, it will inevitably lead to the simplification of language and the loss of literary charm. So it has only been applied to some specific texts. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)

Newmark points out that the translation method should depend on different text types. He divides the text into expression function, information function and calling function. On the one hand, in the texts with expressive function, such as literary works and private letters, the priority is to express the meaning, and the form and content of language are equally important, so semantic translation should be mainly adopted. On the other hand, texts with information function, such as textbooks and academic papers, whose core is the real world outside the language, should adopt communicative approach; For texts with calling function, such as notices and advertisements, its core is to call on readers to act and think, so communicative approach should be put into use. Therefore, we can see that Newmark's translation theory is more applicable than Nida’s. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)

=====Different Attitudes towards Translators=====

When seeing translation as an art, Newmark puts forward the following three requirements that an brilliant translator should be equipped with: first, one should be able to master rich vocabulary and various sentence patterns, and be excellent in writing elegant, lively and concise articles in the aspect of native language; second, be proficient in foreign languages, and have abilities to distinguish common sayings from original ideas and innovations; third, be able to express the meaning obtained from the original works with accurate wording. Thus, Newmark believes that good translators can be developed through hard work. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 89）

However, Nida doesn’t agree with him. He thinks that most translators with outstanding achievements and creative spirit seldom use translation theory. In fact, he thinks that only those who can't do translation well do translation theory. Outstanding translators are born, not made. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 89）

=====Different Level of Emphasis on Readers' Response=====

Although Newmark thinks that readers' acceptance should be taken into account in the process of translating informative texts and appealing texts, but the reader is only a part of the translation criteria. During translating expressive texts, it is necessary to ensure the "sacred status of the original author", and different readers may have different understandings and reactions to a text because of their different educational level, mode of thinking and cultural background. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)

On the contrary, Nida believes that the reader's response is the only criterion to judge whether the translated version is good or not. This is because, from the perspective of information theory, he believes that "translation is communication". If the original information cannot be fully transmitted to the target text in the process of translation, the translation activity will not be successful. It can be seen that Nida pays more attention to reader response than Newmark. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)

===My Views on Their Theories===

Before the new translation principles were put forward, translation was mainly divided into literal translation and free translation. Functional equivalence theory by Nida and semantic translation and communicative translation strategies by Newmark have exerted great influence on the western translation circles. Their theories end the endless debate between literal translation and free translation in the west, and provide a new perspective for the guiding translation practice. (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 131 )

The principle of "dynamic equivalence" plays an important role in guiding the translation of the Bible. It can also be applied to the translation of some texts that mainly convey information. However, it overemphasizes the communicative nature of the translation, so it has certainly limitations. If applied to literary translation, it may lead to the loss of literariness. One of the defects of Nida's functional equivalence is that the translator not only changes the original information according to his own understanding, but also covers up the cultural differences between different languages. He equates translation with simple language conversion and blurs the cultural characteristics of language. (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 131)

For example, due to the different geographical locations between China and Britain, their monsoon and wind direction are not the same, and hence there are also differences between their translations. Chinese poems mainly praise east wind while English poems focus on west wind. For example, for “东风破早梅，向暖一枝开” and “小楼昨夜又东风，故国不堪回首月明中”, “东风” should be converted into “west wind” in order to achieve equivalence. (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 131)

Besides, the absence of culture-loaded words is another defect of functional equivalence. As we all know, the concepts expressed by culture-loaded words in the source language may not correspond to those in the target language because many English words are derived from religious allusions. In the sentence "John can be relieved on. He eats no fish and plays the game", “eat no fish “comes from the following allusion: in the era of Queen Elizabeth in England, in order to show their loyalty to the government, the Jesuits refused to abide by the anti-government Rome Catholics’ habit of eating fish on every Friday, so “eat no fish” means loyalty. " (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 132)

There are a lot of allusions from the Bible in English. But if you don't understand its symbolic meaning, you may be confused. For example: “thirty pieces of silver” means getting money from betraying others and “apple” means temptation. (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 132)

Newmark's greatest theoretical contribution is communicative translation and semantic translation, and he believes that all translation is both semantic translation and communicative translation to a certain extent, which makes up for the defects of Eugene Nida's theory. Newmark advocates that communicative translation and semantic translation should not be viewed in the same way, but should be combined together. Actually, during translating an article, the two are often used together. At the same time, determining the type of text before translation is helpful to select appropriate translation methods. (Newmark 2001, 40)

However, there are following limitations for his communicative translation: first, the translator has an imaginary reader in his mind. If he wants to conform to the readers’ expression habits, his expression will get out of the original form or meaning; second, it is difficult to determine to what extent basic information is simplified and emphasized, because the knowledge and emotion of readers are difficult to define; third, it is not objective to examine a text only through the readers’ reaction. (Newmark 2001, 40)

===Conclusion===

There is no universally applicable theory in the world. Nida and Newmark have been developing their own theories. We should treat them dialectically. It is undeniable that Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's semantic translation and communicative translation are very rich in content and have practical value for the majority of later translators. But we should also see the shortcomings of these theories. We should extract their essence and then we will further study and learn more valuable things in practice of translation and further improve our translation theory. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)

===References===

*Tam Jae-hee 谭载喜.(1984).''奈达论翻译'' [Nida on Translation] 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司 Beijing: [China Foreign Translation and Publishing Company]
*Liao Qiyi 廖七一.（2000). ''当代西方翻译理论探索''[Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory] 译林出版社[Translating Forest Press]
*Liu Junping 刘军平.（2009). ''西方翻译理论通史''[Translation and translation] 武汉：武汉大学出版社Wuhan: [Wuhan University Press]
**Fang Mengzhi 方梦之.（2011). ''中国译学大辞典'' [Dictionary of Chinese Translation] 上海：上海外语教育出版社 Shanghai: [Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 534
*Lin Min-yu 林敏煜.（2008). 浅议纽马克与奈达翻译理论之异同 [The similarities and differences between Newmark and Nadar translation theories] 文教资料[Journal of Translation and Education] 61-62
*Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 崔建周，卢静.（2006). 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较 [ A Comparison of the Translation Thought of Eugene Nadar and Peter Newmark ] 河南商业高等专科学校学报[Journal of Henan Higher Commercial College] 106-108
**Xu Xianghui 徐向晖.（2010). 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想之对比探讨[A Comparative Discussion of the Translation Thought of Eugene Nadar and Peter Newmark] 漯河职业技术学院学报[Journal of Luohe Institute of Vocational Technology] 88-89
*Yang Shanqing, Rao Jialin 杨山青，饶家林.（2010). 奈达与纽马克的翻译理论在旅游资料翻译中的运用[The Application of Neda and Newmark's Translation Theory in the Translation of Tourism Materials] 黔西南民族师范高等专科学校学报[Journal of Qianxi Southwest China's National Teachers College] 41-42
*Hu Aiping 胡爱萍.（2014). 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译理论对比研究[A comparative study of Eugene Neda and Peter Newmark's translation theory ] 铜陵学院学报 [Journal of Tongling College] 81
*Wang Xiaodan 王小丹.（2009). 奈达的功能对等论及其评价[Naida's functional equivalence theory and its evaluation] 陕西师范大学学报[Journal of Shaanxi Normal University ] 131-132
*纽马克 Newmark.（2001).翻译问题探讨[Exploring Translation Issues] 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press]
*Eugene A. Nida. (1986). ''From One Language to Another'' Thomas Nelson Incorporated
*Eugene A. Nida. (1964). ''Towards a Science of Translating'' Leiden: E. J. Brill
*Eugene A. Nida, (1969). Charles Taber. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' Leiden: the Netherlands, E. J. Brill
*Peter Newmark. (1991). ''About Translation'' Clevedon: Multilingual Matters Ltd,
*Peter Newmark. (1988). ''A Text Book of Translation'' London: Prentice Hall International (UK)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 03:44, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==A Study On The Division Of Western Translation Theories - 刘柳 Liu Liu, 202070080596 MTI==

<center>刘柳 Liu Liu </center>

===Abstract===

Western transaltion theories have been paid more and more attention in modern times and will be of graet help and value to our translation practice and further development of transaltion.Western translation theories have a strict methodology, precise theoretical description, delicate and qualitative and quantitative analysis. Western translation studies have flourished with a variety of translation schools and outstanding translators after the World War Ⅱ, as well as a great many of translation thoughts, translation methods, and views of research.Based on this background, this paper discusses and analyzes a great number of schools of western translation theories, its representative translators and their representative works, and expresses opinions on the significance and value of western translation theories from a historical perspective.

===Keywords===

Western translation theories; translation schools; translation theorists

===题目===

西方翻译理论划分之研究

===摘要===

西方翻译理论在现代受到越来越多的关注，其对我们的翻译实践和翻译的进一步发展有很大的帮助和价值。西方翻译理论具有严谨的方法论、精确的理论描述、细腻的定性和定量分析。西方翻译研究在二战后蓬勃发展，出现了各种翻译流派和优秀的翻译家，也出现了大量的翻译思想、翻译方法和研究观点。本文基于此背景，讨论并分析了西方翻译理论诸多流派及其代表人物和代表译作，并从历史的角度对西方翻译理论的意义和价值陈述相关意见。

===关键词===

西方翻译理论; 翻译流派; 翻译理论家

===Ⅰ.Introduction===

Throughout the development of Western translation studies in the past 30 years, there are many transaltion schools and excellent translators. Western translation theorists had different points of view towards the division of western translation theories. Peter Newmark divided the development of translation theories by major translation activities. According to the development of translation thoughts, Nida divided western translation into philological translation, linguistic translation, communicative translation and socio-semantic translation.(Nida 1984, 9-15)

According to George Steiner, the study of Western translation theories has gone through four periods: 1) from classical translation theory to the publication of the "three principles of translation" by Tytler and Campbell at the end of the eighteenth century, 2) from Schleiermacher to the middle of the twentieth century, 3) from the post-war period to the 1970s, marked by the rise of the translation linguistics school, represented by Nida, Mounin and Catford, 4) from the 1970s to the present, marked by the emergence of new schools of thoughts and the flourishing of interdisciplinary research.

Liu Miqing basically adopts this classification method. Tan Zaixi divided western translation into six periods: 1) the beginning of the fourth century B.C., 2) from the late period of Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, 3) the Middle Ages, 4) the Renaissance, 5) the modern translation period, i.e., from the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, 6) from the period after World War II to the present. E. Gentzler divided modern translation theories into five schools based on translation thoughts, which is The American Translation Workshop, The Science of Translation, Early Translation Studies, Polysystem Theory and Deconstruction.

Western translation theories research realizes the transition from linguistics to literary, and to culture and science of international politics. Accordingly, the trend of translation research has changed from the source language text to target language text, from the prescriptive to the descriptive, and the status of target language text has changed from inferior to the source language text to be equal to it,and in the end, more important than the source language text, and the status of translator has changed from less important than the author of source language to play a decisive part in translation activities and so on.(Pan Wenguo, 2002)

Li Wenge analyzed and studied eight schools of translation, including the literary theory of translation, the linguistic school, the translation studies school, the Hermeneutics, the deconstruction, the American Translation Workshop, the French interpretive theory, etc. The literary theory of western translation includes: the literary theory of western translation before the 20th century, such as the literary theory of Russian translation, the literary theory of translation in the former Soviet Union, and the literary theory of western translation in the 20th century.

The linguistic school of translation includes the Prague School of Jakobson, the London School of Catford and Newmark, the American Structuralists of Quine, the Communicative Theory of Nida and Wilss, the German Functionalists translation theory of Nord, and the Soviet Linguistic School of Federov and Barkhudarov. The Translation Studies school includes the Early translation Studies school of Holmes, the Polysystem Theory of Even-Zohar, the Descriptive Translation Studies of Toury, the Cultural School of Lefevere and Bassenett, the Integrated School of Snell-Hornby, Feminism, "Cannibalism", and post-colonial translation studies.

The Hermeneutics includes two ways of translation of Schleiermacher, the hermeneutic model of translation of Steiner, and the hermeneutic view of understanding of Heidegger and Gadamer. The deconstruction of translation includes the idea of "différance" deconstruction translation of Derrida, the idea of "pure language" deconstruction translation of Benjamin, and the deconstruction translation strategy of Venuti. The American Translation Workshop includes the theoretical foundation of Translation Workshop of Richards, detailed translation theory of Pound, contradictory view of translation of Will.

The French interpretative theory includes the basic problems of interpretative theory, translation procedure, translation evaluation criteria, interpretative theory and translation teaching. From the ancient Roman Empire to the European Union, from the establishment of nation-states to the foundation of the United Nations, cultural (including philosophy, literature, art, science, technology, etc.) exchanges between countries and political and economic exchanges and communication have been increasingly expanded and strengthened through the participation of translators.(Tan Zaixi 2004,15)

===Ⅱ.The division of western translation theories===

====2.1 Translation in Ancient Times====

The history of Western translation started in the third century B.C. The translation activities in ancient Rome was the first great upsurge in the history of Western translation, with a distinctive literary character. In the late Roman Empire, religious translation gradually became the mainstream of the western translation. In a broad sense, the earliest western translation was the translation of ''Old Testament'', i.e. ''Septuagint'', which was translated by 72 Jewish scholars in Alexandria, Egypt, between the third and second century B.C.. Strictly speaking, the first western translation work was the Homer's Epic ''Odyssey'' translated in Latin by Andronicos in Rome around the middle of the third century B.C..(Tan Zaixi 1991, 4)

=====2.1.1 Marcuss Tullirs Cicero=====

The earliest theorist of translation in the West was Marcuss Tullirs Cicero in the Roman Empire. He first made a distinction between translation as interpreter and translation as orator. He wrote in Volume 5, Chapter 14 in ''De Optimo Genere Oratorum'', "...And I did not translate them as an interpreter, but as an orator, keeping the same ideas and the forms, or as one might say, the 'figures’of thought, but in language which conforms to our usage.And in so doing , I did not hold it necessary to render word for word, but I preserved the general style and force of the language. For I did not think I ought to count them out to the reader like coins, but to pay for them by weight, as it were.(Robinson 1997, 9)

Cicero viewed translation from the perspective of a rhetorician and an orator. Translation as interpreter is a translation without creativity, while a translation as orator is a translation that is creative and comparable to the source language text. In this way, Cicero set the seal on the two basic methods of translation, thus pioneered in the field of theory and methodology of translation studies. Subsequently, the history of western translation theories has developed centred on the issues of literal translation and free translation, word-by-word translation and flexible translation, faithfulness and unfaithfulness, accuracy and inaccuracy.

=====2.1.2 Quintus Heratius Flaccus=====

Quintus Heratius Flaccus was deeply influenced by Marcuss Tullirs Cicero in the aspect of literary criticism and translation theory, he insisted that translation should be flexible, and opposed word-by-word translation and sentence-by-sentence translation. He also believed that translation should be "sense for sense". At the same time, Heratius advocated to create new words or introduce foreign words in creation and translation when necessary in order to enrich the national language and enhance the expressive power of the work. He advocated that "a translator who is faithful to the original text is not fit to translate word for word". This sentence is often quoted to criticize those of literal translation by those of free translation."(Tan Zaixi 1991, 26).

=====2.1.3 St. Jerome=====

St. Jerome is considered one of the four leading theologians in the West, who was proficient in Hebrew and Latin, and was fond of Latin literature.He translated ''The Vulgate'' in the late Roman Empire and proposed that literary translation and religious translation should be treated differently, arguing that when translating ''The Bible'', literal translation should not be used in the whole text, but mainly in literal translation.But in literary translation, translators could and should convey the meaning of the original text in an understandable style, so as to use one's own style and language to make the translation as beautiful as the original text. It is a good idea to use a combination of literal transaltion and free translation.

=====2.1.4 St. Augustine=====

St. Augustine did not translate many works, only revised some parts of ''The Vulgate'', but his translation theories are extremely valuable, which can be mainly found in ''On Christian Education'', as well as several interpretations of the ''Psalms'' and two letters, one of which is to his son Adeodatus.He believed that a good translator must be proficient in two languages, familiar with the material to be translated and have the ability to revise. He suggested that people should use "simple", "elegant", or "sacred" style according to different readers.

He related the style of target language text to targeted readers, holding that people should use "simple" style when translating enlightment texts, use "elegant" style when it comes to texts praising the God, and use "sacred" style to translate texts with the characteristic of exhortation and guidance. He quoted the "semiotics theory" of Aristotle and emphasized the triangular relationship of the "significatio", "sonus" and "judgment" in translation. He is regarded as the originator of the linguistic school in the history of western translation, whose theories have exerted profound influence on linguistics and translation studies.

====2.2 Translation in the Middle Ages====

Between the eleventh and twelfth centuries A.D., Western translators gathered in Toledo, Spain, to translate a large number of works from Arabic into Latin. As a result, Toledo became the center of European academic world (similar to the "Translation Institute" in Baghdad), its translation and academic activities has continued for more than a hundred years with far-reaching effects.

=====2.2.1 Manlius Boethius=====

Manlius Boethius contributed not only to translating and introducing Greek philosophical thoughts, but also to translation theories. His views can be mainly found in the preface to the translation of Porphyrius's work (Boethius, 1906; referring to Kelly, 1979: 71, 134-135, 204, 222-224), which can be summarized as follows: 1) Content and style are contrary, either style or content can be preserved. 2) Translation is centralized on objective things, and the translator should abandon subjective judgment. In the translation of some works, what the translator seek is accurate content rather than elegant style. Therefore, in order to express "truth without error", the translator should use word-for-word translation.

Manlius Boethius contributed not only to translating and introducing Greek philosophical thoughts, but also to translation theories. His views can be mainly found in the preface to the translation of Porphyrius's work (Kelly 1979, 71, 134-135, 204, 222-224), which can be summarized as follows: 1) Content and style are contrary, either style or content can be preserved. 2) Translation is centralized on objective things, and the translator should abandon subjective judgment. In the translation of some works, what the translator seek is accurate content rather than elegant style. Therefore, in order to express "truth without error", the translator should use word-for-word translation.--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 13:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=====2.2.2 Dante=====

Dante held a pessimistic view on translation in his work ''The Banquet'', holding the view that poetry is untranslatable. The significance of this viewpoint strated the long debate on translatability and untranslatability of literary translation in the history of western translation, and at the same time, it drew people's attention to the organic connection between poetry and language in poetry translation, which was very helpful for future generations to establish the correct principles of poetry translation. Don Quixote, the protagonist in the Spanish writer Cervantes's novel ''Don Quixote'', held the similar point of view.

====2.3 Translation in Renaissance====

The Renaissance Movement that took place in Europe from the fourteenth to the sixteenth centuries was a major movement of intellectual and literary innovation, it was also a major development in the history of Western translation. Especially in the sixteenth century and the period afterwards, when the Renaissance Movement was widespread in Western European countries, translation activities reached an unprecedented peak, involving various fields such as thought, politics, philosophy, literature and religion, covering major works of ancient times and contemporary times, and a large number of outstanding translators and a series of excellent translation works emerged at that time.

=====2.3.1 Martin Luther=====

Martin Luther was a German translator and the leader of Religious Reform. His translations of ''The New Testament'', which was written in Greek and ''The Old Testament'' written in Hebrew were published in 1522 and 1534 respectively, and his translation of ''The Bible'' in German became the model of German, exerting an unprecedented influence on the development of the national language in German. In addition, his translation of ''Aesop's Fables'' is also of high literary value. His outstanding contributions to translation theories can be summarized as follows: First, he held the view that people should translate in a language that is straightaway and easy to understand, and is acceptable to the public.

He insisted on the humanistic view of language, believing that different languages cannot be equated absolutely in terms of structure and vocabulary. Since the target readers of The Bible is the public, "we must use authentic German instead of Latinized German." (Tan Zaixi 1991, 81), and get rid of the traditional principles that ''The Bible'' can only be translated in Latin, "let the prophets of ''The Old Testament'' use natural German." (Nida 1984, 10) Secondly, Luther believed that the form, style, and spiritual essence of the original text can only be reproduced in free translation to some extent. Thirdly, translators should respect the original text, understand its spiritual essence in depth, and should not be credulous about the traditional explanations of priests.

In order to reproduce the spiritual essence of the original text, the translator can add some meanings which are implicit between the lines but not literally Fourth, translators ought to put heads together. Finally, he proposed seven principles that translators should follow: they can change the word order of the original text; they can use modal particles; they can add conjunctions; they can omit words; they can substitute words with phrases; they can replace metaphor with non-metaphor and vice versa; and they should pay attention to the variation of words and the accuracy of translation. (Tan Zaixi 1991, 83)

=====2.3.2 Etienne Dolet=====

Etienne Dolet was the first person who put forward translation theory in a systematic way in the history of modern western translation. Apart from several translations and monographs on Greek and Latin, his contributions to translation can mainly be reflected in his famous paper ''La manière de bien traduire d'une langue en autre'', which was published in 1540. The paper was short but innovative, and the issues involved have already been connected to the matters of principle which were raised by later translation theorists.

The basic principles of translation he listed in his paper were as follows: 1) The translator must fully understand the content of the texts to be translated. 2) The translator must have a good knowledge of source language and target lanuage. 3) The translator should avoid word-for-word translation, which can not express the original meaning of the text accurately and the sense of beauty of the language. 4) The translator must translate in an understandable way. 5) The translator must make the target language text an appropriate one through diction and adjustment of word order.

====2.4 Translation in the Early Modern Times====

After the Renaissance, from the second half of the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, Western translation kept on moving forward. Although in terms of scale and influence, translation in this period was not as good as that of the Renaissance, a large number of excellent translation works emerged. Its most important character was that translators not only continued to translate classical works, but also developed a great interest in modern and contemporary works. The works of great writers such as Cervantes, Shakespeare, Balzac, and Goethe were repeatedly translated into various languages, and translations of Oriental literature came out one after another.

=====2.4.1 John Dryden=====

John Dryden was a famous poet, translator and translation theorist, whose contributions to translation exceeded that of his predecessors and other contemporaries, with a large number of translation works and systematic theories. His most well-known translation work is Virgil's ''Aeneid'', which was published in 1697. In his numerous papers and prefaces, he clearly put forward comprehensive and systematic views of translation.

First of all, translation is an art, translators must have the temperament of an artist, a keen appreciation of art and a rich expressive power, only in this way can they grasp and reproduce the artistic features of the original text. Secondly, translators must consider target readers. When translating dialects, translators should focus on the fact that whether target readers can accept and understand it or not, and can appropriately borrow some foreign words, but these words should be carefully considered. Thirdly, translators are slaves of the original author, "only working in other's manor, fertilizing and pruning the grapes, but the wine is for the master's". (Tan Zaixi 1991, 153)

Finally, he roughly divided translation into three categories: metaphrase, paraphrase and imitation,arguring that imitation was close to creation, which broke away from the original text. Therefore, he advocated paraphrase that emphasizes the meaning while neglects the linguistic form. His division of translation broke through the limitations of traditional classificationof translation, i.e. free translation and literal translation, which was a major development in the history of western translation and was of great significance.

=====2.4.2 Alexander Fraser Tytler=====

Alexander Fraser Tytler's translation theories and thoughts can be mainly found in the book ''Essay on the Principles of Translation''. In this book, which was the first monograph of western translation theory, Tytler put forward the famous three principles of translation. The translator should be proficient in the language and subject matter of the original work, and completely reproduce the thoughts of the original work. In translation, the translator can limitedly add essential contents to the original work and reduce unnecessary contents that are bad for the original work.

The translator should have the ability to accurately judge and appreciate the style and writing technique of the original work, and imagine how the original author would express himself if he composed in target language to make the style and writing technique of the translation be equal to that of the original work. The translation should be as fluent as the original work. Although the translator is engaged in imitation as well as the painter, the translator can't copy the original's brushwork and use the same colors, instead, he must use his own techniques and another language to express the soul of the original work.

In addition, Tytler believed that poetry can only be translated in the form of poem, idioms can be transformed into meaning and translated in an understandable language, and good translations must make the readers appreciate the merits of the original work and get "the same strong feeling" (Tan Zaixi 1991, 164). The three principles of translation, which are "the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work", "the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original" and "the translation should have all the ease of original composition" became the tenet followed by numerous translators later, and had a positive influence on translation theories in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.

=====2.4.3 Matthew Arnold=====

In modern English translation theories, the debate between Arnold and Newman on the translation of ''Homer's Epic'' is of positive significance. Matthew Arnold put forward his insights in the following six aspects: 1) Translating ''Homer's Epic'' must first clarify the characteristics of Homer. 2) The essential features of ''Homer's Epic'' must be preserved. 3)Translating poem must have the insight of a poet. 4)The translation must resemble a poem. 5)The translation must have the same appeal as the original text. 6)It is the scholars, not the general readers, who test the fidelity of the translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 134-135)

=====2.4.4 Francis W. Newman=====

Newman evaluated Arnold's translation based on his points of view, his viewpoints are as follows: 1) Homer is a poet, and the translation must reproduce him as a poet. 2) The criterion for measuring the translation is mainly the reaction of general readers rather than scholars. 3) The translation is a kind of compromise, and the more outstanding the original work is, the less the translation work can be compared with it. Their differences lie in their respective translation principles, techniques and viewing perspectives, so it is difficult for us to to say which is right and which is better. Their arguments have played an active role in enlivening the academic atmosphere and promoting the study of translation theory from multiple perspectives and multiple aspects.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 135-136)

=====2.4.5 Friedrich Schleiermacher=====

Friedrich Schleiermacher published his paper ''On the Methods of Translation'', which discussed the close relationship between translation and understanding from a hermeneutical point of view, theoretically discussed the principles and approaches of translation.He put forward the hermeneutic proposition of examining semantics, including grammatical interpretation and psychological interpretation, and believed that the translator cannot accept the original work passively, but must create it actively, "and must grasp a 'pre-structure' beyond the text according to the original author's mental process and thought track" (Liu Miqing 1989, 3).

He proposed the differences between interpreting and translation for the first time, believing that interpreting is similar to a mechanical activity, while translation is a creative activity. Similarly, translation can be divided into literary translation and mechanical translation. The former is the translation of works of literature, art and natural science, which requires independent thinking and creativity of the translator, and strong comprehension and expression skills. While the latter involves only commercial and business interpreting, which "can be done with a general command of two languages" (Wells 1988, 24), and is not of high quality because it involves something tangible and clearly defined.

In addition, Schleiermacher divided translation into two approaches: obedience to the original work and obedience to the translation work. The former is to let the readers approach the original author, and the translator only "fills in the blanks where the readers don't understand the language of the original work" (Tan Zaixi 1991, 135), i.e., using literal translation to let the readers understand the meaning of the original work. The translator usually adopts flexible translation and free translation, so that the readers can easily understand the original work.

His thoughts has inspired the classification of prospective and retrospective of Postgate in the twentieth century.Friedrich Schleiermacher's translation theories had a great impact in the 19th century and is still significant even today. Although he was the first theorist to distinguish between interpreting and translation, his views on interpreting were wrong. From the perspective of modern translation theories, interpreting is not a mechanical activity, but also a skill that requires a high level of language expression ability and the ability to recreate, and because interpreting is a kind of simultaneous interpretation, there is no room for careful thinking, and it is even more difficult than translation in many aspects.

=====2.4.6 Wilhelm von Humboldt=====

Wilhelm von Humboldt's translation theory was based on his unique philosophy of language. He believed that language is only the "external manifestation of the spirit of each nation", and that the language of each nation is their spirit, and the spirit of each nation is also their language. Due to the differences of each language, translators are in a dilemma of either following the original tex too closely and losing the charm of their own language, or sticking to their own language and sacrificing the elegance of the original work (Wells 1988, 27-28).

However, Humboldt also suggested that "there is nothing that language cannot express" and that "language is the nature of human, and all languages hold the key to understanding any other languages" (Wells, 1988:29). This dialectical thinking on the issues of translatability and untranslatability, language as system and language as speech act has greatly influenced linguists such as Saussure and Chomsky in the twenties century.

However, Humboldt also suggested that "there is nothing that language cannot express" and that "language is the nature of human, and all languages hold the key to understanding any other languages" (Wells 1988, 29). This dialectical thinking on the issues of translatability and untranslatability, language as system and language as speech act has greatly influenced linguists such as Saussure and Chomsky in the twenties century.--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 13:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.5 Translation in Contemporary Times====

After the World War II, the West entered a relatively stable period, production got developed, the economy gradually recovered, and science and technology were changing day by day. This was the material basis of the prosperity of translation. Due to the evolution of the times, the characteristics of translation have also changed a lot. The translation in the new period differs from that of any period in the past in scope, scale, function and form and has made great progress.

The first change is the expansion of translation scope. While the traditional translation mainly focused on the translation of literary and religious works, the translation in the new period expands to other fields, especially in science, technology and commerce fields.

Secondly, the scale of translation greatly exceeds that of the past. In the past, only a few literary giants worked on translation, but now translation has become a specialized profession, with not only litterateur, philosophers and theologians engaging in translation, but also a specially trained professional team undertaking various translation tasks. Moreover, the function of translation is unparalleled in the past.

Especially after the foundation of the United Nations and the European Common Market, exchanges among Western countries in various fields, such as literature, art, science, technology, politics and economics, have become increasingly frequent and close, and all these communications are carried out through translation, because translation plays an increasingly practical role in the process. Finally, the form of translation has also changed and progressed greatly. The three changes are in fact an important sign of the development of the new period.

=====2.5.1 Roman Jakobson=====

Roman Jakobson was originally from Russia, then moved to the Czech Republic, and then moved to the United States during World War II and became an American citizen. As one of the founders of the linguistic school, his contributions to translation theory is mainly reflected in his article ''On Linguistic Aspects of Translation''. From the perspective of linguistics, the article provided a detailed analysis and discussion of the relationship between language and translation, the importance of translation, and the problems in translation. Since its publication in 1959, this article has been regarded as one of the classics of translation studies in western theoretical field.

There are five main points of Jakobson's discussion. Translation is divided into three categories: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The so-called intersemiotic translation refers to the interpretation of some linguistic symbols by other linguistic symbols in the same language, that is rewording. Interlingual translation refers to the interpretation of the symbols of one language into the symbols of another language between two languages, i.e., translation in the strict sense. Intersemiotic translation refers to the interpretation of linguistic symbols by non-linguistic symbol systems, or the interpretation of non-linguistic symbols by linguistic symbols, such as the transformation from semaphore or gesture into verbal expressions.

The understanding of the meaning of words depends on translation. He believed that translation plays a decisive role in the process of language learning and language comprehension. Accurate translation depends on information symmetry. What translation involves is the reciprocal information in two different speech symbols. All languages have equal expressive power. If there is a lack of vocabulary in a language, the language can be processed by borrowing words, creating words or paraphrasing them. The grammatical category is the most complex issue in translation.

=====2.5.2 John Catford=====

John Catford, a linguist and translation theorist of University of Edinburgh, published ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' in 1965, in which he interpreted the previous problems of translation from a novel modern linguistic perspective and created the new approach to the study of translation theory in the West, thus exerting a great influence in Western linguistic and translation theory circles. John Catford used the "Scale and Category Grammar" of the descriptive linguist Han Lide to describe translation.

He focused on the central question of "what is translation" in terms of the nature, categories, equivalence, shifts, and limits of translation. The nature of translation. According to Catford's definition, translation is "the substitution of textual material from one language (source language) for its equivalent in another language (target language)". (Catford 1965, 20-21) The categories of translation. In terms of its extent, it can be divided into "full translation" and "partial translation". In terms of language level, it can be divided into "total translation" and "restricted translation". In terms of the level of linguistic structure, it can be divided into "level restricted" translation and "level unlimited" translation.

The equivalence of translation. It is the center of translation practice and translation theoretical research, and must be explained in two ways. On the one hand, translation equivalence is an empirically based phenomenon that is found on the basis of a comparison between two languages. On the other hand, translation equivalence must make sure that whether the target text and the source text have the same or at least partially the same substantive features. The shifts of translation. It refers to the deviation from formal correspondence when turning the source text into the target text. There are two main types of shifts,which are level shifts and category shifts.

The limits of translation. It refers to untranslatability. There are two types of untranslatability in translation. The first one is linguistic untranslatability, which includes puns and ambiguous grammatical structures. The other is cultural untranslatability which is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs and different backgrounds of the times.

John Catford's translation theory has injected fresh blood into translation studies in Britain and even the West as a whole, and it has advanced the modern linguistic consciousness in the field of contemporary Western translation studies. In a sense, all kinds of contemporary Western translation theories that have emerged so far have benefited from this increased linguistic consciousness. No matter whether, or to what extent and within what limits, his proposition of using the linguistic theory of "Scale and Category" to explain translation problems is effective or not, the proposition itself has made a contribution to the development of contemporary Western translation theories.

=====2.5.3 Eugene A. Nida=====

Eugene A. Nida was one of the most important representatives of the linguistic school who published two famous translation theoretical works ''Toward A Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1964 and 1965 respectively and proposed the concept of "the science of translation", whose theory has made great contributions to contemporary translation studies in the West. He proposed "dynamic equivalence" theory, and then proposed "functional equivalence" theory from the viewpoint of sociolinguistics and communicative function of language.

He proposed the four-step model of "analysis", "transformation", "reorganization" and "examination" of the translation process. His main academic activities in his life were centered on the translation of ''The Bible''. In the process of translating ''The Bible'', Nida developed his own translation theory from a practical point of view, which eventually became one of the classics of translation studies. Nida's most important theory is "functional equivalence" theory,which means that the translation should not seek for a rigid correspondence between words on the surface, but to achieve functional equivalence between two languages.

In this theory, he pointed out that "translation is the reproduction of the information of source language from semantics to style in the most appropriate, natural and reciprocal language" (Guo Jianzhong 2000, 65). The "dynamic equivalence" theory includes four aspects, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, chapter equivalence and stylistic equivalence. Among these four aspects, Nida believed that "meaning is the most important, and form is the second" (Guo Jianzhong 2000, 67).

Form is likely to conceal the cultural meaning of the source language and hinder cultural communication. Therefore, in literary translation, according to Nida's theory, the translator should take the four aspects of "dynamic equivalence" theory as the principle of translation to accurately reproduce the cultural connotation of source language in target language.

=====2.5.4 James Holmes=====

James Holmes is the founder of Translation Studies, and his book, ''The Name and Nature of Translation Studies''(1972), is the founding manifesto of Translation Studies. He first argued that translation theory should arise from the scientific description of the translation process, and then apply the theory to translation practice and translation teaching. The translation of poetry can be regarded as a kind of meta-literature, which is both an evaluation and interpretation of the original work, and at the same time a new and independent literary work itself. Translation studies should focus on the relationships between the translated text and the original work and between the translated text and the target language culture, rather than the traditional equivalence or fidelity.

ames Holmes is the founder of Translation Studies, and his book, ''The Name and Nature of Translation Studies'' (1972), is the founding manifesto of Translation Studies. He first argued that translation theory should arise from the scientific description of the translation process, and then apply the theory to translation practice and translation teaching. The translation of poetry can be regarded as a kind of meta-literature, which is both an evaluation and interpretation of the original work, and at the same time a new and independent literary work itself. Translation studies should focus on the relationships between the translated text and the original work and between the translated text and the target language culture, rather than the traditional equivalence or fidelity.--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 13:23, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=====2.5.5 Peter Newmark=====

Peter Newmark is a professor of modern linguistics at the University of Surrey, who is mainly engaged in teaching translation theory and practice. After the publication of his masterpieces ''Approaches to Translation''(1981) and ''A Textbook of Translation''(1988), semantic and communicative translation theory has been highly regarded by the translation circles. In 1991, his another famous work ''About Translation'' was published, which collected Newmark's most important translation theoretical findings in recent years. ''Paragraphs on Translation'', which was published in 1991, is a collection of detailed discussions of translation theory, translation teaching, translation linguistics, and translation techniques that were published in the journal ''The Linguist'' from 1989 to 1992.

Peter Newmark is a professor of modern linguistics at the University of Surrey, who is mainly engaged in teaching translation theory and practice. After the publication of his masterpieces ''Approaches to Translation'' (1981) and ''A Textbook of Translation'' (1988), semantic and communicative translation theory has been highly regarded by the translation circles. In 1991, his another famous work ''About Translation'' was published, which collected Newmark's most important translation theoretical findings in recent years. ''Paragraphs on Translation'', which was published in 1991, is a collection of detailed discussions of translation theory, translation teaching, translation linguistics, and translation techniques that were published in the journal ''The Linguist'' from 1989 to 1992.--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 13:23, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Ⅲ.Discussion===

The Western translation theory system consists of two main theories. One is the literature and art translation theory. It is the oldest theory, extending from ancient dramatic translators such as Terrence to modern translation theorists (e.g. Levy in the Czech Republic, Gachechiladze in the former Soviet Union, Steiner in the UK, etc.), and it focused on how to translate literary texts in order to realize literary and cultural exchanges in the ideal sense. In this theory, translation was considered as literarature and art, and the focus of translation was on recreation. The theorists not only discussed the pros and cons of literal translation and free translation, word-for-word translation and flexible translation, but analyzed the purposes and effects of translation.

They also emphasized respecting target language culture, paid attention to the style and literariness of target texts, and required the translators to have a natural literary talent. The other is the linguistic translation theory. It extended from Augustine in ancient times to the structural linguistics school in the 20th century, which closely combined translation theories with the analysis of semantics and grammar, discussed translation in terms of language usage techniques, believing that translation aims to produce a text that is semantically equivalent to the original, and seeked to explain how to produce such semantic equivalence in terms of vocabulary and grammatical structure.

It was more concerned with how to realize the transformation of the words of the two languages in order to convey the information in source language. Looking back at the history of Western translation theories over the past two thousand years, especially the above two main theories constituting the Western translation theory system, we can easily find that, from ancient times to contemporary times, although each period has its own peak of development, on the whole, the contemporary times since the end of World War II in the middle of the 20th century can be regarded as the highest peak of the development of Western translation theories so far.

===Ⅳ.Conclusion===

We should study the outline, changes and development of Western translation theories, and state our opinions on the significance and value of the study of Western translation theories from a historical perspective. On the one hand, we should absorb the relevant contemporary research results at home and abroad, make comments on the representative figures and their representative works, schools of thought and important historical events in Western translation of various historical periods, especially in the 20th century.On the other hand, we should make an in-depth analysis and discussion on the mutual promotion, evolution and the development process of translation practice and translation theory, and elaborate our basic understanding on the nature and direction of the development of translation thoughts and theories.

===References===

Guo Jianzhong.郭建中.(2000).''当代美国翻译理论''. [Contemporary Translation Studies In USA].湖北教育出版社[Hubei Education Press].

Liao Qiyi. 廖七一.(2002).''当代西方翻译理论探索''. 译林出版社[Yilin Press].

Liu Miqing.刘宓庆.(1989).''文体与翻译（第二版）''.[English Varieties and Translation(2nd Edition)].中国对外翻译出版公司[China Translation and Publishing Corporation].

Pan Wenguo.潘文国.(2002).''字本位与汉语研究''.华东师范大学出版社[East China Normal University Press].

Tan Zaixi.谭载喜.(1991).''西方翻译简史''.[A Short History Of Translation in the West].商务印书馆[The Commercial Press].

Tan Zaixi.谭载喜.(2004).''西方翻译简史(增订版)''.[A Short History Of Translation in the West(Revised Edition)].商务印书馆[The Commercial Press].

Catford,J.C.约翰·坎尼森·卡特福德.(1965).''翻译的语言学理论''.[A Linguistic Theory of Translation].牛津大学出版社[Oxford University Press].

Nida, Eugene A.尤金·A·奈达.(1984).''论翻译''.[On Translation].中国对外翻译出版公司[China Translation and Publishing Corporation].

--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 08:45, 14 December 2020 (UTC)

== A Comparison of the Translation Theory of Eugene. A. Nida and J. C. Catford – 陈莎 Chen Sha, 202020080596==
<center>陈莎 Chen Sha </center>
<center>Foreign Linguistics and Applied Linguistics </center>

===Abstract===
This paper made a comparison between Eugene. A. Nida's translation theories and J. C. Catford's translation theories from three perspectives, that is, their linguistic foundations, their perspectives regarding some important concepts such as meaning, form, equivalence and untranslatability, and the impact of their translation theories in the realm of translation. Although both of them are representatives of the linguistic schools of Western translation theory, Nida and Catford elaborate their respective translation theories from different perspectives and even the same term has been endowed with different meanings in the two translation theories, thus having different influences on the academic world. A clear grasp of the differences between the two theories will be conducive to the further understanding of translation theory.

===Key words===
Eugene. A. Nida; J. C. Catford; Translation Theory; Comparison

===题目===
尤金•奈达和约翰•卡特福德翻译理论之比较

===摘要===
本文比较了尤金•奈达和约翰•卡特福德各自的翻译理论中所涉及的语言学基础、对意义、形式、对等以及不可译性等概念的观点以及他们的翻译理论对学界产生的影响。尽管同属于西方翻译理论语言学派的代表人物，奈达和卡特福德却分别从不同的角度论述各自的翻译理论，甚至同一个术语在两种译论中具有不同含义的现象也常有见之，因此不免对学界产生了不同的影响。清晰地把握这两种译论中的不同之处，将有利于我们对翻译理论的进一步认识。

===关键词===
尤金•奈达；约翰•卡特福德；翻译理论；比较

===1. Introduction===
Nowadays, it has become an irreversible trend to integrate the translation theory researches into the field of linguistics, which broke through the traditional translation theories and created a new approach to explore them. Nida and Catford are two prominent representatives in this field. As to Nida, he is a famous contemporary American translation theorist, known as the father of modern Western translation theory, with ''Toward a Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''as his major works. As to Catford, he is a famous English linguist and translation theorist, with ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' as his masterpiece.

From what I have mentioned above, it can be seen clearly that both Nida and Catford are representatives of the linguistic schools of Western translation theories. However, in spite of this fact, their respective translation theories are actually based on different linguistic schools. As a result, it is no wonder that they have different understandings and interpretations in terms of the same concept and the acceptability of their respective translation theories are largely varied in the academic world. Therefore, this paper will elaborate the differences of the translation theories between Eugene. A. Nida and J. C. Catford from these three perspectives, namely, their linguistic foundations, their perspectives regarding some concepts such as meaning, form, equivalence and untranslatability, and the impact of their translation theories in the realm of translation.

===2. Linguistic Foundation===
Both Nida's and Catford's translation theories are systematic and scientific due to the fact that both of them are rooted in linguistics. However, what deserves noticing is that they are actually based on different linguistic schools.

Specifically speaking, Nida's translation theories are mainly based on Noam Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar, in which grammatical structure is divided into deep structure and surface structure, kernel sentences and a series of transformational rules are put forward and a whole set of grammatical system is established.(Jiang Li 2010, 44)

Based on transformational-generative grammar, especially the principle of kernel sentences, a new model of translation is put forward by Nida, that is, to translate on the level of deep structure. Therefore, a complete inter-lingual conversion process is created, which can be generally divided into three steps. The first step is to convert the surface structure of the source language to the deep structure of the source language; the second step is to identify a deep structure that is equivalent to the deep structure of the source language in the target language; the final step is to convert the deep structure of the target language to the surface structure of the target language. Generally speaking, this process can be viewed as such a transformational mode:(Jiang Li 2010, 44)

[[File:chenshachenshachensha111.jpg]]

In addition, through the analysis of the semantic relations of vocabularies in the context, Nida broke through the limitations of the traditional translation view holding that the parts of speech should be correspondent between source language and target language. He puts forward four semantic categories, namely objects that correspond roughly to nouns, events that correspond roughly to verbs, abstracts that correspond roughly to the modifiers of objects and events and relations that correspond roughly to the prepositions and connectives in Indo-European languages. (Lin Shuwu 1981, 5) And then based on his semantic categories, Nida comes up with seven kernel sentences that are used to discuss the inner relationship of sentences. (Jiang Li 2010, 44)

In summary, Nida broke through the limitations of the traditional translation views that pursues the correspondence of words or sentence patterns on the level of surface structure. He believes that there are great similarities among the kernel structure of different languages, and these similarities are much more pronounced in terms of their deep structure than their surface structure. What’s more, he holds the opinion that the transformation between languages on the level of deep structure can guarantee the faithfulness of the translated text to the original text to the greatest extent. In addition, since the surface structure of the target language is the free expression transformed from the deep structure of the target language, the smoothness of the translated text can also be guaranteed to some extent. (Shi Xishu & Du Ping 2004, 70) In this way, Nida's translation theories broke through the formal constraints in translation and retained the content of the original text, which plays a great guiding role in the specific translation practices.

In contrast, Catford's translation theories are mainly based on Michael A.K. Halliday's systematic linguistics, which consists of two basic points. Firstly, it emphasizes the systematicness of language and holds that languages are systems containing many subsystems. Secondly, systematic linguistics emphasizes the close relationship between language and society, so it holds the opinion that the study of language should start from the society. (Jiang Li 2010, 45)

However, Catford does not adopt the two points completely. Based on the first point that different languages are actually different systems, Catford concludes that translation cannot convey one hundred percent of the meaning of the original text. Nevertheless, when it comes to the second point, it seems that Catford does not delve into the relationship between language and society, and some people even think that his theoretical research is purely static language comparison and serves only for computers. What’s more, Catford focuses on analyzing the relationship among such substances as phonic substance, graphic substance and situation substance from such four levels as phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary, based on which, Catford stresses that under no circumstances can complete translation be achieved, that is, translation cannot be carried out on the four levels of phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary simultaneously. He also holds that even if the translation is carried out at only one level, the complete translation is impossible. (Jiang Li 2010, 45)

In summary, Catford's translation theories are based on Halliday’s systematic linguistics, but he does not confine himself within the scope of systematic linguistics. Instead, he applies systematic linguistics to his translation theories in a selective way, which makes his translation theories innovative and in turn has a positive effect on Halliday's systematic linguistics.

===3. Different Perspectives Regarding Some Important Concepts===

====3. 1 Different Perspectives Regarding Meaning====
Nida's translation theories mainly serve the translation of ''The Bible'', with the ultimate aim of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of ''the Bible'', the transmission of information is the most important goal. In order to spread the doctrine, Nida not only regards meaning as translatable, but even as sacrosanct because he wants to convey the will of God. (Jiang Li 2010, 46)

In Nida's opinion, “translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style.” (Nida 1969, 13) Nida's definition regarding translation clearly pointed out the relationship between meaning and form, claiming that meaning comes first while form comes second. In the analysis of meaning, Nida refined it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning and connotative meaning, which is the basis for the four modes of analysis, transformation, reorganization and verification in the process of translation. As a faithful supporter of language universality, Nida always maintains that the information contained in one language can be conveyed into another language, that is to say, the meaning is fixed. (Jiang Li 2010, 46) In the communication between different languages and cultures, equivalent words and expressions can be found. There is no such thing as an unbridgeable gap between languages. (Xiong Demi 2001, 88)

Compared with Nida's translation theories, Catford's translation theories does not discuss the specific problems encountered in the process of translation, but focuses on the essence of translation, that is, what the translation is. Catford emphasizes the individuality of different languages and that each language has its own unique semantic system formed under the influence of its unique culture and the lexical and grammatical systems which embody the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship among languages, and analyzes the root causes of their differences.(Jiang Li 2010, 46)

According to Catford, meaning is a property of language, so the source language and the target language have their respective meanings. The opinion that the source language has the same meaning as the target language or that there is transfer of meaning in the process of translation is untenable. Obviously, this argument is a kind of deconstruction and subversion of people’s perspectives regarding meaning in traditional translation theory, which is why his translation theories arouse suspicion of other scholars. Actually, readers who do not carefully read his original work tend to come to their lopsided conclusions according to its literal meaning, so there is no wonder why they will misunderstand Catford and his translation theories. (Jiang Li 2010, 46)

====3. 2 Different Perspectives Regarding Form ====
Both Nida and Catford have involved form in their translation theories. However, the term has different meanings in the two theories.

In Nida's translation theories, form mainly refers to the concept corresponding to content, including prosody, word selection, duality, parallelism and other grammatical structures with distinct features. For biblical translation, meaning must be prioritized in order to convey content and information,so its translation can sometimes be greatly altered in form. In other words, if form and content cannot be retained at the same time, then the content should be retained while the form be discarded. (Jiang Li 2010, 46) Of course, this does not mean that Nida thinks that form is not important at all in the process of translation. On the contrary, Nida believes that when it comes to some cases in which form is very important to the original text, like poetry, the original form should be retained as far as possible.

As for Catford, he regards language as forms, a concept corresponding to entities. In his opinion, forms include phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary, which are all linguistic aspects while entities refer to such raw materials as phonic substance, graphic substance and situation substance, which are all non-linguistic aspects. He also holds the opinion that a form always corresponds to an objective entity in the real world. In Carford translation theories, forms can actually be understood as systems, that is, each language is composed of different systems, which in turn include numerous subsystems.(Jiang Li 2010, 46)

Thus, to translate between two languages belonging to different systems is to look for entity features that are identical (at least partially identical) in both the source language and the target language. Since there can never be a completely identical system among different languages and even the most closely related languages have their own unique forms, the forms and meanings of different languages can never be completely the same. Therefore, in the process of translation, meaning cannot be fully conveyed from one language to another, which is also an important point that makes Catford's translation theories different from others’. (Jiang Li 2010, 46)

====3. 3 Different Perspectives Regarding Equivalence====
Nida believes that the reason why there is equivalence in the process of translation is that different languages can perform exactly the same function. Based on this belief, Nida put forward the concept of dynamic equivalence, which is “defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptor in the source language.” (Nida 1969, 25) What’s more, in elaborating functional equivalence, which is the modified version of dynamic equivalence, considering the differences in terms of languages and cultures in bilingual communication, Nida divided functional equivalence into two levels, namely, the maximum level of equivalence which refers to the one in which the readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it essentially the same as the original readers did and the minimal level of equivalence which refers to the one in which the readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it. (Xiong Demi 2001, 88)

In addition, Nida pointed out that the translation should not excessively pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should shift the attention to accurately convey the meaning of the original text. Therefore, translators can be allowed to change the form of the original text when readers are prone to misunderstand the original text. (Jiang Li 2010, 45)

In summary, Nida's dynamic equivalence theory broke the previous static model of focusing solely on text comparison and held that only by getting the receptors of the target language to completely understand the translated text, can they respond in much the same way as the receptors of the source language. That is to say, dynamic equivalence emphasizes readers' response.

As for Catford, he believes that "translation is the replacement of textual materials in one language by equivalent textual materials in another language." (Catford 1965, 13) In his definition, Catford did not use the word "text", but "textual materials", because he believes that the meaning of a text could not be completely translated into another text, at least when it comes to the meaning at two or more levels, the equivalence could not be found, but only a substitute is available. Catford regards translation equivalence in traditional translation theory as an empirical phenomenon and puts forward the conditions for translation equivalence,that is, in order to get the text or words of the source language and the target language to be equivalent, there must be some consistency between the entities they refer to.(Jiang Li 2010, 45)

Apparently, according to Catford's theory, equivalence can only exist if the entities involved in the two languages share some common characteristics. Moreover, such equivalence can only exist on the same level, that is, phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary. Equivalence on the four levels cannot be achieved simultaneously, because there are different entities on different levels, and it is impossible for two equivalent words to have the exactly identical entity characteristics. In other words, perfect equivalence does not exist. This also explains why there is no complete translation in Catford's point of view. At this point, Catford's translation theories seem to go deeper into the nature of language. (Jiang Li 2010, 46)

In short, Nida's perspective regarding equivalence is not the same as Catford's. By emphasizing equivalence, Nida means emphasizing the effect of translation. In order to achieve the desired effect of translation, the form sometimes can be abandoned; while Catford’s translation theories focus on the fact that there is no such a thing called perfect translation. Despite their different emphasis, both of them are of guiding significance to the translation practices.

====3. 4 Different Perspectives Regarding Untranslatability====
No discussion of untranslatability can avoid the subject of the essence of translation, which also applies to the translation theories of Nida and Catford.

In the book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'', Nida pointed out that translation refers to the reproduction of source language information with the closest and most natural equivalent in the target language from the semantic to the stylistic. (Nida 1969, 13) In his opinion, the maximum equivalence that can be achieved in translation is only the so-called "closest" and no real equivalence can be achieved. In other words, Nida holds that untranslatability is ubiquitous and the complete equivalence both on the level of meaning and style can only be impossible. Translation is like a seesaw, and the two ends of the board are the meaning and the style of source language, which in most cases cannot be completely retained at the same time.(Cui Yangtong 2018, 241)

Therefore, translators should make a choice and decide whether to care more about the meaning of the source language or the style of the source language. In Nida’s opinion, meaning should come first while style should come later. In short, as far as Nida’s translation theories are concerned, the equivalence refers to the one hundred percent transmission of the information of the source language in the target language, while the correspondence means that both the information and the style of the source language are one hundred percent transmitted into the target language, which is of course impossible. Hence, Nida chooses to use equivalence to describe the translatability rather than correspondence. (Cui Yangtong 2018, 241)

Catford, on the other hand, is more pessimistic about translatability. In his book ''A linguistic Theory of Translation'', he defines translation as the process of replacement of the textual materials of source language with the equivalent textual materials of the target language,(Catford 1965, 13) Catford uses "replacement" to correspond to Nida's "reproduction", just because he realizes that different languages are actually different systems that can never be coincided with each other. As a result, there will never be the so-called transformation and reproduction between two languages. Whether the equivalence can be achieved depends on the degree of coincidence of the described entities in the two languages.(Cui Yangtong 2018, 241)

Catford also further elaborates in this book that the idea that the source language and the target language have the same meaning or there exists such a thing called transmission in the process of translation is untenable. In order to better prove his point of view, Catford introduced a new viewpoint, that is, different languages are actually different systems and each system has its own unique linguistic forms, syntactic relations and grammatical relations. In general, there are basically two kinds of untranslatability in the broad sense. One is the untranslatability on the level of language and the other is the untranslatability on the level of culture. (Cui Yangtong 2018, 241)

All in all, we can draw a conclusion regarding Nida’s and Catfort’s views of untranslatability. On the one hand, Catford’s idea that linguistic forms refer to the formal characteristics of the original text is very close to what Nida calls style. However, on the other hand, what Catford calls the untranslatability on the level of culture is totally different from what Nida calls information. Therefore, we can see that Catfort has a much more strict standard towards translation equivalence.

===4. Significance===

====4.1 Contributions to Translation Studies ====
Nida views the communication and integration between different languages and cultures with a new perspective. He jumped out of the bondage of language and instead paid attention to the pragmatic function of language and the external linguistic equivalence. As a faithful supporter of language universality, he insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can also be expressed in another and that communication can be achieved by looking for translation equivalence among different languages and cultures and reorganizing the form of the original text and semantic structure in an appropriate way, which is also the basis for his establishment of equivalence translation theory. In short, Nida's dynamic equivalence theory breaks the previous static mode of solely emphasizing text comparison and creates a new mode of fully respecting the response of the receptors of the target language to translated text. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)

Catford believes that the main concern of translation practice is to find equivalent components and the central task of translation theory is to define the nature and conditions of these equivalent components. His equivalence theory mainly focuses on the study of language, which relates the analysis of translation theory closely to the analysis of the functions of semantics and grammar, aiming at explaining how such a semantic equivalence on the level of vocabulary and grammatical structure is achieved. In his opinion, translators’ main task is to seek content equivalence rather than form correspondence, which is exactly what Catford calls translation conversion. In summary, as a means to realize the equivalence in terms of text, Catford’s translation theory has its positive significance in specific historical periods. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)

=====4.2 Influences in China=====
In the early 1980s, Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories were introduced into China almost at the same time, but their occasions in China were quite different.

As soon as Nida’s translation theories were introduced, the research and citation of them achieved a climax. From 1980 to 2000, 147 papers citing Nida's translation theories were published on ''China Translation'', the core journal of Chinese translation circle. According to the statistics of Wanfang database, 25 papers on Nida’s translation theories were published on such core journals as ''Chinese Science and Technology Translation'' from 2000 to 2012. In 2012 alone, there were 80 journal papers, doctoral papers and master's papers on Nida translation theory. (Li Zhidan 2014, 95)

Compared with Nida's translation theories, Catford's translation theories have not attracted enough attention in domestic academic circles. According to the statistics of Wanfang database, only 3 papers on the Catford’s translation theories were published on ''Chinese Science and Technology Translation'' from 2000 to 2012 and there were only 8 journal papers, doctoral papers, master's papers and bachelor's papers on Catford's translation theories. (Li Zhidan 2014, 95) What’s more, from the number of Chinese papers published on CNKI regarding Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, the domestic influence of the two theories are also evident.

[[File:Chenshachenshachensha222.jpg]]

[[File:Chenshachenshachensha333.jpg]]

In summary, compared with Catford's translation theories, which are abstract and difficult to understand due to its professionalism, Nida's translation theories are more easily accepted and play a greater guiding role in Chinese-English translation.(Li Zhidan 2014, 95)

====4.3 Limitations====
Nida's research is mainly carried out from a macro perspective and is about the universal principle, which will inevitably ignore the research and discussion of specific skills at the micro level. As a result, the theories obtained will also inevitably be out of touch with practice. Nida's equivalence theory is mainly applicable to the translation of ''The Bible'', and the specific purpose of ''The Bible'' to educate and influence people makes it reasonable to sacrifice the form equivalence and strengthen the functional equivalence in a moderate way.(Li Zhidan 2014, 94)

However, if this theory is used to guide the translation of those texts whose forms cannot be ignored, such as the translation of poems, the limitations show up. What’s more, equivalence theory is based on the assumption that readers will have a consistent response, but the problem is that the reader's response is not uniform in any case. It is difficult or almost impossible for readers with different cultural levels, ideologies and positions to produce the same or similar response to the same translation in real life. Therefore, it is difficult to measure the translation effect with this standard. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)

As for Catford, as soon as his theory of equivalence translation was put forward, severe criticism in academic circles was brought about, with most of which focusing on the abstraction and idealization of Catford's examples used to prove his theory. In addition, Newmark pointed out that the interpretation of comparative linguistics conducted by Catford was conducive to translators' judgment and selection in translation practices, but had little contribution to translation theory. Venuti pointed out that the words, sentences and instances used by Cadford were created by himself rather than real. Hornby pointed out that the examples used by Catford were simple and decontextualized, while in fact, the process of translation cannot be simply viewed as language practices, actually, it wiould also be influenced by such factors as text, culture and environment. At the same time, she did not agree with Catford's view that linguistics is the only support of translation research. In addition, Mu Lei believes that the examples Catford used to support his theory are mainly the translation within Germanic languages or Slavic languages, or between Germanic and Slavic languages, so his theory does not have universally guiding significance. In other words, whether Catford’s theory is applicable to the translation between different language families, especially the translation between Chinese and English or not still needs to be discussed. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)

===5. Conclusion===
In summary, although both Nida and Catford are representatives of the linguistic schools of Western translation theory, their translation theories are actually different in many aspects. Firstly, their translation theories are based on different linguistic schools, with Nida’s based on Noam Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar and Catford’s on Halliday’s systematic linguistics. Secondly, their perspectives in terms of some important concepts are different, such as their perspectives regarding meaning, form, equivalence and untranslatability. Last but not least, their translation theories have caused different impact on the field of translation and this difference is especially prominent in China.

Of course, due to their different linguistic foundations, the two translation theories also have different limitations. It seems that Nida’s translation theories are more widely accepted than Catford’s in China because it is a theoretical system that is more compatible to the traditional Chinese translation theories. However, what we should keep in mind is that when we introduce foreign translation theories, in order to broaden our horizon, translation theories that seem to be incompatible to our traditional opinions are as important as those that are similar to our traditional translation views. Only in this way, can the translation theories be improved and developed further.

===References===
Cui Yangtong. 崔洋通. (2018). 不可译性:奈达与卡特福德之对比研究. [Untranslatability: A Comparative Study of Nida and Catford]. ''“校园英语” [Campus English]'' 241.

Jiang Li. 姜丽. (2010). 奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较. [A Comparison of Several Concepts in Nida's and Catford's Translation Theories]. ''“文教资料” [Cultural and Educational Materials]'' 44-46.

Lin Shuwu. 林书武. (1981). 奈达的翻译理论简介. [An Introduction to Nida's Translation Theory]. ''“国外语言学” [Foreign Linguistics]'' 1-7.

Li Zhidan. 李志丹. (2014). 卡特福德和奈达“对等”翻译理论思辨. [A Speculation on Catford’s and Nida's "Equivalence" Translation Theory]. ''“哈尔滨学院学报” [Journal of Harbin Institute]'' 93-95.

Shi Xishu & Du Ping. 石锡书 & 杜平. (2004). 辩证地看待奈达的“功能对等”理论. [A Critical Look at Nida's "Functional Equivalence" Theory]. ''“翻译科学初探” [A Preliminary Study on Translation Science]'' 69-71.

Xiong Demi. 熊德米. (2001). 奈达翻译理论评述. [A Review of Nida's Translation Theory]. ''“重庆大学学报” [Journal of Chongqing University]'' 85-89.

Catford, J. C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Nida, Eugene A. & Charles R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: E.J. Brill.

==Comparison of Ezra Pound's and Wen Yiduo's Poetry Translation Principles 徐梦蝶 Xu Mengdie 202020080657 英美文学==

<center> 徐梦蝶 Xu Mengdie </center>

===Abstract===
Ezra Pound is a representative poet and literary critic at the beginning of 20th Century in western literary world. Together with important literary figures such as T.S. Eliot, he started a new trend in poetry creation and study, and at the same period, China was also undergoing an essential transition from old style poetry to free verse written in vernacular language. Inevitably, associations were made between them. Wen Yiduo's poetic theory is thought to be deeply influenced by Pound's, but growing out of specific cultural and social background, Wen's theory still has his own features which should be distinguished from Pound's. Therefore, it's necessary for us to distinguish their principles in poetry translation so as to better comprehend their contributions.

This paper aims to analyze the differences and similarities between Ezra Pound's and Wen Yiduo's principles in poetry translation from comparisons of their translation principles in rhyme, image, and structure.

===Key words===
Poetry translation; Wen Yiduo; Ezra Pound

===题目===
埃兹拉·庞德和闻一多诗歌翻译原则的对比研究

===摘要===
20世纪初,埃兹拉·庞德是西方文坛一位具有代表性的诗人和文学批评家。他和艾略特等其他重要的文坛人物一起开创了诗歌创作和研究的新潮流。在同一时期的中国，一场重要的文化运动也正在进行，即从旧诗向白话新诗的转变。这两场运动之间也难以避免地有所联系。人们认为闻一多的诗歌理论深受庞德的影响，但是考虑到闻一多诗歌理论诞生的文化和社会背景，他的一些诗歌翻译原则和庞德的有不同之处。因此，为了更好地理解两者，我们有必要进行对比研究。

本文通过对比分析闻一多和庞德在诗歌韵律，意象，结构三方面的翻译原则，来看两者观点的异同。

===关键词===
诗歌翻译理论；闻一多；埃兹拉·庞德

===I.Introduction===

1. Research Background

With the fast development, China began to play a much more important role on world stage, naturally giving rise to the need of recommending Chinese culture to the world. From traditional Chinese literary creation to today's modern culture, it's vernacular literary movement that deserves our attention. At the beginning of 20th century, China was in an urgent need of opening up and learning from the western world. Some extreme ideas even caused the split between classical Chinese literary compositions and modern compositions， but at the same time， traditional Chinese culture was revived by western scholars like Ezra Pound， Amy Lowell, etc. Ezra Pound published ''Cathy''in 1915, setting off Imagist Movement (1909-1917). Wen Yiduo is a representative of the vernacular writing movement, and his first new poetic compositions might be ''A Rainy Night'' (雨夜) and ''Moon and Men'' (月亮和人)(Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993(1),172-173).

Wen distinguished himself from the other representatives of vernacular writing movement by his relative complete frame both in literary composition as well as in literary criticism. Besides, Wen Yiduo's personal painting learning experience and his contact with western poets at that time are materials also worthy of discussion (Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（12），432-433).

The reasons why these two figures are chosen to be compared in this paper are because, first, they two lived in the same time period ,and participated in two important literary movements of the time; second, both of them interpreted and applied Chinese traditional poems into modern composition but in different ways. Therefore, comparison on their understanding of poetic translation is a way to learn the role of Chinese traditional culture in modern times and to know these two poets and translators better.

2. Research Method

Close reading: this paper has collected relative works of Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound and papers on them. Through close reading, we come to know their ways of poem composing and their principles of poetry translation. Works covered in this chapter are, ''Complete Collections of Wen Yiduo'', ''Biography of Wen Yiduo'', ''Cathy'' of Ezra Pound, etc.

Comparative study: since there are some common points between these two poets and translators, comparisons are made between them to better distinguish their roles in relatively vernacular writing movement and imagist movement, in inheriting the old and making the new, and lastly in their poem translation principles(Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（2），37).

===II.Literature Review===

Wen Yiduo has been widely studied as a composer of new poetry, a painter, a researcher of classical poetry, as well as a revolutionist. Papers on Wen Yiduo focused more on his identity as a poetry composer than as a translator, so this chapter mainly studies his identity as a translator, complemented by his identity as a poet.

[[File:A.png]]

Papers on Wen Yiduo cover almost all aspects including his multiple identities as well as his further studies of traditional Chinese mythologies, classical poetry, etc. From the 1970s to present, this chapter chose recent papers on Wen Yiduo's translation. We can see from the picture below that studies of Wen Yiduo are still favored by scholars and in recent years even more papers on his translation principles were published. In 2005, a paper by Lv Jing is a watershed, for he announced the dawn of a new age of modern metrical poetry. Wen Yiduo is a pioneer of metrical poetry at the beginning of 20th century but he is inevitably constrained by his time. With the development of culture , now we are gradually entering a new era of modern metrical poetry(Lv Jing 2005，133-134).

[[File:8.png]]

Major works often cited by scholars are these two biggest black dots in the picture, works of Qian Liqun's (1998) ''Chinese Literature in Recent 30 Years''(中国现代文学30年)and ''Collection on Translation Theories''(1984).

As for papers about comparison between Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound,there are 18 papers published in recent years in China.

Among the 18 papers, the most mentioned phrases are "Chinese new poetry", "poetry in translation", "the beauty of painting" in these papers. Most of these papers study on Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound from a general comparison between two movements (vernacular writing movement and imagist movement) with only one paper directly comparing the two figures in a comprehensive manner. It was written by Fu Jianan and Zhang Li in 2019. In this paper, the authors pointed out that Wen Yiduo was heavily influenced by Ezra Pound, which can be seen from his three principles of beauty: the beauty of music, the beauty of painting, and the beauty of architecture. Besides, they also believed that Wen Yiduo was influenced by the national and creative features of Ezra Pound's literary creation and criticism (Fu Jianan, Zhang Li 2019,101-102).

====III.Discussion====

Wen Yiduo is a representative poet and translator in China at the beginning of 20th Century. At that time, China was experiencing a social and cultural upheaval with collapse of the old and emerging of the new. Since Wen Yiduo was born in a family with avant-garde thoughts, he came to get revolutionary idea at an early age. Although Wen Yiduo didn't participate directly in the May 4th movement, he demonstrated his firm support of students through a passionate patriotic poem. Clearly, Wen Yiduo's literary creation is indispensable from his social ideas. This could be revealed in subjects of his poems, for instance, ''Songs of Seven Sons'' (七子之歌), ''Song of the Sun''（太阳吟）, ''Silent Night'' (静夜), etc. As for his ideas in translation which are also closely associated with his understanding of poem composing, based on his personal learning and experiences (Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（1）,92).

Wen Yiduo experienced several transitions in his poetic writing throughout his life. He was at first a poet of classical poems (1916-1925) with works like, ''Ode on Horse'' (马赋), ''Ode on Pine'' （松赋), ''Spring Willow'' （春柳), etc. Later influenced by Hu Shi and vernacular writing movement, he devoted himself to new poem writing and criticized that classical poem shouldn't be composed and it should be totally abandoned (评本学年《周刊》里的新诗). After several tries in composing new poems, Wen Yiduo later went to America to continue his study on painting and literature. Here he came into contact with the Chicago poets and the American Imagists, which made his another transition. He then again criticized Hu Shi's absolute abandonment of rhyme and rhythm and advocated retrospectively drawing on classical Chinese culture, partly enlightened by his painting and classical poem study experiences in Chicago. After he was back to China, he pioneered in creating metrical poems, which associated western new poems' features together with image and structure of classical Chinese verses. He asked for beauty in music, beauty in image, and beauty in Architecture. His best work which realized his principles is ''Dead Water'' (死水) (Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（1），275-277).

Ezra Pound had a same starting point of translation, which was to find an answer for his epoch and to solve problems existing in society. He even leveled the importance of Confucianism to that of Christianism, which is of immense importance in Western culture. He believed that the "order" and "benevolence" mentioned by Confucius were exactly what was needed, to conquer the social plight brought by industrialism, periodic economic crisis, isolation between human beings, etc (Jiang Hongxin 2001,78-79). Ezra Pound denied that poem translation should be word-to-word but maintain connotations behind it. He decided the name "imagism" for the writing movement in 1912 and later published ''Cathy''in 1915. He was delighted when he discovered that Chinese characters were full of beauty of images and classical poems like ''The Books of Songs''all could be a good source for imagist movement.

In ''A Pact'', Pound likened Whitman as his father in literature and himself as his son. Although he held some disagreements with his father, they two had to share the same root and sap. Whitman is like Hu Shi in China, who highlighted the importance of free expression, direct use of vernacular language, and relatively neglected the significance of structure, rhyme, and rhythm. Wen Yiduo had also mentioned that, he disagreed with Hu Shi's composition of absolute free verses in his ''Experiment'' (尝试集). In Wen Yiduo's view, sound and music are what contained within words, and only a concise expression like poem can produce powerful emotions with its natural, artistic syllables (Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（2），62).

====1. Contrast of Wen Yiduo's and Pound's principles in image translation====

Wen Yiduo started painting when he was young and continued his study of painting in Chicago Academy of Fine Arts. All these experience provided him a chance to paint poems and he had a unique understanding of images based on his study on both classical Chinese poems and new poems. At the beginning of his composing of new poems, poems on nature took a great part of them. Yet he later found that his direct use of a lot of common images in classical poems made his poem too direct and superficial. He therefore decided to use more uncommon images. When he came to America and knew Chicago poets like Carl Sandburg as well as imagists like Amy Lowell, he was affected by their ideas in poem composing. The Chicago poets use direct language and free verse to paint out the world in a vivid way. Images are important to Chicago poets but they put rhythm and rhyme in a non-essential position (Jiao Jianping 2001,134-135). Wen Yiduo therefore, at the earlier period of his poem composing, he paid great attention to image use and also disregarded rhythm and rhyme. Here we have one short excerpt of his earlier composition:

太阳辛苦了一天，
赚得一个平安的黄昏，
喜得满面通红，
一气直往山洼里狂奔。

This excerpt was from one of his earlier vernacular poem and it's very direct and daily, yet lacking beauty in music, image, and depth, and he soon gave up this style. He agreed with Hu Shi's idea in liberating human mind by literature revolution, but he still enhanced the importance of literary form (Bei Ta 2011,105-106). Wen Yiduo therefore, criticize Hu Shi's writing for lacking beauty in music and in image. As a translator, his principles of poem translation are heavily impacted by his identity as a poet. He believed that translator of poem should be a poet himself and the process of translation could be viewed as a process of recreation. Wen Yiduo compared poem composing as traditional Chinese painting; the blending of colors creates a new harmonious image and words should be like colors (Sun Dandbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（2），202).

Take Wen Yiduo's poem ''Red Candler''as an example, he used the image of red candler to praise the selfless spirit of sacrifice and affirmed his belief in brightness. In Wen Yiduo's own writing, we could see the transition in his using of color image, which shifted from bright ones to dim ones as we can discover from ''Red Candler'' (红烛), ''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊) and ''Color'' (色彩) to ''Dead Water'' (死水). Images of colors in his poems are often studied by scholars. And it is taken as a clear combination of his idea on both painting and poetry composing. And as we've mentioned above, Wen Yiduo's poetry contained his patriotic idea which is not only shown in subjects but also in his insistence on the form of poetry. As we can see in both ''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊) and ''Dead Water'' (死水), Wen Yiduo pursued a visual presentation of descriptive pictures. Although Wen Yiduo had studied painting in America, he had shown more freehand sketch in his poem rather then western fine brush work (Xin Chunsheng 2011,28-29). All his principles in poem composition were applied to his translation later. Wen Yiduo asked for concrete image rather than mystery one which also coincides with Pound's idea.

''"这种空空疏疏模模糊糊的描写法使读者丝毫得不着一点具体的印象，当然是弱于幻想力底结果。" （Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（2），62).

"Don’t use such an expression as "dim lands of peace." It dulls the image. It mixes an abstraction with the concrete. It comes from the writer’s not realizing that the natural object is always the adequate symbol." (A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste)''

Ezra Pound can be taken as an orientalist for his love and study on eastern cultures. Before he came to know Chinese, he was captured by the conciseness but rich connotation contained in Chinese traditional culture. His interests in traditional Chinese poems was started by ''A History of Chinese Literature ''(Herbert Giles) and later became addicted to it for Fenollosa's introduction of oriental art (Guo Wei 1988,110). In the process of translating Chinese traditional poem, he formed his poem composing principles. He believed that poem should not be written in superfluous words; abstraction should not be mixed with concrete natural symbols; and expressions should be polished with good ornaments (Ezra Pound, A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste). Pound had many practices of image-using and he was known for his superimposition of images.

“落叶依于重扃。（''落叶哀蝉曲'' 刘彻）”"A wet leaf that clings to the threshold."

This sentence has shown Pound's superimposition of images well. Here "wet leaf" and "threshold" are two different images but the verb "cling" is used well to paint a picture of deep autumn and to arouse the feeling of departure. Even the leaf is hesitating of leaving, how about humans? Both "fallen leaf" and "threshold" are classical images used in Chinese poems. Pound chose concrete images to convey the abstract melancholy just as Chinese classical poem did. In ''Cathy'', ''The Beauiful Toilet'' has shown that Ezra Pound also had his own understanding of color image. "Blue, blue is the grass about the river", "White, white of face, hesitates, passing the door." There are 6 duplicated words in original poem but Pound only kept the duplicated forms of the color words "青青" and "皎皎", which reflects his high attention to color image although he didn't mentioned that in his essay (''Cathy'').

Both Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound drew nourishment from classical Chinese poems and attached great importance to image using. Yet, since Wen Yiduo had experiences as a painter, he was more sensitive to color images than Pound, though Pound also had his own preference to images. Therefore, we may assume that Wen Yiduo was affected by imagism and Ezra Pound, but Wen Yiduo also had his personally preference and choice of image application based on his understanding of classical Chinese poems and painting just as what was shown in ''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊) (Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（1），94).

====2. Contrast of Wen Yiduo's and Pound's principles in rhyme translation====

Wen Yiduo composed poems in classical Chinese with traditional style at first, when he was at school. Later deeply affected by ideas of vernacular poem composing as highlighted by Hu Shi, he accepted that we should liberate citizen's mind from constraints of classical writing and shifted his composing from classical style to vernacular free verse. When Wen Yiduo started to compose his new poem, he realized too direct an expression was would lose the hazy beauty. Different from Hu Shi, Wen Yiguo attached great importance to rhyme and rhythm of poems. This might have some association with his experience of Tang poem studies. He appreciated the beauty of classical poem and even believed that it's almost impossible for us to translate these poems into English, otherwise it woud be a waste of classical poems. To translate Yuefu folksongs, free verse is thought to be the best choice to him, for their similarity in form. And translator is given more space to think about rhyme (Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（2），54).

In his comment on Shigeyoshi Obata's translation on Li Po's poems, Wen blamed the translator for using free verse to translate Li Po's metrical poems. Because Wen himself is a big fan of Li Po, he denied that Li Po's grander style and imposing manner could be kept in free verses (Huang Yanjie 2014,611). He then practiced his translation believes into his own writings. In the next year(1927), he translated a poem of John Masefield.

Sea Fever (1902)
by： John Masefield

I must go down to the seas again, to the lonely sea and the sky,

And all I ask is a tall ship and a star to steer her by,

And the wheel's kick and the wind's song and the white sail's shaking,

And a gray mist on the sea's face, and a gray dawn breaking.

I must go down to the seas again, for the call of the running tide

Is a wild call and a clear call that may not be denied;

And all I ask is a windy day with the white clouds flying,

And the flung spray and the blown spume, and the sea-gulls crying.

I must go down to the seas again, to the vagrant gypsy life,

To the gull's way and the whale's way, where the wind's like a whetted knife;

And all I ask is a merry yarn from a laughing fellow-rover,

And quiet sleep and a sweet dream when the long trick's over.

我要回海上去

我要回海上去，再回到荒凉的天涯海角，

我要求的是一只楼船，一颗星儿做她的向导，

还有龙骨破着浪，风声唱着歌，白帆在风里摇，

海面上一阵灰色的雾，一个灰色的破晓。

我要回海上去，因为那一阵潮水的呼声

是狂暴的呼声，嘹亮的呼声，你没有法子否认

我要求的是一个刮风的天儿，还飞着些白云，

再加上海水翻着浪花儿，海鸥也在叫你。

我要回海上去，再过那漂泊的生涯才好！

走上海鸥的道，鲸鱼的道，那里的风像把快刀；

我要的是做完了的活，大伙儿谈着天儿说着笑，

临了，来一场甜蜜的梦，一宿安稳的觉。（''时事新报·学灯'' 1927）

John Masefield's Sea Fever is a rhymed poetry and Wen chose end rhyme to echo the original version, in order to achieve the musical beauty in poem. Besides a lot alliterations "a star to steer/ a clear call, etc." are used in the original poem to form the enormous power and repetition is another figure of speech in this poem, "I must go down to the seas again", which could emphasize the poet's emotion.

To maintain the original features, Wen Yiduo preserved the original repetition and parallels in his translation. Wen Yidou thought that art is an artificial decoration together with natural beauty. In his translation, to achieve the parallel structure and concise expression, he had chopped off unnecessary conjunctions and shift the order of words. For example, "I must go down to the seas again, to the lonely sea and the sky, And all I ask is a tall ship and a star to steer her by," "again" this world was shifted into the latter part of the translation and "lonely sea and the sky " was translated into a Chinese four-character idiom "天涯海角". The infinitive "To steer" was translated into a verb-object structure-"做她的向导" to ensure the balance of translation. (Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（2），54).

Compared with the original version, we can discover the translated version is even more concise and has clear beats to form music. To form a parallel structure and the clear rhythm, Wen Yiduo added some decorative elements or deleted some unimportant ones to achieve his ideal music. “龙骨”，“风声”，“白帆”are words chosen by translator based on original expression, in order to match both requirements of images and readability. “还”，“临了”，“天儿”， these are words added by the translator which are rich in Chinese culture and are tainted by vernacular feature. This can help to achieve an effect of a balance between the looseness and the tense within poem. Wen Yiduo believes that poems should have multiple rhythms serving for one theme, which can catch reader's attention and arouse emotions. It's more natural (Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（2），54). In this poem, Wen wanted to present the poem in the rhythm of waves.

Different from Wen Yiduo's insistence on the rhyme and rhythm of poems, Ezra Pound believed that "It is not necessary that a poem should rely on its music, but if it does rely on its music that music must be such as will delight the expert" (Ezra Pound, ''A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste'',1913). Take ''The River-Merchant's Wife: a Letter'' as an example, Pound translated Chinese poem into a prose than a rhymed poem, and to this extent his emphasis is more on the other side as himself said that he agreed that music was important but he didn't take it as a priority. He believed that poems could be divided into three kinds, and poems of sounds is one of them. Poems of sounds could be appreciated without being translated, for its musicality to some extent is untranslatable. But he regarded images as conveyable and was devoted to convey images in Chinese poems to English translations.

Thus we can see, the rhyme and rhythm are as important as images to Wen Yiduo, for he thought these were indispensable ways to convey emotion and arouse feeling. Wen Yiduo asked for not only beauty in image but also beauty in music, and he showed no preference between the two, yet, to Pound, as said in ''A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste'', "It is not necessary that a poem should rely on its music". Wen Yiduo attached so much importance to music, so that he once said, some five-character quatrains of Li Po could not be translated into another language for he believed that Li Po's five-character quatrains were ancient soul in modern cover with decorations added. The beats and syllables form the imposing manner of his poem and once these verses were transplanted into another container, the favor might be lost (Wen Yiduo 1926，1).

====3. Contrast of Wen Yiduo's and Pound's principles in translation of architecture====

Pound studied both Chinese and Japanese poems. Therefore, the structure of his translations can often be traced back to parallelism of Chinese poem as well as the Japanese Haiku.

In a Station of the Metro
The Apparition of these faces in the crowd;
Petals on a wet, black bough.

This is one of Pound's most famous poems and Pound regarded it as his masterpiece of imitation of Japanese Haiku. However, some scholars hold a different view, such as Wu Di, who believed that this poem is closer to an imitation of Chinese parallelism. He listed the reasons as follows: First, the poem has parallel compositions of time and space and contrasts of colors of flower petals and branches. Second, Wu thought that metrical unit of this poem is "word", which is distinct from "syllable" in English poems and Japanese Haiku. Haiku highlighted more on artistic conception than metrical harmony. Besides, this poem paid more attention to the conceptual words than functional words (Wu Di 2007，55-56).

