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20201215 cultexam 2

2020-12-31T01:28:06Z

Liu Ou: /* Crosstalk- Liu Ou 刘欧，202070080597，MTI */

*Link to return to [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Chinese_Languages_and_Cultures Course Homepage].
*Link to the other Final Exam paper pages: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_1 1 Alsied, Saffana - Jiang Qiwei]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_2 2 Kang Haoyu - Sagara Seydou]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_3 3 Shi Haiyao - You Yuting]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_4 4 Yu Ni - Zubareva, Ekaterina]. This page has become too large. Do not write on this page any more, but on one of the smaller pages.

'''Final Exam Paper. Please write now and improve until grading on 2020 12 15'''
*You can use the texts in the coursebook as an example (like Unit 1, Text A). You only need to write Text A (like "Longevity Noodles") or Text B ("Mooncakes"), not a whole Unit. But please try to find fellow students who topics fit under the same Unit title ("Festival Meals") and arrange it accordingly.
*In the topic, please write the category, then the topic - your name and student no.
*For the text, please indicate ALL SOURCES with bibliographical references. That means: At least for every paragraph, sometimes for single sentences, you have to indicate at the end, where you have found this information. E.g. (Liu Miqing 2010, 17). This means you have found it in the book or paper written by Ms Liu on page 17.
*Add a section at the end called "References". There you write the full version of the reference: Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学. Similarly, you do it for papers: Jin Wenlu`靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.
*Please also add a list "Terms and Expressions".
*Please add a "Questions" section.
*Please add a "Answers" section.

==Chinese Red Culture - Kang Haoyu 康浩宇, 202070080638 英语口译==

<center>康浩宇 Kang Haoyu</center>

===Chinese Red Culture===
Chinese red culture is unique in the world. As a very important culture, it has both tangible cultural resources and intangible ones. Red culture in China refers to the advanced culture with Chinese characteristics created by the Communism Party of China and Chinese people in revolutionary years.(Zhu Guilian, Li Jin 2010, 87)

====1. Development====

China has a brilliant history and splendid civilization in ancient times. However, after the Opium War of 1840, China was plunged into the darkness of domestic turmoil and foreign aggression. Despite of all efforts that countless dedicated patriots had made, they still failed to change the plight. The October Revolution in Russia brought Marxism-Leninism to China. With Communism as the the highest ideal and ultimate goal, the Communist Party of China shouldered the historical mission of national rejuvenation. With the firm leadership of the party, Chinese people embraced national independence, people's liberation, national reunification and social stability, and stepped into a new era of prosperity and happiness.(Xi Jinpin 2017)

Red culture is condensed by the Communist Party of China in the great struggle of leading the Chinese revolution. It is an advanced Marxism culture that was inherited and developed in the new period of socialist construction. It's a collectivism culture of bravery, sacrifice and devotion that seeks happiness for the Chinese people and rejuvenation for the Chinese nation.Red culture is embodied in the aspects of ideal belief, value pursuit and spiritual outlook, and is tightly related to material remains, mechanism behaviors and cultural and artistic forms.(Luo Liling, Pu Qingpin 2018, 45)

First of all, red culture is a revolutionary culture, which was formed by the Chinese Communist Party in the great struggle of leading the Chinese revolution. After the founding of People's Republic of China, the Communist Party of China led the Chinese people to inherit and carry forward the revolutionary culture. In the new period of socialist construction and reform and opening up, a vigorous and advanced socialist culture was formed, which enriched and developed the connotation of red culture. Revolutionary culture and advanced socialist culture are two major components of red culture, and are the core value and spiritual subject of contemporary Chinese culture. As for Chinese red culture, Among them, Marxism is the soul, the common ideal of socialism with Chinese characteristics is the theme, the national spirit and the spirit of the times are the essence, and the socialist concept of honor and disgrace is the foundation. These four aspects influence, infiltrate and interact with each other, revealing the essential characteristics of red culture scientifically and completely.(Zhu Guilian, Li Jin 2010, 87)

====2. Symbols====

The word “red” in “red culture” has many symbols. Chinese people have “red” complex since ancient time. Red represents authority. For, example, official documents are also called red heading documents. Red represents courage. Red is the color of Chinese national flag. Chinese military strategists and generals have a deep understanding of the role of red in war, so they use red flags to unite their morale, inspire their courage, and summon their spirit of going forward bravely and not fearing sacrifice. Red represents honor and auspiciousness. For instance, the places are always adorned with red for conference and ceremony. People are awarded with red flower and red certificates. Red represents revolution. When Marx was asked about "favorite color" in his early years, he clearly answered "red". In 1864, First International was founded, and its logo was red. The first army of the Communist Party of China was named Red Army, and Ruijin, the first revolutionary base area, was called Red Capital. There were also red boats in South Lake and red flags in Jinggangshan.(Chen dongwang, Huang Weiliang 2006, 19)

====3. Values====

Red culture has many values. Red culture has the value of history. It witnesses the early development history of the Communist Party of China. It shows the inevitability of the socialist road in China. And it is an important weapon to guide the success of Chinese revolution. Besides, red culture has the value of civilization. Carrying forward the red culture is an urgent need to cultivate a new national spirit. Red culture is important for the construction of socialism culture and ideology. Moreover, red culture has the value of economy. Red culture is a powerful driving force for the development of the socialist market economy. It is an important medium of economic development under the new historical conditions. The red cultural industry has become a new economic growth point.(Wang Yidi 2007, 149)

====4. Red Culture in Nanchang====

Nanchang is the capital city of Jiangxi Province and it is where August 1st uprising took place. Nanchang is renowned as the cradle of Chinese revolution and the place where the military flag rose. Because in August 1st uprising,communist party of china formed its first army in Nanchang. There are lots of red culture resources in Nanchang.

Bayi Square is at the center of Nanchang city. It was built to memorize August 1st uprising. Bayi Square highlights the theme of "Bayi History and Culture" in all directions. The memorial area, cultural area, reminiscence area and leisure area of Bayi Square show Bayi Uprising in different forms. The landmark in the square is Bayi Nanchang Uprising Memorial Tower. Besides, Nanchang August 1st Memorial Hall is a special memorial hall established to commemorate Nanchang Uprising.（Peng Bo, Zhang Li, Li Jiangyuan 2006, 58）

===References===

[1] 程东旺, 黄伟良. “红色文化”的价值形态与德育功能探析[J]. 现代教育科学, 2006: 19-21.

[2] 罗丽琳,蒲清平. 红色文化的思想政治教育基因及其时代价值[J].新疆师范大学学报, 2018: 45-52

[3] 彭波, 张丽, 李江源. 整合红色资源,提升江西文化力[J]. 江西崛起策论, 2006:58-60.

[4] 王以第. “红色文化”的价值内涵[J]. 文化论苑, 2007:149-150.

[5] 习近平, 决胜全面建成小康社会夺取新时代中国特色社会主义伟大胜利——在中国共产党第十九次全国代表大会上的报告,人民日报,2017.

[6] 朱桂莲,李晶. 德育视角下的中国红色文化研究综述[J]. 研究综述, 2010:87-89.

===Terms and Expressions===

red culture 红色文化

Opium War 鸦片战争

red heading documents 红头文件

red army 红军

August 1st uprising 八一起义

===Questions===

1. What is the historical background of the birth of red culture?

2. What are two major components of red culture?

3. How many symbols dose the word "red" in red culture has? What are they?

4. How many values dose red culture has? What are they?

5. What is the landmark in Bayi Square?

===Answers===

1. In modern China, Communist Party of China led the Chinese revolution and led people to fight against suppression.

2. Revolutionary culture and advanced socialist culture are two major components of red culture

3. Four. Authority, courage, honor and revolution.

4. Three. History value, civilization value and economic value.

5. Bayi Nanchang Uprising Memorial Tower

==The Ancient Tea Horse Road - Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆, 202070080593 MTI 英语笔译==

===The Ancient Tea Horse Road===

====Introduction====
The Ancient Tea Horse Road is a folk international trade route that exists in southwest China and is a corridor for ethnic economic and cultural exchanges with horses as the main means of transportation. It originated from the ancient southwest frontier of the tea horse mutual market, flourished in the Tang and Song dynasties and in the Ming and Qing dynasties, and prospered in the middle and late World War II. The Tea Horse Road was listed by the State Council as the seventh batch of national key cultural relics conservation units on March 5, 2013. (Zou Jingyi , Zhang Yimei 2018,131) --[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 13:46, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

====Historical Routes====
China’s ancient tea horse road is divided into:

1. Shanxi-Gansu tea horse road is the main route for tea to travel westward in mainland China and exchange for horses. It is one of the main routes of the ancient Silk Road.
2. Shanxi - Tibet tea horse road (wade ancient road) began in the Han Dynasty, formed by the Shanxi merchants and the ancient southwest border tea and horse each other.During the Ming and Qing dynasties, the government controlled tea trafficking, and the tea trafficking sub-regional, including the most prosperous tea horse trading market in Kangding, known as the wade ancient road. (Kang Yuming, Li Jinfeng2020,281)

3. The ancient Yunnan-Tibet Tea Horse Road was formed in the late sixth century AD. It is in the south of Yunnan's main tea producing areas. It is an important trade channel between ancient China and South Asia.
4. Sichuan-Tibet Tea Horse Road is a part of the Shan-Kang-Tibet Tea Horse Road. It is an essential bridge and link between ancient Tibet and the interior. It is in the east of Yazhou edge, west to Lhasa, Tibet, and finally through to Bhutan, Nepal and India, a total length of nearly four thousand kilometers. (Kang Yuming, Li Jinfeng2020,282)

There are three main routes of the ancient tea-horse road: The Qinghai-Tibet line (the ancient Tang and Tibetan road), the Yunnan-Tibet line and the Sichuan-Tibet line. Among the three ancient tea-horse roads, the Qinghai-Tibet line was established in the Tang Dynasty and developed earlier, while the Sichuan-Tibet line was the most influential and well-known later. These three routes are closely related to Chengdu, and among them, the Yunnan-Tibet route and the Sichuan-Tibet route pass through Chengdu, and their development is closely related to the tea-horse trade. (Kang Yuming,Li Jinfeng2020,283) --[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 14:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

===Historical Values===
1. The Golden Road of Tourism
The ancient tea-horse road tour has unique scenery, profound cultural connotation, exclusive resources and is unparalleled in the world.

2. Ancient Roads for the Propagation of Civilization
The ancient Tea Horse Road was not only an important migration corridor for the ancient ancestors between Wei-Tibet and present Sichuan and Yunnan, but also an important aperture for the spread and exchange of ancient civilizations between present Sichuan, Yunnan and Tibet. (Ji Jing2016,354)

3. Migration Corridor of National Cultures
On this ancient road, which stretches for more than 10,000 miles, Chinese, Tibetan, Yi, Naxi, Lisu, Hani, Kino, Qiang, Pumi, Bai, Nu, Jingpo, Achang and other ethnic groups have flourished here for thousands of years, highlighting the diversity and original form of ethnic culture in southwest China.

4. The Path of National Spirituality
You can't talk about the ancient tea-horse road without mentioning the horse gangs. The horse gangs have formed a unique cultural carrier in the course of thousands of years. Their spirit is attached to this ancient road, and become part of the Chinese national spirit. (Ji Jing2016,355)

5. The Road of National Unity and Integration
The ancient tea-horse road is like a huge net in southwest China, through which people of all nationalities strengthen their ties and communication, promote political, economic and cultural interaction, development and integration among all nationalities, and enhance the emotional ties between them.

6. The Road of Securing the Borders
The expansion of the ancient tea-horse road and the flourishing of the tea-horse trade contributed to the stability and consolidation of China's southwest frontier.

7. The road to economic development
The Thousand-Year Tea Horse Trail contributed to the formation of many towns in the region through the tea and horse trade, which greatly contributed to the economic development of the region. (Ji Jing2016,355)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 14:10, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

===Terms and Expressions===

1.The Ancient Tea Horse Road(茶马古道)

2.Sichuan-Tibet Line（川藏线）

3.Yunnan-Tibet line（滇藏线）

4.wade ancient road（蹚古道）

===Questions===

1.What is the ancient tea horse road ?

2.How many main routes does the ancient tea-horse road conclude?

3.What is the historical value?--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 14:11, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

===Answers===

1.The Ancient Tea Horse Road is a folk international trade route that exists in southwest China and is a corridor for ethnic economic and cultural exchanges with horses as the main means of transportation.

2.There are three main routes, including the Qinghai-Tibet line (the ancient Tang and Tibetan road), the Yunnan-Tibet line and the Sichuan-Tibet line.

3.The ancient Tea Horse Road, a passage that once played an important role in the birth and development of the Chinese nation just like the Silk Road, has been gradually buried in the dust of history with the washing away of modern civilization.

===References===

Zou Jingyi, Zhang Yiqing邹怡情,张依玫. (2018). 作为文化线路的茶马古道遗产保护研究[ A Study on Heritage Conservation of Ancient Tea Horse Road as a Cultural Route].
''北京规划建设'' BeiJing Planning Review (04)131-140.

Kang Yuming, Li Jinfeng康昱明,李金峰.(2020).甘肃茶马古道文化线路遗产探究[ A Study on Cultural Route Heritage of Ancient Tea Horse Road in Gansu Province].''农村经济与科技''Rural Economy and Science (11)281-283.

Li Gang, Li Wei李刚,李薇. (2011). 论历史上三条茶马古道的联系及历史地位[ On the Connection and Historical Status of Three Ancient Tea Horse Roads in History]. ''西北大学学报''Journal of Northwestern University (04):113-117.

Ji Ji纪静. (2016). 茶马古道的兴起及其价值研究 [ A Study on the Rise and Value of Ancient Tea Horse Road ]. ''福建茶叶'' Tea In Fujian (07):354-355.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 08:20, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Literature, Novels - Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪学号202070080639 MTI 英语口译==

===Four satirical novels in ancient China===

At the end of the Qing Dynasty, literary scholars with reformist ideas criticized current affairs through novels and proposed to save the country, which were called novels of condemnation. The novels Li Baojia's The Records of Officialdom Exposure, Wu Wa-ren's The Strange Situation of Seeing in twenty years, Liu E's the Travels of an Old Man and Zeng Pu's Nai Hai Hua represent the highest achievement of such novels, and are known as "the four great condemnation novels of the late Qing Dynasty". They attacked corruption and made straightforward decisions about current problems, forming a strong literary trend of criticizing reality in modern times.

The Four Great Condemnation Novels of the late Qing dynasty mainly exposed the dark side of society and its various shortcomings, and dealt with various aspects of social life at that time. In spite of the shortcomings pointed out by Lu Xun, "the rhetoric is revealing, the pen has no hidden edges, and the rhetoric is even too much", they have unprecedented breadth in reflecting social reality, and their sharp and incisive strokes caused strong repercussions at that time.(https://baike.baidu.com/item/晚清四大谴责小说/702907?fromtitle=四大谴责小说&fromid=10570148&fr=aladdin)

====Introduction====

At the end of the Qing Dynasty, literary scholars with reformist ideas criticized current affairs through novels and proposed to save the country, which were called novels of condemnation. The novels Li Baojia's The Records of Officialdom Exposure, Wu Wa-ren's The Strange Situation of Seeing in twenty years, Liu E's the Travels of an Old Man and Zeng Pu's Nai Hai Hua represent the highest achievement of such novels, and are known as "the four great condemnation novels of the late Qing Dynasty". They attacked corruption and made straightforward decisions about current problems, forming a strong literary trend of criticizing reality in modern times.

The Four Great Condemnation Novels of the late Qing dynasty mainly exposed the dark side of society and its various shortcomings, and dealt with various aspects of social life at that time. In spite of the shortcomings pointed out by Lu Xun, "the rhetoric is revealing, the pen has no hidden edges, and the rhetoric is even too much", they have unprecedented breadth in reflecting social reality, and their sharp and incisive strokes caused strong repercussions at that time.(wenku)

==== Nie Hai Hua====

Nie Hai Hua was written by Zen Pu (1872-1935).A total of 35 chapters.it is a novel of condemnation, historical fiction and political fiction. In the novel, Jin yun (wen qing) is the main character.After won the scholarship, he took a famous courtesan, Fu Caiyun, as his concubine in Suzhou.He was then ordered to travel to Russia, Germany, Austria, and the Netherlands. After returning to China, Jin Wenqing died of illness in Beijing, and Fu Caiyun left the Jin family to resume her old profession in Shanghai, changing her name to Cao Menglan then went to Tianjin to work as a prostitute, calling herself Sai Jinhua.

The novel takes the story of Jin Wenqing and Fu Caiyun as the main line, vividly describes the historical and cultural changes as well as political and social changes from Tongzhi to Guangxu more than 30 years, exposing the decay and decline of the rulers, criticizing the feudal system of imperial examination, satirizing the officials, truly reflecting their spiritual life and cultural mentality. at the same time also enthusiastically glorifies Feng Zicai, Liu Yongfu and other war heroes and Sun Yat-sen and so on. The revolutionary activities of the Democratic Revolutionaries express the author's patriotic thoughts against the feudal dictatorship and advocate national democratic revolution. In specific writing, the author adopts the modern popular block novel structure combined with the traditional mesh novel structure to unfold the plot, with ups and downs, twists and turns, touching and orderly, always around the main line.

As a historical novel, Nie Hai Hua draws on the spirit of the ancient "good history" of China to portray its characters. At the same time, it draws on the satirical approach of "The History of Confucianism" in which "the fair-minded accuse the evils of the times", commenting on events and weighing characters in a realistic manner. In terms of art, Nie Hai Hua also has many shortcomings.However, it is a skillful structure and outstanding novel at that time.(wenku)

==== the Travels of an Old Man====

The Travels of an Old Man was written by Liu E (1857-1909) and a total of 20 chapters. Liu E was an entrepreneur and scholar, not a professional writer, but his reputation as a literary figure was far greater than that of an entrepreneur and scholar. This novel is an unfinished work of his that was written in his later years with an autobiographical nature.
The novel takes a bell-ringing mountebank, Lao can (Tie Ying), as its main character, and narrates his experiences and activities during his travels in northern China, exposing the decadence and darkness of the Qing government, the brutality and lethargy of the officials, and the poverty and oppression of the people, especially attacking the abusive behavior of those "Qing officials" who are actually cruel officials, and expressing the author's strong views on the perilous reality of society and the country.

The artistic achievement of the novel is very high. The first is the superb descriptive skills, whether it is a description, a landscape, or a narrative, can be vividly depicted, such as the scenery of Thousand Buddha Mountain, Daming Lake etc., which makes people have a sense of being in the real world. Secondly, its psychological description and psychological analysis, with appropriate language, can brilliantly show the inner world of the characters. Thirdly, the exquisite structural art. The novel is in the form of a Travel Journal, with travel as a clue,and organic combined of what he see, hear, think and do along the way forms a unique structural feature of the novel.(wenku)

==== The Records of Officialdom Exposure====

The Records of Officialdom Exposure by Li Baojia (1867-1906), five editions and a total of 60 chapters. This is the first long chapter novel in China's modern era that was published serially in newspapers and magazines and achieved a social sensation, creating a culture of critical reality in modern fiction.

The novel consists of more than 30 relatively independent bureaucratic stories linked together, involving the Qing government from the emperor, down to the minor officials and so on,and these various bureaucrats of all kinds of evil behavior were exposed:They embezzled public funds, corrupt and pervert the law or the named "expedition bandits", but is harmful to the people. The work is like a scroll of the officialdom at the end of the feudal society, touching on the main contradictions of that time.

The novel's writing method is modelled on "The Scholars" and has been developed, making full use of exaggeration, comic style and satirical techniques. only a few strokes will outline the character's voice and physical appearance. And the author also good at describing the details, so that the characters are vivid and evocative, with a strong artistic impact. Therefore, the subsequent imitation of the work is quite a lot, it become a great view.(wenku)

==== 20 years witness strange present situation====

The Strange Situation Witnessed in Twenty Years was written by Wu Woyao(1866-1910), A total of 60 chapters. This is a long novel with autobiographical flavor.it through nearly 200 short stories that the protagonist hears and witnesses from the death of his father to his failure in business. it outlines the strange realities of late Qing society during the 20 years from the Sino-French War to the beginning of the 20th century.

The scope of social life is much broader than The Records of Officialdom Exposure. In addition to describing the officialdom, there are also involving the shopping malls, foreign markets, science fields, medical and astrological practices. It exposes the political situation, moral outlook, social customs, and human conditions of the increasingly colonized Chinese feudal society, and is of high cognitive value in helping readers to see the irreparable historical destiny of the late Qing society and feudal system.

The novel adopts the first-person narrative story, structured in a way that makes the reader feel intimate and trustworthy, setting a precedent in the history of Chinese fiction. The structure is also very clever: "nine deaths and a lifetime" is not only the narrator of the book story, but also the backbone of the structure of the book, and at the same time uses flashbacks, interpolations and other methods, combining it organically together, making the whole book complex and simple appropriate, muddle together.(wenku)

==== Conclution====

As a result of the bourgeois reformists and democratic revolutionaries strongly advocated, the novel creation in the late Qing Dynasty got unprecedented development, and a large number of influential novels emerged, forming a prosperous situation of the novel creation in the late Qing Dynasty.The emergence of the "Four satirical novels" in the late Qing Dynasty is an important sign that The creation of Chinese novels has entered another prosperous period.

===Reference===

*[1]https://baike.baidu.com/item/晚清四大谴责小说/702907?fromtitle=四大谴责小说&fromid=10570148&fr=aladdin
*[2]二十年目睹之怪现状[M]. 北方文艺出版社 , (清) 吴趼人, 2012
*[3]老残游记[M]. 北方文艺出版社 , (清) 刘鹗, 2012
*[4]官场现形记[M]. 北方文艺出版社 , (清) 李宝嘉, 2012
*[5]孽海花[M]. 北方文艺出版社 , (清) 曾朴, 2012
*[6]四大谴责小说政治批判手法研究[J].李辉东,2017

===Terms and Expressions===
The Records of Officialdom Exposure 《官场现形记》

The Strange Situation of Seeing in twenty years 《二十年之目睹怪现象》

the Travels of an Old Man 《老残游记》

Nai Hai Hua 《孽海花》

The Four Great Condemnation Novels of the late Qing dynasty 晚清四大谴责小说

===Questions===
1、what are The Four Great Condemnation Novels of the late Qing dynasty ?

2、which novel is modeled the "The Scholars"?

3、what’s the common characteristic of these four novels?

4、what other satirical novels do you know?

===Answers===
1、They are Li Baojia's The Records of Officialdom Exposure, Wu Wa-ren's The Strange Situation of Seeing in twenty years, Liu E's the Travels of an Old Man and Zeng Pu's Nai Hai Hua.

2、The Records of Officialdom Exposure

3、The Four Great Condemnation Novels of the late Qing dynasty mainly exposed the dark side of society and its various shortcomings, and dealt with various aspects of social life at that time.

4、E.g.The Scholars

==Shadow Play - Li Lili 李丽丽 No.202070080594 MTI 英语笔译 ==

====The Origin of Shadow Play====

[[File:shadow play-6.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Chinese Shadow Play[https://image.baidu.com/search/detail?ct=503316480&z=0&ipn=d&word=%E7%9A%AE%E5%BD%B1%E6%88%8F&step_word=&hs=0&pn=185&spn=0&di=111650&pi=0&rn=1&tn=baiduimagedetail&is=0%2C0&istype=2&ie=utf-8&oe=utf-8&in=&cl=2&lm=-1&st=-1&cs=3403588094%2C288618070&os=1077736412%2C4270314261&simid=13900219%2C799340577&adpicid=0&lpn=0&ln=1690&fr=&fmq=1608542495445_R&fm=index&ic=0&s=undefined&hd=undefined&latest=undefined&copyright=undefined&se=&sme=&tab=0&width=&height=&face=undefined&ist=&jit=&cg=&bdtype=0&oriquery=&objurl=https%3A%2F%2Ftimgsa.baidu.com%2Ftimg%3Fimage%26quality%3D80%26size%3Db9999_10000%26sec%3D1608552866017%26di%3Ddd9012147fa3668822b515c8caa7e45d%26imgtype%3D0%26src%3Dhttp%3A%2F%2F5b0988e595225.cdn.sohucs.com%2Fimages%2F20180910%2Fa3e26f960530400282934cce56a15e15.jpeg&fromurl=ippr_z2C%24qAzdH3FAzdH3Fooo_z%26e3Bf5i7_z%26e3Bv54AzdH3FwAzdH3Fdcnacb80n_890d9l&gsm=ba&rpstart=0&rpnum=0&islist=&querylist=&force=undefined]]]

Shadow play has a long history according to the written records. Legend has it that Empress Xiaowu, the wife of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty, died of illness. Emperor Wu missed her so strongly that he was in a trance and ignored the government's affairs all day. One day, Minister Li Shaoweng went out and came across a child playing with a doll in his hand. The shadow of the doll was so vivid that he came up with an idea to cut the Mrs. Li's image out of cotton and silk, painted it, and installed wooden poles on its hands and feet. When Emperor Wu looked at it, it was like a treasure that he was glued to it. This love story is considered to be the earliest origin of shadow play. (Wei Liqun 2018,13)

There are also some views that shadow play originated in Xi'an of Tang Dynasty, however, it is worth discussing that although there were a variety of operas in the Tang Dynasty, yet there were no any records of shadow play mentioned in the Tang Dynasty. Up to now, the earliest shadow play was recorded in Song Dynasty. Its rise and development were closely related to Bianjing’s (the capital of Northern Song Dynasty) superior geographical environment, the development of commodity trade and good commercial transportation at that time. (Wei Liqun 2018,14-15)

====Introduction====

In Chinese ancient society, Chinese began to give performances using puppets against an illuminated screen. This is “shadow puppets”, also known as “lamp and shadow play”. It is considered as “precursor of movie” because it was the earliest moving part of form dubbed with human voice in the world. During a play, puppeteers hide behind the white screen and move puppets, while narrating the story, usually through singing. Performances are accompanied by musicians playing percussion and stringed instruments. A shadow puppet can perform actions such as “serving drinks”, “waving a sword and a spear,” or even “smoking” by puppeteer holding and moving manipulating rods on its body. (Wang Yexia 2012,1-2)

Typically, a shadow puppet has three rods and some may have five or seven rods. It can create rich designs such as shadow puppets, animals and stage props, for example, buildings, imperial palaces, chariots, tables and chairs as well as weapons. It is so rich that it includes almost everything under the sun. It combines traditional Chinese plastic art and performing art as well as the arts of painting, paper cutting, local opera, and ventriloquism. Besides, it has absorbed the best parts of local operas, folk songs and emerged into many schools. The well-known ones include Tangshan Shadow Play in Hebei Province, Beijing Shadow Play as well as Shaanxi, Shanxi and Hunan Shadow Play. etc. (Wang Yexia 2012,2-3)

So how to make a puppet? First, draw pictures of the various parts of the shadow puppets; second, finish carving with a knife and a hard board underneath the design; third, color the puppet with watercolor pens; fourth, paint the body parts with a brush dipped in oil. This can make the puppet transparent and better reflect colors under the light.; fifth, connect joint sections with the cotton thread; sixth, make the manipulating rods; finally, attach the manipulating rods to the shadow puppet with cotton thread. Thanks to different manipulating rods moves, the shadow puppet has a life, and can show happiness, anger, sorrow and gladness. (Wang Yexia 2012,29-35)

[[File:shadow play-3.jpg|300px|thumb|left|shadow play of puppet [https://image.baidu.com/search/detail?ct=503316480&z=0&ipn=d&word=%E7%9A%AE%E5%BD%B1%E6%88%8F&step_word=&hs=0&pn=52&spn=0&di=159940&pi=0&rn=1&tn=baiduimagedetail&is=0%2C0&istype=2&ie=utf-8&oe=utf-8&in=&cl=2&lm=-1&st=-1&cs=3259573009%2C2741597473&os=1545447922%2C43065069&simid=3408503629%2C426405487&adpicid=0&lpn=0&ln=1690&fr=&fmq=1608548398687_R&fm=result&ic=0&s=undefined&hd=&latest=&copyright=&se=&sme=&tab=0&width=&height=&face=undefined&ist=&jit=&cg=&bdtype=0&oriquery=&objurl=https%3A%2F%2Ftimgsa.baidu.com%2Ftimg%3Fimage%26quality%3D80%26size%3Db9999_10000%26sec%3D1608558486081%26di%3Db48786725188bc991e17f2b578acece7%26imgtype%3D0%26src%3Dhttp%3A%2F%2Fimg2.jiemian.com%2Fjiemian%2Foriginal%2F20170817%2F150295685830448400_a580xH.jpg&fromurl=ippr_z2C%24qAzdH3FAzdH3Fooo_z%26e3B3tj4twg_z%26e3Bv54AzdH3Fw6ptvsjAzdH3F8cc088c_z%26e3Bip4s&gsm=35&rpstart=0&rpnum=0&islist=&querylist=&force=undefined]]]

The eyes and the eyebrows of a shadow puppet’s five facial features represent different personalities. The good and positive people are typical of a benevolent and kind countenance, with nice-looking eyebrows and eyes, while the villain or the general are ferocious look, with sharp eyebrows and almond-shaped eyes. And the former are often concealed teeth and the latter are revealed teeth. The middle-aged people have short beard, but the elderly men have long beard. (Wang Yexia 2012,10-11)

The decorative designs on the shadow puppets are so important that they must match the character’s social status. In a shadow play, female characters are usually decorated with patters such as flowers, grass, clouds and phoenix, while male characters are often decorated with dragons, tigers, water and clouds. Shadows puppets look colorful under the light. To achieve a better visual effect, the translucent puppets need to be painted on both sides. The different colors of heads can also represent different characters’ personalities. The red is a symbol of a heroic and upstanding character and the representative is Guan Yu. The black is a sign of a just, honest and selfless personality and the representative is Zhang Fei. The yellow shows a brave and irascible character and is often used in fantasy plays to represent people with magic power. (Wang Yexia 2012,13-16)

====The Situation of Contemporary Shadow Play====
Since the founding of the People's Republic of China, shadow play, as an art form, has undergone a series of reforms under the guidance of the Party's principles, including the organization of theatrical troupes, the compilation and creation of plays, the drawing and performing forms of shadow play. With the advent of the "Cultural Revolution", the prosperity of shadow play came to an abrupt end. The troupe was disbanded, the repertoire was banned, and the artists were transferred to other fields. A large number of precious shadow puppet props and documents were damaged. This situation, except for some places, lasted until 1976. (Zhu Hengfu 2020,36）

After the end of the "Cultural Revolution", shadow puppet art rapidly revived, However, with the economic development being put in the first place of social activities and the popularity of television and the richness of artistic forms, shadow play is declining day by day with an irresistible trend, because shadow play arts are unable to keep pace with the times and get the appreciation from the audience. As a result, the prospect of shadow play art is becoming increasingly bleak. （Zhu Hengfu 2020,36）

In order to inherit Chinese excellent culture and protect the ancient art forms such as shadow play. On May 20, 2006, it was approved by the State Council to be included in the first batch of national intangible cultural heritage list. On November 27, 2011, UNESCO included Chinese shadow play in the "Representative List of Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity".（Zhu Hengfu 2020,36）

===References===
*Wang Yexia 王业霞.(2012). 《皮影戏》 [Shadow Play] 北京：高等教育出版社 Beijing: [Higher Education Publishing House]
*Wei Liqun 魏力群.(2018). 《小书大传承-皮影》["Small Book, Big Heritage - Shadow Play"] 重庆：重庆出版社 Chongqing: [Chongqing Publishing House]
*Zhu Hengfu 朱恒夫.(2020). 中国皮影戏的历史，现状与剧目特征[The History, Current Situation and Repertoire Characteristics of Chinese Shadow Theatre] 浙江艺术职业学院学报 [Journal of Zhejiang Arts Vocational College]

===Words and Expressions===
*shadow puppet皮影戏
*paper cutting 剪纸
*ventriloquism 口技
*manipulating rod 操纵杆
*five facial features 五官
*sharp eyebrows and almond-shaped eyes 尖眉杏眼
*Cultural Revolution 文化大革命
*intangible cultural heritage 非物质文化遗产

===Questions===
*1. When is the earliest shadow puppet’s record?
*2. What art of forms do shadow play use?
*3. What does a red head stand for in a play?
*4. When is shadow play put in the "Representative List of Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity".

===Answers===
*1. Song dynasty.
*2. It combines traditional Chinese plastic art and performing art as well as the arts of painting, paper cutting, local opera, and ventriloquism. Besides, it has absorbed the best parts of local operas, folk songs and emerged into many schools.
*3. The red is a symbol of a heroic and upstanding character.
*4. On November 27, 2011.--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 12:32, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Confucian Culture - Li Liqin 李丽琴 Student No.202070080595 MTI 英语笔译==

===Introduction ===

Confucian school is an academic school founded by Confucius, developed by Mencius, and composed by Xunzi. Today, it still retains a certain vitality. Confucian school takes Confucianism as its guiding ideology whose central ideas are forgiveness, loyalty, filial piety, brotherhood, courage, benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom and faith. (Li Xiaoyu 2010, 31)

Confucian school was on an equal footing with the other hundred schools in the pre-Qin period. After the First Emperor of Qin, also called Qin Shihuang, burned books and buried scholars alive, the development of the Confucian school suffered a serious defeat. Then, in order to maintain the feudal autocratic rule, Emperor Wudi of the Han Dynasty followed Dong Zhongshu's advice of "banishing other schools of thought and worshiping Confucianism only" and imposed restrictions on thought, which led to the revival of Confucian school. (Zhang Qizhi 1990, 20) The concepts of "Confucian school", "Confucianism", and "Confucian Religion" should be distinguished since Confucian school is a school of theory, Confucianism a social stratification, and Confucian religion belief. (Chen Zhibin, Du Aihong 2017, 60-61)

Laozi founded Chinese Taoist school; Confucius started Chinese Confucian school; Sun Tzu initiated Chinese military strategist school; Mozi was the founder of Mohism in the early Warring States. Confucianism contributes to guiding the code of conduct and constructing social order; Taoism focuses on fostering the view of nature and the orientation of spiritual development; Legalism serves the system construction of national political management; the concepts of Universal Love and utilitarianism are two cornerstones for the Mohism. The General Unity idea of Confucianism has played an important role in the unification of a nation, the enhancement of national cohesion and the integration of cultural values. (Tan Su 2012, 68)

After more than two thousand years of development and evolution, Confucian culture has built up a complete ideological system, involving politics, education, morality, ethics, code of conduct, life skills and other aspects. It has cultivated the wisdom and soul of the Chinese people throughout the history, and formed deep-rooted set patterns of thinking, psychology and survival. (Xiang Chunling 2008, 42-43)

=== Analysis of Confucian Culture ===

==== Intelligence Development ====

Confucius is a great educator, as well as a pioneer and practitioner of mass education. After Confucianism was established as a dominant culture, both the rulers and the public respected the teachings of the sage and attached great importance to education. In this context, a basic requirement is to stay highly cultured and steeped in propriety. After the Emperor Wen initiated the imperial examination system in the Sui Dynasty, those who are good scholars could make an official, which inspired students of poor families to change their lives by studying hard and diligent. (Zhang Qizhi 1990, 19)

For generations, the Chinese people have attached great importance to the education of their children, which is conducive to the improvement of the thinking ability of the whole nation. However, the corrupt of bureaucracy and the darkness of officialdom in metaphase and anaphase made many literati feel despairing about official career and discredit about the concept. In addition, the Four Books and Five Classics were the main learning content of Confucianism. Apart from government-run schools, private schools and self-study can hardly meet the requirements of the Six Classical Arts. (Zhang Qizhi 1990, 21) Therefore, the Four Books and Five Classics were the focus of students, while the Six Classical Arts were not highly valued.

====Spiritual Guidance ====

In terms of spirit, Confucianism contends that "As heaven maintains vigor through movements, a gentleman should constantly strive for self-perfection; The terrain is vast, a gentleman carries goods with great virtue." (Zhang Qizhi 1990, 86) Benevolent people love each other, which reflects the essence of “Unity of Man and Nature” and also the most brilliant connotation of Confucianism. This philosophy calls for people’s active contributions to the society. It is still alive in modern times, and is the fundamental requirement of people's spiritual orientation in the future. (Li Xiaoyu 2010, 32)

====Order Construction ====

In the age of barbarism and backwardness, a common feature was that a small number of people used power and force to suppress and enslave the majority, thus resulting in labor division and unfair distribution of wealth and generating corresponding social hierarchy and concepts. Given the fact that Confucianism developed in the transitional period of feudal society, the thoughts of Confucius and Mencius were rooted in the idealist view of destiny and did not break the shackles of social hierarchy. In addition, they even advocated the distinguish between the noble and the humble and highlighted the importance of hierarchy division. (Li Fangping 2013, 56)

In this context, the benevolence they advocated had great limitations in political management. The public could not be treated equally in terms of political status. Instead, the so-called benevolence calls for improvement of the living conditions of the public and more benefits from the ruling class. However, its purpose was to maintain social order and reconcile social contradictions. This is also the root cause of feudal rulers’ favoring of Confucianism. In essence, Confucianism did not promote social equality, instead, it worked to maintain the unequal feudal hierarchy that aggravated servitude. In fact, after a long history of feudal rule, the sense of hierarchy would be part of the national psyche. With the progress of times and civilization, the view of destiny and the thought of social order have become psychological shackles of the Chinese people. (Li Fangping 2013, 56)

After eliminating the ideology of feudal hierarchy and formalism, some philosophies of Confucianism still generate positive effects on modern society. Specifically, the spirit of benevolence and universal love is conducive to cultivate people’s spirits; the concept of “the country belongs to the public” reflects a sense of social responsibility to make contributions for society, which can be expanded into a sharing social and political philosophy for different countries. (Li Xiaoyu 2010, 33)

Filial piety and brotherhood increase the harmony and stability of family; Loyalty, faithfulness, propriety and forgiveness are conducive to the relationship between different countries, societies and people. "Loyalty" means that people should stay loyal to the country and people; "Friendliness" and "forgiveness" play an important role in resolving various contradictions and animosities; when it comes to "filial piety" and "propriety", many redundant forms inherited from feudal society should be eradicated and be more practical. (Xiang Chunling 2008, 39-41)

===The Contemporary Value of Confucian Culture ===

Today, Confucian culture is still of great significance. We must explore the value of Confucian culture on the basis of the excellent tradition of the Chinese nation and by combining the characteristics of the times with and the actual situation. The Confucian culture has affected Chinese more than two thousand years and gone deep into each aspect of Chinese society. (Xiang Chunling 2008, 39)

====Ideological and Political Education ====

Confucian culture calls for “the people-oriented” philosophy, and it places a high priority on human value and dignity. (Zhang Qizhi 1990, 51-57) Over the years, the Chinese nation has been influenced by this excellent philosophy. On this occasion, its behavioral pattern and psychological structure are endowed with uniqueness, which is mainly manifested in two aspects. One is to respect yourself, learn how to love and care yourself. Moreover, gain dignity and achieve the development of human value through the continuous improvement of moral cultivation. Second, respect others and show respect for others' personality by respecting, understanding and caring for others. (Xiang Chunling 2008, 39-40)

==== Modern Economic Construction====

Under today’s circumstance, some ideological contents are still alive and produce positive effects on promoting the economic construction of modernization and fostering modern patriotism emotion of the Chinese people. (Li Chengzong 2002, 65)

First of all, Confucian culture emphasizes the thought of "benevolence" and group consciousness. It is conducive to the cultivation of collectivism and provides a spiritual pillar for China's modern economy. (Li Chengzong 2002, 65)

Since Confucian culture reflects a collectivist view on life, individuals are full of sense of duty and responsibility towards others and groups. In this context, their self-cultivation targets at regulating the family, country and the world. Thus, the value of individual is closely linked with the rise and fall of the country, so they have a strong sense of responsibility. "Everyone being responsible for the fate of his country" has been a common belief for thousands of years. Such a social responsibility will give rise to a huge driving force for the development of the country and society. (Tan Su 2012, 68)

Second, the consciousness of "self-improvement" and the proposition of "seeking truth" in the Confucian culture strengthen the national spirit and provide a source power for China’s economic modernization. (Li Chengzong 2002, 66)

Yi Zhuan put forward: "As heaven maintains vigor through movements, a gentleman should constantly strive for self-perfection." It means that continuous development is the law of nature and that a gentleman should pursue progress and be strong, unyielding resilient and positive. For thousands of years, the Chinese nation has formed a fine tradition of working hard and striving for strength under the influence of these thoughts. Today, we carry forward the spirits of “self-improvement” and "seeking truth" in ways that further enhance national spirits and provide a strong driving force for the socialist modernization. (Li Chengzong 2002, 67)

Third, the "reform and innovation" concept in Confucian culture is conducive to the expansion of the reform and opening up and the acceleration of China's socialist modernization. On the basis of admitting the fact that the continuous development is the universal law of nature, Confucian culture puts forward the "innovation idea". The Book of Rites said, "If you can in one day renovate yourself; do so from day to day and let there be daily renovation." The Book of Changes said, "Reform refers to destroy the old, while innovation means to establish the new.” (Li Chengzong 2002, 67)

The concept not only serves as the theoretical basis for reform and innovation throughout the history, but also provides valuable lessons for the reform in socialist economic and political systems today. Domestically, promoting the innovative spirits can greatly enhance the reform consciousness of the Chinese people. Externally, it is conducive to advancing the opening up by leveraging the global influence of Confucian culture. (Li Chengzong 2002, 67)

==== Legal Construction ====

Confucian culture places a high priority on personal cultivation, while a highly civilized society under the rule of law must be composed of highly educated citizens. Confucian school, a school with thousands of years of history in China, has become an integral part of the Chinese culture. (Li Xiaoyu 2010, 32-33)

Nowadays, since China has called for the policy of combining the rule of virtue with the rule of law, it is the time for Confucian culture to find its historical position and fully play its role. Exploring the influence of Confucian culture on the construction of contemporary Chinese rule by law, not only can we help us more deeply understand the traditional culture, but also can promote the process of building the rule of law in contemporary China. (Li Xiaoyu 2010, 32-33)

The rule by virtue thought is an important part of Confucian culture and it emphasizes the importance of moral education. It is a national strategy pursued by ancient Chinese rulers and a method of national governance embodying reference significance in today’s China. (Wei Na 2014, 1-2)

In terms of national governance, Confucianism emphasizes the importance of morality, believing that national governance should not mainly rely on harsh punishment, instead, moral education should be applied to reform people. Confucius said, "By governing with virtue, rulers will be loved by the public, just like stars surround the North Star." By comparing rulers to the North Star and people to the stars, Confucius emphasized the importance of moral governance. (Wang Jie 2004, 77)

How to rule by virtue? First of all, rulers should pay attention to their personal cultivation and develop good moral characters, so that they can set a good example for the public. Only when officials and common people obey the ruler sincerely, can a good social atmosphere be formed. Secondly, since Confucianism takes "benevolence" as its core and calls for the rule of virtue, many people subconsciously believe that Confucianism denies the role of criminal law and that Confucian culture does not call for the rule of law. (Wang Jie 2004, 82-83)

In fact, this is not the case. While Confucianism advocates the rule of virtue, it also emphasizes the supplementary role of rule of law. Confucius said, "Sages believe that national governance must combine the rule of virtue and law." That is to say, if people are governed by systems and laws, they seek for impunity but lack of conscience; however, if they are guided by morality and etiquette, they will have a sense of right and wrong and will impose strict requirements on themselves. (Wang Jie 2004, 83)

In a word, we should clearly realize that, although Confucian culture is an excellent traditional culture in China, it was generated from the feudal society and its original intention was to maintain the feudal autocratic monarchy. Therefore, it inevitably has some drawbacks and limitations. Under this circumstance, we must analyse Confucian culture dialectically and explore the value of Confucian culture. At the same time, we should discard the bad habits and unfavorable factors left by it, so as to better carry forward our traditional culture and accelerate the construction of the rule of law in contemporary China. (Wang Jie 2004, 83)

===The Confucius Institute ===

With the improvement of China's international status and the increasingly extensive international exchanges, Chinese culture has won wider foreign attention and the world is more eager to learn and understand the Chinese culture. The Confucius Institute project, founded in 2004, emerges in response to the call of the times. Today, Confucius Institutes have spread throughout Asia, Africa, The Americas, Europe and Oceania. (Wang Ying, Ti Wenjing 2009, 30)

Fundamentally speaking, its is conducive to the "going out" of Chinese culture since language is an important carrier of Chinese culture. It is of positive significance to the construction of China's national image, the promotion of China's international influence, the realization of wider international communication. (Wang Ying, Ti Wenjing 2009, 30)

The rapid development of Confucius Institutes has fully demonstrated the needs and aspirations of people around the world to learn Chinese and learn more about China, but there are still some problems in this process. Today, countries are committed to spreading their own language and culture, so there is a fierce competition in international cultural promotion. In addition, the Confucius Institutes is struggling to achieve sustainable development. Internally, its development has been restricted by many factors, including the shortage of teachers and textbooks, the low quality and the lack of pertinence. (Wu Ying, Ti Wenjing 2009, 31)

At present, Confucius Institutes are prevalent all over the world, but the promotion strategy seeking for quantity and speed results in a serious shortage of teachers capable of teaching Chinese as a foreign language. According to statistics, there is a global shortage of at least five million TCSL teachers. (Wu Ying, Ti Wenjing 2009, 31)

Secondly, the lack of high-quality and localized teaching materials for Chinese has also become a bottleneck for the development of Confucius Institutes. The shortage of Chinese textbooks affects the depth of cultural communication of Confucius Institutes directly. Thirdly, Confucius Institutes are not capable of spreading the ideological depth of the Chinese culture. Although the textbooks are rich in content, they mainly focus on promoting folk culture by introducing Chinese food, tea and wine, traditional Chinese medicine and martial arts. Meanwhile, they rarely involve the ideological essence of traditional Chinese culture and the modern value of Chinese culture. (Wu Ying, Ti Wenjing 2009, 32)

The Confucius Institutes should fully explore the modern significance of Confucianism and cast the quintessence of Chinese culture, and strengthen the spread of the core idea of Chinese culture and its modern cultural value. The connotation of Chinese culture is very rich. What Confucius Institutes should spread is not all the contents of Chinese culture, but the contents with universal value that are different from other countries and represent the essence of Chinese culture. (Xiang Chunling 2008, 42)

===Terms and Expressions ===

儒家 Confucian school

儒学 Confucianism

儒教 Confucian religion

兼爱 Universal love

恕、忠、孝、悌、勇 forgiveness, loyalty, filial piety, brotherhood, courage

仁、义、礼、智、信 benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom and faith

学而优则仕 A good scholar will make an official

四书五经 the Four Books and Five Classics

天行健，君子当自强不息；地势坤，君子以厚德载物。As heaven maintains vigor through movements, a gentleman should constantly strive for self-perfection; The terrain is vast, a gentleman carries goods with great virtue.

天下兴亡，匹夫有责 Everyone being responsible for the fate of his country

===Questions ===

1. What’s the central ideas of Confucian culture?

2. What’s the difference among Confucian school, Confucianism and Confucian religion?

3. What do you think of the relationship between Confucian school, Taoist school, Mohist school, Legalist school?

4. What’s the Six Classical Arts?

5. What you think of the ancient influence of Confucianism?

6. Do you think Confucian culture still has its contemporary values in China? And why?

7. What do you think of the current situation of the development of the Confucian institute?

===Answers===

1. The central ideas of Confucian culture are forgiveness, loyalty, filial piety, brotherhood, courage, benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom and faith.

2. Confucian school is a school of theory, Confucianism is a social stratification, and Confucian is a religion belief.

3. Confucian school emphasizes the code of conduct and the social order construction; Taoist school focuses on fostering the view of nature and the orientation of spiritual development; Legalist school serves the system construction of national political management; Mohist school emphasizes Universal Love and utilitarianism. Although Confucian school, Taoist school, Mohist school and Legalist school are different schools with different theories, they are not completely antagonistic.

4. The Six Classical Arts refers to propriety(礼), music（乐）, archery（射）, riding（御）, writing（书） and arithematic（数）.

5. The ancient influence of Confucianism should be analysed from a historical perspective. It was generated from the feudal society and its original intention was to maintain the feudal autocratic monarchy. Therefore, it inevitably has some drawbacks and limitations. While contributing to intelligence development, spiritual guidance and order construction to some extent, it has also led to some negative effects in the long run. For example, it called for rigid feudal hierarchy and resulted in spiritual constraints.

6. Yes. Although Confucian culture has a history of thousands of years, it still has contemporary values in today's society. For instance, Confucian culture calls for “the people-oriented” philosophy and places a high priority on human value and dignity, which is still of profound significance; Confucian culture emphasizes the thought of "benevolence" and group consciousness. It is conducive to the cultivation of collectivism and provides a spiritual pillar for China's modern economy.

7. The rapid development of Confucius Institutes has fully demonstrated the needs and aspirations of people around the world to learn Chinese and learn more about China, but there are still some problems in this process. Nowadays, the Confucius Institutes is struggling to achieve sustainable development. Internally, its development has been restricted by many factors, including the shortage of teachers and textbooks, the low quality and the lack of pertinence. Joint efforts of all social sectors should be made to achieve the sustainable development of it.

===References===

*Chen Zhibin, Du Aihong 陈智斌, 杜艾红. (2017). 儒学、儒家、儒教之异同 [The Differences and Similarities of Confucian School, Confucianism and Confucian Religion]. ''审计月刊'' Audit Monthly (03) 60-62.

*Li Chenzong 李承宗. (2002). 论儒家文化对培养现代爱国主义情感的积极作用 [On the Positive Effects of Confucian Culture on Cultivating Patriotism]. ''廊坊师范学院学报'' Journal of Langfang Teachers College (02) 65-70.

*Li Fangping 李芳萍. (2013). 儒家思想对中国文化的影响研究 [A Study on the Influence of Confucianism on Chinese Culture]. ''前沿'' Forward Position (10) 55-56.

*Li Xiaoyu 李晓愚. (2010). 儒家仁爱思想的当代诠释 [Contemporary Interpretation of Benevolence]. ''郑州大学学报(哲学社会科学版)'' Journal of Zhengzhou University (05) 31-33.

*Tan Su 谭苏. (2012). 论春秋战国时期的百家争鸣 [On the Competition of Ideas in the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period]. ''兰台世界'' Lantai World (10) 67-68.

*Wang Jie 王杰. (2004). 为政以德: 孔子的德治主义治国模式 [Rule of Virtue: Confucian’s Model of Governance]. ''中共中央党校学报'' Journal of the Party School of the Central Committee of the C．P．C. (02) 77-83.

*Wu Ying, Ti Wenjing 吴瑛, 提文静. (2009). 孔子学院的发展现状与问题分析 [The Development Status and Problems of Confucius Institute]. ''云南师范大学学报 (对外汉语教学与研究版)'' Journal of Yunnan Normal University (05) 28-33.

*Xiang Chunling 向春玲. (2008). 儒家文化的现代意义 [On Modern Significance of Confucian Culture]. ''中共中央党校学报'' Journal of the Party School of the Central Committee of the C．P．C. (06) 39-43.

*Zhang Qizhi 张岂之. (1990). ''中国儒学思想史'' [The History of Chinese Confucianism]. 陕西：陕西人民出版社 Shaanxi: Shaanxi People’s Publishing House. --[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 14:04, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ch'ien Chung-shu - Liu Liu刘柳， 202070080596 MTI==

====Ch'ien Chung-shu====

Ch'ien Chung-shu (1910-1998), a well-known scholar, writer, translator and literary researcher, was born into an education family in Wuxi, Jiangsu Province. In Chinese academic circles, Qian was ranked with Rao Zongyi, a master in academic circles, and both were called "South Rao and North Qian". He was admitted to Tsinghua University in 1929 and got to know Yang Jiang in 1932. Qian became famous soon after the enrolment, not only for the 15 mark of his mathematics, but for his excellent Chinese and English, especially full marks in English.(360 Encyclopedia)

Qian had an engagement with Yang the year after their acquaintance and went to study at Oxford University in England along with her. In 1937, he obtained the bachelor's degree from Oxford with the treatise ''China in the English Literature of the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries'', and his daughter Qian Yuan was born the same year. He wrote a great many profound literary works in his lifetime. When it comes to Ch'ien Chung-shu, people would think of his representative work ''Fortress Besieged'', which was published in 1947.(360 Encyclopedia)

As a realistic satirical novel, ''Fortress Besieged'' is known as "The New Scholars" in the 1940s. The novel is centralized on Fang Hongjian,who returned from studying abroad at the beginning of the War of Resistance against Japanese Aggression. It depicts the struggles in love, marriage,career and life of a group of intellectuals who were far away from the times and the people during the War of Resistance against Japanese Agression. It reveals their inner poverty, emptiness and lowliness, criticizes the dark reality of the Kuomintang-controlled areas, and reveals the crisis of modern civilization and the dilemma of modern life.(Qian Zhongshu 1947)

In the preface of the book, Qian said that, "In this book I intended to write about a certain segment of society and a certain kind of people in modern China. In writing about these people, I didn’t forget they are human beings, still human beings with the basic nature of hairless, two-legged animals. "The novel is like an X-ray mirror that reveals the deformed characters and ugly souls of those "hairless and two-legged animals" and analyzes the cultural matrix which is responsible for the deformed characters and ugly souls of these "latest style" literati.(Qian Zhongshu 1947)

Yang Jiang said, "The main connotation of ''Fortress Besieged'' is that those who are besieged by the city want to escape, while those outside want to rush in. This is what most people wish for in life, whether in marriage or career. "The meaning of "fortress besieged" is also stated several times in the novel. It tells people that life is a besieged city everywhere, people have marriage and divorce, divorce and marriage in endless succession,with everlasting confusion and dilemma. The questions that Qian raised in the novel refer to a question of universal significance, which is the crisis of modern civilization and the dilemma of modern life as a whole. In December 1990, the television series ''Fortress Besieged'' was broadcast on China Central Television(CCTV) and enjoyed great popularity.

Ch'ien Chung-shu has made significant achievements in literary research and literary creation. In particular, it is of great significance to carry forward and deny traditional Chinese culture scientifically and learn from foreign culture selectively. He has wrote the collection of essays ''Written in the Margins of Life'' (1941), the collection of short stories ''Humans·Beasts·Ghosts'' (1946), and the novel ''Fortress Besieged'' (1947).

Both his essays and novels are wise and meaningful. Qian has read Chinese history, philosophy and literary classics in depth and has studied western old and new literature, philosophy and psychology. Many of his works, such as ''Limited Views:Essays on Ideaas and Letters'' and ''Patchwork:Essays on Art and Literature'', have enjoyed high reputation in academic circles both at home and abroad.

Ch'ien Chung-shu viewd China and the world with a cultural criticism spirit. Based on his profound knowledge of Chinese and world culture, Qian has always shown a clear mind and a deep insight when observing Chinese and Western culture. He didn't reject any theories or doctrines, nor did he blindly follow any authorities. He devoted his life to promoting Chinese literature and art to the world.

To this end, he not only explicated the profound meaning and unique value of Chinese culture in depth, but also pointed out its historical and regional limitations. He not only criticized the Chinese for their arrogance towards the local culture due to certain illusions, but also mercilessly eliminated the Westerners' prejudice centered on European and American culture due to ignorance. It is Ch'ien Chung-shu who has promoted cultural communication between China and other countries.

November 21st,2020 is the 110th anniversary of the birth of Ch'ien Chung-shu. People often call him a well-informed scholar, but he is more of a down-to-earth writer and scholar. He was indifferent to fame and wealth and alaways took a rigorous and serious attitude towards academic research. We feel ourselves in an entirely new world when we read the subtle metaphors in ''Fortress Besieged'', while we read ''Limited Views:Essays on Ideas and Letters'' and ''Patchwork:Essays on Art and Literature'', we are amazed at Qian's erudition. People all over the world admire his talent, but in fact,it is his meticulous and diligent reading spirit that makes him a well-informed scholar.(Wang Shuizhao 2020)

Many of his life experiences and the question of whether his scholarship was systematic or not have attracted much attention. Wang Shuizhao, professor of Chinese Department of Fudan University, who has studied and worked with Ch'ien Chung-shu for a long time, has recently published his new book ''Academic Life of Qian Zhongshu'', in which he writes about Qian's life experiences and academic achievements based on the first-hand historical data, his personal experiences and his own understanding of academia, and gives answers to the questions discueesed widely, such as Qian's experience of being falsely accused, whether there exists system in his scholarship and the collision of viewpoints between Qian and Chen Yinke.(Wang Shuizhao 2020)

====Terms and Expressions====

''China in the English Literature of the Seventeenth and Eighteenth centuries'' 《十七十八世纪英国文学中的中国》

''Fortress Besieged'' 《围城》

Kuomintang-controlled areas 国统区

''Written in the Margins of Life'' 《写在人生边上》

''Humans·Beasts·Ghosts'' 《人·兽·鬼》

''Limited Views:Essays on Ideas and Letters'' 《管锥编》

''Patchwork:Essays on Art and Literature'' 《谈艺录》

the 110th anniversary of the birth of Ch'ien Chung-shu 钱钟书诞辰110周年纪念日

''Academic Life of Qian Zhongshu '' 《钱锺书的学术人生》

====Questions====

1.What is Ch'ien Chung-shu's representative work? When was it published?

2.When was the TV series ''Fortress Besieged'' broadcast?

3.Do you know other works about Ch'ien Chung-shu? Can you list some of them?

4.Which book did Wang Shuizhao publish in commemoration of the 110 anniversary of the birth of Ch'ien Chung-shu? What does he talk about in this book?

5.Which sentence is your favoriate in ''Fortress Besieged''?

===Answers===

1.Ch'ien Chung-shu's representive work is ''Fortress Besieged''. It was published in 1947.

2.It was broadcast in December 1990.

3.''Patchwork:Seven Essays on Art and Literature''（《七缀集》） and ''Poetic Remains of an Ephemeral Life''（《槐聚诗存》）.

4.Wang Shuizhao published his new book ''Academic Life of Qian Zhongshu'' in commemoration of the 110 anniversary of the birth of Ch'ien Chung-shu, in which he writes about Qian's life experiences and academic achievements.

5."I want to be able to occupy the whole life of the man I love. Before meeting me, he would have had no past and would be waiting for me with a clean slate."

===References===

Qian Zhongshu.钱钟书.(1947).''围城''.[Fortress Besieged].上海晨光出版公司[Shanghai Chenguang Publishing Corporation].

Wang Shuizhao.王水照.(2020).''钱锺书的学术人生''.[Academic Life of Qian Zhongshu].中华书局[Zhonghua Book Company,Ltd.].--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 13:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

== ''' Crosstalk'''- Liu Ou 刘欧，202070080597，MTI==

<center>刘欧 Liu Ou </center>

=== Crosstalk===

'''The Development of Crosstalk'''

Crosstalk, in the ancient time known as onomatopoeia, originally refers to imitate others’ voices. It was evolved and further developed from the folk opera in North China, and integrated with imitating oral skills and other folk art forms. It is generally believed to be formed during the Emperor Xianfeng (1850—1861) and Emperor Tongzhi (1861—1874) period in Qing dynasty(1636-1912). It’s a folk vocal art that uses jokes or funny questioning and answering to make the audience laugh. In the early years of the Republic of China (1912-1949), crosstalk gradually developed from one-person ventriloquism to one person stand-up talk, and the name changed to cross talk. Later, it developed into stand-up crosstalk, dual crosstalk, and group crosstalk. And it becomes a veritable form of art. After years of development, dual crosstalk has finally become the most popular form of crosstalk among audiences. In the late Qing Dynasty, crosstalk formed its modern features and styles. The language uses in crosstalk is mainly Beijing dialect, however, there are also “dialect crosstalk” in other regions of China(360 Encyclopedia).

Crosstalk is an original folk art with a long history in China, which is deeply loved by the majority of the people. The crosstalk art was almost disappeared but has been reborn and developed very rapidly especially since the founding of the People’s Republic of China. It is no longer only palys in several cities in the north, nor spread only within the citizens, but also spread from the north to the whole country, and from the city to the countryside(Hou Baolin 1982,01).

'''Four Basic Skills in Crosstalk'''

Speaking, imitating, teasing and singing are the four basic artistic skills of crosstalk. “Speaking” means to tell jokes, stories, lantern riddles, drinking games, etc; “imitating” is to imitate all kinds of birds and animals, hawking, singing and the sound of different languages, etc; “teasing” is to gag and tease; “sing” means to sing Taiping Lyrics (most of which contain the meaning of peace and prosperity, so they are called Taiping) (Hou Baolin,1982,194), opera lyrics and songs. Crosstalk artists regard “speaking, imitating, teasing and singing” as their "four compulsory lessons". For example, the artists grasp the rhythm in language and correct their pronunciations by “saying tongue twisters" or "reciting classical repertoires". And gain the ability of imitation by learning different kinds of sounds.Moreover, they practice the singing skills by singing “Taiping lyrics”,opera lyrics and songs(Hou Baolin 1982,11).

'''Characteristics of Crosstalk'''

First of all, crosstalk is the art of “speaking”, which belongs to the art of “performing with words”, so it is different from drama that “performing with words as well as body movements”. This kind of performance has a close relationship between the actors and the audience that shortened the distance between the stage and the audience. The actors directly communicate with the audience and perform with the audience's cooperation and tacit understanding to obtain artistic effect. In this sense, crosstalk is a collective performance of actors and audiences. From the perspective of the audience, they are not standing on the opposite side of the actors and appreciating the stage performance passively and objectively, but creating artistic images with the actors(Hou Baolin 1982,02).

Secondly, crosstalk is the art of "laughter". Crosstalk performers use laughter as a weapon to expose contradictions, shape characters and evaluate life. Without laughter, it can constitute any other arts, but not crosstalk and comedy. In other words, crosstalk has the characteristics of humor and satire. It reflects that life is not flat, but exaggerated and even deformed. China has a long tradition of satirizing emperors or high rank officials, and its written record could be traced back to the Zhou (1046BC-256BC) and Qin (221BC-207BC) Dynasties. Satire is the product of class oppression. China has been in a feudalistic society for a long time, without political democracy and freedom of speech, the people often take circuitous methods to fight against the ruling class. Satirical art is like a weed under a boulder. Only through deformation and roundabout can this kind of art maintain to exist(Hou Baolin 1982,03).

“Speaking” and “laughing” constitute the basic outline of cross talk art, which is a language performance art with comedy style. “Speaking”, as a kind of rap art, establishes the mode of crosstalk art, which is distinguished from drama art. “Laughing” is the artistic characteristics of crosstalk, which distinguishes it from other rap art forms. These two characteristics are interdependent and complementary(Hou Baolin 1982,04).

Crosstalk is different from comedy. In comedy, the laughter of audience mainly comes from plot and comic characters, while in crosstalk it mainly comes from “baofu” (jokes). Sometimes the laughter relies on the plot, but sometimes the plot is not needed. The performers win the applaud of audience by the charm of their language. And“Baofu” must be expressed in the way of “dialogue” and “chatting” between the actors (Hou Baolin 1982,04).

'''Famous Artists of CrossTalk'''

In Emperor Tongzhi (1861—1874) and Emperor Guangxu (1875—1908) periods, Zhu Shaowen (stage name “Qiong Bupa, which means not afraid of poverty”) was regarded as the “ancestor”of crosstalk art. Other famous crosstalk artists including Hou Baolin(1917-1993), a pioneering master of crosstalk. In his 60 years of art career, he has devoted himself to the research and development of crosstalk art and brought laughter to the audience. Under his leadership and promotion, crosstalk art has really entered thousands of households and reached a remarkable artistic peak. His crosstalk works including Drama Talks, Drunkenness and etc. Ma Sanli (1914-2003) is the son of the crosstalk actor Ma Delu. Ma Sanli devoted himself to the exploration of long-term artistic practice, and created the unique “Ma’s Style of Crosstalk”. He was the oldest, most experienced and most accomplished crosstalk leader in the cross-talk circle at that time. So was deeply loved and respected by all walks of life and the audience. Ma's cross talk enjoys wide popularity among the people. In Tianjin, it was a saying that “no branches of crosstalk did not learn from Ma”. His representative works including “Eating Yuanxiao(dumpling)”, “Selling Tickets” and “the Yellow Crane Tower”. Other famous crosstalk artists include Zhang Yongxi, Liu Baorui, Hou Yaowen, Jiang Kun, Feng Gong, Niu Qun and Guo Degang. (Baijiahao 2018 )

===Terms and Expressions===

speaking, imitating, teasing and singing 说学逗唱

Taiping lyrics 太平歌词

Baofu 包袱

Drama Talks 《戏剧杂谈》

Drunkenness 《醉酒》

Selling Tickets 《卖挂票》

===Questions===

1.When did crosstalk form its format?

2.What is Taiping lyrics?

3.Who was regarded as the “ancestor”of crosstalk art ?

4.What are the four basic skills of crosstalk?

===Answers===

1.It is generally believed to be formed during the Emperor Xianfeng (1850—1861) and Emperor Tongzhi (1861—1874) period in Qing dynasty.

2.Taiping lyrics (most of which contain the meaning of peace and prosperity) is the content to be sang in the crosstalk.

3.Zhu Shaowen.

4.They are speaking, imitating, teasing and singing.

===References===

1.Hou Baolin, Xue Baokun,侯宝林,薛宝坤.(1982).《相声溯源》[The Origin of Crosstalk]1-13+194. 人民教育出版社 People's Literature Publishing House.

2.Sohu 中国相声介绍 [The Introduction of China's Crosstalk] https://cul.sohu.com/20090619/n264630449.shtml

3.360 Encyclopedia. 相声[Crosstalk] https://baike.so.com/doc/1925383-2037001.html

4.Baidu 最著名的十位相声名家排行[The Rank of Ten Famous Crosstalk Artists] https://baijiahao.baidu.com/s?id=1590742532351773378

==Liu Yi 刘艺==
Go 围棋--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 08:04, 9 November 2020 (UTC)
===GO - Liu Yi 刘艺 202070080640 MTI英语口译===

Go is an adversarial game with the objective of surrounding a larger total area of the board with one's stones than the opponent[1]. As the game progresses, the players position stones on the board to map out formations and potential territories. Contests between opposing formations are often extremely complex and may result in the expansion, reduction, or wholesale capture and loss of formation stones.[2](NRICH Team, Going First, 2007)

A basic principle of Go is that a group of stones must have at least one open point bordering the group, known as a liberty, to remain on the board. One or more liberties enclosed within a group is called an eye, and a group with two or more eyes cannot be captured, even if surrounded.[3] (Iwamoto, Kaoru,1977)Such groups are said to be unconditionally alive.

The general strategy is to expand one's territory, attack the opponent's weak groups (groups that can be killed), and always stay mindful of the "life status" of one's own groups. The liberties of groups are countable. Situations where mutually opposing groups must capture each other or die are called capturing races, or semeai. In a capturing race, the group with more liberties (and/or better "shape") will ultimately be able to capture the opponent's stones. Capturing races and the elements of life or death are the primary challenges of Go.

Players may pass rather than place a stone if they think there are no further opportunities for profitable play. The game ends when both players pass or when one player resigns. In general, to score the game, each player counts the number of unoccupied points surrounded by their stones and then subtracts the number of stones that were captured by the opponent. The player with the greater score (after adjusting for komi) wins the game.

In the opening stages of the game, players typically establish positions (or "bases") in the corners and around the sides of the board. These bases help to quickly develop strong shapes which have many options for life (self-viability for a group of stones that prevents capture) and establish formations for potential territory. Players usually start in the corners because establishing territory is easier with the aid of two edges of the board. Established corner opening sequences are called "joseki" and are often studied independently.

"Dame" are points that lie in between the boundary walls of black and white, and as such are considered to be of no value to either side. "Seki" are mutually alive pairs of white and black groups where neither has two eyes. A "ko" (Chinese and Japanese: 劫) is a repeated-position shape that may be contested by making forcing moves elsewhere. After the forcing move is played, the ko may be "taken back" and returned to its original position. Some "ko fights" may be important and decide the life of a large group, while others may be worth just one or two points. Some ko fights are referred to as "picnic kos" when only one side has a lot to lose. The Japanese call it a hanami (flower-viewing) ko.

Playing with others usually requires a knowledge of each player's strength, indicated by the player's rank (increasing from 30 kyu to 1 kyu, then 1 dan to 7 dan, then 1 dan pro to 9 dan pro). A difference in rank may be compensated by a handicap—Black is allowed to place two or more stones on the board to compensate for White's greater strength. There are different rule-sets (Korean, Japanese, Chinese, AGA, etc.), which are almost entirely equivalent, except for certain special-case positions.

Aside from the order of play (alternating moves, Black moves first or takes a handicap) and scoring rules, there are essentially only two rules in Go:
• Rule 1 (the rule of liberty) states that every stone remaining on the board must have at least one open "point" (an intersection, called a "liberty") directly orthogonally adjacent (up, down, left, or right), or must be part of a connected group that has at least one such open point ("liberty") next to it. Stones or groups of stones which lose their last liberty are removed from the board.
• Rule 2 (the "ko rule") states that the stones on the board must never repeat a previous position of stones. Moves which would do so are forbidden, and thus only moves elsewhere on the board are permitted that turn.

Almost all other information about how the game is played is a heuristic, meaning it is learned information about how the game is played, rather than a rule. Other rules are specialized, as they come about through different rule-sets, but the above two rules cover almost all of any played game.[4](British Go Association,2007)

Although there are some minor differences between rule-sets used in different countries, most notably in Chinese and Japanese scoring rules, these differences do not greatly affect the tactics and strategy of the game.

Except where noted, the basic rules presented here are valid independent of the scoring rules used. The scoring rules are explained separately. Go terms for which there is no ready English equivalent are commonly called by their Japanese names.

The two players, Black and White, take turns placing stones of their colour on the intersections of the board, one stone at a time. The usual board size is a 19×19 grid but for beginners, or for playing quick games, the smaller board sizes of 13×13 and 9×9 are also popular.[5] The board is empty to begin with. Black plays first, unless black is given a handicap of two stones or more (in which case, white plays first). The players may choose any unoccupied intersection to play on, except for those forbidden by the ko and suicide rules (see below). Once played, a stone can never be moved and can be taken off the board only if it is captured. A player may also pass, declining to place a stone, though this is usually only done at the end of the game when both players believe nothing more can be accomplished with further play. When both players pass consecutively, the game ends and is then scored.

===Terms and Expressions===
Go 围棋 heuristic 启发式的
adversarial game 对抗性游戏 intersection 交叉点
board 棋盘 black 黑棋
formation 阵型 white 白棋
move 走棋 scoring rule 计分规则
liberty 自由度 player 棋手

===Questions===
1, What’s the basic principle of Go?

2,Aside from the order of play (alternating moves, Black moves first or takes a handicap) and scoring rules, What are other two essential rules in Go？

3, What countries have the most notable scoring rules differences?--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 08:36, 9 December 2020 (UTC)

===Answers===
1, A basic principle of Go is that a group of stones must have at least one open point bordering the group, known as a liberty, to remain on the board.

2,The rule of liberty and the "ko rule".

3, Most notably in Chinese and Japanese scoring rules--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 08:35, 9 December 2020 (UTC)

===References===
[1]Matthews, Charles (2004). Teach Yourself Go. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-142977-1.

[2]NRICH Team, Going First, University of Cambridge, retrieved 2007-06-16

[3]Iwamoto, Kaoru (1977). Go for Beginners. New York: Pantheon. ISBN 978-0-394-73331-9.

[4]British Go Association, Comparison of some go rules, retrieved 2007-12-20

[5]Kim, Janice; Jeong, Soo-hyun (1997). Learn to Play Go. Five volumes (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Good Move Press. ISBN 978-0-9644796-1-6.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 07:36, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜,202070080598 MTI 标题 is missing--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 08:21, 14 December 2020 (UTC)==

===The Four Most Handsome men in Ancient China===
It is said that there were four most beautiful women in ancient times, and corresponding to that, it is worth mentioning that there were four most attractive men at that time.Despite that we consider these four men as attractive, this refers to more than just their appearance. They have a common feature: it proves that while their appearance is marvelous, they are also outstanding in literature. Namely, as a Chinese saying goes, they are endowed with both beauty and talent.

These four men are Pan An, King Lanling, Ji Kang, and Wei Jie.（Wang Zhenbo 2008,59-60）

The allusion of “throwing fruit to fill a carriage” originates from Pan An, which resembles movie fans nowadays to see their idols. There is a comment on Pan An’s appearance: "No more and no less." The history books also describe Pan An with three words “good-looking, well-mannered, and graceful”. Although these did not describe Pan An’s appearance in details, such as eyebrows and eyes or lips, from these side descriptions, we can know that Pan An’s appearance is far above ordinary people, and even his styles draw imitation from others.

At the same time, Pan An is known as “the flower of a county in Heyang”, and he is also one of the few men who are compared with flowers to be praised for excellent appearance. The beauty of exterior only fails to last long in this world. Pan An's talent and temperament and the devotion to his wife are also often eulogized. Pan Yue showed his unusual talent since he was a child, and he was called a child prodigy by the villagers. In his early years, he was appreciated by an official and recommended as a scholar.

Later, served as the magistrate of Heyang (now Meng County, Henan), he was diligent in political affairs, and advocated the people to plant more fruits and trees. The county was full of trees and peaches and plums everywhere, known as “Flower County”. During his administration, his political achievements were remarkable. Besides, Pan An holds a special place in the history of literature.

He was good at composing verse and orders, expatiation, and skilled in the choice of words and building of sentences, which fully reflects the characteristics of Taikang literature that pays attention to the beauty of form. He was expert in composing Ci lyric of sorrow and admonishment, and his current works such as Widow's Fu, Mourning Poem and other famous works are all known for their narration and empathy. Pan An can be described as both internally and externally blessed.（Liu Xixue 2003,63-64）

Gao Changgong (541-573), known as King Lanling, the grandson of Gao Huan, Emperor Shenwu, and the fourth son of Wen Xiang, Emperor Gaocheng. There is a very popular legend about King Lanling. It's believed that King Lanling was a brave and supremely skilled general. However, because he looked very sweet and it seemed hard to frighten the enemy, he often wore a half-mask when fighting, which sounds very fairytale.

Nevertheless, the beauty of King Lanling is beyond doubt and otherworldly. Book of Northern Qi Dynasty described that he was friendly looking and mentally strong, with beautiful voice and appearance.King Lanling spent half his life in military affairs, and made great achievements. While this gave him glory, it also brought bad luck. There is an old Chinese saying that the glow of a inferior from massive achievements will overshadow his superior.

Although the King Lanling did not have the idea of usurping the throne, but the incumbent felt threatened because of his existence itself. In the end, a glass of poisonous wine ended the life of the Lanling King.（Wang Zhenbo 2008,59-60）

Song Yu (about 322 BC-298 BC), as it is widely rumored, a student of Qu Yuan, was born in the capital city of Song Dynasty during the Warring States Period (now Shangqiu, Henan). Song Yu was a writer of Ci lyric of State Chu in the late Warring States period, adept in Ci lyric and even acclaimed as a great poet after Qu Yuan' reputation. Later generations often referred to them as “Qu Song”. Rumors circulate that there are many Ci lyrics from him, and Book of Han records about 16 works, but many of them are lost today.

His works embrace Nine Discriminations, The Fu poetry of Wind and so on. He was the first to write about sadness from Autumn and to write about women. His description of women's nature exerts a great influence on later generations such as Cao Zhi. The goddess in Song Yu's The Fu poetry of Goddess embodies the essence of pre-Qin female beauty, recounting the beauty of the goddess of Wushan Mountain in details so much so that later generations have coveted for it for thousands of years.

16 works survived, among which Nine Discriminations is believed to be truly composed by him. It is equivalent to Qu Yuan's Li Sao or A lament in the history of Chinese literature. Both poets can be called the two shining pearls in Ci lyric at their times.（Wang Zhenbo 2008,59-60）

Wei Jie (286-June 20, 312), a metaphysician and an official of the Jin Dynasty. Wei Jie was a noted talker and metaphysicist during the Wei and Jin Dynasties. He was appointed as an assistant of the prince in the matter of politics. In the fourth year of the reign of Emperor Yongjia(AD310), Wei Jie died at the age of 27. Both ancient books and ancients commented on Wei Jie's appearance. Wang Ji reckoned that, “A jade is on my side, and I feel like I am nobody”; “Wandering with Jiu is like sauntering with a pearl on the side, with him shining brightly.”

History Retold as a Mirror for rulers authored by Sima Guang goes into detail: "Wei is blessed with attractive appearance and has his own understanding when talking and sharing; Often he reckons people can be forgiven if they are inferior..." Wei Jie not only have a mere marvelous exterior, but also he can discern metaphysics from his perspective. Wei Jie’s views always amaze the concerned parties.

It is said that even three sons of the Wang family, are not as good as the first son of the Wei family, and the three sons of the Wang family were all well-known scholars at that time, and the Wei Jie could be regarded as unmatchable compared with the three in family background, appearance, and talents.（Wang Zhenbo 2008,59-60）

===Terms and Expressions===
Pan An 潘安

King Lanling 兰陵王

Ji Kang 嵇康

Wei Jie 卫玠

throwing fruit to fill a carriage 掷果盈车

scholar 秀才

expatiation 铺陈

Book of Northern Qi Dynasty 《北齐书》

the Warring States Period 战国时期

Book of Han 《汉书》

Nine Discriminations 《九辨》

The Fu poetry of Wind 《风赋》

The Fu poetry of Goddess 《神女赋》

the goddess of Wushan Mountain 巫山神女

metaphysician 玄学家

a noted talker 清谈名士

History Retold as a Mirror for rulers 《资治通鉴》

Widow's Fu 《寡妇赋》

Mourning Poem 《悼亡诗》

英文书名要用斜体--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 13:43, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Questions===
1.Who are the four most handsome men at ancient time in China?

2.Who is Gao Changgong?

3.How did Lanlin King die?

4.What works did Song Yu compose?

5.Who are the two shining pearls in Ci lyric according to the passage?

6.What History Retold as a Mirror for rulers comment on Wei Jie?

===Answers===
1.These four men are Pan An, King Lanling, Ji Kang, and Wei Jie.

2.Gao Changgong (541-573), known as King Lanling, the grandson of Gao Huan, Emperor Shenwu, and the fourth son of Wen Xiang, Emperor Gaocheng.

3.In the end, a glass of poisonous wine ended the life of the Lanling King.

4.His works embrace Nine Discriminations, The Fu poetry of Wind and so on.

5.Qu Yuan and Song Yu

6."Wei is blessed with attractive appearance and has his own understanding when talking and sharing; Often he reckons people can be forgiven if they are inferior..."

===References===
[1]刘细学.古代四大美男[J].文史天地,2003(06):63-64.

[2]王真波.四大美男都是怎么死的[J].青年文学家,2008(11):59-60.

参考文献格式错误--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 13:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Lo, Minh Thao==

===Answers===
===References===
==Mogao Grottoes--Lou Cancan 娄灿灿 student no.202070080599 MTI 英语笔译==

===Mogao Grottoes===

===Introduction===
[[File:Iconic Building of Mogao Grottoes.jpg|150px|thumb|left|Iconic Building of Mogao Grottoes]]
The Mogao Grottoes, known as the Thousand Buddhas Caves, were built on the eastern cliff of Mingsha Mountain, 25 kilometers to the southeast of Dunhuang city. There are 492 caves (well preserved) today, containing over 2,400 painted clay statues and 45,000 square meters of murals and 5 timber structures on the cliff of the southern district. There are also more than 300 caves used as both living room and burying place for monks and painters on the cliff of the northern district. Near the Mogao Grottoes, there are some other cave temples: West Caves of Thousand Buddhas (22 caves), Yulin Caves (42 caves), East Caves of Thousand Buddhas (23 caves, 8 caves with murals and statues among them), Five Cave Temples( 5 caves). (Fan Jinshi 2010，170)

Their built-dates, contents and artistic styles are very similar to Mogao Grottoes,so they are often referred to as Dunhuang Grottoes. From the 4th until the 14th century, caves were constructed by monks to serve as shrines with funds from donors. The major caves were sponsored by patrons such as important asclergies, local ruling elites, foreign dignitaries, as well as Chinese emperors. Other caves may have been funded by merchants and other local people such as women's groups. (Sha Wutian 2020, 122)

===History===

Mogao Grottoes were not built in one day. According to relevant records in the Tang Dynasty, in 366 AD, a monk named Yuezun（乐僔）was roaming about Dunhuang. One day, he caught a sight of the Buddhas over the Sanwei Mountain opposite the cliff of the Mingsha Mountain, so the devout believer set to build the first cave on the cliff. Later, monk Faliang（法良）came here and joined him cultivating in caves. Since then more and more caves have been excavated over a thousand year. (Whitfield 1990, 8)

By the time of Northern Liang, small community of monks had formed at this site. The caves initially served only as a place of meditation for hermit monks. Later, they were developed to serve the monasteries that sprang up nearby. Members of the ruling families of Northern Wei and Northern Zhou constructed many caves here, and it flourished in the short-lived Sui Dynasty. By the Sui and Tang Dynasties, Mogao Caves had become a place of worship and pilgrimage for the public. In the Sui Dynasty, Hexi Corridor was controlled by central authority. The emperors were pious followers of Buddhism and they ordered to build stupas across the country. Therefore, more than 100 caves were excavated in Mogao Grottoes within 37 years. (Fan Jinshi 2010，175-178)
[[File:Taoist Wang Yuanlu.jpg|100px|thumb|right|Taoist Wang Yuanlu]]
By the Tang Dynasty, the number of caves had reached over a thousand. During this period, Dunhuang became the main hub of commerce of the Silk Road and a major religious center. A large number of the caves were constructed during this era, including the two large statues of Buddha at the site, the largest one constructed in 695 following an edict a year earlier by Tang Empress Wu Zitian to build giant statues across the country. The site escaped the persecution of Buddhists ordered by Emperor Wuzong in 845 as it was then under Tibetan control. As a frontier town, Dunhuang had been occupied at various times by other non-Han Chinese people. After the Tang Dynasty, the site went into a gradual decline, and construction of new caves ceased entirely after the Yuan Dynasty. In the Five Dynasties and Ten States period and the Northern Song Dynasty, Mogao Grottoes were preserved and kept by Cao Yijin（曹议金). (MA Shichang 2010, 303) After that, his later generations governed Dunhuang Prefecture and constructed multiple family caves such as Cave 55. (Gao Xiujun 2016, 9)

During the Ming Dynasty, the Silk Road was finally abandoned and Dunhuang slowly became depolulated and was forgotten by the outside world. Most of the Mogao caves were abandoned. The site, however, went back to a place of pilgrimage and worship by local people at the beginning of the twentieth century. On June 22th,1900, while Taoist priest Wang Yuanlu（王圆箓）was removing sand from Cave 161, he found a treasure-house on the wall of the corridor containing a great number of scrolls of Buddhist writings, old administrative papers, embroidered work and paintings. Since then, Dunhuang has become well known throughout the world. Both Chinese and foreign scholars have made extensive studies on the findings.(Stein 1912, volume 2)

===Art===
[[File:A Chaitya with a Central Pillar.jpg|150px|thumb|right|A Chaitya with a Central Pillar]]
The art of Mogao Grottoes mainly consists of three aspects: architectural structure, mural and sculpture and they vary from dynasty to dynasty. There are mainly three types of structural forms of Mogao Grottoes: Vihara, Chaitya and Hall with inverted funnel shaped ceiling. A Chaitya with a central pillar is the main form of the caves in the early period of the Sixteen States, with Northern Wei, Western Wei and Northern Zhou Dynasties included. The murals may be divided into seven sorts:Buddhist figures, Sutra illustration, Buddhist stories, Buddhist historical pictures, Chinese mythologies, donors and decorative designs. Buddhist stories in the murals can be divided into three types: Jataka（佛本生), Buddha’s life and fate story. A Jataka is a narrative which tells of the good deeds performed by Sakyamuni during his perious existence such as prince Sudanda giving up his body to feed the hungry tigers. As to sculptures, they were constructed on a wooden frame, padded with reed, then modelled in clay stucco and finished with paint.（Duan Wenjie 1994, 163)

===[[File:A Prince is Feeding Hungry Tigers with His Body.jpg|150px|thumb|left|A Prince is Feeding Hungry Tigers with His Body]]===
[[File:Cave 251 in Northern Wei.jpg|150px|thumb|right|Cave 251 in Northern Wei]]
The artistic styles in the Sixteen States, which gradually turned away from being primitive and simple to an easy and graceful styles in the Northern Wei, manifested in figures with well-chiseled builds and emaciated looks. In the Northern Zhou, the styles of figures show that Chinese art combining the influence of foreign and native styles gradually became more nationalized. ( Fan Jinshi 2010, 174)

The characteristics of the statues in the Sui Dynasty are robust body, large head, square face and short legs. The caves become spacious and more suited for large paintings, such as the Sutra illustrations and huge pictures of Buddha expounding sermons. Bold and vigorous, brush work was painted with intricate and flowing lines. For example, Lotus Sutra on the ceiling of Cave 420 displays a lot of episodes of mountains, forests, rivers, buildings and so on in a limitated space. The theme and art in the Sui Dynasty show an important devdelopment in traditional art and indicate a comimg glorious new era. （Duan Wenjie 1994, 164)
[[File:Cave 68 in Tang Dynasty.jpg|150px|thumb|right|Cave 68 in Tang Dynasty]]
In the Tang Dynasty, the caves are large with an inverted funnel shaped ceiling. The murals consist mostly of huge paintings of stories from Buddhist Sutras with well-regulated scenes and well-balanced composition. The figures at that time have round and plump faces and curved eyebrows which expresses the aesthetical taste of the people living in Tang. The mural in Cave 220 contains vivid portraits of the Emperor and his ministers listening to a sermon. The ministers attending to Emperor are each bestowed with differrent appearances and expressions. Some are natural and graceful and some cautious. The well-proportioned painted statues were made with more consummate care and attention to the detail, showing us the solemn Buddha. ( Fan Jinshi 2010, 174)

In addition, very tall and colossal statues of Buddha began to be made. The outstanding one is an early Tang Dynasty statue 34 metres high in Cave 96. In 781-848A.D, Hexi region fell into the Tibetan. Hence, there was an interesting change: the king of the Tibetan took the place of central-plain emperors in the wall-painting.( Fan Jinshi 2010, 175)

By the time of the Five Dynasties and Ten States period and the Northern Song Dynasty, the grottoes carved in this period are very large and different in form and layout. The subject and style of the statues and murals remain the influence from Tang Dynasty, but the use of colours and the drawing techniques show a simple folk style. From the 9th century to 12th, the Uygur had been in Dunhuang. The artistic styles bear the imprint of both Han and Uygur. The Uygur murals are generally characterized by the simplicity of the subject, the looseness of the arrangement, the direct and rough brush strokes. (Rong Xinjiang 1999, 248)

The human figures have features of certain minority groups. In the Western Xia Dynasty(1036-1227), most of caves were repaired and renovated, and only 10 caves were built because of the limited cliffs. Compared to the Yulin Grottoes at the same time, painting of Dunhuang display the Pure-land Sutra, containing simpler content. Only 27 caves are extant in Yuan times(1227-1372). The murals in Cave 3, however, still remain the Tang and Song techniques, namely using different types of drawing to depict different parts of human figures such as iron-wire lines, orchid-leaf strokes and broken-reef strokes, etc. Since the 15th century, the Mogao Grottoes had gradually fallen into neglect in the Ming and Qing Dynasties. (Rong Xinjiang 1999, 248)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 08:44, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

===[[File:Cave 3 in Yuan Dynasty.jpg|100px|thumb|left|Cave 3 in Yuan Dynasty]]===

===Terms and Expressions===

hermit 隐士

stupas 舍利塔

Emperor Wuzong ofTang Dynasty 唐武宗

Vihara 精舍

Chaitya 支提窟

stucco 灰泥

Sakyamuni 释迦牟尼

Sutras 佛经

===Questions===

1.What do Dunhuang Grottoes refer to?

2.Who built the first cave and when?

3.In 1900, who found the treasure-house in Mogao Grottoes and what were stored in it?

4.How many aspects does the art of Mogao Grottoes mainly consists of and what are they respectively?

5.What are the characteristics of the statues in Sui Dynasty?

===Answers===

1.Near the Mogao Grottoes, there are some other cave temples: West Caves of Thousand Buddhas (22 caves), Yulin Caves (42 caves), East Caves of Thousand Buddhas (23 caves, 8 caves with murals and statues among them), Five Cave Temples( 5 caves). Their built-dates, contents and artistic styles are very similar to Mogao Grottoes, so they are often referred to as Dunhuang Grottoes.

2.According to relevant records in Tang Dynasty, in 366 AD, a monk named Yuezun（乐僔）was roaming about Dunhuang. One day, he caught a sight of the Buddhas over the Sanwei Mountain opposite the cliff of the Mingsha Mountain, so the devout believer set to build the first cave on the cliff.

3.On June 22th,1900, while Taoist priest Wang Yuanlu（王圆箓）was removing sand from Cave 161, he found a treasure-house on the wall of the corridor containing a great number of scrolls of Buddhist writings, old administrative papers, embroidered work and paintings.

4.The art of Mogao Grottoes mainly consists of three aspects: architectural structure, mural and sculpture.

5.The characteristics of the statues in Sui Dynasty are robust body, large head, square face and short legs.

===References===

Fan Jinshi 樊锦诗.(2010). ''敦煌石窟'' [The Caves of Dunhuang]. Gansu: The Dunhuang Academy 敦煌研究院.

Gao Xiujun 高秀军.(2016). ''敦煌莫高窟第55窟研究'' [Research on the 55th Grotto of Mogao Grottoes in Dunhuang].Lanzhou University 兰州大学.

MA Shichang.(2010). Buddhist Cave-temples and the Cao Family at Mogao Ku, Dunhuang. MA Shichang,27(2),303-317.

Rong Xinjiang 荣新江. (2010).'' 敦煌藏经洞的性质及其封闭原因'' [The Nature of the Dunhuang Library Cave and the Reasons for Its Sealing]. Shanghai: Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House 上海古籍出版社.

Sha Wutian 沙武田. (2020). 佛教供养与政治宣传——敦煌莫高窟第156窟供养人画像研究 [Buddhist offerings and Political Propaganda -- A Study on the Portrait of the Patron of the 156th Grottoes in Dunhuang].''中原文物'' Cultural Relics in Central Plain, No.215,118-128.

Stein, M. Aurel. Ruins of Desert Cathay.(1912). Personal Narrative of Explorations in Central Asia and Westernmost China, volume 2. London: Macmillan.

Suemori Kaoru. (2020)."Thousand-Buddha images in Dunhuang Mogao Grottoes: Religious spaces created by polychromatic patterns". Kyoto: Hozokan.

Duan Wenjie. (1994). Dunhuang Art: Through the Eyes of Duan Wenjie. Abhinav Publications. p. 163.

Whitfield, Roderick and Farrer, Anne, Caves of the Thousand Buddhas. (1990). Chinese Art from the Silk Route, British Museum Publications. P . 5-20.

https://books.google.ru/books?hl=zh-CN&lr=&id=vYPNqlAMZWAC&oi=fnd&pg=PP7&dq=info:9v6pr21oST8J:scholar.google.com/&ots=s-uXhnyDBp&sig=u3H7MAh_OpGRS6Iwxoqx0rC5_fo&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mogao_Caves

https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=zh-CN&as_sdt=0%2C5&q=mogao+grottoes&oq=

==Four State-Level Cultural Relics Luo Weijia 罗维嘉 Student No.202070080600 MTI ==

===Four State-Level Cultural Relics===

China, home to one of the world’s most ancient civilizations, abounds in cultural relics, from ancient tombs, architecture, instruments to handicrafts, historical books and so on. They embody rich information about history and culture and vividly display the process of Chinese cultural development. The astounding artistic and technological levels shown in those relics continue to impress people today.

China, home to one of the world’s most ancient civilizations, abounds in cultural relics, from ancient tombs, architecture, instruments to handicrafts, historical books and so on. They embody rich information about history and culture and vividly display the process of Chinese cultural development. The astounding artistic and technological levels shown in those relics continue to impress people today.(Xu Ling,2019)

====Simuwu Ding====

[[File:Simuwu Ding.png|200px|thumb|left|Simuwu Ding -photo by the National Museum of China in Beijing]]

In ancient China, ding was a symbol of imperial power. Therefore, ding is often used in phrases and expressions in the Chinese language to imply authority (Anna, 2015). For instance, wending, literally “enquiring about ding”, means plotting to usurp political power, yiyan juiding, literally “One word of promise is equal to nine dings”, means a decisive comment(Lv Shuxiang, 2016).

Simuwu Ding was a very precious cultural relic, found in 1937 in Anyang of Henan Province. It was produced in the late Shang Dynasty more than 3000 years ago. This square-shaped ding is the largest existing bronzeware in the ancient world. It is now housed in the National Museum of China in Beijing (Li Weiming, 2015).

Ding was a cooking vessel probably used to boil or cook food in the primitive society. At that time, dings were made of clay. During the Shang and Zhou (1700 BC-256 BC) dynasties, bronze cast technology reached a very high level in China. Therefore, people used bronze to cast ding. However, dings were no longer cooking utensils in ordinary people’s life but an object for important ceremonies to offer sacrifices (Anna, 2015).

Simuwu Ding was cast by Emperor Wuding of the Shang Dynasty as a ritual object for a ceremony to offer sacrifices to his mother. The three characters simuwu form an inscription on the inside of the sidewall. According to archeologists, si means sacrificial ceremony and muwu is the name of the emperor’s mother. Later on, Simuwu became the name of this huge ding (Li Weiming, 2015).

Simuwu Ding is 1.33m high, 1.10m long and 0.78m wide, weighing 832.84kg. At that time, it needed 1000kg of metal and two to three hundred workers to produce it. This ding is solid in build, magnificent in appearance and was made with fine craftsmanship. The four pillar legs are thick and powerful. Each side has a blank space in the middle, surrounded by a band of decoration featuring taotie (animal faced creatures) and kuilong (one-legged dragons), symbolic of harvest and auspiciousness. Simuwu Ding represents the highest level of bronze cast technology in the Shang and Zhou dynasties (Li Weiming, 2015).

==== The Chime Bells of Marquis Yi ====

[[File:The Chime Bells of Marquis Yi.png|200px|thumb|left|The Chime Bells of Marquis Yi -photo by Hubei Museum]]

The chime bells, or bianzhong, are a kind of percussion musical instrument made of bronze. China is the earliest country to manufacture and use such instrument. Chime bells were divided into groups according to their size, temperament, pitch and were hang on a rack. A small hammer or wooden club is used to hit the bell to make a resonant and agreeable sound (Hubei Museum, 2015).

The Chime Bells of Marquis Yi are the largest and the most complete ancient chimes existing today in China. They were unearthed from the tomb of Yi, the Marquis of Zeng, a small state of the Warring States Period (475 BC- 221 BC), in 1978. When they were found, all bells were still hanging on their rack. They are now preserved in Hubei Museum (Hubei Museum, 2015).

There are altogether 65 bells hung in eight groups on wooden or bronze bars. The rack, 10.79m long, 2.67m high, is made of three bars, namely, the upper, middle and lower bars, held up by six bronze warriors and a few round, wooden posts. The 65 bells weigh over 2500kg. The largest bell is 1.52m in height and weighs more than 203.6kg. The smallest bell is about 20cm in height and weighs 2.4kg. It is extremely rare to see a set with so many bells of such weight and size (Wan Quanwen, 2020).

The Chime Bells of Marquis Yi are exquisitely cast and look very elegant. To help artists to perform music, there are instructions on each bell with 3700 characters in all (Wan Quanwen, 2020). There are also words about the hanging indication and musical temperament that are called the “valuable music theory work”. The Chime Bells of Marquis Yi show that, as early as the Warring States Period, China already had a very rich musical culture. The chime bells still could produce a pure and accurate note after unearthed. The tone is excellent and the timbre is pure.

After excavation of the chime, Chinese musicians created a melody entitled Bianzhong Yuewu (music and dance accompanied by chime bells), to once again demonstrate the charm of ancient Chinese music (Zhou Yi, 2016).

==== Jade Suit with Gold Thread ====

[[File:Jade Suit with Gold Thread.png|200px|thumb|left|Jade Suit with Gold Thread -photo by Hebei Museum]]

Ordinarily, the texture of clothes is cotton, flax or silk. However, there were suits made of gold and jade, that is “Jade Suit with Gold Thread”(Wang Jing, 2008).

The emperors of the Han Dynasty believed that jade could prevent their corpses from decaying, and they regarded jade as full of dignity and nobility. Therefore, they used jade suits as their grave clothes. Gold thread, silver thread or copper thread was used to link pieces of four-square jade separately that are called Jade Suit Sewn with Gold Thread, Jade Suit Sewn with Silver Thread and Jade Suit Sewn with Copper Thread (Wang Jing, 2008).

The two sets of jade suits of the Han Dynasty tomb unearthed in Mancheng of Hebei Province in 1968 revealed to the world the real features of such grave clothes (Li Yawen,2019). Their owners were Liu Sheng, Prince Jing of Zhongshan, and his wife, Dou Wan, of the Western Han Dynasty(206 BC-25 AD).

In appearance, a jade suit follows the shape of a human body. It consists of five parts, i.e., head mask, coat, trousers, gloves and shoes. Each part is made of pieces of jade. The size and shape of each jade piece was designed according to its position. Most jade pieces are shaped in square or rectangular form, but there are a few in trapezoid, triangle or multi sided shapes. Each jade piece is perforated at its corners, through which a gold thread goes through to sew the pieces together. Liu Sheng’s jade suit is rather large, 1.88m long and made up of 2498 pieces. The gold thread used for this suit is about 700g in weight (Li Yawen, 2019).

Such refined suits made some 2000 years ago in the Han Dynasty indicate the high design level and excellent craftsmanship of that time. In fact, of course, the rulers’ dream of preventing their corpses from decaying could never be realized. The practice of wearing jade suits was banned during the Three Kingdoms Period (220-280) (Wang Jing, 2008).

==== Bronze Galloping Horse ====

[[File: Bronze Galloping Horse.png|200px|thumb|left| Bronze Galloping Horse -photo by Gansu Provincial Museum]]

In 1969, a galloping horse in bronze was unearthed in an Eastern Han Dynasty (206 BC-220 AD) tomb in Wuwei, Gansu Province in western China. The bronze statue is a famous representative sculpture of the Han Dynasty. Wuwei County leapt to fame with the discovery of this national treasure (Li Xiaohu & Zhao Jing, 2019).

The 34.5 cm-high bronze horse, covered with spots of verdigris, has a full and robust body. The prancing legs, flying tail, slightly dilated nostrils portray a galloping horse. What is ingenious about it is that one of its hind feet is stepping on a flying swallow. That means the galloping horse is faster than a flying swallow (Wang Qian, 2020). The positioning of its four legs strictly conforms to that of a living horse and is highly praised by many local and foreign archeologists and artists.

In this work, Chinese ancient artists combined realism and romanticism, and ingeniously integrated galloping horse and flying swallow through rich imagination, original conception and skillful craftsmanship (Wang Qian:10-11). The swift flying swallow sets off the amazingly fast speed of the galloping horse. According to analysis of its mechanics, Bronze Galloping Horse finds a center of gravity in the swallow to give the statue its stability. The romantic image of the swallow sets off the power and strength of the horse, providing a rich imaginative experience for viewers (Li Xiaohu & Zhao Jing, 2019).

Bronze Galloping Horse is believed to be a portrayal of the "heavenly steed" of Chinese legend. It is of high craftsmanship, fully expressive of the horse-breeding culture of China's western regions. It has become a symbol of Chinese tourism and a representative work that brings forth the time-honored cultural tradition of the Chinese nation and the oriental aesthetics to the world. The cultural relic is now preserved in the Gansu Provincial Museum(Wang Qian, 2020).

===Terms and Expressions===

Simuwu Ding 司母戊鼎

Emperor Wuding of the Shang Dynasty 商王武丁

taotie 饕餮

National Museum of China 中国国家博物馆

chime bells/bian zhong 编钟

Marquis Yi 曾侯乙

The Chime Bells of Marquis Yi 曾侯乙编钟

Bianzhong Yuewu 《编钟乐舞》

Hubei Museum 湖北省博物馆

Jade Suit with Gold Thread 金缕玉衣

Jade Suit Sewn with Silver Thread 银缕玉衣

Jade Suit Sewn with Copper Thread 铜缕玉衣

Bronze Galloping Horse 铜奔马/ 马踏飞燕

Gansu Provincial Museum 甘肃省博物馆

===Questions===

1. What does ding symbolize?

2. When was Houmuwu Ding produced?

3.How many bells do the chime bells of Marquis Yi contain?

4.What is the size of the largest bell?

5.What kind of thread was used to link pieces of four-square jade?

6.When did the Jade Suit with Gold Thread unearth?

7.What is ingenious about the Galloping Horse?

8.Where is Bronze Galloping Horse preserved now?

===Answers===

1.Ding was a symbol of imperial power.

2.It was produced in the late Shang Dynasty more than 3000 years ago.

3.They contain 65 bells.

4.The largest bell exceeds 1.5m in height and weighs more than 200kg.

5.Gold thread, silver thread or copper thread was used to link pieces of four-square jade.

6.It unearthed in 1968.

7.It is that one of its hind feet is stepping on a flying swallow.

8.It is now preserved in the Gansu Provincial Museum.

===References===

Anna 安娜.(2015).中国人的鼎文化[The Ding Culture of the Chinese]. 科学大观园(15),72-73.

Hubei Museum 湖北省博物馆.(2015).曾侯乙编钟[The Chime Bells of Marquis Yi ]. 中华文化论坛(11),2.

Li Xiaohu & Zhao Jing 李小虎 & 赵静.(2019).青铜雕塑“马踏飞燕”的艺术解读[The Artistic Effect of the Bronze Galloping Horse]. 艺术教育(09),170-171.

Li Weiming李维明.(2015-06-19).司母戊鼎研究历程初览(上)[A Brief Introduction to the Research Process of Simuwu Ding].中国文物报,006.

Li Weiming李维明.(2015-07-03).司母戊鼎研究历程初览(中)[A Brief Introduction to the Research Process of Simuwu Ding].中国文物报,006.

Li Weiming李维明.(2015-07-31).司母戊鼎研究历程初览(下)[A Brief Introduction to the Research Process of Simuwu Ding].中国文物报,006.

Li Yawen 李雅雯.(2019)浅说满城汉墓中的金缕玉衣[On the Jade Suit with Gold Thread in Han Tombs in Mancheng] .文物鉴定与鉴赏 (03):38-39.

Lv Shuxiang 吕叔湘.(2016)现代汉语词典 (第七版)[Modern Chinese Dictionary (the 7th edition)]. 北京:商务印书馆.

Wang Jing 王静.(2008).汉代玉衣研究[A Study of Jade Clothes in Han Dynasty].(硕士学位论文,河北师范大学).

Wang Qian 王倩.(2020).青铜雕塑“马踏飞燕”的研究[The Study of the Bronze Galloping Horse].艺术品鉴, (26):10-11.

Wan Quanwen 万全文.(2020).曾侯乙编钟[The Chime Bells of Marquis Yi ].文史知识 (11):1-2.

Xu Ling 徐玲.(2019).博物馆与近现代中国文物保护[Museums and the Protection of Cultural Relics in Modern China]. 中国博物馆(01),57-61.

Zhou Yi 周仪.(2016).“八音合鸣乐舞齐容”——大型乐舞作品《编钟乐舞》述评[The Comment on Bianzhong Yuewu]. 戏剧之家(19),66-67+79.

== Architecture and Gardens, The Forbidden City Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴 Student No.202070080601 MTI英语笔译 ==
[[File:A Panorama view of the Forbidden City.jpg|200px|thumb|left|A Panorama view of the Forbidden City]]
====I.Introduction====
The Forbidden City (Chinese: 紫禁城; pinyin: Zǐjìnchéng) is a palace complex in Dongcheng District, Beijing, China, and with a total area of 720,000 square meters (180 acres). It lies in the center of Beijing's central axis. Today, the Forbidden City houses the Palace Museum, and was the former Chinese imperial palace and residence of the Emperor of China from the Ming dynasty (since the Yong Le Emperor) to the end of the Qing dynasty, between 1420 and 1924. The Forbidden City served as the home of Chinese emperors and their households and was the ceremonial and political center of the Chinese government.(Barmé, Geremie R 2018,26)

The Forbidden City is a national AAAAA tourist attraction and was listed as the first batch of key cultural relics under national protection in 1961. What’s more, it was declared a world cultural heritage in 1987, and listed by UNESCO as the largest collection of preserved ancient wooden structures in the world.(UNESCO,2007)

====II.The Name of the Forbidden City====

The common English name "Forbidden City" is the translation of the Chinese name Zijin Cheng (Chinese: 紫禁城; pinyin: Zǐjìnchéng; English: Purple Forbidden City). The name Zijin Cheng first formally appeared in the period of Jia Jing. In ancient China, the planning concept of "harmony between man and nature" was emphasized. The stars in the sky were used to correspond with the capital planning to highlight the legitimacy of the regime and the supremacy of imperial power. (Li Xieping1997, (04)29-31)

“ Zi ”, or "Purple", refers to the North Star, which was called the Ziwei Star in ancient China. The emperor of heaven lived in Ziwei palace, while the human emperor claimed to be the "son of heaven" who was ordered by heaven. His residence should be a symbol of Ziwei palace to correspond to the heaven emperor. “Jin” means that this splendid palace symbolizes supreme power and status of the royal family. In that case, this palace was forbidden, and no one could enter and leave the palace without the emperor’s permission. Cheng means city. (Li Xieping1997, (04)29-31)

Today, the site is most commonly known in Chinese as Gùgōng (故宫), which means the "Former Palace". The museum which is based in these buildings is known as the "Palace Museum" (Chinese: 故宫博物院; pinyin: Gùgōng Bówùyùan).

====III.The History of the Forbidden City====

When Hongwu’s son Zhu Di became the Yong Le Emperor, he moved the capital from Nanjing to Beijing, and construction began in 1406 on what would become the Forbidden City. Construction lasted 14 years and cost more than a million workers. From 1420 to 1644, the Forbidden City was the seat of the Ming dynasty. (Yu Zhuoyun1984,18)

In April 1644, it was captured by rebel forces led by Li Zicheng. He set fire to parts of the Forbidden City in the process of retreating to Shannxi. By October, the Manchus had achieved supremacy in northern China, and a ceremony was held at the Forbidden City to proclaim the Emperor Shunzhi as ruler of all China under the Qing dynasty. (Guo Moruo 1944,3.14)

In the 22nd year of Kangxi's reign (1683), the reconstruction of the rest of the destroyed buildings of the Forbidden City was started, and it was basically completed in 1695. After being the home of 24 emperors – 14 of the Ming dynasty and 10 of the Qing dynasty – the Forbidden City ceased being the political centre of China in 1912 with the abdication of Puyi, the last emperor of China. (Yu Zhuoyun1984,30)

[[File:The layout of the Forbidden City.jpg|150px|thumb|left|The layout of the Forbidden City]]

In 1933, the Japanese invasion of China forced the evacuation of the national treasures in the Forbidden City. Part of the collection was returned at the end of World War II, but the other part was evacuated to Taiwan in 1948 under orders of Chiang Kai-shek. After the establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949, some damage was done to the Forbidden City as the country was swept up in revolutionary zeal. During the Cultural Revolution, however, further destruction was prevented when Premier Zhou Enlai sent an army battalion to guard the city.( Xie Mengyin & Qu Wanlin 2006, 11.7)

====IV.The Structure of the Forbidden City====

Firstly, the Forbidden City is a rectangle and symmetric in its layout. Its palaces are arranged along a north-south axis, on which the three main halls, the rear three palaces and the imperial garden are all located. This central axis not only runs through the Forbidden City even the whole city, but also reaches Yongding Gate in the south, Drum Tower and bell tower in the north.(Xie Li 2005,(03)100-102)

Secondly, the Forbidden City is divided into two parts, the Outer Court and Inner Court. The Outer Court is the place where the emperor deals with political affairs. There are mainly three halls: the Hall of Supreme Harmony, the Hall of Central Harmony, and the Hall of Preserving Harmony. The Inner Court or Back Palace includes the northern sections, and was the residence of the Emperor and his family, and was used for day-to-day affairs of state. The inner court takes
Palace of Heavenly Purity, Hall of Union and Palace of Earthly Tranquility as its center with six palaces in the east and six palaces in the west.(Xie Li 2005,(03)100-102)

====VI The Collections of the Forbidden City====

[[File:Han Banquet map.jpg|150px|thumb|left|Han Banquet map]]

The Palace Museum was then established in the Forbidden City in 1925, whose extensive collection of artwork and artifacts were built upon the imperial collections of the Ming and Qing dynasties. Part of the museum's former collection is now in the National Palace Museum in Taipei. Both museums were descended from the same institution but split after the Chinese Civil War.(Li Wei & Wang Shuo 2005,6-22)

The collections of the Palace Museum are based on the Qing imperial collections, including paintings, ceramics, seals, steles, sculptures, inscribed wares, bronze wares, enamel objects, etc. According to latest audit, it has 1,863,404 pieces of art. They are numbered by "Gu", "Xin" and "Shu". Except for the ancient books and documents, all the other collections are labeled with "Gu" and "Xin". The number of ordinary cultural relics begins with the word "Zi", and the ceramic specimens begin with the word "Biao". The general catalogue is divided into 25 categories, and the numbers in each category are sorted from small to large. (Website:The Collection of the Palace Museum )

Many collections once lost and was brought back to the Palace Museum later, for example, Han Banquet map. And there are some exquisite collections like Painted Pottery Figurine of a Female Dancer, Mirror with the Twelve Astrological Emblems and Snuff Bottle with Painted Enamel Design of Western Women.(Website:The Collection of the Palace Museum )In addition, The Palace Museum has one of the largest collections of mechanical timepieces of the 18th and 19th centuries in the world, with more than 1,000 pieces. (Meng Fuxia 2012, (21) 73-74)

[[File:Painted Pottery Figurine of a Female Dance.jpg|150px|thumb|left|Painted Pottery Figurine of a Female Dance]]
[[File:Mirror with the Twelve Astrological Emblems.jpg|150px|thumb|left|Mirror with the Twelve Astrological Emblems]]
[[File:Snuff Bottle with Painted Enamel Design of Western Women.jpg|150px|thumb|left|Snuff Bottle with Painted Enamel Design of Western Women]]

====Terms and Expressions====
palace complex 宫殿群

central axis 中心轴

the Palace Museum故宫博物院

the Yong Le Emperor 永乐皇帝

key cultural relics under national protection 国家重点文物保护单位

world cultural heritage 世界文化遗产

harmony between man and nature 天人合一

the imperial garden 御花园

the Hall of Supreme Harmony 太和殿

the Hall of Central Harmony 中和殿

the Hall of Preserving Harmony 保和殿

Palace of Heavenly Purity (乾清宮)

Hall of Union 交泰宫

Palace of Earthly Tranquility 坤宁宫

Han Banquet map 韩熙载夜宴图

Painted Pottery Figurine of a Female Dancer陶彩绘女舞俑

Mirror with the Twelve Astrological Emblems十二生肖镜

Snuff Bottle with Painted Enamel Design of Western Women画珐琅西洋人物鼻烟壶

====Questions====
1. What’ s the meaning of “Zi” in the Chinese name Zijin Cheng?

2. When was the Forbidden City listed by UNESCO as the largest collection of preserved ancient wooden structures in the world.

3.How many emperors have been lived in the Forbidden City?

4.How long did it take to build the Forbidden City?

5.Why some parts of national treasures are in the National Palace Museum in Taipei now.

6. What two parts can the Forbidden City be divided into?

7.When was the Palace Museum established?

===Answers===
1.“Zi” refers to the North Star, which in ancient China was called the Ziwei Star

2.In 1897.

3.24 emperors.

4.14 years.

5.Because both museums descend from the same institution but were split after the Chinese Civil War.

6.They are the Outer Court and Inner Court.

7.The Palace Museum was then established in the Forbidden City in 1925

===References===

Barmé, Geremie R(2008). The Forbidden City. Harvard University Press.26.

UNESCO(2007). "UNESCO World Heritage List: Imperial Palaces of the Ming and Qing Dynasties in Beijing and Shenyang".

Li Xieping 李燮平. (1997) "紫禁城"名称始于何时[When did the name of the Forbidden City come into being?]. 紫禁城Forbidden City, (04) 29-31.

Yu Zhuoyun(1984), Palaces of the Forbidden City, New York: Viking Press,p18.

Guo Moruo 郭沫若.(1994) 甲申三百年祭[Commemorating 300th Anniversary of the Jia-Sheng Year]. 新华日报 New China Daily, 3.19.

Xie Li 谢丽.(2005) 北京中轴线上的十七座门[Seventeen doors on the central axis of Beijing].紫禁城 Forbidden City, (03)100-102.

Meng Fuxia 孟福霞. (2012)北京故宫空间布局构思探源——论中国古代宫殿建筑的美学精神[On the Origin of the Space Layout of the Palace Museum in Beijing--On the Aesthetic Spirit of Ancient Chinese Palace Architecture]大众文艺Popular Literature and Art, (21) 73-74.

Li Wei&Wang Shuo 刘薇,王硕.2005故宫文物南迁路线图揭秘[Unveiling the Route Map of the Cultural Relics of the Imperial Palace to the South] 华夏经纬网Jinwei Network, 6.22 http://www.huaxia.com/wh/gjzt/2005/00333230.html

The Collection of the Palace Museum 故宫博物院馆藏https://www. dpm.org.cn /Home.html

Xie Mengyin & Qu Wanlin 谢荫明,瞿宛林. (2006) “文化大革命” 中谁保护了故宫 [Who protected the Forbidden City in the Cultural Revolution? ].人民网People’s Daily Online,11,7. http://history.people.com.cn/n/2014/0811/c372327-25441615.html

--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 09:48, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chinese Marriage Customs Mo Ling 莫玲 202070080602 MTI 英语笔译==
<center> 莫玲 Mo Ling </center>

===Chinese Marriage Customs===

China is an ancient country of rites. When it comes to the most important thing in one’s life---marriage, Chinese people have developed a set of unique and grand ceremonies. Generally speaking, weddings in ancient China needed to be approved by parents and arranged by parents.(Zhou Dandi,Yue Shufa 2012,12)

====Six Procedures====

There are six etiquettes in the process from the negotiation to the completion of marriage, namely Na Cai, Wen Ming, Na Ji, Na Zheng, Qing Qi and the last step Qin Ying.(Gao Xiaoqian 2017,235)

Na Cai is the begining of all the marriage procedures. It refers to a practice that if a boy intends to marry a girl, firstly his family must invite a matchmaker to the girl's home to propose marriage. After obtaining the consent of the girl's family , the boy's family should entrust the matchmaker to make a proposal formally with some gifts. Usually, the most common gift is wild goose, which represents fidelity. Besides, mandarin ducks and sheep are also frequently-used gifts.(Gao Xiaoqian 2017,235)

Wen Ming means that the boy's family asks the matchmaker to fetch the girl's name and date of birth. There are two purposes of this step: the one is to prevent the marriage of close relatives with the same surname; the other is to assure the compatibility of the prospective bride and bridegroom through their “eight characters” of the birth moment.(Gao Xiaoqian 2017,235)

Naji happens after the matchmaker takes back the woman's name and eight characters. If divining an auspicious omen, the boy's family will inform the girl’s parents and decide to engage the marriage.(Gao Xiaoqian 2017,235)

What is more, Na Zheng is an important step when the boy sends betrothal presents to the girl and for courtesy the girl will send back part of the presents such as food and some clothes.(Gao Xiaoqian 2017,235)

Qing Qi means that the boy's family choose an auspicious day to hold the wedding ceremony and then dispatch the matchmaker to tell the girl’s family.(Gao Xiaoqian 2017,235)

Qin Ying is the last procedure of the six etiquettes, that is, the groom goes to the bride's home to take the bride to his home.(Gao Xiaoqian 2017,235)

====Customs====

In addition to the six steps mentioned above, there are many other customs in the traditional Chinese wedding ceremony. Generally speaking, ancient marriage was ordered by parents and matchmaker and many young people could not master their own marriage. Before wedding ceremony, men and women were not allowed to meet each other in that ancient people were very conservative and most girls were kept in boudoirs. If they met in private before marriage, it would be regarded as a kind of female infidelity and parents would also think it quite unlucky. Under this circumstance, newlyweds could only see each other until the day of marriage.(Zhang Yueyong 2013, 47-48)

On the wedding day, the boy’s family will hold a big banquet at home. Before setting out to pick up bride, the bridegroom should first worship his ancestors for the sake of safety and auspice during the process of picking up the bride. (Gao Xiaoqian 2017,235)

After that, the following step is the most grand one among the whole ceremony --- at the dusk moment, the groom and the bride, his parents as well as all the guests will gather together at the central room to witness the kneeling etiquettes of the couple, which consists of 4 steps: (Gao Xiaoqian 2017,235)

The first kowtow is for heaven and earth, which shows ancient people’ reverence and appreciation towards the gods and nature for creating a favarable living environment for them. The second kowtow orients parents to express gratitude to parents for their fostering and sincere hope that parents can keep in good health. And then the new couple will kowtow towards each other, which carries the couple’s expectation of living together until old age. The last procedure is Going to the bridal chamber : the bride will be sent into the bridal chamber and the groom will drink with guests until night.(Gao Xiaoqian 2017,235)

After wedding ceremony, the couple must return to the girl’s home together at the third day, which is called “Huimen” or “Guiling”. This etiquette is indispensable. The groom should take some gifts for respect and change the way that he addresses the bride’s parents, and the latter will also prepare a good meal for the couple’s coming.(Gao Xiaoqian 2017,235)

====Development====

As time goes by, there are many reforms about marriage nowadays. Adults own the freedom to choose their spouse and they can meet each other every day if possible. Parents can’t master their “life event” any more.(Zhang Yueyong 2013, 47) In addition, many couples skip the cumbersome rites in the wedding ceremony. Some of them choose to hold the ceremony in the church with some close relatives and friends and some even finish it through travel.(Zhou Dandi,Yue Shufa 2012,15)

Nevertheless, most young people still adopt the main procedures of the traditional Chinese customs, some of which are handed down until the present day. There still exist betrothal gifts and dowries, and many couples choose to wear red costumes. The bridegroom should go to the bride’s home to escort her to the wedding and so on. Thus it can be seen that most traditional Chinese marriage customs are deeply rooted in the hearts of Chinese people and show a unique Chinese characteristics.(Zhou Dandi,Yue Shufa 2012,15)--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling

====References====

Gao Xiaoqian. 高筱倩.(2017) 中国传统婚嫁习俗研究［The Research on Traditional Chinese Marriage Customs］戏剧之家[Drama House] 235.

Zhang Yueyong. 张月莹.(2013) 中国近代婚嫁礼俗及婚姻观念转变的探索[A Study on the Change of Marriage Customs and Marriage Concepts in Modern China] 松州学刊［Songzhou Academic Journal］ 47-48.

Zhou Dandi, Yue Shufa. 周丹迪, 岳书法.(2012) 浅析近代以来中国婚嫁民俗的演变[On the Evolution of Chinese Marriage Customs Since Modern Times] 文化学刊[Cultural Academic Journal] 15.

====Terms and Expressions====

Na Cai 纳彩

Wen Ming 问名

Na Ji 纳吉

Na Zheng 纳征

Qing Qi 纳征

Qin Ying 亲迎

Huimen 回门

Guiling 归宁

betrothal presents 彩礼

the central room 堂屋

bridal chamber 婚房

“eight characters” of the birth moment 生辰八字

====Questions====

1.How many procedures are needed from the negotiation to the completion of marriage?

2.Did the ancient young people have the rights to decide their own marriage or not and why?

3.What is the kneeling etiquettes?

4.When the couple have to return to the girl’s home?

5.What changes have been made nowadays?

6.Please list some new wedding customs.

====Answers====

1.There are six etiquettes in the process from the negotiation to the completion of marriage, namely Na Cai, Wen Ming, Na Ji, Na Zheng, Qing Qi and the last step Qin Ying.

2.No, they didn’t have the right to decide their own marriage because ancient marriage was ordered by parents and matchmaker.

3.It consists of 4 steps: the first kowtow is for heaven and earth, which shows ancient people’ reverence and appreciation towards the gods and nature for creating a favarable living environment for them. The second kowtow orients parents to express gratitude to parents for their fostering and sincere hope that parents can keep in good health. And then the new couple will kowtow towards each other, which carries the couple’s expectation of living together until old age. The last procedure is Going to the bridal chamber.

4.At the third day of the wedding ceremony.

5.Adults can choose their spouse by themselves and they can meet each other whenever they want; Some couples choose to hold the ceremony in the church some even finish it through travel, etc.

6.Examples:couple can choose to live in the either part of the two families; wedding ceremony can be hold in hotel; the bride can wear white wedding dress rather than the single red in the ancient time.

==Ngo, Thi Minh Huong==

====Topic: Chinese cinema (dramas and movies) and its popularity and affection in Vietnam====

==Twelve Animals of the Chinese Zodiac - Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲 202070080603 MTI英语笔译==
<center> Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲 </center>
===Twelve Animals of the Chinese Zodiac===

[[File:oyltacz.jpg|300px|thumb|left]]2020 is the year of rat according to the Chinese zodiac which consists of twelve animals used by people to name years. The traditional Chinese zodiac has been passed down for more than 2000 years since its origin(The Editorial Board, 2010: 2). The twelve zodiac signs are Rat, Ox, Tiger, Rabbit, Dragon, Snake, Horse, Goat, Monkey, Rooster, Dog and Pig, which are assigned in a repeating 12-year cycle(The Editorial Board, 2010: 2). This traditional Chinese scheme was originated from China and then has enjoyed a popularity in many other Asian countries(The Editorial Board, 2010: 12-13). With its cultural connotation and time-honored impact, the Chinese zodiac has been engraved in every Chinese people.

====Origin====

Regarding the origin of the Chinese zodiac, there are various opinions but many of them are presented without sufficient evidence. There are many myths explaining these animal signs and their arrangement. Among them the most time-honored one is the Great Race. In this story, the Jade Emperor, Ruler of the Heavens, wanted to devise a way to measure time, so he organized a race. At the end, the first twelve animals who made it across the river were the winners and so they earned themselves a spot on the zodiac calender in the order they arrived(The Editorial Board, 2010: 6).

Besides this folk story, some scholars claim the zodiac scheme was indeed derived from the Twelve Earthly Branches but did not occur at the same time while the Earthly Branches appeared. Since the Han Dynasty, the Earthly Branches have been used to record the time of day. Therefore some hold until that time, the 12 zodiac came into being as a supplementary to refer to the 12 periods of 24 hours. Since the original meaning of the Earthly Branches at that time was obliterated due to the passage of time, the ancient Chinese attached the Earthly Branches and the Ten Heavenly Stems to the zodiac(The Editorial Board, 2010: 5-7).

There also stands an opinion that the zodiac signs were originated from the totem worship in the primitive society. According to some researches on the origin of Chinese zodiac, there were only twelve earliest surnames in ancient China, which were derived from the names of the twelve animals in the Chinese zodiac scheme. Here the twelve animals refer to the totems at ancient times and different surname tribes use different animals as their totems. Therefore, the twelve animals of Chinese zodiac was developed from the totems of ancient tribes(The Editorial Board, 2010: 4-5).

====Folk Culture and Belief ====

The zodiac sign can not only reveal one’s age, but also represent his or her personality, career prospects and way of life according to Chinese superstition(The Editorial Board, 2010: 40).

The Chinese seem to believe that they have some affinity with the animals of the years in which they were born and that their personal traits and fortunes come under their mysterious influence. According to superstitious belief in China, Zodiac animals are combined with the Five Elements that consist of Metal, Wood, Water, Fire and Earth, to tell one's destiny. Since people have their zodiac sign's fixed elment, there are many folk beliefs based on this. For example, people born in the years of Metal Rat are believed to have a promising future; people born in the years of Fire Rat are deemed to be clever and intelligent and Wood Rat independent and self-respected(The Editorial Board, 2010: 40).

Besides, since the zodiac is determined by the year of birth, there are many implications of one’s birth year. For example, some zodiacal preferences prevail in Chinese population. Chinese have always had a strong affection for the Dragon, so married couples prefer to give births in the year of Dragon. Since dragon is regarded as the auspicious and divine creature, the children born in these years of dragon are believed to have fortune. These cultural preferences and folk beliefs have influenced prospective parents’ reproductive behavior in the Chinese society(Yip et al., 2002: 1804)

Moreover, Chinese people believe certain animals get on better than the others, so the zodiac has had a great impact on marriage as well. Specifically, people who is born in the Year of Tiger would have perfect romance with Pigs, Rabbit with Dogs and Dragon with Roosters. On the contrary, some zodiac signs are believed to have misfortune if they are married with people of certain zodiac. As the Chinese idiom goes, if a dragon and a tiger fight against each other, there will be one injured. This old says reflects that dragon and tiger are natural enemies according to the belief(The Editorial Board, 2010: 34-35).

And this is the reason why men and women would like to evaluate their Bazi, the Eight Characters, before they get married. However, in reality, personality is related to one’s experience through the life journey rather than the pre-written zodiac signs. People born in the same year would have very distinctive personalities. Similarly, the destiny is also a result of people’s character and most decisions they’ll be making along the way. Of course the marriage is a more complex thing that cannot be deemed to have a pre-given outcome brought by the zodiac(The Editorial Board, 2010: 34-35).

====Conclusion====

Chinese zodiac is a complex scheme which combines the traditional Chinese astrology in it. Based on the Five Elements theory, Yin and Yang system and Heavenly Stems and Earthly Branches system, the traditional scheme has developed a profound connotation and implications through generations. Over thousands of years, this popular culture has affected people’s major decisions in naming, marriage, giving birth and attitude towards each other. But people have to consider zodiac in a rational and scientific way. Perhaps the zodiac may help us to understand what we’re given, but it cannot determine our destiny. We should treat it as the precious cultural heritage and explore the profound culture and historical traces embodied in it(The Editorial Board, 2010: 1-2).

===References===
《大中国上下五千年》丛书编委会(2010) The Editorial Board of the ''Five Thousand Years of Great China''（''Dazhongguo Shangxia Wuqiannian''） ''Series'',《中国生肖文化》''The Culture of Chinese Zodiac'', 北京：外文出版社 Beijing: Foreign Languages Press.

Yip, Paul S.F.伊普, Lee, Joseph 李 and Cheung, Y.B.张 (2002).The Influence of the Chinese Zodiac on Fertility in Hong Kong SAR 论生肖对香港生育率的影响. ''Social Science & Medicine''《社会科学与医学》, Volume 55, Issue 10 第55卷第10期, 1803-1812.

===Terms and Expressions===

Jade Emperor 玉皇大帝

Ten Heavenly Stems 十天干

Twelve Earthly Branches 十二地支

Five Elements 五行

Metal, Wood, Water, Fire and Earth 金木水火土

Eight Characters 八字

===Questions===

1.How long is the history of Chinese zodiac?

2.What are the twelve zodiac signs in order?

3.From what time the Earthly Branches was used to record time?

4.According to Chinese folk belief, what kind of characteristics do people born in year of rat have?

5.Which zodiac animal is mostly praised in China?

6.Can you name some pairs of zodiac animal that get along well with each other according to Chinese folk culture?

7.Which pair of animals that are natural enemies according to Chinese folk culture?

===Answers===

1.More than 2200 years.

2.Rat, Ox, Tiger, Rabbit, Dragon, Snake, Horse, Goat, Monkey, Rooster, Dog and Pig.

3.Han Dynasty.

4.They are smart, adaptable, and have the will to fight, but, on the other hand, they are so over-ambitious and easy to fail.

5.Dragon.

6.Tiger and pig, rabbit and dog and dragon and rooster.

7.Dragon and tiger.

--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 14:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Lisu People and Daogan Festival of Lisu Ethnic Minority Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏 202070080641 MTI 英语口译==
<center> Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏 </center>

====Introduction of Lisu people and Daogan festival====

The Lisu ethnic group are the Tibeto-Burman ethnic group living in mountainous areas such as Burma, southwest China, Thailand, and Arunachal Pradesh in India.

[[File:Example1.left.jpg|300px|thumb|left]]

There are about 730,000 Lisu people living in Lijiang, Baoshan, Nujiang, Diqing, Dehong and other counties in Yunnan province and Sichuan province in China. The Lisu nationality is one of the 56 official nationalities recognized by China. In Myanmar, the Lisu ethnic group is recognized as one of the 135 ethnic groups with an estimated population of 600,000. Approximately 55,000 Lisu people live in Thailand, where they are one of the six main hill tribes. They mainly inhabit remote mountainous areas. (Ernst, Gabriel 2019)

The Lisu tribe consists of more than 58 different clans. Each clan has its own name or surname. The most famous family clans in the tribal clans are Laemae pha, Bya pha, Thorne pha, Ngwa Pha (Ngwazah), Naw pha, Seu pha, Khaw pha. Most of the surnames come from their own hunter work in primitive times. But later, they adopted many Chinese surnames. Their culture has the same characteristics as the Yi nationality or Nuosu (Lolo) culture. (Ernst, Gabriel 2019)

Daogan Festival (刀杆节) is a traditional festival of Lisu ethnic groups living in Lushui County(泸水县), Nujiang Lisu Autonomous Prefecture(怒江傈僳族自治州).Due to the death of the old artists, they were once lost in Nujiang Prefecture and recovered in recent years. They are mainly distributed in Luzhang Village(鲁掌镇), Luzu Village(鲁祖村) and Loma Village(洛玛村) of Lushui County(泸水县).(Ernst, Gabriel 2019)

[[File:Example2.left.jpg|300px|thumb|left]]

====Legend====

During the Ming Dynasty, when people of different clans of feudal China invaded the borders of Yunnan, the emperor sent Wang Ji (王骥), the war department of the Chinese feudal ministry, to resist the enemy with troops. Wang Ji united with the local people of Li clan and soon expelled the invaders. But later, Wang Ji was killed by traitors. To commemorate Wang Ji's great achievement and to pray for the brave soldiers who died bravely in defending the border, the Li tribe held the "Going up to the mountain of swords and going down to the sea of fire" event. (上刀山，下火海), and designated the 15th day of the first month of the lunar calendar every year as the Knife Gan Festival.(Li Zhihuan,2010)

====Meaning====

Going up to the knife mountain and going down to the sea of fire are the main custom performances of the Taozhen Festival, which reproduce the life experience of people living in mountainous areas as they climb the mountains and the hard spirit and skills of climbing.(Li Zhihuan,2010)

====Performing====

Pine trees were used as tool poles, iron knives as tool ladders, crinkled paper as flowers, and bamboo as flower sticks. When we go up the rice mountain and down the fire, we play cowhide drum, gong , hairpin , na (唢呐) and other musical instruments under the knife pole. There are strict procedures and rituals from pointing flowers, pointing knives, playing knives, tying knives, tying flowers, welcoming flowers, and altars. Setting , knife pole , vertical pole , sacrificial dragon , knife stand and dismantling knife (in the sea of fire). Knife poles are usually called gold pillar, silver pillar or male pillar and female pillar respectively, representing the dead and the living. Thirty-six long sharp knives representing 365 days a year are tied to the sides of the ladder with paper flowers made of five-color paper. After the knife poles are tied, Heung Tong/Heung Tong (巫师) recites the words in his mouth and performs the knife dance with drum music. After the knife dance, to the sound of Suo na, gongs and drums, the knife bearer grasps the blade with both hands, steps on the blade with bare feet and then climbs up. When the knife-bearer reaches the top through the three scissors, the knife-bearer opens the lock of heaven, takes out the grains and flowers, spreads them out into the boiling crowd, and then places the red ribbon on the colored door, over which he sings the old prayer song, and then he comes down from the pole of the knife again. After that, he stepped barefoot into the burning charcoal fire, licking the burning plow with his tongue and biting the burning chains with his teeth, which showed the national spirit of the Li people and their superb performance skills.(Li Zhihuan,2010)

====Development====

According to legend, it commemorates an ancient Han Chinese hero who showed great kindness to the Lisu people. The Lisu people made the anniversary of the hero's death a traditional holiday for their own people, and used symbolic rituals such as going to the Mountain of Swords and the Sea of Fire to express their feelings of willingness to go through fire in return. On the day of the Knife Festival, several able-bodied men first perform the "firewalking" ceremony. They jump into the red-hot coals with bare feet and perform various stunts. On the second day, they sharpen 36 long knives and tie them to two 20-meter-high wooden racks with rattan strips, forming a knife ladder. With bare hands and feet, the performers climb to the top from the edge of the knives and perform various difficult moves at the top of the pole. Today, this thrilling traditional sacrificial ritual has evolved into a sporting event for the good people of the Lisu people to perform their stunts.(Li Zhihuan,2010)

====Terms and Expressions====

1.Lisu people 傈僳族

2."Up and down the mountain" event 上刀山，下火海

2.going to the Mountain of Swords and the Sea of Fire上刀山，下火海--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 05:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

3.The Lisu tribe 傈僳族

4.clan 氏族

5.primitive times 原始时期

====Questions====

1.How many Lisu people live in Yunnan and Sichuan？

2.How many clans make up the Lisu people？

3.Who united with the local people of Li clan and soon expelled the invaders？

4.Which day is the Daogan Festival？

5.What musical instruments do they play under the knife pole?