Pound's translation of poems are influenced by forms of folk songs, sonnets, Greek-style lyric poems, and elegy, etc. and it can be traced back to Provence love song, Japanese Haiku and Chinese traditional poetry (Wang Guiming, Liujia 2006，85).

Wen Yiduo is the pioneer of new metrical poems in China and he asked poets to learn from western metrics and combined them with Chinese traditional poems. He advocated that the highest form of art should be "pure form". That is why he called for "beauty of architecture". In Chinese architecture, balance is taken as beauty in tidy form, which is also asked for in poem composed by himself (Cheng Liming 2016，72-73). Wen Yiduo once said that balance was very essential in Chinese aesthetic appreciation, and we could see it in both Chinese architectures and poems. Pattern, syntax, diction and coordination are elements required in a well composed poem.

Thursday
——Edna St. Vincent Millay

And if I loved you Wednesday,

Well, what is that to you?

I do not love you Thursday—

So much is true.

And why you come complaining

Is more than I can see.

I loved you Wednesday,

—yes—but what Is that to me?

礼拜四

即使我礼拜三爱你，

你管它做什么？

礼拜四我并不爱你，

却一点也不错。

我真不懂，你何为还

找着我来纠缠。

礼拜三我爱你—对—

可是那与我又何干？（　——原载1927年11月5日上海《时事新报文艺周刊》第9期）

This is a poem translated by Wen Yiduo which reflects his ideas in poem translation, especially in achieving beauty in architecture. First, this poem consists of two stanzas and in each stanza, the second and the fourth lines are shorter than the first and the third lines. We can see that the translator transferred the original form of the poem into the translation but did a little alternation to achieve a better presentation. In this sentence, "—yes—but what/Is that to me?", to balance the length of sentences, the translator shift the word "—yes—" to the verse before the last one, "礼拜三我爱你—对—" to match the number of words. Another instance in this poem is this sentence -"And why you come complaining/Is more than I can see". To ensure the balance of two stanzas, the translator broke the sentence, "你何为还找着我来纠缠" into two verses, "你何为还/找着我来纠缠"(Fan Shouyi 2004，101-102).

Besides, there is a semantic symmetry designed by the translator. There is no obvious transitional word before the last line of the first stanza but a dash to indicate it. Therefore the author added "却" to echo "可是" in the last line of the last stanza and replaced the dash to achieve the balance in form as well as in meaning. All these efforts of the translator are devoted to achieve the aesthetic sense in architecture(Fan Shouyi 2004，101-102).

In a word, both Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound ask for beauty in form but they draw their nourishment from different places with different focus, for example, Ezra Pound studied and composed Provence love poems and Japanese Haiku. In ''Cathy'', we can see that many classical Chinese poems were translated into prose which are more loose in form, but in Wen Yiduo's translation, he highlighted the structural balance and was stick to Chinese traditional sense of beauty in architecture (Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（2），3).

====4.Conclusion====
To sum up, Ezra Pound as a imagist had absorbed elements in Chinese traditional culture and reinterpreted Chinese images in his translation. What should be emphasized is that his understanding of Chinese poems and images comes from Fenollosa, and ''Cathy'' is rewriting of Fenollosa's writing. In his translation, Ezra Pound calls for artistic conception through the image superimposition. And as for his form of translation, it's more loose than that of Wen Yiduo's, for Ezra Pound though required order in literary works, he didn't take "order" as "balance". His order may exist in his position of images but it does not have to be balance in number of words or pattern of expressions. Being a fan of Li Po, Wen Yiduo even though influenced by vernacular writing movements, Chicago poets, and imagist movements, he advocated the importance of form and highlighted artistic feature of poems, the metric, which was a combination of the old and the new.

Basing on comparisons of Ezra Pound and Wen Yiduo in these three aspects, we come to know that Wen Yiduo was influenced by the imagist movement and he did pay high attention to image-using later in his works, but Wen Yiduo's literary understanding should also be attributed to his family background, China's social environment at that time, and his life experiences. Before he becomes a poet, he is a patriotic citizen. Wen Yiduo's literary works have a solid patriotic foundation and that's why he always tried to maintain Chinese traditional culture and to spread it through literary creations. This explains the elements of traditional Chinese painting and Chinese aesthetic sense of architecture in his poems, as well as the specific Chinese images contained in his poems like chrysanthemum, candler, red bean, etc. It's better to say that Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound are two poets and translators born in a similar social environment than to say that one is an exact imitator of the other. Since they two have their unique cultural background and are both passionate lover of Chinese poems, they naturally share some common features in literary presentations, but there are also distinctions reflecting their own cultural identity like what we discovered in both their own writings and translations.

===V.Reference===

*Ezra Pound. Cathy. ''London: Elkin Mathews, Cork Street Mcmxv.伦敦:埃尔金·马修斯，科克街 Mcmxv''

*Ezra Pound (1913).A Few Don’ts by an Imagiste.[意象派不该做的几件事]. ''Poetry 诗歌''.

*Bei Ta 北塔.(2011).略论闻一多诗歌之英文翻译[On the English Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poems].''中国现代文学研究丛刊 Modern Chinese Literature Researches Series''(12):97-108.

*Cheng Liming 陈历明.(2016).闻一多的诗歌翻译与格律诗学的生成[On Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poetry and the Generation of Metrical Poetics].''文艺理论研究 Theoretical Studies in Literature and Art'' 36(01):64-75.

*Fan Shouyi 范守义.(2004).论诗歌的句法结构美──汉英诗歌比较研究[On the Syntactic Structure of Poetry -- A Comparative Study of Chinese and English Poetry].''外交学院学报 Journal of China *Foreign Affairs University''(04):98-107.

Fu Jianan Zhangli 傅建安,张立.(2019). 论艾兹拉·庞德对闻一多的诗学影响[On Ezra Pound's influence on Wen Yiduo's poetics].''城市学刊 Urban Journal'' 40(05):99-102.

*Guo Wei 郭为.(1988).埃兹拉·庞德的中国汤[The Chinese Soup of Ezra Pound].''读书 Reading''(10):104-110.

*Jiang Hongxin 蒋洪新.(2001).庞德的翻译理论研究[Study on Pound's Translation Theory ].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)Foreign Languages (Journal of Shanghai International Studies University)''(04):77-80.

*Bei Ta 北塔.(2011).略论闻一多诗歌之英文翻译[On the English Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poems].''中国现代文学研究丛刊 Modern Chinese Literature Researches Series''(12):97-108.

*Cheng Liming 陈历明.(2016).闻一多的诗歌翻译与格律诗学的生成[On Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poetry and the Generation of Metrical Poetics].''文艺理论研究 Theoretical Studies in Literature and Art'' 36(01):64-75.

*Jiao Jianping 焦建平.(2001).卡尔·桑德堡与“意象主义”[Carl Sandburg and Imagism].''西北大学学报(哲学社会科学版) Journal of Northwestern University (Philosophy and Social Sciences)''(04):134-137.

*Huang Lina黄丽娜.(2013) 闻一多诗歌翻译研究[Research on the Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poems].''湖南师范大学 Hunan Normal University''.

*Huang Yanjie黄焰结.(2014) 英译李太白——闻一多与小畑薰良译诗对话的文化考量[English Translation of Li Po's Poems-- Cultural Study on Wen Yiduo and Shigeyoshi Obata's Talk on Poetic Translation ].''外语教学与研究 Foreign Language Teaching and Research'' 46(04):605-615+641.

*Lv Jing 吕进.(2005)三大重建:新诗,二次革命与再次复兴[Three Major Reconstructions: New Poetry, the Second Revolution and Rejuvenation ].''西南师范大学学报(人文社会科学版)Journal of Southwest Normal University (Humanities and Social Sciences edition)''(01):130-135.

*Sun Dangbo, Yuan Zhengchun 孙党伯袁春正.(1993).闻一多全集. [Complete Works of Wen Yiduo] ''武汉：湖北人民出版社 Wuhan: Hubei People's Publishing House.''12

*Wu Di吴笛.(2007)论庞德“在地铁车站”中的汉诗特性[On Characteristics of Chinese Poetry in Pound's ''In a Station of the Metro''].''外国文学研究 FOREIGN LITERATURE STUDIES''(05):53-57.

*Wen Yiduo.(1926)英译李太白诗[English translation of Li Po's poems]''《北平晨报》副刊 Supplement to Peiping Morning Post''.

*Wang Guiming, Liu Jia王贵明,刘佳.(2006)今韵古风——论埃兹拉·庞德诗歌翻译和创作中的仿古倾向[Archaic Style in Modern Form-- On the Archaic Tendency in Ezra Pound's Poetry Translation and Creation].''北京理工大学学报(社会科学版)Journal of Beijing University of Science and Engineering (Social Sciences Edition)''(06):79-85.

*Xin Chunsheng辛春生.(2011) 闻一多《忆菊》诗的绘画美新探[A new Exploration on the Beauty of Painting of Wen Yiduo's Poem "Reminicence of Chrysanthemum"].''名作欣赏 Master Pieces
Review''(35):28-29.

==A Comparative Study of Two Chinese Versions of ''The Moon and Sixpence'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory 彭丹 Peng Dan==
<center> 彭丹 Peng Dan 202020080631 日语语言文学</center>

===Abstract===
With the development of cultural exchanges among all countries, more and more famous works, novels and films have been translated into many versions for people to enjoy. It has become a headache for many translators to realize the original style. In 1969, Eugene Nida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward the theory of functional equivalence, which focuses on the realization of communication between different cultures and languages. This thesis, from the perspective of functional equivalence, through comparing Fu Weici's and Li Jihong's two Chinese versions of ''The Moon and Sixpence'', which written by Maugham, sums up the way to realize the equivalence of words, sentences and semantics during the translation and the way to present the readers' response. Some scholars think that the functional equivalence theory ignores the equivalence of form and the style of the original work. However, the theory of functional equivalence is derived from practice, so its achievements are obvious and it makes great contribution to translation. In this paper, the author will propose that the form equivalence does not affect the reader's understanding of the original work. This paper focuses on the application of functional equivalence theory in the two versions and describes how translators realize the equivalence of meaning, form and cultural equivalence. In the end, the author will give opinions on the theory of functional equivalence and have a commentation on which version is more suitable for readers

===KEY WORDS:===
Functional Equivalence; Formal Equivalence; Reader's Response

===题目===
功能对等理论视角下《月亮与六便士》的两个汉译本对比研究

===摘要===
随着各国文化交流的发展，越来越多的名著、小说或影视作品被译成多种版本供人们欣赏。如何完美地展现原著的风采是让众多译者感到头疼的事情。1969年，美国著名翻译理论学家尤金.奈达提出的功能对等理论，强调实现不同文化、语言之间的沟通对等，侧重读者的反映。本文从功能对等理论的视角，通过对比研究傅惟慈和李继宏关于《月亮与六便士》的两个中文译本，总结出译者在小说翻译的过程中是如何实现单词、句子、语义和文化的对等以及实现读者的反映。有学者认为功能对等理论忽略了形式的对等和原著的文体，但功能对等理论源于实践，它的成果有目共睹并为翻译界做出了巨大贡献。本文会提及译者在翻译过程中所忽略的形式对等并不影响读者对原著的理解，侧重描写功能对等理论在这两本译文中的应用，并详细描写它是如何实现意思、形式以及文化的对等。最后我会提出自己对于功能对等理论的见解，并评判出我认为更加适合读者的译本。
===关键词===

功能对等；沟通对等；读者反映

===1. Introduction===

====1.1 Research Background====

Coincident with the development of cultural globalization, more and more foreign literary works are translated into Chinese for domestic people to read and appreciate. Whereas after reading the original works which have been translated frequently, we may still feel that there are many regrets in most works. On the one hand, if the translators only quest corresponding words, it may limit the reader's thought in a large aspect so that the readers couldn't deeply understand the emotion that the author wants to express. On the other hand, if the translators only pursue semantics and thought, it probably can not reflect the profound meaning of a word which the author wants to express. Furthermore, there are many differences between eastern and western cultures and everyone has their own style of expression. If a translator has polarity style for the original author to translate his works, the difference between the two may be obvious. In order to show the original works better and reduce the difference between source language and target language, Eugene Nida, according to the nature of translation, puts forward the famous Functional Equivalence Theory. It states that translation is not only the equivalence of words, but also the equivalence of style, semantic and type of writing. The information conveyed by translation not only includes the surface information but also the deepe culture information.(Nida 1984,21）

====1.2 Literature Review====

In 1969, Eugene Nida put forward the functional equivalence theory. In 1986, he published a book which called From One Language to Another. This work is a representative in his theoretical pursuit of translation. He also made numerous amendments and supplements according with his previous translation theories. He used the "functional equivalence" to replace the "dynamic equivalence".

From nearly five years of development at home and abroad, we can see that the functional equivalence theory not only involves the translation of novels but also the news, politics, traditional Chinese medical name, the loaded culture words, the road science and technology, drama and other related aspects of text translation and film translation etc.. After searching the published papers, we could find some papers which use the perspective of functional equivalence theory. Such as Zhou Xiaohui's "Translating Strategies of Movie and TV Scripts from English to Chinese from the Perspective of Functionalist Equivalence: as Shown in the Translation of the Script of Crash", published in Beijing Foreign Studies University. And Chen Anqi's "Applying Nida's Functional Equivalence to the Translation of the Non-Technical Part of Sci-tech Texts", published in Beijing Foreign Studies University and etc.

In 1919, Maugham's ''The Moon and Sixpence'' was published which described a British painter went to south Pacific Tahiti and had the primitive life with the Indigenous people here. And ultimately he became the successful painter. In China, there are numerous translation versions about ''The Moon and Sixpence''. In this thesis, I want to introduce Fu Weici's translation version and Li Jihong's tra versions in particular and compare these two Chinese versions.

====1.3 Research Methodology====

1. Literature study: in order to get the first-hand information of the functional equivalence theory, it is necessary for us to read many literature such as taking the thesis and journals in the CNKI or VIP. Through these materials, we can learn a lot unknown and complete the thesis more comprehensive.

2. Example-analysis: in this thesis, I will list a majority of examples. These examples are classified on words, sentences and semantics etc.. At the same time, this thesis will also illustrate some examples which do not seem to achieve the functional equivalence. Through these examples we can get a better understanding of the functional equivalence theory and its characteristic in application.

3. Comparative study: in this thesis, I will choose Fu Weici's and Li Jihong's Chinese versions to make comparison in words, style, culture and semantics. By comparing the differences of the two Chinese versions, we can have a deeper understanding on the functional equivalence theory in application.

4. Summarize experience: This thesis will take the summarize experience of two Chinese versions to show their relation with functional equivalence and the difference between them. This thesis will also list some summarize experience which maybe not be suitable for translation.

===2. The Functional Equivalence Theory===

====2.1 Introduction of Eugene Nida====

Eugene Nida is an outstanding theorist in translation in American. And his translation theory largely influence on the translation works in both foreign countries and domestic land. His theory on the translation is a landmark of studies in modern translation. Moreover, in contrast to contemporary theorists, he is evaluated as the most noted theorist.

Eugene Nida was born in a city of Oklahoma on the November 11, 1914. He went to university in Los Angeles where he elected the Greek as the major degree and he found that he liked the Bible. Then he created outstanding academic records during the university. Afterwards, he got master's degree in Greek new translation at Southern California. In 1943, he got his doctor degree after graduation. Then he was employed by American Bible Society and his duty was to check and estimate the publications of the Bible. He needed to provide the services for the missionary translators and given the advices to them about how to translate better. To help the translator to solve the questions about translation and different culture, he went to 85 countries and experienced various aspects of culture and language. In 1970, Eugene Nida was elected as the coordinator for the translations research in United Bible Society. His responsibility is to write the translators handbooks and prepare the materials for teaching the translators and test them. After long, there were many new versions about the bible were sold well all around the world. These new versions about the bible all translated by guidance of the Nida's dynamic equivalence. Eugene Nida has devoted decades to bible translation and he has contributed to the flourishing of the bible translation in twentieth century.

====2.2 Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory====

In the early period of Nida's essays, he emphasized that there were not complete equivalence between two languages so that there were no absolute translation. Subsequently, he devoted to finding the closest equivalence about the nature, on the basis of that, he developed three translation theories which were the formal equivalence theory, the dynamic equivalence theory and the functional equivalence theory.

The formal equivalence that mainly emphasizes the equivalence of language's formal and content. Therefore, in the translation process, the translators often due to excessively focus the grammatical structure of the source language, word's coherence and interior literal meaning so that neglect the target language reader's response, the different culture is the ascribed leads to the target language readers couldn't understand the original meaning. But it also has its own strength like Kelly said it could indicate how the meaning was expressed in original works, preserving un-translated idiom and rhetorical.

The dynamic equivalence theory has no essential difference with functional equivalence theory and it develops from formal equivalence. For avoiding it is often misunderstood that Nida uses the expression of functional equivalence to describe the accuracy of the translation. The former emphasizes the importance of formal and content, the latter more emphasizes on the communication with language and culture.

The functional equivalence is defined as "a term referring to the type of equivalence reflected in a target text which seeks to adapt the functional of the original to suit the specific context in and for which it was produced" in the dictionary. From this definition it indicated functional equivalence not only emphasizes the linguistics and form but also emphasizes the communication of different background. Such as we could translate the "white as frost" to replace the "white as snow" if there isn't snow this word. If both of them are impracticable we could translate into "very very white". Form this example we could deeply understand the definition of the functional equivalence about communication. This theory pays attention to the target language reads' response under the different cultural and language. So he used "the functional equivalence" to replace "the dynamic equivalence" in the year of 1969.(Zhang Dongdong 2015,5)

The functional equivalence had made a great contribution for translation field. But there are also some critics about it by some translation scholars with different perspectives. First some scholars think it pays too attention about readers' repose that neglects the authority of text. They point out that sometimes the reader's response is subjective so it impossible to realize the equivalence of target language according to the readers' response. Secondly some scholars it is the superior to the form equivalence. Therefore it has litter emphasis on the form. As we all known that different countries have the different cultures and there are also great difference on the people's abilities about learning. So it means that it is not necessary to reduce much original difficulty to realize the communicative purpose.(Zhang 2015,7)

Although there are many critics about it, his theories come from the practice and these theories had strong guiding for our translation. What's more, the functional equivalence had solved the long-standing argument between the "literal translation" and the "liberal translation".

====2.3 Research of Functional Equivalence at Home and Abroad====

Presently at home and abroad, the functional equivalence theory's research is mainly focused on the study of translation's guidance of literary works. As opposed to business letters and legal materials, the functional equivalence theory is more inclined to convey the original works' content and connotation rather than grammatical forms. Currently there are majority researches on the versions about ''The Moon and Sixpence'' at home and aboard. However most of them are analyzing the protagonist's characteristic or the author's background and living condition. There are few researches that are about the compassion-studying and analyzing ''The Moon and sixpence'' from the perspective of the functional equivalence theory of Nida.(Liu Qiong 2016,14)

=== 3. Introduction of ''The Moon and Sixpence'' and Its Two Chinese versions===

====3.1 Brief Introduction of ''The Moon and sixpence''====

The moon and sixpence is one of the great works of William Somerset Maugham, a British novelist, written in 1919. The book is sold subject to the condition that is shall not, by way of trade or otherwise, be lent, resold, hired out, or otherwise circulated without the publisher's prior consent in any form of binding or cover other than that in which it is published and without a similar condition. First it published in Great Britain by William Heinemann in 1919. In this novel, Maugham tells the whole story in the first person narrative. This book is based on the French impressionist painter Gauguin's life who originally is a securities broker at the middle-aged. However he gave up everything to the South Pacific island of Tahiti and lived with the indigenous people. Finally he got inspiration and created many masterpieces of art. This novel became popular in the twentieth Century and it revealed the theme of escaping the reality. (Fu Weici 1994,12)

The work relates the content by the first person perspective. The protagonist is a writer who knows about Charles Strickland's family. The family looked happiness and perfectly satisfactory, however, Charles Strickland was always lacking in energy. After long, he left home to Paris that to decide look for his own art.

The protagonist goes to aboard and founds the Charles Strickland who denotes to struggle out of this life which he couldn't drawing absolutely obey his own heart. He firmly left his wife and children with nothing left. Fortunately, his wife found the skills to live well with the children. After five years, the protagonist met Charles Strickland in Paris that he lived in poverty and no friends with him but he still immersed his dream and never felt regret. His talent increasingly got the recognition during the progress of quest the art. (Fu 1994,136)

Latterly he decided to abandon the civilized life to the original islands in the South Pacific island of Tahiti where the protagonist met by chance. Charles Strickland married a native girl and had three children, spending three years short of happiness.

Finally the children died and he also had leprosy. Eventually, he finished a piece of work on the wall when he was blind. The native wife buried him, according to his wishes, destroyed his work on the wall which makes the protagonist feel regret. However the protagonist understood his pursuit in his paintings. (Fu 1994,198)

After the publishing of ''The Moon and Sixpence'', it attracts the readers by the plots and profound words and it makes a noise in the world.

====3.2 The Characteristics of the language====

Maugham is recognized the British with deeply influence of French literary. The largest characteristic of his work is that the language is humorous and interesting for readers. This mainly comes down to the fact that he is good at conceiving and telling stories. What's more it also in addition to what he often shows in his novels. Maugham's text is not tense and there are always cold tone of a British style detached from outside the novels and readers.

His works inevitably have some acrimonious words which could accurately describe the social reality by he own sees and hears. For in ''The Moon and Sixpence'' when he describes the success of the Charles Strickland that he write "I do not speak of that greatness which is achieved by the fortunate politician or the successful soldier; that is a quality which belongs to the place he occupies rather than to the man; and a change of circumstance reduces it to very discreet proportions. The prime Minister out of office is seen, too often, to have been but a pompous rhetorician, and the General without an army is but the tame hero of a market town. The greatness of Charles Strickland was authentic. It may be that you do not like his art, but at all events you can hardly refuse it the tribute of your interest. He disturbs and arrests." By these sentences we can know about the success clearly of the Charles Strickland by comparison. It may be that these languages are too direct to attack politicians and generals, but we can't deny the fact. Maugham's writing style is short and humorous and we can see the reality of society quickly by his text. (Guo Xiaoling 2014,4)

The novel describes Charles Strickland's feeling with three different women's. These three women basically represent the characteristics of the world most women. The first woman is most common who quest the materialistic, selfish, good face, and with a direct survival instinct. The second women considers the love is supremacy and she is weak and locking the ability to survive. The most pure is his third women. Maybe we couldn't define her feeling to Charles Strickland. Their marriage is like a merger of similar items, she lived just for him and she has been with him together. In my opinion, these three women are sympathy-worthy and pitiful. Since if eventually Charles Strickland said “Women are strange little beasts. You can treat them like dogs, you can beat them till your arm aches, and still they love you." These sentences are very simple neither too many gorgeous words nor long winded repetition words. However it is always able to impress deeply you from the heart and it can let you know what the emotion the author wants to express. (Guo 2014,4)

Likely these instances, Charles Strickland took keen to pursuit his own dream and he does not care these things around him so that he can't understand why women will follow him without any condition. He thinks they are sympathy-worthy and stupid. In order to vividly embody this feeling, the woman is compared to a dog. Even though you treat them as the dog, they still do not abandon you and love you as before. Through these words I believe that although you haven't read this book you could also understand the meaning which the author wants to express. Charles Strickland hates the limit of loving and family and he also couldn't feel the women's feeling. (Cao Jing 2013,2)

Charles Strickland shrugged his shoulders and said "Of course, it is one of the most absurd illusions of Christianity that they have souls." This sentence through the description of that they have the soul reflected that the pure in his heart. And he pitied them only because he thinks people have more important things to pursue and the people should follow their own heart to do what they want to do. He thinks women have souls, but they don't realize what they really want to do. Maugham's character and the inner world of the characters reflected in the simple humorous sentences have to admit that a simple sentence has a huge amount of information.

====3.3 Introduction of Fu Weici's and Li Jihong's Chinese Versions====

Fu Weici was born in Harbin in 1923. He is the remarkable translator of modern literary. Fu Weici worked in western language and literature respectively in the Fu Jen Catholic University, Zhejiang University and Peking University. He graduated from Peking University in 1950 and worked in Tsinghua University and Peking University for the job of Chinese teaching. Eventually he died in March 16, 2014 at the age of 91. As far as I am concerned and researching from computer, Fu Weici' version is more simple and there are a lot of language are very straightforward and particularly close to the social situation at that time. There are even a lot of vernacular and dialect. But this version is more close to the original so that the story does not seem boring.

Li Jihong was born in 1980 and his native is Guangdong, now resides in Shanghai. He is also remarkable translator but younger than Fu Weici. His publication has millions of best-selling translation of Kite Runne, conversations with God, the great Gatsby, the little prince and so on. His contributions are covering novels, prose, translations of sociology, economics, philosophy and religion etc. Comparing Fu Weici's version, Li Jihong's version is more close to people's voice habits and there are many languages are very smooth and complete, giving people a sense of comfort and in the language it has also increased a lot of modern elements. The specific differences of the two translations will be put forward in the following article.

===4. A Comparative Study of ''The Moon and Sixpence'''s Two Chinese versions===

====4.1 A Comparative Study on the Meaning====

=====4.1.1 A Comparative Study on the Designative Meaning=====

The designative meaning refers to referents in the realistic world. It is mainly based on observation of world's objects and experience and it is objective and easy to understand. The translators are easy to achievement equivalence of expression in another language to translate the word's designative meaning.

There are some instances of the two versions of ''The Moon and Sixpence'' following.

Example 1: "All we know is that the blackguard gone to Paris."

Fu Weici's version: "我们只知道那个流氓跑到巴黎去了。"

Li Jihong's version: "我们只知道那混蛋去了巴黎。"

In this word, we can see that either 流氓 Or 混蛋 are all to describe Charles Strickland and expresses the people's resentful to him. In the original work the author uses blackguard to describe Charles Strickland. The most meaning of this word is 流氓 and there is rarely 混蛋 this meaning on the Internet. If we translate it into 流氓 that we could understand that this people are homeless and are derelict in duty and run irrelevant business. And this people show low-down means or break the law and so on. Another if we translate into 混蛋 that expresses this person are unreasonable and are impervious to reason. In the original work the Charles Strickland abandon his wife and children without leaving anything and there are not any wrongs with his wife. We can learn from the post that he just to pursuit his dream and he considers the loving is the obstacle for him. The people around his wife all mostly think that he had mistress and he is heartless. From this we can see that he did not do the heinous thing or violate the law, merely because what he has done attracted people's discontent. Therefore I consist it is more appropriated to translate the blackguard into 混蛋. The 流氓 just release the equivalence of meaning. However the 混蛋 release the equivalence of functuionsal. (Cao Jing 2013,23)

Example 2: "It was about five years after this."

Fu Weici's version: "这件事过去大约五年之后。"

Li JIhong's version: "大概过了五年。"

The after five years it has happened a important thing and it points the Charles Strickland abandon his wife and children with nothing to left. The author mostly emphasize the protagonist had underwent this thing and it had influenced him. Moreover the main plot of this article is to express Charles Strickland's experience and his life of persuading his dream.

In first version Fu Weici points this thing but it doesn't be referred in Li Jihong's. So I think when the translators translating this sentence they need translate this thing.

Example 3: "The satyr in him suddenly took possession, and he was powerless in the grip of an instinct which had all the strength of the primitive forces of nature."

Fu Weici's version: "他内心深处的那个半人半兽的东西把他捉到手里,在这种具有大自然的原始力量的天性的掌心里他完全无能威力。"

Li Jihong's version: "他内心的兽欲猝然发难，而他根本无力摆脱那种本能的操控。"

The satyr of this sentence points to thought that he does not want love and he hasn't time for it but he is a man and sometimes he wants a woman. He hates this state but he couldn't control himself. By comparing the two versions, I think Li Jihong's translation is better than Fu Weici's. In the dictionary the satyr points a man who has strong sexual desire and is amorist. And in the Myths of Greece and Rome it points the God of half man and half beast. The first version reflects the equivalence of words' meaning. And later he used the power of nature to indicate this power. We can see that he mostly translates by word to word and it closes to the original's language characteristic. The second translators pay more attention to cultural equivalence and the influence of modern elements. Li Jihong translates the satyr into sexual desire and he describes this power is the instinct of the people. As far as I am concerned, the satyr points the sexual desire and it is the instinct which people couldn't control. (Cao Jing 2013,2)

=====4.1.2 A Comparative Study on the Associative Meaning=====

The associative meaning is an expression of the speakers by individual mental understandings. Sometimes the correct and faithful translation needs correct translating of designative Meaning and it is basis of language. However the associative meaning also is very important. There are different associative meanings though the terms have the same images. Because with the different culture and language that the readers have the different understanding. A closest equivalence of natural translation requires the target readers to fully and positively appreciate corresponding message of source text. For translating the source language's associative meaning, the translators need figure out correct associative meaning's expression. And they need do proper responses to original readers that can get from source text. Eventually the translators make the equivalence between the source text readers and target text readers.(Sun Zhili 1997,2）

Example 1: "Yes, she hadn't a drop of white blood in her."

Fu Weici's version: "是的,一滴白人的血液也没有。"

Li Jihong's version: "是的,她的身上没有半滴白人的血。"

It's about the last journey of Strickland's life, he met his wife who was indigent and without a drop of white. This sentence emphasizes she is born at here and she doesn't touch the white at all. In the Fu Weici's version, he translates a drop of white into 一滴白人的血,however in Li Jihong's, it is translated 半滴白人的血. Comparing to the original description of a drop of a blood, the later more reflects the equivalence of associative meaning and more vividly describing that she was native. 半滴 always is translated into half a drop in English. Although the translation here uses a half drop instead of a drop, I still don't think there is any not equivalence. There is not much difference between a drop and a half drop in the number, but in the degree of modification the half a drop more deeply to embody the noting. And the half drop is more strengthening the tone. From without a drop or a half drop of white to describe she is native, which indicates the equivalence of associative meaning. As far as I concerned, in this sentence, Li Jihong's version is better than Fu Weici's version.(Sun 1997,2）

Example 2: "Strickland had burst the bonds that hitherto had held him."

Fu Weici's version: "思特里克兰德已经把那一直束缚着的桎梏打碎了。"

Li Jihong's version: "思特里克兰已经打破了禁锢他的桎梏。"

"桎梏" is instruments of torture in ancient China and it is called "桎" when is worn on hand, on the contrast, it is called "梏" when is worn on foot. This thing usually used to punish the people who had committed a crime. In this part, the original work used the bonds to describe "桎梏". In the dictionary the bonds point to imprison or confine somebody to do something and make people not free. Foreigners who don't understand the Chinese culture maybe can't understand what the shackles are. However in China, almost every reader knows it and the meaning what it wants to express if they know the shackles is instruments of torture. In original work, the author wants to express Strickland had burst the bonds of thought that hitherto had held him. In the version of Fu Weici and Li Jihong, they both translate the Strickland broke the shackles which always constrained him on the thought. As we all know, thought is a thing which we could not see and grasp, and it is impossible for us to restrain a thing which is not exist with instruments of torture. Yet the translators translate that the shackles that constrain the thought. From using a real thing to show a thing which is not existing, we could deeply feel the thing that does not exist as if it were real. Although the shackles are different with bonds in the surface meaning, they both express the confine of thought and they are equivalence in associative meaning.（Wang Jia 2014,31）

====4.2 A Comparative Study on the Level of Style====

=====4.2.1 A Comparative Study on the Metaphor or Simile=====

Example 1: "He reminded you of a frightened sheep running aimlessly hither and thither."

Fu Weici's version: "像一只受了惊的小羊，没有目的地东跑西窜，张皇失措，晕头转向。"

Li Jihong's version: "他像慌不择路、到处乱跑的绵羊。"

The "小羊" refers to the sheep which small and relating thin, it does not specifically what kind of sheep. By comparing it the "绵羊" is more specific. When it comes to "绵羊", the first impression is timid and easily bullied. In the original work, the author described him like a frightened sheep. He did not point which kind of sheep but we could feel the sheep's fear and weak. Even more we could fell the sheep is timid and fearsome. Fu weici describes the sheep is little sheep. From little sheep we also could feel the meaning what the author wants to express. In Li jiong's version, he translates the sheep into Bujumbura. From Bujumbura we could know the sheep's character. Nowadays, when we express one person is timid and obedient. Usually we could use the Bujumbura. From sheep to little sheep or Bujumbura, we all were able to realize the Strickland's friend respects him and cherishes his talent. When he met Strickland’s work he felt that he was a clown. He wanted to destroy it but he is afraid. He loved his work and talent from the heart. From this sentence we know that the author and translators all use the way of metaphor. They compared Strickland friend to frightened sheep running aimlessly hither and thither. In my opinion, I more like the Li Jihong’s version because the jumbuck is more closed to our modern life. Although the original work doesn't show the kind of sheep however through metaphor we could realize the degree of the people's fear.（Wang 2014,31）

Example 2: "She was desire."

Fu Weici's version: "成了欲念的化身。"

Li Jihong's version: "她变成了欲望的化身。"

The author uses the rhetorical devices of simile in the sentence. He is desire that the two translators both compared him to the embodiment of desire. There aren't essential difference between the "欲念" and "欲望". They both express the desire for getting something. The former most points the desire of getting something in thought. The latter more inclined to express the desire for a specific thing. In original work, the author describes Strickland just pursuit the satisfaction of physiology. He only uses women to satisfy his desire and not really love them. He hated the woman just pursuit the love in life especially when he met the second woman. He didn't give her any more birthright and he didn't get married with her. He just wanted her to satisfy his desire of physiology. So when he was asked why he was with her he said that he just wanted her. The two translators both realize the equivalence of simile through compare him to the embodiment of desire.（Wang 2014,32）

Example 3: "I don't disapprove of the boa-constrictor; on the contrary, I'm interested in his mental processes."

Fu Weici's version: "我对蟒蛇的习性并不反对，相反我对它的心理活动倒很感兴趣。"

Li Jihong's version: "我并不鄙视毒蛇，恰恰相反，我对他的思维过程很有兴趣。"

The main features of "蟒蛇" is thick and long and it is the largest snakes compared to more primitive snakes in the world. "毒蛇" refers to the snakes which could secrete special venom. They are found of using stratagem to attract the vicious. They are beautiful animals, but also the embodiment of evil. In the original work, the author wants to express the protagonist’s dissatisfaction with his action. He abandoned his wife and two lovely children with leaving nothing. Even more he didn't feel this mistake and he had no need to take responsibility for them. In the eyes of ordinary people this is totally inconsistent with common sense. The true husband should love his wife and take care of the family. So many people think he is cold-bloode and the protagonist is no exception. The author uses the boa to describe. The Strickland's action calls the opposition from the people. Fu Weici translates the boa into the "蟒蛇". According to the introduction of the python, we can see that the boa is larger and they are carnivores. But these maybe the result of natural selection and these are not their nature is bad. On the contrary, the "毒蛇" are different and they are the real bad guys and they are devil incarnate. Through the description of the original text, we can know that the hero complained that he abandoned his family and he was not human. So I think compare him to "毒蛇" is more appropriate. It reflects his cold-bloodedness and unfeeling.（Wang 2014,33）

=====4.2.2 A Comparative Study on the Repetition=====

Example 2: "I will never have him in my house-never."

Fu Weici's version: "我永远也不让他进咱们的家门-永远也不让。"

Li Jihong's version: "我绝不让他踏进我的家-绝不。"

Never and absolutely not both describe the no. However the latter tone is more serious. Repetition is to emphasize a certain meaning and it is to highlight a certain emotion. Especially when using some certain repetition of words, sentences or paragraphs. Through this chapter, we can see that Strickland is ill, however, Mrs. Stroeve against him to move to her home. She says "I will never have him in my house-never". Two repetition of "never" shows the Mrs. Stroeve's firm attitude. After reading, we can know the reason why she firmly opposed because she did not want to admit that she was falling in love with a penniless pauper, and he does not have what advantage. She was afraid to see him because she was afraid that it would come true. So we can know that she is very reluctant Strickland to come to her house for recuperating. The repetition of never and absolutely not both could reflect this feeling.（Zhao Dandan 2011,54）

====4.3 A Comparative Study on the Cultural Transmission====

The culture is very complicated and it refers to the entire way of life in the society. It involves many aspects that knowledge, art, law, translation and other habits in the society. Eugene Nida depicts the relationship between the culture and language in the translating practice like that in whole translating and interpreting, the source language and the target language should be implicitly or explicitly compared, but all such interlinguas communication extend far beyond the mechanizes of linguistic similarities and difference. The main reason is that the meaning of verbal symbols on every level depends on the communication of culture and language. The language also is a part of culture, and it is the most complicated part of the habits comparing the other culture factors. Language provides access to the culture, reflects culture and in the some aspects it constitutes a model of culture. Eugene Nida also indicates that if there were not so many misunderstandings about the language and the function within a society relation between the culture and the language couldn't constitute such difficulties for intersecting culture understanding.（Zhao 2011,55）

From Eugene Nida's perspective, the language and the culture are closely related. He thinks the words should denote to show the corresponding culture. The language is loaded by culture and the culture is expressed, transmitted, preserved and promoted by language. Thus the translator should take considerable account of the culture factors in their translation. That means the translators should try to find the closed equivalence in the translation of the culture connotation. The translation couldn't beyond the target language readers' acceptance or give them a distorted understanding. On the contrast, the translators need make sure their translations can enable the target language readers to accurately and adequately understand the source texts. "Eugene Nida considers culture as the totality of the beliefs and practices of a society, and classifies culture into five categories: ecological culture, material culture, social culture, religious culture and linguistic culture." (Nida 1964,91)

===5. Conclusion===

====5.1 Evaluation of the Two Chinese Versions====

Through the comparison of the two papers, I prefer to Li Jihong's version. It is more closed to modern reading habits. In this version, functional equivalence is used in many place, which not only the pursuit of literal meaning but the pursuit of the original expression of emotion. By comparing Li Jihong's version, the Fu Weici's version is more reflecting the equivalence of the meaning and sometimes pursuit the equivalence of words. On the other hand, the two versions differ 19 years. With the change of time, cultural background and the reader's preferences also changed. By comparing, the latter's translation is more closed to modern readers' reading habit. More accurately, the latter is more in line with my reading habits.

To summarize, the author hopes that this study may contribute a little to the research field of ''The Moon and Sixpence'' and its translation. What is done in this thesis is just an elementary study concerning translation strategy. There are much more needed to be explored in this field.

====5.2 The Limitation of Present Study====

As all above, this thesis has studied the translation of ''The Moon and Sixpence'' on the aspects on meaning, study and culture. Some examples are analyzed under each type of device to evaluate the two versions of translation based on the functional equivalence theory. However there are too much pages of these two translations, and just some parts of them are taken as examples to discuss in the study in the chapter three of this paper. Therefore, this study may not be comprehensive and it has to be confined due to the author's personal perspective and the limitation of research material and time.

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==Differences in style and language expression in Japanese-English narrative translation 谢子熠 Xie Ziyi==

--[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 14:01, 9 December 2020 (UTC)

'''Abstract:''' When Japanese narrative texts translated into English, the translated versions often have different forms and syntax from the original texts. From the perspective of cognitive linguistics, it is thought that the difference in form and structure is due to the difference in cognitive practices of the actors who recognize and conceptualize the situation in the narrative as a linguistic expression. In the present paper, mainly based on Langacker 's theory, I argue that there are two opposing modes of situation recognition, one in which the conceptualize　perceives the situation objectively from outside and the other in which the conceptualize perceives it subjectively from inside the situation, and that before and after translation, the former is dominant in the English narrative and the latter in the Japanese This study confirms the fact that the trend appears in the trend. The paper concludes with the following points: (1) the present tense in the past-tense story, (2) the clarification of the person who experienced the situation (mainly the subject), and (3) the use of onomatopoeia and mimetic words as useful objects for future contrastive analysis in Japanese and English.

'''Key words:''' Conceptualization, conceptualization, subject (gender), perspective, Japanese-English translation

'''1. Introduction'''

In one study, I contrasted Soseki Natsume's "I am a Cat" with its Chinese translation, focusing on the use of poses, and found that there were far more examples of translating the original passive sentence into the active voice than the reverse. This means that it is essentially a misuse (or non-use) of Chinese to express its context passively. It can be said that I consciously changed the form of expression to the Chinese form from the perspective that it would be a good fit. Even if the Japanese conception is natural for the passive, it may be an unnatural idea that does not fit in with the Chinese language. The same can be said for the translation of narrative text in Japanese and English. Japanese to English and vice versa. In both cases, the forms and syntax used in the translated language are often different from those in the original.

In one study, I contrasted Soseki Natsume's "I am a Cat" with its Chinese translation, focusing on the use of poses, and found that there were far more examples of translating the original passive sentence into the active voice than the reverse. This means that it is essentially a misuse (or non-use) of Chinese to express its context passively. It can be said that I consciously changed the form of expression to the Chinese form from the perspective that it would be a good fit. Even if the Japanese conception is natural for the passive, it may be an unnatural idea that does not fit in with the Chinese language. The same can be said for the translation of narrative text in Japanese and English. Japanese to English and vice versa. In both cases, the forms and syntax used in the translated language are often different from those in the original.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

This paper considers the above-mentioned problems in the translation of Japanese and English narrative texts within the framework of cognitive linguistics. In cognitive linguistics, every linguistic expression reflects the subject's interpretation of the situation it represents; in other words, the subject conceptualizes the situation it perceives on its own initiative, and the product of that interpretation is the linguistic expression. In other words, subjects conceptualize the situation they perceive on their own, and the product is their linguistic expression. If different forms of expression and syntax used to express the same situation before and after Japanese/English translation, the degree of subjectivity of the cognitive subject's interpretation is different.

This paper considers the above-mentioned problems in the translation of Japanese and English narrative texts within the framework of cognitive linguistics. In cognitive linguistics, every linguistic expression reflects the subject's interpretation of the situation it represents; in other words, the subject conceptualizes the situation it perceives on its own initiative, and the product of that interpretation is the linguistic expression. In other words, subjects conceptualize the situation they perceive on their own, and the product is their linguistic expression. If different forms of expression and syntax used to express the same situation before and after Japanese/English translation, the degree of subjectivity of the cognitive subject's interpretation is different.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Based on this concept, the present paper structured as follows. First, we mainly support previous studies and this "subjectivity" and "conceptualization" and their closely related "perspectives" and "perspectives". The concepts of cognitive linguistics that form the basis of the analysis are presented, and at the same time, these concepts are used as the basis for the analysis of Japanese and English. I will describe the differences in the style of situation recognition in the language. Next, we will describe them in the narrative sentences of Japanese and English. In the following section, we present the framework of "cognitive narrative" contrastive research, which is applied to the contrastive analysis of The following are some examples of the use of the present tense in past tense stories in Japanese and English narratives via translation use, the clarification of the cognoscenti, and the use of onomatopoeia and mimetic words. We have shown that differences found in English and that it is the style of situational awareness in Japanese and English differences. In addition, in Section 4, we will show a concrete example of this in the actual Japanese English Briefly presented with examples of analysis of the translation of narrative sentences, and in the final section as the cornerstone of the subsequent specific linguistic analysis. We shall describe the prospects. In other words, this thesis is the first of many Japanese English narrative texts and their adaptations in the future. Contrast analysis with the translated version and consider the stylistic and syntactic differences between the Japanese and English versions. In doing so, we will focus on the above perspectives from the framework of cognitive linguistics, and thus we will be able to translate the narrative text into Japanese and English The purpose is to describe the basis for trying to explore contributions to language typology in terms of it is.

Based on this concept, the present paper structured as follows. First, we mainly support previous studies and this "subjectivity" and "conceptualization" and their closely related "perspectives" and "perspectives". The concepts of cognitive linguistics that form the basis of the analysis are presented, and at the same time, these concepts are used as the basis for the analysis of Japanese and English. I will describe the differences in the style of situation recognition in the language. Next, we will describe them in the narrative sentences of Japanese and English. In the following section, we present the framework of "cognitive narrative" contrastive research, which is applied to the contrastive analysis.

The following are some examples of the use of the present tense in past tense stories in Japanese and English narratives via translation use, the clarification of the cognoscenti, and the use of onomatopoeia and mimetic words. We have shown that differences found in English and that it is the style of situational awareness in Japanese and English differences. In addition, in Section 4, we will show a concrete example of this in the actual Japanese English Briefly presented with examples of analysis of the translation of narrative sentences, and in the final section as the cornerstone of the subsequent specific linguistic analysis. We shall describe the prospects. In other words, this thesis is the first of many Japanese English narrative texts and their adaptations in the future. Contrast analysis with the translated version and consider the stylistic and syntactic differences between the Japanese and English versions. In doing so, we will focus on the above perspectives from the framework of cognitive linguistics, and thus we will be able to translate the narrative text into Japanese and English The purpose is to describe the basis for trying to explore contributions to language typology in terms of it is.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

'''2. Definitions of cognitive linguistic concepts'''

Since language is a product of human activities, it is not in itself independent of the language user. Rather, all linguistic expressions reflect the subjective and subjective interpretation of the language user subject. The "subject" is, specifically, the language in which a situation verbalized. It is the subject of conceptualization, and at the same time, it is the conceptualizer that interprets the situation that the linguistic expression represents. In other words, as a conceptualizer, the language user is the subject that first recognizes the situation around him or her, conceptualizes it subjectively, and then expresses it in language. Behind every linguistic expression, there is always a conceptualizer who interprets the situation it represents. Perspective" is a concept that focuses on the role of this conceptualizer. It includes (i) orientation, (ii) vantage point, (iii) directonality, (iv) how subjectively or objectively one interprets an entity (i.e., how subjectively or objectively It contains four elements: (anentity is construed). To recognize a situation, the conceptualizer stands on a standpoint and perceives the situation from there. The concept that encompasses the conceptualizer's standpoint and the direction of his or her gaze is the "viewpoint" (viewpoint). In other words, "viewpoint" is a concept that encompasses not only the position from which one looks at an object, but also the extent to which one interprets an object as subject-object. The subject interprets the situation by focusing on the subjectively selected perspective, and reflects it in words. And then individual language expressions are produced on that basis.

Since language is a product of human activities, it is not in itself independent of the language user. Rather, all linguistic expressions reflect the subjective and subjective interpretation of the language user subject. The "subject" is, specifically, the language in which a situation verbalized. It is the subject of conceptualization, and at the same time, it is the conceptualizer that interprets the situation that the linguistic expression represents. In other words, as a conceptualizer, the language user is the subject that first recognizes the situation around him or her, conceptualizes it subjectively, and then expresses it in language.

Behind every linguistic expression, there is always a conceptualizer who interprets the situation it represents. Perspective" is a concept that focuses on the role of this conceptualizer. It includes (i) orientation, (ii) vantage point, (iii) directonality, (iv) how subjectively or objectively one interprets an entity (i.e., how subjectively or objectively It contains four elements: (anentity is construed). To recognize a situation, the conceptualizer stands on a standpoint and perceives the situation from there. The concept that encompasses the conceptualizer's standpoint and the direction of his or her gaze is the "viewpoint" (viewpoint). In other words, "viewpoint" is a concept that encompasses not only the position from which one looks at an object, but also the extent to which one interprets an object as subject-object. The subject interprets the situation by focusing on the subjectively selected perspective, and reflects it in words. And then individual language expressions are produced on that basis.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In cognitive linguistics, these concepts considered to produce linguistic expressions, and it is known that the subject that produces the linguistic expressions perceives the situation in various cognitive modes when it conceptualizes the situation. There are cases in which the subject grasps the object of conceptualization objectively from the outside, and there are cases in which the subject grasps the situation as a part of the situation. There are also cases in which the situation is grasped as neither subject nor object, but rather as an existence that forms the situation. In other words, depending on the perspective of the subject, the same situation can be interpreted in several ways.

In cognitive linguistics, these concepts considered to produce linguistic expressions, and it is known that the subject that produces the linguistic expressions perceives the situation in various cognitive modes when it conceptualizes the situation. There are cases in which the subject grasps the object of conceptualization objectively from the outside, and there are cases in which the subject grasps the situation as a part of the situation. There are also cases in which the situation is grasped as neither subject nor object, but rather as an existence that forms the situation. In other words, depending on the perspective of the subject, the same situation can be interpreted in several ways.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Based on the above conceptualization and discussion, I will confirm the facts that have been pointed out in the previous Japanese/English contrastive studies. It has been said that English is a language that prefers objective expressions, while Japanese is a language that prefers subjective expressions. While English native speakers tend to grasp the situation objectively, Japanese native speakers tend to grasp the situation subjectively. Unlike English native speakers, Japanese native speakers tend to place themselves in a situation and directly grasp the situation as a whole by feeling it with their own bodies. In Japanese, there are many linguistic expressions that express subjective meanings that reflect this kind of cognition of a situation. In other words, in English, linguistic expressions that reflect a point of view taken outside of a situation are prototypical, and linguistic expressions that express subjective meanings established through the special process of manifesting conceptual operations. On the other hand, at least in Japanese, it is more prototypical to take a point of view into a situation and express a subjective and subjective understanding of the situation through it.

Based on the above conceptualization and discussion, I will confirm the facts that have been pointed out in the previous Japanese/English contrastive studies. It has been said that English is a language that prefers objective expressions, while Japanese is a language that prefers subjective expressions. While English native speakers tend to grasp the situation objectively, Japanese native speakers tend to grasp the situation subjectively. Unlike English native speakers, Japanese native speakers tend to place themselves in a situation and directly grasp the situation as a whole by feeling it with their own bodies.

In Japanese, there are many linguistic expressions that express subjective meanings that reflect this kind of cognition of a situation. In other words, in English, linguistic expressions that reflect a point of view taken outside of a situation are prototypical, and linguistic expressions that express subjective meanings established through the special process of manifesting conceptual operations. On the other hand, at least in Japanese, it is more prototypical to take a point of view into a situation and express a subjective and subjective understanding of the situation through it.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Furthermore, the following facts have been identified as characteristic characteristics of the linguistic representation of Japanese stories. There are two attitudes to narrative expression in Japanese writing: one is to explain the development of the situation from the standpoint of an observer, and the other is to describe it as such from the author's point of view. In addition, there is a proactive narrative attitude of accepting events from the point of view of the characters in the story. Moreover, one is allowed to use them all at will, sometimes even shifting to a different level of narrative attitude. For example, in addition to the author, there may be another person in the story, and the story described from that person's point of view. In other words, there is a shift in perspective in the relationship between the two parties in the story. In other words, there is a shift in point of view from a bystander to a character in the story. In other cases, when explaining a topical scene, the author does not look down on the overall geographical situation with the eyes of a bystander, but rather passively perceives the scene from his own point of view within the realm of the story. Here, too, we can see the peculiarity of the Japanese language way of thinking. In any case, what is prototypical in the Japanese language is a mode of situational awareness that conceptualizes and expresses a situation from a point of view within the context of a situation.

Furthermore, the following facts have been identified as characteristic characteristics of the linguistic representation of Japanese stories. There are two attitudes to narrative expression in Japanese writing: one is to explain the development of the situation from the standpoint of an observer, and the other is to describe it as such from the author's point of view. In addition, there is a proactive narrative attitude of accepting events from the point of view of the characters in the story. Moreover, one is allowed to use them all at will, sometimes even shifting to a different level of narrative attitude. For example, in addition to the author, there may be another person in the story, and the story described from that person's point of view.

In other words, there is a shift in perspective in the relationship between the two parties in the story. In other words, there is a shift in point of view from a bystander to a character in the story. In other cases, when explaining a topical scene, the author does not look down on the overall geographical situation with the eyes of a bystander, but rather passively perceives the scene from his own point of view within the realm of the story. Here, too, we can see the peculiarity of the Japanese language way of thinking. In any case, what is prototypical in the Japanese language is a mode of situational awareness that conceptualizes and expresses a situation from a point of view within the context of a situation.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

'''3. Cognitive Narrative Theory'''

Before going into a specific translation analysis of Japanese and English narrative sentences, it is necessary to describe here the basic idea of cognitive narrative theory as its foundation.

If we define narrative as a formal text in which a speaker, who is a cognitive subject, manipulates the narrator to convey the situation he or she grasps (constructs) to the receiver, the problematic aspect of cognitive narrative theory is how the cognitive subject perceives and expresses the event or event. From this perspective, it can be said that the perspective of how we perceive a situation plays an important role in narrative structure. Even when describing the same object, the way of describing it differs depending on the viewpoint from which the object viewed. The narrative world reflects the dynamic cognitive process of the subject presenting that world. This kind of cognitive process is created by the subject's mode of interpretation, such as viewpoint projection, gaze movement/transformation, etc. The subject's cognitive processes constrain various aspects of narrative representation, including form and structure.

Before going into a specific translation analysis of Japanese and English narrative sentences, it is necessary to describe here the basic idea of cognitive narrative theory as its foundation.

If we define narrative as a formal text in which a speaker, who is a cognitive subject, manipulates the narrator to convey the situation he or she grasps (constructs) to the receiver, the problematic aspect of cognitive narrative theory is how the cognitive subject perceives and expresses the event or event. From this perspective, it can be said that the perspective of how we perceive a situation plays an important role in narrative structure. Even when describing the same object, the way of describing it differs depending on the viewpoint from which the object viewed. The narrative world reflects the dynamic cognitive process of the subject presenting that world. This kind of cognitive process is created by the subject's mode of interpretation, such as viewpoint projection, gaze movement/transformation, etc. The subject's cognitive processes constrain various aspects of narrative representation, including form and structure.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

If we apply Nishitaya's cognitive narrative theory, a study of Japanese and English narrative texts in terms of translation and contrast will ultimately depend on the differences in cognitive styles between languages, how the subject and conceptualizer of a situation perceives and expresses the situation in language, as well as the form of expression and syntax before and after translation. It can be considered to make a difference above. Hence, in the following, we will first describe typical human cognitive styles and then identify which cognitive style predominantly adopted by Japanese and English as the dominant language. If differences in the predominant tendency of the cognitive style of the situation reflected in both languages clarified, it can be a basis for differences in the forms and syntax produced before and after translation of the same situation.

If we apply Nishitaya's cognitive narrative theory, a study of Japanese and English narrative texts in terms of translation and contrast will ultimately depend on the differences in cognitive styles between languages, how the subject and conceptualizer of a situation perceives and expresses the situation in language, as well as the form of expression and syntax before and after translation. It can be considered to make a difference above. Hence, in the following, we will first describe typical human cognitive styles and then identify which cognitive style predominantly adopted by Japanese and English as the dominant language. If differences in the predominant tendency of the cognitive style of the situation reflected in both languages clarified, it can be a basis for differences in the forms and syntax produced before and after translation of the same situation.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

'''4. Findings from translation studies'''

As mentioned above, the subjective interpretation of the translator enters into the translation. It is impossible in principle for a source text to be objectively interpreted, objectively represented in its meaning, and objectively textualized in the target language on the basis of these objective representations. The act of translation is (1) a single, on-the-spot act of interpretation by the individual translator, which is subject to the indeterminacy of meaning, and (2) a single, on-the-spot act of interpretation by the translator. That is to say, there is an inherent indeterminacy of interpretation of the original text itself, as well as of the linguistic structure of its expression in the target language. Second, at the micro level, the habitus acquired by the individual translator in the professional field of translation plays a role as a control factor and influences the translator's disposition to act in a greater or lesser degree. There are also translation instructions and power dynamics from publishers and clients, as well as political, social, and cultural macro-contextual factors (the main ones being "norms" and "purpose," which will be discussed below) that are behind the translator's disposition to translate. At the same time, the indeterminacy and subjective bias of the translator inherent in the act of translation will inevitably lead to different results in the translation. Therefore, when we make a translation into a counter-language study, we need to pay attention to the (1) linguistic and social actions of the translation act, and (2) the interpretive tendencies of the individual translator.

As mentioned above, the subjective interpretation of the translator enters into the translation. It is impossible in principle for a source text to be objectively interpreted, objectively represented in its meaning, and objectively textualized in the target language on the basis of these objective representations. The act of translation is (1) a single, on-the-spot act of interpretation by the individual translator, which is subject to the indeterminacy of meaning, and (2) a single, on-the-spot act of interpretation by the translator. That is to say, there is an inherent indeterminacy of interpretation of the original text itself, as well as of the linguistic structure of its expression in the target language.

Second, at the micro level, the habitus acquired by the individual translator in the professional field of translation plays a role as a control factor and influences the translator's disposition to act in a greater or lesser degree. There are also translation instructions and power dynamics from publishers and clients, as well as political, social, and cultural macro-contextual factors (the main ones being "norms" and "purpose," which will be discussed below) that are behind the translator's disposition to translate. At the same time, the indeterminacy and subjective bias of the translator inherent in the act of translation will inevitably lead to different results in the translation. Therefore, when we make a translation into a counter-language study, we need to pay attention to the (1) linguistic and social actions of the translation act, and (2) the interpretive tendencies of the individual translator.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The following is a summary of the changing trends in translation studies. There are two aspects of translation: linguistic action and social action, and theories have been shifting their analysis from the former to the latter. Theories that focus on the linguistic action of translation are the linguistic stages of translation studies: equivalence, translation shift, translation strategies, and text-type theory. When socio-actionality was added to these theories, Scopos theory, register analysis, systems theory, and normative theory were developed, which became the next generation of the linguistic stage. However, as translation studies experienced a "cultural and ideological turn" from its textual analysis-centered era, it began to focus on "translation as rewriting," "translation of gender," "postcolonial translation theory," "(non)visibility of translation," and "power networks of translation," among others. This covers not only translation but also the social, cultural, and historical significance and role of the social practice of representation. In recent years, research has also focused on "people," with a focus on the translator's life history and life story, and an analysis of how the individual translator's habitus affects the translation. To summarize this trend, we can see a shift from (1) focusing on the linguistic action of translation to (2) social action, and (3) research that takes into account the interpretive tendencies of individual translators.

The following is a summary of the changing trends in translation studies. There are two aspects of translation: linguistic action and social action, and theories have been shifting their analysis from the former to the latter. Theories that focus on the linguistic action of translation are the linguistic stages of translation studies: equivalence, translation shift, translation strategies, and text-type theory. When socio-actionality was added to these theories, Scopos theory, register analysis, systems theory, and normative theory were developed, which became the next generation of the linguistic stage.

However, as translation studies experienced a "cultural and ideological turn" from its textual analysis-centered era, it began to focus on "translation as rewriting," "translation of gender," "postcolonial translation theory," "(non)visibility of translation," and "power networks of translation," among others. This covers not only translation but also the social, cultural, and historical significance and role of the social practice of representation. In recent years, research has also focused on "people," with a focus on the translator's life history and life story, and an analysis of how the individual translator's habitus affects the translation. To summarize this trend, we can see a shift from (1) focusing on the linguistic action of translation to (2) social action, and (3) research that takes into account the interpretive tendencies of individual translators.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

On the basis of the above, let's first discuss the aforementioned case of Ikegami (2007) in the context of translation studies. For now, the case of Snow Country can be reduced to the issue of equivalence and shift. The concept of equivalence itself is disputed and has been defined and characterized in numerous ways (see Pym 2010, pp. 7-42), but I will operationally define it as the same linguistic and cultural value between the source and target texts. Five levels can be assumed for this equivalence: word level, phrase level, grammatical level, textual level (thematic progression and cohesion), and pragmatic level (Baker 1992), and this paper will mainly focus on the grammatical level. The "shift" is a linguistic shift between the source and target texts due to structural differences between the source and target languages (Catford 1965). In this connection, "conversion operations" refer to various operations to achieve a translation shift, either obligatory because of linguistic structure, or selective in order to achieve target language identity or certain stylistic effects.

On the basis of the above, let's first discuss the aforementioned case of Ikegami (2007) in the context of translation studies. For now, the case of Snow Country can be reduced to the issue of equivalence and shift. The concept of equivalence itself is disputed and has been defined and characterized in numerous ways (see Pym 2010, pp. 7-42), but I will operationally define it as the same linguistic and cultural value between the source and target texts. Five levels can be assumed for this equivalence: word level, phrase level, grammatical level, textual level (thematic progression and cohesion), and pragmatic level (Baker 1992), and this paper will mainly focus on the grammatical level. The "shift" is a linguistic shift between the source and target texts due to structural differences between the source and target languages (Catford 1965). In this connection, "conversion operations" refer to various operations to achieve a translation shift, either obligatory because of linguistic structure, or selective in order to achieve target language identity or certain stylistic effects.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Let's apply this to the case of Ikegami (2007). If we assume that there is a certain situation objectively portrayed in the original text, then if we can faithfully reproduce that situation in the target text, we have achieved an "equivalent" translation. However, because of the difference in linguistic structure between Japanese and English, and the different grammatical categories that must be expressed as linguistic expressions, obligatory conversion operations must be performed to conform to the linguistic norms of the target language (for example, the subject is zeroed in Japanese, but in English it is basically, because the subject is obligatory, do the operation of making the subject stand up).

Let's apply this to the case of Ikegami (2007). If we assume that there is a certain situation objectively portrayed in the original text, then if we can faithfully reproduce that situation in the target text, we have achieved an "equivalent" translation. However, because of the difference in linguistic structure between Japanese and English, and the different grammatical categories that must be expressed as linguistic expressions, obligatory conversion operations must be performed to conform to the linguistic norms of the target language (for example, the subject is zeroed in Japanese, but in English it is basically, because the subject is obligatory, do the operation of making the subject stand up).

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In practice, however, there is a process of chronological translation involved, which means that there are more than just static differences in linguistic structure. (1) The translator first interprets the source text (interpretation; a situation from the words). Then, (2) based on this interpretation, he or she contextualizes it in the target language (construal).

In practice, however, there is a process of chronological translation involved, which means that there are more than just static differences in linguistic structure. (1) The translator first interprets the source text (interpretation; a situation from the words). Then, (2) based on this interpretation, he or she contextualizes it in the target language (construal).

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

'''5. Subject's Perspective and Style of Situational Awareness in Japanese and English'''

In general, there are two kinds of opposing modes of conceptualizer subject's perception of a situation.

''Form A. Subject (C) grasps a situation (O) in which it is not a participant from outside the situation, corresponding to Langacker's optimal viewing arrangement, Ikegami's "objective grasping," and Nakamura's "D mode.

''Form B. The subject (C) enters a situation and grasps its situation (O), corresponding to Langacker's egocentric viewing arrangement, Ikegami's "subjective grasping" and Nakamura's "I-mode".

In general, there are two kinds of opposing modes of conceptualizer subject's perception of a situation.

''Form A. Subject (C) grasps a situation (O) in which it is not a participant from outside the situation, corresponding to Langacker's optimal viewing arrangement, Ikegami's "objective grasping," and Nakamura's "D mode.

''Form B. The subject (C) enters a situation and grasps its situation (O), corresponding to Langacker's egocentric viewing arrangement, Ikegami's "subjective grasping" and Nakamura's "I-mode".

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In terms of these viewpoint arrays, English tends to prefer the optimal viewpoint array and Japanese tends to prefer the egocentric viewpoint array.
When the subject takes a perspective, as in Form B, where the language subject enters a situation that is the object of conceptualization and interprets it subjectively and subjectively, the degree of subjectivity is very high in the language expression reflecting that subjectivity, e.g., in (1) a. below. On the other hand, when the subject interprets the object of conceptualization objectively from the outside, as in Form A, the linguistic expressions reflecting the subjectivity of the subjectivity are less subjective (or in other words, more objective), such as b. and c. below. In b., the existence of the subject as a reference point is explicitly stated, but here the subject "conceptually splits" itself up and objectively perceives another real self in the situation from outside the situation. In other words, the speaker plays the role of both the subject of conceptualization and the object of conceptualization. In contrast, in c., the subject, as the subject of the conceptualization, perceives it objectively from the outside without entering the object of the conceptualization. Therefore, c. has a lower degree of subjectivity than b. It is the linguistic expression that expresses the most object-oriented meaning among the three linguistic expressions. The degree of subjectivity reflected in each linguistic expression depends on the degree to which the linguistic expression reflects the subjective and subjective interpretation of the subject. In other words, differences in the degree of subjectivity based on each cognitive style embodied in differences in the form and syntax of the resulting language expressions.

In terms of these viewpoint arrays, English tends to prefer the optimal viewpoint array and Japanese tends to prefer the egocentric viewpoint array.
When the subject takes a perspective, as in Form B, where the language subject enters a situation that is the object of conceptualization and interprets it subjectively and subjectively, the degree of subjectivity is very high in the language expression reflecting that subjectivity, e.g., in (1) a. below. On the other hand, when the subject interprets the object of conceptualization objectively from the outside, as in Form A, the linguistic expressions reflecting the subjectivity of the subjectivity are less subjective (or in other words, more objective), such as b. and c. below. In b., the existence of the subject as a reference point is explicitly stated, but here the subject "conceptually splits" itself up and objectively perceives another real self in the situation from outside the situation.

In other words, the speaker plays the role of both the subject of conceptualization and the object of conceptualization. In contrast, in c., the subject, as the subject of the conceptualization, perceives it objectively from the outside without entering the object of the conceptualization. Therefore, c. has a lower degree of subjectivity than b. It is the linguistic expression that expresses the most object-oriented meaning among the three linguistic expressions. The degree of subjectivity reflected in each linguistic expression depends on the degree to which the linguistic expression reflects the subjective and subjective interpretation of the subject. In other words, differences in the degree of subjectivity based on each cognitive style embodied in differences in the form and syntax of the resulting language expressions.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

⑴ a. Vanessa is sitting across the table.
b. Vanessa is sitting across the table from me.
c. Vanessa is sitting across the table from Veronica.
（深田・仲本2008：171-172）

As seen in the present example, multiple linguistic expressions based on cognitive styles with different degrees of subjectivity are possible in English as well, but as mentioned earlier, style A tends to be used relatively more often than style B.
I will now mention what Langacker calls the "stage model". The "stage model" is a cognitive model that idealizes the meaning of linguistic expressions and the typical positioning of "speakers". According to this model, the speaker typically observes what is on the stage from the outside and encodes the conceptualization of it into a linguistic representation. In this case, the speaker is the "subject" of the concept and the object of expression is the "object" of the conceptualization, and their roles completely separated. In other words, we can say that the speaker's perspective is "off-stage". From this point of view, subjectivization is a phenomenon in which the speaker that not directly depicted, but rather the speaker that is non-explicitly incorporated into part of the semantic structure of the object of description (the object). In other words, in subjectivized, highly subjective linguistic expressions, the speaker's perspective is "on-stage". A relative comparison between English and Japanese shows that the "off-stage" type is more prevalent in English forms and syntax, while the "on-stage" type is more prevalent in Japanese.

As seen in the present example, multiple linguistic expressions based on cognitive styles with different degrees of subjectivity are possible in English as well, but as mentioned earlier, style A tends to be used relatively more often than style B.

I will now mention what Langacker calls the "stage model". The "stage model" is a cognitive model that idealizes the meaning of linguistic expressions and the typical positioning of "speakers". According to this model, the speaker typically observes what is on the stage from the outside and encodes the conceptualization of it into a linguistic representation. In this case, the speaker is the "subject" of the concept and the object of expression is the "object" of the conceptualization, and their roles completely separated.

In other words, we can say that the speaker's perspective is "off-stage". From this point of view, subjectivization is a phenomenon in which the speaker that not directly depicted, but rather the speaker that is non-explicitly incorporated into part of the semantic structure of the object of description (the object). In other words, in subjectivized, highly subjective linguistic expressions, the speaker's perspective is "on-stage". A relative comparison between English and Japanese shows that the "off-stage" type is more prevalent in English forms and syntax, while the "on-stage" type is more prevalent in Japanese.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Next, let us look at the two cognitive modes presented by Nakamura. This is also true for Japanese and English. Tendentious differences which is found according to Nakamura, from the aspect of subjectivity, there are two types of human perception of the situation, two modes of cognition, and each syntax (linguistic representation) is thought to reflect one of these two modes more strongly. The first is called "I-mode" (situationally attuned cognitive mode), which is the predominant mode in Japanese for situational perspective; in relation to Langacker, it is "on-stage" and is often viewed as "situation-centered" and the speaker is the participant in the situation (S-perspective). Also, because the perspective is within the situation, it is "direct experience" and its expression is "non-reporting" in that it is experiential and not reportive in tone. These are exactly the features that have been revealed to predominant in the linguistic expressions of Japanese narrative sentences. In contrast, the "D-mode" (cognitive mode from outside the situation) is the predominant mode in English that places the perspective outside the situation; in relation to Langacker, it is an "off-stage" and "out-of-situation" mode, so the perspective is literally "extrinsic" and "external" to each participant in the situation, which will be the focus of attention (the "person-centered" view, O-Perspective). Thus, the expression is "reportive". These are, if anything, the predominant features of linguistic representation in English narrative writing.

Next, let us look at the two cognitive modes presented by Nakamura. This is also true for Japanese and English. Tendentious differences which is found according to Nakamura, from the aspect of subjectivity, there are two types of human perception of the situation, two modes of cognition, and each syntax (linguistic representation) is thought to reflect one of these two modes more strongly. The first is called "I-mode" (situationally attuned cognitive mode), which is the predominant mode in Japanese for situational perspective; in relation to Langacker, it is "on-stage" and is often viewed as "situation-centered" and the speaker is the participant in the situation (S-perspective).

Also, because the perspective is within the situation, it is "direct experience" and its expression is "non-reporting" in that it is experiential and not reportive in tone. These are exactly the features that have been revealed to predominant in the linguistic expressions of Japanese narrative sentences. In contrast, the "D-mode" (cognitive mode from outside the situation) is the predominant mode in English that places the perspective outside the situation; in relation to Langacker, it is an "off-stage" and "out-of-situation" mode, so the perspective is literally "extrinsic" and "external" to each participant in the situation, which will be the focus of attention (the "person-centered" view, O-Perspective). Thus, the expression is "reportive". These are, if anything, the predominant features of linguistic representation in English narrative writing.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The predominant cognition in Japanese, where the speaker interacts with the situation/object, is the situation-based cognition, or "I-mode," which is a subjective cognition in which the speaker and the experiencer assimilate (and thus the speaker himself becomes the cognitive subject). In other words, it is a state in which the cognitive subject and the object of cognition fused together, which called "subject-object unity. On the other hand, the cognitive mode of objective recognition of a situation/object, which is dominant in English, is the extrinsic cognitive mode, or the "D-mode", which does not presuppose the interaction between the subject and the situation/object. This is characterized by the point that the cognitive subject goes outside the interactive cognitive field and takes a viewpoint as if it were viewed objectively from the outside. In that sense, this one is a "separation of subject and guest," so to speak, against the former.

The predominant cognition in Japanese, where the speaker interacts with the situation/object, is the situation-based cognition, or "I-mode," which is a subjective cognition in which the speaker and the experiencer assimilate (and thus the speaker himself becomes the cognitive subject). In other words, it is a state in which the cognitive subject and the object of cognition fused together, which called "subject-object unity. On the other hand, the cognitive mode of objective recognition of a situation/object, which is dominant in English, is the extrinsic cognitive mode, or the "D-mode", which does not presuppose the interaction between the subject and the situation/object. This is characterized by the point that the cognitive subject goes outside the interactive cognitive field and takes a viewpoint as if it were viewed objectively from the outside. In that sense, this one is a "separation of subject and guest," so to speak, against the former.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The Japanese language has a self-centered viewpoint arrangement and Mode I dominance, while the English language has an optimal viewpoint arrangement and Mode D dominance, and for this reason, the following differences in linguistic expressions expected to appear in the narrative as a tendency. This difference in cognitive mode is thought to be the basis of the different structures and forms of expression in translation, which may lead to the selection of linguistic expressions, and thus to the differences in expression between the source and target texts.

The Japanese language has a self-centered viewpoint arrangement and Mode I dominance, while the English language has an optimal viewpoint arrangement and Mode D dominance, and for this reason, the following differences in linguistic expressions expected to appear in the narrative as a tendency. This difference in cognitive mode is thought to be the basis of the different structures and forms of expression in translation, which may lead to the selection of linguistic expressions, and thus to the differences in expression between the source and target texts.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The reason for (1) and (2) in the Japanese language, where the I-mode is predominant, is that the narrator describes the situation in a way that puts him or her in it. The following argument about the frequent use of the present tense in Japanese narrative writing will also reinforce this point. The underlined part of the sentence is only possible when the narrator puts himself in the situation.

The reason for (1) and (2) in the Japanese language, where the I-mode is predominant, is that the narrator describes the situation in a way that puts him or her in it. The following argument about the frequent use of the present tense in Japanese narrative writing will also reinforce this point. The underlined part of the sentence is only possible when the narrator puts himself in the situation.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The use of the non-present present tense effectively moves past events to the present moment, so the reader or listener can re-experience the story.
The use of the present tense in Japanese narratives has the effect of giving immediacy, making the reader feel the suspense and assimilate into the author's inner world in the time in which the story is going on.

The use of the non-present present tense effectively moves past events to the present moment, so the reader or listener can re-experience the story.
The use of the present tense in Japanese narratives has the effect of giving immediacy, making the reader feel the suspense and assimilate into the author's inner world in the time in which the story is going on.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The reason for (3) is that onomatopoeia and mimetic words are situationally relevant forms of expression. In general, onomatopoeia and mimetic words which used more frequently in Japanese than in English and other languages. In Japanese, onomatopoeia and mimetic words which used more frequently than in English and other languages, such as "pochan" and "shito", respectively. A linguistic expression that expresses the phenomenon in its entirety, without the need for the subject to enter into the situation and adhere to it. If we consider that a situation cannot be grasped as a whole unless the subject enters into the situation and follows it closely, we can say that Japanese onomatopoeia and mimetic words are linguistic expressions expressing subjective meanings that manifest the existence of the subject who recognizes and interprets the situation subjectively. Therefore, they can be considered to be forms reflecting the I-mode. In Japanese narratives, which are much richer in onomatopoeia and mimetic words than in English, the I-mode is dominant.

The reason for (3) is that onomatopoeia and mimetic words are situationally relevant forms of expression. In general, onomatopoeia and mimetic words which used more frequently in Japanese than in English and other languages. In Japanese, onomatopoeia and mimetic words which used more frequently than in English and other languages, such as "pochan" and "shito", respectively. A linguistic expression that expresses the phenomenon in its entirety, without the need for the subject to enter into the situation and adhere to it. If we consider that a situation cannot be grasped as a whole unless the subject enters into the situation and follows it closely, we can say that Japanese onomatopoeia and mimetic words are linguistic expressions expressing subjective meanings that manifest the existence of the subject who recognizes and interprets the situation subjectively. Therefore, they can be considered to be forms reflecting the I-mode. In Japanese narratives, which are much richer in onomatopoeia and mimetic words than in English, the I-mode is dominant.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

'''6. Japanese and English Narrative Sentence Contrastive Analysis'''

In order to confirm the previous discussion, I will look at and analyze the actual narrative text in Japanese and English through translation. The purpose of this paper is to examine how the cognitive style of the situation in the narrative texts of Japanese and English before and after translation reflected in the linguistic expressions and how it leads to the differences in the linguistic expressions in Japanese and English, especially in the three points mentioned in the previous section. The quantitative and quantitative data analysis itself will be done another time due to space constraints. Therefore, in this section, we will limit ourselves to a fact-finding exercise.

In order to confirm the previous discussion, I will look at and analyze the actual narrative text in Japanese and English through translation. The purpose of this paper is to examine how the cognitive style of the situation in the narrative texts of Japanese and English before and after translation reflected in the linguistic expressions and how it leads to the differences in the linguistic expressions in Japanese and English, especially in the three points mentioned in the previous section. The quantitative and quantitative data analysis itself will be done another time due to space constraints. Therefore, in this section, we will limit ourselves to a fact-finding exercise.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

First, let's see how explicit and non-explicit tenses and situation recognizers in past-tense narratives differ between Japanese and English, depending on the conceptualizer's perspective. These perspectives correspond to those of (1) and (2) in the previous section. I will use Kawabata Yasunari's novel Yukiguni (Snow Country) and its English translation as the subject matter. From the previous discussion, it can be seen that the degree of subjectivity increases as we go from 1. to 4. below. In other words, 1. is the typical D-mode, which is dominant in English, and 4. is the typical I-mode, which is dominant in Japanese.

First, let's see how explicit and non-explicit tenses and situation recognizers in past-tense narratives differ between Japanese and English, depending on the conceptualizer's perspective. These perspectives correspond to those of (1) and (2) in the previous section. I will use Kawabata Yasunari's novel Yukiguni (Snow Country) and its English translation as the subject matter. From the previous discussion, it can be seen that the degree of subjectivity increases as we go from 1. to 4. below. In other words, 1. is the typical D-mode, which is dominant in English, and 4. is the typical I-mode, which is dominant in Japanese.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

1.Past tense, experienced person clarification, and perspective. "Off Stage”
2.Past tense, experienced non-explicit, perspective. "Off Stage”
3.Present tense, experienced person clarification, and perspective. "On Stage”
4.Present tense, experienced person non-explicit, point of view. "On Stage”

1.Past tense, experienced person clarification, and perspective. "Off Stage”
2.Past tense, experienced non-explicit, perspective. "Off Stage”
3.Present tense, experienced person clarification, and perspective. "On Stage”
4.Present tense, experienced person non-explicit, point of view. "On Stage”

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

⑵ a. …女はぷいと窓へ立っていって国境の山々を眺めたが、そのうちに頰を染めて、…
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)
b. She stood up abruptly and went over to the window, her face reddening as she looked out at the mountains.
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)

⑶ a. …島村が内湯から上がって来ると、もう全く寝静まっていた。古びた廊下は彼の踏む度にガラス戸を微かに鳴らした。その長いはずれの帳場の曲り角に、裾を冷え冷えと黒光りの板の上へ拡げて、女が高く立っていた。
(Past tense; empiricist non-explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)
b. ...and by the time Shimamura had come up from the bath the place seemed to be asleep. The glass doors rattled slightly each time he took a step down the sagging corridor. At the end, where it turned past the office, he saw the tall figure of the woman, her skirts trailing coldly off across the dark floor.
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)

⑷ a. …島村はなぜかそれが心のどこかで見えるような気持ちもする。
(Present tense; empiricist explicit: the conceptualizer's Perspective is "On Stage”.)
b. Somewhere in his heart Shimamura saw a question, as clearly as if it were standing there before him.
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)

⑸ a. 島村はその方を見て、ひょっと首を縮めた。鏡の奥が真白に光っているのは雪である。その雪のなかに女の真赤な頰が浮んでいる。
(Present tense; empiricist non-explicit: the conceptualizer's perspective is "On stage”.)
b. Shimamura glanced up at her, and immediately lowered his head. The white in the depths of the mirror was the snow, and floating in the middle of it were the womanʼs bright red cheeks.
(Past tense; empiricist non-explicit; conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)

⑵ a. …女はぷいと窓へ立っていって国境の山々を眺めたが、そのうちに頰を染めて、…
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)
b. She stood up abruptly and went over to the window, her face reddening as she looked out at the mountains.
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)

⑶ a. …島村が内湯から上がって来ると、もう全く寝静まっていた。古びた廊下は彼の踏む度にガラス戸を微かに鳴らした。その長いはずれの帳場の曲り角に、裾を冷え冷えと黒光りの板の上へ拡げて、女が高く立っていた。
(Past tense; empiricist non-explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)
b. ...and by the time Shimamura had come up from the bath the place seemed to be asleep. The glass doors rattled slightly each time he took a step down the sagging corridor. At the end, where it turned past the office, he saw the tall figure of the woman, her skirts trailing coldly off across the dark floor.
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)

⑷ a. …島村はなぜかそれが心のどこかで見えるような気持ちもする。
(Present tense; empiricist explicit: the conceptualizer's Perspective is "On Stage”.)
b. Somewhere in his heart Shimamura saw a question, as clearly as if it were standing there before him.
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)

⑸ a. 島村はその方を見て、ひょっと首を縮めた。鏡の奥が真白に光っているのは雪である。その雪のなかに女の真赤な頰が浮んでいる。
(Present tense; empiricist non-explicit: the conceptualizer's perspective is "On stage”.)
b. Shimamura glanced up at her, and immediately lowered his head. The white in the depths of the mirror was the snow, and floating in the middle of it were the womanʼs bright red cheeks.
(Past tense; empiricist non-explicit; conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

From the above example, it can be seen that the English translation has a reduced degree of subjectivity in its form compared to the original Japanese.
Now let's look at the perspective in the previous section (3), i.e., examples of onomatopoeia and mimetic words. The following is the original English text of Hemingway's "The Old Man and the Sea" and its translation into Japanese, in which the situation is expressed subjectively in Japanese as onomatopoeia and mimetic words, respectively. In the Japanese translation, the subject's point of view penetrates into the situation and which is closely connected to it to understand the situation as a whole. In this respect, it can be said that the degree of subjectivity of the cognizant subject is relatively greater than in English.