====Answers====

1.About 730,000 Lisu people.

2.The Lisu tribe consists of more than 58 different clans.

3.Wang Ji.

4.15th day of the first month of the lunar calendar every year.

5.They play cowhide drum, gong , hairpin , na (唢呐) and other musical instruments.

====References====

*Ernst, Gabriel (21 October 2019). "'We try to not be Thai': the everyday resistance of ethnic minorities"
*"Yunnan Province of China Government Web". Eng.yn.gov.cn.
*李智环．Li Zhihuan. 傈僳族人口分布及形成原因分析 [Analysis of the Distribution and Causes of the Formation of the Lisu People] 《保山学院学报》， 2010 [Journal of Baoshan College], 2010

==Phyo, Su Kyi==
Culture==Topic-Chinese Clothing== Phyo, Su Kyi, Student No-20191108000,Major: Comparative Literature and Cross-cultural Studies.

Introduction

Chinese Clothing has a long history while Han people dominate most periods in history. For thousands of years, generations of clothing designers have devoted themselves to building the Kingdom of Clothes, making the garments that cover the human body into an important component of Chinese culture. The progress can be seen through its changes in clothing styles.Clothing manufacture in China dates back to prehistoric times, at least 7,000years ago. Archaeological findings of 18,000 years-old artifacts such as bone sewing needles and stone beads and shells with holes bored in them attest to the existence of ornamentation and of sewing extremely early in Chinese civilization. (www.topchinatravel.com, 2004)
Chinese clothing has undergone continuous transformations throughout history,providing a reflection of the culture in place at any given time. A wealth of archaeological findings coupled with ancient mythology, poetry, and songs enable us to see the development of distinctive Chinese fashions through the ages.(Mei Hua-2010-page-1)

1-Chinese traditional clothing

Traditional clothing can reflect the traditional clothing culture with Chinese characteristics. Traditional clothing mutually integrates its unique style, comfortable fabric, bright colors,rich designs and exquisite craft elements to bring people impulsive feelings with visual communication. Traditional clothing culture with Chinese characteristics enjoys its unique artistic features in the style, color,fabrics,decoration and craft, ect. They are profoundly influenced by Chinese traditional culture ideas in the process of their formation and development and finally condensed into the national culture bearing Chinese culture features.(Jiangsu, 2016,page-2)

1:1.Traditional Han Chinese Clothing (Han Fu)

It refers to the attire worn by the Han people from the enthronement of the Yellow Emperor(about 2698BC) till the late Ming Dynasty (1368-1644AD).It became known as the Han Fu(fu means 'clothes" in Chinese)because the fashion was improved and popularized during the Han Dynasty. It is usually in the from of long gown,cross collar, wrapping the right lapel over the left, loose wide sleeves and no buttons but a sash. Although simple in design, it gives different feelings to different wearers.(www.topchinatravel.com, 2019-Aug-2)

1:2.Chinese Suit(Tang Zhuang)

It is a combination of the Manchu male jacket of the Qing Dynasty and the western style suit. It is usually straight collared,with coiled buttons down the front. Its color and design are in traditional Chinese style but tailoring is western.(www.topchinatravel. com, 2019,Aug-2.)

1:3.Cheongsam(Qi Pao)

Originated from the Manchu female clothes, it evolved by merging with western patterns that show off the beauty of a female body. Its features are straight collar, strain on the waist,coiled buttons and slits on both sides ofvthe dress. Materials used are usually silk, cotton and linen.Cheongsam is the most popular Chinese attire in the world today.(www.topchinatravel.com, 2019,Aug-2.)

1:4.Chinese Tunic Suit(Zhongshan Zhuang)

Also called the Yat-sen Suit , it is designed by Dr.Sun Yat-sen by combining the western-style suit and Chinese attire. It has a turn-down collar and four pockets with flaps. As Chairman Mao Zedong worn it quite frequently, it is also called the Mao Suit by westerners. It is the main attire from the founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949 till 1980,s. The country's leaders still wear it today when attending important occasions, such as military parades.(www.topchinatravel. com,2016,Auge-2.)

2.Chinese Traditional Clothing Elements

There are many old stories in ancient Chinese civilization, and Chinese traditional elements come up with the tenacity of the Chinese nations long history. Different times has their unique cultural connotations and form elements,which include Chinese architecture, costumes, traditional Chinese painting and folk art etc., and those cultural connotations and form elements are precious heritage that the ancestors leave to their off-springs. The change of dynasties in the history of our country lead to changes of cultural centers, which finally lead to the appearance Chinese traditional elements with different representative features in each historical periods, nations and regions. These elements include: Chinese silk ,cloth of brocade, hemp,blue printed fabric; chirpaur, Chinese -style chest covering, Chinese tunic suit, collar,surplice, mandarin and split etc.; colorful ethnic colors: such as bright red,green,yellow and blueetc.;Neolithic patterns, bronze patterns in Shang and Chou dynasties, ancient lacquer were pattern in Qin and Han dynasties. (Jiangsu,2016, page-3)

3-Chinese Traditional Clothing Design

Chinese traditional clothing of each dynasty has its own unique clothing style and design, but no matter how the style changes,the mainstream concept of traditional Chinese clothing always emphasizes symmetry and balance, and the clothing symmetry can be seen in sleeve, placket, hem,pattern ect.Chinese traditional clothing design is particular about proportion,such as the ancient Chinese woman dresses, short jacket unlined uper garment (named Ru)marching long dress , and it emphasizes the perfect proportion which hold that"the upper part should be short, the below part should be long"; in Song and Ming dynasties people the collocation of long BeiZi(a kind of dress that girls dress in ancient times) and short skirt, the "long upper part,short below part"ratio perfectly reflects the proportions beauty of the clothing.(Jiangsu,2016, page-5.)

4-Chinese Traditional Clothing colors

Green, white, yellow, red, black ,the five colors, form the Chinese traditional color system. They have obvious implied meaning and identification.Black stands for that the dark heaven, and yellow stands for the earth at dusk, and black and yellow stand for the heaven and the earth ,and they are mostly used in the Kings' clothing, About the colorific choice of Chinese traditional clothing the yellow and red which the historical role is prominent perform particularly well. In the late period of the Warring States as a royal color yellow appeared and became the supreme ruler's senior clothing color.(Jiangsu, 2016,page-6).In Chinese traditional clothing colors red has evoluted from the original noble characteristic to the civilians characteristic. It evolution has experienced a certain period of time. The original red uses magenta, red ,cinnabar to represent.(Jiangsu,2016,page-7)
--[[User:Phyo Su Kyi 1|Phyo Su Kyi 1]] ([[User talk:Phyo Su Kyi 1|talk]]) 08:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)su kyi

==Conclusion==
Chinese traditional culture is an indispensable source of inspiration in fashion design.Therefore, we should advocate the national advanced culture, make the Chinese traditional culture achieve the development in the clothing design.

Trems and Expressions

历史-history,

期-period,

世代-generations,

服装-clothing,

设计师-designers ,

装饰-ornamentation

中国服饰- Chinese clothing

服饰-Costumes

传统服装-Traditional clothing

服装设计-Clothing design

时尚设计-Fashion design

几代服装设计师-Generations of clothing designers

中国西装-Chinese Suit

旗袍-Cheongsam

中山装-Chinese Tunic Suit

中国传统元素-Chinese traditional elements

===Questions ===

1-What’s archaeological findings in Chinese fashions through the ages?

2-What's Traditional Clothing?

3-How is means Han Fu?

4-What's the popular Chinese attire?

5-How called was Chinese Tunic Suit?

6-What'are include Chinese traditional elements?
--[[User:Phyo Su Kyi 1|Phyo Su Kyi 1]] ([[User talk:Phyo Su Kyi 1|talk]]) 04:33, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Su Kyi

==Answers===
1- A wealth of archaeological findings coupled with ancient mythology, poetry,
and songs enable us to see the development of distinctive chinese fanshions through the ages.

2-Traditional clothingis the clothing which can reflect the traditional clothing
culture with Chinese characteristics.

3-Han Fu is fu means clothes in Chinese.

4-Cheongsam is the most popular Chinese attire inthe world today.

5-It is also called the Yat-sen Suit,it is designed byDr.SunYat-sen by combining the western-style suit and Chinese attire.

6-Chinese traditional elements include: Chinese silk,cloth of brocade, hemp, blue printed fabric.

--[[User:Phyo Su Kyi 1|Phyo Su Kyi 1]] ([[User talk:Phyo Su Kyi 1|talk]]) 11:56, 9 December 2020 (UTC)Phyo Su Kyi

===References===

1.Jiangsu.,(2016), “Influences of Chinese Traditional Clothing Elements on Modern Clothing Design”,

Nanjing University of Finance and Economics,Soochow University,Published by Atlantic Press.

2.Mei Hua,(2010), `Chinese Clothing´, Cambridge University Press The Edinburgh Building,Cambridge CB28RU,UK Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press,NewYork
www.cambridge.orgInformation on this title:www.cambridge.org/9780521186896
Originally published byChina Intercontinental Press as Cinese Clothing(9787508516615)in2010©ChinaIntercontinentalPress.

3.https://www.topchinatravel.com/china-guide/history-of-chinese-clothing.htm

4.https://www.travelchinaguide.com/intro/clothing/--[[User:Phyo Su Kyi 1|Phyo Su Kyi 1]] ([[User talk:Phyo Su Kyi 1|talk]]) 10:26, 9 December 2020 (UTC)Phyo Su Kyi

==Pingki, Tanchangya==

===Chinese traditional dance===
Culture=Topic Chinese Traditional Dance=Pingki Tanchangya, Student No:201921080004
,Major: Comparative Literature and cross culture studies.

1. Introduction

There is a long recorded history in China for various kinds of dances. China is highly took position for art consisting for many modern and traditional dance genres. The dance covers a world a worldwide range, like folk dances, ballet, rituals and weeding ceremonies. We also know about that, there are also 56 officially recognized ethnic groups have their own folk dances and style of forms. The best known Chinese are the Dragon dance and Lion dances both dances were known in earlier dynasties in various forms. " Lianxiang " is a Chinese traditional dance , people usually plays it for entertainment and body building.The author presents the view that the dance can relax tendons and activate collaterals by striking shoulders, chest, waist, abdomen, buttocks, feet and acupuncture points of the four limbs, and slightly swaying knees together with shoulder, the set of movement can also exercise bones, muscles.--[[User:PINGKI TANCHANGYA 4|PINGKI TANCHANGYA 4]] ([[User talk:PINGKI TANCHANGYA 4|talk]]) 05:14, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

2. Characteristics of the Dance

Characteristics of the movements

There have 3 characteristic of the movements are: thrashing, quivering and lowering. The performer holds bamboo pole to play various dance movements by striking shoulders, chest, waist, abdomen, buttocks, feet and acupuncture points of the four limbs, and slightly swaying knees together with shoulder vibration. The traditional movements are modified and developed which is called single- thrashing and double-thrashing. Single-thrashing movements including crouch thrashing, jump thrashing, rolling thrashing and mixed thrashing with one bamboo pole. --[[User:PINGKI TANCHANGYA 4|PINGKI TANCHANGYA 4]] ([[User talk:PINGKI TANCHANGYA 4|talk]]) 06:04, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

3. The Dragon Dance

The Dragon dance is a form of traditional dance and performance in Chinese culture. Like the lion dance it is most often seen in festive celebrations. Many Chinese people often use the term "Descendants of the Dragon" as a sign of ethnic identity, as part of a trend started in the 1970s. Chinese people who taught them agriculture, law and medicine, the foundations of civilization.
Dragons are believed to bring good luck to Chinese people, which are reflected in their qualities that include great power, dignity, fertility and wisdom. The appearance of a dragon is both frightening and bold.The Dragon Dance originated during the Han Dynasty and was started by the Chinese who had shown great belief and respect towards the dragon. It is believed to have begun as part of the farming and harvest culture, also with origins as a method of healing and preventing sickness. It was also a popular event during the Song Dynasty and become a folk activity and like the lion dance, was most often seen in festive celebrations.
As the dragon gives people a feeling of great respect, it is often called the Sacred Dragon. The emperors of ancient China considered themselves as the dragon. The Dragon is also the emblem of Imperial Authority. It symbolizes supernatural power, goodness, fertility, vigilance and dignity.

4. The lion Dance

The lion dance is a traditional Chinese dance performed on big occasions, such as the Spring Festival (Chinese New Year) for good luck, as it is believed that the lion is an auspicious animal.
In Chinese culture, the lion symbolizes power, wisdom, and superiority. People perform lion dances at Chinese festivals or big occasions to bring good fortune and chase away evil spirits.The lion dance is one of the most important traditions during Chinese New Year. It is performed to bring prosperity and good luck for the upcoming year. The lion dance is also a way to create a festive atmosphere and bring happiness. Performed in a lion costume, accompanied by the music of beating drums, clashing cymbals, and resounding gongs, lion dances imitate a lion's various movements or demonstrate martial arts, depending on the style. Though lion dances all use similar costumes, during its long development, the lion dance has divided into two styles: southern and northern.

4.1 The Southern Lion Dance

The southern lion dance originated in Guangdong, and it is the style popular in Hong Kong, Macau, and the hometowns of overseas Chinese. The southern lion dance is a performance based on the study of a lion's behavior, with an emphasis on actions like scratching and shaking of the body. Performances are vivid and entertaining, even comical. There are also skillful performances, such as playing with a ball, which includes swallowing it.

4.2 The Northern Lion Dance

The northern lion dance has close relations to kungfu Chinese martial arts. A young lion is performed by a single person and an adult lion is performed by a duo. Costumes are more robust, and less decorative, to allow for more movement. In the adult lion dance, the performer in front holding the lion's head is often lifted by the other to make the lion stand up. Northern lion dances are more gymnastic, involving rolling, wrestling, leaping, jumping, climbing, or kowtowing. The best places to see northern Chinese lion dances are China's martial arts theaters, like the Red Theater in Beijing, or even at the Shaolin Temple.--[[User:PINGKI TANCHANGYA 4|PINGKI TANCHANGYA 4]] ([[User talk:PINGKI TANCHANGYA 4|talk]]) 14:19, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

5. Conclusion

"Lianxiang” is a remark traditional dance that popularized in lots of regions and nations. It’s a folk dance that combines entertainment and body-building. Dragons are believed to bring good luck to Chinese people, which are reflected in their qualities that include great power, dignity, fertility and wisdom.The lion dance is an excellent example of Chinese folk culture, which has spread across the world with Chinese immigration. Overseas Chinese in Europe, America, etc. have established many lion dance clubs, performing on Chinese festivals or big occasions, particularly Chinese New Year.

===Terms and Expressions===
1.Han Dynasty 汉朝。

2.Traditional dance history 传统舞蹈史。

3.The lion Dance 舞狮。

4.The Dragon Dance 龙舞。

5.Lianxing 联兴。

6.Chinese Dance 中国舞。

7.Festivals 节庆。

6. Questions:

1. What is lianxing?
2. What is the Dragon Dance? Have you seen it before? And Where?
3. The dragon Dance originated from where?
4. what Lion Dances Symbolized?
5. How many Chinese Traditional Dance names you know?

Answers:

1."Lianxiang" is generally a traditional dance that is quite popular in lots of regions.
2. The Dragon dance is a form of traditional dance and performance in Chinese culture. Yes, I have seen it before in China.
3. The Dragon Dance originated from the Han Dynasty. It was started by the Chinese people those had shown great belief and respect towards the dragon.
4 The lion dance performed at Chinese festivals and
“Lion” symbolizes power, wisdom, and superiority.
5.
1.The folk dance.
2 The Duhuang Dance.
3.The Lion Dance.
4.The Dragon Dance.

Reference:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Chinese_dance.

http://en.cnki.com.cn/Article_en/CJFDTotal-JFYS201701031.htm.

http://en.cnki.com.cn/Article_en/CJFDTotal-TIRE200403012.htm.

https://www.atlantis-press.com/proceedings/etmhs-16/25849367.

Origin of lianxiang.http://www.google.cn.

Classification of Lian Xiang. http://www.google.cn.--[[User:PINGKI TANCHANGYA 4|PINGKI TANCHANGYA 4]] ([[User talk:PINGKI TANCHANGYA 4|talk]]) 15:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==The Liquor Culture of Ancient China 瞿淼 Student No.202070080604 MTI英语笔译 ==

====The Liquor Culture of Ancient China====

====1.The Origin of liquor in China====

With a long history of liquor-making, China boasts a variety of vintage liquor, which is renowned at home and abroad. Penetrating in China’s entire history of civilization, the liquor culture plays a significant role in many aspects, such as cuisine, literature, and health care, of Chinese people’s daily life.(Yang Li, 2005,17)

As to the origin of Chinese liquor, opinions vary and no unanimous conclusion can be drawn, and the most widely accepted version is that Du Kang invented liquor. There are divergent views on Du Kang’s identity, so far, documents have been found which recorded his deeds in the Yellow Emperor era and Xia-Shang-Zhou dynasties. And even his address is disputable. Some people think he lived in Baishui, Shaanxi province and was buried here, while others hold the opinion that he lived in Ruyang, Henan province. However, Du Kang is generally believed to be the Chinese Dionysus. According to the legend, one day it rained suddenly while Du Kang was herding the sheep. Hastily driving the sheep back to the sheepfold, he forgot some husked sorghum rice in a hollowed trunk by accident, and when he came back after a few days, the rice he left there became so fragrant that he couldn’t help tasting some. Surprisingly, it was palatable. This unexpected finding made Du Kang start to develop the liquor-brewing technique. Nowadays, Du kang has become the synonym of liquor in many places. Moreover, ancestral halls of Du Kang have been built in Baishui in Shaanxi province and Ruyang in Henan province to enshrine him. And the liquor produced in these places are called “Du Kang Liquor.”(Huang yixi, 2008, 21)

====2.The Types of liquor in Ancient China====

With constant reform and innovation of the techniques of brewing liquor, thousands of types of vintage liquor have been created in China. According to the different production techniques, Chinese liquor can be divided into fermented wine and distilled liquor.

Yellow rice wine is the oldest fermented wine around the world. Shaoxing Wine, a famous specialty of Shaoxing, Zhejiang province, is the representative of yellow rice wine. It has a very long history, and the wine industry in Shaoxing was prosperous early in the Warring States period. Shaoxing wine looks yellow and clear, hence sugar is added in its raw material. The most prominent of Shaoxing Wine is that it’s fragrance improves with age. In addition to Shaoxing Wine, there are other famous yellow rice wine like Jiujiang Old Seal Wine, Mellow Wine and Dongwu Rice Wine and so on. where is the source is coming from please? (Huang yixi, 2008, 25)

Yellow rice wine is the oldest fermented wine around the world. Shaoxing Wine, a famous specialty of Shaoxing, Zhejiang province, is the representative of yellow rice wine. It has a very long history, and the wine industry in Shaoxing was prosperous early in the Warring States Period. Shaoxing wine looks yellow and clear, because sugar is added in its raw material. The most prominent characteristic of Shaoxing Wine is that it’s fragrance improves with age. In addition to Shaoxing Wine, there are other famous yellow rice wine like Jiujiang Old Seal Wine, Mellow Wine and Dongwu Rice Wine and so on.(Wang Jianguo, Xu Liang, 2005, 32)

Liquor and Spirits(Baijiu), a kind of distilled liquor, is divided into the following flavor types: sauce-flavor type, light flavor type, strong flavor type and other flavour types. Kweichow Moutai is a traditional Chinese specialty liquor. It is one of the world's three major distilled liquors on par with Scotch whiskey and French cognac. It is also the origin of Daqu sauce-flavored liquor with a history of more than 800 years. The style and quality of Kweichow Moutai is characterized by "prominent sauce, elegant and delicate flavour, full-bodied, long aftertaste, and lasting fragrance in an empty cup". Its special style comes from the unique traditional brewing techniques formed over the years and the brewing methods are combined with the agricultural production in the Chishui River Basin, which is affected by the environment and seasonal production, retaining some of the original traces of local life. In 1996, Moutai's craftsmanship was identified as a state secret to be protected. In 2001, the traditional craft of Moutai was included in the first batch of national material cultural heritage. In 2006, the State Council approved the inclusion of the "Moutai traditional brewing process" in the first batch of national intangible cultural heritage lists, and declared the world intangible cultural heritage.(Yang Li, 2005, 11)

====3.The Types of Drinking Vessel in Ancient China====

Chinese people always pay attention to the beauty and delicacy of tableware, and we stress the exquisiteness and suitability of wine vessels when drinking. Therefore,as part of the liquor culture, drinking vessels also have a long history and varied appearances.

In different historical periods, due to the continuous development of society and economy, the production technology, materials, and appearance of wine vessels naturally has undergone corresponding changes; therefore, a wide variety of wine vessels have been produced. As early as the Neolithic culture period, pottery with shapes similar to later wine-ware, such as the pottery of the Peiligang culture period, appeared. The development of the liquor industry and the noble identity of the drinker have made it possible for liquor utensils to be differentiated from ordinary eating utensils. The quality of wine-ware often becomes one of the symbols of the status of drinkers. Bronze ware originated in Xia Dynasty, and the earliest bronze wine ware that has been discovered is from the Xia Erlitou culture period. Bronze ware reached its heyday in the Shang and Zhou Dynasties and declined in the Spring and Autumn Period. The purpose of the Shang and Zhou drinking vessels was basically specific.(Du Jinpeng, 1995, 58)

In the Shang Dynasty, due to the development of the liquor industry and the improvement of bronze production technology, China's wine ware reached unprecedented prosperity. The bronze wine vessels of the Shang and Zhou Dynasties were divided into liquor boiling vessels, liquor serving vessels, drinking vessels and liquor storaging vessels according to their purposes. Each vessel has many styles, some are in common styles, and some take animal shapes. Take Zun as an example, there are Elephant Zun, Rhino Zun, Niu Zun, Yang Zun, Tiger Zun, etc. (Du Jinpeng, 1995, 58)[[File:zun.left.jpg|300px|thumb|left]]

During the Qin and Han Dynasties, lacquered wine utensils became popular in Southern China. It became the main type in the Han Dynasty, Wei and Jin Dynasties, and its shape basically inherited the shape of bronze liquor vessels. Porcelain roughly appeared around the Eastern Han Dynasty. Compared with pottery, the performance of porcelain surpassed that of pottery. The shape of liquor glasses in the Tang Dynasty was much smaller than in the past, so some people think that distilled spirits appeared in the Tang Dynasty. The Song Dynasty was the heyday of ceramic production, and there were many exquisite wine vessels. People in the Song Dynasty like to warm rice wine before drinking it. So the matching combination of injection vessel and bowl were invented. People placed the injection vessel with wine in the bowl, and poured hot water into the bowl to warm the wine. (Huang yixi, 2008, 23)[[File:Example3.left.jpg|300px|thumb|left]]

====4.Drinking Games in Ancient China====

As early as the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, drinking games appeared at banquets in the Yellow River Basin. There are many ways to make wine games. The way the literati and the ordinary people make drinking games are naturally very different. Literati often use poems or couplets, guessing characters or guessing puzzles, etc., while ordinary people use simple ways to act without any preparation. It requires a quick, witty, artistic and talented person to do liquor games. The drinking games are of great significance to the transformation, enrichment and development of drinking rituals. It is not only an important means to add wine to the fun and to invigorate the banquet, but also to make Chinese culture enter the wine and become the Liquor Culture. (Li Fangzhou,1998, 39)
--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 14:32, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

====Terms and Expressions====
1.Du Kang 杜康

2.Chinese Dionysus 中国酒神

3.husked sorghum rice 秫米饭

4.Baishui 白水县（陕西渭南市辖县）

5.Ruyang 汝阳县（河南省洛阳市下辖县）

6.fermented wine 发酵酒

7.Distilled liquor 蒸馏酒

8.Yellow rice wine 黄酒

9.Shaoxing Wine 绍兴酒

10.Jiujiang Old Seal Wine 九江成年封缸酒

11.Mellow Wine 醇香酒

12.Dongwu Rice Wine 东吴老酒

13.Liquor and Spirits 白酒

14.Kweichow Moutai 贵州茅台

15.sauce-flavor type 酱香型

16.light flavor type 清香型

17.strong flavor type 浓香型

18.Daqu sauce-flavored liquor 大曲酱香型白酒

19.the Peiligang culture period裴李岗文化时期

20.the Xia Erlitou culture period 夏二里头文化时期

21.Zun 樽

22.injection vessel and bowl 注子和注碗

23.drinking games 行酒令

====Questions====

1.Who is generally believed to invent liquor in China?

2.What is the most prominent characteristic of Shaoxing Wine?

3.Why does Shaoxing wine look yellow and clear?

4.Why did people in the Song dynasty invent injection vessel and bowl?

5.How to use the matching combination of injection vessel and bowl in the Song dynasty?

6.How do literati play drinking games in ancient Chian?

====Answers====

1.Du Kang

2.It’s fragrance improves with age.

3.Because sugar is added in its raw material.

4.Because they liked to warm the liquor before driking it.

5.Place the injection vessel with wine in the bowl, and pour hot water into the bowl to warm the wine.

6.Literati often use poems or couplets, guessing characters or guessing puzzles, etc.

====Bibliography====
*Huang Yixi 黄亦锡. (2008) 酒、酒器与传统文化[Wine, Wineset and Traditional Culture: the Study of Wine Culture of Ancient China]. 厦门大学Xiamen University.

*Li Fangzhou 李方舟. (1998) 酒令——酒文化的珍品[Liquor-a treasure of wine culture]. 质量天地Production Room.

*Du Jinpeng 杜金鹏. (1995) 中国古代酒具[Ancient Chinese Wine Set]. 上海文化出版社 Shanghai Culture Publishing House.

*Yang Li 杨利. (2005) 酒文化及酒的精神文化价值探微[A Probe into Wine Culture and Spiritual Cultural Value of Wine]. 邵阳学院学报Academic Journal of Shaoyang University, 2005(02):82-83.

*Wng Jianguo&Xu Liang 汪建国,徐亮.(2005)我国黄酒的特征及展望[Characteristics and Prospects of Chinese Rice Wine] 江苏调味副食品Journal of Jiangsu Seasoning Food, 2005(06):8-12.
--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 14:32, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

== China Railway High-Speed (CRH) - Rajabov, Anushervon student NO. 201921080005 Major: Comparative literature and cross culture ==

===China Railway High-Speed (CRH)===

Introduction

High-speed railway (HSR) in China is the longest network of high-speed railways in the world and is used most widely. The network of UNCC includes the recently built railway at the estimated speed of 200-350 km / h (120-220 miles per hour). The Chinese VSM accounts for two thirds of world high-speed railways. Almost all trains, the path and services of the HSR belong to the Chinese railway corporation under the CHINA Railway High Speed brand (CRH). The high-speed railway has developed rapidly in China over the past 15 years. CRH was put into operation in April 2007, the Intercity Line Beijing-Tianjin, which opened in August 2008, became the first HSR allocated passenger line. HSR applies to all administrative provincial levels, except Macau and Tibet. The total length of the HSR network reached 36,000 km (22,000 miles) in August 2020. The HSR construction boom continues, and the HSR network should reach 70,000 km (43,000 miles) in 2035. China's first high-speed trains were imported or built in accordance with the Technology Transfer Agreement with foreign trains manufacturers, including Alstom, Siemens, Bombardier and Kawasaki Heavy Industry Since the initial technical support, Chinese engineers have overpower the internal components of the train and built local trains produced by the CRRC State Corporation. The appearance of a rapidly accelerated railway in China has decreased in the way and changed Chinese society and the economy. The World Bank study has shown that "a wide range of travelers with different income levels chooses HSR for its comfort, convenience, safety and punctuality."[http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/451551468241176543/pdf/932270BRI0Box30ffic020140final000EN.pdf]

Definition and terminology

High-speed trains in China are usually belonging to passenger trades of classes G, D and C. in class G trains (高铁; Gāotiě; "High-speed rail") are commonly used trains E In class D trains (动车; Dòngchē; "Electrical multiple unit") are presented by EMU trains operating at lower speeds, whether in high-speed or low-speed ways. The actual movement speed of class D trains can vary greatly. D211 Creament train from Guyang-east to Guangzhou-South along the High Speed Railway Guang-Guangzhou, a line with an estimated speed of 250 km / h, on average, 207 km / h per trip. The sleeping train D312 EMU between South Beijing and Shanghai at a low speed Beijing - Shanghai on average passing 121 km / h. Class C (c héngjì; “intercity”) trains that run on high-speed tracks at speeds above 250 km / h are also considered high-speed trains.[https://ru.qaz.wiki/wiki/China_Railway_High-speed]

Influence on airlines

The proliferation of high-speed rail has forced China's domestic airlines to cut airfares and cancel regional flights. The effect of high-speed railway on airfare is most acute when traveling for less than 500 km (310 miles). By the spring of 2011, commercial airlines were fully stopped at previously popular routes such as Wuhan Nanjing, Wuhan Nanchang, Xi'an-Zhengzhou and Chengdu Chongqing. Flights along the routes with a length of more than 1500 km (930 miles) usually do not suffer. As of October 2013, half a speed of passengers were transported monthly on high-speed rail than in the country's airlines. where the source a
Technologies
Chinese High Speed Railway Controls Various Electric Forms of Trains, Hexie HAO Title (Simplified Chinese: 和谐号; Traditional Chinese: 和諧號; Pinyin: Héxié Hào; Harmony) is for designs which are imported from other nations and designated CRH-1 to CRH-5 and CRH380A (L), CRH380B (L) and CRH380C (L). CRH compositions are designed for fast and convenient movement between cities. The weakness of intellectual property Hexie HAO creates obstacles to China in the export of its products related to high-speed railways, which leads to the development of a fully recycled railway franchise called Fuxing Hao (Rejuvenation) that based on local technologies.[https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine ]

4 + 4 HSR network

The network consists of eight high-speed rail corridors, four of which run from north to south and four from east to west, for a total length of 12,000 km. Most of the lines follow existing routes and are for passenger traffic only. These are known as Passenger Lines (PDL). Several sections of the national network, especially along the southeastern coastal corridor, have been built to connect cities that previously had no rail links. These sections will carry both passenger and cargo. High-speed trains on HSR corridors can usually reach speeds of 300-350 km / h (190-220 mph). On mixed HSR lines, passenger trains can reach a maximum speed of 200–250 km / h (120–160 mph). This ambitious national grid project was slated to be built by 2020, but government incentives have significantly shortened the construction timeframe for many lines.[http://www.railjournal.com/A/xfeature2.html]

Advantages

HSR provides a fast, reliable and convenient means of transporting large numbers of travelers across a densely populated country over long distances that: Increases economic productivity and long-term competitiveness by increasing rail capacity and unifying labor markets. Moving passengers onto high-speed lines frees up older railways to carry more cargo, which is more beneficial for railways than for passengers whose fares are subsidized. Boosts the economy in the short term as high-speed rail construction creates jobs and stimulates demand in the construction, steel and cement industries during the economic downturn. 110,000 workers were mobilized for the construction of the Beijing-Shanghai high-speed railway. Facilitates economic integration between cities and promotes the growth of second-tier cities. The introduction of high-speed rail provides a 59% increase in the market potential of minor cities connected by bullet trains. [https://ru.qaz.wiki/wiki/China_Railway_High-speed]

Wenzhou accident

On July 23, 2011, two high-speed trains collided on the Ningbo-Taizhou-Wenzhou railway in the Lucheng district of Wenzhou city, Zhejiang province. The accident occurred when a train passing near Wenzhou was struck by lightning, lost power and stopped. Signals failed, causing another train to stop a stopped train. Several carriages derailed. State Chinese media confirmed 40 deaths and at least 192 people were hospitalized, including 12 seriously injured. The train accident in Wenzhou and the lack of accountability by rail officials have generated public outcry and heightened concerns about the safety and management of China's high-speed rail system. Concerns about quality and safety have also influenced plans to export cheaper high-speed train technology to other countries. In the aftermath of the deadly disaster, the Chinese government has suspended approval of new rail projects and began security checks on existing equipment.[https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/jul/23/china-train-crash-kills-32]

Terms and expressions

高铁 - High-speed rail
动车 - Electrical multiple unit
和諧號 – Harmony
復興號 - Rejuvenation

Questions

1. What does the World Bank research say?
2. What forced China's domestic airlines to cut airfares and cancel regional flights?
3. How many high speed rail corridors are there in the 4 + 4 HSR network? What is their total length?
4. What caused the accident?
5. What are the benefits of HSR?

Answers

1. The World Bank study has shown that "a wide range of travelers with different income levels chooses HSR for its comfort, convenience, safety and punctuality."
2. The proliferation of high-speed rail has forced China's domestic airlines to cut airfares and cancel regional flights.
3. The 4 + 4 HSR network consists of eight high-speed rail corridors, four of which run from north to south and four from east to west, for a total length of 12,000 km.
4. The accident occurred when a train passing near Wenzhou was struck by lightning, lost power and stopped.
5. HSR provides a fast, reliable and convenient means of transporting large numbers of travelers across a densely populated country over long distances. The introduction of high-speed rail provides a 59% increase in the market potential of minor cities connected by bullet trains.

References

http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/451551468241176543/pdf/932270BRI0Box30ffic020140final000EN.pdf
https://ru.qaz.wiki/wiki/China_Railway_High-speed
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine
http://www.railjournal.com/A/xfeature2.html
https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/jul/23/china-train-crash-kills-32.

==Language, The Chinese Language - Seydou, Sagara, Student No:201911080004,Major:Translation Studies===
===Introduction===
China is a very big country with a large population, multi-ethnic,and multi-lingual. Each etthnic groups may have its own lingo, or dialects and there are great differences between the dialects because of the speech impediment. For example, if people in different places use their dialects to talk, they may not be able to understand each other, and the situation may lead to embarrassment and understanding. Therefore, the Chinese people communicate with each other in a common language, called Putonghua and also known as Mandarin in Western countries. Government also has implemented a strategy to promote Putonghua and to facilitate it learning with Pinyin . Cheng Aimin (2019,124)

==Putonghua and Dialects==

Putonghua is the national language of China, and Chinese is the most widely spoken language in the world. More than one billion of the world's populations are Chinese speakers. The Chinese population is already one fifth of the population of the world and is rapidly expanding its presence everywhere and influence many people around the world. Cheng Aimin (2019, 25)
It is the modern standard Chinese language with the Beijing pronunciation as its standard pronunciation, the northern dialect (also known as Mandarin, the official language in the past) as its basic dialect, and the modern vernacular as its grammatical norm. Therefore, the northern dialect sounds more like Putonghua than other dialects. Putonghua is a standardized language, which is legally used all over the country. In 2000, the law of the People’s Republic of China on common languages and characters established the legal status of Putonghua and standardized Chinese Characters as the national language and writing system. Putonghua is also one of the six working language of the United Nation and an important means of communication between China and foreign countries. According to statistics from ethnologist, in 2015, 70 percent of China’s population had the ability to speak Putonghua, but there were still about 400 million people who spoke dialects or minority languages. Article 19 of the constitution of the People’s Republic of China stipulates that ‘’ Putonghua is widely used by the state ‘’, and the third week of September is the national Putonghua Publicity week. We often hear some sayings like this: ‘’ Learn Putonghua well and you will have friend all over the world.’’ Chinese dialects are usually divided into seven groups: northern dialect Wu dialect, Hunan dialect, Jiangxi dialect, Hakka dialect, and Cantonese dialect and Fujian dialect. Most northern are close to Putonghua and easy to understand a non-native speaker. Cheng Aimin (2019, 126)

The dialects in China differ greatly. Speaking Putonghua allows the Chinese people to communicate better with each other and promote the development of economy and culture everywhere. However, the promotion of Putonghua cannot be achieved in a short time. The Chinese government plans to enable more than 80% of Chinese people to speak Putonghua by 2020. (C.Gov art 10. 2017)
Only by learning Putonghua can you communicate with people from all parts of China and event with Chinese –speaking people all over the world. While striving to promote Putonghua among the people of the whole country, China also pays special attention to the protection of dialects, which should not be lost after learning Putonghua. . Cheng Aimin (2019, 126)

==Ancient Chinese and Modern Chinese ==
Over the past three thousand years, Chinese has undergone a long period of development and changes, and has been constantly interacting with the languages of other nations. Ancient Chinese and written Chinese characters are not exactly the same as they are now. When we visit Chinese historical sites, we often see couplets, poems, and inscriptions. Most of them are written in classical Chinese and traditional Chinese characters. Classical Chinese is a written language formed on the basis of the spoken language in the pre-Qin period. Cheng Aimin (2019, 127)

By the time of the Tang Dynasty and the Five Dynasties (the 7th century to the 10th century), the spoken Chinese had changed greatly and had significant differences with the classical style of written Chinese. The pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar had changed greatly. But all the time, some people still insisted on writing in classical Chinese, while others wrote in the commonly used vernacular (spoken Chinese). The Four Classical Novels created in the Ming and Qing dynasties, The Dreams of the red Chambers, The Romance of the Three Kingdoms, The Outlaws of the Marsh and the journey to the west, are all representative works of the ancient vernacular. After the May 4th movement in 1919, China launched a vernacular movement advocating ‘’my hand writes my speech’’. Since then, the vernacular has gradually been more widely used in the whole society, and modern Chinese has gradually developed and formed. Compared with ancient Chinese, modern Chinese absorbs a lot Western grammar and has added many disyllabic words. Cheng Aimin (2019 ,128)

==Idiomatic Phrases- Idioms, Proverbs, Common Sayings, and Allegorical Sayings.==
Many phrases with fixed meanings in Chinese have been handed down from the ancient times. Mastering these phrases will make your language more authentic and vivid. For example, ‘’Lofty mountains and flowing rivers ‘’. Playing the lute to the cow’’ ‘’prescribing medicine according to symptoms’’, and ‘’ pleading guilty by carrying a rod on one’s back’ ’these phrases, often contain four Chinese characters each, are called idioms. They are quite formal and often originate from ancient historical stories, fables, myths and legends, or literary works. Sometimes we cannot guess the meaning of an idiom simply according to the meaning of the words. For example, 崇山峻岭，流淌的河流 ‘’lofty mountains and flowing rivers’’ means meeting someone who can really understand and appreciate them, while吹牛的长笛 ‘’ Playing the lute to the cow’’ means the casting pearls before swine. Wendy Abraham: (2018 ,115)
There are also proverbs, common sayings, and allegorical sayings created and passed down by the common people in spoken language, which are quite colloquial and emotional, reflecting the unique culture of China.
Proverbs are common and easy -to understand fixed phrases used orally, often explaining a truth. For example, ‘’ if you are not in charge of a home, you don’t know how expensive the firewood and rice, if you don’t have children, you don’t know kinds your parents are.’’ ‘’Seeing is better than hearing 100 times, and doing is better than seeing 100 times’’ Cheng Aimin (2019, 129)
Common sayings mostly come in a three –character format, but there are also other formats. In addition to the literal meaning, there are deep metaphorical extensions. For example, 吹牛皮 ‘’blow cow skin’’ (meaning bragging or boating) ‘给某人. 穿紧身鞋 ‘’give SB . Tight shoes to wear ‘’ ( meaning making things hard for SB), ‘为外国人工作时的消磨时间‘’kill time when working for foreigners ‘’ ( loafing on the job) , 提一个黑锅 ‘’ carry a black pot’’ ( taking the blame for the fault of others ) , 钉在眼睛里 ‘’ nail in the eyes’’ ( thorn in the flesh ), 狗腿 ‘’ dog leg’’ ( hired thug) , 不管3x7 = 21 ‘’regardless of 3x7= 21’’( regardless of consequences, in the spite of anything ), 打不了八极 ‘’ can’t hit with eight poles’’ ( extremely distant or unrelated ). (Contemporary Chinese Dictionary Chinese -English Edition 2002,232)
An allegorical saying is divided into two parts. It is like a riddle: The first part is a metaphor, and the second part is an explanation. There are two types of allegorical sayings: homophonic and figurative. Example of the homophonic type ‘’ the nephew carries a lantern – to light up the uncle’’ (pronounced the same ‘’ as before ‘’ in Chinese); ‘’the monk opens an umbrella – no hair and no sky ‘’ (‘’ no hair ‘’ is pronounced similar to ‘’ lawless ‘’ in Chinese). Examples of the figurative type: ‘’ A mute person takes a dose of bitter medicine- they can’t say it is bitter ‘’; ‘’ Mice go to the street – everybody shouts and beats them.’’ Cheng Aimin (2019.130)

==Language policy==
While vigorously promoting Putonghua, the Chinese government has also promulgated many policies to protect dialect and minority languages. In order to promote Putonghua, China promulgated the Chinese Pinyin Program in 1958. Pinyin (the standard Chinese sound- spelling system) is widely used in Putonghua promotion, international Chinese teaching, foreign exchange and other fields. It has become an important tool for reading Chinese characters, learning Putonghua, training and improving reading and writing ability. With the popularization of modern information technology, pinyin is widely used to input the Chinese characters on computers and mobile phones. Pinyin affects all aspects of social life. In translation, Chinese names of people, places, food, and even some cultural concept with Chinese characteristics (Such as Beijing, pingpang, Shaoling, Gongful) are directly spelled with Pinyin, which is therefore an important standard for translation and a bridge for international exchange. Minglang Zhou: (pp.71-95).

==Conclusion.==
Today, an increasing number of people from other countries now want to learn Chinese language and culture and also many universities from different countries throughout the world offer Chinese language courses because Putonghua is also an open door to a huge job market in all of the countries where Putonghua is the language of commerce like Mainland China, Taiwan and Singapore. Learning Chinese can help to make a better future for everyone. Abundant opportunities for governments and business careers as well as scientific and cultural exchanges await the student of Chinese. The China market is blossoming after decades of global isolation. As China is rapidly becoming a world economic power as it opens its doors to foreign investment expands its infrastructure, those who know Chinese will be valuable to business.

==References==

Cheng Aimin.(2019), ''中国概况'' [Understanding China]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.
Minglang Zhou: Language Policy in the People’s Republic of China (p.71-95), Wendy Abraham: let’s talk Mandarin Chinese: 1,001 real-life phrases and Idioms. Law of the People's Republic of China on the Standard Spoken and Written Chinese Language (Order of the President No.37) Article 10 Putonghua and the standardized Chinese characters shall be used as the basic language in education and teaching in schools and other institutions of education, except where otherwise provided for in laws.
The Contemporary Chinese Dictionary Chinese -English Edition 2002)
===Terms and expressions===

Lingo: 林戈

Lingo: 行话，语言

Putonghua: 普通话

Await student:等待学生

Pinyin: 等待学生

Pinyin: 拼音

Lofty: 崇高

Vernacular: 白话

Swine: 猪

===Questions===
1. Why Putonghua is spoken in United Nations Organization?
2. How many people speak Putonghua in China and around the world?
3 .Why Chinese government is promoted Putonghua among many others languages?
===Answers===
1. Because it is an important means of communication between China and foreign countries.
2. According to ethnologist 70 percent of China’s population had the ability to speak Putonghua, and according to the10 most spoken languages in the world Chinese (and all of its varieties such as Mandarin) is by far the most spoken language across the world with 1.31 billion speakers.
3. Because Putonghua is become an international language and it also facilitate understanding between different ethnic groups in China.

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==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==
'''Zhu Ziqing'''

A third example, where an author shows another face in his essays is Zhu Ziqing. He is known as the author of the most often reprinted story-like Chinese essay "''Back View''" (Beiying), a standard school text. The success of this essay lies in the fact, that it applies to filial pity. From the reported fare-well scene with his father at the train station, he learned that his father loved him and that he had grown-up too now.
==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==
This self-reflective essay helped Zhu to find himself through the observation of the other (here his father). The 2nd often printed essay is also from Zhu. Parallelistic and repetitive structures are the driving factor in the atmospherical nebulous lyrical landscape desription "''The Moonlit Lotus Pond''", whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader.

Zhu Ziqing supposedly opposed all political engagement and, wrote about unspectacular things. In Taiwan he became a type of substitute for the categorically refused state writer of the People’s Republic, Lu Xun, mainly because of Zhu’s supposed political independence.
==Chen Han 陈涵==
I would like to show with three examples that Zhu had absolutely clear political ideas: He had taken part in the demonstration March 18, 1926, which ended in a massacre. Zhu described this in ''"Report On the Massacre of the Government''"[ (Zhizhengfu da tusha ji).].

''Shots were still being fired, and the entrance of the east gate was packed with people. [...] Pushing and shoving, we climbed over them with great effort. We must have lost our senses then, not seeing, to our shame, the grotesqueness of our action. ''

我想用三个例子说明，朱自清有绝对明确的政治思想。1926年3月18日，他参加了示威游行，这场游行最终以屠杀告终。朱自清在《执政府大屠杀记》中对此进行了描述。

''这时枪声未歇，东门口拥塞得几乎水泄不通。[...] 我们便推推搡搡，拥挤着，挣扎着，从他们身上踏上去。那时理性真失了作用，竟恬然不以为怪似的。'' --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:39, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Hui 陈惠==
''[...]I was still walking on top of the people. No one dared to miss a single step, filing through the gate that divided safety from danger, one that would give us life or take our lives away. [...] My efforts finally brought me down to the ground, sealing my fate as I rolled down from the human pile. [...] I learned later that some of the people by the gate were dead, killed by the pistol squad firing from the other side of the gate. When I recall stepping over dead bodies, I cannot help but tremble with fear. [...]''
==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==
From this experience, Zhu addresses directly the repsonsible political leaders:

''Duan Qirui, you must think about it! [...] How could we explain this to the world? [...] Granted, Duan Qirui and others could commit such atrocities without a thought; but how could we, the people of China, face the world with such a shameless government? [...] We, [...], must ask, „So many were killed—what should we do?“''
==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==
In contrast, Lu Xun has portrayed the same massacre with sighing undertone and Zhou Zuoren bitter-humorously in his "''Ways to die''"[ (Si fa).] - in which he finds "to be shot" the best method to die. The supposedly less politically engaged Zhu shows here more engagement.

The essay "''Facing the New China''"[ (Xin Zhongguo zai wang zhong).] is Zhu's political manifest: He asks for democracy, enlightenment and an increase of the education level.
==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==
''China has to be born again through democratization. [...] The people should express their own will, concentrate on their own strength. Every level of administration should build up on the expressed will and strength of the people and struggle for the majority and its greatest happiness. This means that the people govern, the people own, the people enjoy.''

A few weeks before his death, he demanded in the speech ''"Today's duty of the Intellectuals''"[ (Zhishifenzi jintian de renwu).] the participation of the intellectual in the struggle for a better society.
==Chen Sha 陈莎==
With only a handful of essays I have demonstrated, that the picture of these three authors changes substantially, if we read carefully also their less known essayistic work. Imagine now how the picture of 20th century Chinese literature might change, if the literary histories and anthologies would not only tell the history of drama, fiction and poetry, but would also grant the essay its proper place. The following part of my paper are results of my monograph on the 20th century Chinese essay.
==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==
'''The essay boom as a mirror reflecting growing individuality, participation in the public sphere, and the giddy-paced character of modern Chinese society'''

Acquiring an overview of the essay and assessing its essence has required extensive research in bookstores and libraries, in the People's Republic of China, Taiwan, Hong Kong and the United States for available resources in the form of essay book collections as well as secondary literature dealing with the essay.
==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==
I built a database for a statistical analysis to rank more than 5000 essays and 1400 essayists. It turned out that out of the top 60 most famous Chinese essays only 14 had been translated into English so far. The forthcoming collection of Tam King-fai adds 4 and my own one the remaining 42.

Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report[ (baogao wenxue) (Klaschka 1998).].
==Cheng Yusi 成于思==
The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous essay bookseries[ sanwen congshu 散文叢書.].

The reason for the increase in essay production, which we can date right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in the sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for the survey. There are three reasons for the increase in Chinese essay production and popularity in the mid-1990s:
==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==
1, The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts, as Hall has put it: “[...] we live in an age of exposition”[ (Hall 1984:xiii).].

2, The increasing consciousness of individuality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands.

3, A revival of interest in discussing socio-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.
==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==
If we look carefully at essay collections not only published in the United States, but also in Hong Kong, Taiwan and the People’s Republic, we find the following three reasons for the under- and overestimation of single essayists or essays which correspond to regional differences:

1, EXOTIC In the United States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones.

如果我们仔细观察在美国出版的，以及在香港、台湾和中华人民共和国出版的散文集，我们会发现以下三个原因导致人们低估和高估了回应地域差异的单个散文家或散文:

1、异国情调在美国，散文往往是根据西方人的口味来选择的，完全不知名的作者和老牌作家拥有一样多的空间。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 09:37, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

如果我们细细研读在美国出版的，以及在中国香港、台湾和大陆出版的散文集，我们会发现以下三个原因导致人们因地域差异而低估或高估了某些散文家或散文:

1、异国情调在美国，散文往往是根据西方人的口味来选择的，名不见经传的作者和著名的作家拥有同样多的市场。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling

==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==
2, SOCIO-POLITICAL In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, as the mentioned survey proofs, he ranks 12th among modern authors there. Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.

3, PERSONAL Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by his disciple Huang Weiliang in favor for Yu.[ (see Lin Yaode 1989:50).]

Having named reasons for the essay boom and for the support for and the suppression of different actors in the cultural field of the essay, I would like to finish my paper by naming a few trends of the essay as they appear at the eve of the century.
==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==
The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consumer-orientation of the masses. The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educational claim with the exception of essays which claim to be "art pourt l'art".
==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==
The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing ("''On dreams''"[ "Shuo meng 說夢" On dreams in: Zhu Ziqing 1928.]) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 ("''My own garden''"[ 9.1923.], "''The Fly''"[ 1924.], "''Reading on the Toilet''"[ 1936.]), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the newly encountered world of mass consumerism.
==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==
In the end of this century not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. Among the upper list places of the political essay after 1949 there are critical essays. For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain.
==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==
A sign for the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publishing houses with an orientation for customers (former: "readers"). Following the emotional essays of Zhu Ziqing who rank 1st and 2nd, ''nostalgia'' is the element of emotional identification in "''Wild vegetables of my home region''" by Zhou Zuoren, which ranks 3rd[ In Jia Pingwa's "Moon traces", which ranks 11, and in Ba Jin's "''Paradise for Birds''", which ranks 19]. Therefore one can state, that moving essays form the top.
==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==
In 1927, Chinese literature took the form of 'engaged literature'. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics in daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology. In the later half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of individuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife.
==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==
In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only remiscent element left is the patriotism.[ ''Trends like the use of ordinary language'', which one finds in novels since 1993 (''Jia Pingwa'', Feidu; ''Gu Cheng'', Yingger) and New Borderlessness since 1995, cannot be proven in the essaywriting.The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable ''object d'art''.]

上个世纪90年代，80年代的政论文随笔文化逐渐隐没了，唯一剩下留有想象空间的元素就是爱国主义。[“比如使用普通语言的趋势”，这是从1993年以来在小说中发现的（“贾平凹”）费杜，古格，英格）以及自1995年以来，《新无边际》都无法在论文写作中得到证明，我们之所以没有找到后现代小说意义上的后现代散文，是因为文章的直接性：随笔作为一种体裁，是作者和读者之间的对话，而不是想要引起不同解释的原因或可能依赖于特殊形式或内容甚至是按顺序引用前现代特征的艺术品，这使它成为一个与众不同的“艺术品”。]--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 13:06, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

'''References''' [partly mentioned with German translation] （不用翻）

Vera Schwarcz 1996, Vera Schwarcz, "The pain of sorrow: public uses of personal grief in modern China", in Daedalus: Journal of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (Winter 1996)

Ba Jin 1982, Ba Jin: "Yi feng huixin 一封回信" (Ein Antwortbrief (26.10.1982)), in: Bing zhong ji 病中集 (Auf dem Krankenlager), Hongkong 香港 1984(?) (Series Suixiang lu 隨想錄 (Thoughts) Bd 4), 147 pp.

Ba Jin 1982a, Ba Jin: "Yi pian xuwen 一篇序文" (Ein Vorwort) [dated 1982.9/10], in: Ba Jin: Auf dem Krankenlager 1984

Ba Jin 1956, Ba Jin 巴金: "Duli sikao 獨立思考" (Unabhängig denken), in: Li Jisheng 李濟生, Li Xiaolin 李小林 (Hgg.): Ba Jin liushi nian wenxuan (1927 - 1986), Suixiang lu, zagan, sanwen, xuba, yanjiang, shuxin 巴金六十年文選（１９２７－１９８６）隨想錄·雜感·散文·序跋· 演講·書信 (Ba Jin. Werkauswahl aus 60 Jahren (1927 - 1986), Gedanken, vermischte Gefühle, Essays, Vor- und Nachworte, Reden, Briefe), Shanghai 上海: Shanghai wenyi chubanshe 上海文藝出版社 (Literatur- und Kunstverlag Shanghai), 1986.12, S. 461 - 462 [Datiert auf 1956.]

Ba Jin 1962, "Zuojia de yongqi yu zerenxin 作家的勇氣與責任心" (Mut und Verantwortungsbewußtsein der Schrifsteller) 1962; der Essay von Zhou Zuoren 周作人: "Wenxue tan 文學談" (Über Literatur), in: Tan long ji 談龍集 (Über Drachen. Sammlung), Shanghai 上海: Kaiming shudian 開明書店 (Kaiming Buchladen) 1927.12, Nachdruck: Hongkong 香港: Shiyong shuju 使用書局 (Praxisverlag) 1972.1, 310 S., S. 165 - 167

Zhou Zuoren 1919, Zhou Zuoren, "Zuxian chongbai 1919 (Ancestor Worship)," in Early Essays, op.cit., pp. 78

Zhou Zuoren 1920: Zhou Zuoren 周作人, Xin wenxue de yaoqiu 新文學的要求" (The demand of the New Literature) [lecture], in Beiping shaonian xuehui 北平少年學會 (Beiping youth conference) 1920.1.6, in: Zhang Ruoying 長若英: Xin wenxue yundong shi ziliao 新文學運動史資料 (Material on the history of the New Literature movement), Shanghai 上海: Guangming shuju 光明書局 (Guangming bookstore) (1934.9) ²1936.9, 291-296

Zhou Zuoren 1923, Zhou Zuoren: Yanzhicao ba (Preface to Yu Pingbo's Yanzhicao), in: Yongri ji (Book of Eternal Day), Shanghai: Beixin shuju 1929, 180-181

Zhou Zuoren 1929, Zhou Zuoren: Ertong de shu (The books of children), in: Chenbao fukan (1923.8.17)

Zhou Zuoren yuanliu, Zhou Zuoren: Zhongguo xin wenxue de yuanliu (Sources of New Chinese Literature), p 71

Zhou Zuoren 1932, Zhou Zuoren: Lun baguwen 1932, in: Kanyun ji p. 148

Source: NEAAS annual meeting 10/09/1999 New Haven (Yale University)

==Guo Lu 郭露==
'''Modern Chinese Literature and the Essay Genre: A New Perspective'''

''Martin Woesler''

In this paper, I will not recount the contents and propose interpretations of any essays, nor will I outline the main topics or styles of essaywriting in China, but I would like to take the opportunity to reflect a little bit on the phenomenon of the genre itself and discuss some conclusions and hypotheses with the attentive and critical audience which can be found at only a few places on earth, EALC at Harvard definitely being one of them.

《中国现代文学与散文体裁：以新视角》

''吴漠汀''

在本文中,我将不再赘述任何文章的内容和提出的观点,我也不会列出其主要主题或风格,但是我想借此机会,反映一些现象本身的类型，并与包括哈佛大学学生在内的观众对一些结论和假设进行探讨。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:16, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

《中国现代文学与散文体裁：新视角》

吴漠汀

本文将不再赘述或解释任何文章的内容，也不会列出中国散文的主要主题或风格。我想借此机会，反思体裁现象，同乐于助人、至关重要且世间少有的读者，包括哈佛大学东亚语言和文化学院的学生，对一些结论和假设进行探讨。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:28, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==
'''1. The unknown genre'''

The literary-historical narrative told by anthologies and collections of the 20th century has drawn an incomplete picture of Chinese literature: The genre of the essay was lacking. In my paper I will ask, if the picture of literature can remain unchanged, if we take into consideration also the essay. The genre has been neglected for a long time as a genre of merit (Margouliès 1949, Schmidt-Glintzer 1990) or overlooked (McNaughton 1974, Leiden 1988-90, McDougall 1998);

'''1.未知体裁'''

二十世纪文选和选集里的文学史的叙述对于整个中国文学来说是不完整的：散文题材是缺失的。在我的论文里我将要探寻是否文学整个文学框架依旧保持不变，是否把散文体裁考虑进去。作为一种具有优势的体裁它已经被忽视了很久了。（马古烈 1949，施寒薇 1990）或者被省略（约翰·麦克诺顿 1974，莱顿 1988-90，杜博妮 1998）；--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 11:09, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

'''1.未知体裁'''

20世纪选集所讲述的文学历史叙事，描绘了一幅不完整的中国文学图景:：散文题材是缺失的。在我的论文里我将要探寻是否文学整个文学框架依旧保持不变，是否把散文体裁考虑进去。作为一种具有优势的体裁它已经被忽视了很久了。（马古烈 1949，施寒薇 1990）或者被省略（约翰·麦克诺顿 1974，莱顿 1988-90，杜博妮 1998）；--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 12:30, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==
whereas its elder brother, fiction, has been prized ever since the valuing of fictional literature and the vernacularisation of writing in early Republican China, which followed from the master narrative established by the May 4th movement. Modern anthologies would have the reader believe that a triumvirate of poetry, fiction and drama forms the backbone of modern Chinese literary output.
==He Changqi 何长琦==
'''Excursion: Defining the essay as a non-fictional subjective representation in a free form'''

Similar to international literature, the basic subdivision of literature in China in general is one in three types: epic (with xiaoshuo (fiction), sanwen (non-fictional prose)), lyrics (shige) and drama (xiqu). Though there is no pure epic form, fiction and prose are often jointly addressed with the Chinese term "wu yunwen" which corresponds to the term "epic" in the West. The types may be distinguished roughly by their nature in the following way: In the epic, bygone events are retold, a broad, filled story dominates the foreground.
==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==
In the lyrics, the reader is encouraged to feel the current sensations and often confessionlike feelings of the poet. The drama recalls a self-contained action directly in monologue or dialogue and in this way unburdens the re-creative imagination of the readers/spectators through it. The essay as a genre of the epic is a detached non-fictional subjective representation in a free form.
在抒情诗中，读者被鼓励去感受当下的感觉，并且常常是诗人的忏悔式的感觉。戏剧直接在独白或对话中回忆起一个自足的动作，以这种方式释放了读者/观众重新创造的想象力。散文作为史诗的一种体裁，是一种超脱的、非虚构的、自由形式的主观表现。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 02:29, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==
"Essay", Chinese mostly ''sanwen'', is a genre term for shorter, self-contained non-fictional prose texts, in which the author tries to mediate individual experiences on an object or a question out of subjective I-perspective. This it tries associatively and from different sides, not as a text for daily use, but with artistic or educationally demanding means of language, nevertheless in an accessible form. The resource is mastered by the essayist sovereignly and the topic is seen in a larger context and can even be presented humorously. Freedom in form and content is essential for the essay.
==Hu Jin 胡瑾==
Different perspectives range in the international genre of the essay: Genres are primarily divisions of literature through the scholarship of literature for specialized contemplation and in order to be able to compare similar texts more easily. On the other hand, a subcategorization in numerous small entities, like Zheng Mingli does with the essay, questions the sense of such subdivisioning in reference to hermeneutic findings. One must also stay aware of the changing nature of literature itself and the relativity of the scientific perspective, which is still a timely one, even if its accepted internationally.
==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==
Regional deviations seem less important for the essay than for established genres like short stories, novels etc., and far less important than for poems. All these other genres are seen as international genres. My hypothesis, that the Chinese and the Western essay also belong to the same international genre maybe proved by the crosscultural mutualities both in form and content.
==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==

In the 21st century, the world is growing together and culture is mainly determined by the grade of modernization. The Chinese essay, as we find it in newspapers today, has taken on the form and content of the Western essay and is aimed at a target group comparable to that of the Western essay. This is a second hint that the modern Chinese essay belongs to the international genre of the essay.

在21世纪，世界共同发展，文化主要决定于现代化的水平。今天我们在刊物上看到的中国散文，已经具备了西方散文的形式和内容，而且其目标群体与西方散文相当。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文类别的第二个暗示。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 07:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

在21世纪，世界上的国家趋向于走到一起，而文化则主要取决于现代化水平。正如我们从现今报纸里面看到的那样，中国散文采用了西方散文的形式和内容，而且其目标群体与西方散文相当。这是中国现代散文开始趋同于国际散文体裁的第二个标志。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 09:27, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

21世纪，世界在共同成长，文化主要由现代化程度决定。我们今天在报纸上看到的中国散文，在形式和内容上都与西方散文相似，其目标群体也与之相似。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文的第二个暗示。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 09:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

在21世纪，世界共同发展，文化主要决定于现代化的水平。我们今天在报纸上看到的中国散文，已经呈现出西方散文的形式与内容，并且其目标群体也与西方散文不相上下。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文体裁的第二个迹象。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 11:17, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Jiang Hao 姜好==
Even though the translation of ''duanpian xiaoshuo'' with ''short stories'' is commonly accepted, both are less closely related than the Western essay and its Chinese counterpart. The definition, which I developed out of a sample of more than 5000 modern Chinese essays, fits also the special international understanding of the essay (following Bolz 1992 13:269-272 on the development of the western essay; Butrym 1989 on the theory of the western essay).
==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==
Besides the trend towards a globalized society, first expressed in Zhou Zuoren's call to adopt the English essay style, there are special local characteristics of the Chinese essay. How is the Chinese essay to determine culturally, what makes it "Chinese"? In the occidental essay the form seems to be a more important criterion of differentiation than in its Chinese counterpart. In China even those texts are included, which have only a similar content, but cross the borders of the formal generical framework.

除了首先由周作人表达出来的社会全球化趋势，号召采用英语散文风格，中文散文有独特本土的特征。中文散文如何形成其特有文化，其中文性又由何组成？和中文散文相比，西方散文的文章形式似乎是更重要的分类标准。在中国，甚至有些文章内容相似，但形式和类别大相径庭。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 02:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

除了最初由周作人表达出来的社会全球化趋势，号召采用英语散文风格，中文散文具有独特的本土特色。中文散文如何形成其特有文化，其中文性又由何组成？与中文散文相比，西方散文的形式分类标准似乎更重要。在中国，有些文章甚至是内容相似，但形式和类别大相径庭。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:18, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==
This can be shown with Zheng Mingli, who subcategorises the "unfinished diary" or the "unfinished letter". Those texts belong - within the Western context - to texts of personal use and therefor to the non-fictional prose works. Only after they have been altered into essays (Zheng Mingli: "essay in diary form" and "essay in letter form"), they are accepted as essays.
==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==
'''The Chinese understanding of the genre is tendencially broader'''

This tendencial broader understanding of the essay in China can be traced back directly to the connotation, that the term ''sanwen'' possesses in Chinese: ''wú yùnwén'' "non-rhythmic prose", which originally meant all non-fictional prose. In this broader meaning, also texts for personal or everyday use are included. However I deal only with ''sanwen'' in the narrower meaning "short literary essay pieces".

Further differences are that Chinese essays often have ideological contents and show stylistic characteristics like repetitions and the usage of sayings.
==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==
'''The Chinese essay is booming again in the 1980s and 1990s'''

Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report (''baogao wenxue'').[ Klaschka 1998.] The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous ''sanwen congshu'' 散文叢書 (essay bookseries).
==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==
The increase in essay production right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in a sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for a survey.

Thanks to the work of some major Chinese editors, the whole essay culture was compiled from magazines and newspapers and was published in a flood of anthologies since the 1970s. This boom is comparable to the cultural fever of undigging xiangtu literature, which rose in Taiwan in front of the background of the movement of self-identification and independance.
==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==
'''2. Why is the essay as abundant as fiction?'''

Let me name a few reasons, why the essay in fact is as abundant as its prose brother, fiction, and its lyrical sister, poetry, and why it must be valued as highly:

- The essay had a direct impact on Chinese society throughout history (the reform ideas from the end of the Qing dynasty through the May Fourth period with the literary theorethical pieces and the daily political zawen of Lu Xun, until today are mostly presented in essay form). The impact on literary reflection and theory is shown in the collection "Modern Chinese Literary Thought" 1996. The effect of the essay genre with its direct language, its connection to life (e.g. its role in the coming to terms with the cultural revolution), and its direct access to the individual reader through newspapers. This impact is larger than the indirect one of fiction or poetry. The poem is the genre of retreat from social life, from political issues and time references.
==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==
Hu Shi argues, that ''poetry'' is most important in the process of modernity, since poetry rises emotions. But it relies also on images and on linguistic rhythm. Liang Qichao stresses the role of novel and opera in the changing society. But ''sanwen'' is able to name things, it reflects life, caleidoscopic. Modern subjectivity is constructed with the tool of ''sanwen''.

- The essay also reflects trends in the society better than poetry and fiction: Individualism is expressed in the essay more directly than in the poem with its limitation in content and form. Ephemerality is reflected in the short form of the essay, which may be read in the subway on the way to work, where poems may not be so spontaneously enjoyed.

胡适认为“诗”在现代化的过程中是最重要的，因为诗会升华情感。但诗歌依赖于形象和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏曲在社会变迁中的作用。但“三文”却能命名事物，它反映生活千变万化。现代主体性是以“三文”为工具来建构的。

-散文也比诗歌和小说更能反映社会的趋势。个人主义在随笔中表现得比在诗歌中更直接，但在内容和形式上都有局限性。短文的短暂性体现在短文的形式上，可以在上班路上的地铁里读，而在地铁里读诗，可能就不能那么随性的享受了。--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 13:48, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi

胡适认为“诗”在现代化的过程中是最重要的，因为诗歌升华情感。但诗歌也依赖于意象和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏曲在社会变迁中的作用。但“散文”却能给事物命名，反映千变万化的生活。现代主体性就是以“散文”为工具建构的。

- 随笔也比诗歌和小说更能反映社会的发展趋势。个人主义在随笔中的表现比在诗歌中更直接，因为诗歌在内容和形式上对此有所限制。随笔的短暂性体现在随笔的形式上，人们可以在上班路上的地铁里阅读，而在地铁里读诗，可能就没有那么随性的享受。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:55, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Haiquan 李海泉==
- The essay reaches a larger part of the population than poetry, the amount of time spended on reading novels goes back, too. The essay itself a genre of high actuality, if not simply the genre of today.

- The essay tells us more about an author and his time than fiction or poetry, because in this genre, we encounter the author himself without metrical restrictions. We look trough authentic eyes on his contemporary society. Many authors turned to essay writing in the later periods of their lifes, like Lu Xun, Ba Jin, and Wang Meng.
==Li Lili 李丽丽==
- The volume of ''essay'' production exceeds the volume of ''xiaoshuo'' production: Chinese newspapers since the 1870s on[ Shenbao, Shibao etc. Liang Qichao sees the role of the newspaper both as liberal and authoritative: He understands the press as an institution to control the government, on the other hand he favors censorship.] and as a mass media from the early 20th century presented only one or two fictional stories in a serialized form, but invented essay columns like ''zagan'' (from which Lu Xun developed his ''zawen''), ''suibi'' or ''suixiang'' (from which famous collections like Ba Jin's ''Suixiang lu'' derived).

“随笔”的产量超过了“小说”的产量：从19世纪70年代开始，中国的报纸就在《申报》、《时报》等杂志上发表。梁启超认为报纸既自由又权威：他认为报纸是控制政府的机构，另一方面，他主张审查制度，作为20世纪初的一个大众媒体，他以连载的形式呈现一两个虚构的故事，但却发明了散文专栏，如“扎根”（鲁迅从中发展了他的“札文”）、“随笔”或“随想”（巴金的《随想录》就是从中衍生出来的）。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 12:54, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Lingyue 李凌月==
'''3. Let us assign the essay its proper place'''
The consequence which must be driven from the above presented contrast between value and valuing of the essay is: Let us assign the essay its proper place! I will describe the beginnings of the discovery of the essay.
Despite the increase in essay writing from 1979 on, it took a decade for the first theoretical reflections on this phenomenon to appear. It took another decade before the international scholarship of Chinese Studies became aware of the phenomenon of the essay.
==Li Liqin 李丽琴==

In the 1980s, Chinese scholarship made a first major approach to reflect on essay literature by writing essay histories and collecting papers, which concentrated first on the essayistic work of single authors like Lu Xun. Also two essay conferences in the 1990s showed no move towards international scholarship. Not before 1995 did international scholarship started to use common philological methods to explore single essayists (on Gaylord Leung [Liang Xihua] 梁錫華 Kubin 1995, on Wang Meng 王蒙 Woesler 1995, on Liu Zaifu 劉再復 Mansberg 1995 [unpublished]) or essays of groups (on 'Xīnyùe pài 新月派' Wagner 1996).

20世纪80年代，中国学术界首次以撰写散文史和散文集的方式对散文文学进行了重大的反思，这首先集中在鲁迅等单个作家的散文作品上。另外90年代的两次会议也没有趋于国际学术研究的动向。直到1995年，国际学术界才开始使用共同的语言学方法来探讨单个散文家（比如1995年Kubin的《关于梁漱溟》；Woesler的《关于王蒙》；Mansberg的《关于刘再复》[未发表]）或探讨某个群体的散文（1996年瓦格纳的《关于新月派》）。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 12:54, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Luyi 李璐伊==
Not before the second half of the 1990s, did a history of the Chinese essay using the means of Western philology appear (Woesler 1998) and for the first time, the essay was included in Western anthologies of literature as a genre equal to fiction and poetry (''The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature'' 1995, ''Modern Chinese Literary Thought'' 1996).

Regarding the valuing of essays in China, Taiwan and the West, there are regional differences: In the States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones.
==Li Meng 李梦==
In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, in my survey, which Chinese essayists are printed the most in the 1990s, he ranks 16th. If one only take modern authors into account, he even ranks 12th. Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by Huang Weiliang in favor for the first (see Lin Yaode 1989:50), and Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.

Still it remains a ''desideratum'' to get the most important Chinese essays in Western translation.
==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==
Currently at least three essay collections in English translation are in the reviewing process (Tam King-Fai, Woesler) or already published (Pollard 1999). Pollard's selection is a highly subjective and eclective choice of essays, covering even the premodern essay. This year, scholars will meet on a first international conference on the essay (Achern, Germany August 25-26). In the years to come, a new ''Bonn History of Chinese Literature'' will grant the essay its proper place with two to three volumes only dedicated to the ''biji, youji'' and other essays.
==Li Yu 李玉==
'''4. Taking into consideration the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature'''

I will give a few hints, what the essay can contribute to the picture of Chinese Literature, which so far is overshadowed by fiction through the narrative of C.T. Hsia, Prusek and Anderson.

We are used to established narratives, like the emergence and success of the May-Fourth literature. But this view neglects the role, that for example the ''yuanyang hudie pai'' played in the choir of different voices in the awoken intellectual debate in the beginning of this century.
==Lin Min 林敏==
The May-Fourth group at that time was one voice among many and only succeeded because of its agitation and polemic in the public sphere, so we have to use new means to assign the Chinese essay its proper place. We learn from simplifiying narratives, that it is absolutely necessary to differentiate, and to reconstruct the complex time background. Having understood Chinese literature as determined by the development of fiction and poetry only, a broader understanding will change the whole appearance of Chinese literature. A scholarly endeavour is the use of modern literary theories in the approach to this genre.
==Lin Xin 林鑫==
In the following, I will name three aspects (chronologically sorted by past, modern and contemporary time) to hold the argument, that the taking into consideration of the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature and change our current understanding of it.

'''5. The classical and premodern essay documents Chinese philosophy, early subjectivity and still, a native Chinese tradition is questioned'''

How is the Chinese essay to be positioned historically, how did it emerge, what is its generic background? Generically, the ancestors of the essay are both in China and the West notes written on the margins of books, they are letters and travel notes.

==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==
These notes differed from the canonized literature through its informal style, its expression of individuality und subjectivity, a much earlier document for subjectivity than the first autobiographical Chinese novel, ''The Dream of the Red Chamber''.

From the very beginning, the essay was valued lower than poetry: the oldest reference this far for the term ''sanwen'' that I found is Luo Dajing's 羅大經 (? - after 1248) statement from 1240: “Shī sāomiào tiānxià, ér sǎnwén pōjué suǒsuì júcù.
==Liu Bo 刘博==
詩騷妙天下，而散文頗覺瑣碎局促。” (Poetry is moving mankind in a wonderful way, prose inquires into incoherent bagatels, is limited.) (''Helin yulu''). Another reproach Luo Dajing mentions, is a formal one: In comparison to the highly artistic and century-long tradition of poetic writing, the direct and often vernacular langage of the essay in his eyes had less value.

In the West, a real 'art of the essaywriting' came up in the late 16th century as a medium for the newly reorganized knowledge.

“詩騷妙天下，而散文頗覺瑣碎局促。”罗大京提到的另一个骂名，是形式上的：与具有高度艺术性和长达一个世纪传统的诗歌写作相比，散文中直接的、白话文式的语言在他看来并不那么有价值。
在西方，16世纪晚期出现了一种真正的“散文写作艺术”，作为一种传播重组知识的媒介。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 00:50, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==
The reorganization originated from the observations of Kopernikus, which destroyed the whole conception of the world of the Middle Age.

In China, particularly the debates on Buddhism in the 4th and 5th century A.D. saw the origination of a tradition of letters. The Chinese tradition of the ''sanwen'' 散文 (essay) however, in the understanding of sǎn 散 as (to dispel, leisure, loose, relaxed, irregular, independant style, free prose, can be seen not before the detachment from the dialogue - or aphorism, which is still visible in the philosophical ''Lunyu''.
==Liu Liu 刘柳==
Xunzi delivered the prototype of the later essay with his philosophical treatises. They are an early form of philosophical didactical essays, in which general theorems are derived not only from quotations of the canonized classical works, but for the first time also from his own individual experience. The individuality is still a main characteristic of the essay today.

During the dynasties the essay manifested itself further in certain subcategories: From reading-notes written at the paper margins originated the ''biji'' µ§°O (occasional notes), flourishing in the Ming Dynasty.

荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形，它们是哲学教学论文的早期形式。其中的一般定理不仅来自于经典著作的引用，而且第一次从他的个人经验中得出。个性仍是现今散文的主要特点。

历朝历代，散文在某些子类中进一步得以表现，如从写在纸边的读书笔记产生了明朝盛行的偶记。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 02:25, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形。其作品是哲学论教散文的早期形式，这些散文中传授的普遍定理不仅有引用经典著作，还首次借鉴其个人经历。这种个体性在当代的散文中仍有保留。

历朝历代，散文通过一些子类别得以呈现，如明朝盛行的在书页边上写的读书注释，它就是源于笔记。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 08:47, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Ou 刘欧==
The marginalism is a link between Western and Chinese tradition of early essays. Occasional notes could contain private historical notes, anecdotes, communications and contemplations. However, the consciousness of the essay as a genre of its own originated in China not before the Qing ²M dynastie, when numerous essay anthologies were compiled.

Taking into consideration the social-historical background draws a different picture of the old society than short stories and novels: Essays are much closer to real life, since they express individual problems and experiences.

边缘主义是中西早期散文的一个纽带。散见的笔记包含了私人的历史记录，轶事，交谈和个人沉思。然而，尽管当时的散文选集众多，但将视散文作为一种文体的意识，清朝之前并没有出现。

考虑到当时的社会历史背景，人们在旧社会时，对短篇故事和小说的看法不同：散文更接近现实生活，因为它们表达了个人的困惑和经历。--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 04:15, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==
Until now, the Chinese pre-''Hongloumeng'' individual literature spoke only through the indirect language of poems to us. Rediscovering the essays, we have a splendid source of opinions, social-historical pictures etc.

Premodern essay literature consists of much more than its most well-known example, the formally restrictive ''baguwen''. Lu Xun himself wrote some of his essays in ''baguwen'' style, but on the other hand took it as a synonym for the ancient society. Zhou Zuoren saw the rhythm of the language of the "Eight legged essay" as as appealing and intoxicating as the "pleasure of doing opium.'' (Zhou 1932:148).

目前为止，中国红楼梦前的个体文学还只是通过诗中的间接语言与我们对话。通过重拾散文，我们可以知晓不同观点和社会历史状况等文学创作的丰富源泉。
现代散文之前的文学并不限于形式上受限制的八股文，一方面鲁迅本人也有一些散文是用八股文写成的，但另一方面他又把八股文当作古代社会的代名词。周作人把 "八股文 "的语言节奏看作是 "做鸦片的快感 "一样令人陶醉。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 08:42, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

直到现在，中国前“红楼梦”的个体文学只能通过诗歌的间接语言与我们对话。重新发掘这些散文，我们可以拥有丰富的观点来源，社会历史图片等。

前现代散文文学不仅仅包括它最为人所知的例子，正式的、有限制性的“八卦文”。鲁迅自己的一些文章就是用“八卦文”写的，但是在另一方面又把它当作古代社会的同义词。周作人认为《八股文》的语言节奏就像“吸鸦片的快感”一样令人陶醉。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 09:07, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Yi 刘艺==
But he considered it also as a prevalent genre implicit in the modern writings as ''yang bagu'' (westernized bagu) and ''dang bagu'' (party-line bagu) (borrowing from Wu Zhihui, Zhou Yuanliu:71).

Neo-Confucianism stressed ''wen'' (prose) as the most important tool to transmit the ''dao'' (way): ''Wenyi zai dao'' (Literature as the carrier of the way). If we reinterprete this diction in the perspective of genre, we can say, that the essay then has been regarded as an important tool to express truth, subjectivity and Self.

但他认为这也是隐含在现代著作中的''洋包谷''（西化包谷）和''党行包谷''（借用吴稚晖、周远流的说法：71）的一种普遍的文体。

新儒家强调''文''（散文）是传播''道''的最重要工具：''文以载道''（文以载道）。如果我们从文体的角度来重新解读这句话，我们可以说，当时的散文已经被视为表达真理、主体性和自我的重要工具。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:01, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

但他认为这也是隐含在现代著作中的''洋包谷''（西化包谷）和''党行包谷''（借用吴稚晖、周远流的说法：71）的一种普遍的文体。

理学强调“文”（散文）是传播“道”的最重要工具：“文以载道”。（以文学为载体的方式）。如果我们从体裁的角度来重新解读这一措辞，可以说，散文已成为表达真理、主体性和自我的重要工具。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 00:53, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==
Liang Qichao developed a ''xīn wéntǐ'' 新文體 (new prose style), which was influenced by Western languages, but the essay became popular not before the newspapers became mass media, and the language changed into ''baihua''.

'''6. The essay as the medium of modernity, the questioning of the genuiness of the Chinese essay'''

To solve first of all the dispute on whether the Chinese essay grew out of a native tradition or was influenced by Western translations, one finds both traditions relevant: The occidental essay was introduced to the writers of the literature reform movement from 1907 on by translations in Chinese (Lin Shu: ''Irving'' 1907, ''Addison'' 1911).
==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==
The current form of the genre is mostly based on the influence of Western essay translations. First developed a Chinese essay tradition, which consciously leaned upon the Western model in language, form and terminology, its own proponents succumbed soon to the temptation to derive a tradition of the Chinese essay from Chinese history only. A seemingly unbroken Chinese tradition of the native Chinese ''wenyan sanwen'' is presented in Chinese textbooks (Yu Zaichun 1978-82, Li Xishang 1985).

This is older than the ones referred to in the ''Large Chinese Dictionary'' of Morohashi (Morohashi undated) and in the ''Encyclopaedic Dictionary of the Chinese Language'' 1966.

==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==
Still, the value of the native tradition of essay writing and the role of the Western influence upon it is discussed controversially among the scholars. Some admit that Western impact played a key role in what we understand as Chinese essays nowadays: Wang Bin 1992, Fan Peisong 1993; for Western impact in general see Průšek 1964, Gálik 1966, McDougall 1971. Other scholars think that Western influence is overestimated - Denton 1996 showed that the theoretical background was missing for understanding Western theories of literature in China, - and recommended that we understand the essay first by its national tradition.

然而，对于本土论文写作传统的价值以及西方对其的影响，学者们争论不休。有些人承认西方的影响在我们今天所理解的中国散文中起了关键作用:王斌1992，范培松1993;对西方总的影响参考。还有一些学者认为，西方的影响被高估了——Denton 1996表明，中国缺乏理解西方文学理论的理论背景，并建议我们首先从其民族传统来理解这篇文章。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:57, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

然而，对于本土论文写作传统的价值以及西方对其的影响，学者们争论不休。有些人承认西方的影响在我们今天所理解的中国散文中起了关键作用:王斌1992，范培松1993;对西方总的影响参考。还有一些学者认为，西方的影响被高估了——Denton 1996表明，中国缺乏理解西方文学理论的理论背景，并建议我们首先从其民族传统来理解这篇文章。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 15:07, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==
How far personal opinion may influence the narrative of historical facts can be seen by the example of the legendary authors of the May Fourth movement. All of them considered the English essay as the father of the Chinese essay: Zhou Zuoren 1921, Lu Xun 1933, the anarchist and later member of the Guomindang Wu Zhihui [1934]. Later, some of these authors changed their minds to support their own theories on the essay by looking for proof of a native Chinese essay tradition:
==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==
for example, Lu Xun with his theory "'Zhǎnkāi' shuō yǔ 'méngyá' lùn “展開”說與“萌芽”論"" (Theory of "Starting" and "Blossoming") came to see the fighting and critical character of the essay of the Jin dynasty (265 - 420) as the 'father' of the Chinese essay, and Zhou Zuoren first the English essay (1921) and later the ''biji'' (occasional notes) of the Ming, although he still tried to integrate the English essay in his "Gonganpài yu Yīngguo xiaopin 'hecheng' lun 公安派與英國小品“合成”論" (Theory of the Synthesis of the Gongan School and the English Essay).
==Ma Juan 马娟==
Wang Zengqi regrets that the national Chinese tradition of the essay at the time of the 'May Fourth Movement' has not been taken up again and has not continued in contemporary essays (Wang Zengqi 1993). The Chinese essay is an accommodating object of study, because one may look to it to prove any theory of the essay. One can find examples for each topic in almost every period, simply because the essay has a wide range of subjects.
==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==
When Zhou Zuoren showed that only seven months after the incident at Marco Polo bridge it was again possible to write about a candy seller (1924), he was critizised as "paralyzing" (Lu Xun 1934, Zhu Zhaoluo 1943). When he wrote a piece on the "Fly", he was reproached with dealing with subjects of minor importance. Reproaches like this lie in the very nature of the genre, since ''marginalism'' is substantial to the essay. The mentioned formal reproach of Luo Dajing can be found again in the 1990s, Hong Kong students critisized the literary style as it appears in Ba Jins "Thoughts" (Suixiang lu) as too direct and too less artful. But this perspective does not recognize the very nature of the essay, which is a very individual expression of an author's thoughts and not bound to tradition, and therefore much more free also in content.
==Ma Zhixing 马智星==
The essay - from its very nature free and independant - almost disappeared in the time of the Cultural Revolution and - except for the ideologically influenced essays - had a hard struggle between Yan'an and the loss of moral legitimacy by the leadership in 1989.

The essay was ''the'' genre of the modernizing society of the early 20th century. Many writers had to define and often redefine their position and self-understanding in reaction to war and warlordism and later in the modernizing society, often burying their own ideals, in the larger perspective for the seeming "needs" of society, which also claimed the author to be one of its products.
==Meng Ying 孟莹==
But from its very nature, the essay set new boundaries in form and content, and therefore not only survived the ideological restrictions, but also established its own critical subculture within. The essay was not only a medium of discussion and a documentation of the social-political background for us today, but also a documentation of the personal struggle of the writers finding a position in a changing environment, since the essay is "a genre of self-reflection". Some essays even deconstructed master narratives like the one of leftist ideology, often simply by confronting it with subjective experience, reality or art.

I want to mention another position on literature, which stresses the impact of literature on life, especially on the eve of revolutions - following this view, all literature is political (Jameson).
==Mo Ling 莫玲==
Not only the understanding of literature as a whole changes if we take into consideration the essay, also the view of single authors shifts, if we see not only their novels or poems, but also their essays. I mention only Zhou Zuoren. His ideas connected him spiritually to his contemporary collegues in Europe, Japan and America, but these where ideas for which China turned out to be not yet ready. At that time, China had taken a road which led away from progress, wealth, freedom and spiritual enlightenment. The consequences have yet to be overcome.

除开关注作家的小说和诗歌之外，如果我们对他们的散文有所涉猎，就会发现他们不仅对文学整体的理解发生了变化，单个作者的观点也发生了变化。仅就周作人来说，他的思想在精神上把他和他在欧洲、日本和美国的同伴们联系在一起，但是这些设想在中国行不通。当时的中国走的是一条远离进步、财富、自由和精神启蒙的道路，这一现状还并没有得到改变。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:34, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling

==Mo Nan 莫南==
In 1927, Chinese literature has taken the form of 'engaged literature'. The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics of daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology.
==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==
Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consume-orientation of the masses. The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educational claim with the exception of essays which claim to be "art pourt l'art".
==Ou Rong 欧蓉==
The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing ("Shuo meng 說夢" On dreams in: Zhu Ziqing 1928) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 (My own garden 9.1923, "The Fly" 1924, "Reading on the Toilet" 1936), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the new found world of mass consumerism.
==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==
I mentioned the lack of translations in Western languages. One of the reasons might be the impression of some scholars that many of the Chinese essays were just propaganda. This might be true for the 1940s and even the 1950s, but nowadays this has changed, as the overwhelming majority of publications prove. This demands a closer look: Since 1949, politically affirmative literature has been encouraged by the government, resulting in a statistical paradox: not the affirmative authors and their texts form the majority of the essayists read in the 1990s, but the critical essayists, whose texts oppose the order to serve politics through their apolitical, sometimes even defiant character.
==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==
In the 1990s, the texts of 1920s/1930s Republican China are still as often reprinted as their contemporary counterparts. Obviously we can conclude that the politically affirmative essay of the 1950s only survived in special political essay collections and is no longer written by famous contemporary authors nor read by the Chinese audience in the beginning of the 21st century.

Taking into account of a genre shifts the whole perspective on literature, taking into account the essayistic works of an author shifts also the view of the author. I will name only one author as an example for a modern essayist: Zhou Zuoren.

20世纪90年代，20、30年代民国时期的文本和当代的文本一样也经常被重印。显然，我们可得出一个结论：20世纪50年代的那些政治宣传文只能留存在特殊的政治文章选集当中，到了21世纪初，就不再有作者去写这类文章，也不会有中国读者去看这类文章了。

考虑到整个体裁对整个文学角度的转变，以及散文作品反映出的作者观点的变化，我只举一位现代散文家的例子：周作人。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 07:47, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

20世纪90年代，20-30年代民国时期的文章仍然和当代的同类文章一样经常被重印。显然，我们可以得出一个结论：20世纪50年代的政治宣传类散文只保存在专门的政治散文集中，到21世纪初，不再有人去写，也不再有人读这类文章了。

一种文学体裁会转变整个文学的视角，一位作家的散文作品，同样也会转变对这个作家的看法。我只以一位现代散文家为例：周作人。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 09:02, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Peng Dan 彭丹==
'''Zhou Zuoren'''

I mentioned already his theoretical contribution to the Chinese essayism, but still, his essays have been neglected until the 1980s. The reason does not lie in literary quality, but in political valuing. The master narrative of the offical literary history of the People's Republic on Zhou Zuoren is, that the theoretical May Fourth genius "degenerated" and later became a "traitor". Publishing in the Japanese sponsored magazines ''Reminiscences'',* and ''Chinese Literature'', he was blamed together with Zhu Pu and Yuan Xi of collaboration. An unanswered question is, why another author, who published there, Zhang Ailing, was never reproached with collaboratorship. The difference between all of them is that Zhang Ailing tried to avoid political committments, whereas Zhou felt guilty, Zhu justified it and Yuan simply accepted it.
==Peng Juan 彭娟==
''The 'mainstream' writers took an affirmative approach in their writing, whereas the other writers formed a minority. The individual authors did not necessarily belong to either one of these groups throughout their life, but may have moved between them. Since the essay is a medium which enables the individual to express thoughts directly, the writers chosen for this paper can be classified according to their position.''

''Yu Guangzhong's essay'' "The wolves are coming" ''shows that the ideological perspective did not only harm mainland essaywriting.''
==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==
In his small literary pieces, Zhou tried to aesthetizise the little things of the everyday life out of the subjective experience of his private space. The major contribution of Zhou Zuoren is, that he set the turning point in Chinese essay writing with his call for writing short literary pieces (''Meiwen'' 1921).

In foreign literature there is the so-called ''lunwen'' 論文 (treatise), which is roughly divided into two groups: the reflecting ones, piping 批評 (critical), are scientific articles. The others are ''jishu'' 記述 (descriptive) and ''yishuxing'' 藝術性 (artistic), they are also called ''meiwen'' 美文 (aesthetic essay). Within these texts, one can distinguish between ''xushi'' 敘事 (narrative) and ''shuqing'' 抒情 (lyric). But there are also mixed texts. [...] I hope that the aesthetical essay is encouraged to come back, and will open up a new field for the New Literature. Wouldn’t that be wonderful?
==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==
With these words from the essay "''The aesthetic essay''" this new vernacular form was defined. This starting point founded a whole new tradition of essay writing in China. Contemporary writers called this piece the "king of essays".

In order to bring this new form to his compatriots, he tried to find similiarities with the ''xiaopinwen'' of the Ming dynasty. He further discussed these thoughts in his essay theory. In his own essays, he profited a lot from ancient ''suibi''. Later he further developed his literary theory towards an up and down of two trends. In the modernizing society, he advocated the liberation of women and asked to "treat children as full subjects with their own external and internal lives" and to "make children the essence of children's literature" (Zhou 1923). He promoted the ''baguwen'' and the independance of literature from politics and effected the literary scene and the development towards a modern Chinese society especially between 1917 and 1938.

“美学散文”中的这些词语定义了这种新的白话形式。这个起点在中国建立了一种新的散文写作传统。当代作家称此作品为“散文之王”。

为了将这种新形式带给他的同胞，他试图找到其与明朝“小品文”的相似之处。他在散文理论中进一步讨论了这些思想。他自己的散文也从古代的“随笔”中受益匪浅。后来，他将文学理论朝着上下两种趋势进一步发展。在现代化社会中，他呼吁解放妇女、“将儿童看作具有外在和内在生命的完整主体”以及“让儿童成为儿童文学的本质”（Zhou 1923）。他提倡“八股文”和文学脱离政治的独立性，这对文学界产生了影响，并推动了中国向近代社会尤其是1917年至1938年的发展。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 09:48, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==
With this theoretical foundation and his own vo'luÉminous essayistic work, Zhou Zuoren through the example of his own form of short literary pieces within this genre, fought at that stage of the development of his literary theory like Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque 130 years ago in France for the idea "l'art pour l'art" , for individuality and independance of the writer, for disinterested literature. The jugdment, that Zhou was an apolitical author cannot be proved with his essays. Instead, he wanted his abstinence of political statement to be understood as a political statement by itself. For him, literature was a mean not for revolution, but for resistance (Zhou 1929:180-181).
==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==
In fact he saw himself as ‘patriotic underground fighter’ and looked at the collaboration with the Japanese puppet regime as a forced one, following his attempted assasination, through which his driver had lost his life. His own concept of essay writing served less the needs of the building of a nation-state and comes closer to the ideal of the individual.

"I don't really know why, but I am feeling as if I am born into a dark age. I admit, that our forests are not inhabited by dragons, tigers and wolves, but shapeless "monsters" and "goblins" are still creeping around and try to swallow our souls. [...] What alarms me most, is the absence of freedom in this prison, into which we writers have been thrown."
==Qi Kai 漆凯==
Confronting tradition and progress in the essay "''Ancestor Worship''", he is in favor of the latter, since past could only become present through changes (Zhou 1919:7-8).

Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque (1767 - 1830) war französischer Romanschriftsteller und liberaler Politiker, der neben der Freiheit der Kunst nach der Französischen Revolution die Einführung der konstitutionellen Monarchie nach englischem Vorbild forderte.

==Qu Miao 瞿淼==
Siehe ''Journal'' (10.2.1804). Die "Kunst um der Kunst willen" propagierte die Zweckfreiheit der Kunst. Im Gegensatz dazu versteht sich die engagierte Literatur. Die Parallele zwischen Zhou Zuorens Literaturverständnis und dem Konzept "Kunst um der Kunst willen" zieht auch Wolff: ''Chou Tso-jen'' 1971, S. 84.

Siehe Zhou Zuoren: ''Der Ursprung der neuen chinesischen Literatur'' 1934, S. 95 - 98; vgl. auch Chen Zizhan: ''Vorträge zur chinesischen Literaturgeschichte'' 1937, Bd 3, pp. 416 - 422, besonders S. 422. Hinweis in: H. Martin: "''Liang Qichao on Poetry Reform''" 1996, Bd 1, S. 213.
==Quan Meixin 全美欣==
Regarding Zhou Zuoren, I want to correct the official assessment of the People’s Republic, that his work would have experienced a caesura in 1938. In order to explain his opposition of the propaganda to build up national heroes about 1937 and his collaboration from 1939, it has been said officially, that his thoughts had "duoluo 墮落" (degenerated) at that time (Zhu Jinshun 1990:59). In fact, this caesura, namely the change in the style and subject in his essays on literature, art etc. to ''zhengjing'' 正經 (serious, intentional essays), and ''xianshi'' 閑適 (essays for one’s own enjoyment) is located not before his outlawing through Mao Zedong (1942), and his arrest through the Guomindang (1945).
==Sagara Seydou ==
Therefore not the Japanese suppressors are responsible for the retreat of this great writer, but his Chinese compatriots'.

On the basis of the stigma of the 'traitor', he has been undervalued until now. That his work in the 1990s is almost as often published as Lu Xun's and Zhu Ziqing's shows that his texts finally experience a more positive literaric evaluation through the audience, which now must be registered also by scholars.

==Shi Diwen 石迪文==
Another example of a misread Zhou Zuoren is his short essay on "''The Fly''", where he describes his changing attitude towards flies, which he had played with as child but later disgusted when he learned about their danger of passing on diseases. ”''The fly''” shows Zhou Zuoren’s strength to describe details and make them a real topic by recalling memories on them or describing a change of perspective on them. Zhou summarized the philosophical wisdom he learnt from this, that people did not judge on things objectively, but were likely to praise or damn things.
==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==
The official reading re¬proaches Zhou that he "saw only the fly and not the cosmos" , a quotation of the young Zhou about a position he himself clearly opposed.

His ability to chat about the more pleasent things in life is displayed in his essay ”Birds’ twitter”. In ”''Peking cakes and sweet-meat''” and in ”''Wild vegetable of my home region''”, Zhou Zuoren shows his ability to make the reader feel at home at a region, where he feels at home himself, by describing the customs and special regional food.

Siehe Zhou Zuoren: "Cangying 蒼蠅" (Die Stubenfliege), in: ''Chenbao fujuan'' 晨报副镌 (Beilage zur Morgenpost) (1924.7.13). Eine Zu¬sammenfassung des Inhalts findet sich in: Yu Daxiang (Hg.): ''Auswahllexikon chinesischer Essays mit Inhaltsangaben und Analysen'' 1993.

''Siehe Vollständige chinesische Anthologie der Wissenschaften - Bd Chinesische Literatur'' 1988, Bd 2, S. 1300. Dies spielt auf den Essay "''Cangying'' 蒼蠅" (Die Stubenfliege), in: Zhou Zuoren: ''Zhi Tang. Sammlung'' 1933 an.（文献无需翻译）

==Si Yu 司妤==
His piece ”''Bitter rain''” shows the atmosphere, for what his essays had been labelled ”bitter tea”: There remains a taste in one’s mouth after reading. If you compare Lu Xun’s ”''On tea drinking''” (Yang/Yang 1961 3:325-326) with Zhou Zuoren’s essay with the same title, you see the difference of ”short and to the point” and ”eloquent and well-read”. ”''First love''” is more hilarious. The essay ”''Three different ways to die''” shows that Zhou Zuoren can compete with his elder brother in sarcasm. Lu Xun's essay on the same subject, the massacre on March 18, 1926, was a sight.
==Song Jianru 宋建茹==
Zhou asks for the ”best” way to die and favors the short and painless one. In ”''On alcohol''” and ”''The awning bunk boat''” Zhou Zuoren continues the tradition of late Ming ''biji''.

'''7. The essay as a snapshot of contemporary thoughts'''

''What is the state of contemporary essay writing in China? Its position should be brought into its proper relationship to recent approaches, perspectives and terms of categorization, like post-modernist elements, post-colonial thinking, deconstructivism etc.''

==Su Lin 苏琳==
The increase of the essay production after the ‘Cultural Revolution’ might be explained with the ability of the essay, to express personal experiences much more authentically than other genres because of its immanent claim of historical truth. But the essay is not a guarantee for objective truth: In the same time it is subjective, the essayist mediates his image consciously. This restricts the reported truth to a subjective one and bears the risk of a consciously “corrected” truth.
==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==
The individualism of the Republican era has been based on the common feeling to stand at a historical turning point and directed towards common targets like the creation of a New Literature and a new Chinese society. In the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, individualism asks for a critical reflection on the satisfaction of personal consumption needs and tries to give personal orientation, essayists plead for moral virtues (Wang Meng: "''Anxiang'' 安详" (Serene) 1992, "''Zuohao ni ziji de shi'' 做好你自己的事" (First make your own things in a good way) 1994).
==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==
These essays, mainly published in newspapers and magazines, are widely read by people in the rapidly changing, anonymous, alienating and consume-oriented mass cultural society.

Other essays in the 1980s and 1990s are in a kind of new subjectivism targeted away from contemporary contradictions but apply to the feelings of the audience by creating an either positive ("''Shanxi opera''", Jia Pingwa 1984) or negative world ("''The nightmare''", Si Yu 1995).

From the essay, we can see contemporary trends of literature, which are also reasons for the increase in volume of this genre in the 1990s:

==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==
- The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts: “[...] we live in an age of exposition” (Hall 1984:xiii);

- The increasing consciousness of indivi¬duality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjecti¬ve expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands;

- A revival of interest in discussing social-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.

- The banality of everyday life becomes conscious through becoming a literary topic, most commonly in the genre of everyday life, the essay.

- 当下中国社会的浮躁节奏，对转折性和短文的要求。"[...]我们生活在一个论述的时代"(Hall 1984:xiii)。

- 越发增加的独立意识，对其而言，文章是最直接的主体表达形式，甚至比诗的格律和形式要求更直接。

- 通过散文这一媒介讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复苏，就像20世纪20/30年代的情况一样。

- 日常生活的平庸性通过成为文学话题而变得自觉，最常见的是日常生活的文体--散文。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

-当前中国社会节奏轻快，要求有趣味的短文：“[…]我们生活在一个博览会时代”（大厅1984:xiii）；

-对于个人二元性意识的增强，散文是主体性表达的最直接形式，甚至比诗歌的韵律和形式要求更直接；

-通过这篇文章讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复复苏，如同20世纪20年代或30年代的情况一样。

-日常生活的平庸通过成为一个文学主题而变得有意识，最常见的是日常生活的体裁——散文。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 12:59, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Tang Bei 汤蓓==
- The De-ideologization of Chinese society. Today not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. The mostly read political essays after 1949 are critical essays.

- Regarding the compiling of essay collections: For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain.
==Tang Ming 唐铭==
This is a sign of the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publis¬hing houses with an orientation toward customers (former: "readers").

- The criteria for essay best sellers in the P.R. of China are the following: In the most often printed essay "''The Back View''", filial piety is the driving factor, parallelistic and repetitive structures in the atmospherical nebulous "''The Moonlit Lotus Pond''", both written by Zhu Ziqing, whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader.
==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==
Nostalgic home feelings are the emotional identification element in "''Wild vegetables of my home region''" by Wang Zengqi. Therefore one can state, that moving es¬says form the top.

- ''In the latter half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of in¬dividuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife. Time loses worth, since more and more of the daily acctivities are filled with mechanical and autistic actions.''

==Tao Ye 陶冶==
''In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only political replique is the patriotism, for example expressed in the 1996 published monograph'' China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war (''No''! 1996).

- ''The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable object d'art.''
==Wang Meiling 王美玲==
''Also trends like the use of ordinary language, which one finds in novels since 1993 (Jia Pingwa, Feidu; Gu Cheng, Yingger) and'' New Borderlessness ''since'' 1995, ''cannot be pro-ven in the essaywriting. ''

- Also the fictional realism David Der-Wei Wang sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proves helpful for the understanding of some essays, one being "''The Small Dog Baodi''", written by Ba Jin 1981, in which the author turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in allegoric instead of in descriptive truth as before ("''In memoriam of Xiao Shan II''", Ba Jin 1984).
==Wang Xuan 王轩==
Similar is the concept of imaginery nostalgia, as Wang calls the fictional truth in Shen Congwen's work (David Der-Wei Wang 1992), helpful for the reading of Wang Zengqi's "''Rain in Kunming''" as well as for Jia Pingwa's "''Shanxi opera''".
类似的还有想象怀旧的概念，正如王功权所说的沈从文作品中虚构的真实（王大卫·德维王1992），有助于解读汪曾祺的《昆明雨》，也有助于贾平凹的《山西剧》。

- The Schwarcz' concept of ''personal grief'' expressed in a ''metaphorical discourse'' helps us to understand how Ba Jin was able to overcome the ''truth of being'' he was known for, only to reach a more convincing fictional truth through the metaphor of his dog Baodi.
施瓦茨在“隐喻话语”中所表达的“个人悲伤”概念，有助于我们理解巴金是如何克服他以“存在的真理”而闻名的，却通过他的狗“宝坻”的隐喻而获得更具说服力的虚构真相。

Xin zhuangtai xiaoshuo 新狀態小說 new borderless fiction, represented by Chen Dong 韓東, Lu Yang 魯羊, Zhu Wen 朱文, Lin Bai 林白, Chen Liang 陳梁, Zhang Mei 張梅.（文献无需翻译）

''Post-colonialist thinking (Williams et al. 1994), which is to be seen as part of the social-political discourse, appears in essays, especially in the less critical political, but patriotic essays of the 1990s. Kafkaism helps us understand the essay "The nightmare", where Si Yu appears as a de-constructionist, the I-narrator even is drawn near to suicide.''（文献无需翻译）

And maybe for Xie Bingxins* reflections on her experience as one of the chosen voluntaries of the Wuhan military academy: She insisted to remain a lifelong "woman soldier" .（文献无需翻译）

==Wang Yu 王煜==
'''8. Discussion: Is the genre of the essay the form of literary expression in 21st century China?'''

Regarding the future of the Chinese literature, we can only speculate. But out the risk of being wild and provocative, I would like to suggest some questions for considering the place of the essay in the field of Chinese literature and literary studies.

- People have less time for actions like reading, and get used to reduced visualized information through the Internet. Will the brevity of the essay make it the ideal medium?

==Wang Yuan 王源==
- If the Chinese people are rediscovering their individuality, will the essay allow them to express individual thoughts more directly?

- Modern societies are characterized by TV culture, mass consumption, and the loss of consciousness of one's own tradition, often partly due to the American impact on national cultures. Is the essay less bound to the restrictions of tradition, especially compared to the poem and thus more adaptable to the modern phenomenon of mass consumption?

==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==
- The alienation and the anonymity of citylife worldwide, in China is combined with a loss of traditional values like ideology, family, solidarity etc. in favor of the concept of profit for oneself, - if this has produced a longing for new orientation, will it possibly be filled by morally guiding essays or nationalistic thinking?

《红楼梦》与其他世界文学作品的相似性——推荐《红楼梦》列入世界记忆遗产名录

'''Commonness between the Red Chamber Dreams and other World Literature Novels – Proposing the Red Chamber Dreams to the World Documentary Heritage List'''（修改）

吴漠汀，湖南师范大学 Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University

Source: Lecture at Harvard University, Cambridge, MA USA, 14.3.2000（文献无需翻译）
==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==
'''Abstract'''

In every culture, readers associate the literature they know with new literature they read. So literature is always cumulative, it grows out of existing literature and can refer back to it. When Western readers read the Red Chamber Dreams, they foremost associate novels and other pieces of literature of their own cultural tradition with the Dreams. This has also influenced the first full translation into German.

Cao Xueqin and even more his protagonist Jia Baoyu both are early humanists, universalists and world citizens. ''The Red Chamber Dreams'' function worldwide.

摘要

在每一种文化中，读者都会把他们读到的新文学与已知文学联系起来，所以文学总是积累的，它从现有的文学中生长出来，并以已有文学为参考。西方读者在阅读《红楼梦》时，首先会把《红楼梦》与自身文化传统中的小说和其他文学作品联系起来，这也影响了首次德语全译本。

曹雪芹，尤其是他的主人公贾宝玉，都是早期的人文主义者，普世主义者和世界公民。《红楼梦》具有普世价值。（修改）

在每一种文化中，读者都会把他们读到的新文学与已知文学联系起来，所以文学总是积累的，它从现有的文学中衍生出来，并以已有文学为参考。西方读者在阅读《红楼梦》时，首先会把《红楼梦》与自身文化传统中的小说和其他文学作品联系起来，这也影响了首次德语全译本。

曹雪芹，甚至于他的主人公贾宝玉，都是早期的人文主义者，普世主义者和世界公民。《红楼梦》具有普世价值。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:09, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==
''The Dream'' is a complex showroom of diverse aspects of Chinese cultures and is the embodiment and essence of Chinese cultures, but it has also a global impact, therefore it should be honoured as “World Documentary Heritage”.

红楼梦》综合展示了中国的多元文化，是中国文化的集中体现和精华，同时在全球范围内产生影响，理应列入世界记忆遗产名录。（修改）

多元一体

'''Key words'''

Western culture, reception tradition, German translation, Embodiment of Chinese cultures, global compatibility, World Documentary Heritage

“红楼梦”是一个多元的中国文化综合体，是中国文化的体现和精髓，但它也具有全球影响力，因此应该被授予“世界文献遗产”的荣誉。（修改<nowiki>Insert non-formatted text here</nowiki>）

多元一体

'''Key words'''

Western culture, reception tradition, German translation, Embodiment of Chinese cultures, global compatibility, World Documentary Heritage
--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 10:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

《红楼梦》是一个中国文化综合体，展示着中国文化的精髓的同时也极具全球影响力，理应被列入世界记忆遗产名录。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:00, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==
'''1. Chinese Ethics'''

To help the poor and disadvantaged belongs to the traditional core values of Chinese culture.

When we sit in the Beijing Subway today, the loudspeaker announcement reminds us, that it is Chinese traditional ethics to give seats to the disadvantaged (老弱病残孕让座是中国传统道德). We know of Cao Xueqin, that he supported the poor and disadvantaged, and that he made kites for children.

However, when we look closer at these “Chinese Ethics”, we discover, that they are claimed also in Indian Buddhism “karuna” and in the Christian tradition of “caritas” and in almost every civilization. Therefore, we might call these values “human ethics”.

==Wu Kai 吴恺==
'''2. Compatibility
'''
Why do the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' function worldwide and have achieved world literature status even in their translations?

First of all, the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' are, like novels worldwide, a piece of entertainment literature. In comparison to the drama, in which every element is compulsory and plays its part in the overall structure, in the novel the line of action itself is simpler and not so important, most of the scenes or episodes are loosely put together and fit in the broader theme of the novel.
==Wu Qi 吴琪==
However, the lose arrangement of episodes of the ''Dreams'' comes from the tradition of almost unconnected episodes like in the ''Shuihuzhuan'' and is a step towards the greater coherence of the episodes, the aligning into a story line and the greater concentration on fewer protagonists. Therefore, the ''Dreams'' show clearly a step towards the Western tradition of novels, maybe because of growing Western influence in Qing dynasty.

'''3. Impact of translator’s native culture on the translation process'''

There are intercultural parallels between the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' and Western works of literature.
==Wu Qiong 吴琼==
These parallels are fundamental for the translation and were explicitly and implicitly fundamental for the German translator Martin Woesler during his translation and editorial work on the first full German translation. In the following, I will mention some of the Western novels and pieces of literature, which the Western reader of the ''Dreams'' will immediately think of.

'''4. The novel as embodiment of “Zeitgeist”'''

According to Georg Lukács’ ''Theory of the Novel'', while the Epos (like Homer’s ''Ilias'', which like the ''Dream'' reasons the stories in the divine realm) displayed a holistic world experience, a complete, self-contained culture, the novel displays, that the modern world has become infinitely large and has lost its homely quality.
==Wu Xiang 邬香==
The novel as a genre is no longer documenting just one culture, but represents, with the words of Walter Benjamin, the Organon of History. So the understanding of the novel changed with Lukacs to historical-philosophically. A novel is understood as typical for its historical era, the novel embodies the spirit of the epoch (Zeitgeist).

The ''Red Chamber Dreams'' are written in front of the background of the Manchu minority having taken over the power in formerly Han-shaped Ming-China (which was a multi-ethnic and crosscultural society) and families suffering the changing favor of changing emperors, with the Cao family being fostered by Kangxi and being persecuted by Yongzheng.
==Wu Yilu 吴一露==
While the author in his time could not criticize the system and power of emperors, in the novel he came to terms with this life by seeking the guilt for the persecution in the growing decadence of the family (engaging in Daoism, leisure, poetry-writing, arts and music instead of learning for being able to earn a living) and in himself not fulfilling the expectations as the family heir. This description of decadence of a declining family reminds us of the novels of Tschechov (and e.g. in the ''Buddenbrooks'' by Mann, including the turn to arts and music).
==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==
Moreover, with the detailed description of life on all social levels in early Qing Dynasty, the Dream appears as a documentary historical novel very much like Günter Grass’ The Tin Drum 1959.

'''5. Coming-of-age and Alienation'''

Abandoning the paradise-like garden in the Red Chamber Dreams is a symbol for leaving the protected childhood and arriving in the complex world of adults. With George Lukács theory of the novel, the protagonist starts to problematize the sense of his life, in the novel, the protagonist’s self permanently struggles with his environment.
==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==
However, Cao Xueqin’s message is not simply the one of “Paradise Lost”, instead he himself made the best out of his life. Although being less wealthy than when his family still enjoyed the favour of the emperor, there was a payroll system and a social net intact in Early Qing China, where he received enough income to be independent from his rich relatives, to be selective on accepting jobs, to live a relaxed life in a small house in the nature, spending time with his family and friends, follow his own interests, like reading, writing and drinking wine, making kites for the children and thinking of the disadvantaged.

然而，曹雪芹的信息不仅是“失乐园”的信息，而是他本人的一生。尽管不如他的家人仍然享有皇帝的宠爱时富裕，但清初中国有一个工资体系和一个完整的社会网络，在那里他获得了足够的收入以独立于自己的富裕亲戚，可以有选择性地接受工作在大自然的小房子里过着轻松的生活，与家人和朋友共度时光，遵循自己的兴趣，例如读书，写作和喝酒，为孩子们放风筝和思考处境不利的人。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:38, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

==Xiao Ting 肖婷==
Cao Xueqin was fully aware of his time and China’s cultural achievements, he was familiar with the different levels of society, he was a detailed observer and skilful narrator. He may have conceptualized the ending of the novel as a discussion about the different personalities of the characters in the novel and therefore displaying his reflection about life and his psychological understanding of the diversity of human nature. He was able to grasp the “spirit of time” (Zeitgeist) and with his autobiographical experience create an eternal coming-of-age novel not just for his family, for the Qing-Chinese, for Chinese people, but for mankind.

曹雪芹对自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就有充分的认识，他熟悉社会的方方面面，他观察细致，叙事娴熟。他能把小说的结尾构思为对小说中人物不同性格的探讨，从而体现出他对人生的思考和对人性多样性的理解。他能够把握 "时间精神"(Zeitgeist)，并以他的亲身经历为材料创造了一部成熟的绝世之作，这不仅是为他的家庭、为清人、为中国人，更是为全人类。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 11:29, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

曹雪芹充分了解自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就，熟悉社会的不同层次，是一个细致的观察者和娴熟的叙述者。他可能将小说的结局概念化为对小说中人物不同性格的讨论，从而表现出他对生活的反思和对人性多样性的心理理解。他能够把握“时代精神”(时代精神)，并以他的自传体经历，为他的家庭，为清朝人，为中国人，为人类创造了一部永恒的成长小说。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 12:01, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

曹雪芹对自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就了如指掌，他熟悉社会的不同层面，他是一个细致的观察者和娴熟的叙述者。因此，他在小说中对人的不同个性的理解和对小说中人物性格的多样性进行了概念化的探讨。他能够把握“时代精神”，用他的自传体经历，不仅为他的家庭，为清朝的中国人，为中国人民，而且为人类，创作了一部永恒的成人小说。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:43, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

==Xiao Xi 肖茜==
This tradition of Coming-of-age novels is also a European one, like enlightenment philosopher Voltaire’s novel ''Candide or Optimism''《老实人》shows at the very same time (1759) in Europe. Also Voltaire’s Candide has to leave the luxurious paradise of his childhood and strives for true love, but his main learning is more pessimistic, since Voltaire wrote the novel in opposition to Leibniz, who optimistically looked to China as “the best of all worlds”. Recent research findings show that China had a much larger influence on European enlightenment philosophers and we can be sure, that also Cao Xueqin was aware of some European literary traditions.
==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==
Also the German readership is familiar with the chronological following of the life of the protagonist and his development, the fate of a family over generations, the German readership knows this type of novel as the “Education novel” or “Coming-of-age-novel”. In Germany, the genre of the coming-of-age novel has a long tradition and it is shaped more by single characters, who appear as teachers (Goethe: ''Wilhelm Meister’s Apprenticeship''威廉·麦斯特的学徒岁月 1795-96, Novalis 诺瓦利斯: ''Heinrich von Ofterdingen''《海因利·封·歐福特丁根》1802).
==Xie Fan 解帆==
Wilhelm Meister, parallely to Jia Baoyu, is struggling with the traditional education, in ''Wilhelm Meister'' this is represented with the classics revived in Shakespeare’s dramas. Tradition can give orientation, but the personality of the protagonist needs to develop through emancipation is a wisdom, we can learn from all mentioned novels including the ''Dreams''.

'''6. Pornography and True Love, female rivals'''

Sexuality is a basic human need and has developed into different shapes in all cultures. The German audience is familiar with erotic topics from the Middle Ages, in which sexuality was stylized. In the “Schwänke” of the 15th century (Wittenwielers Ring), erotic scenes are described sexually explicit.

与贾宝玉一样，威廉·迈斯特也在与传统教育作斗争，这通过莎士比亚的经典戏剧得以体现。传统可以作为方向标，但主人公的个性需要通过解放才能发展，这是一种智慧，我们可以以上提过包括《梦》的所有小说中学习。
“6.色情与真爱，女性对手"
性是人类的一种基本需求，在不同文化中展现出不同的形态。德国观众熟悉中世纪的情色话题，在这些话题中，性是有固定程式的。在15世纪的“Schwanke”(Wittenwielers Ring)中，情色场景被描述为露骨的性。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:37, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

与贾宝玉一样，威廉·迈斯特也在与传统教育作斗争，在《威廉·迈斯特》中，莎士比亚戏剧中复兴的经典作品代表了这一点。传统可以给予导向，但主人公的个性需要通过解放来发展是一种智慧，我们可以从包括《梦》在内的所有小说中学习。
“6。色情与真爱，女性对手"
性是人类的一种基本需求，在各种文化中形成了不同的形态。德国观众熟悉中世纪的情色话题，在这些话题中，性是程式化的。在15世纪的“Schwanke”(Wittenwielers Ring)中，情色场景被描述为露骨的性。--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 01:37, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==
In the barock literature of the 17th century even the physical act is described extensively.

According to „cumulativity“, every human being is a product of history and literature is based on previous literature, therefore the author of this pager thinks that this background has to be taken into account while translating.

The best study on ''qing'' passion in the Dreams is the one by Anthony Yu, who understood it as ''desire'' and as the central motif of the ''Dreams''. „The centrality of qing in shaping virtually every aspect of The Story of the Stone’s structure and meaning cannot be denied [...].“ (Anthony Yu 2001, 54).

==Xu Jia 徐佳==
In the framework story of the Dreams, the narrator consciously takes a stand against low-action and stereotypical pornographic literature as well as against the widespread romance novels (with the classic roles of the beautiful, talented woman and the poor scholar who finally achieves a respected position and prosperity by passing a civil service exam).

In chapter 1 he says: ”of the true feelings of young people [...] nobody has reported about so far.”

Erotic scenes are described in a decent and associative way (“Game of clouds and rain”), while displaying another quality in its openness e.g. towards bisexuality.

==Xu Jing 许晶==
The ''Dreams'' narrate the story of unfortunate lovers. Unfortunate lovers also in the West have a literary tradition, they constitute an archetype, such as Hero and Leander, Pyramus and Thisbe, Tristan and Isolde, Flore and Blanscheflur as well as Troilus and Cressida, the latter being considered the model for Arthur Brookes, who wrote Romeo and Juliet in 1562 and thus directly influenced Shakespeare.

While Marián Galik saw as the central topic of both, the ''Dream'' and ''Faust'', the eternal feminine, which draws us on high, Gu Cheng called it the “eternal virgine”.

==Xu Jing 许静==
In Goethe’s coming-of-age novel ''Wilhelm Meisters Wanderjahre'', we find a similar motif of female rivals, in the Keller 凯勒 ''The Green Henry'' 《绿衣亨利》1855, the hero turns away from an emphatically sexually designed figure and turns to the 'real' woman. In Jane Austen’s ''Pride and Prejudice'' 1813 Elizabeth and Lin Daiyu are similar, e.g. they both strive for real love (Zhuang 2011).
==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==
'''7. Feudal society and slavery'''

A widespread interpretation is that Jia Baoyu’s equal treatment of family members and slaves would be a manifesto to free the slaves. I also do not share this interpretation, since Aristotle, when he demanded democracy, would exclude slaves from the right to vote. So we cannot use modern concepts to judge on the past. In my understanding, Jia Baoyu was not fighting inequality, but looked at the people as humans and individuals.

封建社会和奴隶
一种普遍的解释是，贾宝玉对家庭成员和奴隶一视同仁，这将成为奴隶解放的宣言。我并不同意这个解释，因为亚里士多德的民主就排除了奴隶的投票权。所以，我们并不能用现代观念去评判过去。在我看来，贾宝玉并不是和不平等作斗争，而是把人视作群体和个人。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 09:55, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie

一种普遍的解释是，贾宝玉对家庭成员和奴隶的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我也不同意这种解释，因为亚里士多德，当他要求民主的时候，会排除奴隶的投票权。所以我们不能用现代的概念来判断过去。在我的理解中，贾宝玉并不是在与不平等作斗争，而是把人看成是群体和个人。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 10:31, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==
Also the understanding of the servants as slaves does not match the description in the Dream, since some servants had servants themselves, the family took care after they left the Jia family to find a match for them and Jia Zheng refers to his daughter Yingchun as „yatou 丫头“, so it is inappropriate to translate this expression with slave. Therefore, the translator preferred “servant” over “slave” in the translation.

另外，把仆人理解为奴隶也与《红楼梦》中所描述的不符，因为有些仆人自己也有仆人，他们离开贾家后，家人会照顾他们，为他们婚配，并且贾正把女儿迎春称为“丫头”，所以用奴隶来翻译这个词是不合适的。因此，译者在翻译中更倾向于“仆人”而不是“奴隶”。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 09:14, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

而且把仆人理解为奴隶与《红楼梦》中的描写不符，因为有些仆人自己还有仆人，贾府会在她们离府的时候为她们寻一门亲事，作为贾府对她们的照料；贾政也把自己的女儿迎春喊作 “丫头”，所以把这些翻译成奴隶是不合适的。因此英文翻译中采用“servant”会比“slave”更为合适。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 10:08, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie

==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==
Mo Yan in his speech at the Frankfurt Bookfair in 2009, when China was the guest of honor, draws the (similarly) parallel between the ''Dream'' and Goethe’s ''Sorrows of the Young Werther'', that both expressed the wish to abandon feudal society. My own impression is that both do not express this wish, but that this is a later concept and interpretation and we should not apply this to judge the past.

2009年，莫言代表中国作为主宾国参加法兰克福书展时，他在演讲中把《梦》和歌德的《少年维特之哀》画上了约等号，表达了抛弃封建社会的愿望。我自己的印象是，两者都没有表达这个愿望，但这是后来的概念和解释，而我们不应该以此来判断过去。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:36, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting

2009年，莫言代表中国作为主宾国参加法兰克福书展时，在演讲中把《梦》和歌德的《少年维特之哀》画上了约等号，表达了抛弃封建社会的愿望。我自己的感觉是，两者都没有表达这个愿望，但这是后来的概念和解释，我们不应该以此来判断过去。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:43, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Hairong 杨海容==
'''8. Tragedy of all tragedies'''

Aristotle explained in ''On the Tragedy'' (Poetics VI), that tragedies move people more than comedies because they “imitate [mimēsis] an action that is serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude” (Aristotle 1971, 51), This high esteem of the tragedy in Europe is partly ascribed to the loss of Aristotle’s work ''On the Comedy''.

==Yang Hui 阳慧==
While Europe has the Hamlet as its tragedy of all tragedies, the lack of tragic literature in Chinese literary tradition has long been lamented. Wang Guowei sees the Dream as "tragedy of all tragedies". To Wang Guowei the suffering of Faust and Jia Baoyu is central in the novels. However, many scholars contest that Faustianism is central for Chinese culture.

In 18th century Europe, we saw a new development in the genre of the drama, to establish a “bourgeois tragedy”.

==Yang Yi 杨逸==
It developed as an emancipatory movement in the 18th century in London, Paris and Germany, and demonstrated that tragedy was not reserved to rulers, but was also imagineable for lower noblemen and ordinary citizens. The ''Dream'' at the same time as the bourgeois tragedy in Europe shows a tragic story of a mid-level noble family which loses its titles and privileges.

==Yang Yue 杨悦==
'''9. “Non-Binary” Novels'''

One of the things attracting Western readers is the adorable but mysterious protagonist Jia Baoyu. With his open bisexual orientation and his interest in his mates regardless of their social status, he appears “modern” or at least displaced in time. His struggle with traditional learning makes him appear sympathetic, his long states of rapture out of the world give him both the aura of a timeless character and of mystery.

==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==
With the bisexual orientation of the Dreams’ protagonist, the novel appears non-binary.
According to Karl-Heinz Pohl, binaries are just superficial, ultimately decisive is the ''Heart Sutra''. Today, the novel is listed among the genre of non-binary literature (see e.g. the bibliographical list on https://www.goodreads.com/list/tag/non-binary), in which contrasts are dissolved deconstructivistically.

==Yao Cheng 姚诚==
'''10. Foreign Cultures in the Red Chamber Dreams'''

Foreign Cultures frequently appear in the Dreams in all kinds of varieties, like exoticism with the many objects in the household and presented to the household as novelties, especially the blond girl of the same age as Baoyu referred to in person (combining different origins and cultures, including European, Japanese, Chinese) or several times on paintings, one time shown with wings as an angel.

==Yao Jia 姚佳==
The playful combination of different traditions we can see also when a religious dress is described, which carries characteristics of different religions. Similarly, the Daoist monk and the Confucian priest appear together. Cao Xueqin wanted to show the richness and diversity, also with the many topics and societal levels of the novel. Even a variety of Christian motifs can be found, like when Jia Baoyu is not recognized by his father in chapter 120 and when he disappears, all parallel to Jesus Christ.

==Yi Huan 易欢==
The variety of cultures is paralleled with the variety of elements of different dynasties, which makes it timeless and therefore even more a masterpiece of Chinese art and a masterpiece of human art. Therefore I would like to nominate the Red Chamber Dreams as “World Documentary Heritage”.

'''References'''（参考文献不用翻译）

Anthony, C. Yu. (2001). ''Rereading the Stone: Desire and the Making of Fiction in Dream of the Red Chamber''. Princeton University Press.

Aristotle. (1971). ''Poetics''. Trans. S. H. Butcher. Ed. Hazard Adams. Critical Theory since Plato. ew York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 48-66.

Woesler, Martin, ed., Cao Xueqin, Gao E et al. (2016). ''Der Traum der Roten Kammer oder Die Geschichte vom Stein'' [''Red Chamber Dreams or The Story of the Stone''], Peking: Foreign Languages Press, ISBN 9787119094120, 4813 pages, 6 vols., hardcover, transl. by Rainer Schwarz and Martin Woesler; Chinese-German bilingual edition

Woesler, Martin. (2011). “Being Explicit About the Implicit – John Minford’s Translation of the last Forty Chapters of The Story of the Stone with a Field Study on two Sexually Arousing Scenes”. ''Hong lou meng xue kan'' 6: 274-289

Woesler, Martin. (2010). “ ’To Amuse the Beaux and Belles’ The Early Western Reception of the Hongloumeng”. ''Journal of Sino-Western Communications'' 2 (2010.12) 2:81-107

Zhuang, Xiuhua. (2011). Self, Ideal and Salvation: A Comparative Study of Jane Austen’s Elizabeth and Cao Xueqin’s Lin Daiyu. ''Journal of Language Teaching and Research'', Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 420-423, March 2011. Fulltext: http://www.academypublication.com/issues/past/jltr/vol02/02/19.pdf.

==Yi Zichu 义子楚==
'''Virtual Communication Between Machines with the Human as Their Object
'''

A new stage of multimodal communication after oral, written, printed, electronic and machine-human communication

Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University

'''Abstract'''

Luhmann and Baecker described the development of communication from orality (media epoch 1.0) to script (2.0), through print (3.0) and finally to digital communication (4.0). In all these stages, technology played only an assisting role.

==You Yuting 游雨婷==
This paper argues, that there is a fundamentally new media epoch of “virtual communication” (communication 5.0), in which artificial intelligence (initialized by humans) has taken over and humans have become the object of analysis and manipulation (as customers, voters etc.).

Algorithms do not only listen to oral or read written human communication (between humans or between humans and bots), but they analyze multimodal communication (including likes, behaviour, surfing habits, mobility profile, values, dreams, aims, beliefs etc.), compare them with Big Data (e.g. cloud data) and base decisions of manipulation on a prediction of behavior according to a personality profile and correlations.

本文认为，“虚拟传播”(5.0传播版本)是一个全新的媒体时代，在这个时代，人工智能(由人类初始化)已经接管，人类成为分析和操纵的对象(如顾客、选民等)。

算法不仅听人类口头或书面沟通(在人类之间或人类和机器人之间),但他们分析多通道通信(包括喜欢、行为、上网习惯,流动剖面,价值观,梦想,目标,信念等),比较他们与大数据(例如云数据)和基础操作的预测行为的决策根据个性特征和相关性。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 12:34, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yu Ni 余妮==
These algorithms target not only the explicit communications, but the emotions and thoughts of humans too and predict future behavior, therefore allowing simulations of reality. Mightier algorithms have also taken over decision-making roles in societies where they: replace human court decisions, fine tune just-in-time and on-demand production, censor chatrooms etc. Sets of algorithms help to manage smart cities and a whole society.

----
==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==
Although the human is still part of the communication, especially as the analyzed object and the target of the manipulation, the human is often unaware of the virtual communication and a passive receiver of the machine’s decisions, while the main actors in the virtual communication are machines.

虽然人仍然是通信的一部分，特别是作为被分析的对象和操纵的目标，但是人往往没有意识到虚拟通信和机器决策的被动接受者，而虚拟通信的主要参与者是机器。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 08:55, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

尽管人类仍然是交流活动的一个组成部分，特别是作为被分析的对象和操纵的目标，但是人类往往没有意识到，自己是虚拟沟通和机器决策的被动接受者，而虚拟沟通的主导者是机器。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:11, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

虽然人仍然是构成通信的一部分，尤其是作为分析对象和操纵目标，但人往往没有意识到人们在虚拟通信中扮演机器决策的被动接受者，而机器才是主要参与者。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:42, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==
Research describes these forms of virtual communication, finds evidence in social management systems and credit systems (in Germany, we have the “Schufa”, in the USA there are big players in credit history, which leads to credit-orientation and gamification of human life) or customized (fake) news filter bubbles and in customized consumption offers (Amazon, Facebook, Google, Netflix) and analyzes benefits, including security enhancements through such virtual communication.

研究对这些形式的虚拟沟通进行了描述，在社会管理系统、信用系统（定制的（虚假）新闻筛选泡沫）和定制的消费商（亚马逊、脸书、谷歌、网飞）里面找到了证据（德国有“Schufa”，美国则因为信用史有重大人物而使得社会信用至上并日趋游戏化），并对益处加以分析，这些益处包含通过这类虚拟沟通提升安全。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 09:20, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

研究描述了这些虚拟通信的形式，在社会管理系统和信用系统中找到证据（在德国，我们有 "Schufa"，在美国有信用记录的大玩家，这导致了信用导向和人类生活的游戏化）或定制化（假）新闻过滤气泡，以及在定制化的消费优惠中（亚马逊，Facebook，谷歌，Netflix），并分析了好处，包括通过这种虚拟通信增强安全性。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:03, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==
But research also has the duty to warn of abuse or harmful developments and to raise ethical questions. Exoskeletal ethics, imposed by gamifications like credit systems, especially need to be valued against intrinsic ethics.

'''Introduction'''

In this paper dealing with machine to machine communication, I skip the machines assisting humans to make their life more convenient (ranging from “The milk is out, please add the usual amount of milk to the delivery list,” to “The old lady has not left her bed this morning, I’ll better call the doctor”).