From the above example, it can be seen that the English translation has a reduced degree of subjectivity in its form compared to the original Japanese.
Now let's look at the perspective in the previous section (3), i.e., examples of onomatopoeia and mimetic words. The following is the original English text of Hemingway's "The Old Man and the Sea" and its translation into Japanese, in which the situation is expressed subjectively in Japanese as onomatopoeia and mimetic words, respectively. In the Japanese translation, the subject's point of view penetrates into the situation and which is closely connected to it to understand the situation as a whole. In this respect, it can be said that the degree of subjectivity of the cognizant subject is relatively greater than in English.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

⑹ a. ...and he loved to walk on them on the beach after a storm and hear them pop when he stepped on them with the horny soles of his feet.
b. また彼は嵐のあとなど、海岸に打ちあげられた浮袋を、角のように硬くなった踵で踏みつけては、それがプスッ、プスッと音をたてるのをききながら歩くのが好きだった。

⑺ a. In the dark, the old man could feel the morning coming and as he rowed he heard the trembling sound as flying fish left the water and the hissing that their stiff set wings made as they soared away in the darkness.
b. 老人は暗黒のうちに朝の近寄る気配を感じとっていた。飛魚が水を離れるときに生じるブルンという音、その硬い翼が暗い空をよぎるヒューという音、オールを操りながら老人はそれらの物音をはっきりききとっていた。

⑻ a. It floated cheerfully as a bubble with its long deadly purple filaments trailing a yard behind it in the water.
b. 黒ずんだ紫色の細い糸が水中に一ヤードも尾を引いていたが、それはまるで水泡のように、のんきにふわふわと漂っていた。

⑼ a. The bird went higher in the air and circled again, his wings motionless.
b. 鳥はさらに上空めがけて舞いあがり、ふたたびぐるぐる輪を描きはじめた。

'''7. Conclusion'''

In this paper, the framework and considerations of the contrastive study of Japanese and English narrative texts through translation are presented from the perspective of cognitive linguistics, with a particular focus on the concepts of "perspective" and "subjectivation," and some of the possibilities, methods, and examples of the analysis of linguistic representations of situation recognition in Japanese and English narrative texts have been seen. In particular, the contrastive analysis of Japanese and English The analysis from the standpoint of the opposition between the self-centered viewpoint arrangement and the optimal viewpoint arrangement proposed by Langacker, the I-mode and the D-mode proposed by Nakamura, and the subjective and objective grasping that Ikegami advocates seems to be effective, but it is necessary to collect data and attempt a quantitative analysis of more works in the future. In particular, with regard to item (1) of section 3, the position of the conceptualizer's point of view differs between the past and present tenses, with the former in the off-stage and the latter in the on-stage. Also, the item (2) in section 3, i.e., whether or not the perceiver of the situation is explicitly stated in the linguistic representation, may be explained by whether or not it is profiled in the direct scope. Further data analysis is needed to verify these as well. It should be noted that this Japanese-English controlled study may contribute to the further advancement of Nakamura's "cognitive typology".

In this paper, the framework and considerations of the contrastive study of Japanese and English narrative texts through translation are presented from the perspective of cognitive linguistics, with a particular focus on the concepts of "perspective" and "subjectivation," and some of the possibilities, methods, and examples of the analysis of linguistic representations of situation recognition in Japanese and English narrative texts have been seen. In particular, the contrastive analysis of Japanese and English The analysis from the standpoint of the opposition between the self-centered viewpoint arrangement and the optimal viewpoint arrangement proposed by Langacker, the I-mode and the D-mode proposed by Nakamura, and the subjective and objective grasping that Ikegami advocates seems to be effective, but it is necessary to collect data and attempt a quantitative analysis of more works in the future. In particular, with regard to item (1) of section 3, the position of the conceptualizer's point of view differs between the past and present tenses, with the former in the off-stage and the latter in the on-stage. Also, the item (2) in section 3, i.e., whether or not the perceiver of the situation is explicitly stated in the linguistic representation, may be explained by whether or not it is profiled in the direct scope. Further data analysis is needed to verify these as well. It should be noted that this Japanese-English controlled study may contribute to the further advancement of Nakamura's "cognitive typology".

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

'''Bibliography:'''

[1] 川端康成『雪国』、岩波書店、1952年.

[2] Kawabata Yasunari Snow Country. translated by Edward G. Seidensticker, Charles E. Tuttle Company, 1957.

[3] Hemingway Ernest The Old Man and the Sea. Kodansha International, 1991.

[4] アーネスト，ヘミングウェイ『老人と海』（福田恒在訳）、新潮社、1966.

[5] 森田良行『話者の視点がつくる日本語』ひつじ書房、2006年

[6] 籾山洋介・深田智「意味の拡張」松本曜編著『認知意味論』大修館書店

[7] 深田智・仲本康一郎『概念化と意味の世界』研究社、2008年

[8] 本多啓『アフォーダンスの認知意味論』、東京大学出版会、2005年

[9] 西口純代「物語文の現在時制における視点と文脈の変化」河上誓作・谷口一美共編『ことばと視点』、英宝社、2007年

[10] ベルク，オギュスタン『空間の日本文化』（宮原信訳、ちくま学芸文庫）、筑摩書房、1994年

==The Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Chinese-English Communication 莫南 Mo Nan,202020080627,比较文学==
'''文化负载词在中英交流中的翻译'''
'''摘要：'''文化负载词是民族文化智慧的结晶，蕴含着深厚的民族文化遗产。文化负载词的准确翻译不仅可以促进跨文化交际的顺利进行，而且有助于传播民族文化，保持民族特色，促进各民族之间的友好交流。尽管文化负载词的翻译存在困难，但它仍然是可译的。前进模型、块模型、标注模型、集成模型和自适应模型是有效的转换模型;直译、意译和音译都是有效的翻译策略。译者应根据不同情况选择合适的翻译模式和翻译策略。
'''关键词：'''文化负载词，翻译，交际

'''Abstract:''' Culture-loaded words are the crystallization of national cultural wisdom and contain deep national cultural heritage. Accurate translation of culture-loaded words can not only promote smooth cross-cultural communication, but also help spread national culture, maintain national characteristics and promote friendly exchanges among ethnic groups. Although there are difficulties in translation of culture-loaded words, it is still translatable. The go-ahead model, block model, annotation model, integration model and adaption model are effective translation models; literal translation, liberal translation and transliteration are all effective translation strategies. Translators should choose the appropriate translation models and strategies in different situations.

'''Key words:''' Culture-loaded words; translation, communication

As we all know, translation plays an important role in intercultural communication. A good translator can help to promote the communication between two different cultures. With the process of globalization, intercultural communication is becoming more and more frequent. However, there exist plenty of cultural differences between different cultures, especially between the East and the West. Cultural differences make it hard for translators to translate well. Culture-loaded words belong to one of the differences between different cultures. Therefore, it is of great significance to be aware of the appropriate translation of culture-loaded words. This is because it can help translators translate better and thus make two different cultures communicate better.

'''1 Introduction'''
Culture refers to all the activities of a nation, including clothes, food, production, education, law, politics, customs, historical allusions, temperament and emotion, modes of thinking, values, religious mentality and many other factors. Language is one of the most fundamental systems of culture, with the function of storing, describing, expressing and spreading cultural information. Vocabulary, as the basic unit of language, is the most direct reflection of the cultural factors.
Culture-loaded words are words, phrases and idioms that signify things unique to a certain culture. These vocabularies reflect the unique activities of a particular nation that have been gradually accumulated in the long historical process and are different from other nations. Culture-load words have strong national colors and distinctive cultural personalities, and in the language system they can best reflect the cultural information carried and inherited by language and the social life of human beings. Culture-loaded words are important carriers to reflect national culture, and they are a special kind of information text, which has both textual meaning and rich cultural connotation.
Nowadays, economic and cultural exchanges among various ethnic groups are becoming more and more frequent. In order to better promote friendly exchanges between Chinese and Western nations, eliminate cultural barriers and conflicts caused by cultural differences, and smoothly carry out cross-cultural communication, it is especially important to understand national cultures and characteristics, especially to study the translation of culture-loaded vocabularies.

'''2 Definition, Classification and Translatability of Culture-loaded Words'''
'''2.1 Definition of Culture-loaded Words'''
Since Professor Xu Guozhang (1980) published “Culture Loaded Words and English Language Teaching” in Modern Foreign Languages, the study of culture-loaded words has attracted great attention from the academic circles. However, scholars in China have different opinions on the definition of culture-loaded words. In his book Contemporary Western Translation Theory, Liao Qiyi (2000) argues that it “refers to the words, phrases and idioms that signify things unique to a certain culture. These vocabularies reflect the unique activities of a particular nation that have been gradually accumulated in the long historical process and are different from other nations.” This kind of vocabulary carries a lot of cultural information and is very regional and national, i.e. “culture-loaded words”. Some scholars inherited and developed Mr. Liao’s definition, for example, Hu Wenzhong (1999) pointed out that “culture-loaded words are vocabularies of a specific cultural category, which are directly or indirectly reflected in the vocabulary level of national culture”. Since then, some scholars have argued that culture-loaded words are the phenomenon of lexical vacancies, that is, cultural information in the source language cannot find a corresponding word in the target language.
Culture-loaded words signify the changes of a country and a nation. In both domestic and foreign social life, culture-loaded words are a kind of words that cannot be ignored, which are conducive to the export of local culture and the introduction of foreign culture, so as to achieve the purpose of communication and integration between different cultures. The connotation of culture-loaded words determines that they have many distinctive features. The first characteristic is that it is very rich in meaning. In different contexts, it can express ever-changing and rich meanings. The second characteristic is that its usage is very flexible. It can not only play a significant role in longer and more complex sentences, but also play a similar role as a metaphor in short and sharp sentences. The third characteristic is that it is short and flexible. A few words can express a customary thing, so it can be applied separately to news and notifications, while ensuring that it does not deviate from the subject of news or notifications.
'''2.2 Classification of Culture-loaded Words'''
The classification of culture-loaded words is as diverse as the definition of it, but most scholars classify culture-loaded words on the basis of cultural categorization. Wang Rongpei (2002) classifies culture-loaded words into eight categories based on various aspects of human life: political words, social words, color words, legendary allusion words, human body words, animal and plant words, food words, and other words. Based on the classification of cultural factors in language by the famous American translation theorist Eugene A. Naida, Li Xuejun (2015) classifies culture-loaded words into material culture words, ecological culture words, linguistic culture words, social cultural words and religious culture words. The words themselves are characterized by generality, ambiguity and ethnicity in their meanings, an they are constantly changing with the development of society. The vocabulary is rich and the classification standards are difficult to unify, which hinders the classification of culturally loaded words.
'''2.3 Translatability of Culture-loaded Words '''
On the question of whether culture is translatable, Steiner, a well-known translation theorist, argues that “Human commonalities make translation possible” (2001: 259). Translatability and untranslatability is a crucial issue for translation studies to establish its principles and make it an independent discipline. Firstly, to deny the translatability of translation is essentially to deny the ability of language to express and describe the unknown. Secondly, untranslatability originates from the limited knowledge and ability of the translator, which is actually unknowable. Thirdly, translation cannot be classified as untranslatable just because it is difficult. The so-called untranslatable actually means that when the source language is translated into the target language, the loss of the source language is great. In addition, it is believed that only by understanding the differences between national cultures and acknowledging the translatability of culture-loaded words, can we effectively communicate with each other and achieve the goal of communication. Translatability is the mark of human language, and the development of human language and culture is built on the basis of translatability, without which there is no way to talk about human cultural exchange.
Due to the great linguistic and cultural differences between the source culture and the translated culture, the translator can only translate on the basis of making the translation as close to the original as possible. The translation of culture-loaded words should follow the following principles (Liao Qiyi, 2000): a. the reproduction of the meaning of the original words is better than the reproduction of the form; b. the context in which the original words are used must be taken into account in the choice of words; c. the key implied meaning of the original words should be converted into non-implied meaning in the translation. All these principles require us to: a. translate the connotation of the original language; b. pay attention to the cultural context of the original language; c. transform the more difficult cultural vocabulary in the original text into easily acceptable vocabulary in the target language. In view of this, when dealing with culture-loaded words, it is important for the content of the translation to be faithful to the original, but the cultural connotation should be paid more attention to. A translation without cultural connotation will make the readers of a different language get a wrong understanding.
'''3 Difficulties in the translation of culture-loaded words'''
'''3.1 Differences in Worldview and Ideology'''
Worldview refers to how people perceive the universe, nature, and how they perceive the relationship between humans and nature. As such, it affects all aspects of human perception, such as beliefs, ideas and behaviors. Chinese and Western cultures with different worldviews may contain different values and perceptions of the same objective thing. Generally speaking, China emphasizes unity, while the West emphasizes independence, which is the biggest difference between China and the West in terms of worldview. For example, the Chinese preach “harmony is precious” and advocate and glorify “collectivism”. However, Western culture focuses on individual independence, individual freedom and individual rights. It encourages people to realize and express themselves, believing that “everyone is unique”.
'''3.2 Differences in the Natural and Geographical Environment'''
Language is a reflection of the objective world in real life, and the environment in which people live produces the languages they speak. In the process of producing and developing a language, any nation is influenced to varying degrees by the geographical environment and climatic conditions in which it lives. Therefore, differences in the natural and geographical environment are also important factors in the formation of different culture-loaded words. For example, the true meaning of the phrase “east wind” and “west wind” in Chinese is very different from that in English. The “east wind” in the minds of the Chinese is warm and can make the grass and trees grow, similar to the spring wind. Because China’s topography is high in the west and low in the east, facing the sea in the east. In China, the east wind is given the cultural connotation of “vitality”, “spring”, “new life” and so on. In the Chinese winter, however, the northwest wind from Siberia is bitterly cold and harsh. In the West, for example, in the United Kingdom, the east wind comes from the northern part of the European continent and is extremely cold, while the west wind from the Atlantic Ocean is warm, humid and pleasant. This is why the famous English poet Shelley’s lyrical poem Ode to the West Wind appeared.
'''3.3 Differences in Historical Culture'''
There are significant differences in the historical culture backgrounds of China and the West. China’s feudal ruling system lasted for more than 3,000 years, and before 1840, China’s traditional philosophical thinking was mainly based on Confucianism, with the addition of Taoism. In the West, for example, the United Kingdom has been developing in the transition to capitalism since 1640. Due to the different historical development backgrounds of the two cultures, their cultural differences are also reflected in the use of words. For example, the English idiom “is it necessary to use a steam hammer to crack nuts?” means “no need to make a fuss”, which is equivalent to the Chinese saying “why use a cow's knife when killing a chicken? (杀鸡焉用牛刀)”. This idiom shows that Britain had entered the industrial age, while China was still in a backward production based on agriculture.
'''3.4 Differences in Religious Beliefs'''
China is a country that mainly believes in Buddhism, and Buddhism has a very wide influence in people’s social life. For example, the Chinese idioms “菩萨心肠”, “跑得了和尚跑不了庙”, “临时抱佛脚” and “借花献佛” are accompanied by connotations of Chinese culture, which are difficult for Westerners to understand. In the West, religion occupies an extremely important position in social life, thought and culture, and is one of the main characteristics of Western culture. For example, for the Chinese, the “End of World” can easily be understood as a terrifying moment when a catastrophe is imminent and mankind is about to be destroyed. However, for Westerners, it does not mean terror, but it means that one day the world will finally end, and everyone will accept God’s final judgment, which means that the time for justice is coming.
'''4 Approaches to Translate Culture-loaded Words'''
'''4.1 Translation on the Macro Basis of the Values of the Source Language Region'''
The word “worldview” encompasses a large category that reflects people’s understanding of the universe, the world, nature and the relationship between human beings and nature. At the same time, the influence of worldview is also very broad and significant. It affects people’s recognition of the value of things, and influences the way people perceive and think about things. Therefore, if someone want the translation of culture-loaded words to make the target readers feel the same as the readers in the source language, he or she should translate them on the premise of understanding the worldview and values of the source language.
'''4.2 Explanation of the Social and Historical Background and Religious Culture'''
The English-speaking countries of the West believe in the spirit and values transmitted by the ancient Greek and Roman cultures, while China mainly believes in the spirit transmitted by the Confucian culture, which also includes the spirit of Taoist culture. China has a history and culture of 5,000 years, more than half of which has been ruled by the feudal monarchy, while the feudal system in Western countries was established later and developed mainly towards capitalism after the Industrial Revolution. Such differences will be shown in the English vocabulary, so in the translation of culture-loaded words, explanation of the different social and historical backgrounds and religious and cultural beliefs is very necessary.
'''4.3 Understanding of the Natural and Humanistic Environment'''
The differences in the natural environment between the East and the West have a very important impact on the differences in English and Chinese culture-loaded words. For example, “east wind” in China means a good implied meaning, whereas “east wind” in the western population means desperate. It is mainly caused by geographical environment factors and climate factors in the east and west. The humanistic environment here refers mainly to customs and habits, and more specifically in the appellation of relatives and the use of honorific expressions. Easterners pay more attention to respect and courtesy, while Westerners emphasize equality.
'''4.4 Guided by the Semantic Basis of the English-Chinese Culture-loaded Words'''
Through various comparative studies between English and Chinese, linguists have found that there are four main types of culture-loaded words: vacancy words, conflict words, reciprocity words and iterative words. Among them, iterative words are divided into two types, one is words with the same meaning but different shapes, and the other is words with the same shape but different meanings. For example, in English, “red” (红) is not only used as “red”, but also as “black” (black tea 红茶) and “brown” (brown sugar 红糖) in some fixed words. It is a common phenomenon that people associate the same word with different meanings. For example, in the West, the English word “dog” is used in a sentence describing a person to express praise. While from the Chinese people’s perspective, the word “dog” is often used in a derogatory way, such as “走狗” (flunky/lackey).
'''5 Translation Models of Culture-loaded Words'''
Each language has many words that are used to express its own specific cultural concepts, and their signified is the clearest only in a particular cultural context. The problem of translation may arise once one moves out of a specific cultural context into one that is quite different from one’s own. The principle of translating culture-loaded mainly depends on the cultural background of the source language, the social background, the translator’s cultural concept and the cultural acceptance mentality of the targeted readers, and other factors, which are closely related and mutually reinforcing. In dealing with the translation of culture-loaded words, translators can take the following models.
'''5.1 Go-ahead Model'''
The go-ahead model refers to the direct entry of cultural expressions from the source language into the translation. Many cultural words are translated with the go-ahead model, which means that transliteration or literal translation is used in translation. There are transliterated words such as microphone, yin and yang, sofa, fans and the literal translation of words such as hot dog and three representations.
'''5.2 Block Model'''
The cultural expression of the source language fades away and its cultural meaning is not adopted by the targeted culture, which is the cultural block or block model. Some cultural words are blocked from the target language culture because of the limitation of language function. The most obvious example is some expressions that express self-effacement in Chinese, such as “鄙人”, “拙文” and “贵姓”. Even in the title of an article, people will often find expressions such as “浅谈”, “初探” and “刍议” to indicate one’s immature views. In addition, there are also some honorific expressions, such as “令堂”, “大作”, and “光临”, etc. When translating into English, the cultural connotations of such expressions can be appropriately reflected in the context of China, but it is not necessary to translate every word, i.e., the cultural connotations of the Chinese language can be blocked.
'''5.3 Annotation Model'''
Annotation model refers that the target language provides information about the cultural context of the source language cultural expression, that is, the method of interpretation of the target language provides a little but important context or situational information for foreign cultural concepts in the target language. For example, cynicism, as a foreign word, is one of the four major philosophical schools of ancient Greece, represented by the figure of Diogenes of Sinop. There is no existing equivalent in Chinese. At that time, the philosophers or thinkers who practiced cynicism seemed to behave, speak, act and even live in a way that was uninhibited, unscrupulous and shameless, but they were loyal, reliable, sensitive and clear-cut, which were very similar to some characteristics of dogs. So people call these philosophers or thinkers who practiced cynicism as “犬儒”.
'''5.4 Integration Model'''
The integration model refers to the fusion of cultural expressions in the source language and the target language, which enters the target language in a novel linguistic form. Obviously, the integration model is closely related to the openness of different cultures and the frequency of interaction. The terms “X-ray”, “typeB ultrasonic”, “T-shirt” and “Coca Cola” imported from the Western seem to be named directly in Chinese. This kind of translation method that integrates transliteration and free translation is undoubtedly an effective way for foreign culture to integrate into the target language culture.
'''5.5 Adaption Model'''
When the cultural expression of the source language is omitted and replaced by a translated one, the cultural meaning of the source language disappears, which is the process of adaption model. The domestication translation method aims to minimize the exoticism in the translation and provide a natural and smooth translation for the target language readers, according to Venuti (1995). The cultural domestication model is usually used together with the annotation model when it is used to translate cultural words. For example, the English expression for “拳击练习” is “shadow boxing”. If it is borrowed to express “太极拳” in Chinese, the word “Chinese” must be added before the expression to become “Chinese shadow boxing”.
'''6 Translation Strategies of Culture-loaded Words'''
'''6.1 Literal Translation: to Convey Cultural Connotations'''
As the name implies, "literal translation" is the direct conversion of the meaning and structure of the source language words into the target language words, including literal translation and literal translation with annotations. Human beings live on the same earth, and although there are huge differences between Chinese and English national cultures, there are also certain similarities. For some Chinese-English culture-loaded words, the literal translation method can not only retain the cultural connotation of the source language words, but also transmit them to the target language culture, thus achieving the cross-cultural communication purpose of cultural exchange.
There are many examples of literal translation in both Chinese and English languages, and almost no trace of translation can be seen, reflecting the successful fusion of Chinese and Western cultures. For example, “fast food” in English is directly translated as “快餐”, and “all roads lead to Rome” is translated as “条条大路通罗马”. In English, there are also vocabulary expressions directly translated from Chinese, such as “paper tiger (纸老虎)”, “one country, two systems (一国两制)”, and “keep pace with the times (与时俱进)” and so on. The above examples vividly illustrate that appropriate literal translation of culture-loaded words can not only maintain the unique national flavor of the source language vocabulary, but also enrich the vocabulary of the target language to a certain extent, provided that the literal translation does not cause misunderstanding among the target language readers.
The Chinese traditional culture is broad and profound, and the Chinese language is full of words with strong cultural connotations. In order to better retain the connotation and flavor of these culture-loaded words, and to make the traditional culture of the Chinese nation acceptable to the whole world, the translators very often adopt the literal translation method for such words. For example, “四书” is translated as “Four Books”, “五经” as “Five Classics”, “文房四宝” as “Scholar’s Four Jewels”, “龙舟” as “Dragon Boat” and “剪纸” as “paper-cut”, and so on. This kind of literal translation can preserve the profound connotation and infinite charm of traditional Chinese culture in the process of cross-cultural communication between East and West.
'''6.2 Free Translation: to Seek Functional Equivalence'''
Due to different cultural backgrounds and ways of thinking, there are many culture-loaded words with specific connotations in both Chinese and English languages, and if a literal translation is used, it is likely to cause misunderstanding among the target language readers and even cultural conflicts. Therefore, the translation of these words can be used to seek functional equivalence of the free translation method, without pursuing the language form of the source language, only to convey the meaning of the source language. As the name implies, free translation means translating according to the meaning of the words. The advantage of the free translation method is that the translator is not limited by the construction pattern of the words, and translators can translate by inferring the deeper meaning and cultural connotation of the words in the source language. Take the typical Chinese dishes with strong Chinese culture as an example, if the expressions such as “四喜丸子”, “醉蟹” and “红烧狮子头” directly translated into English in literal translation, they will definitely make foreign guests who do not understand Chinese culture feel more confused. Therefore, when translating the names of such Chinese dishes into English, the principle of free translation should be followed, indicating the ingredients and the method of preparation, so that foreigners can easily understand and accept them. For example, “红烧狮子头” could be translated as “braised pork ball in brown sauce”, “四喜丸子” as “braised pork balls in gravy” and “蚂蚁上树” as “vermicelli with spicy minced pork”, and so on.
In addition, there are many idioms containing historical allusions in Chinese. Such culturally loaded words cannot find the corresponding cultural connotations in English. If they are literally translated, they will often find it difficult for target language readers who know little about Chinese history and culture. In this case, it is a wise choice for translators to adopt free translation. For example, “悬梁刺股” can be translated as “to be extremely hard-working in one’s study”, “东施效颦” as “crude imitation with ludicrous effect”, and “塞翁失马，焉知非福” as “a loss may turn out to be a gain”, and so on.
By the same token, there are some words in English that are closely related to the characteristics of their national culture, but these words in Chinese do not have similar cultural connotations. In ancient England, the land was mainly ploughed by horses, so there are many slang expressions related to “horse” in English. However, the image of “horse” has no similar associative meaning in Chinese, so when translating from English to Chinese, one should only need to explain its meaning. For example, “horse doctor” can be translated as “蹩脚医生”, “horse sense” as “基本常识” and “work for a dead horse” as “徒劳无益”, and so on.
'''6.3 Transliteration: to Preserve Cultural Identity'''
Transliteration is a translation method that is parallel to literal translation and free translation, and it has an irreplaceable function in certain situations. According to Jin Huikang (2003), translators should not use words with different concepts because of vocabulary vacancies, and he points out that “the most prominent role of transliteration is that it can overcome the expression barriers brought about by linguistic and cultural gaps, bridge the two languages, spread foreign cultures, reduce the loss of information in translation, and thus promote language and cultural communication.” The two languages of Chinese and English have absorbed a large number of foreign words from each other, and these foreign words retain the unique cultural personality of the source language vocabulary. Foreign words are the inevitable product of cultural exchange and integration, and to a certain extent, they are the result of translators’ transliteration strategies in translation activities. The purpose of translation is to break through the language barrier between the source language and the target language and promote effective cross-cultural communication. Therefore, for some words carrying the cultural characteristics of the native language, the translator uses the translation strategy of transliteration or transliteration with annotation, which is effective in preserving the cultural characteristics of the source language words and integrating them into the cultural system of the target language, so that the target language readers can understand the foreign culture to the maximum extent and promote cultural intercommunication and integration.
There are many words in Chinese that are directly transliterated from English culture-loaded words, such as “沙发” (sofa), “汉堡” (hamburger), “吉他” (guitar), “爵士” (jazz) and “麦克风” (microphone). Accordingly, there are a large number of culture-loaded words in Chinese that have been transliterated into English. Most of them are everyday words with Chinese cultural characteristics, cultural specific items and some words related to Chinese politics. For example, “tofu” (豆腐), “chowmein” (炒面), “litchi”(荔枝), “fengshui” (风水), “wushu” (武术) and “erhu” (二胡) in English are all directly transliterated from Chinese culture-loaded words.
When some vocabularies are first introduced into the English context, the target language readers are not familiar with their cultural connotations, so it is difficult for them to be understood only by transliteration. Therefore, the method of transliteration with annotation is adopted, which not only preserves the cultural characteristics of Chinese words through transliteration, but also enables the target language readers to clearly understand their meanings through annotation. With the in-depth development of cross-cultural communication between East and West and the increase of Western understanding of Chinese culture, the annotation of these culture-loaded words can be omitted and only transliteration can be used. For example, for the Chinese term “阴阳”, translators initially adopted the strategy of transliteration with annotation to translate it, that is, “yin and yang, the two opposing principles in nature, the former feminine or negative, the latter masculine or positive”. Nowadays, most western readers have already understood the cultural connotation of “阴阳”, so many translators directly transliterate it as “yin and yang”.
'''7 Conclusion'''
Culture is national, special and complex. As a special linguistic phenomenon, “culture-loaded words” are rich in cultural connotations and record the influence and penetration of a nation on language in various aspects. This poses a challenge to translators, who are required to be flexible in dealing with culture-loaded words. American scholar Venuti (1992) advocates the use of resistant translation to reveal the gap between the original culture and the target culture, in contrast to the previous reader-centered domestication or transparent translation methods. When translating culture-loaded vocabularies,the original culture should be taken as the core, and the national characteristics of the original culture should be preserved in the translation process, which is respectful of the original culture on the one hand, and meets the requirements of translation standards on the other hand.
In a word, the go-ahead model, block model, annotation model, integration model and adaption model are effective translation models for culture-loaded words; literal translation, free translation and transliteration are effective translation strategies for overcoming culture-loaded word translation barriers. As to which translation model and translation strategy to choose, the translator should make a decision at the right time according to different situations. Every model and strategy has its advantages and limitations, but the translator should be flexible in choosing the right one to make the translation as meaningful and effective as possible.
'''References'''

*Chunyan XIANG. On Translation Strategies of Chinese Culture-Loaded Words[J]. Canadian Social Science, 2016, 12(6).
*Hua S. An Interpreting Study of Chinese Culture-loaded Words from the Perspective of Relevance-Adaptation Model[J]. Language and Translation, 2012, 1.
*Lin Yuewu,Yang Qin. An Investigation into the Culture-Loaded Words Learning by English Majors in a Vocational College in China[J]. English Language Teaching, 2015, 8(8).
*Juan Bai. A Brief Analysis of Culture-Loaded Words C-E Interpretation Based on the Interpretive Theory--Taking the COVID-19 Chinese-English Glossary as an Example[J]. Frontiers in Educational Research, 2020, 3(8).
*Steiner, G. After Babel: Aspects of Language and Translation[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 2001: 259.
*Venuti, L. (ed.). Rethinking Translation[M]. London & New York: Routledge, 1992: 12-13.
*Venuti. The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation[M]. Routledge, 1995: 19-20.
*陈喜荣. 从功能语法语境理论看文化负载词的翻译[J]. 外国语文, 1998 (1): 96-100.
*胡文仲. 跨文化交际学概论[M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社, 1999: 1-7.
*景芳, 段成. 从语域理论视角浅谈文化负载词的翻译[J]. 中华文化论坛, 2017(03): 110-116.
*金惠康. 跨文化交际翻译[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司, 2003.
*李雪君. 以汉、英“水”语义对比研究为例看跨文化交际背景汉语文化负载词的教学[D]. 兰州: 西北师范大学, 2015.
*廖七一. 当代西方翻译理论探索[M]. 南京: 译林出版社, 2000: 232, 236.
*宋洁. 英汉文化负载词图式对比及翻译[J]. 广西民族大学学报(哲学社会科学版), 2016, 38(06): 172-176.
*汪榕培. 英语词汇学高级教程[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社, 2002: 67-69.
*郑德虎. 中国文化走出去与文化负载词的翻译[J]. 上海翻译, 2016 (02): 53-56.

History of Translation Studies 10

2020-12-19T10:25:47Z

Lin Xin: /* Conclusion */

这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第十部分(Part 10)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。

学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。

*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]
*Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].
='''Functional Equivalence'''=

== On functional equivalence and formal equivalence and their application in translation 陈静静 Chen Jingjing==

(please add your student number and major)--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 13:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===Abstract===
Translation plays an indispensable role in modern cross-cultural communication. In this process, translators are supposed to achieve the equivalence between the source text and the target text to the greatest extent. Translation theory is of great importance to steer them towards this. Nida put forward the well-known theory of formal equivalence and functional equivalence which pursues the equivalence in form and content and that in function between the two languages separately. This paper focuses on their introduction and differences as well as their application in translation so as to provide more guidance for translators and promote people’s deeper understanding on functional equivalence and formal equivalence.

Translation plays an indispensable role in modern cross-cultural communication. In this process, translators are supposed to achieve the equivalence between the source text and the target text to the greatest extent. Translation theory is of great importance to steer them towards this. Nida put forward the well-known theory of formal and functional equivalence, the former of which pursues the equivalence in form and content and the latter of which pursues equivalence in function between the two languages. This paper focuses on their introduction and differences as well as their application in translation so as to provide more guidance for translators and promote people’s deeper understanding on functional equivalence and formal equivalence.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 13:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===key words===

functional equivalence, formal equivalence, translation

===摘要===
翻译在现代跨文化交际中起着非常重要的作用，而在这一过程中，译者需要尽可能实现源文本和目标文本之间最大的对等。翻译理论在其中则对译者具有非常重要的指导作用。奈达提出了“形式对等”和“功能对等”理论，“形式对等”是以源语为中心，追求原文形式和内容之间的对等，而后者强调实现两种语言之间功能上的对等。该论文主要对形式对等和功能对等进行简单介绍并分析两者之间的差异以及它们在翻译之中的运用，以使译者对它们有更为深入的了解。

===关键字===
功能对等，形式对等，翻译

===Introduction===

As a specific form of cultural activity, translation is characterized by the interactive conversion of bilingual (original language and target language), but this does not mean that translation is limited to a certain language operation or language activity. This phenomenon of bilingual interaction or cultural interaction with language as a mediator, and the resulting variations in phonetics, words, grammar, and style, are by no means covered by linguistic theory.

As a specific form of cultural activity, translation is characterized by the interactive conversion of original language and target language, but it does not mean that translation is limited to a certain language activity. This phenomenon of bilingual interaction or cultural interaction with language as a mediator, and the resulting variations in phonetics, words, grammar, and style had not been covered by linguistic theory by then. --[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 09:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Nida, a American linguist, translator and translation theorist, conducted his academic activities based on the translation of the Bible. During this process, Nida proceeded from actual conditions and developed his own translation theory, which eventually became one of the classics in translation studies. Meanwhile, he believes that translation should play a communicative role due to its essence. During the translation process, it is necessary to consider factors such as the author, text, background and readers so as to make the recipients understand the translation more easily. It is actually based on this idea, the concept of functional equivalence theory came into being. He pointed out that the theory of functional equivalence includes form equivalence and content equivalence. When the two contradict, he is convinced that the content comes first and the form comes second. This is also the first principle of functional equivalence. The second principle of functional equivalence is that you can’t simply focus on content as Nida believes that content precedes form does not mean that translators need to give up form and devote themselves to content. He suggested that when the translator cannot take into account the two at the same time, he should consider the content first, and at the same time, try to make the style of the translation close to the style of the original text. In order to balance the relationship between the two, Nida also proposed a series of improvements. The third principle is that Nida requires natural and smooth translation. In order to obtain a true and smooth translation, Nida believes that readers of the source language and cultural context and target language must be considered.

Nida, a American linguist, translator and translation theorist, conducted his academic activities based on the translation of the Bible. During this process, Nida proceeded from actual conditions and developed his own translation theory, which eventually became one of the classics in translation studies. Meanwhile, he believes that translation should play a communicative role due to its essence. During the translation process, it is necessary to consider factors such as the author, text, background and readers so as to make the recipients understand the translation more easily. It is actually based on this idea, the concept of functional equivalence theory came into being--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 09:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

He pointed out that the theory of functional equivalence includes form equivalence and content equivalence. When the two contradict, he is convinced that the content comes first and the form comes second. This is also the first principle of functional equivalence. The second principle of functional equivalence is that you can’t simply focus on content as Nida believes that content precedes form does not mean that translators need to give up form and devote themselves to content. He suggested that when the translator cannot take into account the two at the same time, the translator should consider the content first, and at the same time, try to make the style of the translation close to the style of the original text. In order to balance the relationship between the two, Nida also made a series of improvements. The third principle is that Nida requires natural and smooth translation. In order to obtain a true and smooth translation, Nida believes that readers of the source language and cultural context and target language must be considered.(This paragraph is too long so I divided it into two parts.)--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 09:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Functional Equivalence===
In order to set a standard for the transition between the source language and the target language, Nida, based on the essence of translation, put forward the theory of dynamic equivalence but later replaced it with the name of functional equivalence as he was convinced that it will better reflect the communicative function.(尤金·奈达．语言文化与翻译［M］．严久生，译．1998)

Functional equivalence mainly includes lexical equivalence, syntax equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. According to Nida, when translating, you need to use the most appropriate, natural and equivalent words to express the information of the source text, that is to say, functional equivalence is prior to formal equivalence. Therefore, we need to try to achieve equivalence in form when we pursue the equivalence in content. In the book “Language, Culture, and Translation”, Nida divides functional equivalence into “minimal equivalence” and “maximum equivalence”. The basic point of “functional equivalence” is to compare the way of readers' understanding and appreciating the original text with those of the target text, and requiring the readers of the target text to be able to perceive the translation. The extent to which readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text is called the minimum functional equivalence.The readers of the target text should basically be able to understand and appreciate the target text in the way that the original reader understands and appreciates the original text,which is called the maximum functional equivalence.

Functional equivalence mainly includes lexical equivalence, syntax equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. According to Nida, when translating, one needs to use the most appropriate, natural and equivalent words to express the information of the source text, that is to say, functional equivalence is prior to formal equivalence. Therefore, we need to try to achieve equivalence in form when we pursue the equivalence in content. In the book “Language, Culture, and Translation”, Nida divides functional equivalence into “minimal equivalence” and “maximum equivalence”. The basic point of “functional equivalence” is to compare the way of readers' understanding and appreciating the original text with those of the target text, and requiring the readers of the target text to be able to perceive the translation. The extent to which readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text is called the minimum functional equivalence.The readers of the target text should basically be able to understand and appreciate the target text in the way that the original reader understands and appreciates the original text,which is called the maximum functional equivalence. (Lack of the source)--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 09:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

To accurately reproduce the source language culture and eliminate cultural differences, the translator can follow these three steps. First, the translator should strive to make the translation not only conform to the semantics of the original text but also reflect the cultural characteristics of the original text. However, two kinds of languages represent two completely different cultures and similar elements may exist in the two cultures but they can't be exactly the same. Therefore, it is impossible for a translator to fully display the cultural connotations of the original text. Second, if meaning and culture can’t be taken into account at the same time, the translator has to abandon the formal equivalence and achieve the purpose of reproducing the semantics and culture of the original text by changing the form of the original text in the translation. Third, when changing the form still doesn’t work, the translation technique of “reconstruction” can be used to achieve the equivalence in meaning between the source text and the target text. It means transforming the deep structure of the source text into the surface structure of the target text , that is, the cultural connotations of the source text could be elaborated by words of the target language. In terms of the the status of source text and the translator, according to this theory, minor adjustment of the source text is allowed when necessary but we are not encouraged to modify it. Consequently, it seems that the source text is in a high position so the translator must give preference to it. From the perspective of translation standard, domestication is preferred in functional equivalence when we consider the cultural factors. What’s more , it is commonly used in literary translation.
Functional equivalence is of great importance for it brings the contest between the literal translation and free translation to an end and provides a new translation standard, but on the other way, it turns the translation into an activity merely concerned with language.

To accurately reproduce the source language culture and eliminate cultural differences, the translator can follow these three steps. --[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 09:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

First, the translator should strive to make the translation not only conform to the semantics of the original text but also reflect the cultural characteristics of the original text. However, two kinds of languages represent two completely different cultures. Similar elements may exist in the two cultures but they can't be exactly the same. Therefore, it is impossible for a translator to fully display the cultural connotations of the original text. --[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 09:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Second, if meaning and culture can’t be taken into account at the same time, the translator has to abandon the formal equivalence and achieve the purpose of reproducing the semantics and culture of the original text by changing the form of the original text in the translation. --[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 09:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Third, if it still doesn’t work after changing the form, the translation technique of “reconstruction” can be used to achieve the equivalence in meaning between the source text and the target text. It means transforming the deep structure of the source text into the surface structure of the target text , that is, the cultural connotations of the source text could be elaborated by words of the target language. In terms of the the status of source text and the translator, according to this theory, minor adjustment of the source text is allowed when necessary but translators are not encouraged to modify it. Consequently, it seems that the source text is in a high position so the translator must give preference to it. From the perspective of translation standard, domestication is preferred in functional equivalence when we consider the cultural factors. What’s more , it is commonly used in literary translation. --[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 09:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Functional equivalence is of great importance for it brings the contest between the literal translation and free translation to an end and provides a new translation standard, but on the other way, it turns the translation into an activity merely concerned with language.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 09:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Formal equivalence===

Formal equivalence, though seeking equivalence as well, focuses mainly on the form and content, attempting to achieve complete consistency of information and structure between the source text and the target text. It includes three parts: (1) Consistency of grammar, that is , grammatical elements of the source text should be consistent with those of the target text. (2) Consistency of expression, which means the words and phrases of the target text should keep the original connotation expressed in the source text. (3) Consistency of the meaning in the source context, signifying that the context created by the source text should be kept in the target text. (UGENEA．NIDA．,2005:167）

Gloss translation can best reflect the features of formal equivalence as explanation will be used to better reappear the meaning and context of the source text, thus enabling people to have a better understanding of the source language and the source text. This is, however, hard to achieve for there are great differences existing between different languages especially between Chinese and English.

Gloss translation can best reflect the features of formal equivalence as explanation will be used to better reappear the meaning and context of the source text, enabling people to have a better understanding of the source language and the source text. This is, however, hard to achieve for there are great differences existing between different languages especially between Chinese and English.(What’s the meaning of gloss translation?)--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 09:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

From the perspective of linguistics, the biggest difference between them is that Chinese is a parataxis language while English is hypotaxis, that is to say, English is an overt cohesion-prominent language and its clauses are often arranged with connectives while Chinese is a language that connectives are not compulsory and its clauses are often short and its structure is not so complex as that of English. Besides, the former is a more static language in which nouns and adjectives are always used, but the latter a more dynamic one, verbs are more active. English has a systematic grammar but Chinese seems freely arranged. Furthermore, in English, nouns, prepositions and pronouns are always used like personal pronouns “we” “they” “you” and relative pronouns “that” “which” “whose” in long and complicated sentences to make them more explicit and avoid repetition. In Chinese, pronouns are rarely used as the structure of the sentences is relatively loose and short sentences are preferred, so it seems more appropriate to use verbs. From the perspective of voice, it is evident that passive voice is frequently used in English especially in texts concerned with science and technology as western people seem to be more objective when viewing the world and they attempt to employ passive voice to make their description more objective. Chinese, however, are more subjective, so they often use active voice to express opinions.

From the perspective of linguistics, the biggest difference between Chinese and English is that Chinese is a parataxis language while English is hypotaxis. That is to say, English is an overt cohesion-prominent language and its clauses are often arranged with connectives while Chinese is a language that connectives are not compulsory and its clauses are often short and its structure is not so complex as that of English. Besides, the former is a more static language in which nouns and adjectives are always used, but the latter is a more dynamic one, in which verbs are more active. English has a systematic grammar but Chinese seems freely arranged. Furthermore, in English, nouns, prepositions and pronouns are always used like personal pronouns “we” “they” “you” and relative pronouns “that” “which” “whose” in long and complicated sentences to make them more explicit and avoid repetition. In Chinese, pronouns are rarely used as the structure of the sentences is relatively loose and short sentences are preferred, so it seems more appropriate to use verbs. From the perspective of voice, it is evident that passive voice is frequently used in English especially in texts concerned with science and technology as western people seem to be more objective when viewing the world and they attempt to employ passive voice to make their description more objective. Chinese, however, are more subjective, so they often use active voice to express opinions.(separate the paragraph)--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 09:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Relationship between functional equivalence and formal equivalence===
In the book “Scientific Exploration in Translation”, he proposed and distinguished the concepts of “formal equivalence” and “dynamic equivalence”. “Formal equivalence” means stressing more on information itself, in terms of both form and content. This sort of equivalence, however, is rare, so he lays stress on dynamic equivalence.

For formal equivalence, source text is prior to other elements, so the translator must strictly follow the ideas, sentence structure as well as rhetoric. In this case, the translator are not allowed to add any other information at will and is restricted by many factors. Nevertheless, for functional equivalence, the translator can supplement their own understanding on the basis of the source text to make the translation more lively and vivid, actually a better and more innovative way to reproduce the source text. Take a sentence for example: “ I gave my youth to the sea and I came home and gave my wife my old age.”, this sentence can be translated into different versions. If with a way of formal equivalence, it can be translated into “我把青春给了海洋，我回家时，给妻子的只有迟暮之年。”, which seems more direct and similar to the original sentence in structure. When translated based on the functional equivalence, it will be like this: “我把青春献给了海洋，等我回家见到妻子的时候，已是白发苍苍。”, which is much more vivid and easy to understand for the target readers.

For formal equivalence, source text is prior to other elements, so the translator must strictly follow the ideas, sentence structure as well as rhetoric. In this case, the translator is not allowed to add any other information at will and restricted by many factors. Nevertheless, for functional equivalence, the translator can supplement their own understanding on the basis of the source text to make the translation more lively , actually a better and more innovative way to reproduce the source text. Take a sentence for example: “ I gave my youth to the sea and I came home and gave my wife my old age.”, this sentence can be translated into different versions. With formal equivalence, it can be translated into “我把青春给了海洋，我回家时，给妻子的只有迟暮之年。”, which seems more direct and similar to the original sentence in structure. When translated based on the functional equivalence, it will be like this: “我把青春献给了海洋，等我回家见到妻子的时候，已是白发苍苍。”, which is vivider and easier to understand for the target readers.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 09:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Functional equivalence and formal equivalence, though stressing equivalence in different aspects, are actually interdependent. Form in translation refers to the rhetorical function and skills as well as the sentence structure. Without formal equivalence, we are not able to guarantee the accuracy of the translation let alone achieving functional equivalence. Likewise, without functional equivalence, formal equivalence will be meaningless.

Functional equivalence and formal equivalence, though stressing equivalence in different aspects, are actually interdependent. Form in translation refers to the rhetorical function and skills as well as the sentence structure. Without formal equivalence, translators are not able to guarantee the accuracy of the translation let alone achieving functional equivalence. Likewise, without functional equivalence, formal equivalence will be meaningless.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 09:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Furthermore, functional equivalence and formal equivalence are both regarded to be relative. (余敏军，2009:193）That is to say, this sort of equivalence is impossible to be wholly and fully achieved as a great number of differences exist between Chinese and English. Chinese and English differ in language structure, mode of thinking, cultural background and etc. As a matter of fact, sometimes when we translate Chinese into English or English into Chinese, we can’t even find the corresponding word thus even more difficult to achieve the equivalence in lexis and sentence structure. From the perspective of cultural influence, readers of the source text and the translation will hold different views even towards the same thing due to different cultural backgrounds. For instance, Chinese people will express their feeling by dint of material objects while the Western countries focus more on science and will employ it to account some social phenomena.

Furthermore, functional equivalence and formal equivalence are both regarded to be relative. (余敏军，2009:193）That is to say, this sort of equivalence is impossible to be wholly and fully achieved as a great number of differences exist between Chinese and English. Chinese and English differ in language structure, mode of thinking, cultural background and etc. As a matter of fact, sometimes when we translate Chinese into English or English into Chinese, we can’t even find the corresponding word which makes it even more difficult to achieve the equivalence in lexis and sentence structure. From the perspective of cultural influence, readers of the source text and the translation will hold different views even towards the same thing due to different cultural backgrounds. For instance, Chinese people will express their feeling by dint of material objects while the Westerners focus more on science and will employ it to account some social phenomena.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 09:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Translation is the reproduction of the source language information in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language, including the reproduction from semantics to stylistics. That is to say, in Nida’s view, functional equivalence should take precedence over formal equivalence, but it is not only about content, regardless of form. While achieving equivalence in content and information, it also requires equivalence inn form as much as possible. But actually of the two, priority is given to equivalence in content.

Translation is the reproduction of the source language information in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language, including the reproduction from semantics to stylistics. That is to say, in Nida’s view, functional equivalence should take precedence over formal equivalence, but it is not only about content, regardless of form. While achieving equivalence in content and information, it also requires equivalence in form as much as possible. But actually of the two, priority is given to equivalence in content.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 09:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Application of functional equivalence and functional equivalence in translation===

Functional equivalence and formal equivalence are vital translation theory for guiding the translation practice. This theory has lifted the restrictions of traditional ideology and provide a new perspective for translators.

====Lexical equivalence====

Firstly, as I have mentioned above, sometimes it is difficult to find the corresponding word when translating. For instance, in China, “慢走” is frequently used when our friends or guests we are not familiar with is going to leave. People in western countries, however, are unlikely to express in this way. Instead, they simply say “Bye” or “Have a nice trip!”. The latter actually will be used only when friends plan to travel somewhere far away. These two expressions in English bear different meaning compared with the expression in Chinese. Therefore, faced with such situation, we have to choose words or phrases to express it in a different way based on the context. For example, we can express it as “Take care. Hope to see you soon.” to express our feeling in a polite and emotional way.

Firstly, as I have mentioned above, sometimes it is difficult to find the corresponding word when translating. For instance, in China, “慢走” is frequently used when our friends or guests we are not familiar with are going to leave. People in western countries, however, are unlikely to express in this way. Instead, they simply say “Bye” or “Have a nice trip!”. The latter actually will be used only when friends plan to travel somewhere far away. These two expressions in English bear different meaning compared with the expression in Chinese. Therefore, faced with such situation, translators have to choose words or phrases to express it in a different way based on the context. For example, “Take care. Hope to see you soon.” is a polite and emotional way to express feelings.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 09:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Furthermore, there are some words or phrases containing cultural connotations in both Chinese and English. When translating such words or phrases, we must explore the underlying meaning and try to explain it in detail, helping readers to have a correct and good understanding towards it. Take “Achilles’ heel” for instance, it can be translated into “阿格硫斯的脚后跟” in a direct way. However, Chinese people knowing nothing of “Achilles’ heel” will find it difficult to understand. Considering the needs of people under Chinese background , we have to explain this word and uncover the real meaning this phrase intends to express. Actually, Achilles, the son of Neptune, is a heroic person. It is said that his mother dipped him wholly except his heels in the river Acheron to make him impervious to sword or spear. Thus this phrase is supposed to translated into fatal weakness. Likewise, “Victoria girl” should be translated into “思想保守的女性” as England was relatively conservative in Victoria period so later Victoria, the queen’s name, was used to refer to those conservative women.

Furthermore, there are some words or phrases containing cultural connotations in both Chinese and English. When translating such words or phrases, we must explore the underlying meaning and try to explain it in detail, helping readers to have a correct and good understanding towards it. Take “Achilles’ heel” for instance, it can be translated into “阿格硫斯的脚后跟” in a direct way. However, Chinese people knowing nothing of “Achilles’ heel” will find it difficult to understand. Considering the needs of people under Chinese background , translators have to explain this word and uncover the real meaning this phrase intends to express. Actually, Achilles, the son of Neptune, is a heroic person. It is said that his mother dipped him wholly except his heels in the river Acheron to make him impervious to sword or spear. Thus this phrase is supposed to translated into fatal weakness. Likewise, “Victoria girl” should be translated into “思想保守的女性” as England was relatively conservative in Victoria period so later Victoria, the queen’s name, was used to refer to those conservative women. --[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 09:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

It is very common that a word in English may bear several different meanings so in this case, we have to guess the meaning according to the context. For example, the word “club”, which is very familiar to us, can be used as a verb as well as a noun. At the first thought, “俱乐部” will come to our mind but in the following sentence, it doesn’t make sense if we translate “club” into “俱乐部”.
“When civil rights leaders are clubbed, whipped and tramples by white lawmen as feral white onlookers cheer, the youngsters seemed aghast.”
In that sentence, it is obvious that “club” is used as a verb. Considering the meaning of “whip” and the original meaning of “club”, we can find that “club” here may refers a sort of hitting. Consequently, we have consider carefully over and over again and determine the meaning of a word after having grasped the rough meaning of the sentence.

It is very common that a word in English may bear several different meanings, so in this case, translators have to guess the meaning according to the context. For example, the word “club”, which is very familiar to us, can be used as a verb as well as a noun. At the first thought, “俱乐部” will come to translators’mind but in the following sentence, it doesn’t make sense if they translate “club” into “俱乐部”.
“When civil rights leaders are clubbed, whipped and tramples by white lawmen as feral white onlookers cheer, the youngsters seemed aghast.”
In that sentence, it is obvious that “club” is used as a verb. Considering the meaning of “whip” and the original meaning of “club”, translators can find that “club” here may refers a sort of hitting. Consequently, translators have consider carefully over and over again and determine the meaning of a word after having grasped the rough meaning of the sentence.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 09:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====Syntax equivalence====

Syntax equivalence is far more complicated and difficult to achieve compared with lexical equivalence with great differences existing between Chinese and English. Therefore, we need to employ proper translation skills to cope with different sentences.In English, people prefer to be direct so the most important part of the sentence is most likely to be presented at first while in Chinese, people are accustomed to organize the sentence in a natural order, that is, from facts to conclusion or from reasons to result. Sometimes we can translate the sentence from word by word or phrase by phrase but in most cases we will change the order based on the common expression ways of target language to make the sentence more understandable to the target language readers. The example can be seen as follows:
“Additional social stresses may also occur because of the population explosion or problems arising from mass migration movements--themselves made relatively easy nowadays by modern means of transport.”
Translation: 由于人口的猛增或大量人口流动（现代交通工具使这种流动相对容易）造成的种种问题也会对社会造成新的压力。

Syntax equivalence is far more complicated and difficult to achieve compared with lexical equivalence with great differences existing between Chinese and English. Therefore, proper translation skills are needed to cope with different sentences.In English, people prefer to be direct so the most important part of the sentence is most likely to be presented at first while in Chinese, people are accustomed to organize the sentence in a natural order, that is, from facts to conclusion or from reasons to result. Sometimes translators can translate the sentence from word by word or phrase by phrase but in most cases they will change the order based on the common expression ways of target language to make the sentence more understandable to the target language readers. The example can be seen as follows:
“Additional social stresses may also occur because of the population explosion or problems arising from mass migration movements--themselves made relatively easy nowadays by modern means of transport.”
Translation: 由于人口的猛增或大量人口流动（现代交通工具使这种流动相对容易）造成的种种问题也会对社会造成新的压力。--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 09:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

We can see that in the Chinese version, order of the reason and the result is reversed to make the sentence more smooth.
When translating, we can choose literal translation so as to achieve the formal equivalence or we can seek free translation to based on functional equivalence. In daily life, we Chinese often greet people with “吃了吗?去哪啊?” as we regard food as something that matters much to our life. As a matter of fact, these words bear no actual meaning but a simple way to greet. Thus we will translate that sentence into “Hi, how are you? What a nice day, isn’t it?”.
There is a special kind of interrogative sentence in English called disjunctive question like the following dialogue:
“You’re not a student,are you?”
“Yes, I am.”
Here, in this dialogue, we can see that the answer is positive but if translated into Chinese, it will be like this: “不，我不是学生”, which actually is negative.

It is obvious to see that in the Chinese version, order of the reason and the result is reversed to make the sentence more smooth.
When translating, translators can choose literal translation so as to achieve the formal equivalence or free translation based on functional equivalence. In daily life, Chinese often greet people with “吃了吗?去哪啊?” as Chinese regard food as something that matters much to their life. As a matter of fact, these words bear no actual meaning but a simple way to greet. Thus the sentence will be translated into “Hi, how are you? What a nice day, isn’t it?”.
There is a special kind of interrogative sentence in English called disjunctive question like the following dialogue:
“You’re not a student,are you?”
“Yes, I am.”
Here, in this dialogue, it can be seen that the answer is positive but if translated into Chinese, it will be like this: “不，我不是学生”, which actually is negative.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 09:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====Texual equivalence====

Text, or discourse is a coherent and cohesive unit, achieved through one or more sequences, which are composed of components that are closely related to each other. Pursuing the equivalence in words or sentences can absolutely not satisfy, we need to pay more heed to textual equivalence. A sentence can be translated in different ways but we have to choose one based on the context.

Text, or discourse is a coherent and cohesive unit, achieved through one or more sequences, which are composed of components that are closely related to each other. Pursuing the equivalence in words or sentences can absolutely not satisfy, translators need to pay more heed to textual equivalence. A sentence can be translated in different ways but we have to choose one based on the context. --[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 09:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Example: “祥子！”她往前凑了凑：“我有啦！”
“有了什么？”他一时蒙住了。
“这个！”她指了指肚子。“你打主意吧！”
Translation: “Xiangzi,” she came closer. “I am in trouble!”
“What trouble?” He was startled.
“This!” She pointed her belly. “What was you going to do about it?”
According to China’s traditional customs, women would always express their being pregnant in an indirect way like “我有了” in Chinese instead of “我有孩子了”. In this situation, “我有了” here is translated into “I am in trouble!” as she conceives a baby before she marries, which is deemed as a behavior that is in grave breach of the norms of Chinese society.

In addition, we need to take the situation or background in which the texts took place into account and endeavor to get the inner connotation it bears.
Example: So that when lieutenant Osborne, coming to Russel Square on the day of the Vaux hall party said to the ladies,” Mrs Sedley,ma,ma,I hope you have room, I haveasked Dobbin of ours To come and dine here, and go with us to Vaux hall. He was almost as modest as Joe.
Here “modest” in the last sentence can’t be translated into “谦虚的” as it will confuse the readers and it is far from that. According to the description of Joe above, we can figure out exactly his characteristics, so we can reasonably infer that it actually means shy.

In addition, we need to take the situation or background in which the texts took place into account and endeavor to get the inner connotation it bears.
Example: So that when lieutenant Osborne, coming to Russel Square on the day of the Vaux hall party said to the ladies,” Mrs Sedley,ma,ma,I hope you have room, I have asked Dobbin of ours to come and dine here, and go with us to Vaux hall. He was almost as modest as Joe.
Here “modest” in the last sentence can’t be translated into “谦虚的” as it will confuse the readers and it is far from that. According to the description of Joe above, translators can figure out exactly his characteristics, and reasonably infer that it actually means shy.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 09:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The last element we should never ignore is cultural context given that there are great cultural differences between English and Chinese. We are supposed to consider the cultural background of the author of the source text as well as certain hidden or ineffable Connotations.
Example: She had thin blond hair and her face was pretty and Petite in a Regency way, oval like a miniature, though she had a harsh way of speaking--perhaps the account of the school, Roedean or Cheltenham Ladies’ College, which she had not long ago left.
We can’t simply translate it into “长着细细的淡黄色头发，脸蛋娇小玲珑，一副摄政时期的模样。” as here the word “Regency” still seems confusing to us. Instead, the translation should be like this: “她长着纤细的淡黄色头发，漂亮的鹅蛋脸小巧玲珑，颇符合摄政时期的风范......” and add the explanation that “ ‘Regency’ refers to the period the son of George the Third reigned, during which those slender women are regarded to be the most gorgeous.” In this way, readers will have a more clear sense of this.

====Stylistic equivalence====

Popovic put forward the stylistic equivalence and define it as the functional equivalence between the source text and the target text. We will find different types of texts in the process of translation and we must achieve the equivalence in styles according to the functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory. Such equivalence is best reflected in the translation of poetry, which is characteristic of rhyme and cultural connotations.

Popovic put forward the stylistic equivalence and define it as the functional equivalence between the source text and the target text. Translators will find different types of texts in the process of translation and must achieve the equivalence in styles according to the functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory. Such equivalence is best reflected in the translation of poetry, which is characteristic of rhyme and cultural connotations.(please add the source)--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 09:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Example: 清明
杜牧
清明时节雨纷纷，路上行人欲断魂。
借问酒家何处有? 牧童遥指杏花村。
Translation by Wu Juntao:
The Pure Brightness Day
By Du Mu
It drizzles thick and fast on the Pure Brightness Day,
I travel with my heart lost in dismay.
“Is there a public house somewhere, cowboy?”
He points at Apricot Village faraway.

In this translation, “清明节” has been translated into “Pure Brightness Day”, which may seem not completely fit as it simply reflect the features of this day from the surface. In this way, target readers may have little knowledge about this and treat this day as a normal pure and bright day. However, functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory can be vividly reflected in the following content. The translator has achieved equivalence both in content and form as he rhymed and expressed based on the form and content of the source text, trying to make target readers have a good understanding of the source text based on the information expressed in the translation.

In this translation, “清明节” has been translated into “Pure Brightness Day”, which may seem not completely fit as it simply reflect the features of this day from the surface. In this way, target readers may have little knowledge about this and treat this day as a normal pure and bright day. However, functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory can be vividly reflected in the following content. The translator has achieved equivalence both in content and form as he rhymed and expressed based on the form and content of the source text, trying to make target readers have a good understanding of the source text based on the information expressed in the translation.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 09:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Translation by Xu Yuanchong:
The Mourning Day
By Du Mu
A drizzling rain falls like tear on the Mourning Day;
The mourner’s heart is going to break on his way.
Where can a wineshop be found to drown his sad hours?
A cowherd points to a cot ’mid apricot flowers.

In this translation, Xu Yuanchong attempts to give a more detailed and vivid description of the scene and the feeling of the person in this poetry. In addition to simply expressing the content from the surface, he digs the deep connotations the poetry contains, thus making the translation more simply to be understood and the target readers grasp a deeper understanding of the content, theme and emotion.

In this translation, Xu Yuanchong attempts to give a more detailed and vivider description of the scene and the feeling of the person in this poetry. In addition to simply expressing the content from the surface, he digs the deep connotations the poetry contains, thus making the translation more simply to be understood and the target readers grasp a deeper understanding of the content, theme and emotion.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 09:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Conclusion===

Translation theory has been playing an vital role in the process of translation, as always said, theory guides practice while practice testify to theory. Functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory matters a lot and has guided a great deal of translation practice. Though having gone a lot of years and some limitations having been found, Nida’s theory is still worthy learning whether at present or in the future. Therefore, we should choose to apply functional equivalence or formal equivalence based on specific condition to achieve the most appropriate and fit translation.

Translation theory has been playing an vital role in the process of translation, as always said, theory guides practice while practice testify to theory. Theory of functional equivalence and formal equivalence matters a lot and has guided a great deal of translation practices. Though having been developed a lot of years and some limitations having been found, Nida’s theory is still worthy learning whether at present or in the future. Therefore, we should choose to apply functional equivalence or formal equivalence based on specific condition to achieve the most appropriate and fittest translation. --[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 09:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Proper application of formal equivalence helps to preserve the spirit and unique features of the source text and to further promote people to have a good grip of foreign culture and customs. However, more often than not, it is difficult to find an English sentence pattern that is completely equivalent to express the same connotation in Chinese. Therefore, the translator needs to convert the deep structure of the source language into the surface structure of the target language, that is, using the corresponding words in the target language to directly explain the connotation of the original text, so that the target readers can more easily accept the translation. According to Nida’s translation theory, dealing with cultural differences is closely related to the reproduction of the source language in the target language from semantics to stylistics. Only when the translation reproduces the style and spirit of the source language from the language form to the cultural connotation, the translation can be called an excellent work. This method provides a good example for translation studies in every countries. For our country, it reminds us that translation studies should absolutely limited to the field of translation. We must break the boundaries of disciplines and combine other sciences to study translation. In this way, translation theories derived from scientific evidence will be much more scientific and systematic.（张赟娇,张军,2018:114)

Proper application of formal equivalence helps to preserve the spirit and unique features of the source text and to further promote people to have a good grip of foreign culture and customs. However, more often than not, it is difficult to find an English sentence pattern that is completely equivalent to express the same connotation in Chinese. Therefore, the translator needs to convert the deep structure of the source language into the surface structure of the target language, that is, using the corresponding words in the target language to directly explain the connotation of the original text, so that the target readers can more easily accept the translation. According to Nida’s translation theory, dealing with cultural differences is closely related to the reproduction of the source language in the target language from semantics to stylistics. Only when the translation reproduces the style and spirit of the source language from the language form to the cultural connotation, can the translation be called an excellent work. This method provides a good example for translation studies in every countries. For our country, it reminds us that translation studies should absolutely limited to the field of translation. Translators must break the boundaries of disciplines and combine other sciences to study translation. In this way, translation theories derived from scientific evidence will be much more scientific and systematic.（张赟娇,张军,2018:114)(Separate the paragraph)--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 09:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===References===

Xia Jun夏珺.(2016).再看奈达翻译对等——形式与功能之博弈与互补[Nida's equivalence theory-combat and complement between formal equivalnce and formal equivalence].黔南民族师范学院学报,Journal of Qiannan Normal University for nationalities,36(06):27-32.

Huang Wei黄蔚.(2020).功能对等理论与目的论的对比分析[Comparative analysis on functional equivalence and skopos theory].英语广场,English space(10):38-40.

Tan Zaixi谭载喜.(1999)．新编奈达论翻译［A new version of Nida's theory on translation］．北京:中国对外翻译出版公司，Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Corporation,1999:XXIII．

Zhang Yunjiao, Zhang Jun张赟娇,张军.(2018).浅谈尤金·奈达功能对等理论的价值与局限[The value and limitations of Nida's functional equivalence].安徽文学(下半月),Anhui Literature,(09):114-115.

Zhong Yuchen钟宇宸.(2019).尤金·奈达及其功能对等理论综述[Summary of UGENEA．NIDA．and his functional equivalence].当代旅游,Contemporary travelling,(08):262.

Zhang Yimei张忆美.(2020).对比“信达雅”与功能对等[Comparison between "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance" and functional equivalence].青年文学家,Youth Literator,(23):180-181.

Zhang Xuefang张雪芳.(2008).从动态对等到功能对等——奈达对等翻译观简述[From dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence-Brief introduction of Nida's equivalence theory].安徽文学(下半月),Anhui Literature,(11):392-393.

Yu Minjun余敏军.(2009).论英汉翻译中形式对等和功能对等[Functional equivalence and formal equivalence in Englsh-Chinese translation].黑龙江科技信息,Heilongjiang Science and Technology Information,(30):193.

Yan Yuehe闫月贺.(2019).浅析奈达功能对等理论[Nida's functional equivalence].北方文学,North Literature,(21):251-252.

Qi Xin齐鑫.(2017).浅谈英汉翻译中奈达“功能对等”与“形式对等”理论的应用[The appliction of Nida's theory of "functional equivalence and formal equivalence in translation].校园英语,Campus English,(27):202-203.

尤金·奈达．语言文化与翻译［Language culture and transation］．严久生，译．呼和浩特:内蒙古大学出版社，Hohhot:Inner Mongolia University Press,1998．

Junye Li,Pinglan Zhang.(2019). Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in Civil Engineering Text Translation[J]. Open Journal of Modern Linguistics,9(4).

UGENEA．NIDA．Towards Science of Translating［M］．上海:上海外语教育出版社，Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2005:167,165，159．

== My understanding of Translation Equivalence Nguyen,Thuy Hien Nguyen, Thuy Hien ==

== Functional Equivalence in the Translation of Ken Liu-A Case Study of Folding Bijing 肖茜 Xiao Xi==
<center>肖茜 Xiao Xi No.202020080654 法语语言文学</center>
===Abstract===
Hao Jingfang's science fiction "Folding Beijing" won the Hugo Award for Best Novelette in 2016. The success of this fiction is inseparable from Ken Liu's rigorous translation work. Focusing on the response of the target readers, the translation of this fiction not only retains the meaning and style of the fiction, but also effectively transmits the Chinese culture, which is in line with the requirement of the theory of Nida's functional equivalence to "quality of a translation in which the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptors essentially like that of the original receptors". The theory of Nida's functional equivalence, one of the earliest translation theories introduced into China, has produced a profound effect on translation studies in different literary genres. This paper studies the English translation of Folding Beijing and analyses Ken Liu's application of functional equivalence in translation, and proves the value of functional equivalence theory in translation of science fiction.

The success of Hao Jingfang's science fiction novel "Folding Beijing", which won the Hugo Award for Best Novelette in 2016, could not have been achieved without the rigorous translation work of Ken Liu. The translation of this novel takes the response of the readers of the translated text as the starting point, preserving the meaning and style of the novel while effectively conveying Chinese culture, which is in line with the requirement of functional equivalence theory that "quality of a translation in which the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptors essentially like that of the original receptors". Nida's functional equivalence theory, one of the first translation theories introduced into China, has had a profound influence on the translation studies of various literary genres in China. This paper examines the English translation of "Folding Beijing", analyzes Ken Liu's use of Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory in his translation, and shows the value of functional equivalence theory for the translation of science fiction.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Key words===
Functional Equivalence; Folding Beijing; meaning; style; culture

===题目===
刘宇昆翻译中的功能对等-以《北京折叠》为例
===摘要===
郝景芳的科幻小说《北京折叠》获得了2016年的雨果奖最佳中篇小说奖，该小说的成功，离不开刘宇昆严谨的翻译工作。该小说的翻译以关注译文读者反应为出发点，既保留了小说的意义与文体风格，又有效传递了中国文化，这与功能对等理论提出的“努力创造出既符合原文语义又体现原文文化特色的译作”的要求相契合。奈达功能对等理论，是最早被引进中国的翻译理论之一，对中国各文学类型的翻译研究影响深远。本文对《北京折叠》的英译本进行研究，分析刘宇昆在翻译时对尤金奈达功能对等理论的运用，展现功能对等理论对科幻小说翻译的价值。

===关键词===
功能对等；《北京折叠》；意义；风格；文化

===Introduction===
In the science fiction Folding Beijing, the future Beijing is overpopulated. In order to solve this crisis, people transform it into a folding city with strict hierarchy. The folding city is divided into three spaces. They share 48 hours, and the first space is occupied by the upper classes of society, who have a 24-hour time cycle at their disposal; The second space is occupied by the middle class, who can spend 16 hours; The third space is inhabited by the lower classes, who have only eight hours of the night. Lao Dao belongs to the third space. He wants his daughter to go to a good school, and he ventures into the second and third space to deliver letters to others in order to make money. Although the novel is a futuristic science fiction, it is also realistic, revealing the class differences in the process of urbanization and modernization.

In the science fiction novel "Folding Beijing", the future Beijing is overpopulated. To solve this crisis, it is transformed into a hierarchical Folding City. The Folding City is divided into three spaces. They share 48 hours. The first space is occupied by the upper class of society, who have a 24-hour time cycle at their disposal; the second space is occupied by the middle class, who can spend 16 hours; and the third space is occupied by the lower class, who have only eight hours of night. Lao Dao belongs to the third space. He wants to send his daughter to a good school, and in order to earn money, he ventures into the second and third spaces to deliver letters to others. Although the novel is a futuristic science fiction, it is also realistic, revealing the class differences in the process of urbanization and modernization.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:12, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

This science fiction novel has many Chinese characteristics and has many local Chinese words. The cultural differences between China and the West caused by regional factors and customs are a big problem for translation. The translator should not only consider the readers' understanding and feelings, but also ensure that the local colors in the works are not deleted. Functional equivalence theory shows that translation should not be limited to form, and translators can make necessary adjustments to the form and structure of the original text, so as to achieve the equivalence of content and information.

This science fiction novel has many Chinese characteristics and many Chinese native words. The cultural differences between China and the West due to regional factors and customs are a major challenge for translation. The translator must not only consider the reader's understanding and feelings, but also ensure that the local color in the work is not removed. The theory of functional equivalence suggests that translation should not be confined to form, and the translator can make necessary adjustments to the form and structure of the original text in order to achieve equivalence of content and information.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:12, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Nida's functional equivalence theory has exerted a far-reaching influence on China, and also brought new and effective translation guidance methods to translators. We can see that when Ken Liu translated science fiction, he was also trying to achieve the balance and coordination between the translation and the original text. From the perspective of functional equivalence theory, this paper analyzes the English translation of Folding Beijing from the perspectives of meaning, style and culture, and discusses how the translator achieves the closest equivalence with the original text and whether the ideal equivalence are achieved.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:11）

Nida's functional equivalence theory has had a profound impact on China and has brought translators new and effective methods of translation guidance. We can see that Ken Liu is also trying to achieve balance and harmony between the translation and the original text when he translates science fiction novels. This paper analyzes the English translation of "Folding Beijing" from the perspective of functional equivalence theory and explores how translators achieve the closest equivalence to the original text and whether the ideal equivalence is achieved from the perspectives of meaning, genre and culture.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:12, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===1. Eugene A. Nida and His Theory of Functional Equivalence===

Eugene A. Nida, an American scholar and translator, he explains the dynamic equivalent translation in his influential work Toward a Science of Translating. Dynamic equivalence aims at the closest and most natural equivalence between the target text and the source text, and focuses on the equivalence of readers' response, not just the equivalence of content and form. （Zhao Dandan,2011:1）

Eugene A. Nida, an American scholar and translator, explained dynamic equivalence translation in his influential book,Toward a Science of Translating. The aim of dynamic equivalence is the closest and most natural equivalence between the target text and the source text, focusing on the equivalence of the reader's response, not just the equivalence of content and form.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In his book The Theory and Practice of Translation, Nida defined dynamic equivalence as follows: Dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language.（Nida，2004：24）Nida's dynamic equivalence theory requires that the translation readers' response to the translation should be consistent with that of the original readers. （Nida,2004:24）

In "The Theory and Practice of Translation", Nida defines dynamic equivalence as follows. Dynamic equivalence is defined as the degree to which the receptors of information in the receptor language react to the information in essentially the same way as the receptors in the source language react to the information (Nida, 2004: 24) Nida's dynamic equivalence theory requires that the translated reader's reaction to the translation should be the same as the original reader's reaction.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Since dynamic equivalence is controversial in some aspects, Nida replaced dynamic equivalence with more perfect functional equivalence in 1993. There are a number of related principles that govern the degree of adjustment necessary to produce a satisfactory equivalent translation. As functional equivalence translation is defined as the closest and most natural equivalent translation of the source language information, three principles should be followed by translators to achieve functional equivalence. Nida divides functional equivalence into categories on two levels:the minimal level and the maximal level in his work Language, Culture and Translating. The minimal level which is a realistic definition of functional equivalence is defined as "The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers did" (Nida 1993:118).

Because dynamic equivalence was controversial in some respects, Nida replaced it with a more perfect functional equivalence in 1993. There are a number of related principles that govern the degree of adjustment required to produce a satisfactory equivalent translation. Since a functionally equivalent translation is defined as the closest and most natural equivalent translation of the source language message, the translator's achievement of functional equivalence follows three principles.In his book Language, Culture and Translation, Nida divides functional equivalence into two levels of categories:the minimal level and the maximum level.The minimal level,as a realistic definition of functional equivalence, is defined as "The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers did".(Nida 1993:118)--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In order to achieve functional equivalence, the translator must make the translation fit (1) the context of the source-language message, (2) the receptor-language reader's response, (3) the receptor language and culture as a whole. Nida defined the reader's response as the essence of his functional equivalence theory, that is, from the form and content of information to the reader's response. It is different from the traditional translation theory, which emphasizes the comparison of verbs between the original text and the target text. Functional equivalence concerns reader's responses. If the target language reader's understanding and appreciation of the target language is essentially the same as that of the original language readers, the target language can be regarded as a functional equivalence. In other words, the functional equivalence of Nida emphasizes the reader’s response to the translation.（Zhao Dandan,2011:1）

In order to achieve functional equivalence, the translator must make the translation conform to (1) the context of the source language message, (2) the response of the reader of the recipient language, and (3) the recipient language and culture as a whole. Nida defines the reader's response as the essence of his functional equivalence theory,namely from the form and content of the message to the reader's response. It differs from traditional translation theory, which emphasizes verbal comparison between the original and the target text. Functional equivalence involves the reader's response. If the target language readers' understanding and appreciation of the target language is basically the same as that of the readers of the original text, it can be regarded as functional equivalence of the target language. In other words, the functional equivalence of Nida emphasizes the reader's reaction to translation.（Zhao Dandan,2011:1）--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===2. Three Functional Equivalence in the Chinese Translation of Folding Beijing===

====2.1 Functional Equivalence from Aspect of Meaning====

Nida and Taber stated that "translating consist in reproducing in the receptor language the closet natural equivalence of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning." Meaning in this chapter will from three levels to discuss: words, sentences and passages, in other words, these three levels is a detailed analysis of the lexicon, syntax and discourse. According to the functional equivalence theory, translation should not only achieve literal equivalence, but also discover the author's true meaning. The following is a detailed analysis of how to achieve functional equivalence in translation of Folding Beijing from lexical, syntactic and discourse perspectives.(Nida,2004:12)

Nida and Taber point out that "translation consists in reproducing the closest natural equivalence of source language information in the receptor language, above all in terms of meaning." Meaning will be discussed in this chapter at three levels: word, sentence, and segment, in other words, these are the three levels of detailed analysis of lexicon, syntax, and discourse. According to the theory of functional equivalence, translation is not only about word-for-word equivalence, but also about discovering the author's true meaning. The following is a detailed analysis of how to achieve functional equivalence in the translation of Folding Beijing from the perspectives of lexis, syntax and discourse (Nida, 2004:12).--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=====2.1.1 Lexical level=====

In literary translation, how to correctly interpret the meaning of a word or phrase is always a difficult problem. There are two main difficulties in translating the meaning of a word or phrase. One difficulty is that many English words are polysemous, they have more than one meaning, so it is difficult to choose the right English word without causing ambiguity. Another difficulty is that the same meaning can be translated into several English expressions, but we should carefully consider which English expression is most appropriate. In the English translation of Folding Beijing, there are many examples to illustrate how the translation achieves functional equivalence with the source text in the lexical level as follows:（Din Juan,2011:22）

In literary translation, it is always a challenge to correctly interpret the meaning of a word or phrase. There are two main difficulties in translating the meaning of a word or phrase. One difficulty is that many English words are polysemous, and they have more than one meaning, so it is difficult to choose the right English word without causing ambiguity. Another difficulty is that the same meaning can be translated into several English expressions, but we should carefully consider which English expression is the most appropriate. In the English translation of Beijing Folding, there are many examples of how the translation can achieve functional equivalence with the original at the lexical level, as follows: (Ding Juan, 2011:22)--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Example 1:
“食客围着塑料桌子，埋头在酸辣粉的热气腾腾中，饿虎扑食一般，白色蒸汽遮住了脸。油炸的香味弥漫。货摊上的酸枣和核桃堆成山，腊肉在头顶摇摆。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:1）

"Customers packed the plastic tables at the food hawker stalls, which were immersed in the aroma of frying oil. They are heartily with their faces buried in bowls of hot and sour rice noodles, their heads hidden by clouds of white steam. Other stands featured mountains of jujubes and walnuts, and hunks of cured meat swung overhead." (Ken Liu 2015)

Chinese people can imagine the scene of street stalls when talking about plastic tables, but other people can't understand it. Therefore, the translator uses the word "the plastic tables at the food hawker stalls" for readers to understand. "Sour and spicy powder" is originally a kind of Chinese noodles. The author uses "hot and sour rice noodles" to describe the taste of sour and spicy and the raw material of noodles is rice.

Example 2:
“这时彭蠡出现了。他剔着牙，敞着衬衫的扣子，不紧不慢地踱回来，不时打饱嗝。彭蠡六十多了，变得懒散不修边幅，两颊像沙皮狗一样耷拉着，让嘴角显得总是不满意地撇着。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:3）

"Finally, Peng Li appeared: His shirt unbuttoned, a toothpick dangling between his lips, strolling leisurely and burping from time to time. Now in his sixties, Peng had become lazy and slovenly. His cheeks drooped like the jowls of a Shar-Pei, giving him the appearance of being perpetually grumpy." (Ken Liu 2015)

The translator uses "a toothpick dangling between his lips" to describe the action of picking teeth，it's more detailed and vivid. “懒散不修边幅” is translated into "lazy and slovenly" to describe Peng Li is neglectful of his appearance. “显得总是不满意地” is translated into "the appearance of being perpetually grumpy", in this way, the translation better expresses the author's intention to express the meaning of looking bad-tempered.

The translator uses "a toothpick dangling between his lips" to describe the action of picking teeth，it's more detailed and vivid. “懒散不修边幅” is translated into "lazy and slovenly" to describe Peng Li is neglectful of his appearance. “显得总是不满意地” is translated into "the appearance of being perpetually grumpy", In this way, the translation better expresses the author's intention and conveys what appears to be a bad temper. --[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Example 3:
“霓虹灯亮了，商铺顶端闪烁的小灯打出新疆大枣、东北拉皮、上海烤麸和湖南腊肉。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:9）

"The neon lights came on. Tiny flashing LEDs on top of the shops formed into characters advertising jujubes from Xinjiang, lapi noodles from Northeast China, bran dough from Shanghai, and cured meats from Hunan." (Ken Liu 2015)

The author did not translate directly “闪烁的小灯” into "the little flashing lights ", but "Tiny flashing LEDs". This is also because of the translator's own understanding of the text, he wants the readers of the English translation to understand that the lights are advertising, so that customers can see and understand the selling points of the store. At the same time, “拉皮” is a special noodle in northeast China, and there is no corresponding suitable English word, so the author uses "lapi", which is to show the original meaning.