但研究也有责任对滥用或有害的发展发出警告，同时要对引起的伦理问题也要承担责任。特别是信用体系游戏化所造成的外骨骼伦理问题更需要得到重视，要反对内在的伦理问题。

引言

本论文在涉及机器与机器之间的交流时，我不考虑那些帮助人类让生活更便捷的机器（从“牛奶没了，请在送货单上加平常剂量的牛奶”到“老太太今早卧床不起，我最好叫医生吧”）。
--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:10, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

但研究也有责任对滥用或有害的发展提出警告，并提出伦理问题。特别是信用体系等游戏化所强加的外骨骼伦理，更需要对照内在伦理加以重视。

引言

在本文中涉及机器与机器之间的交流，我跳过了机器协助人类提高生活便利的内容（从 "牛奶没了，请把平时的牛奶量加到送货单上"，到 "老太太今天早上还没下床，我还是叫医生吧"。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 11:40, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==
Instead, I deal with communication like: “Let’s create a user personality profile and compare it with Big Data to learn how I can best catch this user’s attention and make him/her vote for presidential candidate A or B.”; “Let’s check this users’ mouse movements and compare it with Big Data to get a correlation to estimate if (and if “yes” when) he will get Parkinson, to decide whether or not to deny him the loan or health insurance.”
实际上，本人研究涉及的方面如下：比如，“让我们创建一名用户的个性化主界面，并将其与大数据进行比对，学习如何最好的吸引该用户的注意，让他/她投票给总统候选人甲或乙。”“让我们检查这名用户鼠标的运动轨迹，通过与大数据进行比对，建立关联，来估计他是否会得帕金森。如果他患有帕金森疾病，我们会决定是否需要对他的贷款或医疗保险的申请予以拒绝。”--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:41, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Liang 曾良==
“Let’s check this users sexual orientation, religious beliefs, fears, secrets like adultery etc. to blackmail him to get ransom money for my programmer.”; or even “Let’s use this user’s location to aim the killer drone.”

The current neoliberal system with Amazon, Facebook, WhatsApp, Instagram, Google, Netflix etc. provides incentives to collect as much user data as possible and to abuse user data for manipulation, which creates huge profits.

“让我们检查该用户的性取向、宗教信仰、恐惧、诸如通奸之类的秘密去勒索他为我的程序员去获取赎金”。或者甚至“使用用户的位置瞄准杀手无人机。”

当前具有亚马逊、脸谱网、瓦茨艾普、照片墙、谷歌、奈飞等的新自由主义系统激励人们尽可能多地收集用户信息，并滥用用户信息进行操纵，从而创造可观利益。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:04, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

"让我们查一查这个用户的性取向、宗教信仰、恐惧、通奸等秘密，以勒索他为我的程序员获取赎金。"；甚至"利用这个用户的位置来瞄准杀手无人机。"
目前亚马逊、脸书、WhatsApp、Instagram、谷歌、奈飞等的新自由主义体系，为收集尽可能多的用户数据，并滥用用户数据，从而创造了巨大的利润。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:39, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting

“让我们检查该用户的性取向、宗教信仰、惧怕的事物、诸如通奸之类的秘密，从而勒索他让我的程序员获取赎金”。更有甚时，“让我们使用用户的位置让攻击机瞄准他。”

当前亚马逊、脸书、联络电话、Instagram、谷歌、网飞等的新自由主义的系统软件，激励人们尽可能多地收集用户信息，并滥用用户信息进行操纵，从而创造可观利益。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==
Very much like the financial crisis, which was caused by the unregulated use of derivatives, this is a systemic development, which currently follows a path to enslave the human race under the control of algorithms for the benefit of tech companies. The enslavement has already begun, as we can see from the world wide addiction to social media, from the growing mass of conspiracy theorists and from the polarization of the USA over Trump or the polarization of Great Britain over the Brexit.

==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==
'''1 History of Media Epochs'''

Luhmann and Baecker described the development of communication from orality (media epoch 1.0) to script (2.0), through print (3.0) and finally to digital communication (4.0). In all these stages, technology played only an assisting role.

This paper argues, that there is a fundamentally new stage of “virtual communication” (media epoch 5.0), in which artificial intelligence (initialized by humans) has taken over and humans have become the object of analysis and manipulation (as customers, voters etc.).

卢曼和贝克尔描述了从口头（媒体时代1.0）到文字（2.0）的通讯发展，再到印刷（3.0）数字通讯（4.0）
在所有这些阶段中，科技都只起到了协助作用。

本文认为，从根本上来说，“虚拟沟通”处于新阶段（媒体时代5.0），其中人工智能（由人类初始化）已被接管，人类已成为分析和操纵的对象（如顾客，选民等）--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 14:56, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Hu 张虎==
While Luhmann would still summarize this under digital communication, I see a full new quality here, and have therefore coined the term “communication 5.0” or “virtual communication” for it. In Luhmann’s view, the computer consists out of the “surface” of the machine (the visible interfaces like screen, keyboard, mouse) and the “depth” of the machine (the invisible, often incomprehensive inside).

虽然卢曼仍然会在数字通信中总结这一点，但我在这里看到了一个全新的品质，因此创造了术语“通信5.0”或“虚拟通信”。在卢曼看来，计算机是由机器的“表面”(屏幕、键盘、鼠标等可见界面)和机器的“内里”(看不见的、内部不全面的部分)组成的。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:41, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Hui 张慧==
However, we are almost constantly producing data, with our chats and geotracked movements, with our addiction to social media, our carrying of cell phones and more and more smart devices at all times, and we are therefore an object of analysis by algorithms.

The traditional setting of a communicative act blurs: The machine can directly communicate with the human (there the Turing test marks a threshold), and, after a certain complexity, it can hide its machine nature.

但是，我们几乎一直在通过聊天和地理位置追踪运动，不断沉迷于社交媒体，携带手机以及越来越多的智能设备来生成数据，因此，我们一直是通过算法进行分析的对象。

交流行为的传统设置变得模糊：机器可以直接与人类交流（图灵测试标记了阈值），并且在经过一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏机器的本质。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 11:49, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

然而，我们几乎在不断地产生数据，我们的聊天和地理追踪的动作，我们对社交媒体的沉迷，我们随时携带手机和越来越多的智能设备，我们因此成为算法分析的对象。

传统的交流行为的设定模糊了。机器可以直接与人类交流（图灵测试标志着一个门槛），在一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏自己的机器本质。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:03, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Ling 张玲==
The machine can also indirectly communicate with the human by simply analyzing humans’ verbal communication, non-verbal multimodal communication, behavior, personality etc. and interacting with the human with, or without, revealing its existence. A human, growing up in a filter bubble and believing in conspiracy theories is one such example: The human has been manipulated by social media and news which prefer lies over truth.

==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==
Without even noticing that there was an interaction taking place between the human and the machine, the human has lost his/her independence to the machine.

'''2 Types of communicative acts'''

1.Texts (oral and written comments/chat texts/blogs/emails)

2.Surf behavior (websites visited)

3.Consumer behavior (purchases)

4.Likes (see OCEAN, UEBA)

5.Duration/Attention (see UEBA)

6.habits/repetitiveness/occurrences (is an element of analysis in different AI apps/tools)

==Zhang Qi 张琪==
7.Unconscious, often unique data allowing identification (way of writing, mouse movements pattern, see Raj Kannan 2020)

8.social interaction incl. friendships, sexual relationships

9.mobility behavior/pattern (e.g. immediate environment – e.g. unconsciously recording the inside of houses while playing “Pokemon Go”), travel: Travel Behavior (Yu Cui et al. 2018)

==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==
'''3 Types of analysis'''

1.General (User and Entity Behavior Analytics UEBA: AI-assisted cybersecurity tools like by Gartner, Inc.)

2.True identity (e.g.: mouse movements, face recognition, find real name) (Verschuere 2016)

3.Personality profile: Big Five Personality Inventory: Openness to Experience, Consciousness, Extroversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism “OCEAN” (Golbeck 2011), by only analyzing the users' likes, Facebook can generate personality profiles (AI-Demand 2020)

4.Mobility profile/pattern

==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==
5.Health situation (health apps, ai supported disease research, see Daley 2020)

6.Job situation/job market (Talent Search People 2020 analyzes the job market, and classifies 4 different AI systems: 1. systems that think like humans, 2. systems that act like humans, 3. systems that think rationally, and 4.) systems that act rationally.)

==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==
7.Financial credit-worthiness: E.g. German Schufa company uses AI in addition to human expertise for evaluations, see Banken-Technologie 2020. Banken-Technologie 2020. Schufa’s attempt to gain access to customers’ bank account transfer information was discussed in the news.

8.Consumer Behavior: e.g. the "clickworker" company analyses and optimizes customers' searches in respect to a client company's goals/products with the help of AI (clickworker 2019)

9.Secrets (like adultery)

==Zhang Yu 张瑜==
'''4 Unique quality of media epoch 5.0'''[ I have coined the terms “media epoch 5.0” and “virtual communication” I have developed it from concepts like „Industry 4.0“ in Germany and the four media epochs Luhmann and Baecker developed (by Baecker called 1.0 … 4.0). There are several authors speculating about the media epoch 4.0, like Ray Kurzweil. The Age of Intelligent Machines. 1990.]

1.the human switches from active to passive

2.the human switches from subject to object

3.the human becomes addicted to social media, which enhances depression (Van Den Eijnden et al. 2016, Jasso-Medrano et al. 2018, Shensa et al. 2017)

4.the human switches from puppeteer, or entity with seemingly free will, to puppet

5.nature of the internet turns from freedom to surveillance

4.媒介5.0时代的独特品质 [我创造了 "媒介5.0时代"和 "虚拟通信 "这两个词，它们是从德国的“工业4.0”以及卢曼和贝克提出的媒介4.0时代（贝克称之为1.0...4.0）等概念发展而来的。一些作者揣测媒介4.0时代这个词的含义，比如1990年出版的雷-库兹韦尔的《灵魂机器时代》]

1.人从主动到被动的转换

2.人从主体到客体的转换

3.人沉迷于社交媒体，提高了患抑郁症的风险

4.人从木偶操纵者或看似拥有自由意志的实体到木偶人的转换

5.互联网的性质从自由到监测的转换--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 01:25, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==
6.direct communication turns into indirect communication (humans may not be aware of this communication/analysis)

7.explicit communication (voice, words) turns into implicit communication (preferences/thoughts/dreams/wishes/ values (first experiments with brain scanners in worker hats have started in Shanghai and Peking))

8.man-man communication turns to man-machine communication (phone bot) to machine-machine

9.4.0 was from centralization to decentralization, 5.0 is partial centralization and partial decentralization, but also concentration

==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==
So far, mass media has been considered one-way. The interaction and processing of data of millions of individual users seemed simply too much work. In the age of virtual communication, the media epoch 5.0, mass media is individualized and interactive and therefore even more influential.

'''5 Types of manipulation (consciously or unconsciously, sometimes half-consciously)
'''

1.Priming by unconscious advertisements: Influencing consumer decisions

2.Filter bubbles => supports conspiracy theories, influences judgments

到目前为止，大众媒体一直被认为是单一的。数百万个人用户数据的交互和处理似乎太费力。在虚拟传播时代，即媒体时代5.0，大众传媒是个性化和互动的，因此更具影响力。

'''5 种操纵类型（有意识或无意识，有时是半意识的）'''

1.无意识广告发布：影响消费者决策

2.过滤泡沫=>支持阴谋论，影响判断--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:08, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhao Xi 赵茜==
3.Nature of social media: lies spread 6 times faster than truth. (Vosoughi et al. 2018).

4.Change of political attitude: Case Cambridge Analytica: Helped minority to win election by manipulating young people of majority not to vote (Do so: Don’t vote campaign, Oddleifson 2020); Trump election and Brexit were won by manipulation

5.Use of private information/dependencies to obtain advantages (blackmailing for money or for conducting crimes etc.)

6.Identity theft

==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==
'''6 Consequences'''

1.Virtual Communication is mostly “hidden”, the human is mostly unaware of it, but may endure the consequences (policeman may detain suspect simply because the face recognition glass recognizes a pedestrian passing by and assesses him/her as “dangerous”; loan is declined; insurance company declines to accept new customer)

6.后果

1.虚拟通讯大多是 "隐蔽 "的，人多半不知道，但可能会承受后果（警察可能仅仅因为人脸识别玻璃识别出路过的行人，并评估其为 "危险 "而拘留嫌疑人；贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新的客户）--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:02, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

6.后果

1.虚拟通信通常是“隐藏的”，人类大多数情况下是不知道的，但可能会承受后果（警察可能只是因为面部识别玻璃杯识别出行人经过并将他/她评估为“危险”而拘留嫌疑人；贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新客户）。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 12:05, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

'''6.后果
'''

1.大多情况下，虚拟通信是“隐藏的”，人类也没有意识到这一点，但可能会承担由此带来的后果（警察可能会因为面部识别玻璃检测到行人通过，并将其评估为“危险人物”而将嫌疑犯拘留‘贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新客户）。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 09:29, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==
2.User becomes transparent (government can fight terrorism, any user can be blackmailed, jealous spouse can check on adultery)

3.Less will to communicate and discuss (since positions are too far apart)

4.Populists and populist views gain supporters

5.Polarization of Society

6.There is an incentive not to reveal how much one knows about the object, because the object then could question the legality, the system etc.

7.Last resort, the thinking, is tackled: Machine interprets “real” attitudes, not lip-service words

==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==
8.The knowing ones (algorithms, hackers, controllers of algorithms) have power over the unknowing ones (victims)

9.Exoskeleton ethics (like points/awards for measurable performances) reduce incentives to build inner ethics
'''
7 Simulation of the imminent future'''

1.The imminent future behavior of a human can be predicted

2.With many analyzed humans, the imminent future of reality can be predicted => simulation

==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==
Is this an Orwellian dystopia or reality? Some cases of the above listed phenomena have been documented. However, we are still at the beginning of “little” AI development (optimizing existing processes) and on the brink of a much more powerful development, that of “big” AI (rethinking whole industries, being able to reproduce and enhance itself). (cf. Euchner 2019).

==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==
'''8 Conclusion and Outlook'''

Data has succeeded oil as the most valuable resource for today’s economy. Big Tech companies already use users’ data and make big profits with it while legislation is delayed and national boundaries (which do not exist for the Tech companies) are struggled over.
Although input-legitimized liberal democracies and market economies, like that of the European Union, still protect privacy and data security, US- and China-based technology companies are already penetrating the European market.

==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==
We need to raise awareness and guide the youth to be careful with screen time and what they share online. We need to avoid addiction to social media.

'''The algorithms do not just check which film to suggest viewing next, they have started to invade the innermost sanctum of personality, our thoughts, dreams, wishes, visions, hopes, fears and secrets.
'''
'''
The listed consequences document a fundamental change of paradigms:
'''
我们需要提高意识，引导青少年注意屏幕时间和他们在网上分享的东西。我们需要避免沉迷于社交媒体。

'''算法不只是检查建议接下来看哪部电影，它们已经开始侵入人格、我们的思想、梦想、愿望、愿景、希望、恐惧和秘密的最深处的圣殿。'''

所列出的后果证明了范式的根本变化:--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 01:38, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

我们需要提高意识，引导青少年留意屏幕时间和网上分享，需要避免沉迷于社交媒体。

'''算法不只是检查建议接下来看哪部电影，它们已经开始侵入人格、我们的思想、梦想、愿望、愿景、希望、恐惧和秘密的最深处的圣殿。'''

所列出的后果证明了范式的基本变化:--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:11, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==
'''The cause-based decision-making by humans with established institutions like politicians, judges etc. is being replaced with correlation-based decision-making by algorithms which often serve the profit interests of tech companies or the political interests of election-manipulators.
'''

AI took the wrong development path, when it changed from serving humans to trying to manipulate humans for economic or political profit. When AI is used to educate citizens – like helping German customers to keep a clean credit history and a good credit score – then it changes the behavior of citizens to an exoskeletal ethic.

==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==
However, animals with an exoskeleton reduce their inside muscles and develop a soft inside, making them totally incapable of living without the exoskeleton. An exoskeletal ethic, giving reward points, for example, for behavior which is deemed positive and subtracting points for behavior which is deemed negative, deprives the human of the natural learning and developing process, in a social environment, of his responsibility and inner ethical judgment. If you were to meet a human with exoskeletal ethics and one who has inner ethics, whom would you trust more?

==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==
If we want to avoid the consequences listed in point 6, the public needs to become aware of this and nations and supranational organizations need to define legislation to a) protect privacy and data security, and b) give the user the control over his/her data including the commercial use of it where they earn a share from the profit made with the usage of his/her data.

==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==
'''9 Outlook'''

We need to accept, that the development is irreversible. Every new technology has created fears. Important is, that we become aware of the developments and adjust where the development heads into the wrong direction. We need set the right framework and incentives that the new technology stays on track to serve humanity.

==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==
New developments open new possibilities. We need to make sure that not only a few tech companies and terrorists use this powerful new technology to achieve their goals, but that the mass of smart device users emancipate themselves from addiction to and manipulation by technology and gain back their dignity, privacy and free will.

'''References
'''
（参考文献不用翻译）

AI-Demand. (2020). www.ai-demand.com/insights/data/big-data/big-data-and-facebook-the-heavenly-pair-that-isnt-quite-in-heaven/

Baecker, Dirk. (2007). ''Studien zur nächsten Gesellschaft''. Frankfurt 2007

Banken-Technologie. (2020). 26. Handelsblatt Jahrestagung. Banken-Technologie. „New Normal” in der Finanzwirtschaft: digital – intelligent – automatisiert – hybrid. 2. und 3.12.2020, Digital [Conference Announcement] https://veranstaltungen.handelsblatt.com/bankentechnologie/ki-machine-learning-finanzanalyse/

Booth, T. "Cambridge Analytica controversy must spur researchers to update data ethics." ''Nature'' 555.7698 (2018): 559-560.

Clickworker. (2019). www.clickworker.com/2019/04/30/ai-for-ecommerce/

Cui, Yu, Qing He, and Alireza Khani. (2018). Travel behavior classification: an approach with social network and deep learning. ''Transportation research record'', 2672(47), 68-80. https://par.nsf.gov/servlets/purl/10109453

Daley, Sam. (2020). 32 Examples of AI in Healthcare that Will Make you Feel better about the Future (July 4, 2019, updated July 29, 2020). builtin.com/artificial-intelligence/artificial-intelligence-healthcare

Euchner, Jim. (2019). Little ai, Big AI—Good AI, Bad AI. Terminology Management 62:3, 10-12. pdf:

https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/08956308.2019.1587280?needAccess=true

Golbeck, Jennifer, Cristina Robles, and Karen Turner. (2011). "Predicting personality with social media." ''CHI'11 extended abstracts on human factors in computing systems''. 2011. 253-262.

Jasso-Medrano, José Luis, and Fuensanta Lopez-Rosales. (2018). "Measuring the relationship between social media use and addictive behavior and depression and suicide ideation among university students." Computers in Human Behavior 87: 183-191.

Luhmann, Niklas. (1997). ''Die Gesellschaft der Gesellschaft''. 1997

Oddleifson, Evan. 2020, The Effects of Modern Data Analytics in Electoral Politics: Cambridge Analytica’s Suppression of Voter Agency and the Implications for Global Politics, ''Political Sciences Undergraduate Review'' 5 (2020) 7, 1-7.

https://journals.library.ualberta.ca/psur/index.php/psur/article/view/130/90/130-Article%20Text-642-1-10-20200401.pdf

Raj Kannan, J., Sabitha, R., Karthik, S., & Shanthini, J. (2020). Mouse Movement Pattern Based Analysis of Customer Behavior (CBA-MMP) Using Cloud Data Analytics. ''Wireless Personal Communications'', OnlineFirst, 1-17.

Ruan, Lotus, et al. "One App, Two Systems: How WeChat uses one censorship policy in China and another internationally." (2016).
Shensa, Ariel, et al. (2017). "Problematic social media use and depressive symptoms among US young adults: A nationally-representative study." ''Social Science & Medicine ''182: 150-157.

Talent Search People. (2020). How Will Artificial Intelligence Affect the Job Market? www.talentsearchpeople.com/en/blog/494-how-will-artificial-intelligence-affect-the-job-market/.

Van Den Eijnden, Regina JJM, Jeroen S. Lemmens, and Patti M. Valkenburg. (2016). "The social media disorder scale." ''Computers in Human Behavior ''61: 478-487.

Verschuere, Bruno, and Bennett Kleinberg. "ID‐check: Online Concealed Information Test reveals true identity." ''Journal of forensic sciences'' 61 (2016): S237-S240.

Vosoughi, Soroush, Deb Roy, and Sinan Aral. (2018). The spread of true and false news online. Science 359.6380: 1146-1151.. science.sciencemag.org/content/359/6380/1146

==Zhu Xu 朱旭==
'''Bio'''

Martin Woesler, PhD, is Jean Monnet Chair in European Studies with Hunan Normal University since 2020. At its Foreign Studies College, he is Distinguished Professor of Chinese Studies, Translation Studies and Comparative Literature since 2019. Woesler was elected Academian of the European Academy of Sciences and Arts, Salzburg in 2019.
Woesler has co-edited the books "China's Digital Dream", "Ethics of Information Society" and Springer has scheduled to publish the book "Diverse Voices in Chinese Translation and Interpretation" including his book chapter "Modern Interpreting with Digital and Technical Aids" in February 2021.

==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==
Woesler was a Senior Fellow of the German Science Foundation's (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft) Research College "Media Cultures of Computer Simulations" 2019‐2020 and hosted a related workshop with Bertelsmann Foundation in 2020. Woesler is also a researcher with Witten/Herdecke University, Germany, investigating the impact of daily screen time of children and of young people on their health.

History of Translation Studies 9

2020-12-21T16:01:08Z

Liu Ou: /* Study on the English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation 刘欧 202070080597 MTI英语笔译 */

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='''Comparative Studies'''=

==Comparison of Modes of Expression and Ways of Thinking Between English and Chinese Language in Cultural Perspective 易欢 Yi Huan==

<center>Yi Huan 易欢 202020080663</center>
===Abstract===
The English language and Chinese language,with their own characteristics, embody their own cultural heritage and manifest different modes of thinking. Conspicuously, among language, culture and mode of thinking, there exists a closely related interaction. The culture affects thought, conversely, thought can reflect the culture. While language is under the impact of the both, presents the thinking and cultural differences in a most direct way. Therefore, this paper, from the perspective of culture, makes a comparative study of English and Chinese language forms and ways of thinking. It is quite significant for the development of translation in cross-cultural communication.

===Key words===
language form; mode of thinking; English and Chinese language; culture

===摘要===
英汉语言各具特色，蕴含各自历史文化底蕴，彰显不同的思维模式。显然，语言，文化与思维之间形成了某种紧密联系的互动关系。文化影响思维，反之，思维也会体现文化，而语言受两者的影响，亦是阐明思维与文化差异的最直接的方式。因此，本文将从文化视域下，对比探究英汉语言形式与思维方式，这对于跨文化交际下翻译发展来说至关重要。

===关键词===
语言形式；思维模式；英汉语言；文化

===1. Introduction===
The relationship between language and thought is widely discussed among scholars at home and abroad. Karl Marx once remarks that language is a tool, carrier, shell, and a “dress” of thought. That is to say, language by nature is the embodiment of human thoughts. Language is therefore closely related to and supported by human thoughts. Also thought will further facilitate the development of language, Sapir once states, “ Thought processes set in, as a kind of psychic overflow, almost at the beginning of linguistic expression; further, that the concept once defined, necessarily reacted on the life of its linguistic symbols, encouraging further linguistic growth.”(1921:12)

Meanwhile, language is part of culture. And language, as a system of signs with its own cultural substances and values, may be viewed as a symbol of cultural identity. For example, a person who moves from his or her speech community to another one, will easily exposes himself or herself as a newcomer in communication since the language he uses may betray his cultural identity. While each culture also has its own peculiarities and can throw influence on the language system. Hence, language is the carrier and the representation of culture, and as a mirror of culture, language is strongly influenced and shaped by culture.

Moreover, the thought also is largely influenced by its culture. Human thinking is the brain’s generalized and indirect reflecting process of the general characteristics and laws of objective things.” (Liu Kuilin, 1989:9) It is a dynamic process of reflecting the objective facts and worlds. Hence it is largely influenced by the outside cultures. In general, different culture leads to different thinking patterns which is demonstrated most in their own language. That is to say, the relationship among culture, mode of thinking and language is closely related like three parts of a whole. And in this paper, it is going to compare different mode of thinking and ways of expression between Chinese and English, so as to better understand cross-culture communication.

===2. The comparison of modes of thinking with the representation of ways of expression in English and Chinese===

The language, thought and culture are independent but closely interrelated as we have discussed before. And in different countries, there exist different thinking patterns, then it is going to illustrate four types of opposite Chinese and Occidental thinking ways and present the reflection upon their language, and trace back to the cultural and historical foundations for these phenomena. While it just compares these modes of thought in a general way, and they are not simply manifested as opposite to each other, but intermingled to some extent with the exchange of culture and the common ground imparted in all human beings.

===2.1 Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking===
When Premier Zhou and Secretary of State Kissinger drafted “Shanghai Sino-US Communique,” Kissinger once said that the thought of Oriental is to seek the common ground among differences, while the thought of the Occidental are accustomed to seeking differences among the similarities. To some extent, it shows that Chinese emphasizes synthesis and English tends to be analytical. Holistic thinking puts emphasis on the integral concepts and the universal connection of objects. While analytical thinking will tend to focus more on labeling and analyzing different parts that eventually make up the whole. there must be some certain cultural background to the formation of western and Chinese mode of thinking.

Actually, the formation of Chinese thinking mode can derive from Chinese people’s perspectives towards nature. In Chinese classical philosophy, the conception of “One” better demonstrates the holistic view. According to Taoism, “All things obtained the One and became alive and kept growing.”(Tao Te Ching, chapter 36). Chuang Tzu promotes the concept of “One” to the state of the “unity of heaven and human”, and believes that the heaven and man, and the thing and self can all merge into one organically connected whole. Moreover, the essence that Chinese philosophy stresses the holistic view lies in the systematic evaluation and comprehensive grasp of all things, aiming to have a comprehensive and accurate understanding towards everything. Then such philosophy facilitates Chinese people to develop holistic thinking.

While, in western culture, Plato firstly advocates the “subject-object dichotomy” and then explains the world from a dualistic angle. In addition, the people can also be influenced by Aristotle’s syllogism, and always emphasize reasonable thinking in accordance with certain procedures, just like analyzing geometric problems in which one should derive the unknown, then demonstrate the process meticulously and finally draw a logical conclusion. It is exactly the characteristic of analytic thinking in which the object is divided into parts and one should investigate them respectively.

Undeniably, thinking patterns can best be demonstrated in their language. In a word, Analytical thinking involves detachment of the object from its context, a tendency to focus on attributes of the object in order to assign it to categories, and a preface for using rules about the categories to explain and predict the object’s behavior. Holistic thinking involves an orientation to the context or field as a whole, including attention to relationships between a focal object and the field, and a preference for explaining and predicting events on the basis of such relatiobnships. And parataxis and hypotaxis are exactly the concrete manifestations of holistic thinking and analytical thinking.

In the field of linguistics and translation studies, parataxis, as opposed to hypotaxis, is the single most important feature distinguishing the Chinese language from English, with Chinese showing paratactic prominence and English hypotactic prominence. Nida once stated, “ So far as English and Chinese are concerned, the most important difference linguistically is the contrast between hypotaxis and parataxis.” (1982, 16) Liu Miqing believes that hypotaxis and parataxis can be viewed as the heterogeneous characteristics.(1992: 18). Zhang Li proposes that Chinese, in terms of grammar, belongs to parataxis, one of whose overall features lies in conciseness and economy. (1994: 84)

Hence, English uses many conjunctions, prepositions and other connective means to make links between phrases and words, because of which the language is more logical and better organized. on the other hand, in Chinese, the arranging of clauses is one after the other without connectives showing the relations between them. Hypotaxis can be viewed as the external logic forms of composing words into sentences, and parataxis the internal cognition of wording and phrasing. From the comparisons, we may see that the differences between hypotaxis and parataxis have resulted in the different sentence structures and language expression forms. Here are some examples:

(1) The thirty-two chapters of a novel — if we consider how to read a novel first —are an attempt to make something as formed and controlled as a building: but words are more impalpable than bricks; reading is a longer and more complicated process than seeing.(Virginal Woolf, How Should One Read a Book?)
我们先来讨论一下小说的读法。一部三十二章的小说，作者努力把它塑造成像建筑物一样有形态、受制约的东西。然而，字句之比于砖瓦，更加触摸不到；阅读比之于观看，是个更为长久而复杂的过程。(Selected from the Anthology of Chinese and English Prose)

(2）门铃一声响，来了客人。从不谢客，礼当接待。忙把袜子穿上，整冠而出。来客红光满面，一开口就知道是远客。（楼适夷，《夜间来客——“名人”被访实录》）
Suddenly the doorbell rang，announcing the arrival of a visitor. As Mr. Huang had never refused any visitor before, this one should be received with courtesy too. Quickly putting his socks back on and smoothing his hair，he hurried to the door，and there he was encountered by a man with a fat glowing face.(Lou Shiyi, A Night Visitor— A True Story a ‘Celebrity’ Being Interviewed. Translated by Zhang Peiji)

From the two examples above，we can percept that English is of very hypotaxis. In the first example, one prominent feature is the abundant conjunctions, like “if”, “how”, “but” and “than”. And the sentence structures are tightly knitted with distinct subject-predicate. While in the Chinese version, it is in lack of these overt conjunctive devices. In the second example, in the source language, it uses more than ten verbs in succession, and narrates chronologically. Although it is loosely organized, all of these verbs are arranged in order and present with a clear clue.

Therefore, when translating, the translator must demonstrate the hidden logical structure. But it is not absolute to confine English to hypotaxis and Chinese to parataxis, they just differentiate each other in the degree. Actually in English, Julius Caesar also famously said, “I came, I saw, I conquer.” And in some Chinese works, writers also tend to use the logical and connective sentences. That is to say, it is just the matter of degree, there are also hypotaxis in Chinese and parataxis in English. Moreover, as the exchanges in the world extend, the Chinese and English thinking modes can also be influenced respectively.

===2.2 subject-oriented thinking and object-targeted thinking===

It is well known that Chinese culture and Occidental Culture are quite different, Chinese culture stresses the subject, while Occidental people prefer the objective way of thinking. As China has confronted the severe natural and geographic condition, since the pre-Qin Dynasty, the governor would never think the outside world as the opposite side of human beings. And Chinese people also advocate the harmony between men and nature, which has been retained till now. Moreover, the Chinese Confucian school, Taoism and Buddhism all stress the subject. Lao Tsu said: “ Man models himself after the Earth; the Earth models itself after the Heaven; the Heaven models itself after Tao；Tao models itself after the Nature. ” (Tao Te Ching, chapter 25) Mencius also stated, “All things under heaven are being prepared for me.” (Mencius, chapter 1)

Hence, since ancient times, the Chinese people have tended to consider all things from an anthropocentric standpoint. The outstanding scholar Qian Mu states that “In short, Chinese culture takes human and human affairs as a core. Human and human affairs refer to all reality and ideal when human beings are getting along with each other. The manifestation and achievement of Chinese culture is around the core. The reason why Chinese culture can be fused into a whole is that Chinese culture shows its value through its core-human and human affairs.” (1971: 331) Hence, Chinese culture is human-centered. It is, essentially, a kind of humanistic culture, under the deep influence of which the subjective thought-pattern has come into being.

The subjective thought pattern refers to observing, analyzing, learning and studying objects anthropocentrically and view human beings as the part of a whole nature. On the contrary, the occidental objective thinking takes objects and nature as core, and pay more attention to the observation and research of the objects. The occidental culture originated in Greek peninsular and its coastal areas, where the sages in Ancient Greece has looked upon the cosmos and nature, and always investigated the natural mystery. And based on the dichotomy and antithesis, gradually, the spirit of occidental culture is to separate subjective from objective and to conquer nature.

Hence the occidental tradition takes nature as cognitive object. Unlike Chinese culture and tradition, the occidental rationalism advocates objective attitudes. Francis Bacon once remarked that authority, habit, prejudice and exaggeration are barriers to truth. To seek truth, one should overcome these obstacles. Owing to English people’s objective thinking, they often use impersonal to account the events, and try to be objective. G. Leech and J. Svartvik point out: “Formal written language often goes with an impersonal style; i.e. one which the speaker does not refer directly to himself or readers, but avoids the pronouns I, you, we. Some of the common features of impersonal language are passives, sentences beginning with introductory it, and abstract nouns.”(1974: 25 )

While Chinese people’s subjective thinking pattern demonstrates itself in Chinese in two notable ways: animate subjects and the majority use of active voice. Actually, according to Shen Xiaolong, the configuration of Chinese character demonstrates the subject-oriented thinking pattern. Based on the pictographs, the Chinese characters refer to the object and its ideographs are people-oriented. Hence in English-Chinese translation, the translator should transform from subjective thinking to objective thinking, for instance:

The sight of the big tree always reminds me of my childhood. (连淑能)
一看见那棵大树，我便想起了童年的情景。

A good idea suddenly occur on me.
我突然想出了一个好主意。

The two English sentences, with the abstract subjects: “The sight of the big tree” and “ A good idea” are quite natural to English readers, while in Chinese it is quite queer and none of Chinese people are accustomed to use them in such way. Hence, in Chinese version, it begins with the personal subject “我” and sounds quite smooth and comprehensible to the Chinese readers.

Moreover, in English, the two expletive words (it and there) are frequently used to show their objectivity in the text. At the same time, in Chinese, there are many no-subject sentences, like “下雪了” “该去学校啦” “太冷了”. While such kind of expression are not allowed in English, for it appears to be complete with a subject in English grammar. Hence, in English, they can be expressed in this way: “it snows”, “It is time to go to school” and “It is too cold”. And owing to English objective thinking, the English passive voice, especially the impersonal passive of “it” is used as the subject, such as “it is believed”, “it is said”, “it is reported”, etc., expresses the facts or ideas in an objective, indirect and roundabout way.

It is obvious that the English passive sentences should be converted into the Chinese active sentences. Although the sentence structures are changed, the meanings still remain the same as the original sentences. Also in English “there” and “there be” patterns are impersonal expressions, But in Chinese translation, concrete persons and things are usually used instead. For instance:

(1) 公交车来了。
There comes the bus.
(2) 我家有五口人。
There are 5 people in my family.

Clearly, the sentences above reveal that in Chinese there must be certain subjects supplanting the “there” or “there be” pattern. In general, with the influence of the respective modes of thinking, Chinese tends to be subjective and English prefers objection, but it is not necessarily absolute. In English, we can also find numerous personal subjects like “I think”, “I believe”. And in Chinese, it often uses the passive tense in the writings in Classical Chinese, such as “受制于人” (be restricted by) “为人所骗” (be cheated by). Hence, it is also quite common to begin with personal subjects in English and use objective subject and passive tense in Chinese. Clearly, it is a matter of degree.

===2.3 Concrete thinking and abstract thinking===
Thinking in images and thinking in notions are two forms of thought activities. Generally speaking, Chinese people are well good at thinking in images, while English–speaking people are well developed in thinking in notions. These two tendencies are rooted in their own cultures (包惠南, 2001: 26). Actually, the change and development of Chinese characters is the best illustration. As we all know Chinese language is vivid and full of images and the Chinese character is characterized by pictographs. For example, the character “人” (man) is like the two legs of a person; and “从” (follow) looks like that one person is followed by another; the “山” (mountain) is the shape of a mountain.

Therefore, from ancient times, Chinese people tend to borrow the images of outside world to form their own hieroglyphs. Following such kind of thought model, concrete thinking is established and reflected in Chinese language. As Nakamura remarks, “The Chinese people had a high regard for particulars, and presented content concretely in accordance with their way of thinking, naturally fond of complex multiplicity expressed in concrete form.” ( 1991, 217) While Occidental people prefer abstract thinking which takes concept, judgment and reasoning as form of thinking, and expresses ideas and emotions through logical sentences.

Since the English letters are based on the Greek alphabet, and it is hard to form a pictograph to express the meaning of the word which can only come from the object description of the nature. Also in the process of learning and analyzing the objective world, the occidental aim at exploring the essence and origin of the world. By means of classification and analysis, they try to find the universals of the same kind of objects and combine them together to form a so-called “the World of form” or “the ideal world”.

Moreover, they are fairly interested in the properties of things, and examine them carefully and thoroughly. Their explorations about mathematics, geometry and astronomy contribute to abstract thinking. In the aspect of linguistic expression, the English language tends to be more abstract or logical. Abstract language refers to the language that uses method of abstract diction to express the complex ideas which lie mainly in abstract nouns. G. M.Young once pointed，“an excessive reliance on the noun at the expense of the verb will, in the end, detach the mind of the writer from the realities of here and now, from when and how and in what mood the thing was done. and insensibly induce a habit of abstraction, generalization and vagueness.”

While in Chinese language, the concrete, clear and picturesque words are widely used, just as R. Flesch states, “ Chinese dose more to you than just simplify your constructions… They formed the habit of expressing ideas by metaphors, similes, and all aegis, in short, by every known devices for making a thing plain by comparing it with something else.” (1946: 15-16) The two different kinds of thinking patterns also can be demonstrated in the artistic design of literary works. For instance, the poem《凉州词》written by Wang Han, and the poem《登高》 writer by Du Fu can fully exemplify the concrete and picturesque Chinese language, and both of them are translated by Xu Yuanchong.

葡萄美酒夜光杯，
欲饮琵琶马上催。— 王翰《凉州词》
With wine of grapes the cups of jade would glow at night,
Drinking to pipa songs, we are summoned to fight.

无边落木萧萧下，
不尽长江滚滚来。—杜甫《登高》
The boundless forest sheds its leaves shower by shower,
The endless river rolls it’s waves hour after hour.

In the two poems above, the poets use several concrete images like “wine of grapes”, “cups of jade” “boundless forest” and “ endless river”. It is easy to visualize the certain situation that poets depict for us, when we read these lines. While in English there are more abstract nouns to replace the function of verb and express abstract meanings, which sometimes can cause puzzlement for Chinese people. For instance, in Benjamin Franklin’s The Autobiography:
“To help myself live without fault, I made a list of what I considered the 13 virtues. These virtues are: 1 Temperance, 2 Self-control, 3 Silence, 4 Order, 5 Firmness of mind, 6 Savings, 7 Industry, 8 Honesty, 9 Justice, 10 Cleanliness, 11, calmness, 12 Morality, 13 Humbleness.”

“为了使自己生活中不犯错误，特别列出我认为应该身体力行的 13 条守则。这些守则
是：1.节制饮食 2.自我克制 3. 沉默寡言 4. 有条不紊 5. 坚定信念 6.勤俭节约 7. 工作勤奋8. 忠诚老实 9. 办事公正 10. 衣着整洁 11.平心静气 12. 品行高尚 13.谦虚恭顺。”
There are 13 abstract words in English and they are translated into Chinese concretely with the verbs to govern the phrases. So that it would be vividly explained what do these abstract words convey in a specific way.

Wisdom prepares for the worst; but folly leaves the worst for the day it comes.
智者防范于未然，愚者临渴掘井。（陈文伯译）

In the sentence, “wisdom” and “folly” are two abstract nouns, but they actually refer to certain people. The expression in English is quite common and concise, while Chinese people are accustomed to the thinking in images, hence, in the translation, the concept of two abstract nouns is materialized as two people with certain properties. So that Chinese people can better understand the implicit meaning.

===2.4 circular thinking and linear thinking===

According to Robert Kaplan who analyzes different discourses and their different organization in different notions, students from different cultural backgrounds adopt different patterns of writing. The Chinese text, in contrast with the English text which is organized in a linear structure, is usually arranged in circular structure (1966:1-2).
Circular thinking can also be known as inductive thinking in which we infer a conclusion on the basis of facts and draw a conclusion from particular to general. From ancient times, traditional Chinese medicine already sets a model for us. They follow the principles of “inspection”, “inquiry”, “listening” and “smelling” and can finally make a diagnosis.

And underlying the observations, Chinese people will finally draw a conclusion and are not always accustomed to express their opinions directly. Actually, it can derive from the traditional Chinese culture where the Confucianism immensely governs people’s thought. Under the influence of “the doctrine of mean” and the underlined “mutual harmony” in traditional Chinese philosophy, which cultivate Chinese to avoid direct confrontation and conflicts and take a mean course while they are thinking. Hence such kind of circular thinking model can be reflected upon the Chinese language where ideas are often organized and linked in an overall framework, and does not state the topic directly in the opening lines but constantly lays out relevant or even irrelevant information to provide many-sided perspectives for judging.

While, on the contrary, the occidental thinking pattern tends to be linear, or we can say it is a kind of deductive thinking model. It starts from general to particular, from abstract to concrete, and from outcome to reason. The occidental prefer to directly talk about the topic at the beginning without reservation. As a matter of fact, it is deeply influenced by the Greek philosophy. The way of thinking is inherited from the Greek philosophers, such as Plato and Aristotle, especially Aristotelian logical and reasonable thinking. Aristotle puts forward two thought patterns: “ deduction and induction”, while he himself views the deductive method superior to the inductive one.

Just as Guo remarks, “ For over 2000 years, syllogism and deduction have been a mainstream for western culture and thought.” And also Aristotle generalizes the discourse into four parts: beginning, poising a question, analysis and expounding, conclusion, which can be viewed as an epitome of occidental linear thinking pattern. In general, English thought pattern is a straight pattern. And so a text is usually centered on a topic in the form of the topic sentence of topic paragraph and then it is developed in a deductive method, directly by many sentences in a sequence. So, the crucial part is usually put at the beginning of an English sentence, but at the end of a Chinese sentence. Here are some examples:

(1) Soccer is a difficult sport. A player must be able to run steadily without rest. Sometimes a player must hit the ball with his or her head. Players must be willing to bang into or be banged into by others. They must put up with aching feet and sore muscles.
足球运动员必须不停地奔跑，有时得用头顶球，撞别人或被别人撞，必须忍受双腿和肌肉的疼痛，所以说，足球是一项难度大的运动。

There is another example to view how Chinese people and American people express their own emotions. The two excerpts are from the Keynote Speech By H.E. Xi Jinping President of the people’s Republic of China At the Opening Ceremony of The third China International Import Expo and President Obama’ speech at Fu Dan University in Shanghai respectively.

(2) 各位来宾，
女士们，先生们，朋友们：
Distinguished Guests,
Ladies and Gentlemen,
Dear Friends,
在各方共同努力下，第三届中国国际进口博览会开幕了！首先，我代表中国. 政府和中国人民，并以我个人的名义，向各位嘉宾，表示热烈的欢迎！对各位新老朋友，表示诚挚的问候！
With concerted efforts of all parties, the third China International Import Expo (CIIE) is now open. At the outset, let me extend, on behalf of the government and people of China as well as in my own name, a hearty welcome to all the distinguished guests. To the many old and new friends, I give you my warm greetings and best regards.

Good afternoon. It is a great honor for me to be here in Shanghai, and to have this opportunity to speak with all of you.
诸位下午好。我感到很荣幸能够有机会到上海跟你们交谈。

Obviously, in the first example, in English versions, the topic sentence is presented first, then it begins to illustrate the topic in a logical way to convince us that soccer is a difficult sport. Then in the second example, we can see that the president Xi and American former President Obama show their delight in quite different ways. We Chinese people tend to express our joy at the end of discourse, while American people are willing to show their emotions at the beginning, which also vividly presents the Chinese linear thinking and Occidental circular thinking.

Although the distinction is widely recognized at home and abroad, it is not categorically clear about the line between Chinese and English. Actually, many ancient writers in China are fond of coming straight to the point and hit the nail on the head in a precise way. Liang Qichao, an excellent ancient scholar in Qing Dynasty, proposes in his the Methodology of Composition above Middle School, that the most important thing is to make readers get the writer’s purpose at a glance when reading an article, so that it can touch and gain the reader’s interest. Hence it is hard to say that English is Linear and Chinese is circular as Robert Kaplan defines.

===3. Conclusion===
The discussions of the comparison between Chinese and Occidental thinking models have been carried out for a long time. In this paper, through the comparison of four opposite types of modes of thinking: Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking, subject-oriented thinking vs object-targeted thinking, concrete thinking vs abstract thinking, and linear thinking vs circular thinking, and presenting how they reflect upon their language, it demonstrates that cultural diversity and different historical origin may dominate the formation of thinking patterns. Since in the sea of the Chinese and Occidental language and thought, the culture is like a mirror which reflects all-embracing phenomena. That is to say, language, thought and culture are essentially associated with each other.

While there are also some other types of comparison among modes of thought like “static thinking vs dynamic thinking”, “fuzzy thinking vs accurate thinking” and so on. Moreover, we have to classify the writing style and genre of the articles, which would set up different principles in diction, and we can not lump together under one head. Hence this paper just tries to compare them in a general way, so that we can have a relatively overall view about the two languages. Since the thought impacts upon the language, we have to firstly understand how people view about the world around them, and then it is greatly useful to learn a second language well and to better perform in the cross-cultural communication with the extent of cultural exchanges nowadays.

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--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 08:46, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Comparison of Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance 曾良 Zeng Liang 英语笔译 MTI 202070080578==

===Abstract===

In the late 1960s, the famous American translator Eugene Nida proposed the theory of functional equivalence, which has boosted the development of translation theory. The theory is based on modern linguistics, social semiotics and information theory. Its equivalence is not confined to the corrrespondence in vocabulary and grammar between the original language and the target language. Meanwhile, the correspondence of response between the original readers and the target readers is also paid attention. Nida points out that translation should accord with original text in meaning, rather than form, and he also pays much attention to the response of the target readers. He thinks that expressing the target language properly and appropriately is the key in translation, exerting great guiding significance for translators.

With the further effect of western translation theories on Chinese translation theories, Chinese translators also propose different translation theories. Based on Chinese classical aesthetics and literary criticism, Yan Fu, a famous translator of China, proposes the famous translation standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, which has a deep influence on China’s translation circle and provides an important translation theory for Chinese translators.

Nida's functional equivalence and Yan Fu's faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance all provide important translation standards for translators and have a pivotal role in the history of translation theories. At the same time, by analyzing the Chinese translation of ''Vanity Fair'' written by Thackery, the similarities and differences between these two theories will be presented, aiming to have a better understanding in translation.

===Key words===

Functional Equivalence; Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; similarities and differences; ''Vanity Fair''

===摘要===

20世纪60年代末。美国著名翻译家尤金·奈达提出了翻译理论发展史上具有里程碑意义的“功能对等”翻译理论，该理论以现代语言学、社会符号学以及信息论为理论基础，其对等并未局限于原语和目的语之间词汇和语法的转换，对原语读者的感受和目的语言读者的感受是否一致也同样关注。奈达提倡翻译并未形式的对等而是客观内容的对等，他还重视目的语接受者的反应，以合适、贴切的目的语表达视为翻译的中心任务，这对翻译工作者具有重要的指导意义。

随着西方翻译理论对中国翻译理论的影响日益加深，中国翻译家也逐渐提出了自己的翻译理论。中国著名翻译家严复基于中国传统美学和文学评论，提出了著名的“信达雅”翻译标准。这一翻译标准在中国翻译界影响深远，为翻译工作者提供了很重要的翻译理论。

奈达和严复的翻译理论都为翻译工作者提供了重要的翻译标准，在翻译理论史上都具有举足轻重的作用。同时，这两大理论具有许多相似之处和不同点。本文通过对萨克雷《名利场》的中文译本进行分析，并通过对信息文本的处理来对比分析两大理论，找到两者的异同点，希望能对两大翻译理论的理解有一定的促进作用。

===关键词===

功能对等；信达雅；异同；《名利场》

===Introduction===

Looking back on the history of Chinese and western translation, it can be seen that translation theories are rich and colorful. In the western translation field, Nida is recognized as an outstanding representative. His "Functional equivalence" theory has broken through the traditional formal equivalence theory and has had a broad and far-reaching impact. In the Chinese translation circle, Yan Fu is the most influential one. He puts forward the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which is a milestone in the history of Chinese translation theory and promotes the development of Chinese translation theory (Tan Kai 2011, 43).

Although Nida and Yan Fu are in different social environment, and their translation standards are once questioned and denied, it is undeniable that these two translation standards are still the most authoritative and vital in Chinese and Western translation circles (Zhang Yimei 2020, 180).

Despite the different social environment and the imperfect translation standards, it is undeniable that these two are still the most authoritative and vital ones in Chinese and Western translation circles (Zhang Yimei 2020, 180).

====Introduction of Functional Equivalence====

Eugene Nida is a well-known contemporary western linguistics, an expect that researches Bible, and a translation theorist as well. His translation view, which is called functional equivalence, has set off a wave of enthusiasm in the translation field (Zhang Yimei 2020,180).

In 1964, Nida put forward "formal equivalence" and "dynamic equivalence" in the book ''Toward A Science of Translating''(Nida 1964, 45). However, he did not give a clear definition of "dynamic equivalence" until 1969 in the book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' (Nida 1969, 34). In 1993, the expression "dynamic equivalence" was superseded by "functional equivalence" in his work ''From One Language to Another'' (Nida 1993, 67). Dynamic Equivalence is defined "in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it is essentially the same manner as the receptors in the source language (Nida 1969, 24). "

Functional equivalence emphasizes the response of equivalence rather than the form of equivalence. In the process of evaluating the quality of translation, one should not only see whether the form is consistent with the original text, or whether the content is fluent and smooth, but also check whether the response of the target language readers is consistent with the original readers or whether the effect produced by the target text is consistent with the original text (Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). It is impossible to be faithful to the original to full extent. There are many reasons for this. For example, the language ability and knowledge background of translators can cause differences in translation.

In ''Language, Culture and Translating'', Nida divided functional equivalence into two levels: the minimal level and the maximal level (Nida 2001, 78). The minimal level of functional equivalence is defined as "The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it". The maximal level is stated as "The readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did" (Nida 1993, 118). The two definitions of equivalence reveal that the minimal level is realistic, whereas the maximal level is ideal. According to Nida, good translations always lie between the two levels (Nida 1995, 224).

====Introduction of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====

Yan Fu is a famous enlightenment thinker and educator in modern China, as well as an outstanding translation theorist. His three principles of translation—faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, were widely accepted as the essential criteria for understanding translation since the early 20th century. It appeared in Yan Fu’s preface to his translation of Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'' (1898) （Zhang Xi 2014, 1):

"Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness (Xin), expressiveness (da) and elegance (ya). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive, or fluent, is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance. Since China’s opening to foreign trade by sea, there has been no lack of interpreters and translators. But if you assign them any book to translate and tell them to meet these two requirements, few can do so (Yan Fu 2009, 202)."

Based on his understanding of ancient Buddhist Scriptures translation and translation practices, Yan Fu advanced “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which has a great contribution to the history of China’s translation and has become the fundamental tenets of Chinese translation theory in the 20th century (Zhang Xi 2014, 2).

According to Yan’s three principles, the translator should be faithful in conveying the message of the original text, fluent in the expression of the target language, and elegant in the writing style. "Faithfulness" emphasizes the fidelity to the original text. Yan pointed out that translator couldn’t begin his work until he has grasped the spirit and logic of the original text. "Expressiveness" stresses the fluency and acceptability that the translation expresses. "Elegance" reflects that Yan pays much attention to readers’ thought. Yan said in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethics'' (Yan Fu 2009, 202):

"Confucious said, ‘Diction should be expressive.’ He also added, ‘Diction without elegance cannot reach far.’ The three principles should be the basic elements of any writing, and the tenet for translators. Apart from faithfulness and expressiveness, I seek for elegance. (Yan Fu 2009, 202)"

Many people reagrd Yan’s translation standard as a golden rule, however, there are also some criticisms of it. Most criticism comes from the denial of standard "elegance". According to Yan Fu, elegance means using Chinese characters of pre-Han dynasty to express original text. He is inclined to use classical style of writing in pursuing elegance because of two reasons. Firstly, he believes that boring language cannot expand the influence of translated text; secondly, most of the readers of that time are knowledgeable people from the upper class and the translations are foreign philosophy and social science (Zhang Yimei 2020, 180).

Therefore, the common readers cannot understand the real meaning of the original text. "Elegance" now has been modified by later generations, which refers to that the translation should be literary and elegant. Although there are still some doubts about the standard "elegance", the contribution and influence of Yan’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” are undeniable (Zhang Yimei 2020, 180).

===Theoretial Foundation===

====Theoretical Foundation of Nida’s Functional Equivalence====

=====Modern Linguistic=====

Based on modern linguistic, functional equivalence has a close relationship with linguistics (Guo Dingju 2013, 15). Nida successfully applied the research of modern linguistics into translation theory. He used semantic theories, especially the method of semantic componential analysis to analyze referring meaning and associative meaning of vocabulary objectively and accurately (Guo Dingju 2013, 16). He transformed Chomsky’s core sentence theory, deep structure and surface structure, created a relatively complete process of interlingual conversion, and proposed a three-stage theory of the translation process (Zhu Haotong 2006, 64).

According to Nida, various language structures have many similarities and deep structure is more common than surface structure (Nida 1964, 68). Therefore, through the interlingual conversion of deep structure, the fidelity to the original text can be ensured to the greatest extent. At the same time, since the surface structure of the translated text is the free expression of the conversion of deep structure, the smoothness of the translated text can be ensured as much as possible. The faithful and smooth translations create conditions for the equivalence of readers’ reaction, which makes it possible to achieve functional equivalence(Nida 1964, 68).

=====Information Theory=====

Functional equivalence is also based on information theory. Nida believes that translation is an activity of transforming the information expressed in one language into another, that is to say, the information encoded in one code is transformed into another(Nida 1984, 34). The purpose of translating is to communicate by conveying information (Zhu Haotong 2006, 64). Only when the target language readers obtain the same information as the original readers, the relationship between the target language readers and target information is basically the same as the relationship between original language readers and original information (Nida 1964, 68).

Nida notices that the original readers’ ability to accept information is different from that of target language readers (Zhu Haotong 2006, 64). Generally speaking, the information receptive ability of original language readers is better than target language readers, especially when the original language and the target language belong to different language systems and cultures (Zhu Haotong 2006, 64). Nida stresses that in order to let the target language readers obtain the same information as the original readers, translators can change appropriately the form of the original text for the target readers to better understand the translation (Nida 1984, 34).

=====Social Semiotics=====

Functional equivalence is also based on social semiotics. Nida believes that translating is to translate the meaning of the original, and social semiotics is the most comprehensive system to analyze the meaning (Zhu Haotong 2006, 65).

In the book ''Language, Culture and Translation'', Nida points out that using social semiotics, the science that researches all codes and symbols in human society, to study translation is the most comprehensive way, and the key that is superior to any other translation methods to carry on interlingual translation is that social semiotics studies all codes in human society, and focuses on studying language, the most comprehensive and complex semiotic systems used by human. Therefore, in terms of decoding and encoding, the translation method of social semiotics is more comprehensive than any other translation methods (Nida 1993, 67).

====Theoretical Foundation of Yan Fu’s Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====

=====Chinese Aesthetics=====

Aesthetics is at first a branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of art, beauty and taste with creation and appreciation of beauty (Guo dingju 2013, 18). It has a great impact on traditional Chinese translation theories and standards. In 1898, Yan Fu put forward the famous translation standard “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which has always been the central idea of Chinese translation theory and aesthetics (Yan Fu 2009, 202). Its influence is far-reaching and almost no one can match with it today.

"Faithfulness" means the meaning of the target text should be faithful to the original text with accurate words and without arbitrary omission or deletion. "Expressiveness" means that the form of the target text is not constrained and the translation is smooth and clear. "Elegance" refers to that the words of translation should be appropriate and vivid, and the translation should be concise and elegant like the original. "Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" reveal the essence of translation (Yan Fu 2009, 202). Compared with the long-winded theoretical explanation abroad, these three words cover almost all the content of translation aesthetics, and fully reflect the concise beauty of Chinese characters (Guo Dingju 2013, 18).

Chinese aesthetics mainly comes from the ancient asetheics, which is the theoretical foundation of Yan Fu’s translation theory of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance (Guo Dingju 2013, 19).

=====Literary Criticism=====

Literary criticism (or literary studies) is the study, evaluation, and interpretation of literature. Modern literary criticism is often influenced by literary theory, which is the philosophical discussion of literature's goals and methods (Guo Dingju 2013, 19).

On the whole, literary criticism can be divided into two categories. One is the body of study focused on ethics and human emotions. The other is a bulk of explorations centered around the craftmanship of literary works (Li Jianzhong 2009, 45). The core of Chinese literary criticism is the theory of literary creation (Li Jianzhong 2009, 46).

There are mainly three types of literary criticism in the early 20th century from the aspect of criticism functions. The first type of literary criticism focuses on literary works. The critics of this type analyze literay works with their own experience and wisdom, which is called art-oriented criticism, Lu Xun being one of the representative. The second type aims at the independent cultural value. The critics try to dig out its philosophical, psychological, ethnic and linguistic significance of works. The third one is society-oriented criticism serving politics, which works well in the period of political struggels (Wang Yunxi 2007, 78).

===Comparative Studies on Translation theories of Nida and Yan Fu===

====Introdution of ''Vanity Fair'' and Yang Bi’s Translation Versions====

=====About ''Vanity Fair''=====

''Vanity Fair'' is Mr. Thackeray’s most important work. The novel takes place during the Napoleonic Wars and tells the stories of two contrasted girls: Amelia Sedley, the daughter of a wealthy merchant, a good natured, loveable though simple-minded young girl, and Rebecca (Becky) Sharp, an orphan who is a strong-willed and cunning young woman. These two girls met at Miss Pinkerton’s Academy for young ladies, the former driven by delicate heart and the latter by social ambition (Guo Dingju 2013, 21).

At the begining, Becky lived in a rich life and her social state was promoted step by step relying on some ignoble means. But Amelia suffered great sorrow because of her father’s bankruptcy. However, several years later, their lives were totally changed. They seemed to go back to their origianl work. Becky gained nothing, and Amelia returned to happy life again (Thackeray 2006，178).

This novel gains great success and shapes the image of a bad woman, Becky. You may hate her, but you will never forget her once you read this wonderful novel. Although she is a charater living in a different time and world, you can feel her presence in our world, even in any society. ''Vanity Fair'' is one of the greatest literary works describing society at that time (Guo Dingju 2013, 21).

The capitalists’ accumulation and the 19th society are all presented to readers through Thackeray’s description. This novel reflects the degradation and social hypocrisy and people at that time try every means to keep in contact with the upper class. The title of this novel reveals the theme: the treasures of vanity fair, that is money and position, desirable but transient. Thackeray’s idea is that although one may live in vanity fair, he doesn’t need to be a slave to its values, which will eventually turn into emptiness (Thackeray 2006, 89).

=====Yang Bi’s Translation of ''Vanity Fair''=====

There are many Chinese translation versions of ''Vanity Fair''. Among these versions, Yang Bi’s translation version ranks the first, which has been published for four times by different publications. Yang Bi’s version of ''Vanity Fair'' was firstly published by People’s Literature Publication in 1957, then re-published in 1997 and 2000. The latest version was published by The Commercial Press in 2012. Yang Bi’s translation version of ''Vanity Fair'' was praised and encouraged by many translators, such as Fu Lei (Guo Dingju 2013, 23).

Yang Bi shows target language readers a sense of wholeness by smooth sentence structure amd takes related cultural background into consideration. Owing to her proficiency in Chinese, she can convey the meaning of the original text appropriately to Chinese readers, hence having a great response from Chinese readers (Guo Dingju 2013, 23).

====An Analysis on Nida’s Functional Equivalence from Translation of ''Vanity Fair''====

Thackeray has a sharp eye on his literary works, especially in ''Vanity Fair'', which requires an outstanding understanding and expressive ability of the translator when translating. When comparing the English and Chinese version of ''Vanity Fair'', it’s easy to find that Yang Bi’s translation is good at dealing with words, sentences, chapters, and rhetorical devices. Her translation is natural and smooth that the target language readers feel like reading the traditional novels (Zhang Yanmei 2019, 16). In this paper, two main aspects will be analyzed by the author.

=====At Lexical Level=====

In traditional grammar, one of the kernel parts is Part of Speech. Some regular rules are deeply rooted in our minds, such as adjectives modify nouns, adverbs modify verbs and adjectives, and conjunctions connect parts of sentences. People who learn foreign languages are familiar with these rules. However, the quality of translation will be influenced if these rules are brought into the translation. Under this circumstance, Nida suggests abandoning the traditional grammar and adopting new seven-part-of-speech system(Nida 1943, 89), those are

(1) entities, such as woman, desk, dictionary, and so on;

(2) activities, such as walk, run, swim and so on;

(3) states, such as dead, excited, happy and so on;

(4) characteristics, such as tall, huge, fat and so on;

(5) processes, such as shorten, grow, enlarge and so on;

(6) links, such as when, during, below and so on;

(7) deictics, such as that, there, this and so on (Nida 1986, 20).

From the translation of Yang Bi’s ''Vanity Fair'', we can find that the target text is flexible and functional equivalence of Nida is achieved at the lexical level. Free translation is the main translation method that she adopts. What’s more, she combines different translation techniques, such as combination, addition, and omission to reproduce the origianl meaning in the target language (Zhang Yanmei 2019, 16).

Exampe 1:

ST1: ...for what can be prettier than an image of Love on his knees before Beauty？(Thackeray 2006, 138)

TT1: ……痴情男子向美貌佳人跪下求婚，还不是一幅最赏心悦目的画吗? (杨必 2013, 47)

In ST1, "Love" and "Beauty" are two entities according to Nida’s classification of words(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19). In the original text, Thackeray describes a scene in which Baron proposes to Rebecca. He uses abstract words "Love" and "Beauty" to represent Baron and Rebecca. In TT1, Yang Bi translates "Love" and "Beauty" into "痴情男子" and "美貌佳人" to reproduce the meaning of the original text. Although the words in ST1 are abstract and the words in TT1 are concrete, the meaning of the origianl text is greatly reproduced in the translation, and the translation is even more vivid than the original one. What’s more, the translation contains a humorous tone, and the target language readers can feel humorous and interesting(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19). If we translate "Love" and "Beauty" into "爱情" and "美人", the literal menaing and charm of original text are lost and the style of original text is not reproduced in the target language.

=====At Syntactical Level=====

A sentence is the basic unit of language. In the process of translating Englsih sentences into Chinese, the translator should comprehend the original writer’s intention and then express it in the target language. Thus, the arrangement of sentences should be considered. On the syntactical level, English has long compound sentences which belong to hypotactic sentence, while Chinese has more short sentences which belong to paratactic sentence. What’s more, there are many distinctions between English and Chinese sentences which requires the translator to make proper adjustments. In order to overcome the obstacles of long sentences in translation, Nida put forward a suggestion that one long difficult sentence can be divided into several core sentences. Nida uses the concept of core kernel sentence (Nida 1946, 55). He thinks there are seven types of kernel sentence in English:

(1) subject + predicate + adverbial, such as, John wrote slowly;

(2) subject + predicate + object, such as, John hit Bill;

(3) subject + predicate + object + object, such as, John gave Mary a gift;

(4) subject + be + subject complement, such as, John is in the restaurant;

(5) subject + be + attributive, such as, John is kind;

(6) subject + be + indefinite article + noun, such as, John is a man;

(7) subject + be + pronoun+noun, such as, John is my friend.

The above seven sentences are understandable in human language. No matter what language you speak in communicating with others, the people you talk with can understand your meaning as long as you use simple sentences (Guo Dingju 2013, 32). Nida believes that experienced translators often break down complex sentences into simple sentences when translating the origianl text (Nida 1946, 56). The translator often needs to make proper adjustments and rebuild the sentence structure in the target text. Many examples in Yang Bi’s translation of ''Vanity Fair'' are discovered to simplify the sentences. From her translation, we also find out that functional equivalence is achieved at the syntactical level in Yang Bi’s translation.

Example 2:

ST2: His first marriage with the daughter of the noble Binkie had been made under the auspices of his parents; and as he often told Lady Crawley in her lifetime she was such a confounded quarrelsome high-bred jade that when she died he was hanged if he would ever take another of her sort, at her ladyship’s demise he kept his promise, and selected for a second wife Miss Rose Dawson, daughter of Mr.Johm Thomas Dawson, ironmonger, of Mudbury.
(Thackeray 2016, 75)

TT2: 他第一次结婚的时候,奉父母之命娶了一位贵族小姐,是平葛家里的女儿。克劳来夫人活着的时候，他就常常当面说她是个讨人嫌的婆子，礼数又足，嘴巴子又碎；并且说等她死了之后，死也不愿意再娶这么一个老婆了。他说到做到：妻子去世以后，他就挑了墨特白菜铁器商人约翰·汤姆士·道生的女儿露丝·道生做填房。
(Yang Bi 2013, 76)

In ST2, there is a long and complex sentence and the word quantity of this sentence is eighty. According to Nida’s theory, this long sentence can be divided into several kernel sentences (Nida 1946,76). Yang Bi carefully simplified this long sentence into several short sentences.

(1) 他第一次结婚的时候，奉父母之命娶了一位贵族小姐，是葛平家里的女儿。

His first marriage with the daughter of the noble had been undre the auspices of his parents.

(2) 他经常跟克莱劳夫人说一些事。

He often told Lady Crawley in her lifetime.

(3) 她是个讨人嫌的婆子，礼数又足，嘴巴子又卖力。

She was such a confounded quarrelsome high-bred jade.

(4) 她死后，他许下承诺。

He was hanged after her death.

(5) 他不会再娶这么一个老婆了。

He would never take another of her sort.

(6) 妻子去世后，他遵守了自己的承诺。

At her ladyship’s demise he kept his promise.

(7) 他挑了墨特白菜铁器商人约翰·汤姆士·道生的女儿露丝·道生做填房。

He selected for a second wife Miss Rose Dawson, daughter of Mr. John Thomas Dawson, ironmonger, of Mudbury.

In this example, the sentence structure is transformed from a long complex sentence into seven short simple sentences. Although the sentence structure is different, the meaning of the original is expressed completely in its translation and the target language readers can have a good understanding of the original meaning.

====An Analysis on Yan Fu’s Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance from Translation of ''Vanity Fair''====

The translation of Yang Bi’s ''Vanity Fair'' is a good example of combination of Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegence(Guo Dingju 2013, 23). We will analyze Yang Bi’s translation of ''Vanity Fair'' from lrxical and sentence level.