The author did not literally translate “闪烁的小灯” into "the little flashing lights ", but "Tiny flashing LEDs". This is owing to the translator's own understanding of the text, he hopes readers of the English translation to understand that the lights are advertising, so that customers can see and understand the selling points of the store. At the same time, “拉皮” is a special noodle in northeast China, and there is no corresponding suitable English word, so the author uses "lapi", which is to convey the original meaning.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)
=====2.1.2 Syntactic Level=====

Syntax, usually defined as the study of how to construct sentences correctly with words in a language. In literary translation, the translator should make the syntax easy to be understood by the reader. The translator should take full account of the syntactic differences between English and Chinese. （Din Juan,2011:24）

Syntax, as a rule, refers to the study of how to construct sentences correctly with the words in a language. In literary translation, the translator should make the syntax easy to be understood by the readers. Translators should take full account of the syntactic differences between English and Chinese.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The difference of syntax between English and Chinese are mainly reflected in three aspects. First of all, conjunctions and relationship between words in English use frequency is very high. Secondly, English speakers put attention on object consciousness and used to the order from a small object to a large one, from specific to general; In Chinese texts, there is usually a temporal, spatial or causal sequence of time sequence. Finally, English language usually emphasizes important information at the beginning of a sentence, while the Chinese language tends to process information from the obsolete to the fresh for the purpose of impressing people.（Din Juan,2011:24）

The differences between English and Chinese grammar are mainly reflected in three aspects. First, the use of conjunctions and relational words in English is very frequent. Secondly, English speakers focus on object consciousness and are accustomed to the order from small to large objects and from specific to general; in Chinese texts, there is usually a chronological order of time, space or cause and effect. Finally, English usually emphasizes important information at the beginning of a sentence, while Chinese tends to process information from the stale to the fresh in order to impress (Ding Juan, 2011: 24).--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In order to achieve functional equivalence with the original text, we should not only translate the meaning of words, but also translate the syntactic structure into a proper form. The following are some examples to show that how English translation oh Folding Beijing achieves functional equivalence to the original text in syntactic level: （Din Juan,2011:24）

In order to achieve functional equivalence with the original, we must not only translate the meaning of the words, but also translate the syntactic structure into the appropriate form. The following are examples of how the English translation of Folding Beijing achieves functional equivalence with the original at the syntactic level:（Din Juan,2011:24）--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Example 1:
" 现在政府太混沌了，做事太慢，僵化，体系也改不动。'他说‘等我将来有了机会，我就推快速工作作风改革。干得不行就滚蛋。'他看老刀还是没有说话，又说, ‘选拔也要放开。也向第三空间放开。’" （Jingfang Hao 2016:15）

"‘The current government is too inefficient and ossified,' he added quickly, ‘slow to respond to challenges, and I don' t see much hope for systematic reform. When I get my opportunity, I'll push for rapid reforms: Anyone who's incompetent will be fired.' Since Lao Gao still didn't seem to show much reaction, he added,‘I'll also work to expand the pool of candidates for government service and promotion, including opening up opportunities for candidates from Third Space.'" (Ken Liu 2015)

We can see that in the translation of this paragraph, the translator obviously adjusted the word order, and the words said by the same person before the pause were pushed into the next sentence, in order to conform to the logic of English readers. “选拔也要放开” ,the literal translation of this sentence must be incomprehensible to the readers, so the readers have supplemented and translated this sentence into "I'll also work to expand the pool of candidates for government service and promotion", The translator perfectly explains what "放开" means.

We can see that in the translation of this passage, the translator clearly adjusted the word order, pushing what the same person said before the pause to the next sentence to fit the logic of the English reader." Selection should also be liberalized" ,the literal translation of this sentence must be incomprehensible to the reader, so the reader adds to this sentence and translates it as "I'll also work to expand the pool of candidates for government service and promotion", the translator perfectly explains the meaning of "放开".--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Example 2:
“昏黄的灯光中，老刀想起过去。一个人游荡在垃圾场边缘的所有时光。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:34）

“Lao Dao talked about his lonely childhood. In the dim lamplight, he recalled his childhood spent alone wandering at the edge of the landfill.” (Ken Liu 2015)

In this passage, the text refers to “过去” twice with emphasis. In order to achieve the same emphasis in the English translation, the author chose to adjust the word order, placing "In the dim lamplight" between the two sentences, rather than using a subordinate clause like "…childhood that…".

In this passage, the text emphasizes "the past" twice. To achieve the same emphasis in the English translation, the author chose to adjust the word order by placing "In the dim lamplight" between the two sentences instead of using subordinate clause like"... childhood that...".--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Example 3:
“再回到第三空间，他感觉像是已经走了一个月。城市仍然在缓慢苏醒，城市居民只过了平常的一场睡眠，和前一天连续。不会有人发现老刀的离开。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:34）

"Returning to Third Space, Lao Dao felt as though he had been traveling for a month. The city was waking up slowly. Most of the residents had slept soundly, and now they picked up their lives from where they had left off the previous cycle, No one would notice that Lao Dao had been away." (Ken Liu 2015)

In this passage, we can see clearly that English has many more conjunctions than Chinese, like "as though", "from where" and "that", this is because of the difference in syntax between the two languages.

In this passage, we can see clearly that English has many more conjunctions than Chinese, such as "as if", "from where", "that", etc. This is because the syntax of the two languages is different.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=====2.1.3 Discourse level=====

Nida believes that a close, formal translation may be difficult for readers because of the intricate nature of the discourse structure and the presupposed knowledge about the contents in the original text. Therefore, it is necessary to choose a way of "rewrite" to make the translated text acceptable to readers. In literary translation, the translator should pay attention to both the content and the structure of the discourse. In the process of translation, the translation should be equivalent to the original text in the level of discourse. The following part selects a dialogue and its English translation in Folding Beijing as an example of literary translation to achieve functional equivalence in discourse level.(Din Juan,2011:27）

Nida argues that readers may have difficulty accepting an approximate formal translation due to the intricacies of the discourse structure and the preconceived knowledge of the original content. Therefore, it is necessary to choose a "rewriting" approach to make the translation acceptable to the reader. In literary translation, the translator must pay attention to both the content and the structure of the discourse. In the process of translation, the translation should be comparable to the original text in terms of discourse level. A dialogue from Folding Beijing and its English translation is selected below as an example of literary translation achieving functional equivalence at the discourse level:(Ding Juan,2011:27)--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

“所以” 她给老刀夹了新上来的热菜，“你能不能暂时不告诉他？等我……有机会亲自向他解释可以吗？”

老刀没有动筷子。他很饿，可是他觉得这时不能吃。

“可是这等于我也得撒谎。”

依言回身将小包打开，将钱包取出来，掏出五张一万块的纸币推给老刀。“一点心意，你收下。”(Jingfang Hao 2016:23)

"And so"—she spooned a serving of the new hot dish onto Lao Dao's plate—"can you please not tell him, just temporarily? Please…give me a chance to explain to him myself."

Lao Dao didn't pick up his chopsticks. He was very hungry, but he felt that he could not eat this food.

"Then I'd be lying, too," Lao Dao said.

Yi Yan opened her purse, took out her wallet, and retried five 10,000 yuan bills. She pushed them across the table toward Lao Dao. "Please accept this token of my appreciation." (Ken Liu 2015)

The conversational habits in Chinese are different from those in English, so some adjustments are often made when translating. The form of the dialogue is not completely translated from Chinese, but for the reader, the understanding of the text is the same. For example，“夹了新上来的热菜”translated into "spooned a serving of the new hot dish", the translator changed the action to "spoon", which is more suitable for Yi Yan's identity image, it is more suitable as a girl in the first space to spoon the vegetables to Lao Dao. “推给老刀”translated into "She pushed them across the table toward Lao Dao", this sentence adds some action to make it more pictorial.

Conversational conventions in Chinese are different from those in English, so some adjustments are often made in translation. The form of the dialogue is not exactly translated from Chinese, but the understanding of the text is the same for the readers. For example, "夹了新上来的热菜" is translated as "spooned a serving of the new hot dish", and the translator changes the action to "spoon", which is more in line with Yi Yan's identity image, it is more suitable as the girl in the first space to spoon the dish to the old knife."推给老刀" is translated as "She pushed them across the table toward Lao Dao", which adds some actions to make it more vivid.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.2 Functional Equivalence from Aspect of Style====

Every writer has his own writing style, and no one can imitate it perfectly. That is to say, in translation, it is impossible for the translator to translate the author's writing style exactly the same. Through the application of rhetoric and dialect, the original text shows the language characteristics, and the English translation can also see that the translator tries to achieve the functional equivalence on the stylistic level.（Din Juan,2011:30）

Each writer has his or her own writing style, which no one can imitate perfectly. In other words, in translation, it is impossible for the translator to translate the author's writing style exactly the same. Through the application of rhetoric and dialect, the original text shows linguistic characteristics, and the English translation shows the translator's attempt to achieve functional equivalence at the stylistic level.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=====2.2.1 Rhetoric=====

First of all, rhetoric is an important part of the study of style. Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) believed that style is form and is a counterpart of dialectic. The use of rhetoric can create vivid images, vivid scenes, improve the effect of literature.（Din Juan,2011:30）

Rhetoric is an important part of the study of style. Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) believed that style is form, the counterpart of dialectic. The use of rhetoric can create vivid images, vibrant scenes, and enhance the effectiveness of literature.（Din Juan,2011:30）--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Example 1:
老刀的肚子也感觉到饥饿。他迅速转开眼睛，可是来不及了，那种感觉迅速席卷了他，胃的空虚像是一个深渊，让他身体微微发颤。(Jingfang Hao 2016:2)

"Lao Dao's stomach growled. He quickly averted his eyes, but it was too late. His empty stomach felt like an abyss that made his body tremble." (Ken Liu 2015)

In this passage, the original text compares a hungry stomach to an abyss, and the English translation also uses this metaphor to form a rhetorical functional equivalence.

In this passage, the original text compares a hungry stomach to "深渊", and the English translation also uses this metaphor to form a rhetorical functional equivalent.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Example 2:
不远不近的距离，就像遥望西山或是海上的一座孤岛。(Jingfang Hao 2016:10)
"The distance was perfect for taking in the whole city, like gazing at an island in the sea." (Ken Liu 2015)

In this paragraph, it is a metaphor, and the words "西山" and "孤" in the original text are not translated, only translated into "an island in the sea", this description is enough to show the image of a folded city.

It is a metaphorical sentence and words like "西山" and "孤" in the original text are not translated. They are translated into "an island in the sea", this description is enough to show the image of a folded city.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Example 3:
高楼像最卑微的仆人，弯下腰，让自己低声下气切断身体，头碰着脚，紧紧贴在一起，然后再次断裂弯腰，将头顶手臂扭曲弯折，插入空隙…楼宇由折叠中站立起身，在灰蓝色的天空中像苏醒的兽类。(Jingfang Hao 2016:10)

"The skyscrapers bowed submissively like the humblest servants until their heads touched their feet; then they broke again, folded again, and twisted their necks and arms, stuffing them into the gaps… The buildings unfolded and stood up, awakening like a herd of beasts under the gray–blue sky." (Ken Liu 2015)

It has a personification in this paragraph, "skyscrapers" have "heads, feet, necks and arms", and "like the humblest servants", the use of rhetoric enables people to imagine the folding picture of the city through the human image. By comparing the building to a herd of beasts, it shows its size and the sense of fear and oppression it brings.

This paragraph has a personification that "skyscrapers" have "heads, feet, necks, and arms" and are "like the humblest of servants," and the use of rhetoric allows people to imagine the folding diagram of the city through the image of a person. By comparing the buildings to a herd of beasts, it shows its scale and the sense of fear and oppression it brings.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)
Example 4:
直到建成的日子高楼如活人一般站立而起，他们才像惊呆了一样四处奔逃，仿佛自己生下了一个怪胎。(Jingfang Hao 2016:11)

"Finally, when the completed building stood up before them like a living person, they had scattered in terror, as though they had given birth to a monster."(Ken Liu 2015)

In this sentence, although "怪胎" translate into "monster", the "生"express also the same meaning, so the translator does not struggle.

In this sentence, "怪胎" is translated as "monster" and "born" conveys the same meaning, so the translator did not have any trouble.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=====2.2.2 Dialects=====

Dialect embodies the local characteristics, is the author's own writing style. Sometimes it's a problem in translation. In the following example, we can see how the translator handles this problem.（Din Juan,2011:33）

The dialect reflects the local characteristics and is the author's own writing style. Sometimes this is a problem in translation. In the following example, we can see how the translator deals with this problem. (Dingjuan, 2011:33)--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

For example, "伙计" in English "waiter" ,"铺盖卷" in English "bedrolls" ,"闺女"is translated as "real daughter" ,"她们认死理儿" is translated as "they don't know how to be flexible","只是这么多年过来，人就木了." (Jingfang Hao 2016:33) is translated into“But after so many years, you grow a bit numb." (Ken Liu 2015) We can see that when translators translate dialects with Chinese local characteristics, they pay more attention to the level of semantic understanding rather than the formal equivalence.

In short, whether the use of rhetoric or dialect in literature, can fully reflect the author's writing style. Therefore, in literary translation, the translator should study the differences between the source language and the target language in the ways to express stylistic differences, and find out the best way to make up for these differences. In this way, literary translation can achieve maximum functional equivalence at the stylistic level.

In conclusion, the use of either rhetoric or dialect in literary works fully reflects the author's writing style. Therefore, in literary translation, translators should study the differences between the source language and the target language in the way of expressing stylistic differences and find out the best way to compensate for these differences. In this way, literary translation can achieve the maximum functional equivalence at the stylistic level.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.3 Functional Equivalence from Aspect of Culture====

In the process of translation, the cultural difference between the two languages is also an issue that translators should pay attention to. People who come into contact with different cultures have different ways of thinking, values and social customs and so on. Translators need to understand the two cultures and fully express the cultural elements contained in the original text. At this time, translation plays a role in cross-cultural communication. The translator must present the cultural meaning shown or implied in the original text to the readers so that the translation can achieve the cultural equivalence with the original text. In this chapter, we will analyze the English translation of Folding Beijing from the perspective of food culture, folk culture and culture of idioms, so as to explain how it achieves the functional equivalence with the original text.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:47）

Cultural differences between two languages are also issues that translators should be aware of in the translation process. People who are exposed to different cultures have different ways of thinking, values, social customs, etc. Translators need to understand both cultures and fully express the cultural elements contained in the original text. At this point, translation plays a role in intercultural communication. The translator must present the cultural meaning shown or implied in the original text to the reader so that the translation achieves cultural equivalence with the original text. This chapter will analyze the English translation of Folding Beijing from the perspectives of food culture, folk culture, and idiom culture to show how it achieves functional equivalence with the original text. (Zhou Xingyang,2018:47)--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)
=====2.3.1 Food Culture=====

The city described by Beijing Folding is the political and cultural center of China, and it is a city with profound cultural deposits. There are a lot of contents belonging to traditional Chinese food culture in the novel. This part will analyze how the translator translates these delicacies to achieve functional equivalence.（Din Juan,2011:39）

The city described in Folding Beijing is the political and cultural center of China, a city with deep cultural accumulation. In the novel, there are many elements belonging to traditional Chinese food culture. This part will analyze how the translator managed to translate these cuisines into a successful counterpart.（Din Juan,2011:39）--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)
Example 1:
"…面前摆着一盘炒面或炒粉… "(Jingfang Hao 2016:2)

"Each kid had a plate of chow mein or chow fun…" (Ken Liu 2015)

"炒面"is a well-known traditional snack in China. The translator makes it into "chow mein", rather than "Chinese stir-fried noodles". In the dictionary, "chow mein" means a Chinese-style dish of fried noodles served with small pieces of meat and vegetables. This translation also makes it more intuitive for the reader to know what the food is.

"炒面" is a famous traditional Chinese snack. Translators translate it as "chow mein" instead of "Chinese chow mein". In the dictionary, "chow mein" means Chinese-style fried noodles with small pieces of meat and vegetables. This translation also gives the reader a more intuitive idea of what the dish is.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)
Example 2:
"老葛又拿来半瓶白酒和两个玻璃杯，倒上。"(Jingfang Hao 2016:32)

"…over a half bottle of baijiu…" (Ken Liu 2015)

The foreignizing translation is adopted here, "白酒" is translated into "baijiu" , the translator doesn't use the word like "spirits", it not only retains Chinese cultural characteristics, but also achieves communicative effect.

Here, foreignization method is used, and "白酒" is translated as "baijiu". The translator does not use words like "spirits", which retains Chinese cultural characteristics and achieves a communicative effect at the same time.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)
Example 3:

"哎，你们知道那儿一盘回锅肉多少钱吗？" (Jingfang Hao 2016:2)

"…how much they charge for an order of twice -cooked pork over there?" (Ken Liu 2015)

The special feature of this dish is that it is boiled in water and then stir-fried. The translator captures this feature in translation, trying to make people understand the meaning of "回锅", and this dish is made with pork, he wants readers of the English translation to see an image of the dish in their heads in the same way that Chinese people do.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:53）

The characteristic of this dish is that it is first boiled in water and then stir-fried. The translator has captured this feature in his translation, trying to make people understand the meaning of "回锅", which is made with pork, and he hopes that readers of the English translation will see the image of this dish in their minds, just like the Chinese do.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:53）--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)
=====2.3.2 Folk Culture=====

Chinese people also have their own unique way of life, customs and traditions, behavior patterns and other aspects of vocabulary. The following will analyze the translator's functional equivalence in folk culture.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:52）

Chinese people also have their own unique lifestyles, customs, behavior patterns, etc. in terms of vocabulary. The following will analyze the functional equivalence of translation in folk culture. (Zhou Xingyang,2018:52).--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Example 1:
"…几个人分吃两个菜…" (Jingfang Hao 2016:2)

"…and they shared two dishes family-style." (Ken Liu 2015)

"分吃" is the most common way of eating in traditional Chinese culture, where several dishes are shared among friends and family. The purpose of the passage is to show the poverty of the boys. The translator takes into account the differences between Chinese and Western cultures，Western behavior is different. so he uses the word "shared" and he adds the word "family-style" to make it easier for the reader to understand the behavior.

"分吃" is the most common way of eating in traditional Chinese culture, where friends and relatives share several dishes among themselves. The purpose of the passage is to show the boy's poverty. The translator takes into account the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, where Westerners behave differently, so he uses the word "sharing" and adds the word "family style" to make it easier for the reader to understand this behavior.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)
Example 2:
"咱们也算半个老乡吧。”老葛说，“所以不用太拘束。我还是能管点事儿，不会把你送出去的。"(Jingfang Hao 2016:27)

"We're practically from the same hometown! So, you don't need to be so careful with me. I still have a bit of authority, and I won't give you up." (Ken Liu 2015)

The culture of hometown is a major feature of Chinese culture. Those from the same hometown share similar living habits, growing environment and cultural background, so even strangers can get familiar with each other quickly and even help each other. Since Lao Ge and Lao Dao come from the third space, the translator explains the term "老乡" from a geographical perspective. "管事儿"means to have some authority. The translator also explains this word so that readers can understand it easily.

The culture of hometown is one of the major characteristics of Chinese culture. People from the same hometown share similar living habits, upbringing and cultural background, so even strangers can get acquainted quickly and even help each other. Since Lao Ge and Lao Dao are from the third dimension, the translator explains the term "老乡" from a geographical perspective." 管事儿" means to have some authority. The translator also explains this word to make it easy for readers to understand.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Example 2:
"一点心意，你收下。" (Jingfang Hao 2016:23)

"Please accept this token of my appreciation."(Ken Liu 2015)

In this passage, Yi Yan said that she hoped Lao Dao could help her keep a secret, so she wanted to give Lao Dao with money. "心意" means money, which is an euphemism used in China when it is inconvenient to offer money directly. In translation, the translator also considered an euphemistic way of expression, so he used the word "appreciation".

In this passage, Yi Yan says that she hopes Lao Dao will help her keep her secret, so she wants to use money to give Lao Dao." 心意" means money, which is a Chinese euphemism when it is not convenient to give money directly. In the translation, the translator also considered it a euphemism, so the word "appreciation" was used.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=====2.3.3 Culture of Idioms=====

Idioms are an important part of the extensive and profound Chinese culture. Chinese people always use them in their daily life and in their writing. However, some idioms sometimes have different meanings in different contexts, and the translation should pay attention to the differences between the two cultures.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:51）

Idioms are an important part of the vast and profound Chinese culture. Chinese people use these idioms in their daily life and writing, but some idioms sometimes have different meanings in different contexts. However, some idioms sometimes have different meanings in different contexts, and it is important to pay attention to the differences between the two cultures when translating them.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The author used many idioms in the article, such as "饿虎扑食", the translator translated it into "ate heartily", although the translation is easy to understand, but without the image that people are very hungry to eat, from the perspective of functional equivalence, English readers seem to be unable to reach the same level of understanding and response as Chinese readers.

The author uses many idioms in the article, such as "饿虎扑食", which the translator translates as "to eat in a heartbeat". Although the translation is easy to understand, without the image of a person eating very hungry, it seems that English readers cannot achieve the same understanding and reaction as Chinese readers from the perspective of functional equivalence.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

And "（盘子）一片狼藉"translated into "The dishes were a mess", it is a brief description of the mess. And "成人之美" translated into "in that case I'll have done a good deed by keeping silent", the idiom in the original text was originally used to describe Lao Dao's feeling that he was keeping secrets and that Yi Yan and Qin Tian might get together in the future. The translator abstractly translated the sentence in the English translation.

And "(盘子)一片狼藉" is translated as "the plate is a mess", which is a description of a messy situation on the plate. And "the beauty of adulthood" is translated as "in that case, I am doing a good deed by keeping quiet", the idiom in the original text was originally used to describe how Lao Dao felt that he kept the secret that Yi Yan and Qin Tian might be together in the future. The translator translated the phrase abstractly into the English translation.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Conclusion===

From the analysis of the English translation of Folding Beijing from three aspects: meaning, style and culture with the theory of functional equivalence in this paper, and it is believed that the English translation conforms to the understanding of English readers to the specific information in the text. According to Nida's functional equivalence theory and its translation purposes and strategies, the translator brings a natural and equivalent Chinese translation of Folding Beijing to the English reader.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:56）

The English translation of Folding Beijing is analyzed from three aspects of meaning, style, and culture using this paper's functional equivalence theory, and it is concluded that the English translation meets the English readers' understanding of the specific information in the text. According to Nida's functional equivalence theory and its translation purposes and strategies, the translator brings a natural and reciprocal Chinese translation of Folding Beijing for English readers. (Zhou Xingyang,2018:56)--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Nida's functional equivalence theory emphasizes that the target language readers' understanding and appreciation of the target language is essentially the same as that of the source language readers, so the target language can be regarded as a functional equivalence translation. Analyze from three aspects: meaning, style and culture "Folding Beijing" English version, you can see on the language, while Chinese and English in logic and grammar are greatly different, there exist many differences in the Chinese culture and western cultures, but the translator still tries his best to keep the content of the original text in the translation and find more appropriate words.

Nida's functional equivalence theory emphasizes that the target language readers' understanding and appreciation of the target language is basically the same as that of the source language readers, so the target language can be regarded as a functionally equivalent translation. Analyzing the English version of Folding Beijing from three aspects: meaning, style and culture, we can see that linguistically, although Chinese and English are very different in logic and grammar, and there are many differences between Chinese and Western cultures, the translator still tries to keep the original content and find more suitable words in the translation.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In terms of some specific content, the translator does not translate into exactly the same form, which is also consistent with Nida's functional equivalence theory, because Nida also proposed that translation should not be limited to form, but the translator can make necessary adjustments to the form and structure of the original text, so as to achieve equivalence between content and information. However, in some details, such as idioms, the translator's translation fails to achieve the same effect as the original text, which may be an area for improvement. Nida's theory of functional equivalence does provide a good theoretical model for the translation of science fiction, which is of great value.（Tan Zaixi,1999）

In some specific contents, the translators do not translate into exactly the same form, which is also in line with Nida's theory of functional equivalence, because Nida also suggests that translation should not be limited to form, and the translators can make necessary adjustments to the form and structure of the original text, so as to achieve the equivalence of content and information. However, in some details, such as idioms, the translator's translation fails to achieve the same effect as the original, which may be an area for improvement. Nida's functional equivalence theory does provide a good theoretical model for the translation of science fiction novels, which is of great value.（Tan Zaixi,1999）--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===References===

Hao Jingfang.(2015).Folding Beijing[J]. Ken Liu (trans.). A Magazine of Science Fiction and Fantasy

Hao Jingfang郝景芳.(2016).孤独深处[The Depth of Loneliness].南京：江苏凤凰文艺出版社[Nanjing:Jiangsu phoenix literature and art publishing,LTD]：1-40

Nida,Eugene A.(1993)Language, Culture, and Translating[M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press：118

Nida,Eugene A.(2001)Language and Culture: Context in Translating[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press

Nida,Eugene A. & Taber.(2004) Charles R. The Theory and Practice of Translation[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press：12-24

Tan Zaixi谭载喜.(1999).新编奈达论翻译[A new version of Nida's theory on translation].北京:中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Corporation]

Xu Jun,Mu Lei许钧,穆雷.(2009).翻译学概论[Introduction to translatology].南京：译林出版社[Nanjing: Yilin Press]

Zhao Dandan赵丹丹.(2011).浅论奈达的功能对等理论[Nida's theory of functional equivalence].湖北：文学教育[Hubei:Literature Education]

Zhou Xingyang周兴阳.(2018).从功能对等理论视角看《北京折叠》英译本研究[Chinese Science Fiction Translation in the Perspective of Functional Equivalence-A case Study of Beijing Zhe Die and its English Version-Folding Beijing].新疆大学[Xinjiang University]

Wang Guiyuan王桂圆.(2018)系统功能语言学视角下《北京折叠》英译研究[A Study on The Translation of Folding Beijing from the Perspective of Systemic Functional Linguistics].安徽：海外英语[Anhui：Overseas English]

==A Study on Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese Version of ''The Importance of Being Earnest'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence 余妮 Yu Ni==
<center>余妮 Yu Ni No.202070080620</center>
===Abtract===
''The Importance of Being Earnest'' is a satirical comedy of manners written by Irish playwright Oscar Wilde in the 19th century. Dialogues in this play are sharp, witty, and full of epigrams, which are not easy to translate. There are many Chinese versions, among which the most popular one is Yu Guangzhong’s version. From the perspective of functional equivalence proposed by Nida, Yu Guangzhong’s translation has its own merits. Guided by the functional equivalence theory, this paper explores the translation strategies of the drama title, characters’ names and dialogues in Yu’s version. It helps to create more excellent translation and promote the development of drama translation.

''The Importance of Being Earnest'' is a satirical comedy of manners written by Irish playwright Oscar Wilde in the 19th century. Dialogues in this play are sharp, witty, and full of epigrams, which are not easy to translate. Besides, there are many Chinese versions, among which the most popular one is Yu Guangzhong’s version. From the perspective of functional equivalence proposed by Nida, Yu Guangzhong’s version has its own merits. Guided by the functional equivalence theory, this paper explores the translation strategies of the drama title, characters’ names and dialogues in Yu’s version. It helps to create more excellent translation and promote the development of drama translation. --[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 10:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

===Key Words===
Functional Equivalence; ''The Importance of Being Earnest''; Yu Guangzhong
===题目 ===
功能对等理论下余光中译《不可儿戏》分析
===摘要===
The Importance of Being Earnest是19世纪爱尔兰剧作家王尔德所写的一部讽刺风俗喜剧。他的作品妙语逼人，警句诸多，想要译得传神并不简单。在众多译本中，余光中的译本《不可儿戏》最受推崇。从奈达提出的功能对等视角分析，余光中的译本确有其出色之处。本文以功能对等理论为指导，探究余光中译本中剧名、人名及人物对话的翻译策略。从而创造出更优秀的翻译作品，推动戏剧翻译事业的发展。
===关键词===
功能对等；《不可儿戏》；余光中
===Introduction===
“The Importance of Being Earnest is a comedy of manners written by Oscar Wilde in the 19th century, which is also his most successful comedy”(Shi Qiulei,2012). In this play, there are plenty of sharp dialogues, as well as aphorisms. Among its various Chinese versions, Yu Guangzhong’s is the most popular, which not only tells us the fabulous story, but also remains the flavor of the source language when translating. This thesis analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest from the perspective of functional equivalence. We can know more about the language features and translation strategies of Yu Guangzhong’s version.

“The Importance of Being Earnest is a comedy of manners written by Oscar Wilde in the 19th century, which is also his most successful comedy”(Shi Qiulei,2012). In this play, there are plenty of sharp dialogues, as well as aphorisms. Among its various Chinese versions, Yu Guangzhong’s is the most popular, which not only tells us the fabulous story, but also remains the flavor of the source language when translating. This thesis analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest from the perspective of functional equivalence. We can know more about the language features and translation strategies of Yu Guangzhong’s version. --[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 10:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

Nowadays, researchers pay more attention to the study of translation. In order to gain experience from famous translators through their translation, scholars carried out a series of researches towards Chinese versions of this play. Chen Yaoyao (2019) studied Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the perspective of dualistic nature of the drama. Shi Qiulei (2011) analyzed Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the perspective of cultural turn. Liang Wei (2009) and Shen Zhengrong (2007) compared two Chinese versions of The Importance of Being Earnest. Liu Guilan (2015) did the research on the secularization in its Chinese version.

Nowadays, researchers pay more attention to the study of translation. In order to gain experience from famous translators through their translation, scholars carried out a series of researches towards Chinese versions of this play. Chen Yaoyao (2019) studied Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the perspective of dualistic nature of the drama. Shi Qiulei (2011) analyzed Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the perspective of cultural turn. Liang Wei (2009) and Shen Zhengrong (2007) compared two Chinese versions of The Importance of Being Earnest. Liu Guilan (2015) did the research on the secularization in its Chinese version.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

The first Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest was Tongming Quyi (《同名娶异》) co-translated by Kong Xiangwo and Wang Jing in 1921” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). In the 1980s, Yu Guangzhong translated it as “不可儿戏”, while Qian Zhide translated it as “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. As far as I am concerned, Yu’s version is more acceptable for readers. It has been put on the stage in Guangzhou and Hong Kong for many times, while Qian’s version is rarely followed.

The first Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest was Tongming Quyi (《同名娶异》) which was co-translated by Kong Xiangwo and Wang Jing in 1921” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). In 1980s, Yu Guangzhong translated it as “不可儿戏”, while Qian Zhide translated it as “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. As far as I am concerned, Yu’s version is more acceptable, for it has been put on the stage in Guangzhou and Hong Kong for many times, while Qian’s version is rarely followed.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

American linguist Eugene A. Nida put forward the theory of “functional equivalence”, that is, “the translation and the original context should achieve equivalence in functional aspect, rather than rigid correspondence word by word” (Eugene A. Nida,1969), which coincides with the principles of Yu Guangzhong’s version of The Importance of Being Earnest. Through the study, we are able to gain suggestions of drama translation and produce excellent works. In this way, readers become more interested in foreign works, which is also beneficial to cultural diffusion.

American linguist Eugene A. Nida put forward the theory of “functional equivalence”, that is, “the translation and the original context should achieve equivalence in functional aspect, rather than rigid correspondence word by word” (Eugene A. Nida,1969), which coincides with the principles of Yu Guangzhong’s version of The Importance of Being Earnest. With the study, we are able to gain suggestions of drama translation and produce excellent works. In this way, readers become more interested in foreign works, which is also beneficial to cultural diffusion.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

The thesis comprises five chapters. The first chapter mainly introduces the research background, significance and layout of the thesis. Chapter Two gives an introduction of functional equivalence, including others’ views on it and its features. The next chapter focuses on Oscar Wilde and The Importance of Being Earnest, as well as its Chinese versions, especially Yu’s version. Chapter Four is the core of the thesis, which appreciates and analyzes Yu’s version from the perspective of functional equivalence. The appreciation focuses on the translation of the drama title, characters’ names and dialogues. In the last chapter, the author draws the conclusion.

The thesis comprises five chapters. The first chapter mainly introduces the research background, significance and layout of the thesis. Chapter Two gives an introduction of functional equivalence, including others’ views on it and its features. The following chapter focuses on Oscar Wilde and The Importance of Being Earnest, as well as its Chinese versions, especially Yu’s version. Chapter Four is the core of the thesis, which appreciates and analyzes Yu’s version from the perspective of functional equivalence. The appreciation focuses on the translation of the drama title, characters’ names and dialogues. In the last chapter, the author makes a conclusion.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

===An Introduction of Functional equivalence===
====The Definition of Functional Equivalence====
In order to set a standard for the conversion between the source language and the target language and reduce the differences, Eugene A. Nida proposed the famous “dynamic equivalence” translation theory, also known as “functional equivalence”, from the perspective of linguistics and according to the nature of translation. In this theory, he pointed out that “translation is to reproduce the information of the source language from semantics to styles in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language” (Eugene A. Nida,1969). Nida’s definition of translation indicates that translation is not only lexical equivalence, but also semantic, stylistic and stylistic equivalence.

In order to set a standard for the conversion between the source language and the target language and reduce the differences, Eugene A. Nida proposed the famous “dynamic equivalence” translation theory, also known as “functional equivalence”, according to the nature of translation. He pointed out that “translation is to reproduce the information of the source language from semantics to styles in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language” (Eugene A. Nida,1969). Nida’s definition of translation indicates that translation is not only lexical equivalence, but also semantic, stylistic and stylistic equivalence.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

The equivalence in “dynamic equivalence” includes four aspects: lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence, and stylistic equivalence. In these four aspects, Nida believes that meaning is the most important, followed by form. Form is likely to hide the cultural meaning of the source language and hinder cultural communication. Therefore, in literary translation, according to Nida’s theory, the translator should take the four aspects of dynamic equivalence as the translation principle and accurately reproduce the cultural connotation of the source language in the target language(Guo Jianzhong, 2000).

The equivalence in “dynamic equivalence” includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence, and stylistic equivalence. In these four aspects, Nida believes that meaning is the most important, followed by form. Form is likely to hide the cultural meaning of the source language and hinder cultural communication. Therefore, in literary translation, we should take the four aspects of dynamic equivalence as the translation principle and accurately reproduce the cultural reaction of the source language in the target language(Guo Jianzhong, 2000).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

====Three Steps of Translation====
Firstly, efforts should be made to create target language that not only conforms to the semantic meaning of the original text but also reflects the cultural characteristics of the original text. “However, the two languages represent two completely different cultures. Cultures may have similar factors, but they cannot be identical. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000)” Therefore, it is impossible to create perfect translation which fully display the cultural connotation of the original text. The translator can only reproduce the source culture to the maximum extent.

Firstly, we should create target language that not only conforms to the semantic meaning of the original text but also reflects the cultural characteristics of the original text. “However, the two languages represent two completely different cultures. Cultures may have similar factors, but they cannot be identical. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000)” Therefore, it is impossible to create perfect translation which fully displays the cultural connotation of the original text. The translator can only reproduce the source culture to the maximum extent.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

Secondly, if meaning and culture cannot be taken into account at the same time, “the translator has to abandon formal equivalence and achieve the purpose of reproducing the meaning and culture of the original text by changing the form of the original text in the translation” (Guo Jianzhong, 2000). For example, the English proverb “white as snow” can be translated into Chinese as “白如雪”. However, there is almost no snow in southern China all year round. In their cultural background knowledge, there is no concept of “雪”. How to understand the connotation of snow?

Secondly, if meaning and culture concepts cannot be taken into account at the same time, “the translator has to abandon formal equivalence and achieve the purpose of reproducing the meaning and culture of the original text by changing the form of the original text in the translation” (Guo Jianzhong, 2000). For example, the English proverb “white as snow” can be translated into Chinese as “白如雪”. However, there is almost not much snow in southern China all year round. Therefore, based on their cultural background knowledge, there is no concept of “雪”. How to understand the connotation of snow?--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

In the translation, translators can eliminate cultural differences by changing the form of vocabulary. Therefore, this proverb can be translated into “white as mushroom” and “white as egret’s hair”. In the English idiom “spring up like mushroom”, the original meaning of “mushroom” is “蘑菇”. However, when translated into Chinese, it means “雨后春笋” rather than “雨后蘑菇”, because in Chinese culture, people are more familiar with the idiom and understand the image of “雨后春笋”. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000)

In the translation, translators can eliminate cultural differences by changing the form of vocabularies. Therefore, this proverb can be translated into “white as mushroom” and “white as egret’s hair”. In the English idiom “spring up like mushroom”, the original meaning of “mushroom” is “蘑菇”. However, when translated into Chinese, it means “雨后春笋” rather than “雨后蘑菇”, because in Chinese culture, people are more familiar with the idiom and the image of “雨后春笋”. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

Thirdly, if the change of form is still not enough to express the meaning and culture of the original text, “the translation technique of recreate can be used to solve the cultural differences, so that the source language and the target language can achieve the meaning equivalence” (Guo Jianzhong, 2000). “Recreate” refers to the transformation of the deep structure of the source language into the surface structure of the target language, that is to explain the cultural connotation of the source language articles with the words of the target language.

Thirdly, if the change of form is not enough to express the meaning and culture of the original text, “the translation technique of recreate can be used to solve the cultural differences, so that the source language and the target language can achieve the meaning equivalence” (Guo Jianzhong, 2000). “Re-creation” refers to the transformation of the deep structure of the source language into the surface structure of the target language, that is to explain the cultural connotation of the source language articles with the words of the target language.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

===''The Importance of Being Earnest'' and Its Chinese Versions===
====An Introduction of Oscar Wilde and His Works====
Oscar Wilde was born in Dublin, Ireland. As a “born for art” writer, he was known for his plays, poetry, fairy tales and novels. As a representative of aestheticism, he always deliberately left out the relationship between art and other things. On the surface, Wilde wrote for the pursuit of art, but the essence of his work goes beyond art. He created four comedies in his life: “Lady Windermere’s Fan (1892), A Woman of No Importance (1893), An Ideal Husband (1895) and The Importance of Being Earnest (1895)” (Wu Jie, 2014).

Oscar Wilde, born in Dublin, Ireland, is a “born for art” writer. He was known for his plays, poetry, fairy tales and novels. As a representative of aestheticism, he always deliberately left out the relationship between art and other things. On the surface, Wilde wrote for the pursuit of art, but the essence of his work goes beyond art. He created four comedies in his life: “Lady Windermere’s Fan (1892), A Woman of No Importance (1893), An Ideal Husband (1895) and The Importance of Being Earnest (1895)” (Wu Jie, 2014).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:17, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

The Importance of Being Earnest is Wilde’s masterpiece, written in the Victorian era. “The Importance of Being Earnest is apt to be a stumbling block both to the detractors and admires of Oscar Wilde as a man of letters” (Richard Foster, 1956). Critics have different opinions on his other works, including poems and novels, but almost unanimously regard this play as a perfect one. It made a great sensation when first put on St. James theatre on February 14, 1895. In the play, the dandy Algernon and Jack made up the characters of “Bunbury” and “Ernest” for their own purposes.

The Importance of Being Earnest is Wilde’s masterpiece, written in the Victorian era. “The Importance of Being Earnest is apt to be a stumbling block both to the detractors and admires of Oscar Wilde as a man of letters” (Richard Foster, 1956). Critics have different opinions on his other works, including poems and novels, but almost unanimously regard this play as a perfect one. It made a great sensation when first put on St. James theatre on February 14, 1895. In this play, the dandy Algernon and Jack made up the characters of “Bunbury” and “Ernest” for their own purposes.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:17, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

Through some misunderstandings, the play continued to develop and the truth was revealed. It turned out that Jack was actually Algernon’s brother. The play ended with “I’ve now realized for the first time in my life the vital Importance of Being Earnest”. The play revolves around the dual identities of Algernon and Jack, describing the behavior of high-class figures. Wilde pointed out the characters’ absurd views of marriage and deep-rooted hierarchies and revealed the hypocritical ethical concepts in Victorian era.(Wilde, 2009)

Through some misunderstandings, the play continued to develop and the truth was revealed. It turned out that Jack was actually Algernon’s brother. The play ended with “I’ve now realized for the first time in my life the vital Importance of Being Earnest”. The play revolves around the dual identities of Algernon and Jack, describing the behavior of high-class figures. Wilde pointed out the characters’ absurd views of marriage and deep-rooted hierarchies, revealing the hypocritical ethical concepts in Victorian era.(Wilde, 2009)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:17, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

As a writer, Wilde often uses humorous language to express complex thoughts and feelings and explain some meaningful philosophy. The highlights of the play are not the plots but the dialogues. In order to reveal characters’ personalities, he employed a variety of rhetorical devices and aphorisms to produce a humorous effect. Pun is widely used in the play, including the drama title and characters’ names.(Yu Guangzhong, 1986)

Wilde often uses humorous language to express complex thoughts and feelings and explain some meaningful philosophy. The highlights of the play are not the plots but the dialogues. In order to reveal characters’ personalities, he employed a variety of rhetorical devices and aphorisms to produce a humorous effect. Pun is frequently used in the play, including the drama title and characters’ names.(Yu Guangzhong, 1986)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:17, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

====Chinese Versions of The Importance of Being Earnest====
=====An Overview of Its Chinese Versions =====
The Importance of Being Earnest was premiered in London on February 14, 1895. In 1921, Kong Xiangwo (孔襄我) and Wang Jing (王靖) cooperated to translate this famous play. It was the first Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest, but it did not get much attention of Chinese readers. “After the foundation of People’s Republic of China, the first new translation of Wilde’s play Selected Plays of Oscar Wilde (《王尔德戏剧选》) was translated by Qian Zhide (钱之德) and published by Huangcheng Press in 1983” (Wen Tong, 2010).

The Importance of Being Earnest was premiered in London on February 14, 1895. In 1921, Kong Xiangwo (孔襄我) and Wang Jing (王靖) cooperated to translate this famous play. It was the first Chinese version but it did not get much attention of Chinese readers. “After the foundation of People’s Republic of China, the first new translation of Wilde’s play Selected Plays of Oscar Wilde (《王尔德戏剧选》) was translated by Qian Zhide (钱之德) and published by Huangcheng Press in 1983” (Wen Tong, 2010).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

Qian Zhide translated it as “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. He just translated it out of his own interest, treating it as a play without orally practicing the translated lines. Compared with previous versions, his version was more personal, as his own reminder of the original texts. In 1986, Yu Guangzhong’s version came out, with the title “不可儿戏”. “It was published by China Friendship Press Corporation. It was popular with people and has been put on stage for many times” (Tong Fangli,2006).

Qian Zhide translated it as “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. He just translated it out of his own interest, treating it as a play without orally practicing the translated lines. Compared to previous versions, his version was more personal, as his own reminder of the original texts. In 1986, Yu Guangzhong’s version came out, with the title “不可儿戏”. “It was published by China Friendship Press Corporation. It was popular with people and has been put on stage for many times” (Tong Fangli,2006).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

Another version appeared in the 1980s when Zhang Nanfeng (张南峰) published A Collection of Two British Plays(《英国戏剧二种》), in which Zhang rendered the title of the play as “认真的重要”. “Three years later, in Selected Comedies of Oscar Wilde(《王尔德喜剧选》) published by Haixia Literature Press, Zhang changed his title into ‘认真为上’”(Tong Fangli,2006).

Another version appeared in the 1980s when Zhang Nanfeng (张南峰) published A Collection of Two British Plays(《英国戏剧二种》), in which Zhang rendered the title of the play as “认真的重要”. “Three years later, in Selected Comedies of Oscar Wilde(《王尔德喜剧选》) published by Haixia Literature Press, Zhang changed his title into ‘认真为上’”(Tong Fangli,2006).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

From “认真的重要” to “认真为上”, the author thinks that the latter is much more in line with the content.Because of political reasons, studies on Wilde stopped for some time.In 2000, in commemoration of Wilde’s contribution in the literary history, China Literature Press printed a complex six-volume Collection of Wilde’s Works (《王尔德全集》).” So far, only the versions of Yu Guangzhong, Zhang Nanfeng and Qian Zhide have been advocated by readers”(TongFangli,2006).

From “认真的重要” to “认真为上”, the author thinks that the latter is much more in line with the content.Because of political reasons, studies on Wilde stopped for some time.In 2000, in commemoration of Wilde’s contribution in the literary history, China Literature Press printed a complex six-volume Collection of Wilde’s Works (《王尔德全集》).” So far, only the versions of Yu Guangzhong, Zhang Nanfeng and Qian Zhide have been advocated by readers”(TongFangli,2006).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

=====Yu Guangzhong and His Chinese Version=====
Yu Guangzhong was born in Nanjing in 1928. As a writer, Yu Guangzhong is famous for his poetry. “Poetry, prose, translation and critical essay constitute the four dimensions of his writing life” (Li Xin, 2010). He has published 21 poetry collections, 11 prose collections, 5 comment collections and 13 translation collections, Actually, he is also one of the most dedicated translators in the field of translation. “For translators engaged in translation, Yu Guangzhong’s translation thoughts are of great value” (Tong Fangli, 2005). “He thinks that translation is a kind of composition, at least a kind of limited composition” (Wang Chao, 2016).

Yu Guangzhong was born in Nanjing in 1928. As a writer, Yu Guangzhong is famous for his poetry. “Poetry, prose, translation and critical essay constitute the four dimensions of his writing life” (Li Xin, 2010). He has published 21 poetry collections, 11 prose collections, 5 comment collections and 13 translation collections. Actually, he is also one of the most dedicated translators in the field of translation. “For translators engaged in translation, Yu Guangzhong’s translation thoughts are of great value” (Tong Fangli, 2005). “He thinks that translation is a kind of composition, at least a kind of limited composition” (Wang Chao, 2016).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

He thinks translation is closely related to creation, but it is a limited creation and a flexible art. “Yu Guangzhong has translated four comedies in his whole life, which are The Importance of Being Earnest (《不可儿戏》, 1983), Lady Windermere’s Fan (《温夫人的扇子》, 1992), An Ideal Husband (《理想丈夫》, 1995) and A woman of No Importance (《不要紧的女人》, 2008)” (Chen Feifei, 2011). All of these are the works of Wilde.

He holds that translation is closely related to creation, but it is a limited creation and a flexible art. “Yu Guangzhong has translated four comedies in his whole life, which are The Importance of Being Earnest (《不可儿戏》, 1983), Lady Windermere’s Fan (《温夫人的扇子》, 1992), An Ideal Husband (《理想丈夫》, 1995) and A woman of No Importance (《不要紧的女人》, 2008)” (Chen Feifei, 2011). All of these are the works of Wilde.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

Yu Guangzhong’s version of The Importance of Being Earnest was early published in 1983. In the postscript, he elaborated his principle of translating. “The dialogue of the novel is for reader to read. If you don’t understand, you can read it again. The dramatic dialogue is for audience to listen to, and if they do not understand, the dialogues passed. There is no second chance. I translated this book not only for Chinese readers, but also for Chinese audiences and actors. Therefore, my translation principle is to make the reader pleased to read, the audience satisfied to watch, and the actor pleasant to perform” (Yu Guangzhong, 2004).

Yu Guangzhong’s version of The Importance of Being Earnest was first published in 1983. In the postscript, he elaborated his principle of translating. “The dialogue of the novel is for reader to read. If you don’t understand, you can read it again. The dramatic dialogue is for audience to listen to, and if they do not understand, the dialogues passed. There is no second chance. I translated this book not only for Chinese readers but also for Chinese audiences and actors. Therefore, his translation principle is to make the reader pleased to read, the audience satisfied to watch, and the actor pleasant to perform” (Yu Guangzhong, 2004).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

===The Application of Functional Equivalence to Yu Guangzhong’s Version===
====Translation Strategies of Yu Guangzhong’s Version====
=====Translation of the Drama Title=====
So far, there are three famous versions of The Importance of Being Earnest. Yu Guangzhong’s “不可儿戏”, Zhang Nanfeng’s “认真为上” and Qian Zhide’s “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. “Among these three versions, Yu Guangzhong’s is the most popular one, which is also consistent with functional equivalence” (Wen Tong, 2012).

So far, there are three famous versions of The Importance of Being Earnest—Yu Guangzhong’s “不可儿戏”, Zhang Nanfeng’s “认真为上” and Qian Zhide’s “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. “Among these three versions, Yu Guangzhong’s is the most popular one, which is also consistent with functional equivalence” (Wen Tong, 2012).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

“Functional equivalence emphasizes that translation is to reproduce the information of the source language from semantics to styles in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language” (Eugene A. Nida,1969). Wilde created a character named “Ernest” in the play. As we all know, “Ernest” and “earnest” are homonyms, so the drama title is a pun. It not only expresses “the importance of being earnest”, but also “the importance of naming “Ernest”. After all, “Ernest” is a name favored by two girls in the play.

“Functional equivalence emphasizes translation is to reproduce the information of the source language from semantics to styles in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language” (Eugene A. Nida,1969). Wilde created a character named “Ernest” in the play. As we all know, “Ernest” and “earnest” are homonyms, so the drama title is a pun. It not only expresses “the importance of being earnest”, but also “the importance of naming “Ernest”. After all, “Ernest” is a name favored by two girls in the play.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

Qian Zhide’s version expressed the literal meaning, which achieved equivalence in meaning. However, Zhang Nanfeng’s version represented the implied meaning. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he translated the implied meaning and revealed the theme of the play that one should be serious about everything in life. The function of the title is to reveal the theme of the novel. “In Yu’s version, the information was reproduced and it echoed lady Bracknell’s words at the end of the play. So, it was more in line with Chinese readers’ preference” (Wen Tong, 2012).

Qian Zhide’s version expressed the literal meaning, which achieved equivalence in meaning. However, Zhang Nanfeng’s version represented the implied meaning. In Yu’s version, he translated the implied meaning and revealed the theme of the play that one should be serious about everything in life. The function of the title is to reveal the theme of the novel. “In Yu’s version, the information was reproduced and it echoed lady Bracknell’s words at the end of the play. So, it was more in line with Chinese readers’ preference” (Wen Tong, 2012).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

=====Translation of Characters’ Names=====
“Pun was widely used in this play, especially in characters’ names” (Yang Wenqian, 2014), and Yu Guangzhong translated it almost perfectly. In essence, pun is a deliberate word play. It usually appears when two words are similar or identical in their sound, but different in meaning. The effect of pun can be humorous, rhetorical and even bitter at times. Regardless of the brilliant effect of a pun, it is merely a tool for the author to get him across, not just a decoration.

“Pun was widely used in this play, especially in characters’ names” (Yang Wenqian, 2014), and Yu Guangzhong translated it almost perfectly. In essence, pun is a deliberate word play. It usually appears when two words are similar or identical in their sound, but in different meaning. The effect of pun can be humorous, rhetorical and even bitter at times. Regardless of the brilliant effect of a pun, it is merely a tool for the author to get him across, not just a decoration.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

Yu Guangzhong translated the character “Ernest” created by Jack into “任真”. In English, “Ernest” and “earnest” are homonyms, and “earnest” means to be serious about something. “In Chinese, “任真” and “认真” are homonyms，like the English homonyms” (Yin Lijing, 2012). Yu employed the domestication method to translate it into “任真”, and Zhang Nanfeng employed the foreignization method to translate it into ‘埃纳斯特’. It was translated into “任真” and gave him the Chinese surname “华”, which was from his family name “Worthing” in English.

Yu Guangzhong translated the character “Ernest” created by Jack into “任真”. In English, “Ernest” and “earnest” are homonyms, and “earnest” means to be serious about something. “In Chinese, “任真” and “认真” are homonyms，like the English homonyms” (Yin Lijing, 2012). Yu employed the domestication method to translate it into “任真”, and Zhang Nanfeng employed the foreignization method to translate it into ‘埃纳斯特’. It was translated into “任真” and gave him the Chinese surname “华”, which was from his family name “Worthing” in English.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

It not only facilitated the needs of the audience, but also considered the feelings of readers. If “Ernest” was translated into “埃纳斯特”, the audience will be confused and do not understand the humor and irony of the language. In the other hand, “认真” is too direct to let readers experience the beauty of pun by thinking it over themselves. “华任真” retains the ironic effect to the greatest extent, and it does not make the audience feel confused when they hear “埃纳斯特”. (Wang Chao, 2016)

It not only facilitated the needs of the audience but also considered the feelings of readers. If “Ernest” was translated into “埃纳斯特”, the audience would be confused and do not understand the humor and irony of the language. In the other hand, “认真” is too direct to let readers experience the beauty of pun by thinking it over themselves. “华任真” retains the ironic effect to the greatest extent, and it does not make the audience feel confused when they hear “埃纳斯特”. (Wang Chao, 2016)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

In this way, the form of original works was preserved, from a pun in English to a pun in Chinese. “From the perspective of linguistics, one of the ideal translation methods is pun into pun” (Yin Lijing, 2012). And the irony effect in Wilde’s original works can be kept to the greatest extent, as if it had just been transmigrated from English to Chinese.

In this way, the form of original works was preserved, from a pun in English to a pun in Chinese. “From the perspective of linguistics, one of the ideal translation methods is pun into pun” (Yin Lijing, 2012). And the irony effect in Wilde’s original works can be kept to the greatest extent, as if it had just been transmigrated from English to Chinese.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

Yu Guangzhong translated the character “Bunbury” created by Algernon into “梁勉仁”. The original meaning of “Bunbury” is “sightseeing tour”, which implies an excuse to evade responsibility as well. That’s exactly why Algernon intended to make up the character. “When he didn’t want to show up in some situation, he lied that his intimate named “Bunbury” was ill and he couldn’t keep the appointment because he needs to take care of him” (Yu Guangzhong, 1986). With the guidance of traditional transliteration method, we should consequently translate it into “邦伯里”. But Yu Guangzhong’s version adds beauty to the original text.

Yu Guangzhong translated “Bunbury” created by Algernon into “梁勉仁”. The original meaning of “Bunbury” is “sightseeing tour”, which implies an excuse to evade responsibility as well. That’s exactly why Algernon intended to make up the character. “When he didn’t want to show up in some situation, he lied that his intimate named “Bunbury” was ill and he couldn’t keep the appointment because he needs to take care of him” (Yu Guangzhong, 1986). With the guidance of traditional transliteration method, we should consequently translate it into “邦伯里”. But Yu Guangzhong’s version adds beauty to the original text.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

In Chinese, “梁勉仁” and “两面人” are homonyms, referring to double-faced people. In Wilde’s original text, “Bunbury” is not a pun. But in Yu Guangzhong’s version, he added a pun in the process of translation. Both of the Chinese name “梁勉仁” and English name “Bunbury” are names which are correct in lexical aspect. Moreover, “they expressed the same meaning that the person who named like that was double-faced” (Wang Chao, 2016), so the function of the original and the target language are the same.

In Chinese, “梁勉仁” and “两面人” are homonyms, referring to double-faced people. In Wilde’s original text, “Bunbury” is not a pun. But in Yu Guangzhong’s version, he added a pun in the process of translation. Both of the Chinese name “梁勉仁” and English name “Bunbury” are names which are correct in lexical aspect. Moreover, “they expressed the same meaning that the person who named like that was double-faced” (Wang Chao, 2016), so the function of the original and the target language remain the same.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

Yu Guangzhong’s version of the tutor Miss Prism is “劳小姐”. The name “Prism” and the word “prim” form a homophonic pun. Wilde aims to allude to his rigid character through this name. In Chinese, “劳” “老” and “牢” are homonyms, aiming at showing Miss Prism’s strict control over her student, Miss Cecily. It seems that her name not only adds the meaning “old lady” and “prison”, but also highlights the original work’s depiction of her rigid personality.

Yu Guangzhong’s version of the tutor Miss Prism is “劳小姐”. The name “Prism” and the word “prim” form a homophonic pun. Wilde aims to allude to his rigid character through this name. In Chinese, “劳” “老” and “牢” are homonyms, aiming at showing Miss Prism’s strict control over her student, Miss Cecily. It seems that her name not only adds the meaning “old lady” and “prison”, but also highlights the original work’s depiction of her rigid personality.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

In China, people’s surnames stand behind their last name, and their names are short. “European and American names are different and most of them are long and awkward for Chinese readers” (Wang Chao,2016). This kind of cultural difference often weakens the interest of many readers and audiences in the translated works, especially dramas. But Yu Guangzhong’s version not only translates the meaning of Wilde’s original work, but also has Chinese characteristics. He did not translate the name according to its pronunciation, but created Chinese names which can not only be in accordance of Chinese names, but also express the ironic meaning.

In China, people’s surnames stand behind their last name, and their names are short. “European and American names are different and most of them are long and awkward for Chinese readers” (Wang Chao,2016). This kind of cultural difference often weakens the interest of many readers and audiences in the translated works, especially dramas. But Yu Guangzhong’s version not only translates the meaning of Wilde’s original work, but also has Chinese characteristics. He did not translate the name according to its pronunciation, but created Chinese names which can not only be in accordance of Chinese names, but also express the ironic meaning.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

=====Translation of Characters’ Dialogues=====
“There are a lot of allusions and idioms both in Chinese and English. Cultural differences make English allusions and idioms become key points in translation, especially in drama translation which focuses on watching rather than reading” (Liang Wei, 2009). In order not to affect Chinese readers’ understanding of the plots, especially for the audience, Yu Guangzhong boldly adopted the substitution technique in the translation of dialogues, which can better convey the unique charm of Wilde’s language. Following, we will analyze Yu Guangzhong’s version from the perspective of rhetorical sentences, including alliteration, paradox and antithesis.

“There are many allusions and idioms both in Chinese and English. Cultural differences make English allusions and idioms become key points in translation, especially in drama translation which focuses on watching rather than reading” (Liang Wei, 2009). In order not to affect Chinese readers’ understanding of the plots, Yu Guangzhong boldly adopted the substitution technique in the translation of dialogues, which can better convey the unique charm of Wilde’s language. Following, we will analyze Yu Guangzhong’s version from the perspective of rhetorical sentences, including alliteration, paradox and antithesis.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

======Alliteration======
"Many English allusions and idioms are used in Wilde’s plays" (Yang Wenqian, 2014). The author chose two examples of alliteration sentences. Alliteration is the earliest phonetic rhetoric technique with rhythm and beauty in English. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he not only remained the rhetorical form but also preserved the flavor of the original work.

(1)ALGERNON. I hear her hair turned quite gold from grief. (Wilde, 2009)
亚吉能听说她的头发因为伤心变色像黄金。(余光中, 1998)
In this example, Algernon is talking about Lady Bracknell’s friend Lady Harbury, who becomes twenty years younger after her husband’s death. “It is commonly believed that a woman should feel grief after her husband’s death. We guess that her hair may turn grey out of sorrow. While it turned out that she changed it gold just to be younger” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). Wilde did well in employing paradox and irony to satirize the upper class. He is also keen on word game. “Gold from grieve” actually comes from “grey from grief”. Wilde’s alteration not only preserves the alliteration, but also achieves an ironic effect.

(1) ALGERNON. I hear her hair turned quite gold from grief. (Wilde, 2009)
亚吉能听说她的头发因为伤心变色像黄金。(余光中, 1998)
Algernon is talking about Lady Bracknell’s friend Lady Harbury, who becomes twenty years younger after her husband’s death. “It is commonly believed that a woman should feel grief after her husband’s death. We guess that her hair may turn grey out of sorrow. While it turned out that she changed it gold just to be younger” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). Wilde did well in employing paradox and irony to satirize the upper class. He is also keen on word game. “Gold from grieve” actually comes from “grey from grief”. Wilde’s alteration not only preserves the alliteration, but also achieves an ironic effect.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

In order to reproduce the formal beauty of the source language, Yu Guangzhong changed the alliteration into assonance and rendered it into “伤心变色像黄金”. In Chinese, “金(jin)” and “心(xin)” have the same sound “in”. “He employed rhetorical devices in Chinese to replace alliteration” (Yang Wenqian, 2014).. It not only expressed the same meaning as the source language, but also added the beauty of language in form, with Chinese characteristics. In the meaning level, Yu’s version preserved the original connotation, and in the form level, he employed rhetorical devices in Chinese to replace alliteration, which coincided with “functional equivalence”.

In order to reproduce the formal beauty of the source language, Yu Guangzhong changed the alliteration into assonance and rendered it into “伤心变色像黄金”. In Chinese, “金(jin)” and “心(xin)” have the same sound “in”. “He employed rhetorical devices in Chinese to replace alliteration” (Yang Wenqian, 2014).. It not only expressed the same meaning as the source language, but also added the beauty of language in form, with Chinese characteristics. In the meaning level, Yu’s version preserved the original connotation, and in the form level, he employed rhetorical devices in Chinese to replace alliteration, which coincided with “functional equivalence”.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

(2)CHASUBLE. I would merely beg you not to be much bowed down by grief. What seem to us bitter trials are often blessings in disguise. (Wilde, 2009)
蔡牧师只劝你不要过分哀伤。有些事看来像大祸临头，往往焉知非福。(余光中, 1986)
In example 2, Jack pretended that he had a wicked brother whose name is Ernest. And Ernest often needed his assistance so that he had an excuse to disappear for several days. Discovering that his ward Cecily was too interested in Ernest, he decided to “kill” his brother by saying that he caught a severe chill. Then Jack told Chasuble that his brother Ernest died in Paris. Chasuble intended to console Jack by saying “What seem to us biter trials are often blessings in disguise”. (Wu Shanshan, 2012) Therefore, from Chasuble’s point of view, his death may be a shake off for Jack.Here, “bitter” and “blessings” employed alliteration devices.

(2) CHASUBLE. I would merely beg you not to be much bowed down by grief. What seem to us bitter trials are often blessings in disguise. (Wilde, 2009)
蔡牧师只劝你不要过分哀伤。有些事看来像大祸临头，往往焉知非福。(余光中, 1986)
In example 2, Jack pretended that he had a wicked brother whose name is Ernest. And Ernest often needed his assistance so that he had an excuse to disappear for several days. Discovering that his ward Cecily was too interested in Ernest, he decided to “kill” his brother by saying that he caught a severe chill. Then Jack told Chasuble that his brother Ernest died in Paris. Chasuble intended to console Jack by saying “What seem to us biter trials are often blessings in disguise”. (Wu Shanshan, 2012) Therefore, from Chasuble’s point of view, his death may be a shake off for Jack. Here, “bitter” and “blessings” employed alliteration devices.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

Yu Guangzhong translated it as “塞翁失马，焉知非福”, a Chinese saying. It means that although we have suffered losses for a while, we can benefit from them in the future. “It also tells us that bad things can become good things under certain conditions, and vice versa” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). He translated alliteration in English into a Chinese saying. The meaning the Chinese saying expressed in the Yu Guangzhong’s version was the same as the original, and the ironic effect was achieved by using a more acceptable way for Chinese readers.

Yu Guangzhong translated it as “塞翁失马，焉知非福”, a Chinese saying. It means that although we have suffered losses for a while, we can still benefit from them. “It also tells us that bad things can become good things under certain conditions, and vice versa” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). He translated alliteration in English into a Chinese saying. The meaning the Chinese saying expressed in the Yu Guangzhong’ s version was the same as the original, and the ironic effect was achieved by using a more acceptable way for Chinese readers.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

An old saying is more persuasive in this situation. We learnt from Yu’s version that if there is a saying in the source language, we can find a saying which expresses the same meaning in the target language, making it achieve “functional equivalence” (Yang Wenqian, 2014).

An old saying is more persuasive in this situation. We learnt from Yu’s version that if there is a saying in the source language, we can find a saying which expresses the same meaning in the target language, making it achieve “functional equivalence” (Yang Wenqian, 2014).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

======Paradox======
(3)LADY BRACKNELL. I'm sorry if we are a little late, Algernon, but I was obliged to call on dear Lady Harbury. I hadn't been there since her poor
husband's death. 1 never saw a woman so altered; she looks quite twenty years younger. (Wilde, 2009)
巴夫人真抱歉我们来晚了一点，阿吉，可是我不能不去探望哈夫人。自从她死了可怜的丈夫，我一直还没有去过她家呢。从没见过一个女人变得这么厉害:看起来她足足年轻了二十岁。(余光中, 1986)
Paradox is a device much favored by satirists. The benefit lies in the fact that even though it seems to be contradictory on the surface, it contains a certain grain of truth. With the use of paradoxes, Wilde showed us a clear picture of characters’ thoughts and the bourgeois society of Victorian era. Lady Harbury lost her husband. As common sense, the readers or audience would think she may become old, while she says “she looks quite twenty years younger”. In this sentence, paradox was employed.Upon hearing that, the readers and audience will feel they are deceived by the speaker and become amused by the paradox (Wu Shanshan, 2012).

Paradox is a device favored by satirists. The benefit lies in the fact that even though it seems to be contradictory on the surface, it contains a certain grain of truth. With the use of paradoxes, Wilde showed us a clear picture of characters’ thoughts and the bourgeois society of Victorian era. Lady Harbury lost her husband. As common sense, the readers would think she may become old, while she says “she looks quite twenty years younger”. In this sentence, paradox was employed. Upon hearing that, the readers and audience will feel they are deceived by the speaker and become amused by the paradox (Wu Shanshan, 2012).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

After thinking it over, they will realize the beauty of the language. “Yu Guangzhong described the shocking facts in a flat tone to deepen the ironic effect” (Yang Wenqian, 2014). He successfully transferred the paradoxical meaning from the source text to the target language. Actually, he not only translated the original meaning, but also expressed the original meaning with an extremely same tone, an ironic tone.

(4)ALGERNON. Do you really keep a diary? I'd give anything to look at it. May I?
CECILY. Oh no. [Puts her hand over it] You see, it is simply a very young girl’s record of her own thoughts and impressions and consequently meant for
publication. (Wilde, 2009)
亚吉能你真的记日记吗?我真恨不得能看一看，可以吗?
西西丽哦不可以。(手按日记)你知道，里面记录的不过是一个很年轻的女孩子私下的感想和印象，所以呢，是准备出版的。(余光中, 1986)
In this example, since the diary is a record of Cecily’s own thoughts and impressions, she does not allow Algernon to read. "The readers or the audience may think Cecily will keep it as a personal privacy and prevent others from reading. However, Cecily says the diary is meant for publication" (Wu Shanshan, 2012). This contradictory statement is illogical and unreasonable, thus produces a humorous effect.In example 4, what amused the audience was that the conclusion was contrary to the reasons.

In this example, since the diary is a record of Cecily’s own thoughts and impressions, she does not allow Algernon to read. "The readers or the audience may think Cecily will keep it as a personal privacy and prevent others from reading. However, Cecily says the diary is meant for publication" (Wu Shanshan, 2012). This contradictory statement is illogical and unreasonable, thus produces a humorous effect. In example 4, what amused the audience was the conclusion contrary to the reasons.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

Yu Guangzhong added a Chinese conjunction “所以”. With this conjunction, the ironic effect deepened. If the translator transforms the illogical content into a coherent form that sounds reasonable, the paradoxical meaning in the original drama text will disappear, and the reader or audience will not be attracted by this line. This version remained the ironic effect of the source text. (Wu Shanshan, 2012)

Yu Guangzhong added a Chinese conjunction “所以”. With it, the ironic effect deepened. If the translator transforms the illogical content into a coherent form that sounds reasonable, the paradoxical meaning in the original drama text will disappear, and the readers will not be attracted by this line. This version remained the ironic effect of the source text. (Wu Shanshan, 2012)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

======Antithesis======

(5)ALGERNON. You don’t seem to realize, that in married life three is company and two is none. (Wilde, 2009)
亚吉能阁下似乎不明白，婚后的日子，三个人才热闹，两个人太单调。(余光中, 1986)
"Antithesis is a figure of speech in which sharply contrasting ideas are juxtaposed in a paralleled phrase or grammatical structure"(Wu Shanshan, 2012). Wilde employed quite a few antitheses in The Importance of Being Earnest, making it a great challenge for translators.Algernon introduced Bunbury to Jack so that he could still pursue pleasure after marriage. He compared two kinds of states of marriage and expressed his own thoughts. In the sentence “three is company and two is none”, antithesis was employed with rhythmic beauty.Yu Guangzhong noticed this musical beauty of the source language, and rendered it into corresponding paralleled structure.

"Antithesis is a figure of speech in which sharply contrasting ideas are juxtaposed in a paralleled phrase or grammatical structure"(Wu Shanshan, 2012). Wilde employed quite a few antitheses in The Importance of Being Earnest, making it a great challenge for translators. Algernon introduced Bunbury to Jack so that he could still pursue pleasure after marriage. He compared two kinds of states of marriage and expressed his own thoughts. In the sentence “three is company and two is none”, antithesis was employed with rhythmic beauty. Yu Guangzhong noticed this musical beauty of the source language, and rendered it into corresponding paralleled structure.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

As a matter of fact, the target language seemed to be better than source language. In Wilde’s language, only antithesis was used. While in Yu Guangzhong’s version, he reserved antithesis and added rhythmic words. “热闹” and “单调” are totally two different kinds of states, forming sharp contrast. Furthermore, “闹(nao)” and “调(diao)” have the same sound “ao”. Yu Guangzhong fully exploited the advantage of the target language and successfully transferred the beauty of the source language. He not only surpassed source language in form, but also preserved the soul (Shen Zhengrong, 2007).

As a matter of fact, the target language seemed to be better than the source language. In Wilde’s language, only antithesis was used. While in Yu Guangzhong’s version, he reserved antithesis and added rhythmic words. “热闹” and “单调” are totally two different kinds of states, forming sharp contrast. Furthermore, “闹(nao)” and “调(diao)” have the same sound “ao”. Yu Guangzhong fully exploited the advantage of the target language and successfully transferred the beauty of the source language. He not only surpassed source language in form, but also preserved the soul (Shen Zhengrong, 2007).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

(6)MISS PRISM. You are too much alone, dear Dr. Chasuble. You should get married. A misanthrope I can understand—a womanthrope, never! (Wilde, 2009)
劳你太孤单了，蔡牧师。你应该结婚。一个人恨人类而要独善其身，我可以了解。一个人恨女人而要独抱其身，就完全莫名其妙。(余光中, 1986)
This is the conversation between Miss Prism and Dr. Chasuble. She suggested that he should get married, and she compared the two reasons of not getting married. (Wen Tong, 2012). Wilde employed the rhetorical device of antithesis, and Yu Guangzhong remained it in target language. “Womanthrope” comes from the word “misanthrope”, referring to people who hate women. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he translated two words into two sentences, “恨人类而要独善其身” and “恨女人而要独抱其身”. He explained two kinds of situations to the audience in detail with the same form as original works, making it almost perfect in form and content.

This is the conversation between Miss Prism and Dr. Chasuble. She suggested that he should get married, and she compared the two reasons of not getting married. (Wen Tong, 2012). Wilde employed the rhetorical device of antithesis, and Yu Guangzhong remained it in the target language. “Womanthrope” comes from the word “misanthrope”, referring to people who hate women. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he translated two words into two sentences, “恨人类而要独善其身” and “恨女人而要独抱其身”. He explained two kinds of situations to the audience in detail with the same form as original works, making it almost perfect in form and content.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

====Suggestions on Translation from Yu Guangzhong’s Version====
Through the analyses of Yu Guangzhong’s version, we have a deeper understanding of “functional equivalence”. “Drama is a type of literature written to be performed” (Shi Tiantian, 2014). So, there are many details to be considered. Even Yu Guangzhong’s version, which is most popular among the audience and readers, has many imperfections. Through the research, we can get some suggestions to help the later translators to create more excellent works.

Through the analyses of Yu Guangzhong’s version, we may have a deeper understanding of “functional equivalence”. “Drama is a type of literature written to be performed” (Shi Tiantian, 2014). So, there are many details to be considered. Even Yu Guangzhong’s version, which is the most popular one among the audience and readers, has many imperfections. Through the research, we can get some suggestions to help the later translators to create more excellent works.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

The first translation strategy of is to keep the form of the target language in line with the original to the greatest extent. The reason why it becomes the most successful play of Wilde is that a variety of rhetorical devices are used. In the process of translation, Yu Guangzhong grasped this point well. In translation of the drama title or characters’ names, he preserved the irony of the original work, turning puns in English into puns in Chinese, and long foreign names into meaningful short Chinese names. It not only preserves the satire of the original, but also inherits the language flavor of the original (Wen Tong, 2012).

The first translation strategy of is to keep the form of the target language in line with the original to the greatest extent. The reason why it becomes the most successful play of Wilde is the variety of rhetorical devices. In the process of translation, Yu Guangzhong grasped this point. In translation of the drama title or characters’ names, he preserved the irony of the original work, turning puns in English into puns in Chinese, and long foreign names into meaningful short Chinese names. It not only preserves the satire of the original, but also inherits the language flavor of the original (Wen Tong, 2012).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

The second translation strategy is that the form can be changed properly, but the meaning and satirical effect cannot be reduced. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there are many Western proverbs which are inexplicable to Chinese readers. If they are translated literally, the reader will fail to understand the exact meaning of the proverb. The beauty of the original will be destroyed, as well. But if the proverbs are explained carefully, it will inevitably take up a lot of sentences to explain the literal and metaphorical meaning of the proverbs (Wang Chao, 2016).

The second translation strategy is that the form can be changed properly but the meaning and satirical effect cannot be reduced. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there are many Western proverbs which are inexplicable to Chinese readers. If they are translated literally, the reader will fail to understand the exact meaning. The beauty of the original will be destroyed, too. But if the proverbs are explained carefully, it will inevitably take up a lot of sentences to explain the literal and metaphorical meaning of the proverbs (Wang Chao, 2016).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

For drama translation, it is not advisable to do so. Yu Guangzhong chose Chinese proverbs that can express the same meaning to replace the English ones, without changing the author’s original meaning, and it added a sense of amiability to Chinese readers. In this part, the author analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the prospective of functional equivalence. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, both the form and the content of original work have been preserved. We also gained some enlightenments from his translation, which benefits our further translation practice (Wang Chao, 2016).

For drama translation, it is not advisable to do so. Yu Guangzhong chose Chinese proverbs that can express the same meaning to replace the English ones, without changing the author’s original meaning, and added a sense of amiability to Chinese readers. In this part, the author analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the prospective of functional equivalence. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, both the form and the content of original work have been preserved. We also gained some enlightenments from his translation, which benefits our further translation practice (Wang Chao, 2016).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

===Conclusion===
The thesis, under the guidance of “functional equivalence”, analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest from three aspects, translation of drama title, characters’ names and dialogues. Through this study, we had a clear understanding of functional equivalence. By appreciating the vividness of Yu Guangzhong’s version, we get some enlightenments in translation. From the above discussion, we think that translators can learn from Yu Guangzhong in order to achieve “functional equivalence”.In translation, we should take readers’ thought into consideration first. To make the translated version like the original work, Yu Guangzhong provided us with some strategies (Chen Yaoyao, 2019).

The thesis, under the guidance of “functional equivalence”, analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest from three aspects, translation of drama title, characters’ names and dialogues. Through this study, we can have a clear understanding of functional equivalence. By appreciating the vividness of Yu Guangzhong’s version, we get some enlightenments. From the above discussion, we think that translators can learn from Yu Guangzhong in order to achieve “functional equivalence”. In translation, we should take readers’ thought into consideration first. To make the translated version like the original work, Yu Guangzhong provided us with some strategies (Chen Yaoyao, 2019).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:53, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

One is to keep the target language in line with the original to the greatest extent. The other is that form can be changed, but the meaning and satirical effect cannot be reduced. With these strategies, we can produce more fantastic translation.Even though we gain experience from this study, it has limitations. “Drama is a type of literature written to be performed” (Shi Tiantian, 2014). So, there are many details to be considered. Although Yu’s version is popular, it has unavoidable shortcomings. This thesis only focused on excellent examples of translation. To sum up, Yu’s version provided us with some successful suggestions to achieve functional equivalence, but only part of it did it.

One is to keep the target language in line with the original to the greatest extent. The other is that form can be changed but the meaning and satirical effect cannot be reduced. With these strategies, we can produce better translation. Even though we can gain experience from this study, it has limitations. “Drama is a type of literature written to be performed” (Shi Tiantian, 2014). So, there are many details to be considered. Although Yu’s version is popular, it has unavoidable shortcomings. This thesis only focused on excellent examples of translation. To sum up, Yu’s version provided us with some successful suggestions to achieve functional equivalence, but only part of it did it.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:53, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

===References===
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Chen Yaoyao陈瑶瑶. (2019). ''余光中戏剧翻译研究''[A study of Yu Guangzhong's drama translation]. Taiyuan: Shanxi University山西大学.

Eugene A. Nida &Charles R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.

Guo Jianzhong郭建中. (2000). ''文化与翻译'' [Culture and Translation]. Beijing: China National Translation and Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.

Liang Wei梁薇. (2009). 从翻译目的论视角出发研究The Importance of Being Earnest两个译本[Two versions of The importance of Being Earnest From the perspective of Skopos theory]. Anhui: Language and words''语言文字'' (09) 258.

Li Xin李欣. (2010). 余光中戏剧翻译实践研究——以《不可儿戏》为例[Yu Kuang-chung's Drama Translation Practice: A Case Study of The Importance of Being Earnest]. ''淮海工学院学报'' Journal of Huaihai Institute of Technology (04) 96-98.

Richard, F. (1956). ''Wilde as Parodist: A Second Look at the Importance of Being Earnest. College English'' (1) 18-23.

Shen Zhengrong谌峥嵘. (2007). 《不可儿戏》两中译本比较[A Comparative Study of The Two Chinese Versions of The Importance of Being Earnest ]. Shanghai: Shanghai International Studies University 上海外国语大学.

Shi Qiulei施秋蕾. (2012). 文化转向视角下的翻译策略研究——以王尔德The Importance of Being Earnest两中译本为例[Translation Strategies from the Perspective of Cultural Turn: A Comparison of Two Chinese Versions of The Importance of Being Earnest].''常熟理工学院学报'' (03) 96-100.

Tong Fangli童芳莉. (2006). 从归化与异化的角度评余光中译《不可儿戏》[Evaluation on Yu Guangzhong's Translation of The Importance of Being Earnest from Domestication and Foreignization].''台州学院报'' Journal of Taizhou College (02) 43-46.

Wang Chao汪超. (2016). 余光中翻译思想与实践研究[A Study on Yu Guangzhong’s Translation Thought and Practice]. Changsha: Hunan Normal University湖南师范大学.

Wen Tong 温彤. (2012). 美学视阈下的戏剧翻译审美主体研究——以王尔德的喜剧中译为例[On the Aesthetic Subject of Drama Translation from the Perspective of Aesthetics——Take Oscar Wilde's Chinese Translation of Comedies as an Example].''时代文学''Period literature (03) 220-221.

Wilde, O. (2009). The Importance of Being Earnest. Claremont: Broadview Press.

Wu Jie吴洁. (2014). “语言游戏说”视角下的王尔德作品研究[A Research on Oscar Wilde’s Major Works from the Perspective of "Language Games”]. Shanghai: Shanghai International Studies University 上海外国语大学.

Wu Shanshan吴姗珊. (2012). 从目的论视角比较研究The Importance of Being Earnest的三个中译本[A Comparative Study of The Three Chinese Versions of The Importance of Being Earnest from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. Chengdu: Sichuan Normal University四川师范大学.

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=Applicaton of Translation Theories=
==Study of Application of Interpretive Theory in Interpretation 韩宛真 Han Wanzhen 202020080603==

===Abstract===
With the development of economic globalization, exchanges between countries have become more and more frequent and areas of cooperation have been continued to expand. The increasing demand for interpretation is the quality of interpretation which is particularly important. Interpretive theory plays an important role in translation, especially in interpreting, and also in guiding interpreting practice.Through the reading and analysis of some English-Chinese interpreting materials, this report summarizes some translation strategies and techniques frequently used in interpretation work under the guidance of interpretive theory, and combines translation examples to analyze and summarize.

With the development of economic globalization,exchanges between countries have become more and more frequent and areas of cooperation have been continued to expand.The increasing demand for interpretation is the quality of interpretation which is particularly important. Interpretive theory plays an important role in translation, especially in interpreting, and also in guiding interpreting practice. Through the reading and analysis of some English-Chinese interpreting materials, this report summarizes some translation strategies and techniques frequently used in interpretation work under the guidance of interpretive theory, and combines translation examples to analyze and summarize.--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 12:58, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

===Key words===
interpretive theory; interpretation,; translation strategies

===题目===
释意理论指导下的口译

===摘要===
随着经济全球化，各国之间的交往越来越频繁，贸易往来日益频繁，合作领域也不断地拓宽，口译地需求不断增加是口译质量显得尤为重要。释意理论在翻译中，尤其是口译中扮演者重要的作用，对指导口译实践有着极其重要的作用。本报告通过对一些英汉口译翻译材料地阅读和解析，在释意理论地指导之下总结了一些口译工作中经常使用的一些翻译策略和方法技巧，并且结合了翻译实例进行分析和概括。

===关键词===
释意理论；口译；翻译策略

===1.Introduction===
In this part, it mainly talks about some information about the interpretive theory and some knowledge about the Interpretation. Both of them are important for the development of translation.

===1.1 Introduction of Interpretive Theory===
The interpretive theory is also called the expressive theory, which was created by the interpretive school. This school explores the principles and teaching of French interpretation and translation of non-literary texts. The main representatives of this school, Danica Seleskovitch and Marianne Lederer, founded this school and made important contributions to the generation and development of interpretive theory. The interpretive school believes that translation is paraphrasing, that is, the translator interprets the source text through language symbols and his own cognitive supplementation during the translation process. This school believes that translators cannot copy the form of the source language to translate the text in the process of translation. What they pursue is not language equivalence but meaning equivalence.

The theory of this school is directly derived from the practice of interpretation and has a unique inspiration for the study of translation.General translation theories believe that there are three different levels of translation: vocabulary translation, sentence translation and text translation. The interpretive school has its own unique insights in this regard. The interpretive school refers to word-by-word translation and sentence-by-sentence translation as language translation (Linguistic Translation, and text-level translation is called text translation or translation. This school believes that successful translation is carried out at the level of the text and interpretives the text. Because the school believes that the sentence is a grammatical unit, and the text is a semantic unit, the interpretive theory studies meaning not grammar, so the school is particularly faithful to the textual interpretive. The equivalence of the original text and the target text is expressed in the overall communicative meaning, at is, the readers of the target text can have the same reaction as the readers of the original text, thus achieving the equivalence considered by the interpretive school.(Kong Shaohui 2019, 127)

The theory of this school is directly derived from the practice of interpretation and has an unique inspiration for the study of translation.--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 12:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The core of interpretive theory is to distinguish linguistic meaning from non-verbal sense. What the translator wants to convey is not the meaning of linguistic signs, but the non-verbal meaning expressed by the speaker in his speech. In other words, the essence of meaning is the "meaning" conveyed by communicators through language symbols, not the meaning of language symbols themselves. The meaning is mainly composed of two components. The first is the implied meaning (implicite), which means that the speaker actually wants to express the meaning: the second is the explicite, which the speaker actually says content.(Kong Shaohui 2009, 127)

The first is the implied meaning(implictit), which means that the speaker actually wants to experess the meaning: the second is explicit, which the speaker actually says content.--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 12:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Although translation and interpreting have different forms, they are essentially a communicative act, but in translation, the relationship between the translated material and the real world is not as close as in interpreting (for example, an ancient text, the author’s writing Intent-that is, "implied meaning"may become unknowable due to age). Interpretation is different: it is regarded by the interpretive school as the most ideal communication situation, because when interpreting is used, all the interlocutors are present, they share the same time and space environment, and under normal circumstances, they also have a common communication topic. Based on the above understanding, the purpose of translation should be to convey meaning, that is, communicative meaning; what the translator translates should be the content of the information conveyed by the text, which is speech (that is, the use of language), not the language itself.

Interpretation is not based on the memory of the original speaker's language, but based on the translator's grasp of the communicative meaning conveyed by the original speaker and subsequent reorganization of the communicative meaning (that is, the speaker's meaning) in the target language. At this point, we can see that the interpretive theory first separates grammar from semantics and points out that translation is interpretive; then it separates linguistic meaning from non-verbal meaning, and points out that the translator translates meaning. And the meaning is the communicative meaning.

The interpretive school's theory pays much attention to the study of translation process. In a sense, it can even be considered that the focus of the school's attention is the translation process. The interpretive theory believes that in interpreting, the interpreter actually goes through three stages before turning the speaker's words into words that the audience in another language can
understand:The first stage is the understanding of meaning, through understanding and analyzing language signs to clarify the linguistic phenomenon and thought content to be expressed, this stage is called interpretation of discourse. The part of discourse elaboration is extremely important, because after the discourse has been uttered by the speaker, its oral expression will immediately disappear, but after this part of discourse is elaborated, it will become the translator’s thought. In his mind, what the speaker has already said returns to the original state, that is, the state of pure thought that has not been expressed in language. This "thought that has not been expressed in words"(Seleskovic 1979, 113) can be re-expressed at a normal speed through the interpreter’s language, so the discourse elaboration connects the speaker and the translator, just like a bridge for the people.

understanding: the first stage is the understanding of meaning, through understanding and analyzing language signs to clarify the linguistic phenomenon and though contend to be expressed, this stage is called interpretation of discourse. --[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 12:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The second stage is cognitive supplementation, away from the shell of the source language. At this stage, we need to forget the deconstruction of language signs, and only need to remember the thought content it expresses, that is, the cognitive and emotional meanings produced by language signs. This stage is called "de-verbalization". Adding the process of breaking away from the language shell between understanding and expression is the result of the study of interpretive language and a contribution to the science.

The third stage is the reformulation stage of the original information content. That is to use another language symbol to create new sentences, and these sentences need to express the full content of the original utterance and easy to understand the two requirements.

In general, interpretive theory does not regard translation as a one-way decoding process of transforming a source language into a target language. It is a dynamic process of understanding ideas and then re-expressing them.(Zhang Si 2019, 275-277)

===1.2 Introduction of Interpretation===
Interpretation, also known as interpreting, is a kind of translation activity. As the name implies, it is a way for the translator to convert the input language into the output language in a spoken way. Oral translation is the simultaneous interpretation while the speaker is still speaking, which means the staff will simultaneously translate.
Translation work is the bridge and link of our country's foreign exchanges and international exchanges. The development of translation business is also an inevitable requirement of our country's foreign reforms. It can improve the quality of translators and strengthen the construction of translators. Translation talents play a very important role in our country's economic development and social progress, especially in attracting foreign advanced technical knowledge and strengthening international exchanges and cooperation. The improvement of the political and professional quality of translators plays a key role in strengthening international cooperation in all aspects of our country's politics, economy, science and technology.

There are very strict requirements regarding the selection of simultaneous interpreters. During simultaneous interpretation, the interpreter should continuously interpret the content to the audience without disturbing the speaker. Simultaneous interpretation, as a translation method, is characterized by high efficiency. The average translation interval between the original text and the target text is three to four seconds, with a maximum of ten seconds, so the speaker can speak coherently without affecting or interrupting the speech. The reader’s thinking is conducive to the audience’s understanding of the full text of the speech. Simultaneous interpretation is an extremely difficult inter-language conversion activity that is strictly limited by time. It requires the hospital to quickly complete the prediction of the source language in a very short time with the help of the existing subject knowledge while listening to the source language speech. Comprehension, memorization and conversion, and at the same time monitor, organize, modify and express the target language, and speak the target language translation. At international conferences, simultaneous interpreters need to use "lightning thinking" and superb language skills to successfully overcome the interweaving and interference of multiple tasks, which can easily cause energy shortages or difficulty in distributing attention to the brain. According to the regulations of AIIC (International Conference Interpreters Association), simultaneous interpreters only need to translate 80% of the speaker's speech content as a pass rate (90%-100% "simultaneous interpretation" is almost impossible). (Ouyang Changyi 2010)

Many people usually speak very fast. When giving speeches, they often only take into account their own speech content, even with accents and even dialects from various places. The simultaneous interpreters have to mobilize all their knowledge reserves and experience to go all out. In addition to solid language skills and mature conference experience, entering the simultaneous interpretation industry also requires a strong desire for knowledge. Due to professional needs, translators often have to deal with knowledge in many fields while doing translation, so some people say "simultaneous interpretation is a half-expert in any field.". Mastering the knowledge of broadcasting is the prerequisite for good simultaneous interpretation.(Lou Yue, Lan Jie 2020, 179-180)

===2. Literary Review===
No matter the interpretive theory and the interpretation,many people around the world have done some researches about them.And these researches about them can do great help for us to do further researches about them.

===2.1 The Research on Interpretive Theory===
Regarding the study of interpretive theory, there have been many scholars both at home and abroad who have conducted special research on it, and they have made important contributions to the continuous development of interpretive theory.

The first thing I mentioned is the study of interpretation by domestic scholars. In the early days, Chinese scholars began to study interpretive theory. Xu Jun, a well-known translation expert in our country, conducted research on interpretive theory in 1998. He mentioned in his article that he reviewed and studied the "interpretive" theory created by Professor Celeskovich; In 1997, the well-known translation expert Yuan Xiaoyi published an article on the concept of faithfulness called the interpretive theory, in which she discussed a problem of faithfulness that had been debated for thousands of years, and combining interpretive theory to explore this issue. With the development of the times, Chinese scholars’ enthusiasm for the study of interpretive theory has not diminished. For example, some scholars published an interpretive strategy study called Xi Jinping’s opening speech from the perspective of interpretive theory this year. The author here connects the interpretation theory with the times and integrates with practical activities. Based on the oral translation of President Xi Jinping’s speech, and guided by the theory of interpretation, the five translation strategies that translators commonly use literal translation, free translation, information simplification, antagonism and information supplementation are analyzed and summarized.

At the same time, some scholars are still interested in the rise and development of interpretive theory and continue to study the development process of interpretive theory. In 2020, Su Yuanyuan introduced the concept of interpretive and the rise and development of interpretive theory in her published articles, and discussed the significance and challenges of interpretive theory for the implementation of curriculum policy in our country. Looking at the articles published by domestic scholars on the research of interpretive theory, most of them are studying the role and embodiment of interpretive theory in practice, especially the application in interpretation practice, which has played an important role in the development of my country's translation industry.

Regarding foreign scholars' research on interpretive theory, many scholars have also emerged. Moreover, foreign scholars' research on interpretive theory will be earlier than domestic research. For example, in 1953, foreign scholar Surindar Suri explained the role of interpretive theory in the communication process in his published article, and carried out research and analysis based on practical examples. In 1969, Jackendoff Ray S. published an article called An Interpretive Theory of Negation, which explained the shortcomings of the interpretive theory. In 1969, Dougherty Ray C. conducted an investigation and research on the lexical level of interpretive theory, combined with specific text examples for analysis. Recently, many scholars have conducted research and analysis on interpretive theory. For example, in 2020, Harari and Michael investigated the relationship between interpretive theory and our thinking.

It is precisely because of the investigation and research of these scholars at home and abroad that it provides us with a lot of useful information for understanding and studying interpretive theory. Of course, the interpretive theory itself has also been developed in the process of their research and investigation. The development of theory will of course also promote the development of practice, continue to promote the development of interpretation and translation practice, and make a significant contribution to my country's translation industry.

===2.2 The Research on Interpretation under the Guide of Interpretive Theory===

Investigation and research on the application of interpretive theory in practice, the main direction is interpreting. In the aspect of interpretation, interpretive theory has made important contributions to its development. That is to say, the practical significance of interpretive theory is very large, which can guide people's life practice and assist translators in their work.

With the globalization of the world economy, the exchanges between countries continue to deepen and exchanges become more frequent. Therefore, the industry of translation has become more important, and interpretation plays an important role in the process of communication between countries. Therefore, both domestic and foreign translators have conducted research and investigation on it.

First of all, I have made a summary of some research investigations by domestic scholars. The research of Chinese scholars on interpretive theory in accompanying translation mainly combines various interpretation practices to analyze and research. In 2016, Zhang Yu accompanied the Canadian delegation to the practice report and analyzed the interpretive theory in this interpretation practice. Based on the author’s practice of accompanying interpretation and the understanding of interpretation theory, the scholar discussed and analyzed the problems encountered by the interpreter during the task. Through this translation practice, the translator also summed up the guiding role of the interpretive theory that interpretation should pay attention to the transmission of meaning for interpreters. In 2018, Yang Lijun discussed the application of interpretive theory in escort interpreting from the interpretation practice of the 2017 Asia Media Summit. During the summit, the scholar served as a liaison and accompanying interpreter and successfully completed the task of accompanying interpreter. This year is 2020, Liu Guifang takes China's "One Belt One Road" as the background, the rapid development of the world economy, the increasingly close relations between China and Russia, and the increasingly frequent trade exchanges. Therefore, the increasing demand for escort interpreting makes the quality of interpreting particularly important. Scholars served as an escort translator at the 12th "Black Technology" Exhibition in Dalian. Their personal experience in the process of practice, guided by interpretive theory, summarized some translation strategies and methods in interpreting work.

On the practical research on the theory of interpretation abroad. In 1992, JD Ward and FJ Rink conducted research and investigation on interpretive theory in the formulation of public policy. In 2011, SE Porter and JC Robinson introduced interpretive theory in their monograph. Foreign researchers started their research on interpretive theory earlier, with a wide range of research and in-depth research.
The research on interpretive theory by domestic and foreign scholars has greatly promoted the development of translation, especially the development of interpretation.

===3.Translation Strategies based on Interpretive Theory===
Interpretive theory mainly includes three stages in the application process, namely, meaning understanding, cognitive supplementation, and separation from the source language. These three stages are called the triangle model of interpretation by the famous translator Celeskovich. We can understand from the picture below. There are three line segments in the figure. The realization from the top of the triangle to language A means that the translator captures the meaning and digests and understands it. The line segment from the top to language B represents the translator to express it in another language. These two lines reflect the process of translation: one is from linguistic signs to thinking, and the other is linguistic signs from thinking to target language. Then, the dashed line from language A to language B indicates that direct conversion of language symbols from the original language to the target language is impossible, which may violate the meaning of the original language.

Based on interpretive theory, a variety of translation skills have appeared in translation. Here we mainly discuss some translation skills of interpreting. The concept of interpreting is the object, and various examples are combined for analysis.(Zhang Yang, Li Lingzhe 2018, 334-336)

===3.1 Free Translation===

The interpretive school believes that the pursuit of translation is not the equivalence of language forms, but the equivalence of meaning between the original text and the translated text, which enables it to achieve the purpose of communication in this way. Free translation refers to getting rid of the shackles of the source language form in the translation process and reorganizing the structure of the language to achieve the purpose of conveying meaning. Free translation does not mean changing the connotation of the source text, but after understanding the basic meaning of the source text in the translation process, it is expressed in the language used to the target language to make the language clearer and easier to understand. In leaders’ speeches, some culturally loaded words are often involved, such as idioms, colloquialisms, poems, etc., which are difficult for the target language audience to understand. Therefore, in this case, we adopt the translation strategy of free translation.(Liu Yue, Lan Jie 2020, 179-180)
例1：明年是中国和东盟建立对话关系30周年，双方友好合作即将步入“而立之年”，双方各自的发展也处于承前启后的关键时期。
Translation: Next year will mark the 30th anniversary of China-ASEAN dialogue relations. Our friendship and cooperation, which is fully established, will move toward greater maturity as we both enter an important period of development.
"而立之年" is a Chinese idiom, which means that a person can stand on his own at the age of thirty. The source of this idiom is the Spring and Autumn Period. After Confucius was excluded from the political arena, when talking to his disciples about his own experience, he said that he had been determined since he was 30, and he has not been able to launch a benevolent government until he is almost 70. Here, the translator directly expresses the thirty in the first year, which is beneficial for the listener of the target language to understand.
例2：论坛是中非共同的宝贵财富，我们要与时俱进，擦亮这块“金子招牌”。
Translation: FOCAC is a valuable asset for China and Africa.
"金字招牌" is a Chinese idiom, which means a signboard in which stores used gold foil to show that they had strong funds. And now it is a name or title that can be shown off as a metaphor for being superior. It is also a good analogy of reputation. Here it mainly refers to a precious name, and the translation of asset is very appropriate and easy to understand.

===3.2 Addition of Message===

Information supplementation refers to the method of adding words to make the meaning clearer and more in line with the expression habits of the target language listener. Information supplements can be divided into adding words needed for grammatical structure, supplementing and omitted components, and components contained in the original text. Due to the differences in different cultures, some expressions will also be different in different languages, so the translator adopts appropriate supplementary methods to achieve the goal of meaning equivalence.(Liu Yue, Lan Jie 2020, 179-180)
例1：在涉及彼此的核心利益和重大关切问题上相互坚定支持，始终高举多边主义和公平正义的旗帜，提高发展中国家的国际地位和影响力，维护了发展中国家的整体利益。
Translation: We have firmly supported each other on issues concerning core interests and major concerns. We have stood together in upholding the banner of multilateralism, fairness and justice. Together, we have elevated the international standing and influence of developing countries and safeguarded the overall interests of the developing world.
In this translation, we can clearly see the difference in sentence expression between Chinese and English. Chinese pays more attention to the language of meaning, so it will omit some forms of expression; while English emphasizes the form of language expression, so there has relatively more use of function words in English expression. Through the above translation sentences, we will find that we have added some function words to the sentence structure in the English sentence, and also turned out the personal pronouns omitted from the source text. Through this addition, the logical relationship is clearer and the meaning is easier to understand.
例2：自今年4月举行东盟与中日韩（10+3）抗击新冠肺炎疫情领导人特别会议以来，各方积极落实会议各项成果，有利促进地区疫情防控和经济复苏，彰显了10+3作为东亚合作主渠道的重要作用。
Translation; In April, we had a Special ASEAN Plus Three(APT) Summit on COVIS-19. Since then, all parties have been actively implementing its outcome, which has bolstered both our response against the virus and economic recovery in the region. Such progress has highlighted APT’s important role as the main channel of East Asian cooperation.
From the translation of the above example, we can find that when the source text is translated into the target language, the number of words in the target language is almost half that of the source text. There are a lot of words in the target language that have not appeared in the source text, such as relative pronouns and personal pronouns. But through such additions, the logic of the text is more fluent, and the meaning of the text is clearer.

===3.3 Positive and Negative Translation===

As we mentioned before, different countries have different cultural characteristics, and of course there are huge differences in language expression. Here we take the English-Chinese translation as an example to illustrate this translation feature. English and Chinese are both positive and negative. However, because Chinese speakers and English speakers have different ways of thinking and expression habits, the two languages have their own characteristics of expression. In the practice of translation, it involves the conversion of pros and cons, which means that during translation, the sentence that is being said in the original text must be processed into a negative, and vice versa. Therefore, on the basis of understanding the content of the original text and under the guidance of interpretive theory, adopting such a translation strategy can make the semantics clearer to a certain extent, which is more in line with the language expression habits of the target language readers.(Liu Yue, Lan Jie 2020, 179-180) The following are some typical examples:
例1 如果不加强各方的合作来合力战胜疫情，我们就不能够加强公共卫生，不能增强地区对公共卫生突发事件的处理能力。
Tranlation: We could enhance public health cooperation and strengthen our region’s preparedness for public emergencies through working together on COVID-19.
The sentences in the source text are all expressed by the negative "cannot" in Chinese, and after being translated into English, the translator converts the negation into affirmation, which makes multiple repeated negative words in the source text omitted, so it appears clearer and is easy to understand.
例2 而不是搞知识封锁，制造甚至扩大科技鸿沟。
Translation: The least desirable is for us to stifle the flow of knowledge, or to create or even widen the technology divide among us.
The source text is a negative sentence containing the negative “cannot" when translated into English. The translator is telling the truth, the translation is "at least", the form is affirmative, the meaning is negative. This kind of English expression is more authentic, and it also makes the expression diversified, and the English listeners can also be understood.

===Conclusion===

In order to systematically summarize the achievements in the field of international interpreting research, and to provide useful references and references for future interpreting research, so I chose interpretive theory as the research topic of this thesis, trying to make an attempt to the core composition of its theoretical system. Part of the paper has been systematically investigated and researched, and the whole article has been modified to analyze the interpretive theory and its practice in interpretation. It not only introduces the meaning of interpretation theory, but also analyzes its application in interpretation practice. Based on the creation and development of interpretive theory by the predecessors, the development of interpretive theory provided good translation strategies for later translation, especially interpretation, and made important contributions to the development of translation.

The core of interpretive theory emphasizes the separation of the shell of the source language and the communicative function of the language. From this we can see that in the process of interpreting, the translator cannot be attached to the form of the language, but should pay more attention to the language it carries. Only in this way can the translator deliver the information to the listener in the target language as much as possible in the practice of interpretation. Translators should fully understand the meaning of the text in the language and outside the language, quickly get rid of the shackles of language signs, and try to convey the source language accurately and faithfully. In the process of interpreting, especially when the leader speaks, the language of his speech is plain, multi-purpose and interlocked, good at repetition and use of discourse with Chinese characteristics.

Translators should use translation strategies flexibly.The interpretive school believes that interpreting is a kind of communicative activity whose purpose is to convey meaning, and in order to fully convey the meaning, the translator must analyze, understand and interpret the discourse of the source text during the translation process. In the process of interpretive, the translator needs to supplement the cognition. The supplement of cognition is a process of combining the translator's language knowledge, subject-related knowledge, encyclopedia knowledge and context knowledge.(Xiong Wen 2014, 154-155)

The interpretive theory is the hypothesis of "beyond the shell of the source language". This hypothesis is the core concept of interpretive theory and has a significant impact on the formation and development of interpretive theory. In fact, the interpretive theory was originally proposed based on the assumption that meaning can be separated from the outer shell of language. But in fact, there were certain problems when the theory was put forward by the initiators. The explanation of the relationship between language shell and meaning of this hypothesis was too simple, and in this hypothesis, both meaning and language form were absolutized. Generally speaking, the meaning may not be 100% out of the language shell in the process of interpreting, and the phenomenon of "out of" is unlikely to occur from beginning to end; the natural language may still be a natural language in the process of processing the source language text by the interpreter.(Zhang Yang, Li Lingzhe 2018, 334-336)

The triangular model of interpretation theory explains the psychological process of interpretation to a certain extent, shows bold and innovative spirit, and lays the foundation for the cognitive psychological transformation of interpretation research, which has contributed to the formation of the international interpretation research pattern and future development It has a huge and far-reaching impact, and it also brings profound enlightenment to human machine translation research. However, the interpretive school has always rejected the linguistic approach of interpretation in its research work, which is the marginalization of the object of interpretation; in addition, it only focuses on successful interpretation practice, and does not make a systematic and serious analysis of the reasons for the failure of interpretation, so it will Weaken the practical value of the theory and affected its further dissemination and development.(Lederer 2001, 45-50)

In this era of international interpreting research talents, thehe brilliance of the interpretive theory has become the past. "As the leader of the past, today we don’t have to expect the interpretation theory of the interpretive school to continue its former glory." But the interpretive theory has not been outdated. Its high attention to meaning is important to today’s interpretation practice Interpretation teaching still has an important guiding role; the psychological process (information processing) model of interpreting it puts forward has been inherited through the efforts of a new generation of scientific research school! It is enriched and developed. With the progress of cognitive science, its "departure from the source language" The connotation of the “language shell” hypothesis may also become more and more clear and clear. The interpretation scope of the interpretation theory of the interpretive school may continue to expand, and the research methods of the interpretive school will continue to build the interpretation theory for a long time in the future. Make your own unique contribution."(Lederer 2001, 45-50)

In this era of international interpreting research talents, the brilliance of the interpretive theory has become the past.--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 12:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)
===References===
*Bevir, Mark, Rod AW Rhodes. (2002). Theory and methods in political science 1[J]. "Interpretive theory.": 1.

*Dougherty, Ray C. (1969). "An interpretive theory of pronominal reference." Foundations of Language: 488-519.

*Gong Longsheng. 龚龙生. (2008). 释意理论对我国口译研究的影响. [The Influence of Interpretation Theory on Interpretation Research in my country]. ''宁夏大学学报(人文社会科学版)'' [The Influence of Interpretation Theory on Interpretation Research in my country](04):155-166.

*Jackendoff, Ray S. (1969). "An interpretive theory of negation." Foundations of language: 218-241.

*Kong Shaohui. 孔韶辉. (2009). 综述释意学派翻译理论研究的主要内容. [A summary of the main content of the translation theory research of the paraphrase school]. ''青年文学家'' [Young Literary](02):127.

*Lederer Marianne. 勒代雷. (2001). 释意学派口笔译理论. 刘和平译. [Interpretation Theory of Interpretation and Translation. Translated by Liu Heping]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China International Translation and Publishing Corporation]:45-50.

*Liu Yue, Lan Jie. 刘玥、兰杰. (2020). 释意理论视域下习近平进博会开幕式讲话的口译策略研究. [ Research on Interpretation Strategies of Xi Jinping's Opening Ceremony Speech from the Perspective of Interpretation Theory]. ''海外英语'' [Overseas English](15):179-211.

* Mao Yueyue, Liu Fan. 毛新月, 刘帆. (2018). 释意理论指导下的会议口译中四字词语的翻译——以习近平总书记十九届中共中央政治局常委同中外记者见面会讲话为例. [Translation of four-letter words in conference interpretation under the guidance of interpretation theory - taking the speech of General Secretary Xi Jinping at the meeting between the Standing Committee of the Political Bureau of the 19th CPC Central Committee and Chinese and foreign journalists as an example]. ''北方文学'' [Northern Literature](12): 230-231.

* Ouyang Changyi. 欧阳长怡. (2010). 论释意理论指导下的记者招待会口译策略及释意训练. [On Interpretation Strategies and Interpretation Training of Press Conference under the Guidance of Interpretation Theory]. 福建省外国语文学会.福建省外国语文学会2010年年会论文集. [Fujian Foreign Language Society. Proceedings of the 2010 Annual Conference of Fujian Foreign Language Society]. 福建省外国语文学会: 福建省外国语文学会[Fujian Foreign Language Society: Fujian Foreign Language Society]

* Xiong Wen. 熊雯. (2014). 释意理论视阙下的口译过程研究. [A study of interpretation process under the view of interpretation theory]. ''海外英语'' [Overseas English](24): 154-155.

*Zhang Si. 张思. (2019). 释意理论在口译中的应用. [The Application of Interpretation Theory in Interpretation]. ''北方文学'' [Northern Literature](30):275-277.

*Zhang Yang, Li Lingzhe. 张杨,李灵哲. (2018). 释意理论指导下的翻译语义策略运用. [The use of translation semantic strategies under the guidance of interpretation theory]. ''佳木斯职业学院学报'' [Journal of Jiamusi Vocational College](10): 334-336.

='''Theory and Practise'''=

==The Development of Translation in Chinese Buddhist Scriptures 陈佳欣 Chen Jiaxin 202020080593==

===Abstract===
The translation of Buddhist scriptures has lasted for more than a thousand years in China, which is taken as the first Chinese translation climax. The translation of Buddhist scriptures in China can be divided into three historical stages: the first historical period, from the late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty, the pioneering stage; the second historical period, from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, the stage of development; the third historical periods, the Tang Dynasty which reached its peak. The problems of free translation and literal translation run through the whole development of the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The general process is: literal translation is mainly employed at the beginning; literal translation and free translation are competed at the development stage; the two reached harmony at the peak of Buddhist translation. The article will review the development of translation in Chinese Buddhist scripture and analyze literal translation and free translation of each stages through analyzing the famous translators, translation theories and translation characteristics of the three stages. In addition, this article will study the influence of Buddhist scripture translation on Chinese language and literature.
Lack the authentic definition about three stages of the translation of Chinese Buddhist scriptures
The “article” would better to be “paper” The “problem” would better to be “ disputation” or “controversy”--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 09:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Keywords ===
Buddhist scriptures, Translation, Literal translation, Free translation

===摘要===
佛经翻译在中国持续了一千多年, 我国的第一个翻译高潮就是佛经翻译。中国的佛经翻译大致分为三个历史阶段：第一个历史时期，从东汉末到西晋，为草创阶段；第二个历史时期，从东晋时期到隋朝，是发展阶段；第三个历史时期，唐代达到全盛阶段。意译和直译的问题贯穿佛经翻译的始终, 大致发展过程为:初期的大略主直译——发展时期的直译意译相争——全盛时期的直译意译达到和谐。文章将通过研究这三个阶段的著名译者，翻译理论和翻译特点来梳理佛经翻译的发展，并分析每个时期佛经翻译中直译意译的发展。

===关键词===
佛经，翻译，直译，意译

===Introduction===
Chinese translation has a long history of three thousand years, and the earliest translation can be traced back to the Shang and Zhou dynasties. But scholars generally take the translation of Buddhist scriptures in the Eastern Han Dynasty as the beginning of the translation history of China. Buddhism, religion and philosophy founded in India by Siddhartha Gautama, was unknown to other countries for a long time. About the first century AD Buddhism entered China along trade routes from Central Asia. Thus, the translation of Buddhist scriptures came into being. Buddhism was widely developed in China and became one of the most important religions in China for more than two thousands of years with great impacts on Chinese culture and civilization. The translation of Buddhist scriptures is mainly supported by two groups of people: the foreign monks who came to China to preach; the Chinese monks who go west to seek sutras. “The development of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures starts from the end of Eastern Han Dynasty, further developing from the Eastern Jin to Sui Dynasty, and peaking in Tang Dynasty, which stretches for more than one thousand years”(Meng Yue 2017, 305). And it has great influence on Chnese society, culture, language, arts etc. The translation of Buddhist scriptures is the first Chinese translation climax. With it developing, many translators and translation works come to the fore, and lots of translation theories have been put forward and perfected, which lays the foundation for later ones.

During the whole history of the translation of Buddhist scriptures, literal translation and free translation have always been one of the hottest topic. Literal translation of Buddhist scriptures refers to the rendering of text from Sanskrit into Chinese at a time or without conveying the sense of the original Buddhist scriptures. It emphasizes the form similarity and requires the accordance between the Sanskrit and Chinese in the choices of word, syntax and styles. Free translation of Buddhist means to mainly convey the meaning and spirit of the original Buddhist scriptures, which does not adhere strictly to the form or word order of the original. The problems of free translation and literal translation run through the whole development of the translation of Buddhist scriptures. “The general process is: literal translation is mainly employed at the beginning; literal translation and free translation are competed at the development stage; the two reached harmony at the peak of Buddhist translation” (Sun Shanshan 2014, 174).

In the present paper, I shall discuss the development of translation in Chinese Buddhist scriptures from three period. The first period is from the late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty. The representative translators during this period are An Shigao, Zhi Chen and Zhi Qian. Among them An Shigao and Zhi Chen advocate literal translation, while Zhi Qian supports free translation. The second period from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty. The representative translators during this period are Shi Daoan and Kumarajiva. Shi Daoan proposed that translation should be carried out literally and raised the theory of “five losses and three difficulties”. Kumarajiva opposed to precise literal rendering and argued that the translation of Buddhist scriptures should be concise and elegant and meet the language habits of Chinese readers. The third period is the Tang Dynasty, and the representative translator in this age is Xuan Zang. Xuan Zang held that translation “must be truthful and intelligible to the populace”.

=== The late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty ——Mainly Literal Translation ===
The development of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures starts from the end of Eastern Han Dynasty. With the success of the Silk Road, Buddhism was introduced to China. At the beginning, it was not widely accepted by Chinese society due to language barrier. Therefore, it is of great necessity to translate Buddhist scriptures into Chinese, so that it can be read, comprehended and accepted by Chinese people. The representative translators during this period are An Shigao, Zhi Chen and Zhi Qian. The first two were the masters of the literal translation school.

==== An Shigao ====
An Shigao lived from 148-180 CE. According to legend, he was a prince of Parthia (modern Iran). He gave up being a prince to become a Buddhist missionary monk in China. Soon after he arrived China, he quickly possessed a good knowledge of Chinese and started to translate Buddhist Scriptures into Chinese. He totally translated 35 Buddhist Scriptures, of which main content was the basic doctrines and method of cultivation of Theravada Buddhism. Compared to other contemporaneous translators, “An Shigao’s translation can more accurately convey the original meaning of the text. His translation is clear and appropriate. Generally speaking, he was the earliest representative of literal translator in China. His translation is mainly literal and respects the structure of the original text” ( Fang Yang 2013, 6). However, as An Shigao was the earliest group of Buddhist scripture translators, “there is no precedents to follow, some terms in the translation are not easy to understand, and the structure of some original sentence are different from that of Chinese, therefore there are some repetitions and inversions in his translation” (Yang Chaobiao 2012, 78).

==== Zhi Chen ====
Zhi Chen, entering China at about 167 CE, was the first monk who introduced Mahāyāna Buddhism to China. He was proficient in Chinese and translated a large number of Buddhist scriptures. Most of them are about Mahayana Buddhism. With the translation of An Shigao as reference, Zhi Chen accumulated a certain amount of experience in wording and phrasing, so his translation can be relatively fluent and preserve the original meaning as much as possible. Besides, “transliteration are often employed in his translation”(Zhang Yuwei 2019, 115). Therefore he was also regarded as one of the representatives of literal translators. However, due to the limitation of the time, Zhi Chen, just as same as An Shigao and other comtemporay translators, his translation about some terms are obscure and unclear.

==== Zhi Qian ====
Zhi Qian, also known as Zhi Yue, is a Buddhist scripture translator during the Three Kingdoms period. He is the author of The Dhammapada Sequence, which is said to be the first essay on translation in China. He opposed to the previous translation which focuses on the literal meaning of the text while ignore the elegance of translation. He argued that translation should be easy to understand and the language should be smooth. Zhiqian was the first person in ancient China to systematize and theorize translation. “Zhi Qian’s preface is the first work whose purpose is express an opinion about translation practice”(Ma Zhuyi 1988). He broke the routine of literal translation, pursued the elegance of words, and advocated both free translation and Literal translation, which played a very important role in the improvement of the later translation of the Buddhist scriptures.

==== The Characteristics of This Period ====
(1) The translation of Buddhist scriptures were mostly completed by foreign monks. During this period, Buddhism has just been introduced to China, for this reason there are very few native monks who really know Buddhist scriptures. In the other hand, in order to propagate Buddhism, these foreign monks had to take on translating Buddhist scriptures in the early days.

(2)The mainstream translation principle was faithfulness at that time. On the one hand, the translators are almost devout religious believers. “Religious scriptures seem to be the sacred “ will of God ”, which is unalterable. Any amplification, deletion or modification in the translation process of religious scriptures can be seen as a blasphemy against God” (Xiong Hui 2013, 67). Therefore, translators mainly adopted the translation method of literal translation, which demonstrates the sincere religious beliefs of translators and preserves the sanctity of religious scriptures. On the other hand, in the early days of Buddhism, foreign monks were not proficient in Chinese, and Chinese monks were not proficient in Sanskrit. Early translators lack bilingual ability and translation experience, therefore then can only translate word for word. Besides, since there is no previous translation to refer to, some Buddhist terms do not have an authoritative and fixed explanation, and some expressions cannot be found its counterpart in Chinese, therefore they can only be translated literally. Literal translation was highly proposed by An Shigao and Zhi Chen. Until the Three Kingdoms period, Zhi Qian pursued the elegance of words, which broke the routine of literal translation.

(3)Taoist language is often used in translation. “When Buddhism was firstly introduced to China, Taoism, as the native religion of China, was in its prevalence. As a foreign religion, Buddhism have to be attached to Taoism to facilitate the spread the new doctrine in China” (Meng Yue 2017, 306). Therefore, a large number of Buddhist concepts were interpreted by analogy with indigenous ideas, such as Taoist.

=== the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty—Transition from literal translation to free translation ===
The second historical period,from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, is the stage of development. At this period, Buddhism was gradually accepted by Chinese people. Buddhism believer is not limited to the royal family and nobleman, but also includes common people. The representative translators during this period are Shi Daoan and Kumarajiva.

====Shi Daoan ====
Shi Daoan (314-385), who was an eminent monk. In addition to his efforts for developing a disciplinary code for Chinese monastic communities, he is also known for his translation and commentaries on the scriptures. Shi Daoan proposed that translation should be carried out literally without any amplification or omission, advocating “translation according to the original features”. However, Shi didn’t stick to the literal translation that strictly. He raised the theory of “five losses and three difficulties”.

“‘Five Losses of Source Texts’ discusses the problems of word order, work or essence, detail or simplification.As for the word order of the First Loss of Source Texts, Daoan clearly advocates the inversion.As for the Second Loss of Source Texts, Daoan proposes to choose work or essence translation according to readers' level and different styles and advocates taking advantages of two schools in order to translate Chinese Buddhist Scriptures better. As for the simplication or detail of the Third, Fourth and Fifth Loss of Source Texts, Daoan thinks the trivial, repeated eulogy, ode and conclusion words should be deleted generally except for the translation of Buddhist discipline."Three Difficulties in Translation" discusses the factors of times, readers and translators that Buddhist Scripture translation faces.It is these three factors that result in the difficulties of translating Chinese Buddhist Scriptures”(Fang Ruifen 2012, 385). “Five losses” means to allow the translation to be different from the original in grammar, rhetoric and structure, so as to conform to the language habits of Chinese people. “Three difficulties” requires that translators should be able to strike a balance betwen styles, intelligence, and time.

The main contribution of Dao’an to the translation of Buddhist scriptures is the creation and organization of translation workshop. Before Dao’an, the translation were usually finished by private. He set up a translation workshop, ushering in the period of translation on a large scale. And a State Translation School was founded for this purpose. Besides, he invites some translators from India as well. From then on, translation has become an organized activity.

==== Kumarajiva ====
Another representative translator Kumarajiva, who has enjoyed a high reputation in the long history of the Buddhist sutras translation，was well - renowned and was called as " the first class master of translation" by Liang Qichao. He advocated free translation and getting rid of the shortcomings of transliteration. He is one of the four great translators of ancient China, one of the three great translators of Buddhist scriptures, who translates 39 volumes. He is proficient in both Chinese and Sanskrit languages, and advocates that as long as the translation does not violate the original meaning, there is no need to follow the original form. “Kumarajiva revolutionized Chinese Buddhism, in clarity and overcoming the previous "geyi" (concept-matching) system of translation through use of Daoist and Confucian terms”(Nattier 1992, 186). He argued that “geyi” is the culprit of the deformation of India Buddhism after it was introduced into China. “He completely abandoned interpreting Buddhist concept by using Daoist and Confucian terms, and has worked hard to create Buddhist terms, so that the translation is more faithful to the original” (Ma Zhuyi 1982, 25).

Kumarajiva opposed to precise literal rendering, because he held that Sanskrit and Chinese are two quite different language. “In the original there is attention to aesthetics, but the sense of beauty and the literary form (dependent on the particularities of Sanskrit) are lost in translation. It is like chewing up rice and feeding it to people”(Ma Zhuyi 1988). He argued that the translation of Buddhist scriptures should be concise and elegant and meet the language habits of Chinese readers, so that Buddhists can better understand and accept the translated scriptures. He tried to use concise text that conformed to Chinese expression habits, while retaining the exotic taste so that readers could understand and accept easily. Kumarajiva did not stick to the form of the original, and often delete the repetitive content. Therefore, his translation style was distinctive, possessing a flowing smoothness. Another remarkable achievement is his contribution to the translation workshop. After he arrived Chang'an, he began to organize translation workshops. Under his efforts, the number of translators increased greatly, and the division of labor was detailed.The entire translation process includes interpretation, recording, correcting and proofreading. After group discussion, the quality of translation has been greatly improved. In addition, in order to be responsible for the Buddhist scriptures translated, Kumarajiva was the first translator to propose that the translator should signature over his translation in the Chinese history.

==== The Characteristics of This Period ====
(1)From folk and personal translation to official and collective translation. At the beginning, the translation of Buddhist scriptures was a private activity. Generally a foreign monk recited the Buddhist scriptures and brought it to China. Then the translator interpreted the scriptures into Chinese, and another person recorded it. That’s the whole process of the translation of Buddhist scriptures at the early days. During the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, translation workshop was organized. Famous translators such as Shi Daoan and Kumarajiva both had presided over translation workshop. From then on, individual translation behavior gradually developed into a collective translation activity. During this period, with the support of the government, the number of translators has greatly increased, and the division of labor has become more detailed. Therefore, the quality of translation has also been greatly improved. “In addition, the function of translation workshop is not limited to translate Buddhist scriptures, but also give lectures and hold debates. Many translators who preside over the translation field not only translate, but also give lectures about Buddhism” ( Fang Yang 2013, 14).

(2)From adopting the source text version of the Northern barbarian tribes in ancient China to that of Sanskrit. Before the Eastern Jin Dynasty, the version of Hun (Chinese northern nomads）are usually taken as the original text by translators. Afterwards, the Sanskrit texts were introduced to the China，translators can take them as the original text. The accuracy of the translation was improved greatly. On the other hand, since there are more Sanskrit texts, they have more options of the type of scripture to be translated. Also the systemic nature of the translation has also increased.

(3)Breakthroughs in translation theories and skills. During this period, many famous translators have put forward their opinions on translation theory. Based on his translation practice, Shi Daoan raised the theory of “five losses and three difficulties”. Kumarajiva advocated free translation. He is the first one to raise the question of how to express the stylistic and linguistic interest of the original text, which had a great influence on translation history. From the Eastern Jin Dynasty to the end of the Sui Dynasty, there were many famous translators who put forward different translation theories and opinions, which had a greater impact on the practice of translation.

(4)A tool for class oppression. The rulers from the Eastern Jin Dynasty to the Sui Dynasty took Buddhism as a tool of class oppression. In the South of China, the society is stable, so the noble class of South China was arrogant and lavish, metaphysics was prevailed among them. Therefore Buddhism and metaphysics were combined, and rulers interpret Buddhist theories from the perspective of metaphysics. The translation of Buddhist scriptures was also influenced by this prevailing ethos. However, the Northern Dynasty advocated Confucianism. Due to frequent wars and limited economic development, the rulers of Northern China turned to Buddhism and took Zen as their guide. Therefore Buddhism naturally combined with Confucianism, and Zen became the mainstream of Buddhism in the Northern Dynasty. The translation of Zen classics meets the needs of the ruling class and Buddhists in the Northern Dynasty. “Buddhism, as a tool for the government to consolidate their reign, has been stained with a strong political color”(Wang Yan 2012, 158).

=== Tang Dynasty ===
The third historical period is the Tang Dynasty. During this period, Buddhism developed vigorously. In order to consolidate their regime, the emperor of Tang Dynasty also valued Buddhism very much, to domesticate his people together with the help of Chinese traditional ritual. Therefore the ruling class attached great importance to the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The Chinese translation of Buddhist scriptures reached its peak. And the representative translator in this age is Xuan Zang. Xuan Zang tried many translation methods and developed his epoch-marking criterion that “translation ‘must be truthful and intelligible to the populace’”（Ma Zhuyi 1980, 18). In a sense, Xuan Zang, with such a formula, was trying to have the best of two worlds—literal translation and free translation.

==== Xuang Zang ====
Xuanzang (600-664), a famous monk in the Tang Dynasty, is commonly known as the " Sanzang Rabbi." On the third year of Zhenguan of Tang Emperor Taizong, he left for Dunhuang from Chang'an, and then arrived in India. He returned to Chang'an in the nineteenth year, and traveled for seventeen years. Through hard work, he brought back more than 650 Sanskrit verses, the number and variety are both unprecedented. He presided over the translation work of seventy-five parts, 1,335 volumes, accounting for more than half of the total number of new Buddhist scriptures in the Tang Dynasty. “Therefore, he was called by the Indian scholar Bai Letian as ‘No.1 translator in the history of translation’”（Ma Zhuyi 1980, 18).

In the process of translating the scriptures, Xuanzang proposed the principle of “Five Untranslatable Situations”: First, with secret. The words with mystery are not translated, as there are many spells in the Buddhist scriptures. For example, if the "Doroni" is translated, it will lose its special meaning, so it will lose its magic. Second, with multiple meaning. The ambiguous Sanskrit will not be translated. For example, the word "bhaga" has six meanings( comfortable, flourishing, dignity, name, lucky, esteemed), so the original text is reserved for transliteration. Third, with no counterpart in China. the concept of things which are not found in the original culture of translation will not be translated. For example, the "jumbu tree" in Buddhism is a tree unique to India, which does not grow in China, therefore using transliteration. Fourth, with the ancients. the customary words should follow the habit of transliteration. If the ancients have translated some Buddhist special words, such as "Aunt Bodhi", although they can be translated, cause confusion. It is best to use the ancient translation rather than a new translation. Fifth, with Good fortune. “The word in the original Sanskrit language can also be found in Chinese with a similar meaning, but they are not strictly same as having many differences in connotation. Such word can not be translated”( He Zizhang 2008, 66). Such as "prajna" respect, "wisdom" is light and shallow. “The word "Untranslatable" here does not mean not translating, but rather "not intended to translate", using transliteration”( Jian Xue 2018, 28).

==== The Characteristics of This Period ====
(1) The translators are mainly domestic monks. With the strong support of the rulers of Tang Dynasty, the Chinese translators had the opportunity to go to India and other countries to learn Sanskrit and Buddhism. Through long-term study, these translators were not only proficient in Sanskrit but also has a deep understanding of Buddhism. “Besides, in order to meet the needs of translation, Yijing wrote the Sanskrit textbook which means that translators have been able to learn Sanskrit in China” ( Fang Yang 2013, 14). The number of Chinese monks who are proficient in Sanskrit has gradually increased, and the translation work does not need to turn to foreign monks.

(2) Fewer excerpts translation yet more complete translations. Due to the attention and support of the rulers, the translators have the access to the pilgrimage to India to find out more about Buddhist scripture. Besides, the improvement of the quality of translators and the perfection of the system of translation workshop also make such large translation programs possible.

(3) Further improvement of the translation workshop system. Compared with the translation workshop of the previous stage, that of Tang Dynasty is more all-sided in organization. “According to records, The translation workshop of the Tang Dynasty has as many as 11 departments”( Xiu Wenqiao 2008, 32). Each part was under the charge of different people. The monks worked in the translation workshop are all knowledgeable and skilled in translation, and many of them are rabbis appointed by the court.

(4) The peak of Buddhist scripture translation in Chinese history. Many outstanding translators emerged during this period, such as Xuanzang, Yijing and Bukong etc. The four major translators in the Chinese translation history of Buddhist scripture are Kumarajiva, Zhenti, Xuanzang, and Bukong. Two of them are from the Tang Dynasty.

(5) The translation scripts are more faithful to original texts. Because Xuanzang and other translators traveled long distances to search for the Buddhist scriptures, they brought back many Sanskrit classics, which created better conditions for the monks to learn Sanskrit and the original Buddhist scriptures. Therefore they trained a large number of excellent translators, and greatly improved the quality of the translation. Xuan Zang advocated that that translation should be faithful to the original style. He believes that if the original language is elegant and the translation should also be elegant , but if the original style is simple, the translation should be the same.

=== The Influence of the Translation of Buddhist Scriptures ===
The translation of Buddhist scriptures has been developed in China for more than two thousands of years with great impacts on Chinese language and civilization. At the aspect of language, it has promoted the development of Chinese phonology, expanded the Chinese vocabulary, enriched the way of Chinese word formation, accelerated the process of Chinese diphones, and promoted the colloquialization of Chinese.

The influence of Buddhist scripture translation on Chinese is mainly manifested in phonology. The “Buddhist scriptures were originally written in Sanskrit and Central Asian languages, both of which belong to phonetic alphabet , while Chinese characters developed from hieroglyphs, and there was no such thing as alphabet at first”( Hou Lixiang 2016, 14). After Buddhism was introduced to China, some people began to use Sanskrit to assist in learning Chinese pronunciation. The principles and methods of Sanskrit phoneticization promote the development of Chinese phonology. Therefore, Buddhism can be said to have laid the foundation for the formation of Chinese pinyin.

“In the process of translating Buddhist scriptures, the original Chinese vocabulary could not meet the needs of translation, therefore new Chinese words were created through transliteration and free translation”( Hou Lixiang 2016, 14). In the history of the translation of Buddhist scriptures, Zhi Chen advocated transliteration, and Xuanzang proposed the principle of “Five Untranslatable Situations”, which state five cases to use transliteration. Therefore the loanwords from Buddhism came into China, which greatly enriched Chinese vocabulary. “Through careful analysis, linguists have made a conclusion that about 35,000 words in Chinese come from Buddhist scripture”(Du Aixian 2000, 49). Some are directly related to Buddhism, such as “Buddha”, “monk”, “ Dharma", "Sutra” etc; some are words that we don’t realize, such as "memory", "world", "now", "causality", "attachment", "emptiness", "reality" and so on. In addition, many four-character idioms remaining in modern Chinese have the color of Buddhism, and a large number of four-character idioms appeared after the Wei and Jin Dynasty. Such as “drop one's cleaver and become a Buddha”(放下屠刀, 立地成佛), “While the priest climbs a post, the devil climbs ten” (道高一尺, 魔高一丈 ).

The translation of Buddhist scriptures has been considered the main element which led to the double-syllable tendency of Chinese words, and also made the patterns of word-formation more perfect. “According to the research, words in ancient times are mainly monosyllable, and the process of disyllabic Chinese was very slow before the Wei and Jin Dynasties, but since the translation of Buddhist scriptures became popular at that time, the double-syllable tendency of Chinese words greatly accelerated”(Sun Yan 2015, 120). Therefore, the translation of Buddhist scriptures are supposed to be the main motive.

In order to convey the thoughts of Buddhist scriptures more clearly, many terms need to be translated into colloquial language, which is difficult to express by the original Chinese monosyllabic words. The oralized trends of the translation of the Buddhist scriptures have imposed great impacts on various kinds of colloquial literature styles, and also highly related to the terasyllabic words in the colloquial novels.

=== Conclusion ===
The Chinese translation of Buddhist scriptures has gone through three different historical periods. And different social conditions have also resulted in different strategies of sutra translation. At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, when Buddhism was first introduced to China, Taoism was dominant in the Chinese society and the translator was not proficient in both Sanskrit and Chinese. Therefore, literal translation, and transliteration were mainly employed during this period. During Wei and Jin Dynasties, Buddhism developed to a certain extent. Most translators were proficient in Sanskrit and Chinese, which made free translation possible. And in order to spread Buddhism, Buddhists adopt free translation strategies to make Buddhist scriptures more acceptable. During the Sui and Tang dynasties, in order to consolidate their own regime, government strongly supported the translation of Buddhist scriptures. Literal translation and free translation were in harmony during this period, thus the translation of Buddhist scriptures reached its peak.

The translation of Buddhist scriptures has been exerted great influences on Chinese language. It has promoted the development of Chinese phonology, expanded the Chinese vocabulary, enriched the way of Chinese word formation, accelerated the process of Chinese diphones, and promoted the colloquialization of Chinese.

By reviewing the development process of Buddhist scripture translation, and summarizing the characteristics of each stage, we can have a clear understanding of Buddhism translation from a macro perspective. Through learning the main achievements and growth experience of important translators, we can learn more translation strategies and do better in our own translation practice.
The translation of Buddhist scriptures occupies an important position in the history of Chinese translation and has had a significant impact on Chinese language and culture. Therefore, it is necessary for us to go back to the source, review the development of Translation in Chinese Buddhist Scriptures, learn the main achievements of important translators, and further study the representative theory of Buddhist scripture translation

=== References ===
Nattier, Jan. (1992).The Heart Sutra: A Chinese Apocryphal Text?. Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies (2) 153-223

Meng Yue孟悦. (2017). 中国佛经翻译发展史综述[A Summary of the History of Chinese Sutra Translation].外语教育与翻译发展创新研究 Innovative Research on Foreign Language Education and Translation Development 305-308

Sun Shanshan孙珊珊. (2014).从翻译批评的多重视角看佛经翻译的文质观[On the Wenzhi of Sutra Translation from the Multiple Perspectives of Translation Criticism].青年作家Young Writers (16)173-174.

Fang Yang方阳. (2013). 东汉至唐代的佛经翻译研究[A Study of the Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from Eastern Han Dynasty to Tang Dynasty]. 河北大学 Hebei University

Yang Chaobiao杨超标. (2012). 论安世高的译学思想和翻译方法[Exploration on Ashigao’s Translation Thought and Translation Ways].温州大学学报Journal of Wenzhou University (05) 78-83.

Zhang Yuwei张雨薇. (2019). 汉唐时期佛经汉译及其特点[The Chinese Translation of Buddhist Sutras and their Featuresduring Han to Tang Dynasties].中州学刊 Academic Journal of Zhongzhou (02)114-118.

Xiong Hui熊辉. (2013). 古代中西方宗教典籍翻译策略的相似性分析[On the Similarity of Translation Strategies to Ancient Chinese and Western Religious Scripture].西华大学学报Journal of Xihua University (01) 67-70.

Ma Zhuyi. 马祖毅. (1998). 中国翻译简史[A Brief Introduction to the History of Translation in China].中国对外翻译出版公司 China Foreign Translation Press

Wang Dongping, Fang Ruifen. 汪东萍,方瑞芬. (2012). 释道安“五失本、三不易”翻译思想评析[Comment on Shi Daoan's Translation Thought of "Five Losses of Source Texts and Three Difficulties in Translation"].安徽师范大学学报Journal of Anhui Normal University(03) 385-390.

WangYan.王焱. (2012). 中国古代佛经翻译的政治化[The Politicalization of the Ancient Chinese Sutra Translation].学术交流 Academic Exchange (05)156-159.

Ma Zhuyi.马祖毅. (1982). 佛经翻译家鸠摩罗什[Buddhist Translator Kumarajiva].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (03) 24-25.

Ma Zhuyi.马祖毅. (1980).伟大的佛经翻译家玄奘[The Great Buddhist Translator Xuan Zang].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (02) 18-19.

He Zizhang.何子章. (2008). 玄奘“五不翻”原则的现实意义[On Practicability of “The Transliteration in the Five Cases” Suggested by Xuan Zang].襄樊学院学报Journal of Xiangfan University(10) 65-69.

Xiu Wenqiao修文乔. (2008). 论权力对翻译的影响—从意识形态角度解读唐朝佛经翻译[Analysis of the Impact of Power on Translation—Interpreting Sutra Translation in Tang Dynasty from the Ideological Point of View].广东外语外贸大学学报Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies(01) 30-34+43.

Hou Lixiang.侯丽香. (2016) 从文化传播的视角看佛经翻译对中国语言文化的影响[The Influence of Sutra Translation on Chinese Language and Culture from the Perspective of Cultural Transmission].英语广场English Square (03)13-15.

Du Aixian.杜爱贤. (2000). 谈谈佛经翻译对汉语的影响[On the Influence of Sutra Translation on Chinese].世界宗教文化The World Religious Cultures (02) 48-49.

==An Analysis of the Books of ''Translation，History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Thoughts'' 成于思 Cheng Yusi 202020080598 比较文学与跨文化研究==

==='''Abstract'''===
André Lefevere’s ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and Liu Miqing’s ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'' are two books concerning translation principles and translation theories from the perspective of culture. This paper consists of three parts. In part one, after a brief introduction of ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', the paper is about to give an analysis of the excerpts about John Dryden’s three types of translation and the comparison of “translator and author to slave and master” and illustrate them with several reasons. Then, the author will present other scholars' appraisals of this book. The second part will briefly introduce Liu Miqing's ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'',then it will make a comparison between the characteristics of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation based on chapter two and chapter three. Finally, it will display some scholars' evaluation of the book. In the third part, the paper will make a comparison of these two books to deepen readers' understanding of them.

===Key words===
André Lefevere, ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', Liu Miqing, ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'', “cultural turn”, John Dryden, translation principles

===题目===
《翻译，历史与文化论集》与《中西翻译思想对比研究》的比较分析

===摘要===
安德烈·勒菲弗尔的《翻译，历史和文化论集》和刘宓庆的《中西翻译思想对比研究》均是关于翻译思想和翻译理论研究的作品。两本书均从文化视角对翻译思想进行研究。本文第一部分将对《翻译，历史和文化论集》进行简要介绍，体现勒菲弗尔“文化转向”的观点，并节选其中摘录的英国诗人约翰·德莱登的片段进行重点论述，分析其翻译方法和”作者-译者主仆论”，并进行原因说明，以体现《翻译，历史和文化论集》一书的主旨，然后对本书进行简要的评价。第二部分将对《中西翻译思想对比研究》进行简述，针对第二章和第三章的内容，对中西方翻译传统的特点进行对比。然后收集相关学者对此书的评价。在第三部分中，笔者将对上述两本书进行内容和形式上的对比，帮助读者更好地理解这两本书。

===关键词===
安德烈·勒菲弗尔,《翻译，历史和文化论集》，刘宓庆，《中西翻译思想对比研究》，文化转向，约翰·德莱登，翻译原则

===1.Introduction===
This paper presents the author’s understanding of the two books: ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles''. After a brief introduction of these two books, this paper is intended to focus on the analysis of important translation principles and make a comparison of these two books in content and form. This paper will be divided into three parts.

In part one, after a brief introduction of the book ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', it will concentrate on John Dryden’s three types of translation: metaphrase, parap，hrase and imitation, and briefly appraise it. Then it will extend Dryden’s views on translator’s position. That Dryden compares a translator to a slave exactly reflects the dominant thought about translator in the classical period. Some scholars study the thought of comparing a translator with a slave and discover that besides the representative of literal circles like Dryden, it also prevailed among modern linguistics and the school of translation studies. (Niu Yunping, 2014) Then, the author is about to explain why “comparing a translator to a slave” predominates in the history of western translation to support Lefevere’s “cultural turn”. Finally, the author will present other scholars' evaluation of this book.

In part one, after a brief introduction of the book ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', it will concentrate on John Dryden’s three types of translation: metaphrase, parap，hrase and imitation, and briefly appraise it. Then it will extend Dryden’s views on translator’s position. That Dryden's comparison of the translator and slave exactly reflects the dominant thought about translator in the classical period. Some scholars study the thought of comparing a translator with a slave and discover that besides the representative of literal circles like Dryden, it also prevailed among modern linguistics and the school of translation studies. (Niu Yunping, 2014) Then, the author is about to explain why “comparing a translator to a slave” predominates in the history of Western translation to support Lefevere’s “cultural turn”. Finally, the author will present other scholars' evaluation of this book.--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 07:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

In part two, the author will give an introduction to the book ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'' in three sections due to the stout volume of this book. Then it will make a comparison between the characteristics of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation based on chapter two and chapter three. Through these chapters, we can comprehend Liu Miqing’s purpose to publish this book. Also, we can find the uniqueness of Chinese translation theories, thus appealing to Chinese and the world for a deep understanding of Chinese culture. Liu Miqing pointed out that the analysis of the characteristics of Chinese translation theory is by no means to boast or to do publication but to do a self-examination. He hoped that through a full analysis of the “being-in-itself” Chinese theories, we could find out the weak points that hinder them in their way to “being-for-itself”. (Liu Miqing 2005. 72) Finally, the author will show some scholars’ appraisals of this book.

In part three, it intends to give a brief comparison of these two books in contents and forms.

All in all, this paper is written in hope that the readers can understand these two books better and provoke their thought about these two books.

===2. Analysis of ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''===

''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', edited by American translation theorist and the foremost representative of Translation Studies---André Lefevere in 1992, is a collection of seminal statements of thinking about literary translation in Western Europe, spanning twenty centuries from 106 BC to 1931 AD. "Lefevere's later work on translation and culture in many ways represents a bridging point to the 'cultural turn'."(Munday 2016,199) As such, ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' serves as good proof of the "cultural turn" of translation proposed by Translation Studies.

In general editor's preface of this book, Lefevere and Bassnett displayed their intention to edit this book---to reflect the current development of Translation Studies. They redefined translation as "a rewriting of an original text". Here, they explained that "rewritings reflect a certain ideology and a poetics and manipulate literature to function in a given society in a given way. Rewriting is manipulation, undertaken in the service of power, and in its positive aspect can help in the evolution of a literature and a society." (Lefevre 2003, xi) According to these concepts, Lefevere aims to declare the central function of translation as a shaping force.

In the preface of the book, Lefevere looked back to the tradition of translation in western Europe and concluded that the previous discussion of translation was exclusive to language, failing to deal with the complexity of the translation. Therefore, he proposed that the study of translation needs a deep exploration for cultural studies. (Lefevre 2003, xiii)

Such an idea was envisaged at the backdrop of the stagnancy of linguistics in the 1970s and the emergence of Translation Studies in 1976, thus promoting the trend of the "cultural turn". The "cultural turn" was officially termed by Mary Snell-Hornby, meaning the move from translation as text to translation as culture and politics in her paper collected in the book ''Translation, History and Culture'' in 1990, whose publication was valued as the declaration of "cultural turn" of translation studies. (Lefevere and Bassnett 1990, 1-13)

If the book ''Translation, History and Culture'' is regarded as the anticipation and elaboration of Lefevere and Bassnett's thoughts of "cultural turn", Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook, with abundant case studies, is proved to be a good illustration of their thoughts.

If the book ''Translation, History and Culture'' is regarded as the anticipation and elaboration of Lefevere and Bassnett's thoughts of "cultural turn", ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', with abundant case studies, is proved to be a good illustration of their thoughts.--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 02:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The collected excerpts are arranged in eight themes, including The Role of Ideology, The Power of Patronage, Poetics, Universe of Discourse, Translation, the Development of Language and Education, The Technique of Translating, Central Texts and Central Cultures and The Longer Statements which is an extension of the former seven themes. Such an exclusive arrangement is intended to highlight the important thinking on translation, to effectively illustrate the constraints imposed on translation, to discuss the position of culture, the role translation played in education, and to give out technique of translating concerning translation practice, thus dwarfing the traditional chronological arrangement. (Lefevre 2003, xiv)

The collected excerpts are arranged in eight themes, including The Role of Ideology, The Power of Patronage, Poetics, Universe of Discourse, Translation, The Development of Language and Education, The Technique of Translating, Central Texts and Central Cultures and The Longer Statements which is an extension of the former seven themes. Such an exclusive arrangement is intended to highlight the importance of translation thinking, to effectively illustrate the constraints imposed on translation, to discuss the position of culture, the role translation plays in education, and to give out technique of translating concerning translation practice, thus dwarfing the traditional chronological arrangement. (Lefevre 2003, xiv)--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 02:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

I enjoy reading this book because it makes those aloof and remarkable scholars closer to us. After reading their original words, they seem to appear fresh and narrate their feelings of being translators. Through reading the scholar's letters or their original statements, we can review their thoughts on the basis of our understanding, rather than be crammed with so-called essential yet monotonous principles summarized by others.

I enjoy reading this book because it brings us and those aloof and remarkable scholars more closer. After reading their original words, they seem to appear fresh before our eyes and narrate their feelings of being translators to us themselves. Through reading the scholar's letters or their original statements, we can review their thoughts on the basis of our understanding, rather than be crammed with so-called essential yet monotonous principles summarized by others.--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 02:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

I read translators' inferiority in Dryden's words and admire Cicero's courage to assert free translation to defend the privilege of translators. He said that "I decided to take speeches written in Greek by great orators and to translate them freely… I could not only make use of the best expressions in common usage with us, but I could also coin new expressions, analogous to those used in Greek". (Lefevere 2003, 47)

In this part, I will analyze John Dryden's three types of translation and his comparison of "author and translator" to "master and slave" through the excerpts collected in Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook. (Lefevere 2003, 24;102-105)

In this part, I will analyze John Dryden's three types of translation and his comparison of "author and translator" to "master and slave" through the excerpts collected in ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''.(Lefevere 2003, 24;102-105)--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 03:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Translation deals with authority and power. A translator rewrites or manipulates the original text in service of power. (Lefevere 2003,2) The role a translator plays in translation depends on the power he is submissive to. In this part, the author analyzes Dryden’s comparison of "author and translator" to "master and slave" in hope for an exploration of the reasons of the translator’s inferiority in translation. It is believed that ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' is written to stress the function of translation as a shaping force.(Lefevere 2003, xii) Therefore, the discussion of Dryden's views on translator can reflect part of the intention of the book ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''.

Lefevere extracted two statements by Dryden and relatively placed them in Chapter Two---The Power of Patronage, and Chapter Eight---Longer Statements. In chapter eight, Lefevere extracted an excerpt from the preface to Dryden's translation of Ovid's Epistles published in 1680. (Lefevere 2003, 102)

In the preface, Dryden proposed three methods of translation. First, metaphrase, or word-by-word translation. Second, paraphrase, or translation with latitude, where the author is kept in view by the translator, so as never to be lost, but his words are not so strictly followed as his sense; and that too is admitted to be amplified, but not altered. Third, imitation, the translator assumes the liberty, not only to vary from the words and sense but to forsake them both as he sees occasion; and taking only general hints from the original, to run division on the groundwork, as he pleases. (Lefevere 2003, 102)

Dryden argues that when it comes to metaphrase, the translator is encumbered with many difficulties. Not only should he consider the thought of his author, his word, and find out counterpart to each in another language, but he could be confined by the rhyme as well. In Dryden's vivid simile, translating the poem in such a way is like "dancing on ropes with fettered legs". The dancer needs to be cautious of falling, so it is hard to expect gracefulness of motion of him. (Lefevere 2003, 103)

Dryden argued that when it comes to metaphrase, the translator is encumbered with many difficulties: not only should he consider the thought of his author, his word, and finding out counterpart to each in another language, but he could be confined by the rhyme as well. In Dryden's vivid simile, translating poems in such a way is like "dancing on ropes with fettered legs". The dancer needs to be cautious of falling, so it is hard to expect gracefulness of motion of him. (Lefevere 2003, 103)--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 03:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Therefore, if a poem is translated word by word, its sense will be harmed, not to mention its elegance. He defined imitation "to be an endeavor of a later poet to write like one who has written before him, on the same subject; that is, not to translate his words, or to be confined to his sense, but only to set him as a pattern, and to write, as he supposes that author would have done, had he lived in our age and in our country".(Lefevere 2003, 103)

As such, the translator needn't care about the author's elaborative use of words or subtle spirit, but to write a poem in the author's style as if he were alive. The translator can add or diminish as he likes to express his own thoughts, however, Dryden argued that through imitation, the work is no longer to be called the author's work, but a new produced one, which does express the translator's talent but spoils the reputation of the dead. Therefore, literal translation and imitation, two extremes, should be avoided. (Lefevere 2003, 103)

Dryden proposed a mean betwixt them --- to paraphrase, or to translate with latitude. "tis time to look into ourselves, to conform our genius to his, to give his thought either the same turn, if our tongue will bear it, or if not, to vary but the dress, not to alter or destroy the substance".(Lefevere 2003, 104)

It is best to convey the thought of the poet. And the words that the translator adapt need to make confession to the thought if they are unable to bear it, except for the original words that appear literally graceful, which is believed to be kept to maintain the delicacy of the poem. Nevertheless, due to the properties of different languages, Dryden supposed that "he may stretch his chain to such a latitude".(Lefevere 2003, 105) In conclusion, a translator can be allowed liberty for the expression, but the sense of an author is to be respected against violation.

Dryden's three types of translation broke the dominance of two types of translation in the tradition of Western translation. Before that, literal translation and free translation were considered to be two methods of translation, thus promoting the history of Western translation. Besides, Dryden pioneered to propose a systematic method of the translation of poetry in the West. Thus, it is widely accepted that his translation principles are enlightening and have exerted influence on translation studies and practice. (Chou Huifang, 2019)

However, in Chapter Two, in "Dedication" to his translation of the Aeneid, Dryden argued that "We are bound to our author's sense, though with the latitudes already mentioned".(Lefevere 2003, 24). He compared a translator to a slave and drudged to express his views on the role of translators. "But slaves we are, and labor in another man's plantation; we dress the vineyard, but the wine is the owner's; if the soil be sometimes barren, then we are not thanked, for the proud reader will only say, the poor drudge had done his duty." (Lefevere 2003, 24)

Dryden's words reflect the translator's inferiority and being belittled at the time of Classicism, which even exerts influence on the later Contemporary Linguistics and Translation Studies. In the history of Western translation theory, many translators and scholars were spontaneously back to regard translators as the slaves and the authors the masters, including Etienne Pasquier, Madame de La Fayette, Sir John Denham, Gaspar de Tende Daniel Huet, Charles Batteux, Mathew Arnold, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, the translators of linguistics and in 20th century and some scholars of Translation Studies. (Niu Yunping, 2014)

Dryden's words reflect the translator's inferiority and being belittled at the time of Classicism, which even exerts influence on the later Contemporary Linguistics and Translation Studies. In the history of Western translation theory, many translators and scholars such as Etienne Pasquier, Madame de La Fayette, Sir John Denham, Gaspar de Tende Daniel Huet, Charles Batteux, Mathew Arnold, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, the translators of linguistics and in 20th century and some scholars of Translation Studies, were spontaneously back to regard translators as the slaves and the authors the masters.(Niu Yunping, 2014) --[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 02:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

A scholar concludes that under the influence of classicism the English cultural circle also showed their tribute to the "classical writers" of ancient Greek and Rome, and expressed their priority to reason, rules and balance. They believed that the classics were unsurpassable and the works with the highest form, Therefore, the translators found that the author's overriding authority was beyond questions. (Niu Yunping, 2014)

A scholar concludes that under the influence of classicism the English cultural circle also showed their tribute to the "classical writers" of ancient Greek and Rome, and expressed their priority to reason, rules and balance. They believed that the classics were unsurpassable and the works with the highest form. Therefore, the translators found that the author's overriding authority was beyond questions. (Niu Yunping, 2014)--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 02:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Susan Basnett explained that both the hardening of nationalistic lines and the growth of pride in a national culture conspired to the situation where the translators no longer saw translation as a prime means of enriching their own culture. The elitist began to devaluate translation and disparaged translators as an instrument. (Basnett, 2004. 72-73)

About the value of this book, Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook is characterized by its abundant contents, which combines translation with history and cultural turn, thus providing referential materials for translation studies. With reference to Lefevere, many texts collected in this book were published in English for the first time, which served as an important supplement to the system of thinking on literary translation. (Lefevere 2003, xiii)

About the value of this book, ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' is characterized by its abundant contents, which combines translation with history and cultural turn, thus providing referential materials for translation studies. With reference to Lefevere, many texts collected in this book were published in English for the first time, which served as an important supplement to the system of thinking on literary translation. (Lefevere 2003, xiii)--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 02:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===3. Analysis of ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles''===

In this part, I attempt to analyze the content and the value of the book ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'', which was published in 2005. The book consists of a FAQ passage substituting the preface and fourteen chapters. It must highlight that Liu Miqing explains that "Sixiang" ("thought" in Chinese) refers to "principle" in the West in this book. (Liu Miqing 2005, 2)

In the FAQ passage, the author explained why he wrote this book. "I believe Chinese need to treat translation from the perspective of cultural strategy as our precedents did. This is the most basic and most important Chinese characteristics."(Liu Miqing 2005, i) It is to appeal to the Chinese and the world for a deep understanding of Chinese culture.

Then, it follows the analysis of this book. This book might be divided into three parts: part one, consisting of chapter one to six, discusses the tradition of Chinese translation studies. Part two, consisting of chapter seven to nine, which respectively illustrates the three origins of contemporary Western translation theories, Western contemporary translation principles and schools, and the limitations of contemporary Western translation theories. In part three, Liu illustrates the significance of Wittgenstein's philosophy to translation studies in chapter ten and eleven. And he respectively analyses Benjamin’s view on translation, the originality of translation, and translation is the transcendence of the original text in chapter twelve, thirteen, and fourteen. (Wang Jianguo, 2006)

The first part(from chapter one to six) discusses the tradition of Chinese translation studies. Liu Miqing illustrates the development of Chinese translation studies. With reference to Liu, Chinese translation has gone through three leaps. The first phase was to leap from religious translation to scientific translation. The second phase was marked by the translation activities and theories of Yan Fu and Ma Jianzhong( Liu Miqing 2005. 30) The third phase is from the 1970s to now, which means the breakthrough has yet to succeed. Then, Liu proposes that Chinese translation theory develops with culture as the principal strategy. (Liu Miqing 2005, 33)

He later concludes that there are four features of the tradition of Chinese translation: The cultural strategy; regulation to perfection, translation to perfection; focus on the meaning as well as the aesthetics; increase translators' awareness of subjectivity and stress their insight. It is owing to the integration of the above features that the Chinese translation principles are formed. (Liu Miqing 2005, 43)

The gist of Chinese contemporary translation principles is concluded into four points: to inspire the traditional fighting spirit of Chinese translation, and take rejuvenation of Chinese nation and multicultural development as the cultural strategy of the translation in the new era; to emphasize the meaning determination of discourses(or texts) in interlingual communication; to emphasize the optimization of TL representation of the discourses(or texts) in interlingual communication until it reaches the regulation perfection. (Liu Miqing 2005, 38-39)

Next, Liu makes a division and a comparison of the phases of the development of Chinese and Western translation, and pointed out the characteristics of the development of Chinese translation and the reasons that Chinese translation theory has its own characteristics and system. Based on Guoxue or Chinese classics, the Mohism, Liu emphasizes that it is necessary to explore and reassess Chinese national culture. (Liu Miqing 2005, 150)

Finally, the author summarizes a theoretical framework of the meaning of Chinese translation studies and suggests that we need to improve the old concept of "emphasis on meaning" and establish a new concept of "emphasis on the meaning in communication" (Liu Miqing 2005,179)

The second part is comprised of chapter seven, eight, and nine, which respectively illustrates the three origins of contemporary Western translation theories, Western contemporary translation principles and schools, and the limitations of contemporary Western translation theories. Liu argues that the contemporary Western principles are based on utilitarianism, notably the British and American culture. (Liu Miqing 2005, 288)

However, he also recognized that the 1960s to 1970s witnessed great progress in Western translation theory. Liu divides western contemporary translation theory into several schools: Linguistic School, Functional School, Paraphrase School, Cultural Translation School, Postmodernism and Translation Theory, Psycho-cognitive Psychology School, New Literal Translation Theory. Liu points out that the Western translation focuses on the ends, the form and the effect of communication, the function of the translator, and emphasizes the translated text and the suppression of the alien culture reflected in the original work. (Liu Miqing 2005, 288)

However, he also recognized that the 1960s to 1970s has witnessed great progress in Western translation theory. Liu divides Western contemporary translation theory into several schools: Linguistic School, Functional School, Paraphrase School, Cultural Translation School, Postmodernism and Translation Theory, Psycho-cognitive Psychology School, New Literal Translation Theory. Liu points out that the Western translation focuses on the ends, the forms and the effects of communication, the functions of the translator, and emphasizes the translated text and the suppression of the alien culture reflected in the original work. (Liu Miqing 2005, 288)--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 07:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Finally, Liu points out that western translation theory is "technology-oriented" and he gives his reasons: first, the lack of compass of theories that can guide and support the development of the discipline; second, the ignoring of overall studies; third, the marginal position of meaning; fourth, the current views and remarks on theory are superficial, assertive and rational; fifth, the lack of clarity and depth of the discourse of theory; sixth, the lack of academical criticism and self-criticism. (Liu Miqing 2005, 292-293)

Finally, Liu points out that Western translation theory is "technology-oriented" and he gives his reasons: first, the lack of compass of theories that can guide and support the development of the discipline; second, the ignoring of overall studies; third, the marginal position of meaning; fourth, the superficial, assertive and rational current views and remarks on theory; fifth, the lack of clarity and depth of the discourse of theory; sixth, the lack of academical criticism and self-criticism. (Liu Miqing 2005, 292-293)--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 07:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The third part of this book expounds on the significance of Wittgenstein's philosophy to translation studies. Based on Wittgenstein's view of "translation and language game", Liu puts forward that "translation as an interlingual language game is the basic idea of the translation functionalism”. (Liu Miqing 2005, 402)

Next, I will analyze and compare the tradition of Chinese and western translation. Regarding Liu Miqing, Chinese translation still needs to regard culture as its strategy. (Liu Miqing 2005, i) This is the first and foremost characteristic of the tradition of Chinese translation. Since translation emerged in China, it has a close relation with culture, as evidenced by the translation of Buddhism. Such is the most distinctive feature between the tradition of Chinese and Western translation. (Liu Miqing 2005,44)

Chinese translation originated from religious translation, the translation of Buddhism. In 58 AD, during Emperor Ming's reign, Buddhism began to spread into China and symbolized the power and ideology of the nation, which involved in politics. Compared with Confucianism, Buddhism not only contains the ethics and social norms but also consists of a set of canons that reflects the integration of religion and politics in foreign countries. (Liu Miqing 2005,44) For instance, during the period of Sectarian Buddhism, in ''Pinimujing'', the religious disciplines compiled by Theravada Sect stipulates that the Buddhist doctrines must be submissive to the law. (Fang Litian, 1987)

Chinese translation originated from religious translation, the translation of Buddhism. In 58 AD, during Emperor Ming's reign, Buddhism began to spread throughtout China and symbolized the power and ideology of the nation, which involved in politics. Compared with Confucianism, Buddhism not only contains the ethics and social norms but also consists of a set of canons that reflect the integration of religion and politics in foreign countries. (Liu Miqing 2005,44) For instance, during the period of Sectarian Buddhism, in ''Pinimujing'', the religious disciplines compiled by Theravada Sect stipulates that the Buddhist doctrines must be submissive to the law. (Fang Litian, 1987)--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 07:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Also, Buddhism was integrated with Chinese politics when it spread into China, which is exemplified in three aspects. Firstly, Buddhism justified the divinity of the feudal monarchy. Secondly, some eminent monks were invited to give counsel to the sovereign directly. For example, emperor Xiaowudi in the Song dynasty designated the monk Huilin to engage in the court. And later Huilin was called Prime Minister in Black, which generally refers to the remarkable monks who also engage in the court. Thirdly, the disciples of Buddhism, including "all is vanity", "being detached from worldly affairs" and "obedience" actually numbed the people to serve the sovereign, which was conducive to the feudal monarchy. (Fang Litian, 1987)

In the middle of the 19th century, the tradition of Chinese translation began to feature as the awareness of national hardship. Today, we are still touched by Yan Fu, Ma Jianzhong, Lin Shu, and other patriotic translators while learning their translation theories that were imprinted in their mission to save China from its plight. In the middle of the 20th century, the tradition of Chinese translation features from the awareness of national hardship to national rejuvenation. (Liu Miqing 2005, 46)

In the middle of the 19th century, the tradition of Chinese translation began to feature as the awareness of national hardship. Today, we are still struck by Yan Fu, Ma Jianzhong, Lin Shu, and other patriotic translators while learning their translation theories that were imprinted in their mission to save China from its plight. In the middle of the 20th century, the tradition of Chinese translation features change from the awareness of national hardship to national rejuvenation. (Liu Miqing 2005, 46)--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 07:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

As such, the flourishing of translation is by no means our Chinese's responsibility. Compared to Chinese translation's cultural strategy, the western translation boasts of its integrated translation, from the early translation of ancient Greek into Roman to the heyday in the 11th century. This not only promoted contact among different languages in Europe but cleared the way to economic growth as well. Meanwhile, integrated translation paved the way for European integration. (Liu Miqing 2005, 101)

As such, the flourishing of translation is by no means our Chinese's responsibility. Compared to Chinese translation's cultural strategy, the Western translation boasts of its integrated translation, from the early translation of ancient Greek into Roman to the heyday in the 11th century. This not only promoted contact among different languages in Europe but also cleared the way to economic growth as well. Meanwhile, integrated translation has paved the way for European integration. (Liu Miqing 2005, 101) --[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 07:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The second characteristic of the tradition of Chinese translation is "regulation to perfection". After the disputes between literal translation and free translation in China, the method of translation finally consolidated to regulation to perfection in Xuanzang's translation theory. The following translators have carried on the thought, such as Yan Fu's Xingdaya, Fu Lei's Shensi theory and Qian Zhongshu's Huajing theory. Their translation principles are the regulation of literal translation and free translation, the content and the form, and the end and the effect. (Liu Miqing 2005, 50-51)

The Western translation also stresses meaning, but it pays more attention to the transformation of morphologic languages due to the identity of etymology, morphology, bilingual syntactic structure, the origin of literary and culture in Western languages. (Liu Miqing 2005, 101) Moreover, Western translation principles give priority to "Communicative Translation", which is implicit in Chinese translation principles. (Liu Miqing 2005,104)

The third characteristic is "the focus on meaning as well as aesthesis". Chinese translation balances meaning and aesthesis in binary opposition or tries to express the spirit and the feeling-tone of the original text on the basis of expressing meaning. Lin Yutang proposed that the spirit of the text is compacted in one word. (Liu Miqing 2005, 52)

Wang Guowei pointed out that the word "Nao" in the verse "Hong Xing Zhi Tou Chun Yi Nao" conveys the Jingjie of the whole poem. (Wang Guowei 2017,15) Therefore, if one attempts to translate the poem, he needs to have aesthetic appreciation. Liu Miqing explains that Chinese is a language of sensibility. It expresses beauty through icons and images. That is why the tradition of Chinese translation concentrates on aesthesis. As such, we can see the strong intercourse between Chinese translation and philosophy and aesthetics, however, Western translation has been connected with linguistics, linguistic philosophic study, and hermeneutic studies. (Liu Miqing 2005,104)

Wang Guowei pointed out that the word "Nao" in the verse "Hong Xing Zhi Tou Chun Yi Nao" conveys the Jingjie of the whole poem.(Wang Guowei 2017,15) Therefore, if one attempts to translate Chinese poems, he needs to have aesthetic appreciation. Liu Miqing explains that Chinese is a language of sensibility, it expresses beauty through icons and images. That is why the tradition of Chinese translation concentrates on aesthesis. As such, we can see the strong intercourse between Chinese translation and philosophy and aesthetics, however, Western translation has been connected with linguistics, linguistic philosophic study, and hermeneutic studies. (Liu Miqing 2005,104)--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Some scholars expressed their views on ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles''. Wang Jianguo claimed that the book was an excellent masterpiece. In this book, Liu compared Chinese and Western translation thoughts from the source. Both Liu's statements and arguments were astonishing. Liu used comparative methods to explore the source of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation studies, thus provoking scholars of Chinese translation studies to think about the value of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation studies. Besides, the book served as an example of innovation in translation studies. (Wang Jianguo, 2006)

Lu Wei and Li Defeng shed light on the topic "translation theories with Chinese characteristics" and argued that Liu Miqing's A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles provided a methodology to explore the source of driving force for the construction of Chinese translation study. (Lu Wei, 2010)

Lu Wei and Li Defeng shed light on the topic "translation theories with Chinese characteristics" and argued that Liu Miqing's ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'' provided a methodology to explore the source of driving force for the construction of Chinese translation study. (Lu Wei, 2010)--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 07:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===4. Comparison between the books of ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Thoughts''===

===4.1 From the aspect of the content===
Both of these two books discuss translation principles from the perspective of culture. They differ in their focus and approach. ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' concentrates on Western translation principles before contemporary translation studies. While ''A Comparative study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'' analyses Chinese as well as Western translation principles from their origins to this era. As to the approach, Lefevere analyzes translation principles through varied themes, while Liu Miqing makes a comparison of Chinese and Western translation principles.

Meanwhile, they boast their distinctive writing style. In ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', Lefevere almost leaves no personal remarks or views on these excepts apart from his justification of his classification in the introduction and the beginning of each chapter, thus making this book objective. Also, Liu extracts other translators’ essays, but he illustrates them in a detailed way, and even comments on a certain word, for example, he discusses the “latitude” proposed by John Dryden and questions “in which aspect can translators be given the latitude? How much could they get the latitude?” and so on. (Liu Miqing 2005, 8)

===4.2 From the aspect of the arrangement===
Both of these two books are arranged in theme, rather than in a chronological way. Lefevere illustrates his classification of this book clearly and extracts abundant statements to rich his idea. He first divides the excerpts on size, and classifies the shorter into seven chapters about the constraints imposed on translation, the position of culture, the role translation played in education, and the technique of translating. The longer essays are collected in the last chapter. Liu arranges his book differently.