=====At Lexical level=====

Literary words demands that the translator has good command of comprehensive and expressive abilities. Although many words are equivalence in English-Chinese dictionary, yet it is not easy to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance with mere literal meaning equivalence (Guo Dingju 2013, 25). Thackeray is very particular about the words, so it is not easy for the translator to express the original meaning. But Yang Bi grasps the original meaning and does quite well in his translation, which makes the translation vivid and interesting. Let’s look at how to achieve faithfulness, expressive and elegance in her translation.

Example 3:

ST3: …for what can be prettier than an image of Love on his knees before Beauty? (Thackeray 2006, 138)

TT3: ……痴情公子向美貌佳人跪下求婚，还不是一幅最赏心悦目的画吗？ (杨必 2013, 47)

In ST3, there is a scene of Baron proposing marriage to Rebecca. Thackeray uses the abstract words "an image of Love" and "Beauty" to refer to Baron and Rebecca. What’s more, the original text contains a ridiculous tone, and readers can feel humorous from Thackeray’s words. Only when the translator translates the style and spirit of the original faithfully can faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance be achieved (Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19).

If the words "prettier", "an image of Love" and "Beauty" are translated into "更好看" "爱情形象" "美人" respectively, the style and charm of the original are lost and faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are not achieved in the translation. In Yang Bi’s translaton ,she achieves faithfulness, expressiveness and elegence by her good mastering of language. In TT3, "痴情男子" "美貌佳人" and "赏心悦目" reproduce the further meaning of the original text, which achieves the standard of Yan Fu’s faithfulness. What’s more, expressiveness is also achieved in her translation because the translation is smooth. Meanwhile, these groups of words are elegant, which convey the style and charm of the original text and conform to the characteristcs of literary works. Thus, elegance is also achieved in Yang Bi’s translation (Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19).

=====At Sentence Level=====

English and Chinese are different in many aspects. For example, English sentences are tree-structure and there are many long complex sentences in English, while Chinese sentences are bamboo-structure and they are usually short. English sentences emphasize hypotaxis, while Chinese sentences stress parataxis (Guo Dingju 2013, 40). Thus, it is impracticable to translate English into Chinese without changing sentence structures and it is difficult for the translator to achieve Yan Fu’s standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. There are many long sentences in ''Vanity Fair'', so it is a challenging work for Yang Bi to translate them into Chinese. However, by researching Yang Bi’s translation, we will find out her good performance of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance.

Example 4:

ST4: The amiable behavior of Mr.Crawley, and Lady Jane’s kind reception of her, highly flattered Miss Briggs, who was enabled to speak a good word for the latter, after the cards of the Southdown family had been presented to Miss Crawley. (Thackeray 2006, 74)

TT4: 布立葛丝小姐看看克劳莱先生的态度那么客气，吉恩小姐又待她热情，觉得受宠若惊，等到沙吴赛家里的名片送到克劳莱小姐面前，她就找机会给吉恩小姐说了些好话。(Yang Bi 1997, 6)

In the original sentence, the abstract words "behavior" and "reception" are the subject of the sentence, which shows the static feature of English. If translate it into "克劳莱先生的客气态度和吉恩小姐的热情接待使布立葛丝小姐受宠若惊……" without changing sentence structure, we will find that it doesn’t conform to the expression habits of Chinese. Although it seems to be faithful to the original form and meaning, it is stiff. On the contrary, Yang Bi changes its sentence structure and uses the object of the original as the subject in target language. With this adjustment, Yang Bi changes static language into dynamic one and faithfully reproduces the meaning of the original into target language. What’s more, her translation is smooth and full of beauty of literary works. In a word, the translation of this sentence conform to the standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance.

====A Comparative Study on Translation Theory of Nida and Yan Fu====

===== Similarities =====

Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are very popular in the translation field, which have been used as golden rules in the process of translating (Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). In fact, there are many similarities between them. This paper will research two main similarities of them.

One similarity of them is that they both pay attention to readers’ response. In Nida’s opinion, one of important ways of evaluating translation works is the target text reader’s response to the information conveyed by the original author. Thus, when evaluating a translation work we should pay attention to target language readers. Meanwhile, we should compare the reaction of original readers with the reaction of target readers to see if they are consistent (Nida & Taber 1969, 22).

Yan Fu also attaches great importance to readers. The purpose of his translation is to enlighten the ruling class, who are more proficient in classical Chinese. So Yan Fu advocates using the words and grammar of Han Dynasty (Guo Dingju 2013, 43). Therefore, Nida and Yan Fu both pay attention to readers.

The other similarity is that they both emphasize on conveying information. Nida believes that translation is communication. Translation works are useless if they cannot play the role of communicating (Zhu Haotong 2006, 64). Therefore, the relationship between the target language recipient and the translation information should be the same as the relationship between the original language recipient and the original information (Nida 1969, 30). But sometimes it is difficult to completely convey information in the original text into the target text. In this case, the translator must change the form of the target language to some extent.

Yan Fu also stresses on conveying the original information. He points out that words and phrases can be reversed, added and deleted freely (Guo Dingju 2013, 44). We need not care too much about the order of phrases without losing the original meaning.

By comparing the similarities of Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories, we can find out that they both pay attention to readers and emphasize on conveying information of the original text.

===== Differences =====

Although there are many similarities between these two thoeries, there are still some differences because of the different cultural background, personal consciousness and other factors. Firstly, functional equivalence is more logic and scientific than faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. The former is closely related to multiple disciplines, and it is more systematic, while the latter is merely based on literature and aesthetics (Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). Secondly, Nida gives detailed explanation of functional equivalence, which is clear and accurate, while the explanation of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance given by Yan Fu is somewhat ambiguous (Zhang Yimei 2020, 181). There are a lot of arguments on the explanation of "elegance". What’s more, the concrete explanation of "faithfulness" is not clear. Whether the target text should only be "faithful" to the content of the original text or the content and style of the original is not explicit to translators. Thirdly, in guiding sense, Nida’s functional equivalence mentions four aspects, that is, lexical equivalence, syntactical equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence, and he gives six principles on how to achieve functional equivalence (Nida 1964, 67). However, Yan Fu doesn’t mention how to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, so translators can only use them as the translation standard.

===Conclusion===

With the further communication between Western and Chinese culture, it is vital to study literature as it is a bridge to connect different cultures and a good medium to know the colorful world. ''Vanity Fair'' is a literary work that gains a great popularity in the nineteenth century because it satirizes the hypocrisy of the upper class (Guo Dingju 2013, 22). However, it is difficult to translate it from English into Chinese because of the differences between these two languages. By a coincidence, Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance can be used as a guidance in the process of translation.

From the comparison above, it is known that there are some similarities and differences between these two thoeries. It is believed that these two translation theories both play an important role in translation, guiding us to better understand different cultures.

====Implements====

Based on analysis above, we can see that Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are conducive to our translating works and it is feasible to apply them into translation practice. By comparing Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories, we know that there are many similarities and differences between them and we can find out that Nida’s functional equivalence is systematic and scientific, while the explanation of Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance is not very clear, and the specific ways to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are not given (Zhang Yimei 2020, 181).

What’s more, from the point of modern translation theories, both Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories are very limited. Their theories are suitable in some fields, while in other fields they are not very proper (Guo Ding 2013, 48). All in all, we should learn from other’s strong points to make up one’s deficiencies to make our translation better and apply them into our translation practice.

====Limitations====

Translation of literary works is a very difficult and demanding thing, which requires a good command of both English and Chinese languages, and an excellent understanding of two cultures. Although the author have spared efforts to do the study, there still exist some limitations. Firstly, the examples of Vanity Fair used in the analysis is very limited, so its generalizability is far from adequate. Secondly, this study is restricted because it only takes one translation version of ''Vanity Fair'' as a case study instead of a comparative study between different translation versions.

===References===

Nida, Eugene Albert. (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating''. Leiden: Brill Archive.

Nida, Eugene Albert, and Charles Russell Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill Archive.

Nida, Eugene Albert, and Jan de Waard. (1986). ''From One Language to Another''. Nashville: Thomas Nelson.

Nida, Eugene Albert. (1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Languages Education Press.

Thackeray, William. (2006）. ''Vanity Fair''. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.

Chen Minjie 陈岷婕. (2013). 浅谈严复的信达雅与奈达的功能对等 [On Yan Fu’s "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance" and Nida’s "Functional Equivalence"]. ''科教文汇'' The Science Education Article Collects (236) 94-97.

Guo Dingju 郭丁菊. (2013). 功能对等理论与信达雅翻译理论的比较研究 [A Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness Expressiveand Elegance]. Harbin: Northeast Forestry University 东北农业大学.

Li Jianzhong 李建中. (2009). 中国文学批评史 [History of Chinese Literary Criticism]. Beijing: Peking University Press 北京大学出版社.

Tan Kai 谭凯. (2011). 严复“信、达、雅”和奈达“功能对等”理论的比较研究 [A Comparative Study on Yan Fu’s "Faithfulness Expressive and Elegance" and Nida’s "Functional Equivalence"]. ''青年作家'' Young Writers (1) 43-44.

Wang Yunxi 王运熙, Gu Yisheng 顾易生. (2007). 中国文学批评史新编 [A New History of Chinese Literary Criticism]. Shanghai: Shanghai Classics Publishing House 上海古籍出版社.

Yan Fu 严复 (2009). 《天演论》译例言 [Preface to ''Evolution and Ethics'']. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.

Yang Bi 杨必. (2013)《名利场》 [''Vanity Fair'']. Beijing: People’s Literature Publishing House 人民文学出版社.

Zhang Yanmei 张妍梅. (2019). 功能对等理论视角下《名利场》的翻译 [A Study on The Translation of ''Vanity Fair'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory]. Lanzhou: Lanzhou Jiaotong University 兰州交通大学.

Zhang Xi 张曦. (2014). 翻译硕士备考指南 [A Guide Book to MTI]. Shanghai: Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press 上海交通大学出版社.

Zhang Yimei 张忆美. (2020). 对比“信达雅”与功能对等 [A Comparison on "Faithfulness Expressiveness and Elegance" and Functional Equivalence]. ''中国学术期刊电子出版社'' China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House (2) 180-181.

Zhu Haotong 朱浩彤. (2006). 奈达“功能对等”理论基础的再思考 [Some Thoughts on the Theoretical Bases of Nida’s "Functional Equivalence"]. ''福建医科大学学报'' Journal of Fujiann Medical University (3) 62-65.

--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 15:03, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==English Translation of 2019 ''Government Work Report'' from the Perspective of Eco-translatology 义子楚 Yi Zichu 202070080618 英语笔译==

===Abstract===
In recent years, with the deepening of the reform and opening up, the ''Government Work Report'' has become China's foreign political communication hub conducive to a better understanding by the international community of the work of the Chinese government. Therefore, how to effectively write the corresponding English version and how to fully convey the message of the government's work is one of the main problems for translators. Eco-translatology is an ecological paradigm and research field which defines that translation is adaptation and selection and highlights multi-dimension transformation. This thesis analyzes the English translation of the ''2019 Government Work Report'' from three perspectives: linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions. It is shown that eco-translatology help improve the quality of the English translation of ''2019 Government Work Report'' .

===Key words=== eco-translatology; ''2019 Government Work Report''; multi-dimension transformation

===摘要===
近年来，随着改革开放的不断深入，《政府工作报告》已变成中国对外政治交流的枢纽，有利于加深国际社会对中国政府工作的了解。因此，如何有效地编写《中国政府工作报告》对应的英文版本，从而全面清晰地解释政府工作的内容是政府对外翻译的主要问题之一。生态翻译理论从生态学视角对翻译进行综观的整体性研究，是一个‘翻译即适应与选择’的生态范式和研究领域。本文主要从生态翻译学的多维翻译理论着手，通过语言维、文化维和交际维三个角度对《2019政府工作报告》的英译版本进行分析。分析显示生态翻译理论较好地解决了政府工作报告中翻译难题，提高了英文翻译的质量。

===关键词===生态翻译学，《政府工作报告》，多维转换理论

===Introduction===
The ''Government Work Report'' of the State Council is a review of the work within a year, which the National People's Congress on the Prime Minister of State Court reports to the National People's Congress and the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, including the task of deployment, and the transmission of the priority tasks. Over the past four decades and since reform and opening up, China's overall political, economic, cultural and military strength has grown steadily, and so has its voice in the world. On the one hand, China is recognized and supported by the international community in economic, political and cultural fields. On the other hand, countries hope to have a deeper understanding of China, strengthen ties with China and realize common development. Due to this, the translation of external publicity is particularly important. Let China know more about the world and let the world know more about China.Cheng Zhenqiu，2003)

As the latest work report of the year, the ''2019 Government Work Report'' is not only a comprehensive summary of the work of the government in 2018, but also a plan for the work of the government in 2019. It covers the latest political, economic, cultural and diplomatic developments in China. Eco-translatology theory, which originated in China, provides a new and unique perspective for translation studies and has made great progress in the past two decades. Through the interpretation of the core concepts of eco-translatology, the essay interprets the report language from the perspectives of vocabulary and syntax, and proposes translation strategies based on language dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension, so as to provide reference for the translation of external publicity materials. In order to understand the Government Work Report accurately, we must be combined with the society and culture of China. （Cheng Zhenqiu，2003）

In order to proves that eco-translation is conductive and practical in the process of translating the Government Work Report and summarizes several useful strategies in translating political texts. Moreover, this thesis analyzes the features of ''Government Work Report'', which provides a clear mind for translators in selecting the proper strategies in translation process of the ''Government Work Report''. The essay includes three chapters. The first part introduces the research background of the study and the significance of the study, and also illustrates the previous research on the translation of ''Government Work Report'' at home and abroad. Chapter two surrounds on the theoretical framework of eco-translatology including adaptation and selection principle and multi-dimensional translation principle. Chapter three, as one of the main chapter of the thesis, analyzes the translation of the 2019 Government Work Report from the perspective of eco-translatology.（Cheng Zhenqiu，2003）

===1.Introduction of Government Work Report===

''Government Work Report'' has the features of com prehension and objection, using the data to tell the achievements of all aspects and obey the practical and realistic rules to implementing the plan. Government Work Report emphasizes on the key point of works which has plain and innovative writing style. As a typical political text, Government Work Report manifests distinctive features. First, we need to understand the characteristics of the words, phrases, and sentences in the report so that we can translate them naturally and logically.(Zhou Ji,2006)

====1.1 Lexical Level ====
For ''Government Work Report'' has its own features at m any levels, it often uses the formal and concise words, terminology and plain words at lexical level. And the new, popular words and words with Chinese characteristics are also employed. Therefore, it is very necessary to pay attention to the features at lexical level when analyzing the Government Work Report.(Zhou Ji,2006)

=====1.1.1Formal and Concise Words=====
The expressions like “认真贯彻”(fully implement), “坚定不移纠正”(take stern action against)are quite formal and not common in colloquial conversation. Some expressions like “砥砺奋进”(forged ahead), “攻坚克难”(overcame difficulties) are quite condensed so that the simplest word can explain more meanings. The Chinese four-word structure characteristic can fully satisfy the need of concision, therefore, there are many this kind of structure occurred in the Government Work Report. (Zhou Ji,2006)

=====1.1.2 Terms with Chinese Characteristics=====
As the ''Government Work Reports'' involve many professional fields like politics, economics, livelihood, medicine and technology. Therefore, terms in different fields are inevitable，such as “半拉子”工程 ( Make sure that projects financed by such debts are not stopped half way.); “河长制、湖长制”( river chiefs and lake chiefs ) ; “革命老区” ( old revolutionary base areas ); “民族地区”( areas with large ethnic minority populations ) ; “携号转网”( keep their numbers and switching carriers ); “厕所革命”( the Toilet Revolution ). These words are all unique terms for China ’s national conditions in recent years. If they are translated literally, it will inevitably lead to differences in the understanding of target language readers. In this case, translators must adapt to the ecological environment.(Zhou Ji,2006)

=====1.1.3 New and Popular Words=====
The new words here refer to the popular expressions of the year. They are widely known by people. The internet and other media are also frequently and widely used, such as “好差评”(government service evaluation system); “互联网+”(Internet Plus); “包干制”(the creation of ceilings in funding that enable the retention of unused funds)”僵尸企业”(zombie enterprises);”大病保险”(serious disease insurance ); “绿色发展”(green development). They are too popular on the Chinese social life to let even the government leaders use them and create new ones.(Zhou Ji,2006)

====1.2 Syntactic Level====
In Chinese, the grammatical subject is always absent in a sentence. In Government Work Report, there have lots of this kind of structure frequently. English is a metamorphic language which requires a large number of logical word clauses to build the integrity of language form and meaning. In English grammar, the subject is inevitable so that it can be a complete sentence. (Zhou Ji,2006)
Eg: “困难不容低估，信心不可动摇，干劲不能松懈。” (The difficulties we face must not be underestimated, our confidence must not be weakened, and the energy we bring to our work must not be allowed to wane.)
It is clear that there is no subject in these sentences. However, it adds “we face” and “we bring to work” as subjects to make foreign readers better understand.

====1.3 Rhetorical Level ====
In terms of the rhetorical devices in Government Work Report, repetition, parataxis, metaphor and personification are the figures of speech most frequently used.(Zhou Ji,2006)

In terms of the rhetorical devices in Government Work Report, repetition, parataxis, metaphor and personification are the figures of speech most frequently adopted. (Zhou Ji,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

=====1.3.1 Repetition and Parataxis=====
Repetition and parataxis structure have the reinforcement effect which make the language of Government Work Report vivid and easy to be understood. Although in Chinese, repetition has both the emphasis and coherence effect, in the translation it is not just repeating one word but also keep the similar linguistic structure.
Eg: “进一步稳就业、稳金融、稳外贸、稳外资、稳投资、稳预期”(take further steps to ensure stable employment, a stable financial sector, stable foreign trade, stable foreign investment, stable domestic investment, and stable expectations)
“获得感、幸福感、安全感”(enable people to feel more satisfied, happy, and secure)
“增进稳增长、促改革、调结构、惠民生、防风”(sustain healthy economic development and maintain social stability)

Metaphor and personification, which seem not fit the formal style of Government Work Report, are actually adopted for certain purpose. A metaphor as a figure of speech identifies something as being the same as some unrelated thing for rhetorical effect, thus highlighting the similarities between the two.

Eg:“我国发展仍处于重要战略机遇期，拥有足够的韧性、巨大的潜力和不断迸发的创新活力” (China is still in an important period of strategic opportunity for development and has ample resilience, enormous potential, and great creativity to unleash. )
“在实际执行中，既要把好货币供给总闸门，不搞 “大水漫灌” (In implementation, we will ensure the valve on aggregate monetary supply is well controlled and refrain from using a deluge of stimulus policies)
“放水养鱼”(an accommodative effect)

Repetition and parataxis structure have reinforced that makes the language of ''Government Work Report'' vivid and easy to be understood. Although in Chinese, repetition has both the emphasis and coherence, in the translation it is not just repeating one word but also keep the similar linguistic structure.
Eg: “进一步稳就业、稳金融、稳外贸、稳外资、稳投资、稳预期”(take further steps to ensure stable employment, a stable financial sector, stable foreign trade, stable foreign investment, stable domestic investment, and stable expectations) “获得感、幸福感、安全感”(enable people to feel more satisfied, happy, and secure) “增进稳增长、促改革、调结构、惠民生、防风”(sustain healthy economic development and maintain social stability) Metaphor and personification, which seem not fit the formal style of Government Work Report, are actually adopted for certain purpose. A metaphor as a figure of speech identifies something as being the same as some unrelated thing for rhetorical effect, thus highlighting the similarities between the two. Eg:“我国发展仍处于重要战略机遇期，拥有足够的韧性、巨大的潜力和不断迸发的创新活力” (China is still in an important period of strategic opportunity for development and has ample resilience, enormous potential, and great creativity to unleash. )“在实际执行中，既要把好货币供给总闸门，不搞 “大水漫灌” (In implementation, we will ensure the valve on aggregate monetary supply is well controlled and refrain from using a deluge of stimulus policies)“放水养鱼”(an accommodative effect)

===2.A Brief Introduction to Eco-translatology===

Eco-translatology as a transdisciplinary approach to eco-translatology studies, is a holistic study of translation using ecological rationality and an ecological perspective. It is considered an ecological paradigm of translation which is adaptation and selection. Translator-centered theory, adaptation and selection, and translation ecological environment are the three core concepts of the theory. The theory requires that the translator's subjective and active role be exerted, and continuous adaptation and choice be made in the translation process to meet the entire translation ecological environment, that is, the harmony between the translator and the original, target, and target language readers. Three-dimensional translation methods such as dimension and communicative dimension to get the original text with higher integration.（Hu Gengshen，2001）

====2.1 Evolution of Eco-translatology====
Eco-translation was firstly generated in the beginning of 21st century. Before it was initiated by scholars in China, there was no such notion in theory. In this sense, it could be seen as a new school which “was built from ground” (Haggas, 2011). Eco-translation looks into translation from a brand new perspective. Therefore, many new terms and concepts are adopted in the relative studies. Both of confusion and contribution present themselves in the foundation of eco-translation. To better understand the theory, we need to figure out the basis on which it is formed

====2.2 Focuses of Eco-translatology====
=====2.2.1 Adaption and Selection=====
The relationship between “adaptation” and “selection” has rarely been discussed before the emergence of “translation adaptation and selection theory”, a basic research of eco-translatology, let alone a special topic, systematic description and explanation. According to the theory of adaptation and selection, translators should make both adaptation and selection. There are choices in adaptation, namely adaptive selection; There is adaptation, or selective adaptation. The specific characteristics of such selective adaptation and adaptive selection are as follows: first, “adaptation” -- translators' adaptation to the ecological environment of translation; The second is “selection” -- the translator carries out the selection of the target text with the “identity” of the translation ecological environment. Translation is described as an alternate cycle of adaptation and selection. The internal relations of this cycle are as follows: “the purpose of adaptation is survival and effectiveness, and the means of adaptation is optimization; and the method of choice is “tide weak stay strong”. The criterion of translation criticism is also expressed from the perspective of “adaptation/selection”. The best choice is adaptive; The best translation is the one with the highest degree of integration, adaptation and selection.(Hu Gengshen，2013）

=====2.2.2 Multi-dimension Transformation=====
Language dimension refers to the translator's emphasis on language level, including word use, language structure, language form and other aspects of translation. “Translators should have a deep understanding of the expression habits and methods of the original language, and choose language forms from different dimensions and perspectives, so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the original language” (Hu Gengshen,2013:57). Translators should avoid word-for-word translation for the formal level of language, and should further combine the target language with the imaginary language ecosystem. In this way, it is helpful to further realize the balance between the ecology of the source language and the ecology of the target language of translation, and provide the readers with a harmonious and thought-provoking translation.(Hu Gengshen，2013）

Cultural dimension is an important translation method for translators to improve the quality of translation and realize the multi-dimensional transformation from different levels. The expression of different languages symbolizes different cultures. Of course there are big differences between the original and the target language culture. In the process of translation, to avoid misunderstanding of the original readers fully, conversion of the translator should try to reproduce the original language cultural ecology system, fully implement the original language ecological balance of ecosystem, and the target language to reproduce the original culture, thought and emotion and so on various aspects of the elements, the correct translation methods dealing with the unique cultural connotation, rich in every country to achieve successful communication and exchanges. Translators should understand the value orientation of the original language and culture and focus on the transformation of cultural connotation to achieve the best translation.(Hu Gengshen，2013）

Adaptive selection of communicative dimension focuses on whether the communicative intention in the original text is successfully realized in translation. If the communicative intention of the original information is not realized, the information processed by the translation will have no meaning at all. Translators pay attention to many aspects and levels, including the transformation of language information and cultural connotation, and at the same time, should pay attention to whether the communicative purpose is successfully achieved in the transformation. By all means, it is forbidden to translate the original text faithfully and ignore the deep connotation of the original text.(Hu Gengshen，2013）

By all means, it is forbidden to translate the original text faithfully and ignore the deep connotation of the original text. In a word, the focus of the multi-dimensional transformation in ecological translation theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation from three aspects of language, culture and communication. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, and the higher the quality of the translation will be. (Hu Gengshen，2013）

===3.E-C Translation of 2019 Government Work Report from an Eco-translatology Perspective===
From the perspective of the eco-translatology theory, the multi-dimensional transformation which includes the linguistics dimensional transformation, culture dimensional transformation and communication dimensional can help translator understand and translate effectively.

====3.1 Linguistic Dimension====
The transformation of linguistic dimension refers to the transformation of linguistic form and structure during the practice of translation so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the target language. English is a hypotaxis language, which focuses on the integrity of sentence structure while Chinese is a paratonic language, whose language form is simple, but often the deep meaning needs the reader to dig. Highly condensed Chinese expressions are often used in government reports(Tong Xiaohua,2006)

Example 1 我们坚持不搞“大水漫灌”式强刺激(We were firm in choosing not to adopt a deluge of strong stimulus policies.) “大水灌溉” is an irrigation method commonly used in Chinese agricultural production which water is poured directly into the ground. Not only does it waste water, but it is also prone to secondary salinization under drought conditions. This term is used to refer to a simple and broad way of working in the process of economic reform. In the Chinese ecological environment, it is not difficult for Chinese readers to understand the meaning of metaphors and related words, so a cognitive model for English readers is needed. In order to adapt to the ecological environment, the translator did not translate the metaphor of “flooding”, but chose to translate the economic structural reform model it represents. This not only adapts to the impact of cognitive context on the English language ecology, but also reduces the difficulty in understanding English readers. (Tong Xiaohua,2006)

Example 2 “增强人民群众获得感、幸福感、安全感”(Enable people to feel more satisfied, happy and secure.) In the Government Work Report, “sense of gain, sense of happiness and sense of security” is people's expectation for a better life, and has become a familiar word in the original language. However, in the process of English translation, the translator does not repeat the word “sense”, but turns these three words into three adjectives, which are concise and clear(Tong Xiaohua,2006)

Example 3 “绿色发展人人有责，贵在行动、成在坚持”(Promoting green development is down to every last one of us; its success hinges on action and commitment.) The translator doesn’t translate “贵在行动、成在坚持” into”its value lies in action and its success hinges on commitment”word by word while take the way of integrating. It is a model that targets economic growth and social development as efficient, harmonious and sustainable. In today's world, green development has become an important trend. Many countries regard green development as an industry and also an important measure to promote economic restructuring, and it is also a highlight. Green development means safety, environmental protection and sustainable development. “Green” often appears on topics related to life, such as “Green Peace” and green food. In traditional Chinese culture, “green” represents wealth, honor or prosperity, which reflects people's hope for a better life. From a linguistic perspective, translators translate “green development” to “green,” which conveys the concept of healthy development in China. It can also be accepted by readers. (Tong Xiaohua,2006)

====3.2 Cultural Dimension====
The transformation of cultural dimension means that the translator should pay attention to the transmission and interpretation of cultural connotation in the process of translation, taking into account the cultural differences of the source language. The ''Government Work Report'' is a summary of the work of the Chinese government in various fields in the past year. The purpose of the report is to let foreign audiences know the content of the report. In particular, the report covers a large number of vocabularies with Chinese characteristics and cultural form. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)

Example 4”双随机，一公开”(Oversight conducted through the random selection of both inspectors and inspection targets and the prompt release of results was implemented nationwide.) It means, during the supervision process, the inspection objects are randomly selected, law enforcement inspectors are randomly selected, and the inspection results and investigation results are made public to the society in a timely manner. If the literal translation is only superficial, the readers of the target language will be confused. In order to solve this cultural difference, the translator added the complete connotation of each phrase to realize the intention of conveying cultural connotation. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)

Example 5 “思危方能居安”(Only alertness to danger will ensure safety.) In Chinese, it means”居安思危，思则有备，有备无患”, which means that even though you are in a peaceful environment, you are aware of the possibility of danger. To be mentally prepared for unexpected events. When translating, the translator takes full account of this difference in thinking and understands it as a literal translation after modern Chinese. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)

Example 6 “是广大干部群众筚路蓝缕、千辛万苦干出来的” (...have been made by our officials and people through perseverance and hard work.) “筚路蓝缕” refers that people drive a simple car, wearing ragged clothes to split the mountains. The use of great hardships in the original text fully reflects the hard-won achievements and presents a very vivid image in front of people. However, for the target language readers, this cultural connotation is missing, therefore, the translator chooses to omit the specific image of “enduring hardships” and directly translate its persistence and diligence, which is more understood and accepted by the target language readers(Tong Xiaohua,2014)

Example 6 “是广大干部群众筚路蓝缕、千辛万苦干出来的” (...have been made by our officials and people through perseverance and hard work.) “筚路蓝缕” refers that people drive a simple car, wearing ragged clothes to split the mountains. The use of great hardships in the original text fully reflects the hard-won achievements and presents a very vivid image in front of people. However, for the target language readers, this cultural connotation is missing, therefore, the translator chooses to omit the specific image of “enduring hardships” and directly translate its persistence and diligence, which is more understood and accepted by the target language readers(Tong Xiaohua,2014)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====3.3 Communicative Dimension====
From the perspective of the essence of translation, the ultimate purpose of translation is to meet the needs of communication between people and achieve smooth communication. The communicative dimension mainly reflects the communication between different languages, with different factors such as the way of expression and the way of construction, etc. Chinese expression cannot find the corresponding words or sentences in English expression. Therefore, the theory of adaptive selection is particularly important in translation practice.(Tong Xiaohua,2014)

Example 7”大班额”问题 (“The problem of oversized classes”)
For western countries, due to different economic development levels and different education systems, the problem of “large class size” is relatively strange to western countries. Therefore, it is necessary to explain the concept of “large class size” in order to achieve the purpose of communication.

Example 8”继续推进保障性住房建设和城镇棚户区改造”(We will continue to build government subsidized housing and rebuild rundown urban areas.)
“保障性住房”is a fixed standard, price or rent housing provided by the government to families with low and middle-income housing difficulties. “Shantytown renovation” is a livelihood project launched by the Chinese government to renovate dilapidated old houses in cities and towns and improve housing conditions for poor families. These are the unique policies of the Chinese government to achieve the comprehensive implementation of poverty alleviation, translators need to adapt to the target language readers to understand the transformation.

Example 9 “加大”破、立、降”力度” (We strengthened work to cut ineffective supply, foster new growth drivers, and reduce costs in the real economy.)
In the sentence, there are only three simple and clear words—”破、立、降”，which is usually seen in the Chinese. It lacks the objects, as we have discussed before, English sentence must be complete. If it is literally translated, the foreign readers will be confused and different meanings will be produced. So due to the purpose of communication, the translator adds the specific objects to be better understood.

In short, the emphasis of three-dimensional translation in eco-translatology theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation of translation from three aspects: language, culture, and communication. Although in the process of translation practice the translator is not limited to multi-dimensional transformation. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, the better the translation will be.(Tong Xiaohua,2014)

===Conclusion===

During the process of translation, many factors should be taken into consideration in order to fit with the actual situations and catch public’s attention quickly. Different languages have their language systems and certain features in expression. As the most important carrier of culture, language can also be regarded as an extremely complex linguistic system. Translation is the process of transforming different cultures. Therefore, both source language and target language’s culture should be considered carefully. As a result, every translator is supposed to think about all the aspects before translating and select the most suitable words and sentence patterns.

Because of its important political status and function, the Government Work Report has its unique linguistic features, such as the use of formal words, four-character words and Chinese characteristic words. The mastery of its language features lays a foundation for the application and analysis of multi-dimensional translation strategies. Aiming at the same word in different parts of the sentence translation, the translator should choose according to the sentences and words in the context. Due to the differences between Chinese and English, translators mainly adopt the translation techniques of free translation or joint translation to deal with the translation of parallel structures. In cultural adaptation in the process of translation, or from the historical allusion and the Chinese characteristic vocabulary and culture, the analysis can be concluded that the Government Work Report (斜体)in English translation does not affect the ecological balance and harmonious between the original language and target language, the translator mainly uses the province translation or free translation skills to deal with allusions. For some corresponding expression in target language vocabulary, they can be directly applied with those unable to find corresponding expression in target language. Finally, translators can use these skills to achieve communicative intention. (Yang Guang,2017)

First of all, we have explained the significance and background of the essay. The preview studies of political texts are also included. In the first chapter, we analyze the characteristics of 2019 Chinese ''Government Work Report'' from three levels and also give specific examples to further explain. In the second chapter, We introduce the concept of eco-translatology and mainly explain the two core theoretical principles of eco-transtology to build the foundation of the essay. In the third chapter, we have discussed the ''Government Work Report'' translation from the perspective of eco-translatology with multi-dimension theory and in this way, we have summarized that eco-translatology can be applied to Government Work Report translation. (Yang Guang,2017)

However, this study still has its limitations. Firstly, the eco-translatology is a new theory which is not systematic and it is a new perspective to the translation of political text, which may not be convincing in the global range of translation areas. Meanwhile, as the Government Work Report is a special political document, the readership is not very wide, so it is difficult to conduct an in-depth investigation on the readers' acceptance, so as to make an in-depth analysis on the shortcomings of the English translation of the Government Work Report. (Yang Guang,2017)

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==A Simple Comparison between Nida and Catford’s Translation Theory of Equivalence - 欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling, 202070080603 MTI英语笔译==
<center>欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling </center>
===Abstract===
Abstract: Nida and Catford shared the same period of translation studies but carried on their studies from different perspectives. Nida put forward two types of equivalence and accordingly some methods to achieve his ideal equivalent response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). His equivalence theory was built on his ideas about nature of translation, which was the process of reproducing in the receptor language the message of source language(Nida, 1964: 12). So Nida tends to provide a new direction which is oriented by the receptors. The nature and task of translation in Nida’s opinion formed a theoretical basis to set the equivalence theory in a comprehensive and systematic way.

Catford, in another way, held a idea that any theory of translation must draw upon a general linguistic theory and therefore presented the equivalence at different linguistic levels between source language and target language(Catford, 1965: 1). In his opinion, the equivalence exists between the categories and the conditions to examine the equivalence lie on the relatable extent with the features of substance. Therefore, Catford’s theories seem to be more of abstract. The paper intends to develop a comparative study upon Nida and Catford’s theory of equivalence and my thoughts on their application in translation practices.

===Key words===
Nida; Cartford; equivalence theory; linguistic theories

===题目===
《论翻译对等理论——奈达与卡特福特比较研究》

===摘要===
奈达和卡特福德在翻译学研究中处于同一时期，但二人开展的研究却是基于于不同的角度。奈达提出了两种对等类型，并提出了相应的策略以达到他理想的对等状态，即使译文接受者获得与原文接受者相同的反应（芒迪, 2008: 42）。他的对等理论建立在他关于翻译本质的观点之上，即在接受语中再现源语信息的过程（奈达, 1964: 12）。因此奈达提供了一种以译文接受者为导向的新研究方向，并基于对翻译的性质和任务的界定构成了对等理论的理论基础。

另一方面，卡特福德认为任何翻译理论都必须借鉴一般语言学理论，因此提出了源语言和目的语在不同语言层面上的对等（卡特福德, 1965: 1）。他认为对等是通过范畴表现出来，而判断对等的条件就是原文和译文中各个范畴特性的相关性，因此卡特福特的理论似乎更具抽象性。本文旨在对奈达和卡特福德的对等理论进行比较研究，并对二者在翻译实践中的应用进行思考。

===关键词===

奈达；卡特福德；对等理论；语言学理论

===1.Introduction===

====1.1.Nida’s Theory of Equivalence====
Nida’s translation theories were formed along with the process of his translating the ''Bible''. Through the reflection upon these translation practices, he defined the nature of translation and pointed out the task of translators. Afterwards, he discarded the old term such as “literal”, “free” and “faithful” translation by putting forward the theory of equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42) . The equivalence in Nida’s theory can be achieved at two levels: formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. The two approaches were put forward to realize his ideal translation that equivalent effect between source language receptors and target language receptors(Munday, 2008: 42).

By bringing the two concepts up, Nida provided two directions when working on a translation work as well as standards of evaluating the work after it was done. Specifically, formal equivalence in Nida’s definition is the status of translation being equivalent with the source text in both contents and forms. To achieve this status, translators should be oriented towards the source text’s message and structure. And dynamic, or functional equivalence, turned further to a new focus on the response of receptor. If the target language receptors react to the translation in the same way as source language receptors do to the source text, the success of a translation is then achieved in Nida’s functional equivalence theory(Munday, 2008: 42).

His theory put forward a new trend of translation studies at that time. Nida’s equivalence theory directed people to evaluate a translation by judging and comparing the response of receptors in stead of considering the correctness and accuracy of translation or comparing the formal and stylistic features between source language and target language. In a comprehensive and systematic way, Nida’s equivalence theory elaborated the approaches and the ideal status of translation based on his understanding on the nature of translation, and this equivalence theory has always been praised as his greatest achievement in translation studies(Munday, 2008: 42).

====1.2.Cartford’s Theory of Equivalence====
Catford’s translation theories were built on the discipline of linguistics, and his equivalence theory was included of course. Catford stated in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' that the theory of translation is concerned with a certain type of relation between languages and is consequently a branch of Comparative Linguistics(Catford, 1965: 20). His theory of equivalence was also originated from his definition of the nature of translation, which is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language( Catford, 1965: 20).

In his opinion, in the process of translation, translators are supposed to replace every grammatical and lexical items in the source language with equivalents in the target language. So in this way, the equivalence in Catford’s theory can be graded into different levels according to the extent of the replacement, and then he put forward the distinction of full translation and partial translation. Moreover, he raised another pair of concepts: textual equivalence and formal corresponding, and it may give a clearer picture for us to understand his theory( Catford, 1965: 20).

If the target language text can be judged by bilinguals or linguists equivalent with the source language text in any given discourse or occasion, the textual equivalence is achieved. As regards the formal corresponding, Catford defined it as an approximate status when any target language category occupies, as nearly as possible, in the same place in the structure of the target language as the given source language category occupies in the source language. This pair of concepts presented two different degrees of equivalence and have become a valuable source in translation studies(Catford, 1965: 20).

===2.Similarities and Differences===

====2.1.The Similarities between the Two Theories====
As representatives of the linguistic school of western translation theory, Nida and John Catford's translation theories try to analyze and describe translation more objectively, accurately and scientifically from the linguistic level. The influence of linguistics was exerted in both of their equivalence theory. Also, some translation methods were put forward based on the linguistic level by them. Besides, the approach to achieve the equivalence upheld by Nida and Catford was similar. They tended to depart from the previous word-for-word or literal translation methods and promoted a natural closeness of target text with the source text. Since they held a similar idea that absolute equivalence in translating is never possible, the approach in their view to achieve the equivalence turned out be moderate and flexible(Nida, 1984: 14).

=====2.1.1.The Influence of Linguistics in Both Theories=====
Nida was considered as a representative of communicative theory school, and therefore, he built his equivalence theory based on the communicative purpose. Basically, in the view of Nida, translation can be seen as a communicative activity and the transformation of linguistic form is necessary. From this the influence of Chomsky's linguistics, especially his transformational-generative grammar. Nida believes that Chomsky's transformational-generative view of on language is of great importance to the process of translation(Munday, 2008: 40).

Specifically, the transformational-generative was used for Nida to describe the process of translation, which includes the grammar analysis, transferring and restructuring and the reproducing the information of source text. Chomsky’s generative–transformational model was incorporated in the description of translation process by Nida and, at the same time, it provides the basis of his building of dynamic equivalence, as a component of “the science of translation” in his eyes(Munday, 2008: 40).

Similarly, the influence of Chomsky’s linguistic theories can also be found in Catford’s theory in the following aspects. Firstly, as is defined by Catford, translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language, and here the definition claims that there is sometimes no entire translation but a simple replacement by textual material at one or more levels of language. To be specific, the replacement between source language and target language may be at grammar or lexis levels(Catford, 1965: 20).

Secondly, through his classifications of translation in terms of the extent, levels and ranks, Catford actually gives some standards to discuss the nature of translation equivalence, and these concepts are presented based on the linguistic knowledge. For example, the distinction between full and partial is related to the extent of source text which is submitted to the translation process, and the extent may involve linguistic elements, such as lexical items. The same case occurs in the definitions of total and restricted translation, in which phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are all considered as the elements when estimating the replacement(Li Yang, 2014: 94).

=====2.1.2.The Approach to Achieving Equivalence=====
The key role played by Nida is to point the road away from strict word-for-word equivalence.His introduction of the concepts of formal and dynamic equivalence was crucial in introducing a receptor-based orientation to translation theory(Munday, 2008: 40).

He also divided meaning into linguistic meaning, referential meaning and emotive meaning. Furthermore, several techniques such as hierarchical structuring, componential analysis and semantic structure analysis were presented to analyse the structure of words and differentiating similar words in related lexical fields. The classification of the three meanings and aided translation techniques serve as crucial elements in the mechanism of back-transformation presented by Nida. By the application of back-transformation, the surface structure of the source text is analyzed into the basic elements of the deep structure; these elements are transferred in the translation process into the deep structure of the receptor language and then restructured semantically and stylistically into the surface structure of the target text(Munday, 2008: 40).

The similar approach pointed out by Catford is translation shift, which consists of two major types: level shifts and category shifts. Catford made a distinction in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation between textual equivalence and formal correspondence''. Furthermore, textual equivalence refers to the specific relationship of the source text and translated text while formal correspondence is presented and defined based on the systematic concepts of both source and receptor languages. Since the differences between the two concepts are obvious, the occurrence of translation shift is inevitable(Li Zhidan, 2014:93).

Therefore, by presenting the translation shifts, Catford meant to depart from formal correspondence in the process of going from source language to target language, which means, in a sense, he wanted to achieve the status of equivalence through the approach. In other words, level shifts and categories are presented as some techniques in the process of translation, which can be regarded as similarity when compared to Nida’s theory described above(Catford, 1965: 73).

====2.2.The Differences between the Two Theories====
Before comparing the two theories in terms of the following points, we should make it clear that the development of the two equivalence theories were started with the views of translation nature. Nida and Catford put forward their understandings toward the nature of translation, and, consequently, the central problem of translation practice and the central task of translators were proposed. In Nida’s view, translation is to reproduce information of the original text and exert the same feeling of the receptors with the source language readers(Munday, 2008: 42).

Based on this receptors-oriented and text-centered principle, his equivalence theory turns to be more dynamic because the readers’ response, which is the essential factor to examine, occurs only in the process of the transferring of information. In other words, the behavior of encoding and decoding is a must once the equivalence is achieved. The equivalence in Catford’s view, by contrast, which lies in the internal structure of linguistics, turns out to be more static. The nature of translation given by Catford is the replacement of equivalent textual material between two languages(Catford, 1965: 20).

By saying textual material, he held the idea that equivalence only occurs within the language and through its categories. The context of language and the components of linguistics including phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are considered as elements to examine the equivalence. And in this case, the equivalence between the source text and target text is to be realized by the equivalence of contextual features of both the source and target languages. Catford’s theory of equivalence, in this sense, differed from Nida’s theory by research methods(Catford, 1965: 22).

=====2.2.1.Different Conditions of Equivalence=====
Functional equivalence described by Nida put a great emphasis on communicative effect of translation. He believed if the communication can be created between the source text and its receptors, the equivalent effect should be made when the translated text was presented in front of its receptors. Therefore, the comparison of receptors’ response between source language and target language would be necessary when it comes to the conditions of Nida’s equivalence theory. Besides, the meaning and style of the both texts should also be analyzed in a comparative way because this two factors are very influential in the formulating of receptors’ response. (Munday, 2008: 42)

Firstly, by the division of formal equivalence and functional equivalence by Nida, he tried to generalize the two types of equivalence that focused respectively on the faithfulness and closeness of the receptor language with the source language in both from and the equivalent response. Thus, the conditions to achieve formal equivalence may include accuracy and correctness of translation, which is determined by the approximation to source text structure. Furthermore, Nida put forward “four basic requirements of a translation” as the conditions to examine the achieving of equivalent response, which are making sense, conveying the spirit and manner of the original, having a natural and easy form of expression, producing a similar response. These requirements were generalized to be the conditions of a success of translation. (Munday, 2008: 42)

Since Catford defines translation equivalence as the empirical phenomenon, he discussed the conditions of translation equivalence by specific points within the context of sentences. First, the equivalence from his view is between categories including grammar, lexis, phonology and contextual meanings. From this we can know the same meaning at a linguistic level is hard to be achieved between source language and target language.From this we can know that it's difficult to achieve the same meaning at a linguistic level between source language and target language. In this case, he describe a condition by pointing out a concept of total translation, in which the texts or items in source language and target language are interchangeable in a given situation(Catford, 1965: 49).

In this way, he presented a new condition to evaluate equivalence. Based on this, he further his discussion on total translation by examining the overlapping contextual meanings in the items of source language and target language. He claimed contextual meanings include relationship to certain situational features, a more abstract and broad way to discuss equivalence. Therefore, another condition of equivalence was described as the overlapping extent of situational features common to the contextual meanings. To conclude, Catford classified the conditions of equivalence on different scopes of translation. In the process of evaluating the equivalence in total translation, phonological translation or graphological translation, the examining of the relatable features between source text and target text should be made(Catford, 1965: 49).

=====2.2.2.Different Classifications of Equivalence=====
Since Nida and Catford held different views on the conditions required to achieve the equivalence, they classified translations from different perspective. Nida raised a classification of two types of equivalence: formal equivalence and functional equivalence. These two types actually reflect a shallow to deep tendency of Nida's researches on structure of language. Nida believed that different languages should have the same deep structure and the same functions between languages lead to equivalence in translation. In his view, the functional equivalence occurs when the response of target language receptors is as same as possible the response of source language receptors(Munday, 2008: 42).

In describing equivalence, Nida pointed out that the correspondence between the original form and the target form should not be excessively pursued in translation. Instead, attention should be focused on accurately conveying the meaning of the original text in a natural way. By this dynamic equivalence theory ,Nida paved a road away from the static mode of focusing on the comparison of texts. He believed that only when the target receptors understand the translation thoroughly, the same response can be achieved, and this is the main task of translation. Therefore, Nida’s classification was based on the specific situation in which the receptors communicate with the texts(Munday, 2008: 43).

In Catford’s view, translation is the replacement of textual material. From this definition, he actually drew a line between source language and target language because by textual material he meant to point out that there would be no entire translation of meaning. In his words, at one or more levels of language there may be simple replacement by non-equivalent target language material(Catford, 1965: 20).

Based on this, Catford classified translation into categories in terms of the extent, levels and ranks. Full translation and partial translation are divided by the extent of parts replaced in the process of translation. This two concepts are maybe the basic components of his later presenting of formal correspondence. In his view, formal correspondence is an approximate status in which categories cannot be replaced totally in another language. And by dividing total translation and restricted translation, he intended to involve the replacement of grammar and lexis and consequential replacement of phonology and graphology in his definition. All of these classification provide certain perspective to evaluate the translation and help to create a structure when analyzing the language. In a word, the classifications by Catford was built in the internal language(Catford, 1965: 20).

=====2.2.3.Different Research Approaches=====
To some extent, the research method employed by Nida and Catford was shaped under the guidance of different linguistic theories. Guided by the transformational-generative grammar by Chomsky, Nida analyzed the structure of language and put forward the back-transformation theory that entails the transferring of surface structure to deep structure between source language and target language(Munday, 2008: 38). So the research methods adopted by Nida turns to be more flexible and have a focus on dynamic factor when discussing equivalence. Since Nida's translation theories were built up consciously to serve the research on the translation of ''Bible'', his theories may have distinctive features in guiding the translation practices(Munday, 2008: 38).

In another aspect, Nida held a view that "meaning is universal" and emphasized the common ground between languages, which reflect in his equivalence theory, information conveyed by meaning is the focus To be specific, the equivalence can only be examined during the communication of these information between texts and receptors. Oriented by this communicative principle, Nida therefore took the reader's response as the standard to evaluate the translation. In a word, Nida described the equivalence and its mechanism in a developing process, during which the texts, context and receptors are performing their dynamic role. In a word, Nida’s carried out its study by the method of dynamic comparison, and through his discussion of receptor-oriented principle, his theories greatly contribute to the later translation practices(Munday, 2008: 38).

By contrast, in the process of Catford’s research on equivalence, the system-functional linguistics by Halliday was incorporated. The substance, form and context Language, which are the three basic levels in Halliday’s theory (Halliday, 2004: 16), constitute the categories of Catford’s equivalence theory. Moreover, language was defined by Catford as a patterned behavior and this behavior is casually related to various other features of the situation in which it occurs(Catford, 1965: 2).

Therefore, in terms of research methods, Catford carried out his comparative study mostly from the static and fixed perspective of language. Most of the examples he took are words, phrases and sentences, which are the units of language. He pay little attention to the dynamic context and receptors’ reaction. In describing the formal correspondence, he also held a view that categories of every language is defined in terms of relations holding within the language. In this way, his research methods seem to be more static and fixed in the internal structure of language. Due to the static traits, Catford’s theories may be properly used for reference in academic study on languages because his theories exactly provide a macro framework(Catford, 1965: 27).

===3.My Thoughts on the Two Theories===

====3.1.My Thoughts on Nida’s Theory====

=====3.1.1Strengths and Contributions of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====
In my view, there are many strengths and contributions of Nida’s translation equivalence theory. Firstly, Nida’s research integrated multiple disciplines, which means he set up his theory on a strong basis and it has convincing examples and explanations from various perspectives. The development of Nida’s translation theory can be generally divided into three stages: the stage of descriptive linguistics, the stage of communicative theory and the stage of social semiotics. Nida also developed its equivalence theory from formal equivalence, dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence along with the three stages(Tan, 2017: 132).

Secondly, Nida’s equivalence theory is of significance in training translators, guiding translation practice and more importantly, his functional equivalence offers approaches to studying the communication between the cultures of source language and target language. Nida emphasized the importance of translator's initiative in the translation process because he put forward a principle of equivalent effect. This effect cannot be formulated within the language or items of a text, but through the subjective activities of translators.Therefore, Nida's functional equivalence and dynamic equivalence have offered a guidance to the translators to consider the needs of the target receptors, and to convey the message of source language into the expression that conforms to the habits of the target language(Nida, 1964: 159).

=====3.1.2.Deficiency of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====
Nida’s functional equivalence was mainly applied to the translation of the ''Bible'' , and the criterion of the ''Bible'' translation in his view is to convey the will of God faithfully. Therefore, the translation theory may tend to emphasize on the content rather than the form. For this reason, the range of its application may be limited. For example, when it comes to the translation of poetry that has its own aesthetic value in its form, people cannot simply discuss and analyze it according to Nida’s equivalence theory(Munday, 2008: 38).

What’s more, in Nida’s theory, equivalence is oriented by the response of receptors. However, sometimes, the equivalent effect between source language readers and target language readers is hard to achieve because receptors of different cultures may have different responses. And translation is actually a cross-cultural communication through the translators, who may have their own translation purpose, preference and expressions, so the equivalent effect is also restricted by the difference of translators(Munday, 2008: 42).

====3.2.My Thoughts on Catford’s Theory====

=====3.2.1.Strengths and Contributions of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====
Catford developed his equivalence by going deep into internal system of language. In my opinion, the most important strength of his theory is that he built the equivalence theory in a complete set of linguistic model, which provides a scientific and systematic theory. By introducing broad types of translation respectively according to extent, levels and ranks, he present new categories to discuss the nature of translation and the task of translators. By describing the translation shifts, he made a distinction of formal correspondence and translation equivalence and explained the conditions when equivalence occurs. Furthermore, since Catford believed there is no “total” translation in a strict way for the replacement by all equivalents at all levels can never be achieved, he sought to avoid the rigid trend toward the absolute equivalence and developed his theory in a more scientific and mature wayCaford, 1965:22).

====3.2.2.Deficiency of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory====
Firstly, Catford carried out his research on the structural transformation of the source language and target language simply from the perspective of linguistics. The equivalence in his view is between textual materials, and this equivalence can be achieved at one or more categories in the materials. Therefore, his theory is also limited and underestimates the influence of subjective activities of translators(Wang, 2008: 166).

Secondly, Catford did not pay enough attention to the cross-cultural factors in translation. On his discussion on the limits of translatability, he even pointed out that it may be not necessary to distinguish linguistic untranslatability from cultural untranslatability for the cultural untranslatability may be just caused by the impossibility of finding a equivalent collocation in the target language. This shows he explained the cultural within a linguistic category. I think the translation involves more than language itself or the substituting of lexical terms and grammars, but also cultural elements. Therefore, the research method of Carford’s theory is rather incomplete(Catford, 1965: 101).

===4.Conclusion===
In conclusion, the two theories are developed based on two types of equivalence. Nida presented formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence while Catford put forward formal correspondence and textual equivalence. The two theories share some points in their theoretical basis and approach to achieving equivalence. Besides, Nida and Catford also have their own understanding on the nature of translation and the main task for translators, so they had a distinctive research method in building up their theories especially in the classification of equivalence and the description of conditions. Supported by various theories from other disciplines, the two theories were set up in a systematic way possessing many strengths in such aspects as innovative perspective and scientific research method. However, it need to be emphasized that the two kinds of translation theory should be discussed and evaluated in a critical way and the analysis should be made on the scope of their application(Munday, 2008: 42; Catford, 1965: 27).

===References===

Catford, John Cunnison 卡特福德 (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' 《翻译的语言学理论》. London: Oxford University Press 伦敦：牛津大学出版社.

Halliday, M. A. K. 韩礼德, and C. Matthiessen 马蒂恩森 (2004). ''An Introduction to Functional Grammar''《功能语法导论》. London: Edward Arnold 伦敦：爱德华·阿诺德出版社.

Li, Yang 李杨 (2014). 《纵观翻译等值——卡特福德、奈达比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida.'' 天津商务职业学院学报''Journal of Tianjin College of Commerce'', 第2卷第1期 Vol. 2, No. 1 , 93-95.

Li, Zhidan 李志丹 (2014). 《卡特福德和奈达“对等”翻译理论思辨》 ''Comparing Catford and Nida's Translation Theory of “Equivalence Theory”'' 哈尔滨学院学报 ''Journal of Harbin University'', 第35卷第6期 Vol. 35 No. 6, 93-95.

Munday, Jeremy芒迪 (2008). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' 《翻译学导论：理论与实践》. London ; New York : Routledge 伦敦；纽约：劳特利奇出版社.

Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达, and Charles Russell Taber 泰伯, eds 著(2004). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' 翻译理论与实践. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海：上海外语教育出版社.

Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达 (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating'' 《翻译的科学探索》. Leiden: Brill Archive 莱顿：博睿学术出版社.

Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达. (1984). ''Approaches to Translating in the Western World'' 《西方世界的翻译方法》, 《外语教学与研究》 ''Foreign Language Teaching and Research'', 1984年第2期, 9-15.

Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜 (2017). ''Translation Studies'' 翻译学. Shnghai: Fudan University Press. 上海：复旦大学出版社.

Wang, Ning 汪宁 (2008). 《论翻译中的等值——卡特福德、奈达和巴斯耐特比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford, E.A Nida and Susan Bassnett''. 科技信息 ''Science & Technology Information'', 2008年第三期, 2008(3), 166.

--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 14:46, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Comparision between the traslation systems proposed by Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing 石海瑶 Shi Haiyao 202070080605 英语笔译==
<center>石海瑶 Shi Haiyao 20207080605</center>

===Abstract===
The structure of a discipline can not only enhance people's overall understandings to the discipline, but also plays a guiding role in its development. Since the 21st century, the study of translatology in China has entered a new stage of development and the construction of the system of translatology has received extensive attention. In September 2005, ''A Series of Translation Studies in China'' was written by Professor Tan Zaixi, which theoretically constructed the internal and external structure of translatology. Later in October 2009, Dr. Yi Jing constructed a relatively macro structure of translatology in his PhD dissertation, ''On the Construction of the System of Translatology''. This paper first gives a brief overview of these two systems of translatology and then makes a comparative analysis of their similarities and differences from multiple perspectives. Finally, the author puts forward its own thoughts on this two systems of translatology.

===Key words===
Tan Zaixi; Yi Jing; systems of translatology; comparative analysis

===摘要===
一个学科的体系构建不仅能够促进人们对学科的全方位了解，还能引领该学科的发展。21世纪以来,我国译学研究进入新的发展时期，译学体系构建广受关注。2005年9月，谭载喜教授著《翻译学》，从理论上构建了翻译学的内部和外部框架。2009年10月，易经博士在其毕业论文《试论翻译学体系的构建》中构建了一个较为宏观的翻译学体系框架。本文首先对这两大翻译学体系进行简要概述，之后从多个角度对二者的相似点和不同之处作出对比分析。最后，作者提出本人对这两大翻译学体系的思考和认识。

===关键词===
谭载喜；易经；翻译体系；对比分析

===Introduction===

====Tan Zaixi’s Translation System====

In his book ''A Series of Translation Studies in China'', Tan Zaixi put forward his views on the internal structure of translatology. He deemed that translatology can be divided into three parts: general translatoloty, special translatology and applied translatology. In a more specific sense, translatology should not only include a macroscopic discussion of translation, but also cover a specialized study of bilingual translation as translation (interlingual translation) is the conversion from one language to another (Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). The former of which has theoretical value and helps people understand the essence of translation; the latter has practical value and contributes to guiding translation practice.(Tan Zaixi, 2005:21)

Specifically, the research content of general translatology contains the following four aspects: Firstly, study the human language, culture and the general rules of translation; Secondly, study the general process of translation and the status of translation in the whole scientific system as well as the relationship between translation and other disciplines; Thirdly, discuss the nature, function and standard of translation as well as the general responsibilities and conditions of translators from a macro perspective; Fourthly, investigate the history of translation from the perspective of synchronic and diachronic translation studies (including not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation). Differing from general translation, the study of special translation includes three aspects: Firstly, study the specific problem of mutual translation between two languages; Secondly, make a comparison between the two languages and cultures; Thirdly, put forward theories that can guide translation between two specific languages. Moreover, applied translatology is directly related to translation practice, which covers two aspects: On the one hand, it studies how to apply theories of general translatology and special translatology to translation practice, translation teaching, translation criticism, compilation of translation reference books and machine translation; On the other hand, it aims to explain the purposes, functions, standards procedures and methods of translation as well as their interrelations on a micro level.(Tan Zaixi, 2005:21)

In fact, the above three parts of translatology are closely linked and inseparable that knowledge of special translatology and applied transltology are the foundation of studying general translatology, in turn, the knowledge of general translatology can also guide the study of special translatology. Thus, we can see both general translatology and special translatology need to conduct further research into applied translatology and obtain feedback information from the practical application of the theories so as to continuously develop and improve the theories. (Tan Zaixi, 2005:22)

From the above explanation, the diagram of Tan Zaixi's system of translatology can be drawn as following:

[[File:Tan Zaixi.jpg]]

====Yi Jing’s Translation System====
According to Yi Jing’s thoughts, the system of translatology should include: introduction of translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). These five parts constitute the organic system of translatology. IT helps people to form a relatively basic and comprehensive understandings of the macro system of translatology, it is the foreshadowing and general outline of the system of translatology, taking the concrete question research as the main body. In terms of the TTH, TTI, TTP and MTT, their relationship is complementary, mutual influence and mutual support, which together constitute the organic wholeness of the macro system of translatology(Yi Jing, 2009:197).

The IT can be divided into the following five aspects: Firstly, the foundation of translatology. By reviewing the development of Chinese and foreign translation practice and theory, the necessity of the construction of translatology are explained. Since there is no consensus on the independent status of translatology, this part needs to be included in the IT. If the independent discipline status of translatology is widely recognized in the future, this part can be omitted. Secondly, the value of translation, that is, the role of translation at different levels. Generally speaking, the value of translation involves the individual value, social value, ideological and cultural value, literary value and language value of translation. Thirdly, translation practice as well as the nature, definition and position of translatology. In addition, the object, basic task, purpose, research method and research status of translatology, and the basic structure of translation system are also introduced accordingly. The core research object of translatology is the practice of bilingual conversion. The main task is to explore the development of translation practice and translation theory, and to reveal the historical context of translation development. The purpose of translatology research is to sum up history, study the present, promote the translation research and practical work at present and in the future, and to a certain extent, promote the spiritual and cultural construction of human beings. The basic research method of translatology is based on empirical description and combined with principle. The research status of translatology mainly includes the development of translation practice and translation studies in various periods of history, the schools of translation studies and the representative figures and theories of various schools, the main or popular topics in translatology and the development direction of translation studies. At last, the basic characteristics of translatology. Eg. stability and openness, comprehensive integrity and discipline independence. Generally speaking, the IT is a comprehensive and general description of translatology, and an introduction to the whole system of translatology(Yi Jing, 2009:198-200).

The TTH mainly focuses on the development of translation practice and translation theory, and also discusses the development of translation history theory itself. There are five important branches of TTH: introduction of TTH, history of translation practice, history of translation theory, thematic history and meta-theory of TTH. The introduction is a general descriptive branch of TTH, which generally describes translation history theory; the study of history of translation practice covers the study of general history and dynastic history; the exploration of the history of translation theory and the collation of the formation of translatology are very necessary for people to understand the development of translation theory and translatology itself, and play an instructive role in today's translation research; the thematic history involves the study of translators, translation works, history of translatology, translation history and culture, translation institution history, translation teaching history and so on; the meta-theory of TTH studies translation history theory itself, that is, the development and research situation of TTH itself(Yi Jing, 2009:200-215).

The TTI consists of the general theory and the specific theory. The general theory refers to the fundamental viewpoint of translation practice, it is a theoretical branch of studying the fundamental principles of translation practice as well as the understanding of the most universal, general and basic principles of translation practice. The specific theory involves a series of basic problems derived from the general theory, it covers a wide range of aspects, including transltion’s meaning, translation’s standard, methodology, process, style, subject, types and so forth.(Yi Jing, 2009:215-268).

The TTP refers to the applied research of translation theory, which is the concrete application and confirmatory research of translation theory in practical activities. It is mainly divided into three aspects: practical analysis, translation criticism and translation teaching. Practical analysis is to prove the correctness of the existing theory with examples, and to illustrate the applicability of the theory, it can produce three kinds of results, that is, complete application, partial application and complete inadaptability. The main task of translation criticism is to evaluate the translation process and its translated works. The third branch is the teaching of translation, it discusses how to apply the basic knowledge of translation to translation teaching and language teaching, so as to cultivate students' language ability, translation practical ability and translation theory level. (Yi Jing, 2009:268-281).

The MTT is a theory formed by studying the discipline of translatology itself. Its research object is the theoretical system and discipline group of translatology, which should include at least the following eight branches: (1) the regularity, rationality and validity of the description of translation, including terms, concepts, propositions, etc; (2) the research object, function, nature and status of discipline, theoretical structure, logical category, progressive standard and the research method of translatology itself; (3) the way of forming the theory of translatology and the different research paradigms, which reveal the deep-seated structure, internal contradiction and development rule of the translatology hidden from the theory of translation; (4) The principles that should be followed in the construction of the theory of translatology; (5) The role of social and cultural conditions in the emergence and development of translation theories and methods in a certain historical context; (6) The study of the community of translatology, the identification of various academic groups, the analysis of the influence of these groups and their connections on translation theory; (7) Applying basic meta-theory categories to identify and summarize the current situation of translation theory, and to reveal the major theoretical problems in translation studies; (8) Other issues concerning the examination of translatology itself(Yi Jing, 2009:281-287).

From the above explanation, the diagram of Yi jing’s system of translatology can be drawn as following:
[[File:shihaiyao.jpg]]

The translations of the above terms are as following:

[[File:Shu Yu.jpg]]

===Similarities and Differences===

====The Similarities between the Two systems====

=====Both deem translatology as an independent discipline=====

In 1951, Dong Qiusi published ''On the Construction of Translation Theory'' , which clearly put forward the idea of establishing translatology. In 1987, the first national seminar on translation theory was held, which unfolded a new era of the construction of translatology in China. Tan Zaixi came up with the slogan of establishing translatology in his paper ''Translatology must be established'', which triggered extraordinary response. Whether translation can become an independent discipline has been heated discussed in translation circles.

From the above descriptions, we can see that both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing have a strong consciousness and a clear orientation of discipline towards translatology. Tan Zaixi holds the view that translatology is a science to study translation, which is an essential communicative activity of human beings. It has its own rules, which can be categorized, summarized and described by scientific methods, and can serve the communicative activities of human beings. According to Yi Jing, the formation of the independent discipline status of translatology is the inevitable result of the historical accumulation of translation practice and translation theory as well as an urgent requirement for the development of the whole translation field to modern and contemporary times.

It is based on the consensus that translatology is an independent discipline that Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward their own views on the construction of the system of translatology. Therefore, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that translation is an independent discipline, which is the first similarity of their system of translatology.

=====Both define bilingual conversion as object of translation=====

In the 1950s, from the perspective of semiotics, Jakobson divided translation into three categories according to different language signs: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. Intralingual translation refers to that to explain other verbal symbols using original language symbols in the same language field. Interlingual translation refers to the translation between two different languages, and Intersemiotic translation refers to the translation that to explain verbal symbols by using non-verbal symbols.

For this theory, Tan Zaixi pointed out in his translation system that translation (specifically refers to intralingual translation) is a plural and theoretical perspective of switching from one language to another(Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). It indicates that Tan Zaixi's views on object of translation practice is bilingual conversion. Yi Jing also suggested that the specific research object of translatology is bilingual conversion and some phenomena related to bilingualism(Yi Jing, 2009:132).

Therefore, it is obvious that the two systems insist that the object of translatology is bilingual conversion.

=====Both identify comprehensive faithfulness as standard of translation=====
The discussion about standards of translation has always been a hot spot in the translation circles, which is the core problem and key task of translation theory. Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing reach an agreement that the standard of translation should be based on sufficient translation practice. Tan Zaixi proposed that the general standard of translation is that "all translations must be faithful to the original text". Taking this abstract standard as the premise, a series of specific standards can be produced, such as "faithful to the original content ", " faithful to the original form ", " faithful to the original effect ", " faithful to the original function" and so on, which serve different purposes(Tan Zaixi, 2005:38). And Yi Jing believed that "comprehensive faithfulness to content, form and style" is the highest standard of translation and the most ideal condition of translation(Yi Jing, 2009:239).