Both of the two books are arranged in a theme way rather than a chronological way. Lefevere illustrates his classification of this book clearly and extracts abundant statements to rich his idea. He first divides the excerpts on size, and classifies the shorter into seven chapters about the constraints imposed on translation, the position of culture, the role translation plays in education, and the translating technique. Liu arranges his book differently for the longer essays are collected in the last chapter.--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 08:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Due to the ample scope of ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'', including the characteristics, origins, schools and limitations of Chinese and western translation, Liu not only quotes other’s statement, he applies many tables to demonstrate his thoughts, which helps the readers better understand translation principles.

Due to the ample scope of ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'', which includes the characteristics, origins, schools and limitations of Chinese and Western translation, Liu not only quotes other’s statement, he also applies many tables to demonstrate his thoughts, which help the readers to better understand the translation principles.--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 07:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===Conclusion===
In conclusion, the paper is intended to help readers to understand these two books in depth. After a brief introduction of these two books, it analyzes John Dryden’s three types of translation and his comparison of translator to slave and figures out the reason for the prevailing statement. Therefore, it helps the readers to grasp the core of this book. Meanwhile, this paper makes a short comparison of the characteristics of Chinese and Western translation in the hope of mutual learning. Also, it concludes the values of these two books. In the end, this paper hopes to provoke readers to think about the cultural influence on translation. Therefore, if one dreams to be a qualified translator, he needs to not only master translation skills and learns translation theories, he should but also immerse himself in the culture behind the source and target languages. As such, he can convey the feeling tone or the essence of the original text.

In conclusion, the paper intends to help readers to have a profound understanding of the two books. After a brief introduction of these two books, there follows the analysis of John Dryden’s three types of translation and his comparison of translator to slave as well as the figuring out of the reason of the prevailing statement. Therefore, it helps the readers to grasp the core of this book. Meanwhile, this paper makes a short comparison of the characteristics of Chinese and Western translation in the hope of mutual learning. Also, it concludes the values of these two books. In the end, this paper hopes to provoke readers to think about the cultural influence on translation. Therefore, if one dreams to be a qualified translator, he needs to not only master translation skills and learn translation theories, he should but also immerse himself in the culture behind the source and target languages. As such, he can convey the feeling tone or the essence of the original text.--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 07:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===References===
André Lefevere. (2003). ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''. Taylor & Francis e-library.

André Lefevere & Susan Bassnett. (1990). ''Translation, History and Culture''. London &New York: Pinter Publishers.

Chou Huifang仇芳慧. (2019). 从德莱顿“翻译三分法”谈诗译者的素质 [On Poetry Translators’ Qualification from the Perspective of Dryden’s Three Types of Translation].''北方文学'' Northern Literature (24):254-255.

Fang Litian方立天.(1987).佛教与中国政治 [Buddhism and Chinese Politics].''社会科学战线'' Social Science Front (02):113-122.

Jeremy Munday. (2016). ''Introducing Translation Studies'', Theories and Applications, Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group.

Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究''. [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.

Lu Wei, Li Defeng鲁伟,李德凤.(2010).中国特色的翻译学:误区还是必然?——兼评《中西翻译思想比较研究》[Translation Studies with Chinese Characteristics: A Misunderstanding or Inevitability? ——A Comment on A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. ''中国科技翻译'' Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal 23(02):11-14+29.

Niu Yunping, Yang XiuMing牛云平,杨秀敏.(2014). 西方译论中的作者—译者主仆. [Relationship of Author and Translator as Master and Servant in Western Translation Histories].''河北师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版)'' Journal of Hebei Normal University(Philosophy and Social Science) 37(05):92-97.

Wang Jianguo王建国.(2006). 简评《中西翻译思想比较研究》——兼谈译学学术创新 [A Short Comment on A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles——On the Academic Innovation of Translation Studies]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal 27(03):36-38.

Wang Guowei 王国维.(2017). ''人间词话''[Notes on Ci Poems in the World]. Beijing: The Chinese Overseas Publishing House 中国华侨出版社.

Suan Bassnett. (2004). ''Translation studies''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.

==The Implications of Luther's Translation Principles amid Renaissance for Modern Literature Translation 方洁玲 Fang Jieling==

==The development and future trend of translation Theory 张慧 Zhang Hui 202070080622 英语笔译==

===Abstract===
This article briefly analyzes Chinese and Western translation theories, expounds the Chinese and Western translation theories in different periods and their historical origins, representatives and translation thoughts, and reveals their development characteristics and trends. Through the many phenomena presented by Chinese and Western translation theories, combined with the current specific economic and social situation and people’s needs, the translation theory is placed in a specific cultural context, looking forward to the development direction of contemporary Chinese and Western translation theories, and making reasonable prospects for it.
===Key Words===
Chinese and Western, translation theory, development, trend
===摘要===
本文对中西方翻译理论进行了简要的分析，阐述了不同时期的中西方翻译理论及其历史渊源，代表人物和译学思想，揭示了其发展特点和走向。通过中西方翻译理论呈现的诸多现象，结合当前具体经济社会形势和人们的需求，把翻译理论放到具体的文化语境中，展望当代中西方译论发展方向，对其做出合理的展望。
===关键词===
中西方，翻译理论，发展，趋势
===Introuction===
Translation theory occupies an important position in translation research, and the development of translation theory in China roughly corresponds to the history of translation. The history of translation is mainly divided into the following periods: the first is the ancient period from the translation of Buddhist scriptures to the translation of technology and religion in the Ming and Qing dynasties. The second is the translation theory in the late Qing Dynasty and early Republican period. The third is the Republican period.

Fourth is the period after the founding of the People’s Republic of China. Western translation theory has always been the focus of many scholars’ research, and the achievements and contributions made by China’s translation industry in recent decades in researching translation theory cannot be separated from the study and reference of Western translation theory. In this paper, we will introduce in detail the specific development and schools of Chinese and Western translation theories, and make a reasonable outlook on the development trend of translation theories, aiming to understand the history and look forward to the future.(Gentzler, Edwin.1993.)
===The Four Periods of Development of Chinese Translation Theory===

Ancient Translation Period

The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which lasted for thousands of years, left valuable theories for ancient translations. The Preface to the Dharma Sutra, written by Zhiqian during the Three Kingdoms period, pointed out that: "It is not advisable to pass on the different names and objects; nowadays it is easy to know, so do not lose the ease. He first mentioned that translation was not easy, which also reflected the views of the early qualitative school of translation. During the Eastern Jin Dynasty, Taoan put forward the idea of “five losses of originality and three difficulties,” pointing out that there were five situations in which translating Buddhist scriptures would lose its original features, and three situations determined the difficulty of translation.（Chen Fukang.2015.）

Kumarajiva, a monk from the Later Qin Dynasty, was the first to raise the question of how to express the style and interest of the original text. By the Tang Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures reached its peak. A large number of famous translators, represented by Xuanzhuang, emerged. He insisted on the principles of "seeking the truth" and "using the vulgar" in the translation process. He also established the principle of "five not to turn," which means: the secret reason, the reason containing many meanings, the reason without this reason, the reason to follow the ancient reason and the reason for the birth of good.（Chen Fukang.2015.）（quotation missing）--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 14:10, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

Translation of the Late Qing Dynasty and Early Republic of China

A group of European missionaries came to China one after another to conduct translation activities, mainly for missionary purposes, but also introduced Western academics. The most important achievement of this translation climax is the translation of some natural science works such as astronomy, mathematics, and machinery. Representatives of this stage are mainly Chinese scientist Xu Guangqi and Italian Ricci. The two of them worked together to translate the first six volumes of the famous Geometry Original. In addition, it is worth mentioning “Ma Shi Wen Tong” by linguist Ma Jianzhong, which is the first Chinese grammar book in Chinese history.（Chen Fukang.2015.）

Ma Jianzhong puts forward the “good translation theory”, which puts forward the essence, process and requirements of translation, emphasizing the completion of a book and repeated management. The translation must make the reader read the meaning that the translator must be proficient in the original text and the translated text, comparing the similarities and differences, The laws of the two languages are no different from viewing the original text. Besides,the representative figure of social science translation is Yan Fu, who has translated works such as Evolution and Ethics and Yuan Fu. These are the most important enlightenment translations in China in the 20th century.（Chen Fukang.2015.）

Yan Fu first proposed the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance” in “The Great Evolution · Translation Examples”. The “faith” he advocates is “the meaning is not back the text”, and “da” is not limited to the form of the original text, and does the best of the translation language to make the original meaning obvious. But Yan Fu’s interpretation of the word “ya” seems to be inadequate today.（Chen Fukang.2015.）

His so-called “elegance” can only be considered elegant if the translation itself adopts the “pre-Chinese character syntax”, in fact, the so-called superior classical Chinese. Due to different times, Yan Fu’s interpretation of the “faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance” translation standards has certain limitations, but for many years, these three characters have not been abolished by the translation industry in my country.（Chen Fukang.2015.）（paragraph too long）--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 14:10, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

In addition, the representative figure of literary translation is Lin Shu. He has translated more than 200 works by 98 writers from 11 countries, such as Dumas of France’s La Traviata.

Through comparison, we can see that the translation of Buddhist scriptures is different from the translation of Ming and Qing Dynasties in the following five aspects:

(1) Translator. The former translators are mainly monks, and the latter are students and missionaries. (2) The identity of the translator. The former is the poor and the latter is the upper class. (3) Type of translation. The former is mainly Buddhist scriptures, and the latter is mostly social sciences. (4) Translation method. The former is a literal translation. The latter is a hero translation and a modified translation. (5) The cultural status of translation. The former is based on Chinese culture, and translation makes the mainstream culture stronger. The latter reflects the greater cultural impact of Western culture on Chinese culture.

Translation Theory in the Republic of China

Most of the translators in the Republic of China were writers, and they contributed to the maturity of translation thinking in just a few decades. Zheng Zhenduo introduced and commented on “On the Principles of Translation” by the British translator Tytler for the first time, and discussed issues such as retranslation. Contradiction proposed "shenyun translation", Zhu Ziqing comprehensively summarized the methods of name translation, namely, phonetic and meaning translation, simultaneous phonetic and meaning translation, translation, transliteration, and free translation.（Chen Fukang.2015.）

Mao Dun creatively put forward “Charming Translation”, emphasizing that the charm of the original text cannot be lost from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Lu Xun’s contribution to translation studies is related to his “hard translation” idea of enriching the native language with unsatisfactory language. Zhu Shenghao’s translation of “The Complete Works of Shakespeare” is good at maintaining the charm of the original work, conveying the style of Shakespeare, and beautifying the Chinese art gallery with many images and dramatic melodies of Shakespeare.（Chen Fukang.2015.）

After the Founding of the People’s Republic of China

The two translators who had the greatest influence on the translation industry during this period were Fu Lei and Qian Zhongshu. Fu Lei put forward the idea of translation spirit and aesthetics. He believed that translation should not be literally translated, but should preserve the spiritual outlook and aesthetic characteristics of the original work, and proposed a translation view that emphasizes the spirit and the aesthetics.（Chen Fukang.2015.）

Qian Zhongshu used temptation, corruption, and transformation to express his views on translation. Enticement refers to the role that translation plays in the exchange of different cultures, enticing readers to love different literature. Corruption refers to the distance between the original text and the translated text. The translation is inevitably distorted and does not fit the original text. Transformation refers to the highest ideal state of literary translation, which can not show the traces of blunt and far-fetched translation, and can completely preserve the style of the original.（Chen Fukang.2015.）
===Prospects for the Development of Contemporary Chinese Translation Theory===

Emphasis on the study of basic translation theory

Contemporary Chinese scholars have further studied the basic theory of translation based on the research of ancient and modern scholars. From the aspect of translation standards, Gu Zhengkun proposes the concept of multiple and complementary, that is, translation standards are a standard system composed of absolute standards, supreme standards and specific standards, breaking the single standard view. In his Treatise on Translation, Xu Jun gives an all-round explanation of the basic problems of translation in terms of the essence, process, meaning, factors, contradiction, subject, value and criticism of translation.(Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. )

Contemporary translation theorists have gradually realized that translation research should transcend its own closed research system and draw nourishment from Eastern, Western and Latin American translation theories. The development line of Chinese translation theory requires the mutual appreciation of the East and the West, the ancient and the modern, and the diversified fusion, so as to refine the most characteristic and valuable theories among Chinese traditional translation theories, combine them with modern translation theories, highlight the characteristics of clarity and the spirit of the times, and let the traditional translation theories to flourish with new vitality in the modern context. (Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. )

“Only by listening to the voice of the times, responding to the call of the times, and seriously studying and solving important and urgent issues can we truly grasp the historical context, find the law of development, and promote theoretical innovation”. Therefore, the development of Chinese translation theory needs to expand various resources such as foreign translation theory, traditional Chinese translation theory, and translation history. Chinese scholars such as Chen Fukang, Wang Hongyin, and Zhang Peiyao have absorbed traditional translation theories, reinterpreted the original theories with modern theoretical discourse, and tried to find a point of convergence to combine tradition and modernity to explain new translation phenomena (Lan Hongjun, 2018).

In addition, in the basic research of translation history, there is still a need for clear and detailed research on the existence of translation, translation forms, translation subjects, and the laws of change of translation thought over time, as well as the essential problems reflected by these laws. Therefore, the study of Chinese translation theory should continue to learn from the ideas of Western translation theory and make full use of Chinese traditional translation theory as a resource.(Lan Hongjun, 2018).

Innovation of ontology

Translation studies is an open and comprehensive discipline that needs to be developed and improved by the academic nutrients of related disciplines, and the rapid development of language, thinking, and other literary disciplines has brought many new ideas, concepts, and terminology to translation studies. The combination of translation studies and other disciplines has injected fresh vitality into translation theory, for example. Xie Tianzhen’s translation studies is the intersection and fusion of translation studies and comparative literature, and is an important result of interdisciplinary translation studies. Translation studies is not concerned with the problem of language level, but with the problems of information loss, deformation, addition, and extension in the process of transformation of two languages.(Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. )

Hu Genshen conducts a comprehensive and holistic study on translation from the perspective of ecology. Ecological Translation believes that in the process of translation, translators try to adapt to the ecological environment of translation in order to make the best adaptation and optimization for the peace and balance between the original text and the translation, the translator and the author, the translator and the reader, the translation and the translation culture, and the translator himself, so that the translator’s body and mind are integrated in the ecological environment of translation. (Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. )

According to Fang Mengzhi, the development of translation studies has formed the pattern and characteristics of “one body and three rings”. The body is the ontology of translation, which is the unshakable foundation for the development of translation science over the centuries. The first ring is the inner ring, which is built up by linguistics and its subdisciplines, and the second ring is the middle ring, which is outside the inner ring. The second ring is the middle ring outside the inner ring, which is developed by philosophy, thinking science, psychology, information theory, and semiotics, and makes the transition of translation studies to a comprehensive discipline. (Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. )

The third ring refers to the cultural study of translation, which integrates translation with politics, economy, society, ideology and so on, and makes translation study a multidisciplinary, multi-level and all-round comprehensive study. We can sort out the relevant problems of traditional Chinese translation theories, for example, we can take “the five lost books, the three not easy” as the theoretical sources or ontological problems, “faithfulness and elegance” as translation standards, and refer to the framework of modern Western translation studies for propositional transformation and theory. It respects the pluralistic development of the discipline as well as the ontological development of the discipline, so that the theory of translation can be extended in many dimensions and developed in many ways.(Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. )

===The Historical Development of Western Translation Theory and Its Classification===

Western translation, like Chinese translation, has an early and long history of more than 2000 years. The first well-documented translation is the Septuagint Greek Bible from Hebrew into Greek in the third century B.C. Cicero, the father of Western translation theory, was the first to comment on the translation process and formed his own view of translation. Cicero, the father of Western translation theory, was the first to comment on the translation process and formed his own concept of translation. Horace further argued that “paraphrase” opposes “literal translation,” can create new words or introduce foreign words to enrich the national language, and distinguishes between interpretation and translation.

The second major model is Jerome’s “dualistic” view of translation, which divides translation into two cases, literal and paraphrase, depending on the text. The third one is Schleiermacher, who believes that language determines thinking, and advocates discussing translation from the perspective of linguistics and literature. The first one is the translation of the Chinese text into Chinese, and the second one is the translation of the English text into Chinese. Jacobson, Newmark, and Naida also hold different opinions on the division of Western translation activities, which is difficult to unify, and these different opinions also reflect the different perspectives, emphasis, and direct and indirect influences of other disciplines on the scholars’ study of translation.(Nida, E. A.1964)

The School of Thought and the Main Characteristics of Western Translation Theory

Most Chinese and Western scholars nowadays adopt Genzler’s classification method, dividing Western translation theory into three stages: classical translation theory, modern translation theory, and modern translation theory period. Three of the four masterpieces in the history of Western translation appeared in the classical translation period, and translation mostly revolves around religion. Cicero, the father of Western translation, believed that translation cannot be word-for-word, but must be done according to the linguistic habits of the readers of the translated language, and that it must convey the meaning and spirit of the original text, not the linguistic form of the original text.

Cicero, Horace, and Jerome provided new insights for later translation studies by breaking through the constraints. Historians see the seventeenth century as the beginning of modern history. In France, the principles and methods of translation were hotly debated. As the first Western translation theorist, Drayton divided translation into three categories: verbatim translation, paraphrase translation and paraphrase translation; the second one was Tertullian. The three principles of faithfulness of thought and consistency of style proposed by Tertullian had a positive influence on the later translation theories.

The controversy between Arnold and Newman over the principles of translation stimulated a lively academic atmosphere and a great debate on translation theory. Goethe further added that poetry is untranslatable, continuing the academic debate between Arnold and Neumann. Schleiermacher and Humboldt argued that translation theory explores linguistic and literary perspectives, and that understanding a text should be a positive act. Historians usually divide contemporary translation theory into two phases: before the Second World War and from the post-World War period to the present.

These two phases are distinguished not only by the watershed of the war, but also by the fact that the war was not over until after the Second World War. These two stages of translation theory development present different scenarios. The American School of Translation Training has brought translation to the forefront, with some advances and breakthroughs in translation theory, but it is still limited to discussions of aesthetic experience and certain prescriptive rules. The scientific school of translation has found a scientific basis for translation.

Based on linguistics, Naida started a new research on translation theory. After that, Germany started to study Naida’s translation theory and formed German Functionalism. In the early stage, the translation research school advocated to keep the literary character through the research of the co-temporal and historical perspectives of words in order to achieve the goal of faithfulness to the original text, and the translator should adopt the culture and language familiar to the readers and introduce extra-literary elements, and deconstructionism is a kind of subversion of structuralism.

Deconstruction is a reversal of structuralism. It gives translators more initiative and provides opportunities for translation creation. During the period of classical translation theory, translation was concentrated in the field of religion, and there were also interdisciplinary studies, and most translations were in the form of rewriting. Most of the translation theories were based on the intuitive experience of the translators, with no theoretical guidance. It was only at the level of literal translation and paraphrase translation, and the research on translation theory was not thorough enough.

The modern translation theory period has made great progress in translation theory compared to the classical translation theory period, and the first translation theorist and the first translation theory work appeared in Western history, progressing from the “dichotomy” of the classical translation theory period to the “trichotomy” of the classical translation theory period. It raises the issue of translatability and non-translatability, and improves the accuracy of translation studies.(Bassnett. 1980.)

The Response of Western Translation Theory in China’s Translation Industry

As for the study of Western translation, there are two opposing viewpoints in China. The first view is that China’s western translation theory research is less theoretical and critical, focusing on intuitive thinking; while western translation theory focuses on reasoning and argumentation, pursuing the integrity of the system, therefore, it is always called Nadda, advocating copying and transplanting the western translation theory to direct application.

Another viewpoint is that foreign theorists not only do not have a deeper understanding of translation than Chinese translators, but also have not formed a theoretical system, and they believe that there is no single theoretical work or doctrine in the foreign translation industry that is recognized by most theorists as authoritative and stable, so there is no way to start from the West. Regardless of the viewpoint, as Mr. Cong Zhihang said, the importance of translation theory has become more and more prominent, and it plays an irreplaceable role in translation teaching together with translation practice, and will eventually play a cornerstone for the establishment of translation discipline.(Cao Ruiming. 2006（1）：45-47.)

===Analysis of Theoretical Research Status===

Descriptive Analysis of Translation Theory Research

First, the distribution of disciplines. This is mainly in the uneven distribution of disciplines. Looking at the current published translation theoretical research works, the proportion of foreign language and literature research is the largest, followed by the research on Chinese language and literature, literary theory, Chinese literature and other disciplines, which fully shows that domestic scholars pay more attention to foreign language discipline research, and also shows the influence of language discipline on translation research, but also shows that the depth and breadth of most scholars’ research still need to be improved. Further increase.(Nida, E. A. 1964.)

Second, the research hierarchy. From the existing research results, we can see that the research level is not high. Basic research (social science) has the largest proportion (mainly the application of Western translation theories in various translation practices), followed by industry guidance, basic and secondary vocational education, higher education, engineering technology, etc. However, research results in the fields of economic information research and popular science are not yet abundant.
Third, researchers and institutions.

The current problem is a single researcher and a small number of research institutions. Researchers of translation theory mainly come from universities or research departments engaged in foreign language work, which shows that universities and research institutes have outstanding advantages in talents and resources and have become the main force of translation research, which also reflects that the main body of translation research is too single and other social institutions lack professional foreign language staff, thus the results of translation research are few.(Gentzler, Edwin.1993.)
Systematic Analysis of Translation Theory Research

First, the nature of the research. The current researches are mostly basic researches, mostly analyzing the ontological elements of translation, such as the nature, function, process, and quality evaluation of translation. The number of such researches has been increasing in recent years, but the nature of the researches has not changed much. On the other hand, the research on applied practice mainly focuses on the study of translation operation specifications and practice, such as translation teaching, translation practice and strategies. These researches are mainly the summaries of the experiences of university teachers in the teaching process, while there are not many researches on the academic aspects of other professions.

Second, the research level. From the structural level of the current translation research object, it mainly concentrates on two levels: micro research and macro research. Micro research is basic research, that is, when studying general things, the whole is decomposed into parts or the higher level is decomposed into lower level, mainly focusing on key words such as ontological features of translated language and operation norms, which is the main body of current translation research. Macro research, on the other hand, focuses on the whole and the law, grasps the relationship between a certain thing and the environment, and mainly focuses on the cultural significance of translation in terms of social and cultural attributes, ideology, and social development, which does not take up a large proportion.

Third, overall distribution.From the academic education of translation, to the practical teaching of translation, to the theory of translation, through practical research as well as modern research on translation teaching method and translation teaching materials, all of them reflect the down-to-earth research spirit of researchers, and many of them have excellent achievements with both theoretical and practical reference value. With the development of domestic foreign exchanges, especially the “One Belt, One Road” initiative, the frequency and opportunities of China's foreign exchanges have greatly increased. The development of China’s translation education and the cultural strategy of going abroad have made the study of translation strategies a hotspot in China, but due to the lack of objective depiction of translation constraints and conditions for strategy use, ontology research and theoretical discussion need to be strengthened.

Fourth, the distribution of hot words. Based on the frequency of occurrence of theme words in periodicals, it is found that the distribution of “hot words” in translation theory research has the following characteristics: First, “functional translation theory” has the highest frequency of occurrence. The “functional translation theory” appeared in the 1960s and 1970s, marked by the publication of Rice’s book The Possibilities and Limitations of Translation Criticism.

Its representative figure is Christine Nord, who takes the theory of purpose as the core of research, that is, translators should regard translation as some activities carried out to achieve a specific purpose or to satisfy the requirements of the target language readers, mainly emphasizing the translation process, the translator’s thoughts and the specific context in which the translation takes place, and the translator should be responsible for all the parties in the translation process (the principle of fidelity) and adopt different approaches for different translation purposes.

This has inspired many western scholars to express their own views on the translation method, thus also inspiring domestic scholars to look at the translation problem from multiple perspectives, to learn from the strengths and make up for the weaknesses, and to advance with the times.

Secondly, the term “feminism” has attracted much attention. Since the 1970s, the West has combined feminism with translation theory and translation practice. When the gender of the work, the author, the reader, and the translator are considered from the perspective of feminism, it also brings new insights to the study of translation. Feminism (feminism) has attracted much attention from Chinese scholars in the post-modern and diversified translation context, especially in the 21st century, which also provides room for translators to reconstruct works.Thirdly, the “subjectivity of the translator” begins to occupy a place(Wang Dongfeng,2014).

The translator is the executor of translation work and a subjective individual, whose essence is manifested in such characteristics as subjective initiative, passivity, and egoism, and therefore constitutes the subjectivity of the translator based on these characteristics. Translators are also important participants in the construction and composition of the culture of a region or country. Some domestic translators do not highlight their cultural construction role in the multi-language system of the Chinese language, thus the phenomenon of marginalization of the translator’s cultural status and confusion for traditional translation research has arisen.

The primitive self-discipline of translators can no longer adapt to the new situation of today’s technological development, and the temporal and spatial changes of translation practice have highlighted the influence on the ethical behavior of translators. The standardization of language, politics, technology, and business makes the ethical behavior of translation more complicated and diversified.

===Trends in Translation Theory Research===

Interdisciplinary cooperation and integration

Today’s world is moving in the direction of diversity. Cultural exchange and integration is the current direction of development. The study of translation theory is no longer an independent discipline, but must be related to other disciplines or even multiple disciplines, transcending and transforming through interaction and cooperation. The term “interdisciplinarity” was first coined in the United States in the 1920s. It was not until the mid-1980s that it became known to scholars in China. It was not until the 1990s that scholars began to use the term “interdisciplinary” instead of “cross-cutting science”.

In order to achieve greater research progress and research results, it is necessary to break through disciplinary limitations and concentrate on interdisciplinary research on a larger scale. No matter what kind of research is carried out, as long as it is related to translation theory and draws on the theories of other disciplines, it can be considered as interdisciplinary research. This is not only reflected in the translation theory, but also in the translation research methods and the disciplinary background of the researchers, which will greatly promote the development of translation theory research and make it more systematic, rigorous and rich.（Su Yue. 2009（6）:121-122.）

Return to culture development

The study of translation language and translation culture contributes to the practice and development of translation theory. Since translation language and translation culture are both objective existences, the standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance is a matter of degree, and the over or under expression of cultural meaning must be viewed dialectically. Translation research cannot be separated from language as a carrier, and translation should come from language, then go to language, arise from culture, and finally return to culture.

Seeking Common Ground while Surviving Differences in Cultural Translation

Any translation that involves cultural factors can be called cultural translation, which, like foreign affairs, is based on the same principle of seeking common ground while reserving differences. However, under the influence of traditional culture, if the translated language and culture are not taken into account, the effect will be affected and may even convey the wrong message, so it is necessary to seek common ground while preserving differences. What scholars who study translation seek is to keep the “difference” of the source language and culture to the greatest extent possible on the basis of the readers’ understanding, which is the best integration of Chinese and Western translation.（Su Yue. 2009（6）:121-122.）

===Conclusion===

From the theory and practice of ancient translation theory to the update and development of contemporary translation theory, scholars have continued and developed China's unique translation theory according to the requirements of the times and the basis of practice. The development of the country in the new era puts forward higher demands on translation,the cultivation of translation talents and discipline construction. In short, the development of translation discipline in the new era should emphasize disciplinary functions, expand theoretical resources, innovate ontological concepts, and strengthen school consciousness, so as to make new contributions to the knowledge innovation of translation discipline.

===References===

[1] Bassnett. S Translation Studies[ M] .London and New York: Methuen , 1980.

[2] Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary Translation Theories［M］. London: Routledge, 1993.

[3] Newmark, Peter. Approaches to Translation [ M]. Oxford and London: Pergamon Press, 1981.Reprint in 1998, New York: Prentice Hall International.

[4] Nida, E. A.. Toward a Science of Translating［M］. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.

[5] 曹瑞明. 跨文化交际翻译中的差异与融合［J］.西安外国语学院学报, 2006（1）：45-47.

[6] 陈福康. 中国译学史［M］.上海:上海外语教育出版社，2015.

[7] 蓝红军. 从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究 (1987-2017）［J］.中国翻译，2018（01）:14.

[8] 苏粤. 国内关联翻译理论研究发展的回顾与思考［J］.湖北经济学院学报: 人文社会科学版, 2009（6）:121-122.

[9] 田雨. 走向跨学科的翻译学［J］.中国翻译，2004（2）：31-35.

[10] 王东风. 中国翻译研究的过去、现在与未来［J］.上海外国语大学学报, 2014（4）:7-8.

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==A Cultural Critique of Foreignization and Domestication 吴子佳 Wu Zijia 202070080645==

吴子佳 Wu Zijia 202070080645

==='''Abstract'''===
Domestication and foreignization ，as two important translation methods, play an important role in many areas, the language is the carrier of culture, the differences between different cultures is the important obstacle of cross-cultural communication.And each of the two translation strategies has its own advantages and disadvantages. During translation, an interpreter is required not only to have good command of translation, but also need to grasp a foreign cultural psychological and ideological values, cultural knowledge reserve purpose countries and consider the national psychological acceptance, while standing in the source language, on the basis of national culture, realize the cultural exchanges between the two countries. This paper intends to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of domestication and foreignization in the translation of different cultures (such as tourism culture, food culture, literary works, etc.), and to select the essence and discard the dross in order to find better translation methods and achieve better cultural promotion and cross-cultural communication.

==='''Key words'''===

Domestication foreignization cultural-overloaded words cross-cultural communication.

==='''摘要'''===

归化和异化作为两个重要的翻译方法，在许多方面发挥着重要作用，语言是文化的载体，不同文化之间的差异是跨文化交流的重要阻碍，归化异化各有优势，又各有缺点，在翻译时,要求译员不仅要有良好的翻译功底,更需要把握外国文化心理和思想价值观，储备目的国家的文化知识并考虑民族心理接受程度,同时站在保留源语国家文化特色的基础上,实现两国文化的交流。本论文拟讨论归化和异化在不同文化（如旅游文化，美食文化，外交文化、文学作品等）中的应用，在应用中探究分析文化差异，取其精华，去其糟粕，找到更好的翻译方法，实现更好的文化传播与跨文化交流。

==='''关键词'''===

归化，异化，文化负载词，跨文化交流

===''' Introduction of Domestication and Foreignization '''===

Domestication and foreignization are two terms coined by Lawrence Venuti based on his investigation of western translation history and theories.They are strategies in translation, regarding the degree to which translators make a text conform to the target culture. Domestication is the strategy of making text closely conform to the culture of the language being translated to, which may involve the loss of information from the source text. Foreignization is the strategy of retaining information from the source text, and involves deliberately breaking the conventions of the target language to preserve its meaning. These strategies have been debated for hundreds of years, but the first person to formulate them in their modern sense was Lawrence Venuti, who introduced them to the field of translation studies in 1995 with his book The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation. Venuti's innovation to the field was his view that the dichotomy between domestication and foreignization was an ideological one; he views foreignization as the ethical choice for translators to make. （Venuti，1995）

On the basis of Venuti's theory:A term used by Venuti(1995)to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent,fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TLreaders...it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual,unreceptive to the foreign,and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with[target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other. Foreignizing translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original.
Domestication takes the local culture as the starting point, takes the information receiver as the core, and emphasizes the authenticity and vividness of the translated text. Therefore, the foreign cultural color and language style characteristics in the original text are often modified to confine them within the framework of the local culture.（Venuti，1995）

For example:Lead a dog’s life ( 过着牛马一样的生活);Cry up wine and sell vinegar(挂羊头，卖狗肉);Put back the clock (开倒车)Talk house (吹牛Kill the goose that lays the golden eggs(杀鸡取卵); High buildings and large mansions are springing up like mushrooms in Beijing.(在北京，高楼大厦犹如雨后春笋般地涌现。)（Wenku）
Venuti(1995: 20) considers the foreignizing method to be ‘an ethnodeviant pressure on target language cultural values to register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad’. It is ‘highly desirable’, he says, in an effort ‘to restrain the ethnocentric violence of translation’. In other words, the foreignizing method can restrain the ‘violently’ domesticating cultural values of the English-language world.Examples of foreignization:A.used at the phonetic level:ballet—芭蕾舞” cigar—雪茄,laser—镭射,jacket—夹克.B. being used at the word level: crocodile tears-鳄鱼的眼泪，an olive branch—橄榄枝，sour grapes—酸葡萄，the cold war—冷战.C.being used at sentence level: Hamlet《哈姆雷特》“You speak like a green girl．Unsifted in such perilous circumstance．（你讲的话完全像是一个不曾经历过这种危险的不懂事的女孩子。）（Wenku）

==='''Analysis on Culture Differences in Translation'''===

Before we talk about the cultural critique of foreignization and domestication,we should find out the reason why we need the two methods to help with our translation,so the differences between different countries should be mentioned. I think the most difficult part in translation is to give a correct explantion of the sourse culture to the target one in a way that your target reader can accept.But as we all know,sometimes there is not an excat equivalence in sense of both the languages,and I must mention cultural-loaded words when it comes to cultural differences,as words are the most direct form to show a culture,and whether your translation make sense or not depends on how you deal with the cultural-loaded words.

Take Chinese and English for example,the word “落汤鸡”can not be translated as “soup chicken”,in literal,as Chinese people live on farming ,”落汤鸡”describes a kind of awkward position of chicken being drenched in the rain,but in England ,a country with developed industry,people no longer raise animals ,so it may be hard for them to understand as they have not seen it before,instead ,the familiar thing they can image is the drowned mouse,as the country has lots of drainers ,which provides perfect conditions for mouse to live ,but those drains can easily get blocked when it rains heavily,after the rain,many drowned mice can be found on the street .Is it the same akward as the”落汤鸡” ？（Zhang le 2017，37）

So differen society can give birth to different cultures.What’s more ,the geographic situation can also reflect the cultural differences.For example,England is located in a island,and is sourrded by lots of water,so the words “sea”,”fish”are always used in English idioms,such as“all at sea”,“miss the boat”,“take the helm”,“between the devil and sea” ,while China boasts many mountains and land ,so the Chinese people may wonder why the English people describe the idiom” 挥土如金”as” spend money like water”if they do not learn about the cultural differences before.In addition ,the use of metaphor can also reflect cultural differences,and metaphor is frequently used in for example,in Chinese culture the image of "dog" is mostly unpleasant, so the metaphor of "dog" has a negative meaning, such as”狗胆包天、狼心狗肺、狐朋狗友、狗仗人势、狗急跳墙、狗头军师、狗血喷头、狗改不了吃屎、狗嘴里吐不出象牙、走狗、哈巴狗等“.（Zhang le 2017，37）

On the contrary, the British and American peoples regard dogs as loyal companions and even as family members. Therefore, the English word "dog" as a metaphor has a positive meaning, such as top dog (胜利者) 、lucky dog (幸运儿) 、gay dog (快乐的人) 、old dog (老手) 、Every dog has his day. (凡人皆有得意日),(Qin Zhen 2001,19)and due to regional, climatic, religious and other factors, different work and life styles have gradually formed in different living groups, which also leads to different social customs and living habits.（Zhang le 2017，38）

Different living habits can therefore lead to different metaphor,for example, In China, rice is the main source of nutrition supply, and there are about 68 characters with "rice" as the side of the character. However, in English words, the expression of rice is not so precise and varied. In English, by contrast, people live on bread and potatoes. There are many expressions related to bread and potatoes in English, such as "bread and butter," "big potato",”hot potato” and "couch potato." so while doing our translation,we should learn about the cultural difference under the surface of metaphors and taboos of different nations ,otherwise people may feel that they are offended.（Zhang le 2017，38）

===''' Comparisons of Practice of Foreignization and Domestication in Different Perspectives of Culture '''===

1. Practice of foreignization and domestication in tourism culture

The difference of cultural background is an important factor for tourism , and experiencing foreign culture is the focus of foreign tourists. Therefore, in the process of translation, the cultural information of the original text should be retained to the greatest extent within the range of readers' acceptance. Much of China's tourism brochures depict imagery, stimulates the imagination of visitors, and fill them with longing, so the words are abstract. Therefore, it is important that the translation of tourism materials should take Chinese culture as the orientation, with an emphasis on translation, foreignization is in the dominant position,while domestication acts like a supplementary in this case, and usually we will redesign appropriate increase or decrease in cultural points to make the readers to understand the content, choosing to delete, or increase the explanatory translation, or rewrite, highlight the guiding and practical.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,65)

Example 1:

路左有一巨石, 石上原有苏东坡手书“云外流春”四个大字
To its left is another rock formerly engraved with four big Chinese characters Yun Wai Liu Chun (Beyond clouds and flows spring) written by Su Dongpo (1037—1101) , the most versatile poet of the Northern Song Dynasty (960—1127) . (Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua2011(02))
Here we add some introduction of Su Dongpo and explanation of the Chinese words”云外流春”（Yun Wai Liu Chun）to help foreigner better understand the cultural value of the artwork of the poet. Proper addition of background knowledge is necessary for understanding the content of the original text, such as: the time of historical events, the age of celebrities' birth and death, their identities and contributions , the specific location of scenic spots and so on, all of which will help foreign tourists better understand the profound connotation of Chinese traditional culture.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,66)

Example 2

云冈石窟——位于大同西北武周山 (又名云冈) 。创建于公元453 年 (北魏文成帝兴安二年) 。以后献文、孝文诸帝都在这里续建, 历百余年而成。这里有大小洞窟五十多个, 各窟佛像共约五万一千余尊。大者高十七米, 小者短到数寸。雕饰奇伟, 冠于一世。在中国历史、宗教上, 以及东方艺术上, 都具有巨大价值。
Located in Datong , Shanxi Province , the Yungang Grottos are a complex of over 50 Buddhist grottos enshrining over 51 , 000 Buddhist statues as large as 17 meters tall or as short as a few inches. Built for over a hundred years, they are of great historic and artistic value.
Here we delete some details about the architecter and the exact location of the grotto,as they are not the main idea that we want to introduce,instead,we leave the data that can show the artistic value of the grotto,in doing so ,we can make our readers more comfortable to real our materials and make our translation more readable.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,66)

Example 3

花港观鱼:Hua Gang Guan Yu (Viewing Fish at Flower Harbor)
孤山: Gushan (Solitary Hill)
湖南省(位于长江中下游南部, 东经108度至114度, 北纬24至30度。因地处洞庭湖之南, 所以叫做湖南)。
Hunan Province lies just south of the middle reaches of the Changjiang (Yangtze) River between108’ and 114’ E longitude and 24’ and 30’ N latitude. As it is also situated south of Lake Dongting, the Province has the name Huan, which means “south of the lake”
Here we add some explanation to the name of the scenic spots on our literal translation,as sometimes let the reader know why the the spot is called in this way can help them better know about our culture,and in the end enhance mutural understanding of each other.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,67)

Example 4

Analogy is a method used in tourism translation ,when we are making an analogy,we are actually making a combination of foreignization and domestication,for we are just finding something equivalent in another culture,for example:Suzhou(a beautiful city in Zhejiang province ,China),when it comes to how to describe how beautiful it is,we usually make an analogy to Venice，Italy,then the reader may soon understand; Yinchuan(a city in the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region)can be compared by Mekka,and I think it is a kind of exoticism.By using an expression that the target readers are familiar with,we can become more close so that we can promote mutual understanding of both sides.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,67)

Example 5

她 (黄河) 奔腾不息, 勇往直前, 忽而惊涛裂岸, 势不可挡, 使群山动容;忽而安如处子, 风平浪静, 波光潋滟, 气象万千。
It tears and boils along turbulently through the mountains and at some places, flows on quietly with a sedate appearance and glistening ripples.
The use of antithesis rhetoric and the arrangement of four-character word groups in Chinese shows the magnificent momentum of the Yellow River. The English translation has rewritten the original text, removing those words with subjective emotions, so that it can be intuitive and concise, vivid, and has the same effect as the original text .(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,68)

Example 6

四合院——中国传统的院落式住宅之一种。其布局特点是围绕院子, 四边布置堂屋、住房和厨房等。以北京四合院为典型, 通常分前内两院, 两段之间设“垂花门”。
Quadrangle, one type of Chinese traditional residential housing, has been common: mostly in northernChina. A typical quadrangle features a divided com-pound with square yards surrounded by halls.
By summarizing, deleting and adding, the translator introduces the siheyuan, a building with the characteristics of northern folk dwellings, which not only achieves the purpose of advertising, but also conforms to the language characteristics of the readers. It should be said that the cultural information of the original text has been appropriately adjusted.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,68)

2. Practice of Foreignization and Domestication in Food Culture

With the development of globalization,Chinese food is gaining huge popularity among foreign people,in order to better promote Chinese food ,we have to make good expression to the origin and the connotation of the food ,so ,both foreignization and domestication are needed.We have to mention food culture if we want to introduce those food with Chinese characteristics.According to the characteristics of the dishes, Chinese cuisine is divided into eight major cuisines, and they are: Cantonese cuisine, Hunan cuisine, Shandong cuisine, Fujian cuisine, Zhejiang cuisine, Sichuan cuisine, Anhui cuisine and Jiangsu cuisine. Each cuisine has its own unique flavor .Since China covers a wide range of land,different regions have different eating habbits and cooking methods according to the diversity of geographic locations. There are 36 kinds of cooking methods include frying, frying, cooking, frying, braising and so on.（Liu Xiaocen 2018，99）

For example,people living in Sichuan province like to eat spicy food and to add some condiment such as pepper,gordic because they live in a basin and in doing so ,they can clear damp and stay dry.People live in Guangzhou,however,prefer seafood and they usually cook their meals by stewing ,which can retain the nutrition of food as much as possible. Suzhou cuisine is fresh, strong but not greasy; Zhejiang cuisine is delicious, tender and smooth, crisp , soft and refreshing.Based on the food culture above,domestication and foreignization have been use in different ways.（Liu Xiaocen 2018，99）

Example 7

番茄牛腩(tomato and beef brisket)
This translation consists of main ingredient and ingredient.
砂锅面(casserole noodles)
This translation consists of utensils and ingredients.
淮南牛肉汤, 东坡肉(Huainan beef soup, Dongpo pork)
This translation consists of the name of people and place as well as the main ingredient,and sometimes we need to give a more detailed introduction of the people or place to make our translation more readable.
炒酸菜, 手抓饼(sauerkraut, shredded cake)
This translation consists of the cooking method or eating method and ingredients.
Above are basic translations as they do not involve much culture ,so we always use literal translation with some explanations .（Liu Xiaocen 2018，100）

Example 8

蚂蚁上树 (肉末粉条): Ants on a tree (minced pork)
This translation shows the characteristics of the food as minced pork just the ant on the tree,and it gives a vivid introduction of Chinese food and can leave a deep impression to foreigner.
霸王别姬 (甲鱼炖鸡) :Farewell my Concubine (turtle stewed chicken)
This translation is named after historical allusions.
驴打滚 (打糕) :Donkey roll (beating cake)
This translation is named according to the production process metaphor.
佛跳墙 (福寿全) : Buddha jumps over the wall (Fu, Shou, Quan(get both luck and longevity)).
This translation is named after the meaning of good.if we do not give a explanation to the name ,people may wonder what dose the Buddha mean here and if that really means a man jump over the wall,so in order not cause the misunderstanding ,we need to make right expression of the name of the dish.（Liu Xiaocen 2018，100）

Above are some translations that contain many cultural elements,and when doing the translation ,we should use a combination of foreignization and domestication,that requires us know what is the food really made of,and the meaning of the food behind the name.

Example 9

“叫花鸡jiaohuaji” or“jiaohua chicken”is a famous dish in Jiangsu province of China. If translated as' chicken cooked by a beggar ', westerners must not understand its meaning. That's why the naturalized translation of jiaohua Chicken is called "Baked Chicken", which makes it plain. The following ways of translating The names of Chinese dishes make good use of the naturalized translation method. The dishes that begin with the raw materials used in cooking are divided into one category. In English translation, prepositions or conjunctions should be added between the dishes. For example,蛋黄凉瓜 is translated as "Bitter Melon with Egg yolk”.(Liu Xiaocen 2018，105)

If we translate the dish “红烧狮子头”译为“Fried Lion’s Head” (炸狮子的头) , the foreigners may feel scared when they see the menu!so here we use foreignization to translate it as “Braise Pork Ball in Brown Sauce”.Translation of the Chinese dish name into English adjectives indicating the taste and flavor of the food, such as crispy, tender, spiced, food that begins with an adjective indicating the shape or state of the food is divided into one category. The most prominent feature of these dishes is often the taste or the shape of the food, for example,“珊瑚笋尖”is translated as“Sweet and Sour Bamboo Shoots”;“爽口西芹”is translated as “Crispy Celery” at the same time “土豆泥”is translated as “Mashed Potato”. These are some examples of domestication.(Liu Xiaocen 2018，105)

Example 10

Some foods are usually translated in the form of "Hanyu Pinyin + English notes" in order to retain certain characteristics.
For example:“油条”in this way can be translated into “Youtiao, Deep-Fried Dough Sticks”;“豆汁儿”can be translated as“Douzhir, Fermented Bean Drink”. 饺子:Dumpling、汤圆:Dumpling in Soup、烧卖:Steamed Dumpling with the Though Gathered at the Top;小圆面包:Bun、馒头:Steamed Bun、包子:Steamed Stuffed BunThere are also some food translations with pure Chinese characteristics that have been collected in major foreign English dictionaries.Most of these dishes are transliterated into English based on cantonese pronunciation, with strong regional characteristics. （Liu Xiaocen 2018，105）

For example, "豆腐" translates as "Toufu"; "馄饨" translates as "Wonton". The translation of四一丸子:"Four Happy Meatballs" aims to make foreign friends feel the happy and festive atmosphere expressed in the dish name，so we can take the method of literal translation with explanation and the result will be like “Four—Joy Meat Balls, Meat balls braised with brown sauce”,which is more accecptable for the foreigner.These are some examples of foreignization.（Liu Xiaocen 2018，105）

3. Practice of Foreignization and Domestication in Diplomacy

Since the 18th national people’s congress,the global situation has changed a lot ,in order to improve the influence and right of speak,the diplomatic skills and contains should change accordingly,the new philosophy and ideas put up by our secretary-general Xi provide strong support for our diplomatic speaking,which shows the attitude of Chinese characteristic(Fan Wuqiu 2020),and when the spokesmen are talking about some issues about China and other countries,they usually use some Chinese classics which can not only show our complaint politely but also promote the Chinese culture.So we should pay more attention to the translation of these words,especially in diplomacy,as the spokesman represents the whole country,any mistake may raise as a direct cause of diplomatic accident,and foreignization and domestication are quite important in this case.（Fan Wuqiu 2020）

Example 11

我们反对的是个别国家政客出于国内政治原因对中国进行有罪推定式的“调查”，反对利用疫情搞政治操弄。
What we oppose is the so-called investigation chanted by politicians in a few countries out of domestic political calculations based on the presumption of guilt.What we oppse if political maneuvers of the pandemic,which run counter the original mission of scientific research and disrupt international response.
In this translation ,we use two sentences with same form to show our standpoint,and the word “so-called”,”enchanted”are like a kind of foreignization,which illustrate what we want to say precisely.（Fan Wuqiu 2020）

Example 12

“投我以木桃，报之以琼瑶”，这是中华民族传统美德。（Geng Shuang's speech 2020）
To quote a line from the Book of Songs,”You throw a peach to me,and I give you a white jade for friendship.It is china’traditional virtue to repay goodwill with greater kindness.
This is a line from the Chinese classic the Book of Songs,and it is used by our spokesman to show our gratitude for countries that help us to fight against covid-19,as “琼瑶 qiongyao”is a word with Chinese characteristic, and it means white jade,so when we are translating,instead of “qiongyao”we should explain its real material,otherwise people may misunderstand it as the famous novelist in china who has the same name.（Fan Wuqiu 2020）

Example 13

耿爽表示：“当前中加关系遭遇了严重困难，责任完全在加方。加方很清楚当前中加关系的症结。有理不在声高，公道自在人心。（Geng Shuang's speech 2020）
"Lately China-Canada relations have encountered serious difficulties. The responsibility lies completely with the Canadian side. Canada knows the root cause clearly. Loudness is not necessarily persuasive and people can tell right from wrong.
This is a kind of free translation,and if we just translate it word for word,it won’t make sense.（Fan Wuqiu 2020）

Example 14

“滴水之恩当以涌泉相报”是中华民族的优良传统。我们将铭记这份友情和帮助，继续落实好共建“一带一路”和中非合作论坛北京峰会成果，向那些卫生系统较弱国家提供力所能及的支持，帮助他们增强疫情防控能力，维护地区和全球的公共卫生安全。（Zhao Lijian's speech 2020）

"Receiving drips of water when in need, and I shall return the kindness with a spring." Reciprocating an act of kindness is our nation's fine tradition. We will remember the friendship and assistance we received, continue to implement the FOCAC Beijing Summit outcomes and act on the vision of building a community with a shared future, support those countries with weaker health systems as much we can to help them defeat the virus, and safeguard regional and global public health security.
This translation we find the exact equivalence of both Chinese and English,so people in both side can understand each other so that we can have a better communication and forge a closer friendship. （Fan Wuqiu 2020）

Example 15

我也希望包括BBC在内的媒体，以后说到人权问题时，不应只把摄像头对准中国“鸡蛋里挑骨头”，而应该把视野放宽一点，对在一些西方国家发生的侵犯人权行为也加大报道力度，而不是熟视无睹、视而不见、保持沉默或有选择性地失声。（Hua Chunying's speech 2020）

If the BBC is not biased, it should also condemn the brutal crimes committed by some Australian soldiers in Afghanistan. This is what a truly just, objective, conscientious and socially responsible media outlet should do. I also hope that the media, including BBC, should not only zoom in their lenses on human rights issues in China to find quarrel in a straw, but also broaden their horizons to human rights violations committed in some western countries, instead of turning a blind eye to them or keeping silent on some of the violations, if not all of them.In this speaking,“鸡蛋里挑骨头”was translated as“find quarrel in a straw”.straw,in Chinese,refers to"稻草、吸管"，and something worthless.”Find quarrel in a straw”means bothering to find something in something worthless.which is equivalent with the Chinese meaning of “鸡蛋里挑骨头”.（Hua Chunying's speech 2020）

===''' Conclusion '''===

Domestication and foreignization have their own advantages and disadvantages. Therefore, in translation practice, we should combine the advantages of the two strategies and avoid the disadvantages, so that there is room for the common development of the two strategies. Mastering the culture of two sides may be the precondition of right use of domestication and foreignization, and while doing translation we should choose the proper methods according to our purpose and the characteristic of the culture ,all of which can lead to better cross-cultural communication.Therefore, in the actual translation process, domestication and foreignization should complement each other and have complementary ,dialectical unity and relationship.

===''' References '''===

* Zhang Le. 张乐.(2017). 浅谈文化负载词的隐喻意义.[On the Metaphorical Meaning of Culture-loaded Words].” 科教导刊(中旬刊)” [Journal of Science and Education Guide (Mid-ten-day issue)] (06):37-38.
* Qin Zhen. 秦蓁.(2001). 浅谈汉英语义的文化差异.[On the Cultural Differences between Chinese and English Semantics].” 唐山师范学院学报” [Journal of Tangshan Normal University] (06):19-21.
* Xiao Luan, Feng Xuehua. 肖鸾,冯学华.(2011). 浅析归化和异化及其在旅游资料翻译中的实践.[ A Brief Analysis of Domestication and foreignization and their practice in the translation of tourism Materials ]” 郧阳师范高等专科学校学报”[Journal of Yunyang Normal College] (02):65-68.
* Liu Xiaocen. 刘晓岑.(2018). 归化和异化在中国菜名英译中的应用分析.[Application Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names]” 海外英语” [Overseas English] (04):99-100+105.
* Fan Wuqiu. 范武邱.(2020).十八大”以来我国外交部发言人话语新风格及翻译策略探析. [An Analysis on the New Style and Translation Strategies of Chinese Foreign Ministry Spokesmen's Discourse since the 18th National Congress of the CPC]. “翻译协会年会报告”Annual Report of the Translation Society.
* Geng Shuang.耿爽.(2020.2.21).外交部新闻发言稿."Foreign Ministry Press Statement" .https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/web/wjdt_674879/fyrbt_674889/t1747973.shtml.
* Zhao Lijian.赵立坚(2020.2.25).外交部新闻发言稿."Foreign Ministry Press Statement" .https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/web/wjdt_674879/fyrbt_674889/t1749280.shtml.
* Hua Chunying.华春莹(2020.11.30).外交部新闻发言稿."Foreign Ministry Press Statement" .https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/web/wjdt_674879/fyrbt_674889/t1836636.shtml.

='''Contemporary Translation Studies'''=

==A Study On the Influence of Linguistics on the Construction of Translatology 孔祥慧 Kong Xianghui 202020080608==
<center>孔祥慧 Kong Xianghui </center>
==='''Abstract'''===
Translatology is an interdisciplinary study of translation. And as one of the disciplines most closely related to translation studies, linguistics is the main discipline that exerts a profound influence the construction of translatology.This paper mainly discusses the influence of linguistics on the construction of translation studies from three aspects, including the contributions of early linguists to translation, the influence of linguistic theories on translation studies after the independence of translatology, and the referential value of the construction experience of linguistics to translation studies. It is found that linguistics has made a great contribution to the construction and theoretical development of translatology, but translation researchers should take a critical view of linguistics and correctly use linguistic theories instead of copying them completely .

Translatology is an interdisciplinary study of translation. And as one of the disciplines most closely related to translation studies, linguistics is the main discipline that exerts a profound influence on the construction of translatology.This paper mainly discusses the influence of linguistics on the construction of translation studies from three aspects, including the contributions of early linguists to translation, the influence of linguistic theories on translation studies after the independence of translatology, and the referential value of the construction experience of linguistics to translation studies. It is found that linguistics has made a great contribution to the construction and theoretical development of translatology, but translation researchers should take a critical view of linguistics and correctly use linguistic theories instead of copying them completely .--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 06:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==='''Key words'''===
Translatology;Linguistic;Discipline Construction

===摘要===
翻译学是一门研究翻译的科学，有着明显跨学科研究的特点。语言学作为与翻译学联系最为紧密的学科之一，是翻译理论发展历程中所依赖和借鉴的主要学科。本文主要从三个方面研究语言学对于翻译学构建的影响，包括早期语言学家对于翻译问题的贡献，翻译学独立之后语言学理论对于翻译研究的影响，以及语言学学科构建经验对于翻译学的借鉴意义。研究发现，语言学为翻译学构建和理论发展作出了巨大的贡献，但是翻译学研究者要带着批判性眼光看待语言学，进行翻译研究时要正确借鉴语言学理论而不是全盘照搬。

===关键词===
翻译学；语言学；学科构建

==='''1.Introduction'''===
Linguistic is a study of language, while translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text. Therefore, there are numerous links between linguistics and translation, and the development of linguistic theory will inevitably affect the development of translation. Translatology is an academic interdiscipline dealing with the systematic study of the theory, description and application of translation, interpreting, and localization. As an interdiscipline, translatology borrows much from the various fields of study that support translation including comparative literature, computer science, history, linguistics, philology, philosophy, semiotics, and terminology. （Wikipedia）

Linguistic is a study of language, while translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text. Therefore, there are numerous links between linguistics and translation, and the development of linguistic theory will inevitably affect translation. Translatology is an academic interdiscipline dealing with the systematic study of the theory, description and application of translation, interpreting, and localization. As an interdiscipline, translatology borrows much from the various fields of study that support translation including comparative literature, computer science, history, linguistics, philology, philosophy, semiotics, and terminology. （Wikipedia）--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 06:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

For a long time, translatology was a branch of linguistics before it became an independent discipline, because translation is a linguistic phenomenon. But later, with the development of the theory, it began to emerge on the academic stage as an independent subject, and more and more scholars began to devote themselves to the construction of translation theory. In the course of the construction of translation studies, many linguists and linguistic theories have made indelible contributions to the development of translatology. Although translation studies cannot be replaced by general linguistic studies, there is a close relationship between them. Language science can promote the development of translation science. This paper will analyze the influence of linguistics on the construction of translatology from multiple perspectives and explore the significance of linguistic research on the construction of translatology.（O Aiping，2012）

For a long time, translatology was a branch of linguistics before it became an independent discipline, because translation was regarded as a linguistic phenomena before. But later, with the development of the translation theory, it began to emerge on the academic stage as an independent subject, and more and more scholars began to devote themselves to the construction of translation theory. In the course of the construction of translation studies, many linguists and linguistic theories have made indelible contributions to the development of translatology. Although translation studies cannot be replaced by general linguistic studies, there is a close relationship between them. Language science, especially linguistics, can promote the development of translation science. This paper will analyze the influence of linguistics on the construction of translatology from multiple perspectives and explore the significance of linguistic research on the construction of translatology.（O Aiping，2012）--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 06:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

This thesis will be carried out in five parts. The first chapter is the introduction to the background, significance, and the outline of the thesis. The second chapter presents a brief literature review of the studies on the construction of translatology in abroad and China. The third chapter elaborates the differences between translation and translatology, and demonstrates three development stages of translation studies in general. The fourth chapter is the main focus in which the author analyzes the influences of linguistic on translatology in three aspects . In chapter five, the author will make a conclusion on the research and propose some suggestions of this study.

This thesis will be carried out in five parts. The first chapter is the introduction to the background, significance, and the outline of the thesis. The second chapter presents a brief literature review of the studies on the construction of translatology in abroad and China. The third chapter elaborates the differences between translation and translatology, and demonstrates three development stages of translation studies in general. The fourth chapter is the main focus in which the author analyzes the influences of linguistic on translatology in three aspects . In chapter five, the author will make a conclusion on the research and propose some suggestions of this study.(quotation missing)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 06:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==='''2.Literature review '''===
This chapter will briefly review the research of the construction of Translatology home and abroad. According to the development history, the author will briefly introduce the main theories and representative figures of Translatology.

This chapter will briefly review the research of the construction of Translatology at home and abroad. According to the development history, the author will briefly introduce the main theories and representative figures of Translatology. (quotation missing)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 06:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

'''2.1Studies on the construction of translatology aboard'''

In the book ''On Linguistic Aspects of Translation'' published in 1959, Norman Jacobson, from the perspective of semiotics, interpreted translation as a process of recoding two equivalent information in two different linguistic symbols and divided translation into three types: Intralingual Translation, Interlingual Translation and Intersemiotic Translation. (Norman Jacobson, 1959)

Eugene Nida（1947）advocated studying translation from the perspective of linguistics, which received positive responses from a large number of scholars. In his book ''Toward the Science of Translating'', which was published in 1964, Nida summarized the history of Western translation and proposed the principle of translation equivalence. He supported the application of modern linguistic methods to the scientific analysis of translation and proposed that translation was a science.(Eugene Nida, 1947)

J.C. Catford in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' (1965), defined translation as the process of replacing textual material in another language with textual material of one equivalent language, and took seeking equivalent elements in the language as the central issue of translation. He also discussed the translation principles based on the differences between the source language and the target language in terms of language structure.(J.A Catford , 1965)

J.C. Catford in his book A Linguistic Theory of Translation (1965), defined translation as the process of replacing textual material in another language with textual material of one equivalent language, and regarded seeking equivalent elements in the language as the central issue of translation. He also discussed the translation principles based on the differences between the source language and the target language in terms of language structure. (J.A Catford , 1965)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 06:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Holmes published ''The Name and Nature of Translation Studies'' at The Third International Conference on Applied Linguistics in 1972, which was "widely regarded as the founding declaration of the discipline of translation studies". He proposed the name of the discipline of translation, set the research scope of translation studies, and described the structure of the discipline. Holmes advocated that translation should be divided into three branches: descriptive translation , theoretical translation and applied translation. The proposal of this framework directly promoted the construction of translation studies.( James Holmes,1975)

Holmes published The Name and Nature of Translation Studies at The Third International Conference on Applied Linguistics in 1972, which was "widely regarded as the founding declaration of the discipline of translation studies". He proposed the name of the discipline of translation, set the research scope of translation studies, and described the structure of the discipline. Holmes advocated that translation should be divided into three branches: descriptive translation , theoretical translation and applied translation, which directly promoted the construction of translation studies. ( James Holmes,1975)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 06:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In 1982, Wolfram Wilss published ''the Science of Translation: Problems and Methods'', clearly stating that translation is a science. Wilss studied translation from many aspects, focusing on the process of translation, and discussed the relationship between translation and linguistics. Wilss used the theory and method of modern linguistics to establish a relatively systematic translation system by summarizing and concluding the translation practice.(Wolfram Wilss, 1982)

In 1982, Wolfram Wilss published the Science of Translation: Problems and Methods, clearly stating that translation is a science. Wilss studied translation from several aspects, focusing on the process of translation, and discussed the relationship between translation and linguistics. Wilss used the theory and method of modern linguistics to establish a relatively systematic translation system by summarizing the translation practice. (Wolfram Wilss, 1982)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 06:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Newmark is also a representative figure in the field of translation. In his book ''Exploration of Translation'' (1981), he proposed the concepts of communicative translation and semantic translation. He believed that text should be classified according to different contents and styles, and different translation methods should be adopted according to the functions of different text types.( Peter Newmark, 1981)

Hatim & Mason, whose representative work is ''Discourse and the Translator'' (1990) that is the first to study translation with pragmatics abroad. The main idea is that translation is a dynamic communication process, with translators standing in the center of the process, acting as mediators between authors and readers.(Hatim & Mason,1990 )

Hatim & Mason, whose representative work is Discourse and the Translator (1990), which is the first book to study translation with pragmatics abroad. The main idea is that translation is a dynamic communication process, with translators standing in the center of the process, acting as mediators between authors and readers. (Hatim & Mason,1990 )--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 06:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Christiane Nord, a leading figure in the German school of Functional Translation, applied the theory of functional linguistics to translation studies (1997). Nord emphasized the need for interdisciplinary studies between translation and linguistics, philosophy, sociology, and computing. She believes that the interdisciplinary study of translation is the inevitable trend of translation studies.(Christiane Nord, 1997)

Christiane Nord, a leading figure in the German school of Functional Translation, applied the theory of functional linguistics to translation studies (1997). Nord emphasized the need for interdisciplinary studies between translation and linguistics, philosophy, sociology, and computing. She believed that the interdisciplinary study of translation is the inevitable trend of translation studies. (Christiane Nord, 1997)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 06:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Mona Baker used sociolinguistic theories to study translation in her research. She believed that many social problems are caused by language, so it is necessary to use modern linguistic theories to construct an analytical model for translation studies. In 2006, she published ''Translation and Conflict'': A Narrative Account, which focused on translation and conflict, and used narrative theory to translate and Interpret. She also emphasized the importance of corpus-based translation studies.(Mona Baker, 2006)

Mona Baker used sociolinguistic theories to study translation in her research. She believed that many social problems are caused by language, so it is necessary to use modern linguistic theories to construct an analytical model for translation studies. In 2006, she published Translation and Conflict: A Narrative Account, which focused on translation and conflict, and used narrative theory to translate and interpret. She also emphasized the importance of corpus-based translation studies. (Mona Baker, 2006) --[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 06:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

'''2.2 Studies on the construction of translatology at home'''

In the middle of the 20th century, the voice of constructing translation studies began to appear in China. In the following decades, the construction of translatology in China made great progress. （Tan Zaixi，1989）

In 1951, Dong Qius, a famous Chinese translator, published his article ''On the Construction of Translation Theory''. He put forward three suggestions on the construction of translation theory that were correct scientific method, extensive investigation and in-depth study when conducting translation study. Dong also proposed the two major books will be written in later decades in China: The History of Chinese Translation and The Study of Chinese Translation. The publication of this article initiated the construction of translation studies in China and inspired a large number of later scholars. At the same time, his theoretical framework for the subject of translation is not later than that of Europe.(Dong Qiusi, 1951)

In 1951, Dong Qius, a famous Chinese translator, published his article On the Construction of Translation Theory. He put forward three suggestions on the construction of translation theory that were using correct scientific method, extensive investigation and in-depth study when conducting translation study. Dong also proposed the two major books would be written in later decades in China: The History of Chinese Translation and The Study of Chinese Translation. The publication of this article initiated the construction of translation studies in China and inspired a large number of later scholars. At the same time, his theoretical framework for the subject of translation is not later than that of Europe. (Dong Qiusi, 1951)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In 1987, Tan Zaixi clearly put forward the view that "translation studies are an independent subject" and stressed that we must establish translation studies and correctly understand the relationship between translation studies and other subjects, especially linguistics. (Tan Zaixi, 1987)

In 1987, Tan Zaixi clearly put forward the viewpoint that "translation studies are an independent subject" and stressed that we must establish translation studies and correctly understand the relationship between translation studies and other subjects, especially linguistics. (Tan Zaixi, 1987)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In the same year, Tan Zaixi and Eugene A.Nida, a famous foreign translation theorist, jointly published ''On Approaches to Translation Studies''. In this paper, Tan mainly distinguished two concepts of "translation" and "translatology". At the same time, five basic approaches to translation studies were proposed. With the help of different research approaches, the main goal of translation studies was to establish a theoretical model with wide application scope and high efficiency. Tan's series of papers published in the 1980s had a great impact on the discipline construction of Chinese translation studies. They arouse translators' awareness of the subject of translation studies.(Tan Zaixi, 1987)

In the same year, Tan Zaixi and Eugene A.Nida, a famous foreign translation theorist, jointly published On Approaches to Translation Studies. In this paper, Tan mainly distinguished two concepts of "translation" and "translatology". At the same time, five basic approaches to translation studies were proposed. With the help of different research approaches, the main goal of translation studies was to establish a theoretical model with wide application scope and high efficiency. Tan's series of papers published in the 1980s had a great impact on the discipline construction of Chinese translation studies. They arouse translators' the awareness of the subject of translation studies. (Tan Zaixi, 1987)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In the thesis ''An Overview of Western Translation Theory'' (1989), Liu Miqing briefly described his theoretical system of translation studies on the basis of his comments on Western translation theories. Liu believed that western translation studies could be divided into four periods. At the same time, he proposed that the framework of translation studies, as an open and comprehensive discipline, could be divided into two structural systems: internal system and external system. (Liu Miqing, 1989)

In the thesis An Overview of Western Translation Theory (1989), Liu Miqing briefly described his theoretical system of translation studies on the basis of his comments on Western translation theories. Liu believed that western translation studies could be divided into four periods. At the same time, he proposed that the framework of translation studies, as an open and comprehensive discipline, translatology could be divided into two structural systems: internal system and external system. (Liu Miqing, 1989)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In another article, Liu put forward the basic model of Chinese translation theory (1989). Chinese translation theory must emphasize description, meaning and function. To establish a semantic-functional model of description, his idea was inspired by linguistics. His most significant contribution to the discipline of translation studies was his book Modern Translation Theories（1990）, which brought the study of translation studies in China to a peak.(Liu Miqing, 1989)

In 1995, Liu Zhongde published ''Views on the Establishment of Translation Studies'', in which he put forward a concrete idea based on the existing translation studies. The idea is that China should publish a series of translation studies with Chinese characteristics before the year 2000. The central book is ''Chinese Translation Studies'', including ''The History of Translation in China''. This set of translation studies could guide the compilation of college translation textbooks and the study of translation theories and skills.(Liu Zhongde, 1995)

At the beginning of the 21st century, more and more Chinese scholars began to study the construction of translation studies from the perspective of linguistic theory. Zhang Meifang and Huang Guowen are the leading figures in this field. Zhang Meifang conducted translation studies from the perspective of language function in 2005, while Huang Guowen explored the English translation of ancient poems from the perspective of systemic-functional linguistics in 2006. They affirmed the significance of discourse linguistics for translation studies and explored the translation analysis methods of discourse linguistics.( Zhang Meifang, 2005) (Huang Guowen, 2006)

At the beginning of the 21st century, more and more Chinese scholars began to study the construction of translation studies from the perspective of linguistic. Zhang Meifang and Huang Guowen are the leading figures in this field. Zhang Meifang conducted translation studies from the perspective of language function in 2005, while Huang Guowen explored the English translation of ancient poems from the perspective of systemic-functional linguistics in 2006. They affirmed the significance of discourse linguistics for translation studies and explored the translation analysis methods of discourse linguistics. ( Zhang Meifang, 2005) (Huang Guowen, 2006)
Lv Jun first discussed the philosophical basis of translation studies from three aspects in his article. Starting from the philosophical basis of critical philology, structuralist linguistic translation and deconstruction translation, he pointed out that translation studies should be based on general pragmatics (2002). （Lv Jun，2002）--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Subsequently, Lu published ''Constructing The Linguistic Basis of Translation Studies'' (2004), in which he pointed out that neither structuralist linguistics nor meta-linguistics were suitable for the linguistic basis of translation studies, and only taking speech act theory as the linguistic basis could reflect the essence of translation and show the characteristics of translation activities. This series of studies by Lv Jun have provided a new way of thinking for the study of the construction of translation studies and emphasized the transformation from structuralist linguistics to pragmatics. (Lv Jun, 2004)

Subsequently, Lv published Constructing The Linguistic Basis of Translation Studies (2004), in which he pointed out that neither structuralist linguistics nor meta-linguistics were suitable for the linguistic basis of translation studies, and only taking speech act theory as the linguistic basis could reflect the essence of translation and show the characteristics of translation activities. This series of studies by Lv Jun have provided a new perspective for the study of the construction of translation studies and promoted the transformation from structuralist linguistics to pragmatics. (Lv Jun, 2004)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Li Zhenguo (2017) made a comparison between traditional linguistic methods and discourse linguistic methods, and drew similarities and differences between them, as well as their impact on translation studies.(Li Zhenguo ,2017)

Yi Jing published his doctoral thesis ''On The Construction of Translation Studies'' (2009), which systematically and objectively sorted out the construction of translation studies. Kong X
iangli's thesis ''On The Construction of Translation Studies'' in China in 2009 gave a comprehensive overview of the construction of translation studies in China. These doctoral thesis are of great reference value for translation studies.(Yi Jing, 2009)

Yi Jing published his doctoral thesis On The Construction of Translation Studies (2009), which systematically and objectively sorted out the development of translation studies. Kong Xiangli's thesis On The Construction of Translation Studies in China in 2009 gave a comprehensive overview of the construction of translation studies in China. These doctoral thesis are of great reference value for translation studies. (Yi Jing, 2009)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Linguistics and translatology are the most closely related disciplines, and the relationship between them has always been the focus of discussion. In ''A Study on Linguistic Translation'' (2008), Zhang Boran affirmed the contribution of modern linguistics to the development of theoretical research on translation. Yi Jing (2012) also believed that the study of translation theories can be systematized, scientific and objectified, largely due to the development of linguistics. (Zhang Boran,2008) (Yi Jing,2012)

Zhao Wenting summarized the theoretical research on translation of Western linguistic schools in 2016. Zhang concluded that linguistic research on translation has gone through three main stages, all of which have made outstanding contributions to the development of translation studies. (Zhao Wenting,2016)

Zou Bing and Mu Lei (2020) focused on the relationship between linguistics and translation studies, analyzing the contributions of early and contemporary linguistic approaches to translation studies. And they also emphasized on the multiple paths of contemporary linguistic approaches. They believed that translators should pay close attention to the new development of linguistic research methods and try to apply them to the study of translation.(Zou Bing and Mu Lei, 2020)

Zou Bing and Mu Lei (2020) focused on the relationship between linguistics and translation studies, analyzing the contributions of early and contemporary linguistic approaches to translation studies. And they also emphasized on the multiple approaches of contemporary linguistic approaches. They believed that translators should pay close attention to the new development of linguistic research methods and try to apply them to the study of translation. (Zou Bing and Mu Lei, 2020) --[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In recent years, translation studies have developed rapidly. With the rise of cognitive linguistics and corpus linguistics, the research of translatology also has appeared the trend of multimodal development. Wang Yin in ''Translation View in Cognitive Linguistics'' proposed that reality precedes cognition and cognition precedes language. Language is the product of reality and cognition, so is translation. Experience and cognition precede translation, and translation is also the result of experience and cognition.(Wang Yin,2017)

In recent years, translation studies have developed rapidly. With the rising of cognitive linguistics and corpus linguistics, the research of translatology also has appeared the trend of multimodal development. Wang Yin in Translation View in Cognitive Linguistics proposed that reality precedes cognition and cognition precedes language. Language is the product of reality and cognition, so is translation. Experience and cognition precedes translation, and translation is also the result of experience and cognition. (Wang Yin,2017)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Later, many scholars have studied the relationship between cognitive linguistics and translation.Fan Xiangtao and Lu Bixiao (2019) have combed through Chinese and Western studies and found that western cognitive translation studies have been constantly innovating in terms of concepts and methods. In contrast, domestic research on cognitive translation is relatively backward and still in the evaluation stage, and there is still a great space for future research on cognitive translation.(Fan Xiangtao and Lu Bixiao , 2019)

Later, many scholars have studied the relationship between cognitive linguistics and translation. Fan Xiangtao and Lu Bixiao (2019) have combed through Chinese and Western translation studies and found that western cognitive translation studies have been constantly innovating in terms of concepts and methods. In contrast, domestic research on cognitive translation is relatively backward west, and there is still a great space for future research on cognitive translation. (Fan Xiangtao and Lu Bixiao , 2019)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Liao Qiyi proposed in ''Corpus and Translation Studies'' (2000) that the development of corpus linguistics has exerted great influence on language studies and translation studies closely related to language studies. He discussed the positive significance of the corpus related to translation teaching and translation theory. (Liao Qiyi, 2000)

Liao Qiyi proposed in ''Corpus and Translation Studies'' (2000) that the development of corpus linguistics has exerted great influence on language studies and translation studies closely related to language studies. He discussed the significance of the corpus related to translation teaching and translation theory. (Liao Qiyi, 2000)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Li Yan (2020) reviewed the corpus-based translation studies in China from 1999 to 2018 and summarized the development characteristics and deficiencies. She proposed that we should not only learn from the research results of foreign corpus, but also develop corpus translation research with Chinese characteristics. (Li Yan ,2020)

Li Yan (2020) reviewed the corpus-based translation studies in China from 1999 to 2018 and summarized the development characteristics and deficiencies of the researches. She proposed that we should not only learn from the research results of foreign corpus, but also develop corpus translation research with Chinese characteristics. (Li Yan ,2020)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

From the above literature review, it can be seen that since the last century, from the emergence of the consciousness of translation studies construction to the realization of the independence of translation studies, translation studies have developed rapidly under the joint efforts of numerous linguists and translators. In recent years, translation studies have shown a trend of interdisciplinary and diversified development, and the construction of translation studies has become a focus of current research.

From the above literature review, it can be seen that since the last century, from the emergence of the awareness of translation studies construction to the realization of the independence of translation studies, translation studies have developed rapidly under the joint efforts of numerous linguists and translators. In recent years, translation studies have shown a trend of interdisciplinary and diversified development, and the construction of translation studies has become a focus of current research. ( quotation missing)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==='''3.The Construction of Translatology '''===

In this chapter, the author firstly makes a distinction between translation and translation studies, then introduces the research objects, main contents and characteristics of translation studies, and finally summarizes the three development stages of translation studies.（Yang Zijian，1993）

In this chapter, the author firstly makes a distinction between translation and translation studies, then introduces the research objects, main contents and characteristics of translation studies, and finally summarizes the three development stages of translation studies. ( quotation missing)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

'''3.1Translation and Translatology'''

"Translation" and "translatology" are two distinct but often seriously confused concepts. The most familiar concept is translation, but there is no exact definition of translation.“Translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text.”（Wikipedia）And Eugene A. Nida defined that “Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language, the closest nature equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning, and secondly in terms of style.” As can be seen from the definition of translation, translation is a cross-cultural activity involving the conversion of two languages.(Tan Zaixi 1987)

"Translation" and "translatology" are two distinct but often be confused. The most familiar concept is translation, but there is no exact definition of translation.“Translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text.”（Wikipedia）And Eugene A. Nida defined that “Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language, the closest nature equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning, and secondly in terms of style.” As can be seen from the definitions of translation, translation is a cross-cultural activity involving the conversion of two languages.(Tan Zaixi 1987)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In a different aspect,“Translation studies is an academic interdiscipline dealing with the systematic study of the theory, description and application of translation, interpreting, and localization.” In English, "translatology" is used to refer to translation studies." (Wikipedia) Liu Zhongde also set the definition that translatology is a comprehensive and systematic study of the law of bilingual transformation in translation, and a basic science of the law and method of translation thinking".（Liu Zhongde，1995）

In a different aspect,“Translation studies is an academic interdiscipline dealing with the systematic study of the theory, description and application of translation, interpreting, and localization.” In English, "translatology" is also used to refer to translation studies." (Wikipedia) Liu Zhongde also set the definition that translatology is a comprehensive and systematic study of the rules of bilingual transformation in translation, and a basic science of the law and method of translation thinking".（Liu Zhongde，1995） --[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Translatology is a human science that studies translation. The study of translation has its own unique object of study -- bilingual transformation. Around this center, translation studies also carry out researches on translation history, translation theory, translation criticism, translation teaching and so on.Translation Studies borrows much from the various fields of study that support translation，such as linguistic，literature，philosophy etc.( Kong Xiangli,2009)

Translatology is a human science that studies translation. The study of translation has its own unique object of study -- bilingual transformation. Around this center, translation studies also carry out researches on translation history, translation theory, translation criticism, translation teaching and so on.Translation Studies borrows much from the various fields of study that support translation，such as linguistic, literature, philosophy etc. ( Kong Xiangli,2009)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

'''3.2 Three Stages of Translatology'''

Throughout the development history of translation in China and the West, the development of translation studies has gone through three similar processes, from early translation practice to the awakening of the need to establish an independent discipline to the rapid development of translation studies. (Liu Zhongde,1989)

Throughout the development history of translation in China and the West, the development of translation studies has gone through three similar processes, from early translation practice to the awakening of the need to establish an independent discipline and to the rapid development of translation studies. (Liu Zhongde,1989)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

'''3.2.1 Early translation practice'''

Translation practice has a long history in both China and the West. Because of the needs of daily communication and cultural exchange, translation has become an important part of social life. China has a long history of translation, which can be traced back to the Han and Tang Dynasties. In the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, translation flourished for the second time. Then a large number of translation practitioners appeared in the late Qing Dynasty and early Republic of China. They translated a large number of texts for the purpose of saving the country, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu. There were more translation practices in modern China, such as Lu Xun, Lin Xianyi, Fu Lei and so on.(Yi Jing,2009)

Translation practice has a long history in both China and the West. Because of the needs of daily communication and cultural exchange, translation has become an important part of social life. China has a long history of translation, which can be traced back to the Han and Tang Dynasties. In the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, translation flourished for the second time. Then a large number of translator appeared in the late Qing Dynasty and early Republic of China. They translated a large number of texts for the purpose of saving the country, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu. There were more translation practices in modern China, such as Lu Xun, Lin Xianyi, Fu Lei ect. (Yi Jing,2009)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The early Western translation went through the Latin translation stage and the Bible translation period. By the Renaissance, there were a large number of translators and translated works. From the 17th century to the 19th century, the western translation of classical works reached a climax, during which A·F·Tytler and Schleiermacher explored the early translation theory. It can be said that translation theory originates from translation practice, which has laid a good foundation for theoretical exploration for centuries. Theory and practice are combined to promote each other.（Yi Jing,2008)

The early Western translation went through the Latin translation stage and the Bible translation period. By the Renaissance, there were a large number of translators and translated texts. From the 17th century to the 19th century, the western translation of classical works reached a climax, during which A·F·Tytler and Schleiermacher explored the early translation theory. It can be said that translation theory originates from translation practice, which has laid a good foundation for theoretical exploration for centuries. Theory and practice are combined to promote each other.（Yi Jing,2008)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

'''3.2.2 The awareness of an academic discipline'''

'''3.2.2 The awareness of an independent academic discipline'''--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Since translation is an activity involving language, linguistics is a science specialized in the study of language. For a long time, translatology has been included in the field of linguistic study. But in the early 20th century, with the emergence of a group of highly competent and independent-minded translation theorists, they called for "translation must become an independent discipline". People gradually realized that translation practice without the guidance of scientific theories is blind, and it is necessary to establish a discipline specializing in translation activities. James S. Holmes asked for the consolidation of a separate discipline and proposed a classification of the field. Nida and Willss also argued that translation is a science, not a mere technical activity.(Tan Zaixi, 1987 )

Since translation is an activity involving language, linguistics is a science specialized in the study of language. For a long time, translatology has been included in the field of linguistic study. But in the early 20th century, with the emergence of a group of highly competent and independent-minded translation theorists, they called for "translation must become an independent discipline". People gradually realized that translation practice without the guidance of scientific theories is blind, and it is necessary to establish a discipline specializing in translation activities. James S. Holmes asked for the consolidation of an independent discipline and proposed a classification of the research field. Nida and Willss also argued that translation is a science, not a merely a technical activity. (Tan Zaixi, 1987 )--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Such a group of people also appeared in modern China. Lin Yutang used the word "translation studies" many times in the 1930s. Dong Qiusi put forward in 1951 the idea of building a scientific and systematic translation theory system. After Dong, a group of famous translators such as Tan Zaixi and Liu Miqing also indicated that translation studies must be established.With so much effort devoted to translation theorists, the study of translation developed into an independent discipline in the 1980s.（Wang Qinghua，2017）

Such a group of people also appeared the independence of translation in modern China. Lin Yutang used the word "translation studies" many times in the 1930s. Dong Qiusi put forward in 1951 the idea of building a scientific and systematic translation theory system. After Dong, many famous translators such as Tan Zaixi and Liu Miqing also indicated that translation studies must be established.With so much effort devoted to translation theorists, the study of translation developed into an independent discipline in the 1980s.（Wang Qinghua，2017）--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

'''3.2.3 The rapid development stage of translation studies'''

Translation studies, as a young discipline, has developed rapidly since it established its independent status, just as linguistics did at the beginning. Translation studies show a trend of multiple approaches, and there are many schools of translation, such as the school of language and the school of literature and art. Many scholars specialized in translation studies and have published a series of articles and works trying to build a comprehensive and systematic discipline. Up to now, translatology has become an important humanities subject in language studies.(Tan Zaixi 2018)

Translation studies, as a young discipline, has developed rapidly since it established its independent status, just as linguistics did at the beginning. Translation studies have shown a trend of multiple approaches, and there are many schools of translation, such as the school of language and the school of literature and art. Many scholars specialized in translation studies and have published a series of articles and works trying to build a comprehensive and systematic discipline. Up to now, translatology has become an important humanities subject in language studies.(Tan Zaixi 2018) --[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Translatology has developed alongside the growth in translation schools and courses at university level. In 1995, a study of 60 countries revealed there were 250 bodies at university level offering courses in translation or interpreting. In 2013, the same database listed 501 translator-training institutions. Accordingly, there has been a growth in conferences on translation, translation journals and translation-related publications. The visibility acquired by translation has also led to the development of national and international associations of translation studies. It has shown a tendency to broaden its fields of inquiry, and this trend may be expected to continue.（Wikipedia）

Translatology has developed alongside the growth in translation schools and courses at university level. In 1995, a study of 60 countries revealed there were 250 bodies at university level offering courses in translation or interpreting. In 2013, the same database listed 501 translator-training institutions. Accordingly, there has been a growth in conferences on translation, translation journals and translation-related publications. The visibility acquired by translation has also led to the development of national and international associations of translation studies. It has shown a tendency to broaden its research field, and this trend may be expected to continue.（Wikipedia）--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==='''4.The Influence of Linguistics on the Construction of Translatology'''===

For the formation of translatology, one of the most conspicuous factors is the application of cross-disciplinary research, which not only expands the search field of translation studies, but also promotes people to study translation from different perspectives to explore its essence. From the discussion of translatology in the previous chapter, it can be seen that among the many related disciplines, linguistics is the most closely related discipline. This chapter mainly discusses the influence of linguistics on translation studies from three aspects: first, the exploration of translation problems by early linguists, second, the influence of linguistic theories on translation studies, and finally, the reference significance of the construction experience of linguistics for translation studies.(Zou Bin, Mu Lei, 2020 )

For the formation of translatology, one of the most conspicuous factors is the application of cross-disciplinary research, which not only expands the search field of translation studies, but also promotes people to study translation from different perspectives to explore its essence. From the discussion of translatology in the previous chapter, it can be seen that among the many related disciplines, linguistics is the most closely related discipline. This chapter mainly discusses the influence of linguistics on translation studies from three aspects: first, the exploration of translation by early linguists; second, the influence of linguistic theories on translation studies, and finally, the reference significance of the construction experience of linguistics for translation studies. (Zou Bin, Mu Lei, 2020 )--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

4.1 Contributions of early linguists to translation

As one of the important ways of constructing translation studies, linguistics has made an important contribution to the development of translation studies. With the development of modern linguistics, many linguists begin to explore translation from the perspective of linguistics. So many people who have made great contributions to translatology are linguists or those who have received systematic education in linguistics. Even early academic conferences on translation were included in the category of linguistic conferences. (Yi Jing, 2009 )

As one of the important ways of constructing translation studies, linguistics has made an important contribution to the development of translation studies. With the development of modern linguistics, many linguists began to explore translation from the perspective of linguistics. So many people who have made great contributions to translatology were linguists or those who have received systematic education in linguistics. Even early academic conferences on translation were included in the category of linguistic conferences. (Yi Jing, 2009 )--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Humboldt was a German linguist and politician. He had a deep understanding of many languages and was the first to demonstrate the translatability and untranslatability. Jacobson, one of the representatives of the Prague school, first borrowed concepts of "signifier" and "signified" that proposed by Saussure to study the differences between the linguistic form and content of translated texts. He divided translation into three types: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. He defined the research object of translation and studied translation theories from the perspective of linguistics. (Yi Jing, 2009 )

Catford is a representative of the London School of Linguistics. He adopts Halliday 's theory of systemic-functional grammar to study the nature, category, equivalence, transformation and limitation of translation. Georges Mounin, a French linguist, used the theory of structuralist linguistics to analyze the linguistic barriers in translation, expounded the relationship between translation and philology, context and syntax, and systematically studies the problem of translatability.（Yang Zijian 1987）

These early linguists' contributions to translation are reflected in two aspects. On the one hand, they studied translation from the perspective of language and further revealed the essence of translation, which made translation get rid of the early empiricism and mysticism and directly promoted the development of translation theory. On the other hand, their research inspired later scholars to continue to explore the value of translation. However, these linguists' contributions to translation still have some limitations, because they only take translation as a part of linguistics to study, so the scope and depth of their research are not enough. (Lv Jun, 2004 )

These early linguists' contributions to translation are reflected in two aspects. On the one hand, they studied translation from the perspective of language and further revealed the essence of translation, which made translation get rid of the early empiricism and mysticism and directly promoted the development of translation theory. On the other hand, their researches inspired later scholars to continue to explore the value of translation. However, their contributions to translation still have some limitations, because they only take translation as a part of linguistics to study, so the scope and depth of their research are not enough. (Lv Jun, 2004 )--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

4.2 Translation studies based on linguistic theory

In the 1950s and 1960s, a relatively systematic theory of linguistic translation was formed in the West. Later, some translation scholars began to use the structural theory, transformational generation grammar theory, functional theory, and discourse analysis theory of modern linguistics to study translation. With the development of linguistics, many new achievements of linguistics have been applied to translation studies, such as sociolinguistics, discourse linguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. The development of contemporary linguistics provides a new perspective for the construction of translation studies and gives new vitality to traditional translation studies.(Zou Bin, Mu Lei,2020 )

In the 1950s and 1960s, a relatively systematic theory of linguistic translation was formed in the West. Later, some translation scholars began to use the structural theory, transformational generation grammar theory, systematic-functional theory, and discourse analysis theory of modern linguistics to study translation. With the development of linguistics, many new achievements of linguistics have been applied to translation studies, such as sociolinguistics, discourse linguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. The development of contemporary linguistics provides a new perspective for the construction of translation studies and gives new vitality to traditional translation studies. (Zou Bin, Mu Lei,2020 )--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

4.2.1 The influence of Structuralist linguistics

Structuralist linguistics began with Saussure 's masterpiece A Course in General Linguistics, which is regarded as the beginning of modern linguistics. Many linguists take Saussure's theory as the theoretical foundation and regard linguistic units as the research object to analyze "pure linguistic forms". After the emergence of structuralist linguistics, it developed rapidly. By the early 1930s, it occupied the dominant position in Europe and The United States and formed various schools of universities. With the promotion of structural linguistics, translators begin to conduct translation studies with the help of structural linguistics.(Lvjun，2004)

Structuralist linguistics began with Saussure 's masterpiece A Course in General Linguistics, which is regarded as the beginning of modern linguistics. Many linguists took Saussure's theory as the theoretical foundation and regarded linguistic units as the research object to analyze "pure linguistic forms". After the emergence of structuralist linguistics, it developed rapidly. By the early 1930s, it occupied the dominant position in Europe and The United States. With the promotion of structural linguistics, translators begin to conduct translation studies with the assistance of structural linguistics.(Lvjun，2004)
--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Nida put forward the translation theory under the influence of Bloomfield and Chomsky. He referred to Chomsky 's theory of transformational generative grammar, summarized a set of rules for systematic language translation and proposed the core concepts of "the science of translation" and "dynamic equivalence/Functional equivalence". Nida 's translation theory has had a great influence in the West and China. ( Yi Jing, 2009)

Nida put forward the translation theory under the influence of Bloomfield and Chomsky. He referred to Chomsky 's theory of transformational generative grammar, summarized a set of rules for systematic language translation and proposed the core concepts that are "the science of translation" and "dynamic equivalence/Functional equivalence". Nida 's translation theory has exerted a great influence in the West and China. ( Yi Jing, 2009)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Wilss, a German translation theorist, further elaborated Nida 's theory and insisted that translation is a science. Using the theory of general linguistics, Russian translation theorist Barkhudalov divided the language hierarchical system into six levels: phoneme, morpheme, word, phrase, sentence and discourse. According to the language level of the translation unit, six corresponding translation equivalents can be divided accordingly, which is also known as the "six-level equivalence theory" .(Yi Jing,2012)

Structural linguistics advocates to focus on analyzing the linguistic form, syntactic structure and linguistic unit of the source language, and adopts syntactic component analysis. But this way of analysis overemphasizes the formal structure of language and neglects the social and cultural environment of language.（Zou Bin,Mu Lei,2020)

Structural linguistics advocates to focus on analyzing the linguistic form, syntactic structure and linguistic unit of the source language, and adopts syntactic component analysis. But this way of analysis overemphasizes the formal structure of language and neglects the social and cultural context of language.（Zou Bin,Mu Lei,2020)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

4.2.2 The influence of discourse linguistics

For a long time, the theory of structural linguistics has been the focus of translation studies, but with the deepening of translation studies, the shortcomings of structural linguistics have gradually appeared. Some scholars try to get rid out of the pure language research and study translation in a broader scope. Many translators apply discourse linguistics to the study of translation, because discourse linguistics is not confined to the study of language itself, but expands its vision to the context and communicative functions of language.（Zhang Meifang，Huang Guowen，2002）

For a long time, the theory of structural linguistics has been the focus of translation studies, but with the development of translation studies, the shortcomings of structural linguistics have gradually appeared. Some scholars try to get rid out of the pure language research and study translation in a broader scope. Many translators apply discourse linguistics to the study of translation, because discourse linguistics is not confined to the study of language itself, but expands its vision to the context and communicative functions of language.（Zhang Meifang，Huang Guowen，2002） --[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Hatim and Mason are the earliest foreign scholars who study translation by using pragmatics. They studied speech act from the perspective of pragmatic translation of context. Christiane Nord is a leading figure in the German school of Functional Translation. She used the theory of functional linguistics for research and analysis, emphasizing the need for interdisciplinary research between translation and linguistics, philosophy, sociology and computer science. In China, Zhang Meifang studied translation from the perspective of language function, while Huang Guowen explored the translation of ancient poems from the perspective of systemic-functional linguistics. They affirm the significance of discourse linguistics in the study of translation and actively explore the translation analysis methods of discourse linguistics.(Yi Jing, 2009 )

Hatim and Mason are the earliest foreign scholars who study translation by using pragmatics theory. They studied speech act from the perspective of pragmatic translation of context. Christiane Nord is a leading figure in the German school of Functional Translation. She used the theory of functional linguistics for research and analysis, emphasizing the need for interdisciplinary research between translation and linguistics, philosophy, sociology and computer science. In China, Zhang Meifang studied translation from the perspective of language function, while Huang Guowen explored the translation of ancient poems from the perspective of systemic-functional linguistics. They affirm the significance of discourse linguistics in the study of translation and actively explore the translation analysis methods of discourse linguistics. (Yi Jing, 2009 )--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The focus of discourse linguistics is on the whole text, meaning is reflected through linguistic structure, and translation equivalence is established at the level of text and communication. Its object of study is not only the language system, but also the interlingual factors. Discourse linguistics also studies how to achieve equivalence on the communicative level of discourse by analyzing the characteristics, genre and situational context of discourse, which has many implications for the theory and practice of translation.（Zhang Meifang，Huang Guowen，2002）

4.2.3 The influence of contemporary linguistics

As a school of contemporary linguistics, cognitive linguistics was formed from the late 1980s to the 1990s, which takes experiential philosophy as its background, anti-transformational generative grammar as its theoretical basis and is related to various disciplines such as artificial intelligence and psychology. Translation is also a psychological activity. The process of translation is a cognitive system, which includes language cognition, context cognition, discourse cognition, subject cognition of translation and sociocultural cognition. Therefore, cognitive linguistics can be used to analyze translation so as to better understand the author's intention and the unique mode of expression. Therefore, cognitive linguistics not only provides a new perspective for translation studies, but also guides the development of translation theory and practice.（Wang Yin,2017）

As a school of contemporary linguistics, cognitive linguistics was formed from the late 1980s to the 1990s, which takes experiential philosophy as its background, anti-transformational generative grammar as its theoretical basis and is related to various disciplines such as artificial intelligence and psychology. Translation is also a psychological activity. The process of translation is a cognitive system, which includes language cognition, context cognition, discourse cognition, and sociocultural cognition. Therefore, cognitive linguistics can be used to analyze translation so as to better understand the author's intention and the unique mode of expression. Therefore, cognitive linguistics not only provides a new perspective for translation studies, but also guides the development of translation theory and practice.（Wang Yin,2017）--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Corpus linguistics is a branch of linguistics that studies language on the basis of corpus. Since the 1990s, corpus linguistics has provided a large number of analytical methods and corpus for translation studies. At present, parallel corpus, multilingual corpus and comparable corpus are widely used. The parallel corpus collects original texts in one language and their corresponding translations into another. Multilingual corpus is a complex corpus composed of two or more monolingual corpus texts of different languages. The comparable corpus collects original texts in a language, such as English, as well as texts translated from other languages. The translation corpus provides a new tool for translation studies and provides great convenience and new research ideas for translation studies.(Liao Qiyi， 2000)

Corpus linguistics is a branch of linguistics that studies language on the basis of corpus. Since the 1990s, corpus linguistics has provided a large number of analytical methods and materials for translation studies. At present, parallel corpus, multilingual corpus and comparable corpus are widely used. The parallel corpus collects original texts in one language and their corresponding translations into another. Multilingual corpus is a complex corpus composed of two or more monolingual corpus texts of different languages. The comparable corpus collects original texts in a language, such as English, as well as texts translated from other languages. The translation corpus provides a new tool and new research perspectives for translation studies and provides great convenience for translation studies. ( Liao Qiyi，2000)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

4.3 The experience of the construction of linguistics

In the 19th century, linguistics began to acquire discipline autonomy. The birth of Saussure 's Course In General Linguistics in 1916 became the beginning of modern linguistics, and the independent discipline of linguistics has been firmly established. At present, a relatively mature linguistic system has been formed. For translation studies, a young discipline, the development course, structure and trend of linguistics are of great inspiration and reference value.(Kong Xiangli，2009 )

In the 19th century, linguistics began to acquire discipline autonomy. The publication of Saussure 's Course In General Linguistics in 1916 became the beginning of modern linguistics, and the independent discipline of linguistics has been firmly established. At present, a relatively mature linguistic system has been formed. For translation studies, a young discipline, the development course, structure and trend of linguistics are of great inspiration and reference value. (Kong Xiangli，2009 )--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

4.4.1 Discipline development

Linguistics achieved independence earlier than translatology, but the development course of linguistics and translatology is similar. From the perspective of the development of linguistics, linguistics was first attached to other disciplines. After the efforts of many linguists, it has become a truly independent discipline. Second, there were branches of grammar before there was the core branch of general linguistics. Finally, many schools and different theories have emerged with the development of linguistics, and many new theories have been proposed based on the deficiencies of the original theories.（Kong Xiangli，2009）

Linguistics achieved independence earlier than translatology, but the development course of linguistics and translatology is quite similar. From the perspective of the development of linguistics, linguistics was first attached to other disciplines. After the efforts of many linguists, it has become a truly independent discipline. Second, there were branches of grammar before there was the core branch of general linguistics. Finally, many schools and different theories have emerged with the development of linguistics, and many new theories have been proposed based on the deficiencies of the original theories. (Zou Bin, Mu Lei,2020)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The course of the development of linguistics can enlighten translation studies. First, in the process of its development, translation studies must insist on the independent status of the subject and grasp the autonomy of the subject. Second, translation studies need to develop their own core branches, to publish cross-generational works; Finally, the diversification of disciplines should be encouraged and different ideas and theories should be allowed to emerge.(Kong Xiangli，2009 )

The course of the development of linguistics can enlighten translation studies. First, in the process of its development, translation studies must insist on the independent status of the subject and grasp the autonomy of the subject. Second, translation studies need to develop their own core branches, publishing cross-generational works; Finally, the diversification of disciplines should be encouraged and different ideas and theories should be allowed to emerge. (Kong Xiangli，2009 )--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

4.4.2 Discipline structure

Because linguistics has been independent for a longer time, its disciplinary structure is more systematic and mature than that of translation studies. At present, many scholars are trying to build a disciplinary framework of translatology, and the disciplinary structure of linguistics is a good reference example.(Yang Zijian,1993)

Because linguistics has been independent for a longer time, its disciplinary structure is more systematic and mature than that of translation studies. At present, many scholars are trying to build a disciplinary framework of translatology, and the disciplinary structure of linguistics is a good example. (Yang Zijian,1993)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

From the perspective of disciplinary structure, linguistics has many branches and a huge system, which can be divided into two categories: general linguistics and applied linguistics. The former includes phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics and pragmatics. The latter includes sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, discourse analysis, computational linguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. Each branch has its own field of study, and there are smaller branches.Referring to the disciplinary structure of linguistics, translation studies can also try to build a similar framework according to their own disciplinary characteristics, such as general translation studies and applied translation studies.（Yi Jing，2009）

From the perspective of disciplinary structure, linguistics has many branches and a huge system, which can be divided into two categories: general linguistics and applied linguistics. The former includes phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics and pragmatics. The latter includes sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, discourse analysis, computational linguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. Each branch has its own field of study. Referring to the disciplinary structure of linguistics, translation studies can also try to build a similar framework according to their own disciplinary characteristics, such as general translation studies and applied translation studies.（Yi Jing，2009）--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

4.4.3 Development Trend of discipline

Both linguistics and translatology are interdisciplinary subjects that can be referenced and assimilated from other related disciplines. Translation studies and linguistics can also learn from each other and develop together.
In the process of development, linguistics penetrates many other disciplines, such as sociology, psychology, logic, information theory, neurophysiology, computer science, etc., forming many marginal disciplines or cross disciplines, such as sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. Translatology, as a new discipline, must not be confined to the study of translated texts, but should view the development of other disciplines from an open perspective, and learn and summarize experience.（Kong Xiangli，2009）

Both linguistics and translatology are interdisciplinary subjects that can be learned from other related disciplines. Translation studies and linguistics can also learn from each other and develop together. In the process of development, linguistics has absorbed the experience of many other disciplines, such as sociology, psychology, logic, information theory, neurophysiology, computer science, etc., formed many marginal disciplines or cross disciplines, such as sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. Translatology, as a new discipline, must not be confined to the study of translated texts, but should view the development of other disciplines from an open perspective, and learn and summarize experience.（Kong Xiangli，2009）--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==='''5.Conclusion'''===
Linguistics has gone through many stages of development, and each stage has formed different schools of theory and research methods, which have also brought important theoretical and methodological enlightenment to translation studies. The influence of linguistics on the construction of translation studies is mainly reflected in three aspects: first, the exploration of translation problems by early linguists led translation studies to the approach of scientific research; Secondly, modern linguistic theories provide new perspectives for translation studies, such as structural linguistics, discourse linguistics, cognitive linguistics and corpus linguistics. Thirdly, the development of linguistics can provide experience for the construction of translation studies. ( Zou Bin, Mu Lei,2020)

Linguistics has gone through several stages of development, and it has formed different schools of theory and research methods, which have also brought important theoretical and methodological enlightenment to translation studies. The influence of linguistics on the construction of translation studies is mainly reflected in three aspects: first, the exploration of translation problems by early linguists led translation studies to the approach of scientific research; Secondly, modern linguistic theories provide new perspectives for translation studies, such as structural linguistics, discourse linguistics, cognitive linguistics and corpus linguistics. Thirdly, the development of linguistics provided experience for the construction of translation studies. ( Zou Bin, Mu Lei,2020)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Linguistics and translatology are the most closely related disciplines, and the relationship between them has always been the focus of discussion. Now, it has basically reached a consensus that linguistics is closely related to translation studies, and linguistics can provide a scientific theoretical basis for translation studies and translation activities. However, as Liu Miqing said, "Translators' attitude towards all other disciplines should only be used for reference, not grafting." Based on the development of translatology, translation studies should reasonably use the research results of linguistics for reference, instead of copying them completely.(Liu Miqing, 1989)

Linguistics and translatology are the most closely related disciplines, and the relationship between them has always been the focus of discussion. Now, it has basically reached a consensus that linguistics is closely related to translation studies, and linguistics can provide a scientific theoretical basis for translation studies and translation activities. However, as Liu Miqing said, "Translators should only take other disciplines for reference, not grafting." Based on the development of translatology, translation studies should reasonably use the research results of linguistics for reference, instead of copying them completely. ( (Liu Miqing, 1989))--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

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Wang Qinghua,Zhang Chunbai. 汪庆华,张春柏. (2017). 翻译学的先驱:董秋斯翻译学思想探析. [A Pioneer of translation Studies: An Analysis of Dong Qiusi's Translation Studies]. ''上海翻译''[Shanghai Journal of Translators]67-72+95.

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==Reflection on the Learning of Translation Studies in China-许晶Xu Jing,202020080658==

==='''Abstract'''===

With the continuous advancement of reform and opening-up, foreign trade and international exchanges have become more and more frequent, there is an increasing demand for translation talents, and the team engaged in translation studies has become more and more powerful. The development of Translation Studies as a discipline is getting better and better. By reviewing the development of the Translation Studies in China, as well as reading and refining of translation literature in recent years, this article analyzes the current problems of the learning of Translation Studies and puts forward relevant suggestions from the perspective of translation education and the perspective of students.

==='''Key words'''===

Translation Studies, translation education, translation talents

==='''题目'''===

对中国翻译学学习的反思

==='''摘要'''===

随着我国改革与开放政策的不断推进，对外贸易和国际之间的交往变得越来越频繁，对于翻译人才的需求越来越多，从事翻译研究的队伍也越来越壮阔，翻译学的学科发展也越来越好。本文通过回顾翻译学科在中国的发展历程，以及对近年翻译学文献的阅读和提炼，从翻译教育视角和学生视角出发，分析学习翻译学科目前存在的问题，并提出相关的建议。

随着我国改革与开放政策的不断推进，对外贸易和国际之间的交往变得越来越频繁，对于翻译人才的需求越来越多，从事翻译研究的队伍也越来越壮阔，翻译学的学科发展也越来越好。本文通过回顾翻译学科在中国的发展历程，以及对近年翻译学文献的阅读和提炼，从翻译教育视角和学生视角出发，分析翻译学科学习目前存在的问题，并提出相应的建议。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 04:36, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==='''关键词'''===

翻译学，翻译教育，翻译人才

==='''1. Introduction'''===

1.1. The Connotation of Translation Studies

Translation Studies used to refer to the researches of translation. It was not until the 20th century that translation studies became a formal academic discipline. The landmark paper published by James S Holmes in 1972, titled "''The Name and Nature of Translation Studies''", is a basic statement of translation studies: it calls for the establishment of a unique discipline with its own classification system.(James S Holmes 1972)

Basically, at present, Translation Studies is a research field that studies the theory, description and application of translation. Because it treats translation not only as a transfer between languages, but also as an exchange between cultures, it can also be described as an interdisciplinary involving other fields of knowledge, including comparative literature, cultural studies, gender studies, computer science, history, linguistics, philosophy, rhetoric and semiotics.(wikipedia)

Now Translation Studies as an academic discipline, it requires a systematic study of translation, which is not only an applied practice, but also a means to understand the movement and transfer between multiple languages and cultures. Translation Studies involves the translator's practical experience; it also explores the history and philosophy of translation and current trends in the field from the perspective of theory and methodology. Translation Studies can examine the practice and background of translating professional texts (law, business, medicine, etc.); it may also explore the art of translation as a creative act in literary translation and international marketing. Translation studies can also explore how issues such as culture, power, gender, and moral media affect translation behavior.

Learning these contents enables students to apply their theoretical understanding to the methods, techniques and choices used in daily translation practice. In addition, Translation Studies usually include the analysis of key texts to enable students to develop an awareness of understanding and interpretation issues. It also involves the development of analysis, practice, evaluation, aesthetics and descriptive skills needed to solve translation problems. Finally, it includes the development of research skills, practical translation skills, and the ability to develop strategies for managing complex language and cultural transactions.

1.1. The Connotation of Translation Studies
Translation Studies used to refer to the researches of translation. It was not until the 20th century that translation studies became a formal academic discipline. The landmark paper published by James S Holmes in 1972, titled "The Name and Nature of Translation Studies", is a basic statement of translation studies，which calls for the establishment of a unique discipline with its own classification system.(James S Holmes 1972)

Basically, at present, Translation Studies is a research field that studies the theory, description and application of translation. Because it treats translation not only as a transfer between languages, but also as an exchange between cultures, it can also be described as an interdisciplinary involving other fields of knowledge, such as comparative literature, cultural studies, gender studies, computer science, history, linguistics, philosophy, rhetoric and semiotics.(wikipedia)

Now Translation Studies as an academic discipline, it requires a systematic study of translation, which is not only an applied practice, but also a means to understand the movement and transfer between multiple languages and cultures. Translation Studies involves the translator's practical experience; it also explores the history and philosophy of translation and current trends in the field from the perspective of theory and methodology. Translation studies can examine the practices and context of translating texts that are specialist (law, business, medicine, etc.); it may also explore the art of translation as a creative act in literary translation and international marketing. Translation studies can also explore how issues such as culture, power, gender, and moral media affect translation behavior.

Learning these knowledge enables students to apply their understanding of theories to the methods, techniques and choices used in daily translation practice. In addition, Translation Studies usually includes the analysis of key texts to enable students to develop an awareness of understanding and interpretation issues. It also involves the development of analysis, practice, evaluation, aesthetics and descriptive skills that are necessary elements solve translation problems. Finally, it includes the development of research skills, practical translation skills, and the ability to develop strategies for managing complex language and cultural transactions.--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 04:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

1.2. The Significance of Translation Studies

With the introduction of university schools and courses, related conferences, translation journals and other translation-related publications, the discipline of translation studies has also been developed. At the same time, as today's multicultural and multilingual society requires effective, efficient and understanding communication between languages and cultures, translation skills have become more and more important and desirable.

As a science, Translation Studies has always had its own laws that cannot be ignored, and its systematic theories are different from other disciplines. The so-called translation theory is a thorough and systematic description of these laws, which make the skills and techniques that can only be understood in mind in translation into a knowable object and a theoretical system.

Translation theory can provide translators with a series of macro descriptions of the objective laws of translation, as well as in-depth analysis of the internal relations and mechanisms of these laws. By learning translation theory, translators can understand the essence of translation behaviors and the fundamental standards of translation better. At the same time, knowing the laws of translation science and translation art, translators who are with the guidance of translation theory and scientific argumentation and methodology will selectively implement the reference means provided by translation theory in practice, and work effectively; When dealing with the difficulties of translation, translator can use a variety of methods. In this way, the translation process can be both scientific and flexible, and the translator can consciously exert their initiative, so that the translation practice becomes a high-level language communication. This is also the necessity for translators to learn Translation Studies.(Chu Xizhi 2009)

1.2. The Significance of Translation Studies

With the introduction of university schools and courses, related conferences, translation journals and other translation-related publications, the discipline of translation studies has also been developed. With the requirement of effective, efficient and understanding communication between languages and cultures in today's multicultural and multilingual society, translation skills have become more and more important and desirable.

As a science, Translation Studies always has its own laws that cannot be ignored, and its systematic theories are different from other disciplines. The so-called translation theory is a thorough and systematic description of these laws, which make the skills and techniques that can only be understood in mind in translation into a knowable object and a theoretical system.

Translation theory can provide translators with a series of macro descriptions of the objective laws of translation, as well as in-depth analysis of the internal relations and mechanisms of these laws. By learning translation theory, translators can have a good understanding about the essence of translation behaviors and the fundamental standards of translation better. At the same time, knowing the laws of translation science and translation art, translators who are with the guidance of translation theory and scientific argumentation and methodology will selectively implement the reference means provided by translation theory in practice, and work effectively; When dealing with the difficulties of translation, translator can use a variety of methods. In this way, the translation process can be both scientific and flexible, and the translator can consciously exert their initiative, so that the translation practice becomes a high-level language communication. It is necessary for translators to learn Translation Studies.(Chu Xizhi 2009)--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 04:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==='''2. The Development Process of Translation Studies in China'''===

Translation activities has appeared in China very early, but translation as a discipline appeared relatively late. With the advancement of the People's Republic of China and the promotion of foreign exchanges, China's translation industry has flourished since the establishment of the People's Republic of China. After reading a large number of documents and reviewing the ups and downs of the translation discipline and the translation major in the past 71 years, the author has made a comprehensive analysis and believes that the development process of Translation Studies in China can be divided into the following three stages: the exploration period of Translation Studies, the development period of Translation Studies, the flourishing period of Translation Studies.

Translation activities appeared in China very early, but translation as a discipline appeared relatively late. With the advancement of the People's Republic of China and the promotion of foreign exchanges, China's translation industry has flourished since the establishment of the People's Republic of China. After reading a large number of documents and reviewing the ups and downs of the translation discipline and the translation major in the past 71 years, the author has made a comprehensive analysis and believes that the development process of Translation Studies in China can be divided into the following three stages: the exploration period of Translation Studies, the development period of Translation Studies, and the flourishing period of Translation Studies.--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

2.1. The Exploration Period of Translation Studies

In the initial stage of the Translation Studies, the famous translator Dong Qiusi in 1950 pointed out that “although there are thousands of hundreds of years of translation experience, there are also 10,000 people engaged in translation, but those who study translation theory, Almost no. What we have are some translation regulations and fragments of experience for temporary reference." He clearly called for the establishment of "a complete translation theory system" (Dong Qiusi 1950 ). It is a pity that Dong Qiusi's appeal did not attract much attention.

In the initial stage of the Translation Studies, the famous translator Dong Qiusi in 1950 pointed out that “although there are thousands of hundreds of years of translation experience, there are also 10,000 people engaged in translation, but those who study translation theory, almost no. What we have are some translation regulations and fragments of experience for temporary reference." He clearly called for the establishment of "a complete translation theory system" (Dong Qiusi 1950 ). It is a pity that Dong Qiusi's appeal did not attract much attention.

The translation industry in China is still satisfied with the translator’s experiences, and even mistakes their experiences as theory. In the early days of New China, due to the needs of national construction and foreign exchanges, translation activities were initially highly valued and supported by the party and governments at all levels. Translations of various translation groups, journals, papers, conferences and political documents appeared in history.

The translation industry in China is still satisfied with the translator’s experiences, and even mistakes their experiences as theory. In the early days of New China, due to the needs of national construction and foreign exchanges, translation activities were initially highly valued and supported by the party and governments at all levels. Translations of various translation groups, journals, papers, conferences and political documents appeared on the scene.--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

However, affected by political factors at home and abroad, the development of translation disciplines has almost stagnated, the number of translations has been greatly reduced, and the types of works have become increasingly single. During this period, the people engaged in translation discipline construction were front-line foreign affairs translators and literary translators. They were mainly responsible for political and literary translation practice, and of course translation criticism, translation publishing, translation management, etc.

However, affected by political factors at home and abroad, the development of translation disciplines has almost stagnated, the number of translations has been greatly reduced, and the types of works have been single. During this period, the people engaged in translation discipline construction were front-line foreign affairs translators and literary translators. They were mainly responsible for political and literary translation practice, and of course translation criticism, translation publishing, translation management, etc.--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

At that time, because a large number of people who understand foreign languages were needed for national construction, language learning was the main task of academic industry, and translation teaching was regarded as a means to strengthen foreign language ability. Later, with the advancement of reform and opening up, a group of teachers and students who were concerned about translation teaching in the foreign language community joined the group of developing Translation Studies. The number of publications on scientific translation, teaching studies, textbook research, and introduction to Western translation theories has gradually increased. But Translation Studies at this stage is still attached to the third level research direction under foreign language and literature, but the distinction between translation teaching and language teaching has gradually become clear.(Xu Jun;Mu Lei 2009)

At that time, because a large number of people who master foreign languages were needed for national construction, language learning was the main task of academic industry, and translation teaching was regarded as a means to improve foreign language ability. Later, with the advancement of reform and opening up, a group of teachers and students who were concerned about translation teaching in the foreign language community joined the group of developing Translation Studies. The number of publications on scientific translation, teaching studies, textbook research, and introduction to Western translation theories has gradually increased. But Translation Studies at this stage is still attached to the third level research direction under Foreign Language and Literature, but the distinction between translation teaching and language teaching has gradually become clear.(Xu Jun;Mu Lei 2009)--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

2.2. The Development Period of Translation Studies

At the beginning of this period, it was explored whether the Translation Studies can become an independent discipline, whether there is a difference between the training of translation professionals and the training of traditional foreign language talents, and what are the differences.

At the beginning of this period, translation studies was explored whether the Translation Studies can become an independent discipline, whether there is a difference between the training of translation professionals and the training of traditional foreign language talents, and what are the differences. --[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

At this stage, some masters and doctors in translation studies joined the construction team translation discipline. Researchers' disciplinary awareness and interdisciplinary awareness have increased, methodological awareness has sprouted, and the number of micro-level translation teaching research has increased. In the teaching of translation majors, more attention has been paid to theoretical explanations, textual comparisons between English and Chinese, and extra-linguistic factors in translation activities. In 2003 and 2005, Shanghai International Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies established Graduate Institute of Interpretation and Translation desperately. The first degree in Translation Studies was established by the Ministry of Education in Shanghai in 2004, which can be regarded as a sign that Translation Studies have been recognized by the system as a secondary discipline. To this end, a group of special articles in the third issue of "''China Translator''" in 2004 come to congratulate.(Luo Feng 2011)

At this stage, some masters and doctors in translation studies joined the team to construct translation discipline. Researchers' disciplinary awareness and interdisciplinary awareness have increased, methodological awareness has sprouted, and the number of micro-level translation teaching research has increased. In the teaching of translation majors, more attention has been paid to theoretical explanations, textual comparisons between English and Chinese, and extra-linguistic factors in translation activities. In 2003 and 2005, Shanghai International Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies established Graduate Institute of Interpretation and Translation in succession. The first degree in Translation Studies was established by the Ministry of Education in Shanghai in 2004, which can be regarded as a sign that Translation Studies have been recognized by the system as a secondary discipline. To this end, a group of special articles in the third issue of “China Translator" in 2004 come to congratulate.(Luo Feng 2011)--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Since the establishment of Translation Studies, its disciplinary connotation has been explored, the system has been gradually improved, the framework has become increasingly substantial, and its social contribution has been unique and huge.Translation research ideas, methods, space and resources are further expanded, translation teaching methods, tools and resources are enriched, the number of applied texts in translation teaching increases, and the professional orientation is much clear.(Huang Zhongqian, Zhang Xiao 2020)

Since the establishment of Translation Studies, its disciplinary connotation has been explored, the system has been gradually improved, the framework has become increasingly substantial, and its social contribution has been unique and huge.Translation research ideas, methods, field and resources are further expanded, translation teaching methods, tools and resources are enriched, the number of applied texts in translation teaching increases, and the professional orientation is much clear.(Huang Zhongqian, Zhang Xiao 2020)--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

2.3. The Flourishing Period of Translation Studies

In 2011, the Ministry of Education adjusted the discipline catalog and listed "Translation Studies" as a second-level subject under the first-level discipline of "Foreign Languages and Literature" officially. As a result, the status of Translation Studies was formally established, facing the world, serving demand, and standardizing construction.(Huang Zhongqian, Zhang Xiao 2020)

In the flourishing period, the construction of translation disciplines and the development of translation majors in China have shown a new look. Many levels have jumped to new levels, which is reflected in the new breakthroughs in the main construction force. A large number of language service industry practitioners, technical experts and translation scholars have collaborated to provide suggestions for the construction of translation disciplines and talent training.

In the flourishing period, the construction of translation disciplines and the development of translation majors in China have shown a new look. Translation studies have jumped to new levels, which is reflected in the new breakthroughs in the main construction force. A large number of language service industry practitioners, technical experts and translation scholars have collaborated to provide suggestions for the construction of translation disciplines and talent training.--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

There are many publications on translation teaching research, translation technology research, translation market and language service industry research, and the construction of the discourse system of translation theory with Chinese characteristics. New changes have taken place in the focus and form of translation teaching. Translation teachers train students to acquire the industry knowledge, technology, skills and accomplishments required by the language service market by inviting industry instructors into classrooms to share their ideas, and through other methods such as project cooperation, field learning, and simulation.

There are many publications on translation teaching research, translation technology research, translation market and language service industry research, and the construction of the discourse system of translation theory with Chinese characteristics. New changes have taken place in the focus and form of translation teaching. Translation teachers train students to acquire the industry knowledge, technology, skills and accomplishments required by the language service market by inviting industry instructors into classrooms to share their ideas, and through other methods such as project cooperation, field learning, and simulation.（quotation missing）

==='''3. Challenges of Learning Translation Studies in China'''===

The development of Translation Studies as a discipline in China did not happen overnight. It also experienced ups and downs along the way. China's translation discipline has now entered a new stage, and the team of Translation Studies has become larger and larger. More and more colleges and universities set up MTI and MA in Translation. More students and scholars began to engage in Translation Studies. However, due to various reasons, in the process of learning Translation Studies, we also face many problems and challenges. This chapter will introduce the problems of learning Translation Studies in China from the perspectives of translation education and students' personal factors.

The development of Translation Studies as a discipline in China did not happen overnight. It also experienced ups and downs along the way. Translation discipline in China has entered a new stage now, and the team of Translation Studies has become larger and larger. More and more colleges and universities set up MTI and MA in Translation. More students and scholars began to engage in Translation Studies. However, due to various reasons, in the process of learning Translation Studies, we also face many problems and challenges. This chapter will introduce the problems of learning Translation Studies in China from the perspectives of translation education and students' personal factors.--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

3.1. Translation Education

With the establishment of the status of China’s Translation Studies, translation education grows up. And with the historical process of reform and opening for more than 40 years, translation education has made brilliant achievement and has promoted the training of translation professionals, and also will further make important contributions to national economic and social development. It is obvious that translation education plays an important role in the learning process of Translation Studies. A good translation education plays a positive role in the development of translation disciplines, and can also help students learn Translation Studies better.（Huang Youyi 2018）

With the establishment of the autonomy of China’s Translation Studies, translation education grows up. And with the historical process of reform and opening for more than 40 years, translation education has made brilliant achievement and has promoted the cultivation of translation professionals, and also will further make important contributions to national economic and social development. It is obvious that translation education plays an important role in the learning process of Translation Studies. A good translation education plays a positive role in the development of translation disciplines, and can also help students learn Translation Studies better.（Huang Youyi 2018） --[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

However, China's translation education started and developed after the reform and opening up, is relatively late. Under the background of the new era, it still faces many challenges and urgently needs to be addressed. In addition, the construction of Translation Studies is not long, and the construction of a complete translation teaching system is still on the way of continuous development, and systematic researches on translation teaching still needs efforts. The author mainly analyzes this problem from four aspects: the orientation of the cultivation of translation talents, the faculty resources, the teaching mode and translation teaching research.

However, China's translation education started and developed after the reform and opening up, so it is relatively late. Under the background of the new era, it still faces many challenges and urgently needs to be addressed. In addition, the construction history of Translation Studies is not long, and the construction of a complete translation teaching system is still on the way of continuous development, so systematic researches on translation teaching still needs efforts. The author mainly analyzes this problem from four aspects: the orientation of the cultivation of translation talents, the faculty resources, the teaching mode and translation teaching research.--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

3.1.1. Orientation of the Cultivation of Translation Talents

At present, the orientation of the cultivation of translation talents is not particularly clear. In the actual teaching practice, some colleges and universities do not separate translation major students and English major students clearly due to the unclear concept of the cultivation of translation talents. There are few differences in teaching model between translation major and the traditional English major. In addition, different colleges and universities still have not unified the concepts, principles, methods and other macro ideas of translation professional teaching, and they are independent in the specific classroom teaching operations, and the curriculum settings are out of touch with the market.(Zhong Weihe; Zhao Tianyuan 2020)

At present, the orientation of the cultivation of translation talents is not particularly clear. In the actual teaching practice, some colleges and universities do not separate translation major students and English major students clearly due to bluring and confusing educational goal of translation major. There are few differences in teaching model between translation major and the traditional English major. In addition, different colleges and universities still have not unified the concepts, principles, methods and other macro ideas of translation major teaching, and they are independent in the specific classroom teaching operations, and the curriculum settings are out of touch with the market.(Zhong Weihe; Zhao Tianyuan 2020)--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In addition,due to the inconsistency between the talent cultivation model in some universities and the development of translation industry, a considerable number of translation graduates do not have good professional ethics, wide encyclopedia knowledge, and professional skills and learning ability. In addition, most of them lack of organizational management ability, innovation ability as well as collaborate ability. Those reasons have seriously affected the quality and quantity of cultivating translation professionals.(Zhong Weihe 2019)

In addition,due to the inconsistency between the talent cultivation model in some universities and the development of translation industry, a considerable number of translation graduates do not have good professional ethics, wide encyclopedia knowledge, and professional skills and learning ability. In addition, most of them are lack of organizational management ability, innovation ability as well as collaborate ability. Those reasons have seriously affected the quality and quantity of cultivating translation professionals.(Zhong Weihe 2019)--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

3.1.2. Faculty Resources

The quality of teachers is closely related to the effect of English translation teaching. English translation has higher requirements for teachers' teaching guidance ability, response ability and language organization ability.

The problem of translation teachers has always been a bottleneck problem that needs to be broken through. The teachers here include both full-time teachers and part-time teachers. Recent evaluation data show that although the number of the teacher in translation major is sufficient and the structure is reasonable, the number of professional translators is lacking, and the teachers' scientific research and practical ability are seriously lacking. Statistics for part-time teachers show that the number of part-time teachers can be guaranteed, but only 27% are from the language service industry, and the rest are from the government and universities, which is inconsistent with the requirements of the "''National Standard of Part-time Teacher in MTI Education'' ". (Zhong Weihe 2019)

The problem of translation teachers has always been a bottleneck that needs to be broken through. The teachers here include both full-time teachers and part-time teachers. Recent evaluation data shows that although the number of the teacher in translation major is sufficient and the structure is reasonable, the number of professional translators is lacking, and the teachers' scientific research and practical ability are seriously lacking. Statistics for part-time teachers show that the number of part-time teachers can be guaranteed, but only 27% are from the language service industry, and the rest are from the government and universities, which is inconsistent with the requirements of the "''National Standard of Part-time Teacher in MTI Education'' ". (Zhong Weihe 2019)--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In addition, many English teachers in colleges and universities have been in a professional teaching environment for a long time and rarely have the opportunity to participate in practice. This has caused translation teaching to derail from the actual situation to some extent, resulting in poor training of professional translators and affecting the overall development of students.(Chen Cheng 2020)

3.1.3. Teaching method

Relatively speaking, the teaching mode of translation teaching in China is still based on traditional English major teaching, and the teaching mode is relatively single. The most commonly used form is to explain the theory and skills, then explain and appreciate the analysis through the example sentences and example texts on the professional textbooks, and finally arrange homework based on the content of this class. (Wang Baigula 2018)

This kind of teaching method that ignores student autonomy is entirely a teacher-centered teaching model, which will place too much emphasis on teachers and teaching materials to a large extent, restricting teachers’ ability to innovate and explore. In addition, this kind of translation mode will restrain students' interpreting practice ability to a certain extent and ignore life culture and skills. This will cause translation majors to limit their learning content to test papers instead of translation researches and the process of translation practice.

This kinds of teaching method that is entirely a teacher-centered teaching model ignore student autonomy, which will pay too much emphasis on teachers and teaching materials to a large extent, restricting teachers’ ability to innovate and explore. In addition, this kind of translation mode will restrain students' interpreting practice ability to a certain extent and ignore life culture and skills. This will cause translation majors to limit their learning content to test papers instead of translation researches and the process of translation practice.--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

3.1.4 Translation Teaching Research

The current achievements of translation teaching research in China are mainly expressed in impressionistic and scattered personal experiences, lacking systematic research and strong theoretical support. In other words, it lacks systematic theoretical guidance, clear methodology guidance and effective research method. And the research methods are still based on reflection and experience, and importantly, the empirical research is rare.（Ou Yonghua 2019）

The current achievements of translation teaching research in China are mainly expressed in impressionistic and scattered personal experiences, lacking systematic research and strong theoretical support. In other words, it lacks systematic theoretical guidance, clear methodology guidance and effective research method. And the research methods are still based on reflection and experience, and importantly, the empirical research is inconsiderable.（Ou Yonghua 2019） --[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Besides, the number of interdisciplinary researches is relatively small, and there is also a lack of sufficient number of experiments and opportunities in actual application fields. Translation discipline has a big difference comparing to other disciplines, mainly because of its high interactivity, which requires the participation of many disciplines. Only in this way can the value of the translation discipline be brought into play. However, combining actual translation learning and translation education in colleges and universities, it can be seen that China has not paid enough attention to this aspect, so that many interdisciplinary content is only on the surface, but not deep into the actual situation.(Bo Zhenjie, Li Heqing 2011)

Besides, the number of interdisciplinary researches is relatively small, and there is also a lack of sufficient number of experiments and opportunities in actual application fields. Translation discipline has a big difference comparing to other disciplines, mainly because of its high interactivity, which requires the participation of many disciplines. Only in this way can the value of the translation discipline be brought into play. However, according to the actual situation of translation learning and translation education in colleges and universities, it can be seen that China has not paid enough attention to this aspect, so that many interdisciplinary content is only on the surface, but do not deep into the actual situation.(Bo Zhenjie, Li Heqing 2011)--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

3.2. Students

The above mentioned the impact of translation education on translation studies, and the following part will analyze the difficulties faced by students when learning translation studies. In China, English courses are offered from the elementary school, it is a long journey to learn English. It stands to reason that after a long period of study, students can master English proficiently, and be proficient in oral and writing. But this is not true. The reasons for this situation are as follows.

The above mentioned the impact of translation education on translation studies, and the following part will analyze the difficulties faced by students when learning translation studies. In China, English courses are offered from the elementary school, so it is a long journey to learn English. It stands to reason that after a long period of study, students can master English proficiently, and be proficient in oral and writing. But this is not true. The reasons for this situation are as follows.

3.2.1. Low level of commitment to translation learning

Although Chinese students begin to learn English very early and study for a long time, the effective efforts for English learning is not enough.

Translation is not only a simple language conversion, its process is complex and tortuous, especially when the process of translation encountered strange and difficult to understand the content, it requires the translator to be patient, as far as possible to invest their time and energy to search and verify the related knowledge. Most of the time, the unqualified translation results from the fact that the translator does not invest enough time and energy, and only has a superficial understanding of background knowledge, professional terms or corpus search. At the same time, it is difficult for students to have the amount of extra-curricular English reading and accumulate a rich vocabulary. (Wang Na 2020)

As a result, students' basic English translation skills are not solid. If students do not know more than half of the words and phrases in an article, it is impossible for them to translation the whole passage. At the same time, there are many differences between the word order of English and Chinese. Due to the insufficient amount of English reading, it is difficult for students to get familiar with the English reading mode and grasp the main points of English translation, so it may lead the final translation to fail to convey the true meaning.

As a result, students' basic English translation skills are not solid. If students do not know more than half of the words and phrases in an article, it is impossible for them to translation the whole passage. At the same time, there are many differences between word order of English and Chinese. Due to the insufficient amount of English reading, it is difficult for students to get familiar with the English reading mode and grasp the main points of English translation, so it may lead the final translation to fail to convey the true meaning.--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

3.2.2. Insufficient background knowledge

Under the influence of exam-oriented education, many Chinese students hope to get a good grade in exam and ignore that learning English is also for communication. They are only satisfied with finishing the English translation exercises assigned by teachers and seldom use English for daily communication or reading English works. And in this way, students do not grasp sufficient background information.

Under the influence of exam-oriented education, many Chinese students hope to get a good grade in exam and ignore that learning English is also for communication. They are only satisfied with finishing the English translation exercises assigned by teachers and seldom use English for daily communication or reading English works. And in this way, students do not gain sufficient background information. --[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

With the advent of the era of network, traditional translation objects, such as religious texts and the classics of social sciences, are out of the core status of translation activities and are gradually marginalized. Especially from the quantity of the objects, there are more and more literature references, business documents, documents of national governments and international organizations, which have increasingly become the mainstream of contemporary translation object. Various types of translation objects become big challenges for students’ knowledge. On the other hand, students pay much attention to language transfer and translation skills, but neglect the supplement of professional background knowledge.(Xie Zhentian, 2015)

3.2.3. Neglect of theoretical knowledge

At present, when MA students are learning theoretical knowledge, most of them do not have a correct understanding of Translation Studies. They think that translation theory is useless or that previous translation theories is very perfect, so they cannot make any innovations in Translation Studies. However, learning Translation Studies is not to create a translation theory. The purpose is to improve students' theoretical awareness so as to establish their translation literacy. The academic master of Translation should focus more on verifying the validity of theories through the practice of translation.(Jiang Feifei 2019）

At present, when MA students are learning theoretical knowledge, most of them do not have a correct understanding of Translation Studies. They think that translation theory is useless to some extent or that previous translation theories is very perfect, so they cannot make any innovations in Translation Studies. However, learning Translation Studies is not to create a translation theory. The purpose is to improve students' theoretical awareness so as to establish their translation literacy. The academic master of Translation should focus more on verifying the validity of theories through the practice of translation.(Jiang Feifei 2019）--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==='''4. Suggestions for the Learning of Translation Studies'''===

In order to promote the development of Translation Studies, the training of translation talents is extremely important. Translation Studies as a discipline needs to be improved according to the development of times. The following will show the efforts we need to make from the perspectives of translation education and the students themselves, in order to better learn Translation Studies and promote the development of Translation Studies in China.

In order to promote the development of Translation Studies, the training of translation talents is extremely important. Translation Studies as a discipline needs to be improved over time. The following will show the efforts we need to make from the perspectives of translation education and the students themselves, in order to better learn Translation Studies and promote Translation Studies in China.--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

4.1. Translation Education

4.1.1. Improve Teaching Mode

The teaching model is an important basic guarantee for cultivating interdisciplinary English translators. At present, colleges and universities should focus on the current social needs. Teachers should effectively integrate the curriculum with social reality in the teaching process, which can be based on the current social situation or current affairs. (Wang Baigula 2018)

The teaching model is an important guarantee for cultivating interdisciplinary English translators. At present, colleges and universities should focus on the current social needs. Teachers should effectively integrate the curriculum with social reality in the teaching process, which can be based on the current social situation. (Wang Baigula 2018)--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Similarly, the translation model has a very important impact on teaching arrangement. The rapid enrichment of theoretical horizons has put forward many new requirements for translation teaching. Therefore, translation teaching should also combine these needs to make something new. For example, many translation learning in China have begun to shift to the perspective of students' autonomous learning, rather than relying solely on teachers’ guidance or leading. This is a very good practice, and it also meets the new requirements of the times. (Ou Yonghua 2019)

Similarly, the translation model has a very important impact on teaching arrangement. The rapid enrichment of theoretical horizons has put forward many new requirements for translation teaching. Therefore, translation teaching should also combine these needs to innovate. For example, many translation learning in China have begun to shift to the perspective of students' autonomous learning, rather than relying solely on teachers’ guidance or leading. This is a very good practice, and it also meets the new requirements of the times. (Ou Yonghua 2019)--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The objective teaching method is a teaching mode that can be introduced in translation teaching. This type of mode attaches great importance to the construction of learning environment and the value of teachers' guidance to students. This is very important for translation learning. While diffusing students' interest in learning, it will also increase students' creative ability and thought diffusion. And through the current teaching equipment and teaching software to enrich the teaching content in the teaching process so as to improve the students’ learning efficiency.(Ou Yonghua 2019)

The objective teaching method is a teaching mode that can be introduced in translation teaching,which attaches great importance to the construction of learning environment and the value of teachers' guidance to students. It is very important for translation learning. While diffusing students' interest in learning, it will also increase students' creative ability and thought diffusion. And through the current teaching equipment and teaching software to enrich the teaching content in the teaching process so as to improve the students’ learning efficiency.(Ou Yonghua 2019) --[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

4.1.2. Strengthen Faculty Force

Teachers occupies a very important position in the training of talents, and at the same time, improving the quality and ability of the teaching team is also the most important thing when training talents.

Therefore, in view of the current low professional quality and ability of teachers in ordinary colleges and universities in China, first of all, colleges and first-line translation teachers need to clarify the requirements for professional ability development, and strive to improve the professional quality of teachers (professional ethics and norms, lifelong learning), professional knowledge (linguistic culture and discipline knowledge, education theory) and professional ability (teaching design and implementation, teaching strategy, modern technology application, teaching reflection, scientific research, practice, testing and evaluation, digital scientific research and learning, data analysis);（Zhong Hewei 2019）

Therefore, in view of the current low professional quality and ability of teachers in ordinary colleges and universities in China, first of all, colleges and translation teachers need to clarify the requirements for professional ability development, and strive to improve the professional quality of teachers (professional ethics and norms, lifelong learning), professional knowledge (linguistic culture and discipline knowledge, education theory) and professional ability (teaching design and implementation, teaching strategy, modern technology application, teaching reflection, scientific research, practice, testing and evaluation, digital scientific research and learning, data analysis);（Zhong Hewei 2019） --[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Secondly, at the beginning of the training of talents, it is possible to engage outstanding professional teams outside the school to communicate, so as to enhance the echelon construction of the school's teaching team, improve the teacher structure in the school, and devote to the comprehensive training of professional translators suitable for social development and needs. The cultivation of talents and the construction of teachers. (Wang Baigula 2018)

4.1.3. Broaden the academic vision of translation

Translation research is a booster for the development of the education of translation majors in the new era. In the future, Chinese translation research can still make breakthroughs in the following aspects. The first is to strengthen the research of translation theory, focusing not only on the grand theory of structural analysis and classification, but also on the micro-theories of specific phenomena and answering practical questions, and reserve the prerequisite theoretical knowledge that needs to be solved for the establishment and development of the discipline, which carry out the provision of roadmap for a comprehensive academic research of the discipline. (Lan Hongjun, 2018)

Translation research is a booster for the development of the education of translation majors in the new era. In the future, Chinese translation research can still make breakthroughs in the following aspects. The first is to strengthen the research of translation theory, focusing not only on the grand theory of structural analysis and classification, but also on the micro-theories of specific phenomena and answering practical questions, and to reserve the prerequisite theoretical knowledge that needs to be solved for the establishment and development of the discipline, which carry out the provision of landmark for a comprehensive academic research of the discipline. (Lan Hongjun, 2018)--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The second is to innovate research methods and carry out disciplinary cooperation. At present, in the research of translation education, humanistic research is dominant, and empirical research is gradually increasing. Translation education involves many subjects such as pedagogy, psychology, and testing. With the continuous emergence of new research technologies and methods, and the increasingly obvious interdisciplinary and integration, translation education research should be able to learn from interdisciplinary research methods, carry out interdisciplinary cooperation, and be good at using new technology and innovative research methods.(Mu Lei, Li Xixi 2019)

The second is to innovate research methods and carry out disciplinary cooperation. At present, in the research of translation education, humanistic research is dominant, and empirical research is gradually increasing. Translation education involves many subjects such as pedagogy, psychology, and testing. With the continuous emergence of new research technologies and methods, and the increasingly obvious interdisciplinary, translation education research should be able to learn from interdisciplinary research methods, carry out interdisciplinary cooperation, and be good at using new technology and innovative research methods.(Mu Lei, Li Xixi 2019)

4.2. Students

The quality of translation talents plays a very important role in the development of translation studies. Those who will be engaged in the field of translation should also work hard to improve themselves, expand their knowledge, earnestly study theoretical knowledge, and practice more.

Translation talents play a very important role in the development of translation studies. Those who will be engaged in the field of translation should also work hard to improve themselves, expand their knowledge, earnestly study theoretical knowledge, and practice more.--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

4.2.1. Expanding knowledge

Translation Studies is originally an interdisciplinary subject. Whether you are engaged in translation research or translation practice in the future, you need to expand your knowledge. For students studying translation studies, when they are learning translation theory, they also need to master the knowledge of linguistics, psychology, pedagogy, philosophy, etc., so as to integrate them with translation studies. For students who are going to be engaged in translation practice in the future, in addition to having a solid foundation in language ability, they should also take the initiative to continuously learn new knowledge with a broad perspective. They should not only focus on their major field, but also should grasp the knowledge of politics, economics, science and technology, history, geography, customs, etc. to strengthen their comprehensive language skills.(Xu Jun;Mu Lei 2009)

Translation Studies is originally an interdisciplinary subject. Whether you are engaged in translation research or translation practice in the future, you need to expand your knowledge. For students studying translation studies, when they are learning translation theory, they also need to master the knowledge of linguistics, psychology, pedagogy, philosophy, etc., so as to integrate them with translation studies. For students who are going to be engaged in translation practice in the future.Not only should they have a solid foundation in language ability, but also they should take the initiative to continuously learn new knowledge with a broad perspective. They should not only focus on their major field, but also should grasp the knowledge of politics, economics, science and technology, history, geography, customs, etc. to strengthen their comprehensive language skills.(Xu Jun;Mu Lei 2009) --[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

A very good way to expand their knowledge is to improve their search ability. Search ability, specifically, refers to how translators use dictionaries, encyclopedias, search engines, corpora, grammar books, etc. to solve practical problems in translation. With economic globalization and various changes in the language service industry, the demand for non-literary translation has skyrocketed. Translators need to be exposed to translations in various forms (audio, video, website, etc.) and fields (mechanical, chemical, electrical, etc.), MTI students is urgent to learn certain professional background knowledge and increase the depth and scope of search to deal with more complex and difficult translation tasks. (Wang Na 2020)

A very good way to expand their knowledge is to improve their search ability. Search ability refers to how translators use dictionaries, encyclopedias, search engines, corpora, grammar books, etc. to solve practical problems in translation. With economic globalization and various changes in the language service industry, the demand for non-literary translation has skyrocketed. Translators need to be exposed to translations in various forms (audio, video, website, etc.) and fields (mechanical, chemical, electrical, etc.), MTI students are urgent to learn certain professional background knowledge and increase the depth and scope of search to deal with more complex and difficult translation tasks. (Wang Na 2020)--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

4.2.2. Emphasize theory and practice more

Knowledge comes from practice. Current translation theories provide many conveniences for this activity. In the process of translation practice, students can also verify the validity of these theories. However, students should not only understand the knowledge of linguistics, not only the translation skills and theories，but also practice more. Theories that are out of practice cannot keep up with the development of the times.

Knowledge comes from practice. Current translation theories provide many conveniences for this activity. In the process of translation practice, students can also verify the validity of these theories. However, students should not only understand the knowledge of linguistics and the skills and theories of translation，but also practice more. Theories that are out of practice cannot keep up with the development of the times. --[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Students must spend enough time in practicing. They can go to the front line of production or go deep into all aspects of social life, and keep close contact with the masses in order to continuously broaden their horizons and know the society better. And then it is possible for them to analyze practical experience and conclude it into theory.(Lin lin 2016)

==='''5.Conclusion'''===

This chapter analyzes the current situation of Translation Studies as a discipline by reviewing the development process of Translation Studies in China. There are many factors that affect the learning of Translation Studies. Among them, from the perspective of translation teaching, in China, the concept of talent training is unclear, the faculty resource is insufficient, and the teaching structure is relatively simple. Those engaged in translation education need to clarify the orientation of cultivating translation talents. At the same time, teachers should also improve their personal qualities, including their teaching ability and so on. In addition, research on translation education should also be emphasized, and exchanges and cooperation between the disciplines should be strengthened to conduct more effective translation learning and translation research.

This chapter analyzes the current situation of Translation Studies as a discipline by reviewing the development process of Translation Studies in China. There are many factors that affect the learning of Translation Studies. Among them, from the perspective of translation teaching, in China, the objection of talent training is unclear, the faculty resource is insufficient, and the teaching structure is relatively simple. Therefore, translation education need to clarify the orientation of cultivating translation talents. At the same time, teachers should also improve their personal qualities, including their teaching ability and professional knowledge. In addition, research on translation education should also be emphasized, and exchanges and cooperation between the disciplines should be strengthened to conduct more effective translation learning and translation research. --[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

From the students’ point of view, those who major in translation must learn translation studies hard to contribute to the development of Translation Studies. However, many students did not work hard to learn their major, their basic skills are not wonderful, and their knowledge scope is relatively narrow. Some students do not have a correct understanding of translation studies. To become an excellent translator, students also need to spend time and energy to expand their knowledge range. At the same time, students also need to take translation theories seriously and learn it carefully, and then apply those theories to practice. In this way, they can also gain a lot of practical experience.

President Xi Jinping, asked” the majority of philosophy and social science workers to bravely stand on the forefront of the times, communicate the changes of the past and the present, and give the first signs of thought” (Xi Jinpin 2016). Looking back on the past decades, the achievements and independent status of Translation Studies were not achieved overnight. They have condensed the unremitting exploration and hard work of many scholars, showing a development axis of independence, self-consciousness, self-reliance and self-confidence. Looking forward to the future, we hope that the successors of Translation Studies and translation majors can inherit the spirit of their predecessors in the grand vision of the development of Chinese language service industry in the new era, and keep the discipline mission in mind. (Zhong Weihe, Zhao Tianyuan 2020)

President Xi Jinping, asked” the majority of philosophy and social science workers to bravely stand on the forefront of the times, communicate the changes of the past and the present, and give the first signs of thought” (Xi Jinpin 2016). Looking back on the past decades, the achievements and independent status of Translation Studies are still not achieved overnight. They have condensed the unremitting exploration and hard work of many scholars, showing a development axis of independence, self-consciousness, self-reliance and self-confidence. Looking forward to the future, we hope that the successors of Translation Studies and translation majors can inherit the spirit of their predecessors in the grand vision of the development of Chinese language service industry in the new era, and keep the discipline mission in mind. (Zhong Weihe, Zhao Tianyuan 2020)--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Based on China's social development practice and serving the national strategy, we can have dialogue with the international translation community, draw on the latest foreign translation theories, combine the history and current situation of Chinese translation to further improve the translation discipline system, academic system and discourse system construction. And it also can promote the cultivation of translation talents. The author sincerely hopes that the Chinese characteristics and Chinese style of Translation Studies can make contributions to the development of international translation studies.

Based on China's social development practice and serving the national strategy, we can have dialogue with the international translation community, learn from the latest foreign translation theories, and combine the history and current situation of Chinese translation to further improve the translation discipline system, academic system and discourse system construction. And it also can promote the cultivation of translation talents. The author sincerely hope that the Chinese characteristics and Chinese style of Translation Studies can make contributions to the development of international translation studies.--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

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==The influence of translator's cultural identity on translation 周玉娟 Zhou Yujuan==
<center>周玉娟 Zhou Yujuan 202020080674 亚非语言文学波斯语方向 .</center>

<center>The influence of translator's cultural identity on translation.</center>

===Abstract===
Liang Shiqiu and Zhu Shenghao are both outstanding representatives of Shakespeare's plays translated in 20th century Chinese literature. Zhu Shenghao lived in a time of war and turmoil , and lived a hard and poor life , so his translations were both imbued with deep patriotism, and his translations were based on naturalization strategies. As a scholar who returned from overseas studies, Liang Shiqiu believed that literature was created by genius. Therefore, he adopted the strategy of alienation in the translation process with the purpose of spreading the culture of foreign countries.

===Keywords===
translation; translator; cultural identity; Shakespeare's plays

===题目===
译者文化身份对翻译的影响

===摘要===
梁实秋和朱生豪都是20世纪中国文学界翻译莎士比亚戏剧的杰出代表人物。朱生豪生活在战火纷飞，动荡不安的年代，生活过得很艰苦和贫困，所以他的翻译中都蕴含了深深的爱国主义情怀，翻译以归化策略为主。梁实秋作为海外学成归来的学者，认为文学是天才创作的。所以他以传播异国的文化为目的，在翻译过程中采取了异化策略。

===关键词===
翻译；译者；文化身份；莎士比亚剧

===Introduction===
Translating a work is a re-recognition and re-expression of what the translator knows and transmits. On the one hand, the translator transmits the content of the original author, and on the other hand, the translator also incorporates his or her own interpretation and understanding into it. In traditional translation studies, whether the translation is faithful to the original work is the key criterion to measure the goodness of a translated work, and it is also an important criterion to judge a translator's qualification or otherwise. (Many. 2018: 85) Therefore, the translator plays an important active role in both translating the content and interpreting it, and the translator is the first person who is in direct contact with the original text.

Translating a work that is a re-recognition and re-expression of what the translator knows and transmits. On the one hand, the translator transmits the content of the original author, and on the other hand, the translator also incorporates his or her own interpretation and understanding into it. In traditional translation studies, whether the translation is faithful to the original work is the key criterion to measure the goodness of a translated work, and it is also an important criterion to judge a translator's qualification or otherwise. (Many. 2018: 85) Therefore, the translator plays an important role in both translating and interpreting, and the translator is the first person who is in direct contact with the original text.--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 14:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Benjamin, the famous German literary critic, once said : "In any discussion of translation, the traditional concept always revolves around fidelity and freedom: that is, the freedom to reproduce the original faithfully and the fidelity to the original in the reproduction." (Benjamin. 1968/2004: 20) However, in the process of translation, besides being faithful to the direct expression of the original, translators also have their own translation characteristics and strategies. The issue of "cultural identity" has also received more and more attention. (Fu, Wenhui. 2011: 16)

There have been many Chinese translations of Shakespeare's plays in China, among which Zhu Shenghao and Liang Shiqiu are both classic representatives of Shakespeare's plays in translation. However, they differ in many aspects such as the purpose of their respective translations, translation styles, and translation contents. The reason for this is that the influence of their cultural identities on their translations cannot be ignored. This paper will try to explore the influence of their respective cultural identities on the translation purposes and translation contents by comparing their cultural identities and the social and cultural backgrounds in which they lived, so as to provide guiding inspirations and suggestions for translation practice activities.

=== Introduction to the identity of the translator===
Translators are also readers, however, they act as readers in a special sense; the ultimate goal of a translator is not to read and understand the original text, but to convey the original text he reads by interpreting it in another linguistic symbol (Wu Delu. 2016:211). Both Liang Shiqiu (1903-1987) and Zhu Shenghao (1912-1944) were famous translators of Shakespeare in China in the twentieth century, and their translations have stood the test of time. The contributions that Liang Shiqiu and Zhu Shenghao made to the Chinese literary world are well known.

Cultural identity, or cultural identity, (Wang Ning. 1999:45) mainly includes a nation, group or individual's sense of identity with its own culture and perception of self-image,( Wang Zhenping. 2017:68) which is characterized by the fact that cultural identity carries the self-identified and recognized cultural characteristics of a certain group, and the manifestation of these characteristics in group members varies in strength and weakness depending on the objective environment. Cultural identity is expressed through the way people communicate, interpersonal relationships, and behavioral norms (Liu Shuang. 2000:90), and it is stable and fluid.

(While your first quote here may be intended to explain to the reader where the concept of cultural identity came from, I suggest you explain the meaning of the concept proposed by the cited author.)--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

"Although Liang Shiqiu and Zhu Shenghao are both known in contemporary times, they are different in terms of translation purpose, style, technique, and even phrasing, forming two different schools of Shakespeare translation in China." (Xi Yongji. 2007:245)

====Zhu Shenghao's Cultural Identity====
Zhu Shenghao is a famous translator. He was born on February 2, 1912, in Jiaxing, Zhejiang Province, to a family of small, declining merchants. Zhu Shenghao began to translate Shakespeare in 1935, but the translation process was difficult and the conditions were tough (the Japanese attacked Shanghai in 1937 and the city was in flames. Zhu Shenghao's house was burned down by the Japanese, and he escaped with the Oxford edition of the complete works of Shakespeare and some of his translations. (Most of his translations were burned by the Japanese.) However, he persisted in his translation career and devoted himself to it, eventually leaving us forever in 1944 due to lung disease from overwork.

In less than ten years, he translated a total of thirty-one and a half Shakespeare plays with amazing perseverance and talent. Later, his wife, Song Qingyu, compiled all his translations and passed them on to the World Book Bureau in Shanghai, which published The Complete Works of Shakespeare in the fall of 1947. Many Shakespeare researchers could not believe that the Chinese could write such a high quality translation. It is easy to see that his remarkable talent was recognized both at home and abroad.

Throughout the above, Zhu Shenghao lived in a time of war and turmoil, experienced the May Fourth Movement and other tides, and his translations were imbued with a deep sense of patriotism, so his translation of Shakespeare's plays was based on naturalization strategies. (Yan Xiaojiang. 2010: 95) As a patriotic young man, he longed for China to be understood and to transmit and promote Chinese culture. The so-called naturalization means that the language and culture are the main focus, which ensures the fluency of the translation, reduces the strangeness of the original text, and allows the target language readers to better understand the original text.

（Be clear about what exactly domestication or foreignization in your text means and who defines it. Use word “domestication” instead of “naturalization”in general.）--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====Liang Shiqiu's Cultural Identity====
Liang Shiqiu, whose original name was Zhihua, was born in Beijing. He was a famous Chinese modern and contemporary essayist, scholar, literary critic, translator, and the first authority on Shakespeare in China. He studied at the English Department of the University of Colorado, Harvard University and Columbia University Graduate School.

However, it is worth mentioning that Liang believes that literature is a creation of genius. Liang repeatedly said, "All civilization is the original creation of a very few geniuses", "literature and art are the original creation of a few geniuses", "there is no literature and art for the majority, and literature and art are not for the majority ". (Liang Shiqiu: R.O.C. 23) "The highest art can only be understood by a few ...... Art has its own many grades, so the appreciation of art also has many grades."

However, it is worth mentioning that Liang believed that literature is a creation of genius. Liang repeatedly said, "All civilization is the original creation of a very few geniuses", "literature and art are the original creation of a few geniuses", "there is no literature and art for the majority, and literature and art are not for the majority ". (Liang Shiqiu: R.O.C. 23) "The highest art can only be understood by a few ...... Art has its own many grades, so the appreciation of art also has many grades." --[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

As for the satisfaction of the literary and artistic requirements of the general public, Liang Shiqiu arranged for them the arts such as story-telling and popular literary works, because their knowledge could only understand such works and they were only interested in such arts, as for the great works of art, like Shakespeare's plays, that naturally only the great artists could appreciate and appreciate them. Liang Shiqiu's mistake was to exaggerate the role of heroic figures such as geniuses and completely ignore the role of the general public in the creation and reception of art. (Wang Qili. 2004: 12)

We can see that Liang Shiqiu was a scholar who returned from overseas, but he advocated "genius literature" and ignored the role of the people in art and culture. Liang Shiqiu began his translation of Shakespeare in 1930, and it took him nearly 40 long years to complete the translation of this masterpiece, which had a profound impact on the Chinese literary world. (Zhou Li. 2016:30) At the same time, his literary thought was largely influenced by Western classicism and neo-humanism, so when translating, he mostly adopted the strategy of alienation.

We can see that Liang Shiqiu was a scholar who returned from overseas, but he advocated "genius literature" and ignored the role of the people in art and culture. Liang Shiqiu began his translation of Shakespeare in 1930, and it took him nearly 40 long years to complete the translation of this masterpiece, which had a profound impact on the Chinese translation. (Zhou Li. 2016:30) At the same time, his literary thought was largely influenced by Western classicism and neo-humanism, so when translating, he mostly adopted the strategy of alienation.--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====Foreignization and domestication Strategies====
According to Venuti, domestication is "bringing the original author into the desired language and culture of the translation", while dissimilation is "accepting the linguistic and cultural differences of the foreign work and bringing the reader into the foreign situation" (Venuti, 1995:20). (Venuti, 1995:20)

According to Venuti, domestication is "bringing the original author into the desired language and culture of the translation", while dissimilation is "accepting the linguistic and cultural differences of the foreign work and bringing the reader into the foreign situation" (Venuti, 1995:20). --[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Domestication means to localize the original language, to take the target language or the readers of the translation as the home, and to adopt the expressions that the target language readers are accustomed to in order to convey the content of the original. The translator is required to get closer to the readers of the target language, and the translation must become an authentic national language. This method helps readers understand the translation better and enhances the readability and appreciation of the translation.

The method of Foreignization is: "the translator does not disturb the author as much as possible, so that the reader moves closer to the author". In translation, it means absorbing the expressions of foreign languages, requiring the translator to draw closer to the author and adopt the expressions corresponding to the source language used by the author to convey the content of the original text, that is, to take the language and culture of the original text as the home. Centering on the language and culture of the original language, the cultural characteristics and exoticism of the original language are preserved as much as possible; (Yan Xiaojiang. 2010: 95) Using the strategy of Foreignization helps readers better appreciate the differences in national culture, national characteristics and exotic elements such as language style features.
(Here you used foreignization ,but above the paper,you use alienation,The specific concepts of context should be unified.)--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===The cultural identity of translators in translation===
First, the translator is the second pair of eyes of the reader. "For most readers who do not understand the original work, (the translator's interpretation) is the only way to enter the world of the original work" (Xu Jun 2014: 220). Therefore, the translator's performance in translation is directly related to the reader's acceptance. Moreover, under the translator's subjective role, "the flower of life of the original work gains a continuous, up-to-date and most flourishing opening in the translation" (Ben-jamin 1968/2004: 20). The translator is, in turn, the bearer and transmitter of the author's work. A translator's contribution is unquestionable if his or her translation is recognized by the public or the academic community.

Liang Shiqiu's and Zhu Shenghao's translations have their own strengths, Liang's for scholars to study, Zhu's for the popularization of Shakespeare's works, and both translations interpret classic literary works from different perspectives. (Yan Xiaojiang. 2010:98) But both have made great contributions to world literature.
(Here world literature is not very accurate, maybe you can say world translation)--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)
====In terms of the original intention of translation====
The reasons for Zhu Shenghao's translation of Shakespeare have also been explored, and all of them agree that personal interest, patriotic thought, dedication and financial embarrassment were the main motivations for his translation of Shakespeare. Here, we prefer to consider "interest" as the primary motivation. (Qiu Yunchen. 2010:591) Zhu Shenghao himself said, "I love Shakespeare's plays so much and so only that I have tried to read the whole text at least ten times from the beginning to the end. ......" Zhu's love for Shakespeare is so strong that "He was so passionate about Shakespeare that he would not stop reading Shakespeare, not eating it.

The reasons for Zhu Shenghao's translation of Shakespeare have also been explored, and all of them agree that personal interest, patriotic thought, dedication and financial embarrassment were the main motivations for his translation of Shakespeare. Here, we prefer to consider "interest" as the primary motivation. (Qiu Yunchen. 2010:591) Zhu Shenghao said, "I love Shakespeare's plays so much so that I have tried to read the whole text at least ten times from the beginning to the end. ......" Zhu's preference for Shakespeare is so obvious that "He was so passionate about Shakespeare that he would not stop reading and studying Shakespeare assiduously.--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

In addition, because Zhu Shenghao was born in an ordinary family and his parents died at an early age, his life was difficult, and he mentioned in his translations that he had to pay for translating Shakespeare's plays. Economic reasons also drove his perseverance in translating, and furthermore, Zhu Shenghao lived in a time of war and experienced the May Fourth Movement and other fashions, and his translations contained deep patriotism, a desire for China to be understood and to transmit Chinese culture. This patriotic sentiment also inspired his determination to translate Shakespeare's plays.

Liang Shiqiu believes that there is a distinction between elegant and vulgar literature, genius is to appreciate literature, the general public to read are popular literature. In Liang Shiqiu's view, not only the subject of creation can only be a very small number of geniuses, that is, the appreciation of literature is also the patent of a very small number of talented people, "the highest art only a few people can understand ......, literature and art is not the majority." (Liang Shiqiu. 1988:117). According to Liang Shiqiu, "literature is created by genius".

Liang Shiqiu believed that there is a distinction between elegant and vulgar literature, genius always appreciate literature, the general public usually read popular literature. In Liang Shiqiu's view, not only the subject of creation can only be a very small number of geniuses, that is, the appreciation of literature is also the patent of a very small number of talented people, "only a few people can understand the highest art ......, literature and art is not for the majority." (Liang Shiqiu. 1988:117). According to Liang Shiqiu, "literature is created by genius".--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

When he studied at Harvard University, he took the course "Literary Criticism after the Sixteenth Century" by the American neoclassicist Byrd Byrd, and was greatly influenced by Western humanist thought in literary thought and the Western cultural environment, so he set out to translate Shakespeare's plays with the aim of spreading the idea of foreign culture. Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare aimed to "preserve the most authentic things" and to convey the author's meaning visually. Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare was very faithful to the original text, and his opposition to "hard translations" and "bent translations" shows that he advocated faithfulness and fluency in translation. (Xiao Li. Li Xiaoying. 2012:95)
(Here maybe you want to say Irving Babbitt not Byrd, plz check it again)--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====In terms of the content of the translation (taking the translation of Shakespeare as an example)====
Zhu Shenghao stated at the beginning of his translation: "My aim in translating this book is, first, to maintain the charm of the original work to the greatest extent possible, and then to consider the second point if it is not feasible, that is, to convey faithfully the meaning and feelings of the original text in simple and easy-to-understand sentences; but I dare not agree with the rigid translation of word-by-word comparison.... I would like to be a reader and check the translation for any ambiguities. I must also pretend to be an actor on the stage, and examine whether the tone of speech is smooth and whether the syllables are in tune. It often takes days to think hard about a word or phrase that is not agreeable." (Zhu Shenghao. (2010:36) This shows that Zhu Shenghao's translation of Sha plays more attention to the performance function of drama.

Zhu Shenghao stated at the beginning of his translation: "In translating this book, my aim is to maintain the charm of the original work as much as possible, and then to consider the second point if it is not feasible, that is, to convey the meaning and feelings faithfully of the original text in simple and easy-to-understand sentences; but I dare not agree with the rigid translation of word-by-word comparison.... I would like to be a reader and check the translation for any ambiguities. I must also pretend to be an actor on the stage, and examine whether the tone of speech is smooth and whether the syllables are in tune. It often takes days to think hard about a word or phrase that is not agreeable." (Zhu Shenghao. (2010:36) This shows that Zhu Shenghao paid more attention to the performance function of drama in translation of Shakespeare’s plays.--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

For example: ( the translation of Zhu Shenghao)

EGEUS: Stand forth，Demetrius． My noble lord，
伊吉斯:走上前来，狄米特律斯。殿下，这个人，

This man hath my consent to marry her．
是我答应把我女儿嫁给他的

Stand forth，Lysander．
走上前来，拉山德。

And，my gracious Duke， This man hath bewitched the bosom of my child．（莎士比亚.2011：22）
殿下，这个人引诱坏了我的孩子（朱生豪. 2013：9）

In addition, influenced by traditional Chinese moral and ethical thinking, when obscene words and indecent phrases appeared in the original text, Zhu Shenghao basically "purified" or arbitrarily rewrote them, or simply deleted them without translation. Perhaps it is also the fact that his translations conform to the requirements of Chinese moral culture that makes his works so well-received. The advertisement published by World Bookstore clearly states two sentences: "The original text is brilliant, a treasure of world literature ornaments; the translation is beautiful and fluent, keeping the charm of the original work.
For example, his translation.
LYSANDEＲ: Hang off，thou cat，thou burr! Vile thing，let loose，Or I will shake thee from me like a serpent． (Ⅲ．ⅱ) (莎士比亚.2011:110)

拉山德:放开手，你这猫! 你这牛蒡子! 贱东西，放开手!
否则我要像摔掉身上一条蛇那样摔掉你了(莎士比亚．2013:117 )。

Liang Shiqiu believed that translation should be faithful to the original text, so his translation content can be summarized as "faithfulness and fidelity". The style of "faith" and "faithfulness" has been developed. (Li Jiawei/Hui Lijun. 2017:75) Because of this faithfulness, Liang Shiqiu believed that any arbitrary rewriting or deletion of the original work would be unfaithful to the work, and that the vulgar language in Shakespeare's plays has its specific role in portraying characters and increasing the stage effect. Therefore, he kept the obscene words in the original text intact in the translation process.