As mentioned above, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that the standard of translation is comprehensive faithfulness. To elaborate it, they also list different aspects of faithfulness, which can be adjusted to specific requirements according to different text types, whereas there is consensus on the core idea of faithfulness.
Next, I will explore the differences between the two translation systems.

====The differences between the Two Translation Systems====

=====Different structures of translation system=====

From the above diagram of Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing’s system of translatology, we can know that Tan Zaixi’s system of transltology merely includes three parts, that is general translatology, special translatology and applied translatology. The research contents of each part are not clearly distinguished and classified, especially the definition of general translation and special translation is vague, which should be further discussed. In contrast to the system of Yi Jing, he divided it into five parts, that is introduction of the translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). For these five parts, Yi Jing clearly illustrated the branches of each part, and its division is rigorous, each branch forms a logical and well-connected system, leaving people a refreshing impression. Moreover, this system exploratory and open, Yi Jing suggested that he holds a welcoming attitude to other systems of translatology, and it can not be assumed arbitrarily that the system is more comprehensive and profound than others.

Thus, we get to know that Tan Zaixi’s system of translatology is more general and rough, while Yi Jing’s is more systematic and inclusive.

=====Different views on the study of translation history=====

Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward different views on the study of translation history. In Tan Zaixi's translation system, the general translation refers to the history of translation, that is, to study the history of translation from the perspective of diachronic and synchronic translatology, which includes not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation(Tan Zaixi, 2005:21). While in Yi Jing’s system of translatology, one of the five branches of TTH mentioned: the study of translation history can be multi-angle and multilevel. From the time span of the study, translation can either be general or dynastic; it can study the translation history of translators and different text genres, or discipline translation history, such as literary translation history, scientific translation history and religious translation history(Yi Jing, 2009:211).

we can know that Tan Zaixi's study of translation history is more macroscopic, which based on different countries, different regions and different historical periods, while the study of translation history of Yi Jing is more specific and detailed, taking translators and various literary genres into account, in addition, he proposed that vertical comparison and horizontal comparison can be used in these factors, reaching almost every aspect of the issue.

=====Different views on translation process=====

For the process of translation, Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing presented their views. Tan divided the process of translation into two types, namely, psychological process and practical operation process. Psychological process is the embodiment of human brain receiving and transforming information, but Tan did not put forward specific steps for practical operation process, which is still open to question. In Yi Jing’s system of translatology, the translation process theory is mentioned in the second branch of the TTI. Yi Jing thought that the translation process can be divided into broad sense and narrow sense. The process of translation in a broad sense includes the selection of the original text, the preparation before translation, the specific translation process, the refinement of the translation and the process of testing and evaluating the translation; the narrow sense refers to the process from reading and understanding the original text to finalizing the translation(Yi Jing, 2009:253).

From the above descriptions, we can see that they define the translation process from different angles. Tan Zaixi divides the translation process into two aspects: psychology and practical operation, while the study of translation process proposed by Yi Jing is more multi-angle, and its broad translation process is not only confined to the process itself, but more comprehensive.

===My Thoughts on the Two Systems===

====My Thoughts on Tan Zaixi’s Translation System====

=====Contributions of Tan’s Translation System=====

First of all, Tan Zaixi's construction of translation system has laid solid foundation on some basic pioneering works of translatology. The establishment of basic concepts and categories is the basic work of discipline construction. Before the publication of A Series of Translation Studies in China, the art theory and science theory of translation and whether translation can become a science were the focus of scholars in the translation circles, but the polysemous word "translatology" is not defined. Thus, two different concepts were confused, that is translation and translatology, they discusses two different levels of problems, and emphasizes on personal reasons in a one-side way, resulting in two incompatible theories of translatology between art school and science school. In this book, Tan Zaixi clearly defined the concept of translation and translatology, clarified some vague understandings, and promoted the development of translatology.

Secondly, Tan Zaixi's translation system has a strong sense and a clear orientation of discipline. The significance of the definition that "translatology is an independent discipline" is not merely its theoretical value, but it involves many important issues about the theoretical development and how to construct the discipline. With a clear sense of independent discipline, Tan Zaixi discussed some constructive and guiding problems such as the research object and field of translatology, the discipline framework of translatology, and the research approach. His unique translation system is a valuable exploration and attempt in Chinese translation circles.

Moreover, in Mr. Tan's view, translatology is not merely a discipline with Chinese characteristics. Because it involves different languages and cultures, Translatology should be constructed from four dimensions: past and present, at home and abroad. In this regard, he believes that a comparative study of Chinese and Western translation theories should be carried out with the open mind of "harmony in diversity", which is undoubtedly of great value. Construction of translatology needs to integrate Chinese and Western theoretical resources as well as learn widely from other’s strong points. Based on this, Tan Zaixi's construction of translatology fully reflects his broad mind.

=====Deficiencies of Tan’s Translation System=====

As is known to us, Tan Zaixi has made great contribution on the construction of the system of translatology, but there is no perfect system in the world. Here, I list two points remain to be discussed.

Firstly, the definition of general translation and special translation is not clear enough. In the actual translation process and translation research, general and special are contradictory and unified. Tan Zaixi's view on special translation includes the study of the specific translation of two languages, and the general principles of translatology needs to find out the common law by studying the translation of different languages. Therefore, the general rules of translatology must also be included in the research object of special translation, but this does not appear in its translation system, so its integrity is still open to question.

Secondly, Tan Zaixi discusses the construction of the system of translatology in A Series of Translation Studies in China, but the branches of its translation system are not fully explained in this book, such as the responsibilities of translators in general translation and for the contents of applied translation, it has only put forward the idea, but has not made the detailed explanation. In addition, the structure of the book is not organized according to its translation system, this is indeed a great pity.

=====My Perspective towards Tan’s Translation System=====

The great influence and contribution of Tan’s translation system on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not universal. According to the advantages and disadvantages of this system, we should treat in a dialectical way. Tan’s translation system has made foundation on the establishment of translatology and played a pioneering role in the development of translatology, but some deficiencies are avoidless. Therefore, we should treat Tan Zaimxi’s translation system in a comprehensive view. On the whole, Tan’s translation system can be regarded as a great progress and precious treasure in translation circles.

====My Thoughts on Yi Jing’s Translation System====

=====Contributions of Yi’s Translation System=====
First of all, the construction of the system of translatology proposed by Yi Jing based on a large number of theoretical research and historical data analysis. Yi Jing collated many kinds of materials in the field of translation, analyzed the views of many scholars and came to his own understandings, so that the system of translatology is coherent and smooth in writing. He selectively analyzed the views expressed by important scholars at home and abroad in the construction of translatology and made a comprehensive comparison of the proposed translation system model. Drawing on the essence of others' thoughts, he put forward his unique system of translatology, and strove to deepen the research on the construction of the system of translatology.

In addition, the framework of Yi’s translation system is clear and rational. He comprehensively introduced the Chinese and foreign translation theory research, each part is closely related, making the reader know at a glance. Yi Jing abandoned the conceptual knowledge infusion and rigid theoretical instruction, and focused more attention on tracing back to the source. He regarded the role of Chinese and foreign translation in the development process in a dialectical way with an open mind. At the same time, the dynamical development of translation system is manifested in the construction of complex translation system. He explained deeply that the establishment of translatology is the necessity of social development and the inevitable result of the academic development, all of these have played a positive role in guiding readers to view the current Chinese translation system from a correct perspective.

=====Deficiencies of Yi’s Translation System=====

However, nothing is perfect, Yi Jing’s translation system is no exception without doubt.

Firstly, in the construction of the system of translatology, there are some viewpoints need to be further analyzed. The construction of translation system is a grand subject, which can not be completely completed in such a PhD dissertation, thus it leads to not comprehensive enough. For example, Yi Jing put forward the theory of translation history and clarified its new structure, but the analysis is not detailed enough, and it mainly focused on describing the research methods of translation history and attention points during the process.

Moreover, the traditional translation history research is divided into two branches: the history of translation practice and the history of translation theory. The author thinks that the division is too simple in terms of the importance and reality requires of the theory of translation’s history. Therefore, apart from the above two branches, the theory of translation’s history should cover another three branches: introduction of TTH, thematic history and meta-theory. In this section, the author focuses on the disadvantages of the traditional division. But he doesn't make a thorough analysis of his new division. What is the necessity of such a division of the theory of translation history? what are the advantages of such a division? Can this division completely avoid the flaws of the traditional division? Actually, the author did not give a strong illustration of these substantive problems, nor did he explain them in detail, which directly leads to a sense of relative superficiality.

=====My perspective towards Yi’s Translation System=====

Although there are more or less shortcomings in the analysis of viewpoint argumentation, this dissertation provides a new perspective and path for the discipline of translatology, and to some extent, makes up for the deficiency of the traditional construction of translation system. According to Yi Jing’s summary and organization of a variety of materials in the field of translation at home and abroad, he is not only reproduce the history of translation but make history. Generally speaking, the author believes that the contribution of Yi Jing’s translation system to the development of translatology is far greater than its deficiencies.

===Conclusion===

This paper first gives a brief introduction of the two translation systems, based on it, drawing corresponding diagrams for the two translation systems, and then compares the similarities and differences between the two systems in detail. At last, the author puts forward her own thoughts on this two translation systems in a dialectical way. Through the above comparison, we can find that both Tan Zaixi’s translation system and Yi Jing’s translation system have their own advantages and disadvantages, but their virtues far outweigh faults and differences are greater than similarities. Both of them have made great contributions to the construction of translation system with their own unique strengths.

===Refrences===

[1]Chen Fukan陈福康.(2000)中国译学理论史稿[A History of Translation Theory in China]].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海:上海外语教育出版社.

[2]Fang Mengzhi方梦之.(2016)当今世界翻译研究的格局—兼论21世纪中国翻译研究的崛起[The Pattern of Translation Studies in the World -- On the Rise of Chinese Translation Studies in the 21st Century] 外语教学理论与实践. Foreign Language Learning Theory and Pactice（3):55-63.

[3]Lan Hongjun蓝红军.(2018)从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究[From Subject Consciousness to Theoretical Construction: A Study of Chinese Translation Theory (1987-2017).]中国翻译.Chinese Translation(39):7-16.

[4]Tan Zaixi谭载喜.(1987)必须建立翻译学[Translatology muct be Established].中国翻译.Chinese Translation.(b3): 2-7.

[5]Tan Zaixi谭载喜.(2005)翻译学[A Series of Translation Studies in China].Wu Han:Hu Bei Education Press 武汉:湖北教育出版社,.

[6]Xu Jun,Mu Lei许钧,穆雷.(2009)翻译学概论[An Introduction to Translation Studies].Nan Jing:Yi Lin Press 南京:译林出版社.

[7]Yi Jing易经.(2009)试论翻译学体系的构建[On the Construction of the System of Translatology].Hu Nan Normal University 湖南师范大学.

==Comparison of translation theories by Eugene nida and Susan Bassnett 胡慧芳 Hu Huifang 202020080604==

胡慧芳 Hu Huifang 20202008060

==='''Abstract'''===
Eugene Nida and Susan Bassnett are both famous translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Nida proposed the translation theory of "dynamic equivalence", and Bassnett proposed the concept of "cultural equivalence". Although Nida and Bassnett emphasized the concept of "equivalence" or "equivalence" in their respective translation theories, the theoretical content is quite different. This article starts with the background of the two people's translation theories and the interpretation of their respective translation concepts, to make a preliminary comparative analysis of the differences and similarities between the two people's translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding of the two people's translation theories.

==='''Key Words'''===
Eugene Nida ;Susan Bassnett; dynamic equivalence; cultural equivalence

===摘要===
尤金·奈达与苏珊·巴斯奈特都是西方翻译史上著名的大翻译理论家和翻译家。奈达提出了“动态对等”的翻译理论，而巴斯奈特提出了“文化等值”的概念。奈达和巴斯奈特虽然在各自的翻译理论中都强调了“对等”或“等值”的概念，但理论内容却大相径庭。本文从两人翻译理论产生的背景和对各自翻译观的解读入手，来对两人的翻译理论的不同点和相通性进行初步对比分析处理，从而达到对两人翻译理论更深理解。

===关键词===
尤金·奈达；苏珊·巴斯奈特；功能对等；文化等值

===1.Introduction===
Eugene Nida is a well-known American translator, translation theorist, and PhD in linguistics. He was born in Oklahoma City in the south-central United States. In 1936, he studied at the University of California, and later received a master's degree in Greek "Bible New Testament" studies from the University of Southern California. In 1943, he received a PhD in linguistics under the guidance of Bloomfield and others. He served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Association for a long time, and in 1968 he was the president of the American Linguistic Society.

In addition to translation theory, Nida has engaged in research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, and communication engineering. He has also been engaged in Bible translation work for a long time, and has investigated a large number of languages, especially minor languages in Africa and Latin America. . Nida is engaged in translation studies and has written many books. From 1945 to 1986, he published nearly 200 articles and more than 30 books (including co-authored and co-edited works), including 16 monographs on translation and linguistics, the most important of which is "Toward a Science of Translation" "The Theory and Practice of translation" etc.

His "dynamic equivalence" translation theory and "reader's response theory" translation standards not only have considerable influence in the western translation circles, but also promote the transformation of Chinese translation theory circles. Dr. Nida broke the research paradigm that emphasized static analysis in traditional Chinese translation theory research, and put forward a new idea of open translation theory research, which has brought enlightenment for the establishment of a new translation theory model in my country's translation theory community.

Susan Bassnett is a professor, translator, author and Courier at the Graduate School of Comparative Literature Theory and Translation at the University of Warwick, United Kingdom. As a leading figure in the school of Translation culture, her concept of "cultural equivalence" and related translation theories have exerted a great influence on contemporary translation studies.

There are some similarities between Nida's "dynamic equivalence" and Barnett's "cultural equivalence", but there are also many differences. This paper starts with the "similarities and differences" and "differences" between the two, in order to have a more comprehensive understanding of these two theorists and translators and their translation theories, so as to deepen the understanding and understanding of their translation purposes. Theory.

===2.The background of the two translation theories===

Before the birth of cultural translation school, linguistic school, functional school and structuralist school were the main schools in the field of western translation theory research. Representatives of the linguistic school, Jacob Button, Catford, and Nida, put more emphasis on equivalence in translation issues. They believe that translation is to replace one language material with an equivalent language material; functional school The representative figures Les, Nord and Mantari believe that the focus of translation studies should be the target text, not the original text. Their theoretical sources are mainly communication theory, action theory, information theory and reception aesthetics.

But whether it is the linguistic school, the functional school or the structuralist school, in their research process, they are more or less trying to achieve language equivalence from all levels of text content and form. Translation researchers] hope to find a scientific and effective method to solve the various problems faced by translation, but cultural diversity determines the diversity of text cultural connotations. Therefore, these researchers have encountered great troubles when they encounter a context that is quite different from their own cultural background. The cultural translation school was born to better solve these problems.

Before the 1970s, translation theorists mainly studied various translation problems from linguistics. After the 1970s and 1980s, the acceleration of globalization, the acceleration of information dissemination, and the diversification of communication methods have made the relationship between language and culture closer. In information dissemination, language differences have become more prominent, and the status and role of translation activities have also changed. Therefore, with the acceleration of globalization and the popularization of multicultural views and values, translation theory researchers who conform to the trend of the times pay more and more attention to the diverse cultural values embodied in translated texts.

===2.1 The background of Eugene Nida’s cultural equivalence theory===
Nida's "dynamic equivalence" translation theory was deeply influenced by his time. At the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, linguistic studies in the United States really started. It was not until the beginning of the 20th century that American linguists who studied in Europe and were influenced by Europe began to study American linguistics. They developed American descriptive linguistics and structural linguistics. Beginning in the 1940s, American linguistics began to have a huge impact on world linguistics research. During this period, the representative figures in American linguistics were Boas, Sapir and Bloomfield.

Although their theories are not exactly the same, they are basically structuralism and descriptive linguistics (Liu Runqing, 2002). Nida learned and grew up during this period. In 1943, he obtained a doctorate in linguistics under the guidance of two famous masters, Bloomfield and Fries. Therefore, his thinking is deeply influenced by Bloomfield, an American structuralist, and Sapir, a human linguist, and he emphasizes the collection and analysis of language materials in language research.

Since the 1950s, Nida has been the executive secretary of the Translation Department of the American Bible Society for many years. Nida has proposed and started to use dynamic equivalence theory to guide the practical work of "Bible" translation. In translation projects organized by the American Bible Society since the 1950s, translators have generally followed the theory of dynamic equivalence (Tan Zaixi, 1991).

===2.2 The background of Bassnett’s cultural equivalence theory===
As one of the most representative figures of the cultural translation school, Susan Bassnet's translation concept with cultural translation theory as the core has had a significant impact on contemporary translation studies. In the introduction to "Translation, History and Culure" (Translation, History and Culure), Andre, Lefevere and Susan Basnett proposed that "Culural lurn" (culural lurn)-the term, this is the concept that was first proposed from here.

According to Bassnett, the linguistics of translation faces the following problems: Machine translation method is an effective method, but it is not applicable to literary translation. In response to this situation, Bassnett points out that translation research methods should undergo a cultural turn (cultural turn). In her opinion, translators must carry out their translation activities in a specific cultural context, and they should not carry out their translation activities in cultural isolation under the influence of their own cultural background. In short, Bassnett's view of cultural translation is that translation is not a purely linguistic activity, but is rooted in and influenced by linguistic culture.

===3.Susan Bassnett and Eugene Nida’s translation theory===

===3.1 Nida' s“dynamic equivalence" Theory===
“Dynamic equivalence” is the core conception of Nida ’s translation theories. the essence of it is a receptor-centered theory of translation that aims at achieving a“dynamic”equivalence between the effect obtained from respective readers of the originaltext and the translated version, which requires that translators view from the angle of the sense and spirit of the original instead of rigidly adhering to language structures of it. That is, not rigidly adheringto formal equivalence. The theory of“dynamic equivalence" is the most well- known and the most frequently discussed theory, and the focus of discussions on it may attribute to different interpretations of the term "equivalence".

3.1.1The nature of "equivalence"

"Equivalence" is an important proposition in translation, because it involves the essence of translation, translation norms, quality and translation evaluation and other key issues. "Mathematical equivalence" is the relationship between absolute symmetry and equivalence in mathematics. But in many English dictionaries it has an obscure meaning that something is similar or essentially the same. So, does the concept of equivalence in translation theory derive from its absolute mathematical reference, or is it borrowed from its vague meaning as a word in general linguistics? According to many translation theorists, including Nida, the latter may mean more than the former.

" Equivalence" is a scientific descriptive notion that is more objective that "loyalty" or "faith", for the concept of "loyalty"or "faith" refers to attitudes of translators while "faithful translation" indicates the quality of translation. But "equivalence" involves no translator' s attitudes, and thus let us get a more explicit conception. The "equivalence” needed in translation is a comprehensive impact, not mechanically synthesizing equivalence of linguistics,semantics and pragmatics, but taking into account factors in different levels all around with artistical views and accomplishments of different cultures and languages.

The historic contribution of Nida's" dynamic equivalence" is that it provides a convincing solution to the dispute of literal translation and free translation held by many western translation theorists for about 2000 years. Literal translation emphasizes equivalence in language forms and the effect oftranslation is overlooked while free translation focuses much more on “beauty” of translation effect with litle regard to equivalence.Nida' s "dynamic equivalence". however, puts emphasis on equivalence of both effects and then solves this contradiction.

3.1.2 Views on Nida s theory of " dynamic equivalence”
It has been mentioned above that Nida s "dynamic equivalence" theory is the most influential as well as the most frequently criticized and reproached due to dfferent interpretations of the theory. And here, a ittle more comments are given to be shared.

3.1.2.1Apprehension of the theory
What Nida's values a lot in dynamic equivalence" is that receptors of the two languages ( SL and TL) have approximately similar response and get basically equivalent ffect( Yang Liu， 2006). The great contribution Nida made was to shift the focus from the comparison of the source- language and the target- language texts to acomparison of the two communication processes involved." (Jin Ti,,1998:231) Thus, Nida's dynamic equivalence " focuses mainly onthe relative side of " equivalence " rather than absolutizes the term,which may imply that the equivalence theory in translation does originally mean something relative, obscure and indistinct.

As a relative conception, the goal " dynamic equivalence" pursues is that the readers of the translation can obtain basically similar message smoothly from the translated text as the readers of theoriginal do from the original text, including their perception of the main essence, specific facts and artistic conception, although the two texts may vary greatly or entirely in forms. This goal can be applied to almost all types of translation. For all of these viewpoints,Nida and his theory have encountered constant criticism and reproaching.

To sum up, those who oppose the theory believe that the equivalence in translation is impossible forever, because the translation involves at least two different languages, cultures, etc., it is rather difficult for the locals, while in favor of people think equivalence can be realized on the senses and style not only, and in effect can be achieved. Nida made it very clear that "reactions can never be the same," but that "a high degree of reaction equivalence" is required and possible; As for "functional equivalence", Nida explained that no translation can be completely equivalent.

Actually, different translations represent varying degrees of equivalence, That is, "equivalence" doesn't mean identity as its mathematical meaning. (Nida, 2001:87) In order to stress the conception of function and meanwhile avoid misunderstanding, Nida holds that the expression“functional equivalence" is much more satisfactory in describing the degrees of adequacy of a translation（Nida, 2001:91). So, Nida, as he puts it explicitly in his works, doesn' t prescribe something " identical" or total equivalence between the original and the translated texts, but expects high degrees of closeness" to ine ongmal and reproducing nearest translated message to the originai message.

He advocates that translators work hard to pursue equivaiencerather than identity". Professor Jin Di may have standpoint identical to Nida' s, he holds that the term " equivalence" in Nida ' s theory indicates a linguistic notion that is different from "identity", and " equivalence"is a relative conception, which requires no totally identical effect, but striving for the closest impact produced by the translation within a possible range as what is produced to readers of the original text by the ST (Jin Ti,, 1998:44).

3.1.3 Theoretical Practice of "Functional Equivalence" in China-A Comment on the Translation of "A Madman's Diary"
Here are three examples to analyze the theory of "functional equivalence" used in the "Madman's Diary" in the translation of "The Call" by Yang Xianyi and his wife.

（1）“我同赵贵翁有什么仇.....把古久先生的陈年流水簿子，踹了一脚....”(鲁迅，2019: 08)

“what grudge Mr. Zhao has against me...Itrod on Mr. Gu Jiu's old ledgers.." (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 23)

If this example is literally translated "赵贵翁", it may be translated as "Zhao Guiweng" in many cases, so that the translation person seems rigid and the translation traces are too obvious. Yang Xianyi and his wife directly translated "Mr. Zhao" in the translation, which conforms to the native language habits of foreigners and avoids the appearance of translation accent. This translation achieves functional equivalence for the translation of personal words in the original text (Chen Weijia, 2009). The "old-year running book" here is a characteristic term of China's old society period, which means "old account book". If literally translated as "aged jour-nal", obviously there is no "old ledgers" which is more suitable for the time.
Time backgroud. The Yangs’ translation handled the translation of characteristic nouns well and reached the result of information equivalent translation.

(2)“陈老五赶上前，硬把我拖回家中了。”(鲁迅，2019: 09)

“Old Chen hurried forward and draggedme home." (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)

The personal pronoun "陈老五", if translated literally, might be translated as "Chen Laowu". Yang Xianyi translated "Old Chen", which is more authentic. "Chen Lao Wu" may be the habitual name of this person by the locals, rather than the name Chen Lao Wu. The Yangs' translation as "Lao Chen" here conforms to the Chinese people's habit of addressing acquaintances and conforms to the original cultural background (金瑞, 邵华, 2018).

(3)“狼子村的佃户来告荒....”(鲁迅，2019: 09)

“a tenant of ours from Wolf Cub Villagecame to report the failure of the crop..." ( 杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)

"狼子村" is a place noun. If it is simply translated as "The Wolf Child Village", it is obviously inappropriate. Such translated names are not only not beautiful enough, but also cannot express the charm of Chinese place names. Here, the expression of "Cub" in "Wolf Cub Village" of the Young couple is quite vivid and accurate. "Cub" means "cub" and it is used here in line with the original meaning. Yang Xianyi has certain accomplishments in the translation of Chinese-specific place nouns, and conveys the Chinese-specific culture well in the translation process.

===3.2 Bassnett's "cultural equivalence" theory===

According to Bassnett, the goal of translation should be to shift from the generally accepted text to culture, which is called cultural transformation. If we compare culture to the human body, then language is the human heart. The mind, language and body coordinate with each other to maintain vitality and vitality. When performing heart surgery on a patient, the surgeon must consider the patient's overall physical condition. The same is true of translation practice. In the process of translating a target language into a target language, parliamentarians must consider double standards of linguistic accuracy and cultural adaptation, and must not deprive cultures and treat translations separately.

3.2.1 Translation methods and strategies
Regarding translation methods, Bassnett believes that language and text materials in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, and therefore different translation methods. For example, for original texts that are descriptive, or contain certain cultural beliefs, or are technological in nature, the translator should try to literally translate from a cultural perspective when translating. If the original text does not belong to the above three types of texts, then the translator can play relatively freely when translating, use more translation skills, and less consider the limitations of the original text culture on translation activities. It can be said that the degree of freedom of such translation activities is relatively high.

Regarding translation strategy, Bassnett believes that the translator's translation activity is a process of information transmission. In this process, the translator should first find the cultural factors in the original text that are different from the target language, and then understand these factors in depth, and try to retain these factors on this basis. Such a strategy helps readers of other countries to better understand the connotation expressed in the original text, and enable them to have a more accurate understanding of the cultural context of the original text.

3.2.2 Content and form of translation
As far as the content and form of the translation are concerned, Bassnett regards cultural exchange as the focus of translation, and she believes that the original flavor of the original language text should be kept as much as possible. At the same time, she also pointed out that literary translation must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, the translation of poetry is not simply a translation of the original poem content, but a new understanding and creation in translation. The translator must use his own translation skills and literary quality to create new content.

But at the same time, the form and content of the poem are unified. The length of the syllables and the distribution of rhymes in the form are also conveying the content. The information of the times is all revealed behind it.
Therefore, if the original form of the poem is discarded in the translation, Then it cannot fully reflect the content of the original poem. Take Chinese rhyme poems as an example. When its prosperity turned from its peak to its decline in the Tang Dynasty, the strict flat correspondence and cohesion were not only for making people melodious and catchy, but its pursuit of form revealed that The literati in the era remembered the dead Tang Dynasty and their strong unsatisfied political demands.

3.2.3 "Intelligibility" of the translation
Before the rise of the school of cultural Translation, translation researchers sometimes translated the literary language in the original text into simple and clear language so that readers could better understand the translation and thus remove the metaphor and association in the literature. In this way, the translation will indeed become easier to understand, but the literariness of the work is reduced, and the interest and depth of the work cannot achieve the effect of the original text. Therefore, According to Bassnett, the "intelligibility" of translation should not be based on abandoning the original style and artistry, but on striving to maintain the original style.

3.2.4 Evaluation Criteria of Translation
For the evaluation criteria of translations, Bassnett believes that the evaluation criteria of translations are not unique. The standards for translating academic articles and applied and literary articles are different. When checking and evaluating the standard of translation, we should start from the target of translation, and judge the translation based on whether the translation can meet the needs of the target. In short, the translation should meet the needs of readers in different cultural contexts as a starting point, and use a suitable translated language that can meet this demand.

3.2.5 Examples of Bassnett's Cultural Translation Theory-Taking 《道德经》‘s Arthur Willy's Translation and Gu Zhengkun's Translation as Examples

原文:

“六亲不和，有孝慈(孝子)。”(章十八)

辜译: "Filiality and benevolence come along with the family feud,"

韦利译:“It was when the six near ones were no longer at peace that there was talkof dutiful sons." (Waley, 1999:37 )

"六亲" in modern Chinese generally refer to all family members and relatives, but in ancient Chinese there are specific references to father and son, brothers, and couples. Gu Zhengkun knows that family ethical relations are not as complicated in the West as in China, so he adopted the approach of being close to Western readers and translated it as "the family; while Wiley used the method of alienation in order to get close to the original work, calling it "sixnear ons" , And supplemented by the notes at the end of the chapter to further explain the specific meaning of "six relatives". (the six near ones: father, son, elder brother, younger brother, husband and wife.). Both translators have realized the function of the language opposite to them. The equivalence of the above. That is to realize the equivalence of cultural functions, but also convey the meaning of cultural connotation.

原文:“虽有拱璧以先驷马” (章六十二)

辜译:It would be better to present to the emperor Tao than jade disks followed by ateam of four horses." ( 辜正坤，1995: 251 )

韦利译:“Rather than send a team of four horses, preceded by a disc ofjade.e.."(Waley,1999:131 )

Both translators translated "驷马" into "four horses", which is correct. In ancient China, the number of horses pulling carts was used to reflect the rank of status, such as driving two horses as a parallel, three horses as a stallion, and four horses as a parcel. Usually the emperor drives six, princes drive five, Qing drives four, doctors three, scholars two, and common people one. There are also horse-drawn chariots in wars, usually one carriage with four horses and three passengers. If the translator can comment on this, it will better help the target readers to understand the ancient Chinese horse culture.

===4.The difference between the two translation thoughts===

Nida's translation thought is mainly influenced by the structuralist translator, which is reflected in his use of syntactic structure analysis method, the semantic component analysis method popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, and the core ideas similar to Chomsky's deep structure syntactic analysis. From the perspective of language translation (interlingual translation), this paper makes a structural analysis of language expression forms and translation programs. However, the essence of Nida's translation thoughts lies not only in his view of language structuralism, but also in "translation is science", "translation and communication", "translation must emphasize readers' reflection" and many other propositions. Moreover, Nida's contributions to translation theory, especially to Bible translation theory, and his position in contemporary American and Western translation studies are very important and widely recognized. (Tan Zaixi, 1991)

But Bassnett's "cultural translation view" focuses on cultural exchanges, with culture first, and information second. Through translation to introduce the unique culture of each nation, explain the similarities and differences between each other, so as to promote the comparative study of two languages and cultures. Bassnett also pointed out that culture puts forward various requirements for translation, and these requirements are closely related to the nature of the original text. In the process of translation, the translator should demonstrate the unique charm of different cultures through translation, so that people of different cultural backgrounds can communicate and communicate in a true cultural sense.

===5.The similarity of the two translation ideas===
Nida believes that the service object of translation is the recipient. It is necessary to evaluate and judge the quality of the translation. It is not only necessary to compare the language form of the translation and the original text, but also to see how the recipient reflects the translation. Only when the translated works are easy to understand and in proper form can they be widely accepted by the public. Bassnett’s cultural translation view also emphasizes that translation should meet the requirements of different objects in a certain culture. In order to meet the requirements of different specific groups, the translator must find a suitable translated language functionally. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that translation works should focus on the demands of recipients of translation at different levels.

Nida believes that when there is a contradiction between form and content in the process of translation, form should give way to content. Bethnet also believes that in the process of functional equivalence, translators will not be limited by literary images. It can be seen that two translation theorists pay more attention to the content and form of translation.

Nida pointed out that the languages and cultures of the world have 90% similarities and only 10% differences. Bassnett also believes that the translator should perform functional equivalence in the target language culture based on the target language; the reading object and the original language's function in the original language culture. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that the source language and the target language can communicate and communicate in terms of culture. Although there is a cultural loss in the translation process, there are more similarities between different languages. Similarities or similarities (ie cultural common core).

===6. Conclusion===
Both Nida and Bassnett are great translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Their theoretical research ideas and academic vision are broad, and their insights are unique, which give people deep inspiration. In the process of translation research, the two masters placed translation in the multi-dimensional space of the original text and the target text, investigated from different angles to reveal the essence of translation, and achieved fruitful results. The two translations: principles and methods. There are both common points and their own characteristics. We should work hard to understand the characteristics and development trajectories of the two major translation theories, and find out the contributions and shortcomings of the two major translation theories. In order to find things that Chinese translation theories can learn from, to promote the development of Chinese translation studies.

===References===

[1]Nida, Eugene and Charles Taber. The Theory of Translation[M]. Leiden:E. J Brill,1969.

[2]Liao Qiyi.(2000).廖七一.''当代西方翻译理论探索''.[Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory].译林出版社[Yilin Publishing House]

[3] Liu Runqing.(2002).刘润清.''西方语言学流''派[Schools of Western Linguistics].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press]

[4]Lu Gang. (2006). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation].''中国比较文化''[Chinese Comparative Culture]

[5]Tan Zaixi. (1991). 谭载喜. ''西方翻译简史''. [Western Translator Business History]. 商务印书馆[The Commercial Press ]

[6]Duan Feng. 段峰.(2006). 苏珊·巴斯奈特文学翻译思想述评. [A Review of Susan Bassnett's Literary Translation Thoughts]. ''四川大学学报''[Journal of Sichuan University]

[7]Lu Gang. (2010). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation]. ''扬州大学学报''[Journal of Yangzhou University]

[8]Deng Ju, Qin Zhongshu.(2007). 邓巨，秦中书.苏珊·巴斯奈特翻译思想述评[A Review of Susan Bassnett's Translation Thoughts. ''四川文理学院学报''[Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science]

[9]Luo Chengli. 罗承丽.(2010). 操纵与构建：苏珊·巴斯奈特“文化翻译中”思想研究. [Manipulation and Construction: Susan Bassnett's "Cultural Translation" Thought Research].''北京语言大学''[Beijing Language and Culture University]

[10]Waley,Arthur.The Way and Its Power:A study of the Tao Te Ching and its Place in Chinese Thought.London:Allen and Unwin，1934.

[11]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call].江西教育出版社[Jiangxi Education Press]

[12]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call]. 杨宪益，戴乃迭，译.北京外文出版社[Beijing Foreign Languages Publishing House]

[13]Gu Zhengkun. 辜正坤.(2008). ''老子道德经''[ Tao Te Ching].北京大学出版社[Peking University Press]

--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 01:07, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==A Comparative Study Between the Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory 吴一露 Wu Yilu 202070080610 MTI 英语笔译==
<center> 吴一露 Wu Yilu 202070080610</center>

===Abstract===

Skopos theory and the theory put forward by Yan Fu, that is “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, are one of the most representative translation theories respectively in the history of Chinese and Western translation theories. And these two theories have a profound impact to Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will compare the similarities and differences between these two theories as well as their historical contributions and limitations. It aims to get a deeper understanding of Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory and a better application of theories in practice. In the meantime, the collision and comparative analysis of Chinese and Western theories will also promote the study of translation theories and provide a reference for guiding translation practice.

===Key words===

Skopos Theory; Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; Hans Vermeer; Yan Fu

===目的论和严复理论的比较研究===
===摘要===

目的论和严复提出的翻译理论即 “信达雅”分别是中西方翻译理论史上最具代表性的翻译理论之一。并且这两种翻译理论对中西方翻译理论和实践产生了深刻的影响。本文将对比研究目的论以及严复理论的同异，结合比较这两种理论的历史贡献及局限,旨在加深对目的论和“信达雅”理解，并将理论更好地运用到翻译实践中。同时中西方理论的碰撞和对比分析，也会促进翻译理论研究和为指导翻译实践提供依据。

===关键词===

目的论；信达雅；汉斯·弗米尔；严复

===1. Introduction===

Skopos is the Greek word for “aim” or “purpose” and was introduced into translation theory in the 1970s by the German linguists Hans J. Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and of the action of translating. The theory holds the idea that translating and interpreting should primarily take the function of target text into full consideration. The creation of Skopos theory is a significant achievement of western translation theories, providing a new perspective for translation study. (Dun Guangang 2011, 248)

In 1897, Yan Fu set down the triple translation criteria of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance,” (that are Xin, Da, Ya in Chinese), which has an influence on the development of translation practice and theory for almost half a century after it came into being and it still exerts great influence on contemporary TS. (Chen Fukang 2000, 107）With the scope of integration and exchanges between China and Western world expanding to various fields, this paper will reexamine these influential theories by comparing their similarities, differences and influences, so as to deepen our understanding of translation theory study.

===2. Introduction of Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory===

====2.1 Skopos Theory====

“Skopos theory comprises the idea that translating and interpreting means to produce a target text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances”. (Vermeer, Hans J.1987a, 26). The purpose decides everything, from the translation strategy and translation method, to the choice of the form and content of the original work and the production of the target text. All translation behaviours should take purpose into consideration.

=====2.1.2 The Development of Skopos Theory=====

The creation of Skopos theory in not going to happen overnight; it is a gradual process that can the skopos theory become the core of functionalist approach, which is initially proposed by Hans Vermeer. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 255) Its formation and development experienced mostly three periods.

(1) Katharina Reiss’s research

The book Possibilities and Limits of Translation Criticism, written by Katharina Reiss in 1971, marked the appearance of German translation theories and was the first time raised the idea that text function could be listed as a standard of translation criticism and came up with thoughts of functional translation theory. The core of her translation theory is text typology, including informative text (content-focused), expressive text (form-focused), operative text (appeal-focused) and the auto-medial text, which laid a foundation for Skopos theory.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 257)

(2) Hans J. Vermeer: Skopos theories and beyond

Vermeer, Reiss’s student, casting off the chains of Functional Equivalence, thought that “translation is not a mechanical language interpretation, but an activity with an aim or purpose.” According to Action Theory, human action is a kind of purposeful behavior in a given situation. In his opinion, translation also is such a kind of action with purpose on the foundation of a source text. Hence, Vermeer names his theory Skopos theory, a theory of purposeful action. Hans J. Vermeer believed that the purpose of a text determines the translation strategies. It is readers that determine translation purpose. So translators should better to consider integrally both the purpose of translation and special circumstances of target-text readers before interpreting.（Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 154）

(3) Justa Holz-Manttari and Christiane Nord: the theory of translational action and Function plus Loyalty Principle

Manttari differentiated “translation” and “translation action”. She thought that “translation” is simply transformative action while “translation action” is more intricate behavior designed to transfer message overcoming culture and language barriers. In Christiane Nord’s Translating as a Purposeful Activity-Functionalist Approaches Explained, she defines the Skopos theory as the prime principle determining any translation process. But Nord also found there were some drawbacks of Skopos theory, so she putted forward the “loyalty principle”: the responsibility of translators towards to their partners in translational interaction. (Christiane Nord, 1997)

=====2.1.3 Rules of Skopos Theory=====

There are three rules of Skopos theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.

The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “skopos rule”, which means that a translation action is determined by its skopos; in other words, that is “ the end justifies the means” (Reiss Katharina & Vermeer Hans J. 1984). As defined by Vermeer and translated by Nord, the Skopos rule states: “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The Skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.” (Christiane Nord, 1997)

Whether the function of the source text or passages of the source text can be preserved or have to be modified or even changed all decided by the purpose of translation. The skopos is divided into three forms: translator purpose, communicative purpose of the translated text and the purpose of using some kind of translation strategies. Coherence rule talks about that the target text must be coherent with the source text, given target text receivers circumstances and knowledge (Pochhacker, Franz 1995, 32). Translators should pick out what is meaningful in the receivers’ condition.

The last rule, fidelity rule, is also called as inter-textual rule which means the ‘inter-textual coherence’ should exists between the source text and target text. Just like Nord (2001) said a translation is an “offer of information”about “a preceding offer of information”, it is expected to bear some kind of relationship with the corresponding source text. It means that the source text and target text should be coherent with each other, and the coherent aspects between them including special collocations, sentence length, grammatical features, or even rhetorical devices, in style, in function, etc. In accordance to this, the form of the target text would be determined by both translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation’s purpose. (Dun Guangang 2011,251)

These three rules connect with each other. From the three basic rules above mentioned we can see that the fidelity rule is considered subordinate to the coherence rule, and the both of rules are subordinated to skopos rule. (Vermeer, Hans J. 1989,187) From above three rules, we come to a conclusion that the evaluation criterion of translation is “adequacy”—dynamic standard —rather than “equivalence”. Therefore, translator should not be literalists who rigidly adhere to the words of the source text.

====2.2 Yan Fu’s Theory====

Yan Fu (1854-1921) was an outstanding Chinese Scholar and translator who had studied abroad from 1877 to 1879 in Britain. In this period, he was interested in western politics and started to learn academic theories of capitalist politics. His solid foundation of language as well as rich reserves of theories made adequate preparations for his future translation work. (Chen Fukang 2000, 105）

Because realizing that it was important for old China to catch up western countries in fields of politics, economy, culture, ideology and institutions, this famous Chinese translator devoted his life to importing western ideas and theories by translating various foreign works, including Evolution and Ethics, Yuan Fu (the Chinese version of The Wealth of Nations), The Spirit of Laws and other essays. It is these translated works and his translation theories --- “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” that impressed large numbers of Chinese scholars profoundly, which also contributed to his everlasting name in the history of Chinese translation theory study.(Chen Fukang 2000, 113）

=====2.2.1 The Development of Yan Fu’s Theory=====

(1)The proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”

The idea of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” （Xin, Da, Ya) was firstly seen in The Dhammapada sequence （《法句经序》）written by Zhi Qian , a venerable monk and a translator of Buddhist scriptures in the Three Kingdoms Period. But as a translation theory, it is known to the public and handed down because of Yan Fu. (Chen Fukang 2000, 106) In 1898, Yan Fu made a conclusion of all the debates related to translation since Han dynasty and Tang dynasty after research. Then he put forward “the three difficulties for translating” in the preface of the translation of T.H. Huxley’s book Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays more than one hundred years ago.

The first draft of Evolution and Ethics was finished in 1895. As this was the first book he translated, he met many difficulties in translating and got a lot of thoughts. Then he put his thoughts into Yiliyan （《译例言》）: “ Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. ” (Yan Fu, 1987) However, there are still some people holding the opinion that these translation thoughts of Yan Fu took their ideas from the three principles of famous British translator Tytler.

(2)The evolution of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”

Since this translation theory was put forward, it have inspired continuous debates for nearly one hundred years and the interpretation of the later scholars cannot be ignored. There are four main directions of this evolution.

The May Fourth New Culture Movement ushered in a new epoch vernacular literature and translation, which changed the status of Classical Chinese and Vernacular Chinese. So Yan Fu’s interpretation of “Elegance”, which refers to application of Classical Chinese before Han dynasty, became out of step with the Times. (Chen Fukang 2000, 108) Attempting to prove the rationality of “Elegance”, many translators made new interpretations of it, while there are also some made adjustments on the basis of Yan Fu’s theory.

Qu Qiubai suggested using Vernacular Chinese instead of classical one; Lin Yutang, Liu Zhongdei and Zhu Wenzhen proposed to change “Elegance” into “Beauty”, “Closeness” and “Appropriate” respectively. Among which “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness” not only inherits rational thoughts, but also overcomes limitations of “Elegance”. So this principle is a remarkable symbol presenting that China’s translation theories are becoming mature.(Liu Qijia 2000, 97)

Besides, Lu Xun simplified this three-character standard, turning it into a two-character one--- “faithfulness and smoothness” (Xin Shun Shuo). From “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” to “Faithfulness, Smoothness and Beauty”, from “Similarity in Spirit” to “Sublimation”, we can see that the translation spirit of Yan Fu is carried forward and how profound an impact this theory made. (Chen Fukang 2000, 112)

=====2.2.2 Main Contents of Yan Fu’s Theory=====

Whenever the criteria of translation is discussed in China, the principle of translation proposed by Yan Fu would be mentioned, namely: “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. From the perspective of Yan Fu, “Faithfulness” referred to the meaning of the target text should be close to that of the original one, that was, being faithful to the original meaning, as well as its sentimental color, style and flavor.(Yan Fu, 1987)

There are two aspects of “Faithfulness”: being faithful to the original work and to target readers. “Expressiveness” meant the target text should be coherent and clear, there being no need to follow the exact order of words and sentences structure of the original language but reorganize and elaborate to respect the rules of target language. (Yan Fu, 1987)

And “Elegance” indicated that the target text should be of refinement in language, namely, the use of ancient Chinese before Han dynasty so as to meet the expectation of target readers who were well-educated in China. He claimed that “where language has no refinement, its effects will not extend far”(言之无文，行之不远). (Chen Fukang 2000, 108）

In Yan Fu’s point of view, “Faithfulness” is the core while “Expressiveness” and “Elegance” are two measures, which can be noticed from the order of these three characters. (Chen Fukang 2000, 107) That means “Faithfulness” is the premise and basis of translation and the other two are the aim of translation. So these three standards are integrated.

===3. Similiarities and Differences===

====3.1 The Similarities betweeen these Two Theories====

Although Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory originated in two different countries and cultural environments, and there are hundreds of years between the times when they were put forward, these two theories have many similarities.

=====3.1.1 Fidelity Rule and Faithfulness=====

The Fidelity rule in Skopos theory is similar to “Faithfulness” in Yan Fu’s theory.

Comparing the two theories of translation, we find that both theories have a criterion based on the original text and pursue the principle of fidelity, which is only expressed in different words. Fidelity rule in Skopos theory holds that translator should respect both the original author and readers in the translation process. Translation is to try to reach an agreement with the original work's intention and translator is responsible not only to readers but also to the original author, reconciling the purpose of the translation with the author's intention and mediating between the two. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 256)

In Nord’s opinion , the faithfulness principle gives translator the right to make changes to the original text according to the purpose of translation, showing an open, tolerant and dynamic view of translation; on the other hand, it requires translator to be responsible for all parties involved in the translation, to explain or interpret his or her translation strategy, and to reach an understanding and consensus among all parties. (Christiane Nord, 1997)

This coincides with Yan Fu's "Faithfulness", which emphasizes not to deviate from the original text. And "Faithfulness" is the premise and foundation of translation. (Chen Fukang 2000, 107) In the process of translation, translator is required to correctly understand the original text and then reproduce it in another language. If the ideas, expressions, and emotions in the translation are not consistent with the original work, then it violates the requirement of "Faithfulness", as well as the requirement of the fidelity rule in Skopos theory. Thus, we can find that both theories emphasize the importance of faithfulness to the original text.

=====3.1.2 Coherence Rule and Expressiveness=====

The coherence principle in Skopos theory is similar to the “Expressiveness” in the Yan Fu’s theory.

In short, they both emphasize the fluency and smoothness of the translation from the point of view of readers’ receptivity and comprehension, so that receiver can accept and understand the translation smoothly. The coherence principle refers that translation should be readable and acceptable, so as to achieve interlingual coherence and to be consistent with the communicative situation of the target readers. As elaborated by Nord, a communicative interaction can only be regarded as successful if the receivers interpret it as being sufficiently coherent with their situation. (Christiane Nord 1997, 32)

Under this rule, the receivers of the target text, their cultural background, social circumstances, expectations, values and norms should all be taken into consideration as major factors to produce meaningful translations. In translation, translator should reproduce the content and form of the original text as much as possible, and such translations usually require extensive annotation so that readers can have a better understanding of the translation. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)

This point is consistent with Yan Fu's viewpoint in his translation work, Evolution and Ethics · Yiyanli : “ 顾信矣，不达，虽译，犹不译也(A translation is faithful but not expressive, then it is not a qualified translation)。” (Yan Fu, 1987) According to Yan, “Expressiveness” means to reproduce the meaning of the original text in a way that is consistent with the terminological conventions of the target language, which also emphasizes the understandability of the translation. That is to say, translator should focus on conveying the content of the original text and conveying the meaning and gist of the original text, rather than sticking to the order of the words and sentences in the original text.

At the same time, Yan also points out that the sentence structure in English is very different from that in Chinese. If one mechanically translates long sentences from English, the Chinese translation will certainly be unintelligible. (Yan Fu, 1987) Therefore, a translator must first understand the main idea of the original text clearly before he can translate it without compromising the original meaning. It can be seen that both Skopos theory and Yan Fu's theory emphasize expressing the main idea of the original text in a way that can be understood by the target readers.

=====3.1.3 Skopos Rule and Elegance=====

The Skopos rule in the Skopos theory is similar to “Elegance” in Yan Fu’s theory to some extent.

The Skopos rule states that the purpose of translation determines the entire act of translation at the macro level. In the meantime, translator must decide what methods and strategies to use in translation based on the function of the translation in the target culture. Vermeer regards the recipient of the translation as an important part of the translation requirements and "one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of the translation". Translation is "the text produced in the target language environment for the purpose of translation and for the target readers.”.(Christiane Nord 1997, 12)

While in Yan Fu’s theory, “Elegance” is more specific, as it is based on the specific era and target readers at that time he lived. Because in the 19th century, the books Yan Fu translated were not for the general public, but for old literati and intellectuals who had the right to speak at that time. And most of them respected the old and discriminated against the new, advocating the ancient language while opposing the promotion of the vernacular language. There was no way to introduce Western ideas and knowledge to the scholarly class in China without taking into account their feelings. It is clear that he was thinking from the perspective of target readers, then this theory was put forward. (Chen Fukang 2000, 109) So, in essence, both theories share the same reader-centered viewpoint.

====3.2 The Differences between these Two Theories====

Although there are many similarities between these two translation theories, big differences in the theoretical system, translation standards and translators' status still exist. These differences are not only caused by the different traditions of Chinese and Western theories, but also by the differences in cultural background and personal theoretical knowledge. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)

=====3.2.1 Different Theoretical Systems=====

Skopos theory is closely integrated with other disciplines. This theory was born out of the behavioral theory. Vermeer places Skopos theory in the framework of cross-cultural communication. He denies that translation is a purely linguistic transformation, and pays more attention to communication and culture.It makes the translation theory more logical, scientific and systematic. (Dun Guangang 2011. 242) Thus, it breaks the text-centered translation research tradition, providing a new perspective for translation study. A theoretical system with diversified translation standards was formed.

Skopos theory clearly puts forward some translation concepts, such as the three rules, and there is a clear hierarchy among the three rules, with both Fidelity rule and Coherence rule being subordinate to the Skopos rule. It makes clear to translator the standards and principles that they should follow.In addition, it also made a distinction between intertextual coherence and intratextual coherence, adequate translation and equivalent translation, and translation and translation action.(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)

But Yan Fu’s theory is relatively abstract and vague. Although it concludes the translation requirements, it is not as clear as Skopos theory. Different translators have different interpretations of these three translation criteria. Some think that "Faithfulness" refers to the faithfulness to the original work's ideological content, while others think it is faithful to the content and linguistic style of the original work, which leads to differences in content and form. Zhu Guang Qian and Tang Ren even advocated condensing “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” into “Faithfulness”; people’s understanding of “Elegance” was even more diverse. Besides, Yan Fu's theory is not closely integrated with other disciplines and focuses more on content and aesthetics.(Chen Fukang 2000, 348）

Therefore, Yan Fu's theory is not clearly demonstrated and scientifically summarized, which easily cause ambiguity. It is not as theoretical and systematic as Skopos theory, and tends to be more of an empirical theory.

=====3.2.2 Different Translation Standards=====

Before the emergence of Skopos theory, the mainstream translation standard was functional equivalence. The emergence of the Skopos theory broke through the constraint of equivalence，replacing the "faithfulness principle" as the first principle with the Skopos rule. The success of a translation depends on whether the intended purpose of translation is achieved. "Skopos" usually refers to the communicative purpose of the translation, that is, "the communicative function of the translation in the target socio-cultural context for the target readers". Therefore, the Skopos theory pays more attention to the translation requirements, the target readers, the target language’s environment and culture. It has a broader scope of application, increasing the number of alternative translation strategies, which opened the shackles of translators.（Vermeer, Hans J. 1989, 186)

In contrast, Yan Fu's translation theory, which can also be regarded as a translation standard, puts forward requirements for translations in three directions. Although “Faithfulness” is the first among the three, Yan Fu also emphasized the importance of “Expressiveness” and “Elegance”. In Yan Fu's view, these three standards are integrated. Even he himself didn’t explain it clearly. In this way, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are only three abstract translation criteria, rather than a systematic translation theory. And it has different requirements to different types of text. The requirements are highest for literary works, lower for philosophical and social science works, and even lower for science and technology related works, official documents and the like.(Chen Fukang 2000, 108)

=====3.2.3 Different Translator Status=====

For a long time in the past, the role and subject status of translators have not received enough attention and research. Traditional translation theories holds that translators should be subordinate to the original text in the translation process. However, Skopos theory emphasizes the subjectivity of translator and frees translators from the prison of the faithfulness standard of translation theory. According to Vermeer, the purpose determines translation action. And the intended purpose is determined by many factors: (1) translator's basic purpose (e.g. to earn a living), (2) the communicative purpose of the translation (e.g. to enlighten readers), and (3) the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation method (e.g. adopting literal translation to illustrate the grammatical structure of a language). (He Xiaoling 2012, 46)

So translators has more freedom and rights. They can have their own judgment and understanding in the translation process. They can adopt different translation strategies, like omission or addition, according to different translation purposes. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 257) Therefore, under Skopos theory, translator is the medium of communication between the author and readers, original text and translated text. He plays a creative role in the translation process, instead of just converting two different languages mechanically. At the same time, translator acts as a central role in the translation process who is responsible for the results of the whole translation activity. (He Xiaoling 2012, 46)

However, in Yan Fu's theory, the content of the translation cannot deviate from the original work. The role of translator is more to convey the meaning of the original work to readers after understanding the ideological basis of the original author. He should strive for the consistency or similarity between the translated text and the original, without compromising the readability and acceptability of the translated text. Therefore, under this theory, translator is more of a bridge between the original work and the translated text. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156) This would still be original text-centered, and translator would not be able to exercise much initiative.

As we can see, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Faithfulness” still advocates the primacy of the original text. Compared with the subjective initiative of translator in Skopos theory, translator's act is largely passive .

===4. A Comparative Study of the Contribution and Limitation of these Two Theories===

Skopos theory proposed by Vermeer and the theory proposed by Yan Fu play an important role in Chinese and Western translation theories respectively. Then what are the similarities and differences between the two theories in terms of their contributions and shortcomings? Through the analysis in this chapter, we can glimpse the development trend and characteristics of translation theory in the world of Chinese and Western translation.

====4.1 Contributions of these Two Theories====

When the linguistic dominance in translation studies was questioned before the birth of Skopos theory, translation studies gradually shifted to a cultural orientation, Vermeer placed translation in the framework of cross-cultural communication, which freed translation from the shackles of Nida's equivalence theory, and liberated translation studies from the constraints of source-text-oriented approach .(Tan Zaixi 2004, 242)

In Skopos theory, the status of the source text is not as important as that of the target text. Vermeer regards the original text only as a "source of information", which provides only the information needed for the translation commission, and is no longer the only or the highest criterion for evaluating the translation. ( Hans J. Vermeer 1982, 98.) Taking the purpose of translation as the starting point and foundation of translation has greatly changed our original concept of translation.

More emphasis is placed on the purpose of translation, the function of translated work and translators’ subjectivity. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) The social and communicative effects of translation, as well as that of readers and translation are also of great importance , thus a multifaceted and integrated translation standard was formed. Therefore, the creation of Skopos theory has finally freed translation research from the confinement brought about by “equivalence” and provided a new direction for translation study.

Skopos theory has played a subversive role in the history of Western translation, while Yan Fu's theory is to a greater extent a summary and refinement of the previous theories of Chinese translation schools. But it has played a pivotal role in the history of Chinese translation and has long been valued by translation scholars. The contribution of this theory to translation lies not only in proposing a far-reaching translation standard, but also in its rich vitality. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) This is because this translation standard summarizes the main characteristics of translation work to a great extent and shows the requirements of translation work. Secondly, because of its inclusive nature, after several generations of scholars' discussions, the meaning of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” has already exceeded the definition given by Yan Fu.

In particular, there are various new interpretations of "Elegance" in literary translation, no longer sticking to the use of ancient Chinese before the Han Dynasty, but focusing on the use of literary style, writing style, and rhetoric. Over the past 100 years, Yan Fu's theory has aroused translators’ long-term thinking and exploration of translation theory, then its academic connotation has been unceasingly explored, which, in return, has been continuously developed and perfected, and has become the classic of Chinese translation thought. In the words of Shen Suru, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is “still the most well-known and influential translation principle and standard, and no other principle or standard can replace it”.(Shen Suru 2001,7)

====4.2 Limitations of these Two Theories====

Although Skopos theory has made a great breakthrough to translation theory, it has some shortcomings of its own. Firstly, it overemphasizes the purpose of translation and translator, while neglecting rich meaning and multifunctionality of the original text, which undermines the ontological meaning of translation, and is not suitable for some text types. Skopos theory contains a certain degree of idealism, focusing on analysis and refinement, and sometimes it tends to neglect the integrity. As a result, sometimes the stylistic and semantic features of the original text are lost in order to achieve the translation goal. Many scholars have also criticized Skopos theory. Among them, Pym argues that it is a matter of common sense that translation has a purpose, and there is no need to make a fuss over the theory. (Pym Anthony, 1996)

Besides, Newmark claims that the “purpose-oriented” view is overkill. He strongly resents the approach of Skopos theory which eliminates the authority of texts and is oriented to translator's culture. Secondly, the possibility of realizing the purpose of translation depends on the conditions of the target culture rather than the culture of the source language, so fidelity to the original text is only a possibility. (Dun Guangang 2011, 247) Thus we can see that the coherence rule and fidelity rule are not universally applicable.

Obviously, there are also limitations to Yan Fu’s theory. Compared with Skopos theory, Yan Fu's theory gives sufficient attention to the original text, but, as we mentioned earlier, it is an abstract and general theory, which is more theoretical rather than expository. The lack of analysis and discussion of specific issues keeps the theory at an abstract level, making it difficult for translator to grasp the degree: what degree can be called “Faithfulness”, what degree can be called “Expressiveness”, and what degree can be called “Elegance”?(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) It is this ambiguity that makes this theory less scientific and accurate than Skopos theory. Thus its guiding role in practice is greatly reduced.

In addition, as a product of the times, Yan Fu’s theory is deeply influenced by the background of the time, and cannot be scientifically combined with other disciplines, which once again limits the application of this theory.

===5. Conclusion===

There are many similarities between the theory of purpose and Yan Fu's translation theory, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, in terms of pursuing fidelity and consistency, and observing reader adaptation, while there are also many differences in the theoretical systems, translation standards, and translator status. Although both theories have certain limitations, it is undeniable that they both provide important guidance for translation practice.

Through a comparative study of these two typical Chinese and Western translation theories, we can find that the Western translation theory pays more attention to scientific argumentation method. It attempts to combine with many other disciplines, and takes them as the theoretical support. Thus, the translation theory model is constantly proposed and improved, and the translation research perspective is expanded. Similarly, Yan Fu's theory is constantly being carried forward, and its influence is far-reaching.

Nowadays, as the world is in the period of fast development, dramatic change and great integration, Chinese and Western thoughts and cultures are deeply interwoven. We should adhere to the essence of Chinese translation theory while learning Western theory, so as to better master the essence of both, grasp the development trend of translation theory, and more actively guide our translation practice.

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Zhou Mengzhen 周锰珍. (2007). “目的论”与“信达雅”——中西方两种译论的比较 ['Skopos Theory' and 'Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance': A Comparison of Two Translation Theories in China and the West]. Academic Forum ''学术论坛''. (8):154-158.

--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 15:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Comparison of Eileen Chang’s Self-Translation and Conventional Translation from the Perspective of Gender 纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian 202020080605==

<center>纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian </center>

===Abstract===

As a representative of Chinese feminist literature, Eileen Chang’s feminist thoughts and gender consciousness have been fully reflected in her creation process. Besides, she is not only a writer, but also a translator. Studying her translation strategies in self-translation and conventional translation and exploring the gender consciousness reflected in her process of translation can help the further development of translation studies of Chang, make up for the lack of translation evaluation of Chinese women and it is also conducive to the further development of gender study in the context of China.

===Key words===

Eileen Chang, gender, self-translation, conventional translation

===题目===
性别视角下张爱玲自译与他译对比研究

===摘要===

张爱玲作为中国女性主义文学的代表人物，在她的创作过程中，女性主义思想、性别意识得到了充分的体现。张爱玲本人除了是一个作家外，也身兼译者的身份，从性别视角研究其自译与他译文本中所采取的翻译策略及其体现出来的性别意识，有助于张爱玲翻译研究的进一步发展，弥补中国翻译史中女性翻译史的欠缺，也有利于性别研究在中国语境下的进一步发展。

===关键词===

张爱玲，性别，自译，他译

===1. Introduction===

Eileen Chang, as a Chinese well-known female writer in the 20th century, her novels and proses have attracted much attention, so that many scholars focus on her literary creation achievement but ignore her translation. Numerous books aiming to introduce the Chinese translation history make no mention of Eileen Chang's identity as a translator. (Ma Ruofei 2007: 1)

In fact, Eileen Chang should be reckoned with in the translation field in that she has also made significant contributions in translation. Mao Dun has pointed out that “ The person who can translate literature books must be someone who has talent in creation”（Luo Xinzhang & Chen Yingnian 2009：413）, and looking back the Chinese history, we can find that there are not so many Chinese writers who can also translate, but Eileen Chang is one of them.

She, with her powerful creative talent and bilingual skills, has translated diverse works, including a variety of novels, proses and poems, at the same time, she has also made her contributions in compiling movie scripts. Here, the translations that will be talked about are her self-translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'' (''The Golden Cangue'') and conventional translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea''. (Ma Ruofei 2007: 1)

Eileen Chang, as a leader of feminist literature in China, the feminism thought is profoundly embodied in her literary creation and translation, however, speaking up for women has not limited her exploration of male identity, in the process of depicting the typical characters with different genders, Eileen Chang, as an author or a translator, represents different gender identities. (Ma Yue & Mu Lei 2010: 67)

===2. Gender and Translation===

Since the rise of feminism in the western continent in the 20th century, the topic of gender has always been placed at the core of its theoretical development. Feminism translation theory thought that between women and translation there was some kind of similarity - both of them were placed in the inferior position. So they combined feminism and translation, advocating from the feminist standpoint, using language to create positive intervention to change women' s weak position in translation, so that it can criticize the traditional translation theories which degrade women and translation to the bottom of the society or literature. (Meng Lingzi 2016: 23)

During this period, the research on the relationship between gender and translation has seen the influence of gender identity on translation, which is a big development. However, the over-emphasis on the opposition between the two sexes has its limitations. (Meng Lingzi 2016: 23)

As Sherry Simon has pointed out, “...Another interesting area of investigation would be the way gender identities have been disguised through translation” (Sherry 2005:159), that is, gender identity can be disguised during translation, or the identity represented by the translator is not a single fixed one.With the development and innovation of various theories, translation studies from the perspective of gender, when it is developed into the 1980s, under the influence of post-structuralism theory, its focus has shifted from the over-emphasis on the opposition between men and women to the exploration of meaning and gender fluidity.

This chapter, facing such a change of gender translation studies, aims to study Eileen Chang' s translations from the perspective of gender liquidity. To some extent, this chapter breaks the status quo that the study on Eileen Chang is onefold about feminism and explores her gender identity transformation in translation to dig out the influences that different gender identities make to the translation. (Ma Ruofei 2007: 46)

===3. The Gender Identities in Eileen Chang' s Self-translation -- ''Jinsuo Ji''===

As one of the most representative works of Eileen Chang, ''Jinsuo Ji'' was once honored as “the greatest novella in the history of Chinese literature”(Hsia 1999: 398) by Hsia, while Fu Lei (whose early pseudonym is Xun Yu) also gave a high evaluation of this work, and he said that it was “one of the most great achievements in our literary world”(Xun Yu 1994: 121).

In order to perfectly present the culture and thought of the original work, Eileen Chang chose to translate it by herself. It takes her nearly 10 years to rewrite or self-translate ''Jinsuo Ji'', including four different versions: ''Pink Tears'', ''The Rouge of The North'', ''Yuan Nv'' and ''The Golden Cangue''. However, due to the cultural differences, the English version is far less successful than the Chinese version especially the first two English versions do not receive much attention. It was not until 1971 that her fourth English version was produced and chosen into ''Twentieth - Century Chinese Stories''(1921).

Finished in 1943，''Jinsuo Ji'' mainly depicts how Ch’ i-ch’ iao, an ordinary girl from a vendor' s family, gradually changes her mental state because of the oppression of the feudal family. Being forced to marry a crippled person, she depresses her love towards Chiang Chi-tse, her brother-in-law, and idles thirty years in Chiang family like insanity. Under such circumstance, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s personality is finally distorted. She destroys her son's marriage and tortures her daughter-in-law to death. Besides, her daughter' s marriage is ended by her. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 134)

Eileen Chang' s works overturns the traditional patriarchal discourse, turning to the female as the center of her literature creation, and in her works, the main objects are those ordinary women who live a tragic life. These works fully show her sympathy to the fate of these women, and reflect her intense gender consciousness which is also reflected in her translation.