First: Stay true to the original text and try not to delete or subtract from it.For example:

LYSANDEＲ: Hang off，thou cat，thou burr! Vile thing，let loose，Or I will shake thee from me like a serpent.(Ⅲ.ⅱ)(莎士比亚.2001:110)

Translation of Liang Shiqiu:

赖,走开，你这个猫，你这个缠人的东西! 下流的东西，松手，

否则我要把你像是毒蛇一般的甩开(莎士比亚.梁实秋译2001:110)。

HELENA She was a vixen when she went toschool:

And though she be but little，she is fierce．(Ⅲ． ⅱ) (莎士比亚.梁实秋译2001:116)

海上学时她就是个狐狸精。

她虽然身材小，她很凶(莎士比亚.梁实秋译2001: 117) 。

Second, Liang Shiqiu's translations retain the punctuation of the original texts (Li Jiawei/Hui Lijun. 2017:75) Liang believes that retaining punctuation makes the translations more "Shakespearean". "The punctuation used by Shakespeare may seem less formal, but in fact it is a self-contained system, designed to point out the effect of intonation when the actors recite their lines. Based on this clarification, I then decided to preserve as much of Shakespeare's original punctuation as possible in a text, with the result that where there is an original sentence, there is a translation". (Liang Shiqiu. 1966)
Therefore, Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare pays more attention to the literary function of drama and more attention to the stage function of literature.

For example, a fragment of Liang Shiqiu's translation of Hamlet.

Queen. There is a willow grows aslant a brook,
That shows his hoar leaves in the glassy stream;
There with fantastic garlands did she come,
Of crow-flowers, nettles, daisies, and long purples,
That liberal shepherds give a grosser name.
But our cold maids do dead man’s fingers call them:
There, on the pendent boughs her coronet weeds
Clambering to hang ,an envious sliver broke,
When down her weedy trophies and herself
Fell in the weeping brook. Her clothes spread wide;
And, mermaid-like, awhile they bore her up;
Which time she chanted snatches of old tunes; As one
incapable of her own distress,
Or like a creature native and indu’d
Unto that element: but long it could not be
Till that her garments ,heavy with her drink,
Pull’d the poor wretch from her melodious lay
To muddy death.
（shakespeare, hamlet, act Ⅳ, scenceⅦ）

The translation of Liang Shiqiu：
(You can say Liang’s version :)--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)
河边有一株斜长着的杨柳，白叶倒映在玻璃似的流水里；他就来到那个地方，拿着些奇异的花圈，扎的是毛莨、荨麻、延命菊，以及粗野牧人呼之不雅之名而纯洁女郎都呼为“死人指”的紫兰。就在那里，她爬上树枝想去挂她的花圈，无情的枝子断了；她的花圈和她自身于是坠入呜咽的河流。她的衣服展开，像是鲛人似的，把她浮上来一会儿，这时节她唱了几句古歌，好像不知自身痛苦似的，又好像是水下生长的动物似的；但是这情形没有多久，她的衣服湿透就变重了，于是把这可怜的人儿于曼声高唱中扯到污泥的死所去了。

===Conclusion===
The translator's cultural identity is impressed by various factors such as the different backgrounds of the translator's life and the different cultural ideas he or she has received, and this identity is present in the translator's translation works almost all his or her life. In other words, the translator's cultural identity has a great and lasting influence on the choice of his or her translation strategy, and it can also be said that readers can learn the translator's cultural identity through his or her translation works.

For example, Zhu Shenghao, who lived in the era of constant war, had a deep patriotic feeling. So he wanted China to be understood by the world or more countries, to be able to transmit and carry forward Chinese culture. In addition, he was influenced by the deep-rooted moral and ethical thoughts of traditional Chinese culture, so he adopted a naturalization strategy in the translation process. However, looking at the translator Liang Shiqiu again, as a scholar who returned from studying in the West, he received the idea of Western humanism, and in addition, he believed that literature was created by genius. Therefore, he adopted the strategy of alienation in the process of translation with the aim of spreading foreign culture, and translated the original text word by word, sentence by sentence, and presented it to the readers without evasion.

By briefly exploring the cultural identities and translation ideas of the two translators, we can see that both of them have their own merits, but also their own disadvantages. Throughout the contemporary era, the phenomenon of cultural globalization is also increasing, and most of the excellent works have been translated into multiple languages and spread, but for the translators, we should learn from the advantages of the previous translators, but that is, we should combine the East and the West, and master the translation skills to maintain the content of the original text to the greatest extent and ensure the accuracy of the text.

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Yan Xiaojiang严晓江．梁实秋与朱生豪莎剧译文特点之比较[A Comparison of the Characteristics of Liang Shiqiu's and Zhu Shenghao's Translations of Shakespeare]南通大学学报(社会科学版)[Journal of Nantong University (Social Science Edition)，2010，26(4)

Liang Shiqiu.梁实秋. 翻译莎士比亚[M]//梁实秋. 莎士比亚诞辰四百周年纪念集. [Translation of Shakespeare by Liang Shiqiu. Shakespeare's 400th anniversary]. 台湾: 中华书局[Taiwan:Zhong-Hua Book Bureau].1966.

Qiu Yuchen.邱蕴琛. 小议朱生豪译莎动因[A small discussion on the motivation of Zhu Shenghao's translation of Sha].科技信息[Science and Technology Information].2010,(07):448-591.

Zhou Wen周文. 朱生豪翻译观探微 [An exploration of Zhu Shenghao's concept of translation].科技信息(科学教研) [Science and Technology Information (Science Education and Research)].,2007,(22):127-128..

Xi Yongji奚永吉 . 莎士比亚翻译比较美学 [Comparative aesthetics of Shakespeare translation ] 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].2007.

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Wang Ning王宁．文学研究中的文化身份问题[Cultural Identity in Literary Studies] 外国文学[Foreign Literature].1999(4):48—51．

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Wang Qili王岐立．梁实秋文学思想浅析：[An analysis of Liang Shiqiu's literary thought]:中山大学研究生学刊 [Graduate Journal of Sun Yat-sen University].2004

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==Descriptive translation studies 曹润鑫 Cao Runxin==

===Abstract===
The study of descriptive translation has greatly enriched the concept of translation, broadened the horizon of translation research, raised the status of translation research, and promoted the discipline of translation research, and as an important supplement to theoretical translation, descriptive translation has received more and more attention. In this paper, I will take Tuli's ''Descriptive Translation'' and Hermanns's ''Translation in Systems'' as two examples to briefly introduce the descriptive translation.

===Key words===
Descriptive translation studies; Translation studies

===摘要===
描述翻译研究将翻译置于译入语社会文化背景下进行考察, 极大地丰富了翻译的概念, 开阔了翻译研究的视野, 提高了翻译研究的地位, 促进了翻译研究的学科化, 作为理论翻译学的重要补充, 描述翻译学受到了越来越多的重视。本文将以以图里的《描述翻译学》和赫曼斯的《系统中的翻译》两本著作为例, 对描述翻译学进行简单的介绍

===关键字===
描述翻译学；翻译研究

===Introduction===
Traditional translation theory research focuses on the original work and the translator. The translator adopts the standards of "faithfulness" and "equivalence" as the criteria for translation, adopts the appropriate translation method, and finds the equivalence of the original language in the target language through linguistic analysis and comparison. This theory of translation is only confined to the micro-linguistic level, with the ultimate goal of faithfully conveying the meaning of the original work and without the constraints of macro-factors such as politics, history and culture outside the language. Guided by this theory, translation critics often take the faithfulness of the translation to the original text as the only criterion for evaluating the quality of the translation based on their own knowledge and experience, which is subjective and biased, and not conducive to the healthy development of translation criticism.

Since the 1960s, there has been a surge of cultural studies, and translation studies have also drawn nourishment from cultural studies and applied it to translation, injecting new vitality into translation studies. In particular, the "cultural shift" since the 1970s has a more trans-generational significance. Free from the constraints of the traditional "faithful" and "reciprocal" translation concepts, cultural translation research adopts a descriptive approach to analyze the history and cultural background of translations and their cultural influence on the translator's language objectively from the macro cultural context, This reveals the distortion, deformation and fusion of different cultures in the process of communication and collision. "Translation researchers no longer dwell on prescriptive instructions, but focus their research on a descriptive method. Translation is no longer regarded as a transformation between texts, but a unique political, cultural and literary behavior in the target language society. Describing the translation research method broadens the horizon of translation research, facilitates the objective and clear understanding of translation phenomenon, and has a great role in promoting the construction of the translation discipline as a whole.

In the 1970s, the introduction of the system concept accelerated the revolution of translation research. As a kind of descriptive translation studies, it broke away from the discussion of "how translation should be" that governed translation studies, and encouraged researchers to explore the role of translation in specific cultural contexts.

===Tuli and ''Descriptive translation''===
The concept of "descriptive translation" was originally proposed by the Dutch scholar James Holmes, who published the paper "The Name and Reality of Translation Studies" in the Third International Symposium on Applied Linguistics held in Copenhagen in 1972. In the paper, he made a scientific division of translation studies, "He advocated that translation studies should be divided into two branches, 'pure translation' and 'applied translation', and 'pure translation' and 'applied translation' should be divided into two branches, 'pure translation' and 'applied translation'. It can be divided into 'descriptive translation study' and 'theoretical translation study'". [1] Descriptive translation research also includes: first, product-oriented research; second, process-oriented research; and third, function-oriented research. [2] These three studies are interdependent and inseparable. The expected position or function of the translator in the receiving culture should be regarded as the deciding factor governing the translation, while the standard translation mode in the target system dictates the translation strategy adopted by the translator to maintain the relationship between the source text and the translated text and achieve a balance between them. In addition, Tuli also suggests that theoretical translation and descriptive translation are also interdependent and mutually transformed. Theoretical translation can guide the research of descriptive translation, and the research results of descriptive translation include a series of coherent laws that can clarify their interconnections, which can be summarized and distilled into a theory guiding translation research.

Based on Evan Zohar's multisystem theory and guided by the translations, Tuli proposes a translation study that constructs a framework adapted to the linguistic system of translation, and places translation within the social and literary system of the culture in which it is translated. Descriptive translation studies shifts the focus of translation research from translations to the translators' translation process, focusing on the reasons for the translators' choices in a specific historical and cultural context, which can avoid the one-sided and unreasonable evaluation of the translated text by traditional translation studies and explain the translation phenomenon more reasonably.

In Descriptive Translation and Beyond, Tuli describes the method of conducting research on descriptive translation, arguing that the initial stage of research is the stage of comparison. He says, "Since many parallel translations have been produced in different historical periods, comparisons between them have become more common, and comparisons between them are of course possible, but it is a much more complicated task than one might have imagined". [3]

According to Tuli, the act of translation is an activity governed by norms, which refer to sociocultural constraints on translation behavior. At one end of the spectrum in terms of binding, sociocultural constraints are what might be called universally binding, more absolute rules, and at the other end are purely idiosyncratic preferences. Norms are distributed in a gradient between rules and idiosyncrasies, with binding force in between. From the normative point of view, rules and idiosyncrasies are "(more) objective" norms, while the latter are "(more) subjective" i.e. "less objective". The concept of the This concept is very important in its theoretical system.

He also identifies three types of translation norms embodied in the process: initial norms, preliminary norms, and optional norms. Initial norms refer to the basic choice a translator must first make between the norms of the source language text and the cultural norms of the translated language. The preparatory norms, which come into play before the translation process even begins, involve two aspects: translation policy, which takes into account the choice of the work to be translated, and translation immediacy, which refers to the tolerance for translation from the source language into other languages. Operational norms govern the decisions made in the translation process and can be divided into structural norms and linguistic norms. Among the three norms, the initial norm has an overarching role over the other two norms; the operational norm has a metaphysical character, which is the clarification of the initial norm in the translation process. [3]

According to Tuli, "a translation is any passage of text which, in a system of purposes, is represented as a translation or is considered as a translation, regardless of the grounds on which it is based". [4] Tuli's definition of translation broadens the scope of translation research, and many adaptations, retranslations, rewritings, imitations, translations, pseudo-translations, etc., which are excluded from traditional translation, are included in the scope of describing translation research.
Generally speaking, pseudo-translations are marginalized objects in translation studies, because the so-called "translations" may not have corresponding source texts, but are only a means for some writers to make their works more prominent. "Exoticism" to attract the public's attention. But we should also be clear that its position in the cultural system makes pseudo-translations closely related to real translations. Admittedly, everything exists for a reason, and pseudo-translations are no exception. In my opinion, pseudo-translations can be divided into three kinds, one is real pseudo-translation, that is, translations fabricated by writers in the target culture under the guise of translation to gain the status of the translated works in the literary system; the other is possible pseudo-translation, that is, the translated text is handed down in the world but the corresponding source text is unverifiable, where unverifiability does not mean that the source text does not exist, but it may be lost or The other one is that the source text exists objectively, but due to socio-cultural differences with the translated language, the translator has to take naturalization measures, replacing some cultural characteristics of the source culture with the cultural specific items belonging to the culture of the translated language, so that the translation is no longer a complete translation of the source text. One of the major characteristics of pseudo-translation is the "translation tone" in the text. Due to the real existence of "translation cavity" in many translated texts, pseudo-translations are able to deceive many readers through this mask. Of course, since the "translation cavity" is the inevitable effect of the translator's alienation strategy in the translation process, we do not intend to criticize it here.

Figure 3 provides a model for descriptive studies of conjoint phrases as a means of translation. A conjoint phrase consists of two or more synonyms in the same language, which together form a single functional unit that expresses the same meaning or performs the same function. Near-synonyms are often found in Hebrew literature or in Hebrew translations. Many of these phrases, especially those that appeared in classicized texts, gradually evolved into fixed expressions. By the late 18th century, under the influence of the Renaissance, Hebrew culture struggled to adapt to the new modes of literary writing promoted by the surrounding European cultures. It was during this period that the Hebrew lexicon was reborn, and another spring was ushered in. The Hebrew writer or translator had to create a new type of text or a new mode of writing (the mode of the new European literature) using the old forms of the language (in this case, the use of synonyms) in order to produce a "credible" Hebrew text. This is equivalent to writing exotic forms of literature in the language of one's own people. However, the synonymy was suppressed for a long time before it was really reborn, and was of secondary importance in the whole Hebrew literature system. This is evidenced by their common use in children's literature and in translations. In translations, the near-synonyms of the source text are often transferred to the target language, and the differences between the two cultures and traditions make such transfers difficult. In Hebrew translations, synonyms are often used instead of the corresponding individual words in the source text to capture the characteristics of the native literature. There are also rare translations in which the near-synonyms appear as mere additions due to the complete absence of a corresponding item in the source text. As Figure mentions, very often the use of synonyms is not only for the function of their counterparts in the source text, but is an attempt to bring back the tradition of Hebrew translation in one's own research and that of others. [3]112

According to Tuli, the original intent of translation is to meet the needs of one culture. Translation uses a different language to introduce a text that already exists in one culture into another culture. In the process, there is both preservation of the source text and adaptation to the requirements of the target system. After a series of studies, Tully concludes that literary translations are affected by system ambiguity, pointing to two different kinds of translated texts: one in which the source text is already considered as a literary work in the source culture, and the other in which the translation of the source text is accepted as a literary work in the target culture. An example of a Bible translation is shown to illustrate the difference. The translation of the Hebrew Bible has become a classic religious text, but obviously there are differences between Jewish religious texts and non-Jewish religious texts. Of course, literary translations in both senses of the word are also consistent under certain conditions: when the two cultures share similar literary traditions in the act of translation, or when the literary system of the imported language is at a disadvantage compared to the literary system of the source language and tries to enrich the system with the advantages of the latter. Or when the translator occupies such a significant position in the culture that he or she can change the position of the translated text from the periphery to the center. Turi believes that literature is first and foremost a manifestation of culture, so he proposes three types of translation: language-oriented translation, text-oriented translation, and literary translation. In the process of translation, submission to the target literary models and norms will inevitably lead to the loss of the characteristics of the source text, but Tuli is concerned with what actually happens in the process of translation and the purpose of translation itself, not the acceptance of translation but the acceptability of the translated text. The real manipulation of literary translation is not the fact whether the product is accepted by the target culture, but the probability that the structure or composition of a text will be accepted following a definite pattern. In fact, Tuli has put forward his own viewpoint on translation research, that is, translation research oriented to the target language.

Translation-Specific lexical items, which are words translated from the source language, originate in the target language but do not belong to it. Of course, such terms are also subject to certain social and temporal backgrounds. The existence of translation-specific terms saves translators a lot of trouble in translation, and has become an effective method to be adopted in the translation process.

In his study of descriptive translation, Tuli emphasized the objective neutrality of the researcher and avoided value judgments too much. He clearly believes that it is possible to be neutral in the study of culture and history. He tries to appear objective by using a lot of scientific jargon. This claim has been challenged by many scholars, including some close to descriptive translation studies. Hans J. Vermeer, for example, argues that Tuli's early approach was in some sense "meta-prescriptive" in the sense that it set preconditions for the analysis of translation. [5]49 Venuti, on the other hand, argues that "translation studies can never be merely descriptive". He points out that the mere fact of taking translation as a subject of cultural history or cultural criticism is a rebellion against the marginal position of translation in the current cultural hierarchy, and that the choice of a subject in a particular historical period is always related to the current cultural needs. [6] 312 Snell-Hornby has also politely criticized Tuli's insistence on neutrality and objectivity, arguing that value judgment is inevitable in translation studies. [7]25 The criticisms of these scholars are undoubtedly extremely insightful. Since the advocates of translation studies firmly believe that translation is the process and product of multiple factors, and that translators are manipulated by various forces and cannot be independent of their social and cultural environment, why should they think that researchers can be independent of all influences and be completely objective and neutral? In the end, this position is an ideal that is not feasible in actual research.

=== Hermanns and ''Translation in Systems''===
The study of descriptive translation was formed in the late 1970s, developed in the 1980s, consolidated, expanded and revised in the 1990s, and is still flourishing today. Summarizing the development history of descriptive translation in the past 30 years, and pointing out the future development direction, it is undoubtedly helpful to the further development and improvement of this research method. However, it is not easy to make an objective and impartial summary and evaluation of the development of translation studies in these 30-odd years.

Although there is a relatively stable group of research scholars and their own basic theories in descriptive translation, in general, their theories are not mature and stable enough, even the representatives of descriptive translation, such as Zuoha's theories are still in the stage of continuous verification and revision. In addition, although scholars belonging to the same field of descriptive translation share the same general direction of research, it does not mean that their views are identical. There is a big difference between "norm" and Chesterman's "norm". This requires the summarizer to have a clear understanding of the history, development history and the latest development of each school of theory of descriptive translation. Secondly, in addition to a deep and detailed grasp of descriptive translation, the summarizer should also have the ability to grasp the macro and prospect. In other words, he should stand at a high position in the research of descriptive translation, draw the future development prospect of descriptive translation on the basis of summary, and point out the way forward. In other words, he has to take a higher position in the research of descriptive translation, map out the future development prospect of descriptive translation on the basis of summary, and point out the way forward.

The book can be summarized into four parts. The first part mainly consists of the first four chapters, from analyzing the conditions and process of the formation of a new theory, to introducing the early germ of description and system theory and its eventual formation into a new theory in the 1970s, and describing the origin of descriptive translation and its guiding principles. The contents of this part make a good preparation for the following parts, because from the gradual maturation of various relevant factors before the formation of the description and system theory to the final establishment of a complete theory of its own, it reveals the inevitability of its emergence and its broad prospect of development. Chapter 4 introduces Tuli's theory, analyzes the concept of "reciprocity" from different aspects, and then questions the definition of translation, which arouses the reader's sympathy. The second part, chapters five to seven, begins with descriptive translation and introduces different scholars' researches on how to describe the relationship between the original text and the translated text from different angles. The author then introduces the concept of "norm" and introduces the "norm" proposed by Tully and the "norm" proposed by Chesterman respectively. It is a proposal for the study of translation norms. The author then goes on to describe how translation studies began to develop in two different directions after the introduction of the concept of norms, namely, trying to find possible universal rules for translation and going into history, exploring the identity of translation and culture, why we have defined translation accordingly, and how to trace the origins of these ideas. Part III consists of chapters 8-10, which mainly introduce systems theory. Chapter 8 introduces multivariate systems theory, which is the most important and widely-attended theory in systems theory. This chapter introduces the sources, functions and limitations of multivariate systems theory, and points out the deficiencies of this theory, providing a new perspective for future researchers. The following chapters introduce more systems theories. Some of these theories attempt to develop a better systems theory from the limitations of the multiple systems theory, while others use concepts and ideas from other branches of the humanities to develop a completely different theoretical perspective. In particular, Pierre Bourdieu and Niklas Luhmann's theories are described in detail. In the fourth and last two chapters, the author makes a comprehensive criticism of the description and system theory, points out that it needs to be further improved, and then envisages the possible directions of its development: one is to study the history of translation, the other is to provide suitable tools for the study of translation in the current environment, and the third is to deepen the study of translation theory. Compared to the analysis of the previous sections, the last two chapters are somewhat simpler. Of course, it is not easy for any scholar to analyze translation studies so thoroughly.

Scholars who study descriptive translation have proposed that literature should be regarded as "a complex and dynamic system", and that literary translation studies should "adopt a descriptive, target-language-based, functional and systematic research approach". [8]10-11 This viewpoint breaks the traditional research method of many scholars for a long time, that is, from source text to translation, and emphasizes the influence of the ideology, literary concepts and other factors on the translation from the socio-cultural background of the target language, and then describes and studies the translation on the basis of this, in order to find out the various norms that restrict the formation and acceptance of the translation. This is undoubtedly a major reversal of tradition, and also covers a broader scope of research, as more factors in translation will directly affect the formation of the translation, and at the same time, placing the translation in a larger system is also a more severe test for the translator.

===Conclusion===
Descriptive translation studies focuses on the description of translated works, which makes up for the deficiency of traditional translation research, opens up a new perspective in translation research, and contributes to the healthy development of translation discipline. The results of description should help to reveal the essence of translation and deepen the understanding of the translation discipline. Otherwise, it is obviously not very meaningful to do translation research just for the sake of description and be satisfied with a few sentences which are subjective to the described phenomenon without systematic research explanation. We should not only look at translation from a micro perspective, but also establish a macro awareness and grasp the cultural background factors of translation research as a whole. The traditional normative translation research method and descriptive translation research are not mutually exclusive but complementary, and we should take the advantages of each other and combine the two, so that this kind of translation research is a comprehensive translation research.

===References===
[1]李红满.论当代西方翻译研究范式的转变[J].外语与翻译, 2002 (2) .

[2]张美芳.翻译学的目标与结构——霍姆斯的译学构想介评[J].中国翻译, 2000 (2) .

[3]Toury, Gideon.Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond[M].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.

[4]林克难.翻译研究:从规范走向描写[J].中国翻译, 2001 (6) .

[5]Vermeer, Hans J.A Skopos Theory of Translation[M].Heidellburg:TEXT-con, 1996.

[6]Venuti.Lawrence.The Translator’s Invisibility[M].A History of Transla-tion.London&New York:Routledge, 1995.

[7]Snell-Homby, Mary.Translation Studies.AnIntegrated Approach[M].Re-vised ed.Amsterdam:John Benjamins, 1995.

[8]Hemans, Theo, ed.The manipulation of Literature[M].London&Sydney:Croom Helm, 1985.

[9]韩子满, 刘芳.描述翻译研究的成就与不足[J].外语学刊, 2005 (3) .

[10]谢天振.翻译研究新视野[M].青岛:青岛出版社, 2003.

[11]张南峰.从梦想到现实——对翻译学科的东张西望[J].外国语, 1998 (3) .

==An overview of descriptive translation studies and its relationship with normative translation studies 肖伊宁 Xiao Yining==

<center>肖伊宁 Xiao Yining 202020080655</center>

<center>肖伊宁 Xiao Yining 202020080655 亚非语言文学</center>--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Abstract:===
This paper introduces the influence and contribution of James Holmes, Gideon Toury and others on the development of descriptive translation studies. It also discusses the positive significance of descriptive translation research paradigm in the field of translation studies and its limitations. The purpose of this paper is to make readers understand the necessity of descriptive translation study by summarizing its development process and advantages. Meanwhile, by analyzing the relationship between descriptive translation studies and normative translation studies, this paper refutes the views that descriptive translation studies and normative translation studies are mutually exclusive, and deeply understand the status of descriptive translation studies.

This paper introduces the influence and contribution of James Holmes, Gideon Toury and others on the development of descriptive translation studies. It also discusses the positive significance of descriptive translation research paradigm in the field of translation studies and its limitations. The purpose of this paper is to make readers understand the necessity of descriptive translation study by summarizing its development process and advantages. Meanwhile, by analyzing the relationship between descriptive translation studies and normative translation studies, this paper refutes the views that descriptive translation studies and normative translation studies are mutually exclusive, and helps the readers to understand deeply the status of descriptive translation studies.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===摘要：===
本文介绍了詹姆斯·霍姆斯（James Holmes）、图里（Gideon Toury）等人对于描写性翻译研究产生与发展的影响和贡献.同时论述了描写性翻译研究范式对于翻译学研究领域的积极意义和它的局限性。意在通过概述其发展历程和优点让读者了解描写性翻译研究的必要性，同时又通过剖析描写性翻译研究和规范性翻译研究的关系，反驳那些把描写性翻译研究和规范性翻译研究互斥的观点，深刻理解描写性翻译研究的地位。

本文介绍了詹姆斯·霍姆斯（James Holmes）、图里（Gideon Toury）等人对于描写性翻译研究产生与发展的影响和贡献.同时论述了描写性翻译研究范式对于翻译学研究领域的积极意义和它的局限性。意在通过概述其发展历程和优点让读者了解描写性翻译研究的必要性，同时又通过剖析描写性翻译研究和规范性翻译研究的关系，反驳那些把描写性翻译研究和规范性翻译研究互斥的观点，并深刻理解描写性翻译研究的地位。--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Key words:===
descriptive translation studies; normative translation studies; limitation; necessity; relationship.

===关键词：===描写性翻译研究；规范性翻译研究；局限性；必要性；关系.

===Chapter 1 Introduction===

Translation has a history of more than 2000 years. In the long-term and varied translation activities of translation, People have more and more ideas about translation and produced many specific translation theories. For the sustainable development of theories, scholars of different schools in different periods have conducted their own studies on translation from different perspectives. The accumulated research experience from different research perspectives has led to the formation of diverse translation research methods.（Liao Qiyi 2002，5）

Translation has a history of more than 2000 years. In the long-term and varied translation activities, People have more and more ideas about translation and produced many specific translation theories. For the sustainable development of theories, scholars of different schools in different periods have conducted their own studies on translation from different perspectives. The accumulated research experience from different research perspectives have contributed to the formation of diverse translation research methods.（Liao Qiyi 2002，5）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Before the appearance of descriptive translation studies, translation theories tended to be normative both in China and abroad. At the beginning, most of them are inductive summaries of the experience in translation practice. Taking early Translation theories in China as examples, they sumer up the practical experience of translation into famous sayings, which can be used to guide the translation activities of later generations. Such as Yan Fu's "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", Lu Xun's "rahter to be faithful than smooth" and Lin Yutang's "faithfulness smoothness elegance". （Liao Qiyi 2002，6）

Before the appearance of descriptive translation studies, translation theories tended to be normative both in China and abroad. At the beginning, most of them are inductive summaries of tranlation experience. Taking early Translation theories in China as examples, they sumer up the practical experience of translation into famous sayings, which can be used to guide the translation activities of later generations. Such as Yan Fu's "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", Lu Xun's "rahter to be faithful than smooth" and Lin Yutang's "faithfulness smoothness elegance". （Liao Qiyi 2002，6）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In the second half of the 20th century, with the development of linguistics and applied linguistics, the study of translation has become more systematic. Some researchers regard translation as a branch of linguistics. For example, Catford defined translation as replacing textual materials in another language with equivalent materials in one language. Therefore, translation researchers began to use some basic principles of linguistics to describe the translation process and evaluate the translated works. For example, Newmark summarized seven methods of translating metaphors from some specific language structures and phenomena in the source language. (Catford 1965，20)

In the second half of the 20th century, with the development of linguistics and applied linguistics, the translation study has became more systematic. Some researchers regard translation study as a branch of linguistics. For example, Catford defined translation as replacing textual materials in another language with equivalent materials in one language. Therefore, translation researchers began to use some basic principles of linguistics to describe the translation process and evaluate the translated works. For example, Newmark summarized seven methods of translating metaphors from some specific language structures and phenomena in the source language. (Catford 1965，20) --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

However, these translation studies are actually "normative". They all stipulated some norms that all translators should follow in their translation practice regardless of the era, the working objects and the cognitive environment of translators and readers. If you do not follow these norms, you will be considered "misleading readers" or "unfaithful to the original work". Before the 1950s, normative translation theories were highly praised, which were basically unshakable guidelines in the field of translation. However, with the increasing frequency of cross-cultural international communication and the increasing number of translation activities, the requirements for translation theories are becoming more and more diverse. Translation practice needs new theories. People gradually realized that normative translation theories can not solve the various problems encountered in translation. Therefore, translation researchers began to pursue the study of translation in the era, and descriptive translation studies came into being.(Lin Kenan 2001, 44)

However, these translation studies are actually "normative". They all stipulated some norms that all translators should follow in their translation practice regardless of the era, the working objects and the cognitive environment of translators and readers. If you do not follow these norms, you will be considered as "misleading reader" or "unfaithful to the original work". Before the 1950s, normative translation theories were highly praised, which were basically unshakable guidelines in the field of translation. However, with the increasing frequency of cross-cultural international communication and the increasing number of translation activities, the requirements on translation theories varied all the time. Translation practice needs new theories. People gradually realized that normative translation theories can not solve the various problems encountered in translation activities. Therefore, translation researchers began to pursue the study of translation in the era, and descriptive translation studies came into being.(Lin Kenan 2001, 44)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Chapter 2 The emergence and development of descriptive translation studies===

In the 1990s, descriptive translation studies began to rise in foreign countries, but this research method was not formed suddenly. Before that, many scholars pointed out the necessity of descriptive translation studies and the specific assumptions of descriptive translation studies. These assumptions are the solid foundation for the establishment of descriptive translation research method and also the reason for the rapid development of descriptive translation studies.

In the 1990s, descriptive translation studies began to rise in foreign countries, but this research method was not formed suddenly. Before that, many scholars pointed out the necessity of descriptive translation studies and the specific assumptions of descriptive translation studies. These assumptions are the solid foundation for the establishment of descriptive translation research method and also the reason for the rapid development of descriptive translation studies.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.1 John MacFarlane====

In 1953, John MacFarlane published his paper ''Mode of Translation'' in the ''Durhram University Journal''. In the thesis, MacFarlan believes that it is a wrong criticism and comment to deny the role of translation and deprive some translation methods of the right to call themselves translation just because the translation does not realize the equivalence with the original in all aspects. Macfarlane also cites I.A. Richards' view in ''The Principles of Literary Criticism'' that even reading the same work at the same time often has different reading methods.From this we can infer that we must not believe that there is a unique translation. Since the original text has different meanings, it is inevitable that different translations will emerge from it . All translated works can be called translation, but none of them is "ideal" or "real" translation.(Lin Kenan 2001, 44)

In 1953, John MacFarlane published his paper ''Mode of Translation'' in the Durhram University Journal. In his thesis, MacFarlan believes that it is a wrong criticism and comment to deny the role of translation and deprive some translation methods of the right to call themselves translation, just because the translation does not realize the equivalence with the original in all aspects. Macfarlane also cites I.A. Richards' view in ''The Principles of Literary Criticism'' that there are often different reading methods when reading the same work even at the same time.From this we can infer that we must not believe that there is a unique translated version. Since the original text has different meanings, it is inevitable that different translations will emerge from it . All translated works can be called translation, but none of them is "ideal" or "real" translation.(Lin Kenan 2001, 44)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Macfarlane believes that since translation is so complex and elusive, it is impossible for us to draw an absolute standard for accurate translation. But he also called on translation researchers to find a new way to study translation. This new approach should accept the existing translation rather than the one we idealize. It should draw inspiration from the study of the nature of translation, rather than let translation do something it can't do. This is obviously a call for another kind of translation study. Although it does not clearly point out the new way of translation study, it points out that the existing translation research is incomplete and idealistic.Unfortunately, MacFarlane's views did not attract the attention of the field of translation at that time.(Lin Kenan 2001, 44)

Macfarlane believes that since translation is so complex and elusive, it is impossible for us to draw an absolute standard for accurate translation. But he also called on translation researchers to find a new way to study translation. This new approach should accept the existing translation rather than the one we idealize. It should draw inspiration from the study of the nature of translation, rather than let translation do something that it can't do. This is obviously a call for another kind of translation study. Although it does not clearly point out the new way of translation study, it points out that the existing translation research is incomplete and idealistic. Unfortunately, MacFarlane's views did not attract the attention translation field at that time.(Lin Kenan 2001, 44)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.2 Firth====

Since the 1970s, the traditional research on the semantic relationship between the original text and the target text began to decline. For a long time, it has been widely believed that translation should first be the transformation of meaning, and the traditional distinction between literal translation and free translation is the product of this concept. Researchers have begun to challenge this concept and propose to study translation from the perspective of context. Firth is one of the early researchers who pointed out that the structure and system of language should be combined with the structure and system in context.Baker believes that the change from meaning to usage or from concept to environment has promoted the development of descriptive translation studies in general, especially the corpus studies of descriptive translation studies.(Baker 1995, 236-240)

Since the 1970s, the traditional research on the semantic relationship between the original text and the target text began to decline. For a long time, it has been widely believed that translation should first be the transformation of meaning, and this concept has produced the traditional distinction between literal translation and free translation. Researchers have begun to challenge this concept and propose to study translation from the perspective of context. Firth is one of the early researchers who pointed out that the structure and system of language should be combined with the structure and system in context. Baker believes that the change from meaning to usage or from concept to environment has promoted the development of descriptive translation studies in general, especially the corpus studies of descriptive translation studies.(Baker 1995, 236-240) --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.3 James Holmes====

With regard to research methods, scholars have been dissatisfied with the traditional introspective approach to translation studies since the 1970s. James Holmes points out that the weakness and naivety of most contemporary translation theories are caused by introspective research methods. Researchers should investigate functional authentic texts. As the founder of the school of Translation Studies, Holmes pointed out the scope and structural mode involved in the new field of translation studies in his book ''The Name and Nature of Translation Studies''(1972). He believed that the research object of translation studies was the translation that appeared in a certain culture, and the research method was practicing on the basis of experience.(Holmes 1988, 101）

With regard to research methods, scholars have been dissatisfied with the traditional introspective approach to translation studies since the 1970s. James Holmes points out that the weakness and naivety of most contemporary translation theories are caused by introspective research methods. Researchers should investigate functional authentic texts. As the founder of the school of Translation Studies, Holmes pointed out the scope and structural mode involved in the new field of translation studies in his ''The Name and Nature of Translation Studies''(1972). He believed that the research object of translation studies was the translation that appeared in a certain culture, and the research method was practicing on the basis of experience.(Holmes 1988, 101）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

"He divides translation studies into three categories:
(1) Description: to describe the special phenomenon of translation in real life;
(2) Theory: establishing the principle of explaining translation phenomena;
(3) Application: the information obtained from the former two is used in translation practice and translator training."（Liao Qiyi 2002，54）

"He divides translation studies into three categories:
(1) Description: to describe the special phenomenon of translation in real life;
(2) Theory: establishing the principle of explaining translation phenomena;
(3) Application: the information obtained from the former two is used in translation practice and translator training."（Liao Qiyi 2002，54）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

He discusses the dialectical relationship between descriptive translation studies, theoretical translation studies and applied translation studies, and believes that the theoretical branch is subordinate to the descriptive branch, and that only when the description of the translation process reaches a certain level and the collection of practical data reaches a certain amount can the theory have a practical development. Therefore, under the circumstances of frequent translation activities at that time, various translation theories based on experience emerged in an endless stream, but they were mutually exclusive.

He discusses the dialectical relationship among descriptive translation studies, theoretical translation studies and applied translation studies, and believes that the theoretical branch is subordinate to the descriptive branch, and that only when the description of the translation process reaches a certain level and the collection of practical data reaches a certain amount can the theory have a practical development. Therefore, under the circumstances of frequent translation activities at that time, various translation theories based on experience emerged in an endless stream, but they were mutually exclusive. --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

For the sustainable development of translation theory, Holmes proposed the next goal of translation research, that is, to establish a description system of translation, to describe the corresponding symbol system, rules and classification between the original text and the translated text Based on this, a more extensive comparative study was carried out.After the formation of this description system, the goal of translation studies is to establish a comprehensive theory. But this development process is not one-way, but dialectical, each of the three branches must serve the other two branches. "Translation description provides basic data on which translation theories are built. One branch provides materials for the other two branches, and then uses the findings provided by the other two. For example, it is impossible to establish a translation theory without describing the detailed and specific data provided by descriptive research and applied research; however, on the other hand, You have to have at least one intuitive theoretical hypothesis to start studying the other two fields."（Liao Qiyi 2002，55）

For the sustainable development of translation theory, Holmes proposed the next goal of translation research, that is, to establish a description system of translation, to describe the corresponding symbol system, rules and classification between the original text and the translated text. Based on this, a more extensive comparative study was carried out. After the formation of this description system, the goal of translation studies is to establish a comprehensive theory. But this development process is not one-way, but dialectical, each of the three branches must serve the other two branches." Translation description provides basic data on which translation theories are built. One branch provides materials for the other two branches, and then uses the findings provided by the other two. For example, it is impossible to establish a translation theory without describing the detailed and specific data provided by descriptive research and applied research; however, on the other hand, you have to have at least one intuitive theoretical hypothesis to start studying the other two."（Liao Qiyi 2002，55）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Holmes further subdivided each branch. For example, the description branch includes three different descriptions based on translation, function and process. Taking translation work as the starting point requires the description of the actual translation centered on the work. taking the function as the starting point, it is necessary to show the influence of cultural factors on the reader's receptivity of the target text. taking the process as the starting point, it pays attention to the translator's thinking process in the translation.（Liao Qiyi 2002，55）

Holmes further subdivided each branch. For example, the description branch includes three different descriptions based on translation, function and process. Taking translation work as the starting point requires the description of the actual translation centered on the work. taking the function as the starting point, it is necessary to show the influence of cultural factors on the reader's receptivity of the target text. Taking the process as the starting point, it pays attention to the translator's thinking process in the translation.（Liao Qiyi 2002，55）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Compared with traditional translation theories, Holmes' method of describing the translation process shows another change. That is, he tries to better translate a certain symbol type by describing various translation methods in different periods and their usage in history. Holmes’s article is highly influential in that descriptive translation studies has given rise to " a considerable widening of the horizon, since any and all phenomena relating to translation, in the broadest sense, become objects of study." (Hermans 1985, 14).

Compared with traditional translation theories, Holmes' method of describing the translation process shows another change. That is, he tries to better translate a certain symbol type by describing various translation methods in different periods and their usage in history. Holmes’s article is highly influential in that descriptive translation studies has given rise to "a considerable widening of the horizon, since any and all phenomena relating to translation, in the broadest sense, become objects of study." (Hermans 1985, 14).--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

However, it is a pity that descriptive translation studies received little attention in the academic circle at that time, until the Israeli scholar Gideon Toury has made a systematic and comprehensive study of descriptive translation studies on the basis of Holmes. However, the framework of descriptive translation proposed by Holmes still provides a correct direction for the development of translation studies and makes translation studies pay more attention to descriptive translation studies.

However, it is a pity that descriptive translation studies received little attention in the academic circle at that time, until the Israeli scholar Gideon Toury has made a systematic and comprehensive study of descriptive translation studies on the basis of Holmes. However, the framework of descriptive translation proposed by Holmes still provides a correct direction for the development of translation studies and makes translation studies pay more attention to descriptive translation studies.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.4 Polysystem Theory====

In the early 1970s, Zohar first put forward the polysystem theory, shaking the traditional translation view that the original text is Paramount and the translation can only be derived text. "The polysystem（多元体系派） is not satisfied with the achievements made by the translation studies（翻译研究派）. It uses the theoretical system and research methods of Russian formalism for reference, and introduces the concept of "polysystem", which breaks through the boundaries between traditional linguistics and literature. Combined with the theory of translation studies, it makes a thorough study of the factors influencing the translation process and the multiple criteria of translation Research ."（Liao Qiyi 2002, 59）

In the early 1970s, Zohar first put forward the polysystem theory, shaking the traditional translation view that the original text is Paramount and the translation can only be derived text. "The polysystem（多元体系派） is not satisfied with the achievements made by the translation studies（翻译研究派）. It uses the theoretical system and research methods of Russian formalism for reference, and introduces the concept of "polysystem", which breaks through the boundary between traditional linguistics and literature. Combined with the theory of translation studies, it makes a thorough study of the factors influencing the translation process and the multiple criteria of translation Research ."（Liao Qiyi 2002, 59）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

According to Polysystem, literature, politics, religion, economy and other systems are all part of a larger, multi-level and dynamically changing polysystem. In this polysystem, each system is interdependent and interacts with each other. Most of the traditional translation studies are based on the original text to judge the quality of the target text. In fact, the original text is not the only factor determining the target text, and the quality of the target text is not the only problem worth discussing in translation studies. From the choice of translation materials and strategies to the status and function of the target culture, they are influenced by a series of social factors inside and outside the target culture.（Liao Qiyi 2002, 59）

According to Polysystem, literature, politics, religion, economy and other systems are all part of a larger, multi-level and dynamically changing polysystem. In this polysystem, each system is interdependent and interacts with each other. Most of the traditional translation studies are based on the original text to judge the quality of the target text. In fact, the original text is not the only factor determining the target text, and the quality of the target text is not the only problem worth discussing in translation studies. From the choice of translation materials and strategies to the status and function of the target culture, they are influenced by a series of social factors inside and outside the target culture.（Liao Qiyi 2002, 59）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Polysystem theory expands the scope of research, opens up new research approaches, promotes the cultural turn of translation studies, makes us have a more comprehensive understanding of translation phenomena, makes translation studies get rid of the application orientation, and improves the theoretical and academic nature of translation studies.（Zhang Nanfeng 2002, 19）

Polysystem theory expands the scope of research, opens up new research approaches, promotes the cultural turn of translation studies, makes us have a more comprehensive understanding of translation phenomena, makes translation studies get rid of the application orientation, and improves the theoretical and academic nature of translation studies.（Zhang Nanfeng 2002, 19）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.5 Gideon Toury

Toury's translation theory and translation research theory are deeply influenced by Zohar and Holmes. Since 1975, in order to verify Zohar's translation theory, Toury has carried out field research in Tel Aviv University. He wants to find out the systematic rules that restrict translation by collecting the actual choices made in the process of translation. According to his research results, He found that the choice of most translation works is subject to ideology rather than linguistics or aesthetics, and the translations that are inconsistent with the existing translation theories can also be recognized by readers. (Liao Qiyi 2002, 68）

Toury's translation theory and translation research theory are deeply influenced by Zohar and Holmes. Since 1975, in order to verify Zohar's translation theory, Toury has carried out field research in Tel Aviv University. He wants to find out the systematic rules that restrict translation by collecting the actual choices made in the process of translation. According to his research results, He found that the choice of most translation works is subject to ideology rather than linguistics or aesthetics, and the translations who are inconsistent with the existing translation theories can also be recognized by readers. (Liao Qiyi 2002, 68）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

This makes him realize that existing source system centered translation theories are not comprehensive, that makes him start to seek a new translation theory, that is, a comprehensive translation theory based on field research Tuli published his book ''exploration of translation theory''. After the publication of this work, the focus of translation studies shifted from theory to description.From 1980 to 1995, Toury supplemented and revised the descriptive translation theory on the basis of Holmes. His book ''Descriptive Translation Studies–and beyond'' is the practice and application of Holmes' descriptive translation theory. The book has also become the most comprehensive and systematic work on translation studies. He proposed that the descriptive nature of translation and the status and function of the target language are determined by the culture of the target language. (Liao Qiyi 2002, 69）

This makes him realize that existing source system centered translation theories are not comprehensive, thus makes him start to seek a new translation theory, that is, a comprehensive translation theory based on field research Tuli published in his book ''exploration of translation theory''. After the publication of this work, the focus of translation studies shifted from theory to description. From 1980 to 1995, Toury supplemented and revised the descriptive translation theory on the basis of Holmes. His book ''Descriptive Translation Studies–and beyond'' is the practice and application of Holmes' descriptive translation theory. The book has also become the most comprehensive and systematic work on translation studies. He proposed that the descriptive nature of translation and the status and function of the target language are determined by the culture of the target language. (Liao Qiyi 2002, 69）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Translation is restricted by a series of norms, which are culturally relevant within the cultural framework of the target language on which the translator relies. According to Toury, descriptive translation studies are based on norms and guided by rules. The purpose of descriptive translation studies is to analyze the general rules of translation by comparing the source text with the target text. He proposes that the production of translation involves the literary background in the target culture. The concept of "one to one correspondence" in translation and the translation requirements of literary and linguistic equivalence are abandoned. It shakes the idea that the original information is invariable. It also puts forward the idea that the original text and the translation should be integrated in the cultural system.(Liao Qiyi 2002, 69）

Translation is restricted by a series of norms, which are culturally relevant within the cultural framework of the target language on which the translator relies. According to Toury, descriptive translation studies are based on norms and guided by rules. The purpose of descriptive translation studies is to analyze the general rules of translation by comparing the source text with the target text. He proposes that the production of translation involves the literary background in the target culture. The concept of "one to one correspondence" in translation and the translation requirements of literary and linguistic equivalence are abandoned. It shakes the idea that the original information is invariable. It also puts forward the idea that the original text and the translation should be integrated in the cultural system.(Liao Qiyi 2002, 69）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In 1989, JoséLambert and Toury founded an international journal target, which is subtitled "International Journal of translation studies" and covers academic works on descriptive translation studies. This is another impetus to expand descriptive translation studies internationally.

In 1989, JoséLambert and Toury founded an international journal target, which is subtitled "International Journal of translation studies" and covers academic works on descriptive translation studies. This is another impetus to expand descriptive translation studies internationally. --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Gideon Toury also analyzes the reasons for the stagnant development of descriptive translation studies in his works："One of the main reasons for the prevailing underdevelopment of a descriptive branch within Translation Studies has no doubt been an overriding orientation towards practical applications,which has marked-and marred-scholarly work at least since the nineteen sixties.Thus, whereas for most empirical sciences, including even Linguistics, such applications-important as they may be-are presented merely as extensions into the world, the immediate needs of particular applications of Translation Studies have often been taken as a major constraint on the formation of the theory itself, or even as the very reason for its existence. Small wonder that a scholarly framework geared almost exclusively towards applicability in practice should show preference for prescriptivism at the expense of description, explanation and prediction. " (Toury 2012. xii)

Gideon Toury also analyzes the reasons for the stagnant development of descriptive translation studies in his works："One of the main reasons for the prevailing underdevelopment of a descriptive branch within Translation Studies has no doubt been an overriding orientation towards practical applications, which has marked-and marred-scholarly work at least since the nineteen sixties.Thus, whereas for most empirical sciences, including even Linguistics, such applications-important as they may be-are presented merely as extensions into the world, the immediate needs of particular applications of Translation Studies have been often taken as a major constraint on the formation of the theory itself, or even as the very reason for its existence. Small wonder that a scholarly framework geared almost exclusively towards applicability in practice should show preference for prescriptivism at the expense of description, explanation and prediction. " (Toury 2012. xii)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

He criticizes this phenomenon and thinks that most descriptive research is conducted in other disciplines other than translation studies, such as contrastive linguistics, contrastive textualism, comparative literature and stylistic comparison, which is a kind of behavior that the translation circle is avoiding the research within its own scope of competence.

He criticizes this phenomenon and thinks that most descriptive research is conducted in other disciplines other than translation studies, such as contrastive linguistics, contrastive textualism, comparative literature and stylistic comparison, which is a kind of behavior that the translation circle is avoiding the research within its own scope of competence.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.6 Snell-Hornby

In the 1990s, more linguists began to question the traditional concept of equivalence and the status of the original text. Snell - Homb said :“Equivalence is unsuitable as a basic concept in translation theory : the term equivalence, apart from being imprecise and ill-defined..presents an illusion of symmetry between languages which hardly exists beyond the level of vague approximations and which distorts the basic problems of translation." (Mary Snell-Hornby 1988，22) She is critical of the traditional literary translation theory and the translation theory of the linguistic school in the 1960s (especially the manipulation school). She agrees with the opinion of the translation studies that translation study should not be subordinate to comparative literature, linguistics or other disciplines, but should be an independent discipline, and should adopt a holistic and integrated approach to the study of translation.

In the 1990s, more linguists began to question the traditional concept of equivalence and the status of the original text. Snell - Homb said :“Equivalence is unsuitable as a basic concept in translation theory : the term equivalence, apart from being imprecise and ill-defined，presents an illusion of symmetry between languages which hardly exists beyond the level of vague approximations and which distorts the basic problems of translation." (Mary Snell-Hornby 1988，22) She is critical of the traditional literary translation theory and the translation theory of the linguistic school in the 1960s (especially the manipulation school). She agrees with the opinion of the translation studies that translation study should not be subordinate to comparative literature, linguistics or other disciplines, but should be an independent discipline, and should adopt a holistic and integrated approach to the study of translation. --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Other scholars tried to further develop the concept of equivalence and classify it. They pointed out that in addition to exploring the source text, it is also very important to study the target language and its specific text types.Therefore, translation studies should investigate the real texts in the original and target languages. This research demand has made the descriptive translation studies develop rapidly and gradually take the place of normative translation studies and occupy the central position in translation studies. "Description" has become a new trend in translation studies. And Mary Snell Hornby's ''Translation Studies:An Integrated Approach'' is regarded as a major force in translation studies. (Wang Peng 2008, 96)

Other scholars tried to further develop the concept of equivalence and classify it. They pointed out that in addition to exploring the source text, it is also very important to study the target language and its specific text types. Therefore, translation studies should investigate the real texts in the original and target languages. This research demand has made the descriptive translation studies develop rapidly and gradually take the place of normative translation studies and occupy the central position in translation studies. "Description" has become a new trend in translation studies. And Mary Snell Hornby's ''Translation Studies:An Integrated Approach'' is regarded as a major force in translation studies. (Wang Peng 2008, 96)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Chapter 3 The relationship between normative translation studies and descriptive translation studies===

====3.1 The value of descriptive translation studies and the limitations of normative translation studies====

In fact, the traditional western translation research paradigm is normative translation research, that is, normative translation research approach, or a kind of translation research that sets standards to specify how to translate well in a specific culture. Traditional normative translation studies focus on the comparison of texts, trying to explore the law of language conversion, judge the quality of the translation, and then provide specific guidance for translation practice.

In fact, the traditional western translation research paradigm is normative translation research, that is, normative translation research approach, or a kind of translation research that sets standards to specify how to translate well in a specific culture. Traditional normative translation studies focus on the comparison of texts, trying to explore the law of language conversion, judge the quality of the translation, and then provide specific guidance for translation practice.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Generally speaking, normative translation studies have the following characteristics：the establishment of eternal principles or standards for translation is usually based on the translator's personal experience in solving specific translation problems for others to follow, regardless of the number of readers and socio-cultural background changes. It is often taken for granted that any betrayal of these rules at the linguistic level should be labeled as disloyal, structurally heavy or misleading, regardless of the historical background and context of translation. The academic interest in seeking code conversion mechanism and setting translation principles or standards can be understood as efforts to make up for the lack of understanding and expression ability at the language level. （Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，98)

Generally speaking, normative translation studies have the following characteristics：the establishment of eternal principles or standards for translation is usually based on the translator's personal experience in solving specific translation problems for others to follow, regardless of the number of readers and socio-cultural background changes. It is often taken for granted that any betrayal of these rules at the linguistic level should be labeled as disloyal, structurally heavy or misleading, regardless of the historical background and context of translation. The academic interest in seeking code conversion mechanism and setting translation principles or standards can be understood as efforts to make up for the lack of understanding and expression ability at the language level. （Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，98)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Maria Tymoczko believes that："As a language art, translation has often been considered from the viewpoint of timeless linguistic rules(which has led to a normative tendency in the theory.)" (Maria Tymoczko 1999, 25) Because in the early days, people only regarded translation as a kind of language art, and didn't pay much attention to the cultural environment. Even when it came to culture, they finally focused on the specific translation skills. Because they paid too much attention to the study of translation skills, normative translation research was always inseparable from the debate between literal translation and free translation.

Maria Tymoczko believes that："As a language art, translation has often been considered from the viewpoint of timeless linguistic rules(which has led to a normative tendency in the theory.)" (Maria Tymoczko 1999, 25) Because in the early days, people only regarded translation as a kind of language art, and didn't pay much attention to the cultural environment. Even when it came to culture, they finally focused on the specific translation skills. Because they paid too much attention to the study of translation skills, normative translation research was always inseparable from the debate between literal translation and free translation.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Is there an absolute norm to follow in translation? Translation is a social and cultural activity involving two cultures, so it is bound to be restricted by two different cultural norms. Translation is by no means merely a language transformation in the sense, and the recognition and acceptance of a certain translation strategy cannot be determined by the translator's personal ability. It is restricted by many factors such as history, society, culture, politics, aesthetic taste and readers' expectation. In this sense, there is no absolute norm. （Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，97)

Is there an absolute norm to follow in translation? Translation is a social and cultural activity involving two cultures, so it is bound to be restricted by two different cultural norms. Translation is by no means merely a language transformation in the sense, and the recognition and acceptance of a certain translation strategy cannot be determined by the translator's personal ability. It is restricted by many factors such as history, society, culture, politics, aesthetic taste and readers' expectation. In this sense, there is no absolute norm. （Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，97)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Normative translation theories pay too much attention to the transcendental statement of translation and set standards or principles to ensure the quality of translation. This undoubtedly limits translation studies and makes translation scholars feel suffocated. Because of these limitations in normative translation studies, the further development of translation studies has been hindered, so the necessity of descriptive studies have been reversed. In order to have a more comprehensive understanding of translation, descriptive translation studies have gradually developed and given full play to their value：

Normative translation theories pay too much attention to the transcendental statement of translation and set standards or principles to ensure the quality of translation. This undoubtedly limits translation studies and makes translation scholars feel suffocated. Because of these limitations in normative translation studies, the further development of translation studies has been hindered, so the necessity of descriptive studies have been reversed. In order to have a more comprehensive understanding of translation, descriptive translation studies have gradually developed and given full play to their value：--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

(1) First of all, descriptive translation studies have made great contributions to the development of translation studies. Translation phenomenon, which has always been on the edge, has entered the field of vision of translation researchers. Before the advent of descriptive translation studies, it was generally believed that only the translated works which are fully equivalent to the original text can be regarded as translation. Therefore, at that time, people criticized the translation works that did not achieve complete equivalence, and even did not include them in translation studies. Translation studies have always been limited to the study of equivalence between texts.

(1) First of all, descriptive translation studies have made great contributions to the development of translation studies. Translation phenomenon, which has always been on the edge, has entered the field of vision of translation researchers. Before the advent of descriptive translation studies, it was generally believed that only the translated works which are fully equivalent to the original text can be regarded as translation. Therefore, at that time, people criticized the translation works that did not achieve complete equivalence, and even did not include them in translation studies. Translation studies have always been limited by the study of equivalence between texts. --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

However, descriptive translation researchers believe that as long as they appear in the target culture in the face of translation or the target language readers think that they are translations, all texts can be called "translation" In this way, the scope of translation studies has been expanded. Some extreme but factual translation phenomena, such as conversion(translating through an intermediary language) and pseudo-translation (translating without the original text), have been brought into the scope of translation studies.(Toury 2012, 32)

However, descriptive translation researchers believe that as long as they appear in the target culture in the face of translation or the target language readers think that they are translations, all texts can be called "translation". In this way, the scope of translation studies has been expanded. Some extreme but factual translation phenomena, such as conversion (translating through an intermediary language) and pseudo-translation (translating without the original text), have been brought into the scope of translation studies.(Toury 2012, 32)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

(2)Secondly, descriptive translation studies no longer focus on the static text system as the previous normative translation studies, but pay more attention to the dynamic relationship between translation practice and the ever-changing social and cultural environment of the target language. This chagemakes people realize that in order to study translation more systematically and comprehensively,the method of contextlization should be adopted. Only by putting the translated works back into the historical environment and socio-cultural context of their creation can the translation phenomenon be described more accurately. For example, Piao (gone with the wind) translated by Fu Donghua is the object of criticism by many scholars who advocate foreignization translation. Some scholars claim that domestication is "the wrong way of translation". (Liu Yingkai 1987, 22)

(2)Secondly, descriptive translation studies no longer focus on the static text system as the previous normative translation studies, but pay more attention to the dynamic relationship between translation practice and the ever-changing social and cultural environment of the target language. This chagemakes people realize that in order to study translation more systematically and comprehensively,the method of contextlization should be adopted. Only by putting the translated works back into the historical environment and socio-cultural context of their creation can the translation phenomenon be described more accurately. For example, Piao (gone with the wind) translated by Fu Donghua is the object of criticism by many scholars who advocate foreignization translation. Some scholars claim that domestication is "a wrong way of translation". (Liu Yingkai 1987, 22) --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The example they cited is Fu's ''Piao(Gone with the Wind)''However, in the analysis, they have not made in-depth discussion on the reasons for Fu's choice of domestication, and have not noticed that there are many examples of extreme Foreignization in his early translation works. Therefore, it seems unfair to criticize Fu. It is only in early 21st century that this problem has gradually attracted the attention of scholars. Some scholars compare Fu's ''Piao(Gone with the Wind)''with Li Yeguang and others’ translations ,and compare several macro cultural factors influencing Fu Donghua's ''Piao(Gone with the Wind)''. They came to the conclusion that "the gain and loss of a work should be measured from the perspective of history"(冯庆华、王昱1998 :56)This example illustrates the value of descriptive translation studies, that is, to make a diachronic study of translation phenomena, rather than merely confined to synchronic studies.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，98)

The example they cited is Fu's ''Piao(Gone with the Wind)''However, in the analysis, they have not made in-depth discussion on the reasons for Fu's choice of domestication, and have not noticed that there are many examples of extreme Foreignization in his early translation works. Therefore, it seems unfair to criticize Fu. It is only in early 21st century that this problem has gradually attracted the attention of scholars. Some scholars compare Fu's ''Piao(Gone with the Wind)'' with Li Yeguang and others' translations, and compare several macro cultural factors influencing Fu Donghua's ''Piao(Gone with the Wind)''. They came to the conclusion that "the gain and loss of a work should be measured from the perspective of history"(冯庆华、王昱1998 :56) This example illustrates the value of descriptive translation studies, that is, to make a diachronic study of translation phenomena, rather than merely confined to synchronic studies.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，98) --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====3.2 The limitations of descriptive translation studies and the value of normative translation studies====

First of all, descriptive translation studies are not perfect at present. Toury believes that the fundamental purpose of descriptive translation studies is to establish these potential norms and their influence on translators' choice of translation strategies. However, he seems to go to another extreme, regarding the target language and its culture as everything, completely ignoring the role of the source language and the translator in the process of translation. Moreover, he has not discussed in detail how these factors restrict the translator, how the translator makes the choice and why he makes such a choice. Therefore, although his theory has certain progressive significance and reference, it is not perfect.(Liu Zongyan 2008, 201)

First of all, descriptive translation studies are not perfect yet. Toury believes that the fundamental purpose of descriptive translation studies is to establish these potential norms and their influence on translators' choice of translation strategies. However, he seems to go to another extreme, regarding the target language and its culture as everything, completely ignoring the role of the source language and the translator in the process of translation. Moreover, he has not discussed in detail how these factors restrict the translator, how the translator makes the choice and why he makes such a choice. Therefore, although his theory has certain progressive significance and reference, it is not perfect.(Liu Zongyan 2008, 201) --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Moreover, descriptive translation studies emphasize the objectivity and neutrality of the researchers and avoid value judgment too much. Descriptive translation studies advocate that researchers should be objective, neutral and detached from the research objects. Toury clearly believes that the study of culture and history can be neutral. In his works, he tried to show an objective appearance by using a lot of scientific terms. Dirk Delabastita and Lieven D'hulst, in their collection European Shakespeares, repeatedly stressed that translation researchers should maintain a "detached and purely descriptive attitude." ( Hermans 1999 , 36)

Moreover, descriptive translation studies emphasize the objectivity and neutrality of the researchers and avoid value judgment too much. Descriptive translation studies advocate that researchers should be objective, neutral and detached from the research objects. Toury believes clearly that the study of culture and history can be neutral. In his works, he tried to show an objective appearance by using a lot of scientific terms. Dirk Delabastita and Lieven D'hulst, in their collection European Shakespeares, repeatedly stressed that translation researchers should maintain a "detached and purely descriptive attitude." ( Hermans 1999 , 36)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

This requirement has been questioned by many scholars, including some closely related to descriptive translation studies. For example, Hans J. Vermeer thinks that Toury's early research methods are in fact "meta - prescriptive" in a sense, because he sets the preconditions for the analysis of translation.(Vermeer 1996 :49) Lawrence Venuti proposed that "translation studies can never be merely descriptive". He pointed out that merely taking translation as a research topic of cultural history or cultural criticism is already a resistance to the marginal position of translation in the current cultural hierarchy, and the choice of topics in a specific historical period is always related to the current cultural needs.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，99)

This requirement has been questioned by many scholars, including some closely related to descriptive translation studies. For example, Hans J. Vermeer thinks that Toury's early research methods are in fact "meta - prescriptive" in a sense, because he sets the preconditions for the analysis of translation.(Vermeer 1996 :49) Lawrence Venuti proposed that "translation studies can never be merely descriptive". He pointed out that merely taking translation as a research topic of cultural history or cultural criticism is already a resistance to the marginal position of translation in the current cultural hierarchy, and the choice of topics in a specific historical period is always related to the current cultural needs.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，99)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

On the other hand, descriptive translation studies are not helpful to people's understanding of the merits and demerits of specific translation works. Excessive promotion of descriptive translation studies will not be conducive to the improvement of translation quality, and even have a negative impact on translation practice.

On the other hand, descriptive translation studies are not helpful to people's understanding of the merits and demerits of specific translation works. Excessive promotion of descriptive translation studies will not be conducive to the improvement of translation quality, and even have a negative impact on translation practice. --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Normative translation studies have been overemphasized and become rigid dogma. It is only an incomplete research method, and it is not wrong. Moreover, for some texts, descriptive translation theory can not meet their requirements. For example, legal texts and dictionary texts are very formal texts. The use of words and syntactic structure have strict requirements, and the translation of such texts has a high requirement for faithfulness. At this time, the value of normative translation research is reflected.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005, 99)

Normative translation studies have been overemphasized and become rigid dogma. It is only an incomplete research method, and it is not wrong. Moreover, for some texts, descriptive translation theory can not meet their requirements. For example, legal texts and dictionary texts are very formal texts. The use of words and syntactic structure have strict requirements, and the translation of such texts has a high requirement for faithfulness. At this time, the value of normative translation research is reflected.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005, 99)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====3.3 The relationship between prescriptive translation studies and descriptive translation studies====

In linguistics, norms and descriptions are a pair of relative theoretical principles and two relative methodological categories. The traditional translation principles only focus on principles, standards, methods and techniques, which are normative studies. Nowadays, translation studies focus on description, which is composed of linguistics, literary criticism theory, psychology, philosophy, sociology, culture, etc. According to the above analysis, the two are complementary. The value of descriptive translation studies lies in its ability to make up for the limitations of normative translation studies. Normative translation studies also play an irreplaceable role in the translation of some special texts. Therefore, we can't think about the relationship between the two from the perspective of binary opposition. Although they are two opposite concepts, they are not incompatible.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005, 100. )

In linguistics, norms and descriptions are a pair of relative theoretical principles and two relative methodological categories. The traditional translation principles only focus on principles, standards, methods and techniques, which are normative studies. Nowadays, translation studies focus on description, which is composed of linguistics, literary criticism theory, psychology, philosophy, sociology, culture, etc. According to the above analysis, the two are complementary. The value of descriptive translation studies lies in its ability to make up for the limitations of normative translation studies. Normative translation studies also play an irreplaceable role in the translation of some special texts. Therefore, we can't think about the relationship between the two from the perspective of binary opposition. Although they are two opposite concepts, they are not incompatible.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005, 100. )--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The view of binary opposition can not deal with complex translation studies. The application of the two research methods should be flexible. We should choose the appropriate method according to different research objects. We need to have multiple coexistence Thinking. As for the debate about which is better or worse, in the author's opinion, it is unnecessary. Nida has also stressed that "translation theory should be inclusive, and various means should be used to solve various problems in translation."(Liao Qiyi 2002, 6)In fact, the development of descriptive translation studies is not to overthrow the traditional normative translation theories, but to criticize the lack of normative translation theories and supplement the normative research.

The view of binary opposition can not deal with complex translation studies. The application of the two research methods should be flexible. We should choose the appropriate method according to different research objects. We need to have multiple coexistence Thinking. As for the debate about which is better or worse, in the author's opinion, it is unnecessary. Nida has also stressed that "translation theory should be inclusive, and various means should be used to solve various problems in translation."(Liao Qiyi 2002, 6) In fact, the development of descriptive translation studies is not to overthrow the traditional normative translation theories, but to criticize the lack of normative translation theories and supplement the normative research.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Chapter 4 Conclusion===

Translation was officially recognized as an independent discipline more than 30 years, is a very young discipline, but in fact, the history of translation activities is not short，There are a lot of translation theories in both China and the West. However, due to the lag of descriptive translation studies, there is still a lot of space for research. Both Chinese and Western scholars believe that the ultimate goal of translation studies is to establish translation norms and principles, which are not the summary of previous personal experience, but the basis of a large number of descriptive translation studies On the basis of the standard.

Translation was officially recognized as an independent discipline more than 30 years, is a very young discipline, but in fact, the history of translation activities is not short. There are a lot of translation theories in both China and the West. However, due to the lag of descriptive translation studies, there is still a lot of space for research. Both Chinese and Western scholars believe that the ultimate goal of translation studies is to establish translation norms and principles, which are not the summary of previous personal experience, but the basis of a large number of descriptive translation studies On the basis of the standard.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Descriptive and normative are the dual attributes of any discipline. Descriptiveness is the basis, premise and condition of normalization. Normalization is the development, result and purpose of descriptive. Translation studies are both descriptive and normative. It is the unity of opposites between descriptive and normative. In other words, descriptive translation studies and normative translation studies are like the positive and negative sides of a coin, It cannot be separated . It is one-sided and wrong to emphasize only the standardization of translation or the description of translation.

Descriptive and normative are the dual attributes of any discipline. Descriptiveness is the basis, premise and condition of normalization. Normalization is the development, result and purpose of descriptive. Translation studies are both descriptive and normative. It is the unity of opposites between descriptive and normative. In other words, descriptive translation studies and normative translation studies are like the positive and negative sides of a coin, It cannot be separated . It is one-sided and wrong to emphasize only the standardization of translation or the description of translation.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Descriptive translation studies are intended to explain the process and phenomenon of translation. Compared with the micro analysis of normative translation studies, it studies translation from a macro perspective. Although there are still some deficiencies in descriptive translation theory, descriptive translatology provides a new perspective and analysis approach for translation studies, which deserves our attention and development.

Descriptive translation studies are intended to explain the process and phenomenon of translation. Compared with the micro-analysis of normative translation studies, it studies translation from a macro perspective. Although there are still some deficiencies in descriptive translation theory, descriptive translatology provides a new perspective and analysis approach for translation studies, which deserves our attention and development.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Chapter 5 Reference===
Baker. (1995). Corpora Linguistics and Translation Studies: an Overview and Some Suggestions for Future Reseearch. Target.

J.C.Catford. (1965). A Linguistic Theory Of Translation. Oxford:Oxford University Press, 20.

Hermans,Theo. (1985). The Manipulation of Literature: Studies in Literary Translation. Beckenham: Croom Helm.

Hermans,Theo. (1999) . Translation in Systems . Manchester: St Jerome Publishing.

Holmes,J.S. (1988). Translated Papers on Literary Translation and Translation Studies. Amsterdam: Rodopi.

Meria Tymoczko. (1999). Translation in a Postcolonial Context - Early Irish Literature in English Translation. St.Jerome Publishing.

Snell-Hornby.(1988). Translation Studies: An Integrated Approach. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins.

Han Ziman 韩子满，Liu Fang 刘芳（2005）. 描述翻译研究的成就与不足[Achievements and Shortcomings of Descriptive Translation Studies]. 外语学刊[Foreign Language Research](03).

Liao Qiyi 廖七一. (2002). 当代西方翻译理论探索[Exploration of contemporary Western translation theories]

Lin Kenan 林克难. (2001).翻译研究：从规范走向描写[Translation Studies: From the Prescriptive
to the Descriptive Approach].中国翻译[Chinese Translation Journal](06).

Liu Zongya 刘宗衍. 浅谈翻译理论的“规范”性[On the "Normative" Nature of Translation Theory]. 科技资讯[Science & Technology Information]

Wang Peng 王鹏. (2008). 描写翻译研究及其方法[Descriptive Translation Studies and its methodology]. 四川外语学院学报[Journal of Sichuan International Studies University](04).

Zhang Nanfeng 张南峰.(2002).多元体系理论[Polysystem Theory]. 中国翻译[Chinese Translation Journal](02).

==Translation Strategies Sagara Seydou, Student No :201911080004, Major:Translation Studies==

Translation Strategies

==Abstract ==

Much work has been done in recent years on translation strategies. However, the definition offered by each author or theorist represents his/her own point of view and their views differ from each other. Most theorists agree that strategies are used by translators when they encounter a problem and literal translation does not work. Therefore, different researchers have investigated and described various translation strategies from their own perspectives. Some best-known theories of this field are described and compared to each other in this paper. The purpose of this study is to show the different theories in the field of translation strategies and to offer a general literature review to facilitate the study of translation strategies in future studies.

Key words: translation strategies and translational problems.

This study includes four main sections: 1. Introduction; 2. Content; 3. Conclusions; 4. References;

==Introduction==

The term “strategy” in “translation strategies” is often used synonymously with such terms as “procedure,” “technique,” “method,” “tactic,” “approach,” and so forth. Their meanings overlap, and translation researchers deﬁne them in various ways. Despite the terminological confusion, discussions of translation strategies can be traced back to Cicero’s advocacy of sense-for-sense translation in 46 BC, and are widely covered in translation textbooks for their pedagogical signiﬁcance. This topic also relates to broad theoretical issues in translation studies. (Wikipedia n.d)

==Content==

Researchers have attempted to distinguish translation strategy from its synonyms, and to develop their own classiﬁcations from different perspectives. For example, Lörscher’s (1991) classiﬁcation is based on a cognitive approach, while Chesterman’s (1997) differentiation uses a textual approach. Yet, the conceptual confusion has not been dispelled. This entry tries to distinguish translation strategies, techniques, and procedures, and to consolidate existing classiﬁcations. It seems that clear-cut deﬁnitions of these terms might not work as well as prototype deﬁnitions. Most researchers would agree that the two prototype translation strategies are literal translation and free translation. Chesterman’s (1997)
The former focuses on the level of words, while the latter goes beyond the word level and emphasizes the creation of a target text that sounds natural in the target language. These two strategies are described in a variety of oppositions: word-for-word translation versus sense-for-sense translation; source-oriented translation versus target-oriented translation; direct translation versus oblique translation (by Vinay and Darbelnet); adequacy versus acceptability; formal equivalence versus dynamic equivalence (by Eugene Nida); semantic translation versus communicative translation (by Peter Newmark);overt translation versus covert translation (by Juliane House); documentary versus instrumental translation (by Christiane Nord); foreignization versus domestication (by LawrenceVenuti), and so on. While these binary oppositions have much in common, they reﬂect different perspectives and emphasize different translation aims and effects. For instance, word-for-word translation and sense-for-sense translation are text-level or segment-level strategies. Nida’s (1964) formal equivalence versus dynamic equivalence is mainly from a linguistic perspective and involves reader response. The domesticating translation versus foreignizing translation pair, proposed by Venuti (1995), reﬂects a cultural interventionist perspective. The two strategies affect the choice of text for translation as well as the translation process. Venuti advocates the foreignizing strategy in order to “register the linguistic and cultural differences of the foreign text” (1995, p. 81)

The “literal versus free” debate has been one of the central issues in translation theory and criticism throughout the ages. However, it is now generally believed that this dichotomous debate is relatively sterile, as the two strategies are part of a continuum, and the selection of a strategy is a function of the theoretical assumption of “what is a translation” text type (e.g., serious literature, children’s literature, technical texts, print advertisements), domain (e.g., IT, legal), function (e.g., for publication, information, or light entertainment), prestige of the source text (e.g., the Bible, pulp ﬁction), motivation(e.g., payment), and other factors (or constraints). (Hatim & Munday,2004, p. 230)

Having discussed the two prototype strategies, let us turn to the deﬁnitional question: what is a translation strategy? Lörscher (1991), Chesterman (1997), and other researchers agree on a few deﬁning characteristics of a translation strategy: (a) it is goal-oriented,(b) it is problem-centered, (c) it requires making coordinated decisions, (d) it is potentially conscious, and (e) it involves text manipulation. The aforementioned two prototype translation strategies have these characteristics. Since a translation strategy involves problem solving, a categorization of translation problems would correspond to a categorization of translation strategies. The difﬁculty with this, however, is that there are a number of ways in which problems can be categorized. For instance, the categorization criterion can be the prior knowledge required to solve them, the nature of the goal involved, and the complexity of the problems involved (Robertson, 2001, p. 6).
Problems, according to their scale, can be divided into global (or general) problems and local (or speciﬁc) problems. Jääskeläinen (1993, p. 116) makes a corresponding distinction between global strategies (i.e., “the translator’s general principles and preferred modes of action”) and local strategies (i.e., “speciﬁc activities in relation to the translator’s problem-solving and decision-making”). Global strategies might be dictated by or with the commissioner while local strategies are up to the translator. In addition, local strategies are designed to handle speciﬁc problems and need to be consistent with the chosen global strategy. Jääskeläinen found that global strategies are much more frequently and consistently used by professional translators than by nonprofessionals. From Jääskeläinen’s perspective, literal and free translation strategies are global strategies since the translator has to think about the goal of the translation and how the target text should affect the readers. The global strategy chosen will affect the translation process. Since local strategies are immediately followed by speciﬁc techniques, which affect the translation result and the micro-units of the text, and are classiﬁed by comparison with the source text (Molina & Hurtado Albir, 2002, p. 509).

As translators grow in competence, some former translation problems will no longer present an obstacle to them; some of their local strategies become semiconscious or unconscious, and the use of certain techniques to cope with certain problems is automatized. Vinay and Darbelnet’s (2000) taxonomy of translation techniques (which they call “procedures”) has a wide impact. They did a comparative stylistic analysis of French and English, and divided the seven procedures they discovered into two general strategies: direct/literal translation and oblique translation. The former includes: (a) borrowing (i.e., borrowing a word or expression from the source language, such as the Chinese word“kung Fu” in modern English); (b) calque (which is a kind of borrowing whereby the structure of the original word or phrase is maintained but its morphemes are replaced by those of the target language; for example, the Chinese word “motian dalou,” literally “sky-scraping big building,” is a calque of skyscraper); (c) Literal translation. Oblique translation includes: (d)transposition (i.e., changing the word class or grammatical structure without changing the meaning of the message, as in rendering a noun in the source text into a verb in the target text); (e)modulation (i.e., changing the point of view or cognitive category in relation to the source text, as in rendering a negative construction into a positive one: “not complicated” becomes “easy”); (f)equivalence (e.g., translating “to kill two birds with one stone” into Chinese as “to kill two eagles with one arrow”); (g) adaptation (i.e., a shift in cultural reference when the type of situation being referred to by the source text is unknown in the target culture, such as using the word “seal” for sheep when translating the Bible into Inuktitut).Among local translation strategies, Chesterman (1997) distinguishes between comprehension strategies (for understanding and analyzing the source text) and production strategies(for the production of the target text). From a linguistic perspective, he divides productions strategies into mainly syntactic/grammatical, mainly semantic, and mainly pragmatic, with each category containing 10 techniques. Syntactic strategies involve purely syntactic changes, manipulate form, and include such techniques as calque, transposition, and sentence structure change. Semantic strategies mainly pertain to changes concerning lexical semantics. They manipulate meaning and contain techniques such as synonymy, emphasis change, and paraphrase. Pragmatic strategies have to do with the selection of information in the target text, and often involve syntactic or semantic changes as well. Pragmatic strategies include cultural ﬁltering, explicitness change, information change, trans editing, and so forth. Some of these techniques are obligatory during translation in a given language pair, while most are optional .Many researchers (e.g., Lörscher, 1991) believe that a translation strategy is a procedure or a sequence of actions.(Molina & Hurtado Albir, 2002, p. 509).

However, this is not consonant with the dictionary deﬁnitions of strategy. According to the Oxford English dictionary, strategy refers to “a plan for successful action based on the rationality and interdependence of the moves of the opposing participants,” while procedure is deﬁned as “[t]he fact or manner of proceeding with any action, or in any circumstance or situation; a system of proceeding; proceeding, in reference to its mode or method; conduct, behavior.” Krings (1986, p. 268) deﬁnes translation strategies as “potentially conscious plans for solving a translation problem.” Strategies involve adopting procedures to solve problems, and the chosen procedure will inﬂuence the result .Now let us turn our attention to translation procedures (referred to as “translation strategies” by some researchers) and procedural steps. Gerloff (1986) identiﬁed the following text processing strategies: (a) problem identiﬁcation, (b) linguistic analysis, (c) storage and retrieval, (d) general search and selection, (e) in ferencing and reasoning strategies,(f) text contextualization, (g) editing, and (h) task monitoring. In his empirical studies, Lörscher (1991) recognized 22 elements constituting translation strategies (or procedural steps), including nine original ones and 13 potential ones, such as realizing a translational problem, preliminary solution to a translational problem, and the mental organization of source-language text segments. During the translation process, these elements are combined by translators into basic structures. He found that professional and nonprofessional translators differ in the distribution and frequency of the strategies employed, but do not differ qualitatively; that is, their mental processes do not reveal signiﬁcant differences. He concluded that it is impossible to ascertain “[w]hen faced with problem X, [translators] employ strategy Y,” but we can ﬁnd out “[w]hen several [translators] are faced with a problem X, many or most of them employ similar or the same types of strategy” (p. 280) ==
Darwish (2008) identiﬁes four distinct translation procedures employed in translating: recursive strategy (i.e., a circular and revisional process), waterfall strategy (i.e., a sequential unit-by-unit process), stop-and-go strategy (i.e., a block-by-block process), and mixed strategies (i.e., a combination of the previous three strategies).In some translation textbooks (e.g., Thinking German Translation: A Course in Translation Method by Hervey, Loughridge, & Higgins, 2006), “translation method” is often used as a cover term for “translation strategy,” “translation technique,” and even “translation procedure.” For instance, there are literal and free translation methods. Compared with translation strategies, which are highly individualistic, translation methods are supra-individual and well tested (Lörscher, 1991, p. 70
==
However, “translation method” in English is often associated with such modes as machine translation and computer-aided translation. The term “translation approach” is often used in a vague sense, while “translation tactic” is rarely used. Discussions of translation strategies before the 1980s were primarily prescriptive, and researchers tended to argue for one translation strategy against another. Since the 1980s, empirical research into translation strategies, techniques, and procedures has become increasingly common. There are two major empirical approaches in this regard: product oriented and process-oriented. The former approach mainly refers to corpus-based contrastive analysis: a parallel corpus consisting of source texts and translations is built for analyzing the frequency of shifts (i.e., textual differences between source text and target text) and the various translation strategies and techniques employed. The factors to be considered can include text type, domain, synchronic and diachronic variation in language features and translation norms, idiosyncrasy, certain language features (e.g., metaphors, allusions), among others. In a process-oriented approach, translators are usually asked to translate a passage while thinking aloud, and the process will be recorded and then analyzed. The factors that might inﬂuence the frequency and distribution of translation strategies and procedures may include translation competence (e.g., novice translators versus professional translators), language direction (i.e., from or into the mother tongue), text type domain, translation brief, translation difﬁculty level of the test passage, time pressure, and so forth. These factors need to be manipulated or kept constant in an experiment in order to make meaningful comparisons.(Lörscher, 1991, p. 70).

==Conclusion==

In this study, translational problems and mainly translation strategies were described, and different theories of translation strategies were mentioned. It was shown that different theorists suggest various definitions of translation strategies according to their different perspectives. Moreover, it was mentioned that Baker (1992) lists the most applicable set of strategies. She does not just name the strategies, but she also shows the application of each.

==References==

Translation: An advanced resource book . London, England: Routledge.Hervey, S., Loughridge, M., & Higgins, I. (2006).Thinking German translation: A course in trans-lation method, German to English (2nd ed.). London, England: Routledge. Jääskeläinen, R. (1993). Investigating translation strategies. In S. Tirkkonen-Condit & J. Lafﬂing(Eds.), Recent trends in empirical translation research (pp. 99–120). Joensuu, Finland: Universityof Joensuu.Krings, H. P. (1986). Translation problems and translation strategies of advanced German learnersof French (L2). In J. House & S. Blum-Kulka (Eds.), Interlingual and intercultural communication (pp. 263–76). Tübingen, Germany: Narr.Lörscher, W. (1991). 5. Jiraphatralikhit, J., Klinpoon, S., & Kaewjan, S. (2005). An analysis of strategies in translation of the movie subtitle: Behind the painting.Research Gate, 1, 54-71.