====3.1 The Performace of Translator' s Female Identity====

In ''Jinsuo Ji'', Ch’ i-ch’ iao is definitely a beautiful and healthy girl. However, she has to marry a disabled husband with an ugly appearance. In the face of such a marriage, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s sorrow is obvious, and hoping for love, she turns her eyes to Chiang Chi-tse. However, the reality proves to her that Chiang Chi-tse' s so-called emotion is just a use. Eileen Chang, as a female translator, is full of sympathy for Ch'i-ch'iao's situation, and this sympathy is fully reflected in her translation. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 134)

ST：
（七巧的手直打颤，扇柄上的杏黄须子在她额上苏苏摩擦着......）七巧低着头，沐浴在光辉里，细细的音乐，细细的喜悦.....这些年了，她跟他捉迷藏似的，只是近不得身，原来还有今天！(Eileen Chang 1992: 108)

TT：
( Ch'i-ch'iao's hands trembled until the yellow tassel on the fan handle rustled against her forehead...) Ch’ i-ch’ iao bowed her head, basking in glory, in the soft music of his voice and the delicate pleasure of this occasion. So many years now, she had been playing hide-and-seek with him and never could get close, and there had still been a day like this in store for her. (Eileen Chang 1971: 163)

Comparing the source text with the target text, it can be found that Eileen Chang makes three main additions here: “of his voice”, “of this occasion” and “in store” to explicate the implied information in the source text, which more powerfully reveal Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s strong feelings of love and uneasiness for Chiang Chi-tse all the time. From then on, it can be seen that Ch' i-ch' iao once placed her hope in Chiang Chi-tse for love. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 142)

However, from the description in the following text, we can find that for Chiang Chi-tse, the affection with Ch' i-ch' iao is just for regulating his life. Eileen Chang clarifies Ch' i-ch' iao' s emotion in the translation and reveals Chiang Chi-tse' s so-called emotion in the later text, which can show the tragic color of Ch’ i-ch’ iao to express the translator’ s sympathy for the character. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 142)

====3.2 The Performace of Translator' s Male Identity====

In ''Jinsuo Ji'', the author uses a large number of metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival condition. In order to more intuitively present such a state to the readers, Eileen Chang tries her best to translate from the male identity, which to a certain extent derogates the female consciousness of the text, to show the passiveness and helplessness of female characters under a specific era background. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 145)

ST:
娟姑娘扶了正，做了芝寿的替身。(Eileen Chang 1992: 130)

TT：
Miss Chuan was made a wife and became Chih-shou' s substitute. (Eileen Chang 1971: 191)

The source text describes that after the death of Ch' i-ch’ iao' s daughter-in-law Chih-shou, Chuan, as a concubine of Ch' ang - pai, was supported as his wife. The expression “扶了正” is full of metaphorical color, “正” is a metaphor for the official wife, and “扶” indicates that Chuan is a passive object controlled by others. In the translation, Eileen Chang uses the passive voice to translate “扶了正” into “was made a wife” to convey the manipulated situation implied in the source text. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 145)

In addition, here Chang uses the article “a” instead of “the”, just as there will be others to take the place of Chih-shou after her death, the position of the official wife is also low in the feudal family. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 145)

Another typical example in which the translator expresses herself as a male to show the passive position of the female is reflected in the translation of Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai’ s separation scene:

ST：
长安和长白分了家搬出来住。(Eileen Chang 1992: 130)

TT：
Ch’ ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang - pai and moved out of the house. (Eileen Chang 1971: 191)

The original describes the scene in which Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai split up after Ch' i-ch' iao' s death. Here “分家” is a phrase with metaphorical color.

Instead of translating it directly into “divide the property”, Eileen Chang, from the perspective of male identity, conceals the hidden information of the original in the translation. She translates the sentence “长安和长白分了家” into “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai”, which reveals the fact that in the feudal family of China, men had the right to inherit the family while women were subordinated. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 144)

====3.3 The Disappearance of Translator' s Gender Identity====

In the process of translation, Eileen Chang not only uses the identity of male or female to flexibly express the meaning of the original text, but also appropriately conceals her gender identity in some situations to reveal the reality of all characters including both sexes.

ST：
（去年她戴了丈夫的孝，今年婆婆又过世了。）现在正式挽了叔公九老太爷出来为他们分家。(Eileen Chang 1992: 104)

TT：
（Last year, she wore mournings for her husband and this year, her mother - in - law had passed away.）Now her husband’ s uncle, Ninth Old Master, was formerly invited to come and divide the property among the survivors. (Eileen Chang 1971: 157)

The source text shows us that after the death of the old woman in power of Chiang Mansion, a group of men and women gathered to separate their families. In the translation of the text, Eileen Chang does not make too many adjustments, but only abstracts the word “他们” which indicates “them” into “survivors”, a word with multiple meanings. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 146)

Firstly, the survivors are indeed “alive” relative to the old woman who died, so the “survivors” can convey the meaning of the original text. Secondly, to some extent, in Eileen Chang' s eyes, both men and women are struggling in the mud in this turbulent era shrouded by feudal ideology, and everyone is a survivor of suffering. Therefore, she uses the word “survivors” to reveal the abuses of the era and sigh over life. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 146)

Due to the work itself has strong female consciousness, therefore, as a translator, Eileen Chang inevitably translates from female perspective most of the time, but this does not mean that female translators do not have the male consciousness, from the second case, we can see that the identity of the translator can be transformed. In addition, the fluidity of the translator's gender identity is not only reflected in Eileen Chang's translation of female texts, but also reflected in her translation of male texts. (Wang Jing 2011: 104)

===4. The Gender Identities in Eileen Chang’ s Conventional Translation -- ''The Old Man and the Sea''===

''The Old Man and the Sea'' is an outstanding masterpiece of the famous American writer Ernest Miller Hemingway. It was published in 1952 and won the Pulitzer Prize in the second year. In 1954, Hemingway also won the Nobel Prize of Literature. Eileen Chang left Shanghai and arrived in Hong Kong in 1952, just after the publication of ''The Old Man and the Sea''. Invited by the press office of the U.S. Consulate General in Hong Kong, Eileen Chang began to participate in a large-scale Chinese-translation project of American literary works, including ''The Old Man and the Sea''. (Mao Pingping 2018: 171)

Once the work was published, it attracted a wide attention. During that period, even priests and preachers began to quote Hemingway’ s philosophical and thought-provoking quotes in ''The Old Man and the Sea''. This book is translated into dozens of languages and published all over the world, with high praise from critics and readers. The first person in China who gets this great work into well translated is Eileen Chang.

''The Old Man and the Sea'' tells the story of a special fishing experience of an old fisherman named Santiago. After eighty-four days without getting a fish, he was lucky enough to catch a huge marlin. However, the marlin dragged the old man and the boat along for two days and nights. In these two days and nights the old man had gone through the most difficult trials he had ever gone through. With strong will, he finally killed the big marlin and tied it to the bow. However, unfortunately, a group of big sharks came after smelling the smell of blood and the old man fought with them to the death. At last, the old man’ s life was saved, but the sharks had eaten up the great marlin, and what the old man dragged back was a bare skeleton.

When it comes to ''The Old Man and the Sea'', in the prologue of its Chinese version, Eileen Chang expresses her affection of this work many times and different from the self-translation in which she has taken a bold rewriting, in the translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang is more faithful to the original, and only presents her subjectivity in the choice of the gender identity. Eileen Chang expresses her understanding of the gender of the source text in the prologue, and then creatively translates the gender-loaded words in the text accordingly.(Eileen Chang 1979: 5)

====4.1 The Performace of Translator' s Female Identity====

It is undeniable that female translators depict emotions more deeply and delicately than male translators. Therefore, in the process of translating The Old Man and the Sea, Eileen Chang, as a female herself, is particularly adept in showing the emotional characteristics of Sandiego. “...In her translations, she uses rephrasing, color words and onomatopoeia words which are full of feminine characteristics. Those words hint about her feminist thoughts and subtly reveal her identity as a female translator.” (Mao Pingping 2018: 171)

ST：
“Come on.” the old man said aloud. “Make another turn. Just smell them. Aren’ t they lovely? Eat them good now and there is the tuna. Hard and cold and lovely.” (Hemingway 1985: 39)

TT：
“再兜一个圈子。你闻闻看。这沙丁鱼可爱不可爱? 好好地吃它们吧，不时还可以吃吃那鳍鱼。硬硬的，冷的，可爱的。”(Eileen Chang 1979: 29)

Here Eileen Chang uses a number of reduplicated words “闻闻”, “可爱不可爱”, “好好地”, “吃吃” and “硬硬的” to translate the dialogue between the old man and the fish, or in other words, the old man’ s self-talk, to soften the whole image of Sandiac and also show his loneliness.

====4.2 The Disappearance of Translator' s Gender Identity====

As a work of men power, the word “man” can be found throughout the whole novel, and translation of this word has mainly two kinds of different ways, one is to follow the novel emotional qualitative, translating it into “男子汉” or some words having the similar meaning, and this way is often taken by many male translators. The second way is to expand the scope of objects, translating it into “人” or “人类” which includes both men and women. (Wang Jing 2011: 103)

To some extent, the latter way blurs gender identity or conceals gender identity to achieve gender balance in the meaning. Eileen Chang mainly adopts the second method in her translation:

ST:
It is what a man must do．(Hemingway 1985: 23)

TT:
男子汉就应该这样。(Hai Guan 1979: 15)

男子汉就该这么干。(Wu Lao 2009: 21)

活总是要干的。(Eileen Chang 1979: 16)

Wu Lao and Hai Guan both translate “man” into the concept of “male”, while Eileen Chang avoids using such words in translation. Here she translates the original text into a sentence pattern without subject, omits the subject with gender description, and in fact blurs the gender boundary of the words, thus breaking the arbitrary power of male discourse.

====4.3 The Performance of Translator' s Male Identity====

For the translation of “man”, Eileen Chang has also adopted another translation method:

ST：
“But man is not made for defeat,” he said. “A man can be destroyed but not defeated.”(Hemingway 1985: 96)

TT：
“但是人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个男子汉可以被消灭，但是不能被打败。”(Eileen Chang 1979: 81）

“可是一个人并不是生来要给打败的，”他说。“你尽可把他消灭掉，可就是打不败他。”（Hai Guan 1979: 79）

“不过人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个人可以被毁灭，但不能给打败。”（Wu Lao 2009: 99）

Here, contrary to the previous example, Hai Guan and Wu Lao translate “man” into “人”, while Eileen Chang translates “man” into “男子汉”which means male, pointing out that “a male can be destroyed”. Compared with Hai' s and Wu' s translation, Chang’ s translation, though excluding the female crowd, emphasizes the limitation of male power.

Eileen Chang's translation is very characteristic. By taking advantage of different gender identities to give play to her translator's subjectivity, Eileen Chang transformed the image of Santiago, a tough man who fought bravely against nature created by Ernest Hemingway in the original text, into the image of a fisherman, a symbol of gender equality and a representative of all mankind. (Mao Pingping 2018: 171)

Through the self-translation and conventional translation of Eileen Chang, we can see that the gender identity of the translator is not unchangeable, either in the feminist text (''Jinsuo Ji'') or in the text expressing the male discourse power (''The Old Man and the Sea''). The translator can adjust his/her gender identity to represent different genders and thus achieve his/her translation purpose.

===5. Reasons for the Transformation of Gender Identity===

====5.1 Cultural Context====

Malinowski, a Polish anthropologist, first put forward the concept of “context” and he divides context into cultural context and situational context. Here I mainly expound the influence of the cultural context on the transformation of the translator’ s gender identity in the two literary works ''Jinsuo Ji'' and ''The Old Man and the Sea''. “The literary creation of any country or region cannot be separated from the rendering of the corresponding cultural context...A good translation cannot be achieved without a profound understanding of the context of the text.” (Xi Peihua 2017, 121)

The creation context of ''Jinsuo ji'' is different from that of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', and the social background of the readers of the target language and the source language is also different, which both affect the choice of the translator’ s gender identity.

For example, Eileen Chang' s work ''Jinsuo Ji'' reflects the difficult survival of Chinese women in the feudal family under the background of the 20th century. The original text uses many metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival, and it’ s not difficult for the source language readers who are in the same social background to understand the indicating meaning of those words. However, when the text is put into a different context while the text content is presented in the same way, it is not easy for the target language readers to understand. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 145)

For example, the expression “分家” in the sentence “长安和长白分了家搬出来住” has not only the surface meaning of “separation” but the implied cultural meaning that “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai” which is the hidden information the target language readers won' t get if the translator did not take appropriate measures to make up for the differences of context. Therefore, in her translation, Chang clarifies the cultural characteristics of the source language through the transformation of gender identity. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 144)

====5.2 The Gender of the Translator and the Purpose of Translation====

As a female translator, Eileen Chang' s female thought is inevitably reflected in her process of translation. And in addition to some unconscious female thinking, it is believed that Eileen Chang' s adoption of different gender identities is more consciously chosen according to her translation purpose. For example, in the translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'', Eileen Chang translates from the perspective either of her own or the gender identity or of the opposite sex, the ultimate purpose is to express the struggle and survival of the female characters in the patriarchal society and expressing her lament for that era.

And in ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang expresses her different understanding of this work in her translation preface that the old fisherman shows astonishing perseverance in his struggle with the sea -- not superhuman, but a kind of grace and spirit due to all human beings. (Eileen Chang 1979: 12)

Therefore, Eileen Chang, based on her understanding of the work, attempts to abstract the image of “old fisherman” into all mankind through her translation, and either from a female identity perspective, from a male perspective or conceal her gender identity in her translation the purpose is to weaken the male discourse in the original text. (Eileen Chang 1979: 12)

===6. Conclusion===

Through this comparative study on Eileen Chang' s self-translation and conventional translation, we can see that Eileen Chang, as a female translator, can not only translate feminine literature from a female perspective, but translate male literature from heterosexual gender perspective.

On the other hand, in the same literary work’s translation, her gender identity is not fixed, for example, in translating the female literary, in order to better achieve the purpose of translation, the translator can translate from a male perspective. In a word, this chapter provides the corresponding empirical evidence for the fluidity of translator' s gender identity, breaking the current situation that the research on Eileen Chang' s translation mainly focuses on her feminism.

===References===

Chang Eileen, trans. (1971). ''The Golden Cangue. Twentieth-century Chinese Stories''[M]. NY: Columbia University Press.

Eileen Chang 张爱玲. (1955). 金锁记[M]. [''The Gold Cangue'']. 上海印书馆. [Shanghai Press].

Ma Ruofei 马若飞. (2007). 张爱玲翻译研究[D]. [Eileen Chang Translation Studies]. 北京语言大学. [Beijing Language and Culture University].

Ernest Hemingway. (1985). ''The Old Man and the Sea''[M]. Printed in Great Britain by St Edmundsbury Press, Bury St Edmunds, Suffolk.

Ernest Hemingway. (1979). 老人与海[M]. [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 张爱玲译, 香港: 香港今日世界出版社. [Hong Kong: Hong Kong Today World Press].

Ernest Hemingway. (1979). 老人与海[M]. [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 海观译, 上海译文出版社. [Shanghai Translation Publishing House].

Ernest Hemingway. (2009). 老人与海[M]. [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 吴劳译, 上海译文出版社. [Shanghai Translation Publishing House].

Luo Xinzhang, Chen Yingnian 罗新璋，陈应年. (2009). 翻译论集[C].[''Translation Theory Collection'']. 北京: 商务印书馆. [Beijing: The Commercial Press].

Ma Yue, Mu Lei 马悦, 穆雷. (2010). 译者性别身份流动性 :女性主义翻译研究的新视角[J]. [Translator’s Gender Identity Mobility: a New Perspective on Feminist Translation Studies]. 解放军外国语学院学报. [Journal of PLA University of Foreign Languages]. 66-70.

Mao Pingping 毛萍萍. (2018). 张爱玲《老人与海》译作中女性主义的东方色彩[J]. [Oriental Feminism in Eileen Chang' s Translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 大众文艺. [Popular Literature]. 171-173.

Meng Lingzi 孟令子. (2016). 从女性主义翻译到性别翻译[J]. [From Feminist Translation to Gender and Translation]. 中国翻译. [Chinese Translators Journal]. 23-31.

Simon, Sherry. (1996). Gender in Translation: Cultural Identity and the Politics of Transmission[M]. London: Routledge.

Wang Jing 王璟. (2011). 性别意识与文学翻译——张爱玲翻译个案研究[J]. [Gender Awareness and Literary Translation: A Case Study of Eileen Chang' s Translation]. 中国外语. [Chinese Foreign Language]. 102-106.

Wang Xiaoying 王晓莺. (2015). 离散译者张爱玲的中英翻译——一个后殖民女性主义的解读[M]. [''Diaspora Translator Eileen Chang’s Chinese-English Translation——A Postcolonial Feminist Interpretation'']. 广州:中山大学出版社. [Guangzhou: Sun Yat-sen University Press].

Xi Peihua 席培华. (2017). 浅谈语境文化对英美文学翻译的影响[J]. [On the Influence of Context Culture on the Translation of English and American Literature]. 黑龙江教育学院学报. [Journal of Heilongjiang Institute of Education]. 121-123.

='''Art of Translation'''=

==A Comparative Study of Two English Versions of Bian Cheng from the Perspective of Translation Ethics Gui Yizhi 桂一枝 202070080587==
<center>Gui Yizhi 桂一枝 202070080587</center>

===Abstract===

Translation is a kind of cultural communication. As long as trans-cultural contacts between different nations and countries occur, problems in ethics would inevitably arise. The nature of translation determines that translation and its researches need the study of ethics as their guidance. The Chinese outstanding contemporary literary works ''Bian Cheng'' has been translated into many different languages, which now enjoys a high reputation among the world. Many researchers have studied its English version from different translation theoretic perspective. This thesis intends to compare two English version of ''Bian Cheng'' translated by Gladys Yang and Ching Ti & Robert Payne respectively within the frame work of Chesterman’s five models of translation ethics, and examine the presentation of translation ethics in these two version.

===Key Words===

Translation ethics, ''Bian Cheng'', Chesterman

===题目===

翻译伦理视域下《边城》两英译本的比较研究

===摘要===

翻译是一项跨文化交流活动。只要不同国家，民族间发生的跨文化行为就不可避免地产生伦理问题。翻译的本质属性决定了翻译活动和翻译研究需要伦理学的指导。《边城》作为我国当代的优秀文学作品曾被翻译成多国文字，在世界文坛上饱享盛誉，很多学者从不同的翻译理论角度对此英译本做过分析研究，本文将从翻译伦理角度，以切斯特曼的五大翻译伦理模式为理论框架，对《边城》的两个英译本——戴乃迭和金堤与白英的译本进行比较评析，探讨翻译伦理在两译本中的体现。

翻译伦理；边城；切斯特曼

===1. Research Background===

Since the late 1970s when the study of translation was proposed to be established as a discipline, it has been developing significantly, going far beyond traditional translation studies. Ideas about translation have sprung up like mushrooms.

From the popularity of functionalism to the emergence of poly-system theory and norm theory in the 1970s and 1980s, scholarship on translation had converted from traditional study focusing mainly on textual matters, more often than not within a linguistic or a literary framework to the study of cultural, commercial, social, historical and political factors related to the texts. Thus, it largely broadened scholars' horizon and enriched the research scope to make translation as a reformulated subject of lively, interdisciplinary debate, paving way to the "cultural turn". (Luo 2009: 61)

With the acceleration of globalization redefining national and cultural boundaries, the "cultural turn" in translation studies in the 1990s further introduced many newer theoretical perspectives. Cultural, national, postcolonial, ideological and gender studies, etc. began hitting the field. Translation was never purely regarded as the process of the transfer between languages but also the transfer between cultures. Regarding translation as an intercultural activity now, the translator as a "cultural mediator" has to handle the relations between Self and the Other to coordinate diversified cultural relationships and resolve cultural conflict to promote understanding and communication among nations. Since ethics as a discipline focuses on moral principles guiding human behavior in social relations, translation as a particular kind of activity involving a series of relations can naturally fall into the field of the study of ethics.

It was under such circumstances that the ethics of translation entered the field of the translation study, and became a hot topic in the late 1990s. Just as Pym claims in his article: "ethics has become a cross-cultural concern as it has in translation studies. Consequently, the study of translation ethics has been appealing to some scholars and should be given much more emphasis by the whole translation circle." It's now widely accepted that translation study has returned to the questions of ethics.(Pym 2001:129-138)

===2. Literature Review===

====2.1 Studies on Translation Ethics aboard====

After the cultural turn in 1970s, a trend of investigating translation studies from the perspective of ethics begins in translation theorists. The development of translation ethics and the major influential scholars’ viewpoints are clarified in the following section.
It was in the 1980s that the ethics-oriented approaches began emerging in translation studies abroad. Antoine Berman, a French translator and philosopher, is considered the initiator of the study of translation ethics. Early in 1984, Berman first put forward the concept of "translation ethics" in an international seminar on philosophy based on the fierce critics of the western translation tradition of only focusing on "transmitting sense" and advocated that translation ethics should be regarded as one branch of translation studies.(Berman 1992: 3)

Influenced and enlightened by Berman, Lawrence Venuti, a translation theorist of American deconstructionist, also expresses his concerns on translation ethics by advocating "an ethics of difference". He invents the two words "domestication" and "resistancy" to define the different ethical attitudes and practice of translators. Venuti pays more attention to the social and political factors in translation by advocating the translation strategy of foreignization to resist the cultural hegemony in contemporary Anglo-American culture. Therefore, his thoughts about translation ethics with a basic character of "resistancy" seem more realistic and profound.(Venuti 2004)

As the initiator of "the return to ethics" in The Translator in 2001, the French translation theorist Anthony Pym has also made great contributions to the study of translation ethics. Unlike Venuti, who is greatly influenced by Berman, he is not totally in favor of Berman's theory of translation ethics, which he regards as too rigid, pedantic and abstract, for he thinks the debate about "how to translate" over the centuries is always confined to the dichotomy of domestication and foreignization, with Berman's no exception. Pym’s basic idea is that translators should be more loyal to their profession than to the source and target organ. The reason lies in that the whole accountability of professional translators is grounded in the profession itself. Translators check each other's work, drawing on past translations for guidance. They derive their norms from the existing professional context. Just as international scientific community, translators are a community that survives via its own system of checks and balances (Pym 2001:129-138).

In 1990s, Chesterman, an influential Finish scholar, makes a great contribution to the completeness of translation ethics. He puts forward a quite different view on translation ethics, focusing on the values instead of rights and obligations of the translators. Chesterman (1997a) considers values to be the primary notion. In his opinion, there are four values — truth, trust, clarity and understanding, all of which form a fairly comprehensive notion of translation ethics. Later in 2001, Chesterman published a paper "Proposal for a Hieronymic Oath" in a special issue of the journal The Translator, entitled "the return to Ethics". In his paper, he firstly put forward four models of translation ethics: the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication and the norm-based ethics. Another model named ethics of commitment was added later so as to essentially regularize the translator's ethical behavior. His proposal of five models of translation ethics has caused a big stir in the academic field, which is considered objective, descriptive and systematic. This classification provides us with a multi-dimensional method of assessing translation practice, for it has assimilated many research results from existing translation theories such as functionalist, norm theory, etc.(Chesterman 2001:139-153)

====2.2 Studies on Translation Ethics at home====

With the development of the studies on translation ethics in the west, some of Chinese translation scholars have also begun to turn their attention to this issue on translation studies. Professor Lu Jun is the first person to propose "translation ethics" based on the theories of Jurgen Harbermas, communicative ethics in his book ''Span Cultural Barriers — Reconstruction of the Tower of Babel'' written in 2001. In this book, He regards translation activity as "a kind of dialogue and communication between different cultures that requires people to conform to some principles and norms for such intercultural communications will involve more complicated issues..., to be more specific, translation activity itself needs the guidance of ethics". (Lu 2001: 272)

Generally speaking, from Professor Lu Jun's view, the theoretical principle of translation ethics is to pursue equality and justice, to oppose linguistic and cultural hegemony and to seek mutual respect and benefits in different cultures. His research on translation ethics has widened the scopes of translation ethics and has contributed a lot to the study of translation ethics.

With more and more foreign theories of translation ethics translated and introduced in China, some of the researchers begin to apply these research achievements into translation practice. Professor Sun Zhili creatively identifies five responsibilities for the translator to take based on Chesterman5s five models of translation ethics in combination with a consideration of Chinese translation context, namely, the responsibility of representing the original, of fulfilling one's client's requirements, of conforming to the socio-cultural norms of the receiving country, of satisfying the demands of the TL reader, and finally of abiding by one's professional ethics and becomes the first person to interprets the translator's responsibilities from the perspective of translation ethics.(Sun 2007: 14-18)

Professor Xu Jun makes a tentative discussion of the ethical problems in translation in his article ''essay on three levels of translation activities'' in 1998. In his opinion, every responsible translator should seriously consider and treat questions presented by "willingness", "reality", and "morality", he proposes that "the establishment of translation standards and the adoption of translation strategies are bound by moral ties...if given careful observation, activities from the choosing of the texts to be translated, the adopting of the translation strategies to the rewriting and editing of the translated texts are all constrained and influenced by various ethical problems... Therefore, translators should consider from both the aesthetic level and the moral level".(Xu 1998: 49-54)

====2.3. the Translation of ''Bian Cheng''====

The thesis adopts the classic modern novel ''Bian Cheng'' owing to its distinguished language and unique style of writing. Set in the border town Chatong and the nearby rural areas in West Human of 30's, Bian Cheng tells a tragic love story between the beautiful young girl Cuicui and the young man Nuosong. It is the representative work of Shen Congwen who has a high reputation in the Chinese literature circle. He is regarded as "one of the half-dozen great authors of modern Chinese literature" (Kinkley, 1987). He has even been nominated for the "Nobel Literature Prize" in 1987. Therefore, this novel is worth appreciating and analyzing.

There are four English version of ''Bian Cheng''. As early as 1936, the English magazine issued in China with the aim of promoting the exchange between the Chinese and western cultures named T'ien Hsia Monthly began to serialize the English version of Bianchen titled ''Green Jade and Green Jade'' translated by Xing Molei (the pen name of Shao Xunmei) and his girlfriend Emily Hahn. It was not until another English version titled ''The Frontier City'' contained in T''he Chinese Earth: Stories By Shen Tsung-wen'' translated by Ching Ti & Robert Payne and published by George Allen & Unwin Ltd. in 1936 came into being that Bian Cheng became very popular in the western countries and also evoked much interest in the author himself. And this version was reprinted by Columbia University Press in 1982. In the 1980's, Yang Xianxi, the top-rank translator and Forerunner, inspired by the success of Penguin Books in the UK, called for the publishing of a series of books called "Panda Books" to introduce Chinese representative literary works to the world. This series of books included ''The Border Town and Other Stories'' translated by Yang Xianyi's wife Gladys Yang, The fourth version was translated by American Sinologist and translator Jeffrey Kinkley, which was published in 2009 by HarperCollins Publishers. These four English translations span 73 years and have witnessed the history of the English translation of modern Chinese literature.

Based on the previous studies, this thesis will choose these two English versions of Biancheng translated by Ching Ti & Robert Payne and Gladys Yang, and make a comparative study of them from the perspective of Chesterman’s Five Models of Translation Ethics.

===3.Chesterman’s Five Models of Translation Ethics===

Chesterman's five models of translation ethics are the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication, the norm-based ethics and ethics of commitment.

Ethics of representation is closely concerned with faithfulness, which has been discussed for years in the translation circle. This model requires that translators should reproduce with full loyalty to the original text, the original author, the original language, and the original culture. In Chesterman's words, “the ethical imperative is to represent the source text, or the source author's intention, accurately, without adding, omitting or changing anything”. Ethics of representation means that the translation can substitute or represent the source text.(Chesterman 2001: 139)

The ethics of service requires the translator to "act ethically if his translation complies with the instructions set by the client and fulfills the purpose of the translation as set by the client and accepted or negotiated by the translator", and the translator should be "loyal above all to the client, but also to the target readers and to the original writer".(Chesterman 2001: 140)

The ethics of communication sees translation as "an interlingual and cross-cultural communication, the emphasis of which is not on representing the Other but on communicating with Others in the cross-cultural communication" and asks the translator to be "a mediator working to achieve cross-cultural understanding".(Chesterman 2001: 141)

Norm-based Ethics is the fourth model of translation ethics Chesterman proposes, which belongs to the branch of "descriptive translation studies". Toury (1995) gives a definition of norm like "the general values of ideas shared by a community as to what is right or wrong, adequate or inadequate into performance instruction appropriate for and applicable to particular situations". That is to say, norms are what the majority expects what translation should be like. Translators should not challenge the current norms in translation circle.(Chesterman 2001: 142)

The ethics of commitment is further raised by Chesterman, which rests on a practical evaluation of translation activity: "I take commitment to be the glue that binds practitioners to the value of the practice. It is thus also a virtue, supporting the striving for excellence, the wanting to be a good translator". He proposes nine points for the comprehension of the professional ethics of translators: commitment, loyalty to the profession, understanding, truth, clarity, trustworthiness, truthfulness, justice, striving for excellence.(Chesterman 2001: 147)

===4. Comparison of the Two English Versions of ''Bian Cheng''===

====4.1 Different Translator Focuses on Different Translation Ethics====

Ching & Payne's translation was published in ''the Chinese Earth: Stories by Shen The Chinese Earth: Stories by Shen Ts'ung-wen'' in 1947 by George Allen & Unwin Ltd in London, England. The author aims to introduce Chinese novels to English readers, making the Border Town known to readers in Western countries. Since then, western readers have gradually know Shen Congwen. The translation was republished by Columbia University Press in 1982. After the founding of New China, Shen Congwen's works were once banned. It was not until the 1980s that his books returned to people's vision. Gladys 's translation is contained in ''Border Town and Other Stories'', published by China Literature Publishing House in 1981, which aims to promote representative Chinese literary works to the world.(Xiang 2019:92)

Different translations deal with the frame structure of the original work differently. The Ching & Payne translation adds an 8-page translation preface to the front of the text. In the translation preface, the translator first explains the reason and importance of adding the preface to the translation. Furthermore, the translator introduced the writing styles of Shen Congwen and Lu Xun; third, the translator introduced Shen Congwen’s life and his position in the Chinese literary world; finally, the translator analyzed the theme and content of ''Border Town''. However, Gladys 's version only has a short preface about brief introduction of Shen Congwen. The Ching & Payne translation was published in 1947. In order to meet the needs of translation service ethics and communication ethics, based on the fact that Western world and western readers did not know much about Chinese culture as well as Shen Congwen, so the translator gave a lot of introduction Shen Congwen and Border Town. Gladys’s version was published in 1981. Before this time, Shen Congwen’s works were once listed as banned books. During this period, overseas research on Shen Congwen has never stopped. In the 1980s, there was even Overseas Shen Congwen Craze. So based on the relationship between the translator, the sponsor and the readers, different translator will focus on different translation ethics during their translation activities.(Xiang 2019:92)

====4.2 Places and Culture-loaded Words Translation====

Table1 comparison of places names in two versions

源语/金白译/戴译

四川/ Szechuan/ Szechuan

辰州/ Chenshow/ Chenshow

桃源/ Taoyuan/ Taoyuan

沅水/ Yua Sui/ River Yuan

白河/ White Stream/ White River

湖南/ Hunan/ Hunan

秀山/ Hsiushan Mountain/ Mount Xiu

茶峒/ Ch’a-t’ung/ Chatong

酉水/ Yu Sui/ The You

洞庭湖/ T-ung-ting Lake/ Lake Dongting

The ethics of communication believes that translation is a cross-cultural and cross-language communication activity. The translator should first be faithful to the translation ethics in the "cultural communication space", not the source or target culture. The ultimate goal of translation is promoting communication and cooperation between the two parties. Therefore, the two translators followed different communicative ethics in different times. In order to effectively achieve the purpose of communication, Ching & Payne adopted Wade-Giles Romanization, which was acceptable to the English world. This way is easy to be taken by readers and promotes effective communication. At that time, Gladys was commissioned by the magazine Chinese Literature at the time, and her translation had to serve as her "patron". For the translation of place names, Gladys 's translation used the phonetic system which was the standard rules for translating names of places and persons at that time. When personal ethics conflict with social ethics, the subjectivity of the translator will be controlled by the "patron". Ching & Payne translated earlier, and their version was published by George Allen & Unwin Ltd. Therefore, compared to Gladys, the "patron" of the Ching & Payne’s version are themselves.(Xiang 2019:93)

Table 2 comparison of culture-loaded words in two versions

源语/ 金白译/ 戴译

油坊/ Oilshops/ Tung oil presses

桐油/ Wood-oil/ Tung oil

唢呐/ Flute/ Trumpet

糍粑/ Cake/ Ciba

纤夫/ Haulers/ Towman

上帝/ God/ Jade Emperor

蓬船/ Junk/ Craft

青盐/ Green salt/ Rock salt

法器/ Musical instrument/ Stock-in-trade

粉条/ Rice noddles/ Bean-vermicelli

喽啰/ bandit/ Whirligig

陀螺/ Delicate silk gowns/ Dark satin jackets over long gowns

From Table2 we can see that Gladys's translation adopts the strategy of foreignization, preserving Chinese culture and following the ethic of representation. It also contains serving factors for the "patron". In a sense, it unifies the ethics of representation and service. While Ching & Payne’s version focuses more on the target language readers’ understanding, and give up to represent the culture-loaded words that are unfamiliar to target language readers by using the translation strategy of domestication. Its aim is to entertain the readers. In order to effectively achieve better communication with target language readers, he mainly follows the communication ethics in translation ethics.(Xiang 2019:93)

====4.3 Representation of the Aesthetic Prospect====

One of the most distinctive features of Bian Cheng lies in its unity of objective scene and subjective emotion to successfully create the beauty of aesthetic prospect. Contemporary literary theorist Tong Qingbing defines the aesthetic prospect as “an image system of a fusion of feelings with the scenery depicted represented in the lyrical works, which can evoke readers’ association and imagination, and surpasses the concrete vision and ascends an extensive artistic space.” So, it's the translators’ responsibility to represent the aesthetic prospect of the source text. Now, let’s take a look at the following examples.(Tong 1998: 194)

[Example 1]

[STI]由四川过湖南去，靠东有一条官路。这条官路将近湘西边境到了一个名为“茶峒”的小山城时，有一小溪，溪边有座白色小塔，塔下住了一户单独的人家。这人家只有一个老人，一个女孩，一只黄狗。(沈从文，1981:1)

[TT-1] The highway running east from Sichuan to Hunan comes, just west of the border, to Chatong, a small town in the hills. Near by a stream flows past a small pagoda, at the foot of which lives a solitary household: an old man, a girl and a dog. (Gladys, 1981:5)

[TT-2] From Szechuan there is a highway running east to Hunan. When the road reaches the small mountain city of Ch'a-t'ung, just inside the border of Hunan, it crosses a river, near the river you will find a white pagoda and a small isolated cottage, where there once lived a family which consisted of an old man, a girl and a yellow dog. (Ching, 1982:190)

This is the beginning paragraph of Bian Cheng. Without any decorative words and ostentatious expressions, the author uses three short and succinct sentences with fewer verbs to depict a static landscape painting through the juxtaposition of eight images -- "官路", "小山城"，"小溪", "白色", "小塔七", "单独的人家", "老人", "女孩子" and "黄狗", making us associated with harmony, peace and tranquility as well as loneliness with the repetition of the Chinese character "一". The character "一" embodies the "blue" aesthetic mentality and literary creation view of Shen Congwen, who once said: I feel so lonely, perhaps from which I hope to be close to the beauty still left in my impression? Here in the beginning of the novel, by using his usual simple and plain writing style, the author successfully fuses his feelings with the natural setting to convey his deep love and concern towards the characters and what will happen next. (Wang 2012: 25)

In Gladys Yang’s version, she pays full attention to the simple writing style and the esthetics connotation embodied in the use of the character "一" in the original. Besides using three simple sentences, almost the same in the length, with no more than three verbs and seven "a (an)" and one "the" to fully represent the eight images to retain the aesthetic prospect of peacefulness and loneliness, She also translates "单独" (的人家)into a "solitary" household, the meaning of which contains the two connotations of "alone" and "lonely"，which further deepens the beauty of solemn, quiet and loneliness embodied in the original.(Wang 2012: 25)

Compared with Gladys Yang's version, Ching Ti's also fully represents the eight images of the original. But with the translation of "单独"(的人家)into an "isolated" cottage which conveys less emotional overtones than "solitary" and the use of complicated and rambling sentences with nearly five verbs, the original aesthetic connotations are involuntarily broken by him. To sum up, Gladys’s translation better represents the aesthetic prospect of the original than Ching Ti's.(Wang 2012: 25)

====4.4 Conflict between the Ethics of Representation and the Norm-based Ethics====

As Chesterman argues: "the representation model is vulnerable to arguments about the impossibility of totally true representation, about the relative status of the original and translations, about the illusion of perfect equivalence". Accordingly, the ethics of representation can easily conflict with other models of translation ethics, especially the norm-based ethics.(Chesterman 2001:39-154)

From the linguistic point of view, the vital difference between Chinese and English lies in parataxis and hypotaxis which are two different devices that help realize the cohesion in language. Chinese prefers parataxis which depend coherence in meaning and sentences are organized in a topic-comment structure without overt logical markers in many cases. While English favors hypotaxis which lays great emphasis on logical relation and sentences are organized in the S-P (subject-predicate) patterns with various explicit logical markers of overt cohesion. Inevitably translators have to notice and deal with such a difference between Chinese and English.(Wang 2012: 34)

Let's look at the following examples:

[Example 1]

[STI] 话虽轻轻的，那男的却听得出，且从声音上听得出翠翠年纪，便带笑道：“怎么，你骂人！你不愿意上去，要呆在这儿，回头水里大鱼来咬了你，可不要叫喊！”
翠翠说：“鱼咬了我也不管你的事。” (沈从文，1981:24)

[TTl-l] Low as the words were, he caught them, and realized that she was no more than a girl. "Such language from a child!" he teased, chuckling, "you stay here, mind a big fish doesn't bite you—don't expect me to rescue you!"
"Whether it bites me or not, that's none of your business!" (Gladys, 1981:26)

[TTl-2] She spoke under her breath, but the man heard her. He guessed her age from her voice, and answered laughingly: "So you like cursing, eh? Wbll if you don't want to go, you can wait here、 but don't be surprised if a fish comes out of the water and bites you."

"Eyen if a fish does bite me, I'll never have anything to do with you!" the girl retorted. (Ching, 1982: 211)

Under such conflict, taking the target readers’ maximum acceptability into consideration, Gladys Yang has adopted relatively flexible translation strategies to try to retain the linguistic feature of Chinese by using as less overt logical markers as possible. While Ching Ti chooses to meet target readers, expectations by fully employing the hypotactic structure of the English language, for he exchanges the original diffusive structure into long and complicated sentences with logical markers.(Wang 2012: 35)

Under such conflict, taking the target readers’ maximum acceptability into consideration, Gladys Yang has adopted relatively flexible translation strategies to try to retain the linguistic feature of Chinese by using as less overt logical markers as possible. While Ching Ti chooses to meet target readers, expectations by fully employing the hypotactic structure of the English language, for he exchanges the original diffusive structure into long and complicated sentences with logical markers.(Wang, 2012 35)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===5. Conclusion===

After a theoretical study of translation ethics and a practical analysis of the two English versions of ''Bian Cheng'' within the framework of Chesterman5s five models of translation ethics, we 'can conclude that the present study of translation ethics, with Chesterman's five models as its representative, does open a new perspective for not only translation studies but also for the translation practice and evaluation. This chapter mainly deals with the major findings as well as some limitations and suggestions for further study.

This thesis focuses on the comparison of the two English versions of ''Bian Cheng'' under Chesterman's five models of ethics namely the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, and the ethics of communication, norm-based ethics and the ethics of professional commitment.

It mainly applies the ethics of representation into evaluation from the aspects of the representation of the aesthetic prospect, the ethnological color, the character images through dialogues, and the cultural-specific of the original, based on which the conflict between the ethics of representation and norm-based ethics at certain linguistic and cultural levels and the mediation by the ethics of service & communication under the guidance of the ethics of professional commitment as a whole are also examined carefully. Generally speaking, both of the translators put the ethics of representation in an important position, though Gladys Yang has done better jobs in representing the original, both in form and spirit, than Ching Ti. It's not only because Gladys Yang is more highly skilled in translating than Ching Tii but also because they put different factors into first consideration in translation with the former being faithful and loyal to the original and the latter meeting the target readers' expectations.

And when the conflict between the ethics of representation and norm-based ethics emerges, the ethics of service & communication will serve as mediators to guide their translation, generally, Gladys Yang chooses to preserve the original to a maximum, that is to say, she prefers to take the ethics of representation into first consideration, based on which she will adopt relatively flexible translation strategies to make her translation acceptable by conforming to norm-based ethics to some extent. While Ching Ti lays primary emphasis on norm-based ethics, always putting target readers' expectations first by violating the ethics of representation. But both of their coordination or mediation is under the guidance of the ethics of professional commitment as a whole from a higher level, instead of abusing their professional power to mediate arbitrarily.

In a word, with different ethics influencing the translators most, the two English versions possess different characteristics. Guided mainly by the norm-based ethics, Ching Ti tends to take the strategy of "domestication" to make his version colloquial, smooth and simple for the target public to get amusement. While Gladys Yang highlights the ethics of representation to adopt the strategy of foreignization mostly to make her version formal, exquisite, serious and academic to some extent, which mainly appeal to those target readers who are interested in Chinese culture.

===References===

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Venuti, L. (2004). ''The Translator Invisibility: A History of Translation''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

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Chesterman, A. (2001). ''Proposal for a hieronymic oath''[J]. The Translator: Studies in Intercultural Communication .

Shen Congwen. (1982). ''The Frontier City in the Chinese Earth: Stories by Shen Tsfung wen''[M], trans. Ching Ti & R. Payne. New York: Columbia University Press.

Shen Congwen. (1981). ''The Border Town and Other Stories''[M]. Translated by Gladys Yang. Beijing: Chinese Literature Press.

Luo Xianfeng 骆贤凤. (2009).中西翻译伦理研究述评[A Review of the Research on Chinese and Western Translation Ethics].《中国翻译》''Chinese Translation'' 3，13-17。

Lv Jun 吕俊. (2001).《跨越文化障碍一巴比塔的重建》[''Cross cultural barriers--Reconstruction of Barbita''] Nanjing: Southeast University Press 南京：东南大学出版社

Sun Zhhili 孙致礼.(2007).译者的职责 [Responsibilities of the translator]《中国翻译》''Chinese Tranlation''，4, 14-18。

Shen Congwen 沈从.(1981).《边城》[''The Frontier City''] Nanchang: Jiangxi People Press 南昌：江西人民出版社

Xiang Rendong 向仍东.翻译伦理视角下《边城》英译研究 [Interpretation of Two English Version of BIancheng in Light of Translation ethics][J].语文学刊. Language and literature Learning(2019). 39(04):91-95.

Tong qingbin 童庆炳.(1998).《文学理论教程》[''Literary Theory Course''] Beijing: Higher Education Press 北京：高等教育出版社。

Wang Weiping 王卫萍. 翻译伦理视域下《边城》两英译本的比较研究 [A Comparative Study of Two English Versions of ''Biancheng''—from the Perspective of Translation Ethics] [D]. Nanjing Normal University 南京师范大学,2012.--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 06:58, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==A study of English Translation of Chinese Cultural Classics from the Perspective of Communication==

==Study on the English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation 刘欧 202070080597 MTI英语笔译==
<center>刘欧 Liu Ou 202070080597</center>

==='''Abstract'''===

With the deepening of reform and opening up, China has become increasingly connected with the world. A large number of Chinese people go abroad to witness the world, meanwhile, an increasing number of foreign friends are also visiting China. Hunan, as a province with abundant tourist resources, has many scenic spots. To attract more foreign tourists, the translation of scenic spots names should also be accurate. Bassnet’s View of Cultural Translation holds that the process of translating Chinese into English is not only a conversion between two different languages, but also a cross-cultural communication between the two languages. Adopting the View of Culture Translation as the guiding principle of Hunan scenic spots will help foreign tourists understand the cultural connotation behind the scenic spots while enjoying the beautiful scenery. This is of great benefit to promote Sino-foreign friendship and enhance the world's understanding of China.

==='''Key words'''===
English Translation; Hunan Scenic Spots Names; the View of Culture Translation

==='''摘要'''===
随着改革开放的不断深化，中国与世界的联系日益紧密。大批中国人走出国门开眼看世界的同时，越来越多的外国友人也来中国游览观光。湖南作为旅游资源大省，拥有许多风光迤逦的旅游景点。在欢迎国外游客的同时，旅游景点名翻译也应当准确达意。巴斯奈特的文化翻译观认为，汉语翻译成英语的过程不但是两种不同语言之间的转换，更是两种语言的跨文化交流。采用文化翻译观作为湖南旅游景点的指导思想，有利于增进外国游客在饱览景区美景的同时，了解景区背后的文化内涵。这对于促进中外友谊，增进世界对中国的了解都大有裨益。

==='''关键词'''===
英语翻译;湖南旅游景点;文化翻译观

==='''Introduction'''===

Cross-cultural communication is becoming more and more frequent with the development of globalization. Meanwhile, transnational tourism has become the most popular way of communication. It is a kind of pleasure to experience foreign culture in visiting the cultural heritages and scenic spots. As a country with long history, China attracts a large number of foreign tourists every year(Xin Xin, 2012). Hunan is located in the hinterland of China's southeast, with beautiful and distinctive natural scenery. It has long been known as tourists attraction since ancient times. It is in such an environment that the ancestors of Hunan Province constantly strive for self-improvement, hard work and innovation. All the historical relics and cultural landscapes they left here, such as ancient cities, villages, gardens, temples, memorial archways, academies, dwellings, temples, grottoes, cemeteries, all bear their spiritual quality and cultural connotation.

To understand the history and profundity of the culture of Hunan Province, the best way is to go there to appreciate its natural scenery and historical relics, and experience its local customs. (Hunan Provincial Department of Culture, 2014) These local tourist attractions can not only display beautiful natural scenery, but also spread excellent culture. Standardizing the translation of scenic spots names is an important opportunity to show the beauty of Hunan culture to foreign tourists(Xiao Fuliang, 2016).

The name of tourist attractions refers to the names of natural and cultural landscapes in tourist attractions. Some of these names are engraved on stone tablets, some are engraved on the signboards of scenic spots, and some appear in various publicity materials such as tourist brochures, scenic maps and websites. In order to leave a good impression on tourists and attract them to visit, the names of tourist attractions are usually short, concise, vivid and attractive (Pan Hong, 2016).

This paper attempts to analyze whether the English translations of some scenic spots in Hunan Province have achieved the desired effect of publicity from the perspective of cultural translation. At the same time, if there were some improper translation in the English translation of Hunan scenic spots, the author will give his own translation for reference.

=== The Introduction of the View of Culture Translation ===
Before the emergence of cultural translation school, linguistic school, functional school and structuralism school were the main schools in the field of western translation theory. Jakobson, Catford and Nida, the representatives of the linguistic school, put more emphasis on equivalence in translation. They claim that translation is to replace another language with an equivalent language material; while Les, Nord and Mantari, the representatives of functional school, believe that the focus of translation studies should be on the target text rather than the original text. Their research sources are communication theory, action theory, information theory and reception aesthetics theory.

But whether it is linguistic school, functional school or structuralism school, in their research process, all try to achieve language equivalence more or less from all levels of text content and form. Translation researchers hope to find a scientific and effective way to solve the various problems in translation, but the cultural diversity determines the cultural connotation of the text. Therefore, these researchers encounter great difficulties when they encounter the context which is quite different from their own cultural background, and the emergence of cultural translation school is meant to solve such problems.

After the 1970s and 1980s, with the acceleration of globalization, the acceleration of information dissemination and the diversification of communication modes, the relationship between language and culture has become closer. In the process of information dissemination, differences among language become more and more prominent, and the status and role of translation activities have also changed. Therefore, with the acceleration of globalization and the popularization of multicultural views and values, translation theory researchers who conform to the trend of the times pay more and more attention to the diversity of cultural values embodied in the translated text.

In 1990, Translation, History and Culture, co-edited by Andre Lefevere and Bassnett, was published, marking a cultural turn in the field of translation. The concept of cultural translation emphasizes that translation is not only a bilingual communication, but also a kind of cross-cultural communication; the purpose of translation is to break through language barriers and promote cultural exchange; the essence of translation is to transmit cross-cultural information and reproduce the cultural activities of the original with the target language; the main purpose of translation is cultural transplantation and cultural blending, but cultural transplantation is a process; Language is not the operation form of translation, but the cultural information . (Bassnett Susan, 1992: 13) Bassnett emphasizes that “translation is the communication within and between cultures”(Bassnett Susan, 1990: 10-11).

She believes that translators should carry out translation activities in a specific cultural context, and translators should never carry out translation activities in isolation under the influence of their own cultural background. In short, Bassnett's “cultural translation view” is that translation is not a mere language activity. It is rooted in and influenced by the culture in which the language is located.

==== The Purpose of Translation ====
As for the purpose of translation, Bassnett thinks that the primary purpose of translation is to allow readers from two or more different cultural backgrounds to communicate with each other through the medium of text, and the exchange of information should be placed in the second place of translation purpose. Through effective translation, translators can not only introduce the cultural characteristics of different nationalities to other readers, but also promote the communication between different cultures and promote the comparative study between the two cultures(Bassnett Susan, 1990).

====Translation Methods and Strategies====
As for the translation method, Bassnett thinks that the language and text materials in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, so there should be different translation methods. For example, for the original text which is descriptive, contains some cultural beliefs, or is of scientific and technological, the translator should try to use literal translation from the perspective of culture. If the source text does not belong to the above three types of texts, then the translator can play a relatively free role in translation, make more use of translation skills and pay less attention to the restrictions of the original text culture on translation activities.

It can be said that the degree of freedom of such translation activities is relatively high. As for translation strategy, Bassnett considers that the translator's translation activity is a process of information transmission. In this process, the translator should first find out the cultural factors in the original text which are different from those in the target language, and then deeply understand these factors, and try to retain these factors. Such a strategy is conducive to the readers of other countries to better understand the connotation of the original text and make them have a more accurate understanding of the cultural context of the original text(Bassnett Susan, 1990).

====Content and Form of Translation ====
As for the content and form of the translation, Bassnett takes cultural exchange as the focus of translation. She believes that the original flavor of the original language should be retained as much as possible. At the same time, she also proposes that translation of literary must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, poetry translation is not a simple translation of the original text, but a fresh understanding and creation in translation. The translator should use his own translation skills and literary literacy to create new content(Bassnett Susan, 1990).

====“Intelligibility” of Translation ====
Before the rise of cultural translation school, translation researchers sometimes translated literary language into plain language and deleted literary metaphor and association in order to make the translation better understood by readers. In this way, the translation will become very easy to understand, but the literary nature of the work is reduced, and the interest and depth can not reach the effect of the original text. Therefore, Bassnett thinks that the “intelligibility” of the translation should not be based on the abandonment of the style and artistry of the original text, but should try to keep the original flavor of the original text (Bassnett Susan, 1990)
.
====Evaluation Criteria of Translation ====
As for the evaluation standard of translation, Bassnett thinks that the evaluation standard of translation is not unique. The standard of translating academic articles is different from that of practical and literary articles. When examining and evaluating the standards of translation, we should start from the service object of the translation, and judge whether the translation can meet the needs of the service object. In short, translation should be based on meeting the needs of readers in different cultural contexts, and appropriate translation should be used to meet the needs(Bassnett Susan, 1990).

===2.The Existing English Translated Versions of Names of Hunan Scenic Spots===
There are 15 major tourist areas and many tourist spots in Hunan, and there are many historic sites with a long history. Such as Mountain Heng, one of the Five Sacred Mountains in China. Dongting Lake, Shaoshan Mountain, the former residence of Chairman Mao Zedong, Wulingyuan, which shows the characteristics of strangeness, danger, seclusion, beauty and wildness, and Yuelu Academy with a thousand years of history(Chen Jiao, 2013). In order to publicize and spread the culture of Hunan Province all over the world, we should standardize the English translation of Hunan scenic spots names. Meanwhile, we should translate these scenic spot names understandable from the guiding theory of the View of Culture Translation.

====Improper English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names====
When tourists enjoy the beautiful scenery, the name of the scenic spot is the first information that leaps into the their sight. In order to attract the attention of tourists, induce the tourists of English speaking countries to have a strong interest in the culture and landscape of the tourist destination, stimulate their desire to buy tourism products and promote the development of tourism, translators should pay attention to the cross-cultural awareness when translating the names of scenic spots, so as to provide accurate information as well as the cultural connotation to the tourists from English speaking countries and those who understand English.

However, the author finds that there are many improper translations in the English translation of scenic spots nemes in Hunan Province, which brings a lot of inconvenience to tourists from English speaking countries, and also has a negative impact on the publicity of scenic spots. These improper translations mainly exist in the following aspects:

Firstly, the different versions of translation in the same or different scenic spots.
For example, as one of the four wonders of Mountain Heng, scenic spot “水帘洞” has two translated names, which are translated as “water screen cave” in the official website of Mountain Heng tourism website, while it is translated into “waterfall cave” on the route map. The English translation of “雁峰寺” on Hengyang tourism route map is Yan Feng Si, while on Hengyang tourism website it is “The Goose Mountain Temple”. There are also two different versions of the English translation of the name of the scenic spot “烟雨池”. It was translated as “Yanyuchi” on Hengyang tourism route map, but on Hengyang tourism website, the free translation method is adopted, that is, “Misty Rain Pond”(Wang Zaiyu, Jiang Shihong, 2012).

Secondly, the overuse of transliteration.
Huiyan Peak, located on the bank of Xiangjiang River in Yanfeng District, Hengyang City, is the most famous peak among the 72 peaks of Mountain Heng. It is also known as the No.1 peak of Mountain Heng, and ranks the first of Eight Sceneries in Hengyang. There are many famous beautiful and charming scenic spots on Huiyan Peak. These landscape names reflect the geographical, historical and cultural features of Hengyang, and also contain rich cultural information.

However, many scenic spots with rich history and culture on Huiyan Peak are translated by transliteration, which makes the cultural and historical information of theses scenic spots completely lost. For example, “望雁台” ( Wangyantai) , “回雁阁”( Huiyange) , “平沙落雁” ( Pingshaluoyan) ,“回雁亭” ( Huiyanting), “归雁亭”( Guiyanting) are all transliterated. Another example is “南天门”, the original translation of which is “Nantianmen”. In fact, Taoists often build gates near the top of famous mountains, implying that they are the gateway to heaven. The “南天门” refers to the south gate leading to the top of Mountain Heng. Therefore, it is better to be translated as “Southern Gate to Heaven”.

Of course, transliteration is one of the common translation methods of scenic spot names translation, but if transliteration is used too much that without considering the cultural connotation of the original language, the name of scenic spot will be obscure and foreign tourists will be confused. Standing in front of these Pinyin, foreign tourists can not understand the cultural connotation of the names of scenic spots. So it is difficult for them to realize the historical and cultural stories of these scenic spot according to the transliterated names.

Therefore, excessive transliteration will affect the transmission of scenic spot name information, make it difficult for English speaking tourists to understand the rich cultural connotation of scenic spot names, which will reduce the readability of the translations and thus affect the development of China's tourism industry and the spread of culture abroad. Therefore, the translator should carefully consider and choose the appropriate translation method.

===3. The Strategies of English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation ===
Tourism translation is a cross language, cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication activities. Compared with other types of translation, it is more direct, more prominent, more typical and more comprehensive in cross-cultural and cross psychological communication. (Chen Gang, 2004)

==== Characteristics and Methods of Tourism English Translation ====
According to the view of cultural translation, Bassnett believes that texts in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, so there should be different translation methods. For example, for the original text which is descriptive, contains some cultural beliefs, or is of scientific and technological contents, the translator should try to adopt literal translation from the perspective of culture. In the process of translation, the translator should first find out the cultural factors different from the target language in the original text, and then understand these factors, and try to retain them. Such a strategy is conducive to the readers of other countries to better understand the connotation of the original text and help them have a more accurate understanding of the cultural background of the original text.

==== Characteristics of Tourism English Translation ====
The translation of tourism materials is different from the translation of official documents and written materials. The translation of these materials generally emphasizes that the translation is completely consistent with the original content, while tourism English only attracts foreign tourists by explaining the scenic spots and introducing the local customs. Some English tourist materials are concise and accurate. On the contrary, the tourist materials written in Chinese emphasizes style and the beauty of sentences. Therefore, the translation of scenic spots names in English requires creativity, which should be concise, fascinating and easy to remember(Xin Xin, 2012).

==== Methods of English Translation of Scenic Spot Name ====

In the translation of scenic spot name, in order to let foreign tourists understand Chinese culture and scenic spots, flexible translation methods should be adopted to effectively convey tourism information and Chinese culture(Jia Wenbo, 2004). The translation of the scenic spot name is of great significance although the names are not contain too much vocabularies. How to use translation methods and skills flexibly by following the translation theory becomes very important. This requires the translators to be faithful to the content and style of the original materials in the process of translation.They should try to retain the cultural factors in the original text, and make it easy to understand for the target readers to accept at the same time.

Literal translation, free translation, literal translation+transliteration, transliteration+ explanation and cultural analogy are commonly used in scenic spot name translation. Through the study of the translation methods of translating the names of these scenic spots, we can use the translation skills more accurately and ultimately improve the translation ability(Xin Xin, 2012).

1. Literal Translation

Literal translation is helpful to convey the information of the source language such as place names, characters and events. (Chen Jiao, 2013) For these particular names or general names of scenic spots, it’s better to adopt the literal translation, namely word for word translation. The allusions of the figures in Nanyue Temple such as “苏武牧羊”（Su Wu Shepherding Sheep）”、“达摩东渡”（Dharm Sailing Eastward）；Fairy tale such as“后羿射日”（Houyi Shooting the Suns）、“盘古开天”（Pangu Creating the Universe）、“精卫填海”（Jingwei Filling the Sea）.

2. Free Translation

Free translation refers to the translation method to translate the connotative meaning when the literal meaning and connotative meaning of the original text are inconsistent (Niu Xinsheng, 2013). In addition, translation techniques such as domestication and free translation are also discussed. Due to the differences in language and culture between English and Chinese, there are differences in language form and content between the two languages. Therefore, translators need to grasp the differences between the two languages and cultures to ensure that the information of the original text are properly transmitted to the target readers.

If the names of some scenic spots contain rich cultural connotations and cannot be translated by literal translation, then the names of such scenic spots are mostly translated by free translation, that is, words with the same meaning but different forms are translated. For example,“爱晚亭”, the name was originated from a famous poem written by Du Mu (803-853) in Tang dynasty. But the official translation in the scenic spot was “the Lovely Evening Pavilion”. However, the real meaning of “晚” in the name was not "evening" but "late autumn". Hence some scholars translate it as “the Autumn-Admiring Pavilion” and “the Maple-leaves Admiring Pavilion”(Chen Jiao, 2013).

3.Transliteration + Literal Translation

The front contains the proper name for a specific person or place name, and a fixed general name for the name of a scenic spot. Transliteration and literal translation can be used in translation. For example, "南岳庙" (Nanyue Temple), "洞庭湖" (Dongting Lake), "岳麓山"(Yuelu Mountain),"崀山" (Langshan Mountain), "湘江"(Xiangjiang River) etc.

4.Transliteration + Explanation

The advantage of transliteration is that it does not need any explanation, and its disadvantage is that it can not fully arouse people's interest and attention. For foreign tourists, it is difficult to connect the original meaning of the original text with the Chinese pronunciation of the scenic spot. In order to follow the original author's intention and its own pronunciation, we adopt the method of combining the two to make up for the shortcomings. For example,"柳浪闻莺"liu'lang'wen'ying (listening to Orioles Singing in the willows), "鬼见愁"gui'jian'chou (sight that disorders devils)(Xin Xin, 2012). In order to help foreign tourists understand the background knowledge of China's human history, local conditions and customs, some relevant information can be appropriately added to the original text when translating. For example, when introducing "吊脚楼", if we just translate it as Diaojiaolou , it is difficult for tourists to understand the literal translation of it, so it is advisable that supplement the explanation of “suspended wood house built on stilts”. For example, in the introduction of traditional festivals in Zhangjiajie, “六月六” is translated into Liu Yue Liu Festival.

In order to help tourists understand the specific connotation of the festival, the translation should be followed by an appropriate explanation: It usually takes place on the sixth day of the lunar six month, when all the members of the family get together to have dinner and hold a rite to pay sacrifice to their ancestors. This supplement can help foreign tourists understand the meaning of these traditional festivals quickly(Chen Jiao, 2013).

Meanwhile, cultural analogy is also an effective skill in explanation. Analogy refers to the transformation of unfamiliar cultural information in the source language into similar information in the cultural context of the target language in order to eliminate the cultural strangeness contained in the source language and arouse the sense of similarity for the English speaking tourists. In other words, borrow the similar places of interest, legends and historical stories in English to translate the scenic spot name in Chinese, which can narrow the distance between the two different language for the readers and they can better understand the meaning of the original text.

For example, Mountain Hengshan the scenic spot “祝融峰” is said to be the residence of Zhu Rong, the God of Fire. Its translation is "Zhu Rong peak", Zhu Rong, the Chinese Prometheus(Chen Jiao, 2013). Prometheus, the hero of stealing fire in ancient Roman legend, is a familiar figure for Western tourists. It has great similarity with Zhu Rong, the Chinese God of Fire. When the tourists look at this translated name, they will have a better understanding of the the scenic spot.

=== Conclusion ===
Under the background of globalization, peace and development have become the theme of the times, and the revise of the traditional translation theory is needed. On the other hand, cultural translation, based on the cultural theory of anthropology, advocates that the connotation of other cultures should be properly conveyed in translation, showing respect and understanding of other cultures; translators should highlight the characteristics of different cultures through translation, so that people from different cultural backgrounds can truly realize the communication and exchange in the cultural sense.

Therefore, it is in line with the mainstream of the times to deeply study and understand Bassnett's cultural translation theory, which can help us better carry out translation activities under the background of globalization, so as to promote the exchange and dialogue between the Eastern and Western cultures from a macro perspective.

As a part of the translation of tourist materials, the translation of scenic spot names should not only convey the basic tourism information, but also show the Chinese culture to foreign tourists. One of the main purposes of tourists coming to China is to understand the Chinese culture. Therefore, translators need to have a keen cross-cultural awareness, make the translation conform to the target language, enhance the readability to the target language readers, and choose the most suitable translation method to convey the historical and cultural connotation contained in the name of scenic spots to the greatest extent, so as to promote the development of China's tourism industry globally and spread China's tourism culture abroad.

=== Reference ===

*Bassnett Susan.(1992) Translation, History and Culture [M]. London: Routledge 13.

* Bassnett Susan.(1990) Translation, History and Culture[M]. 上海:上海外语教育出版社 10-11．

*Huang Yanjiao 黄艳娇.(2018).浅谈巴斯奈特文化翻译理论 [A Brief Discussion on Basnnet's Cultural Translation Theory].佳木斯职业学院学报(11) 356-357

*Xiao Fuliang 肖付良.(2016).湖南主要旅游景点公示语翻译现状与对策研究. 英语教师 (06)43-45

*Pan Hong 潘虹.(2016)，跨文化意识对旅游景点名称汉英翻译的影响. 艺术文化交流 (1)310

*Chen Jiao 陈娇.(2013).从文化角度看湖南旅游景点的翻译.西南农业大学学报（社会科学版）(11)101-102

*Xin Xin 辛欣.(2012).论旅游英语中景点名称的翻译. 长春教育学院学报 (02)43-44

*Chen Gang 陈刚.(2004)旅游翻译与涉外导游［M] 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司 59

*Wang Zaiyu, Jiang Shihong王再玉，蒋柿红. (2012).从跨文化意识角度看旅游景点名称的英译———以衡阳旅游景点名称的英译为例 [On Translation of Names of Scenic Spots from the Perspective of Cross-culture Consciousness]. 北京城市学院学报 (03)80-82

*Lin Yuhua 林玉华. (2008). 从文化角度看旅游景点名称的翻译［J］．重庆交通大学学报 (02)105

*Xiong Lin 熊玲. (2013). 对张家界景点名称英译的探析.长春教育学院学报 (08)67-68

*Jia Wenbo贾文波．(2004)应用翻译功能论[M]．北京：中国对外翻译出版公司 134－156

*Huan Provincial Department of Culture and Tourism 湖南省文化和旅游厅.湖南文物名胜概览 http://whhlyt.hunan.gov.cn/whhlyt/wlxx/fwms/201407/t20140717_5385818.html

--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 15:50, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==A Contrastive Study on the Translation of Li Qingzhao’s Shengshengman and Zuihuayin from the Perspective of Defamiliarization 祝美梅 student no. 202070080632 Major: MTI 英语笔译==

==='''Abstract'''===

Poetry is what lost in translation. As Robert Frost said, for its concise words, specific forms, unique cultural allusion and images, the translatability of poetry has always been a controversial topic in translation field. However, since all human beings are endowed by nature with the same mind as has similar function so that they can communicate with one another. Thus, as a product of thought, poetry is understandable, enjoyable and translatable from author’s view. This thesis aims to study poetry translation according to the theory of defamiliarization, which was proposed by Russian formalist Shklovsky. (Viktor Shklovsky, 1990, 35-38)

==='''Key Words'''===

Defamiliarization Theory; Shengshengman; Zuihuayin; English Versions

==='''摘要'''===

译诗则诗。诗歌以其凝练的词语，特定的形式，涵盖的独特文化典故和意象，是否可译一直是译界极具争论的话题。本文旨在由俄国形式主义什克洛夫斯基提出的陌生化理论下研究诗歌翻译。陌生化，虽然是文学写作技巧，同样适应于翻译。在文学作品中，作家通过使熟悉的事物陌生化引起读者的兴趣和好奇，延长审美感知长度。勒菲弗尔说，翻译即改写。这一翻译策略尤其适合于诗歌翻译。李清照，作为历史上最有名的女词人之一，其“易安体”本就以其化故为新，以俗为雅的特点与“陌生化”有异曲同工之处。《声声慢》、《醉花阴》是她前后截然不同两个时期的代表作。本文试以俄国形式主义者什克洛夫斯基提出的“陌生化”为理论指导，以李清照词《声声慢》、《醉花阴》的多个译本为研究对象，分析对比不同译者的英译，尝试研究在译文中怎样重现文本陌生化和制造译本的陌生化，以期证明陌生化理论对李清照词英译的指导作用。(什克洛夫斯基, 1990, 35-38)

==='''关键词'''===

陌生化理论；《声声慢》；《醉花阴》；英译版本

===Introduction===

The best way to know a nation is to enjoy her poetry. As an art of language and an invaluable treasury of national language, poetry distinguishes itself by its distinct style, refined language and fresh artistic conception. Poetry is conceived the store of human knowledge and experience. Therefore, to enable people of different languages to have a successful grasp of the meaning of poems, poetry translation is one of the most important sections in the cross-cultural communication in the globalization time. (Gong Guangming, 2004:395)

Defamiliarization is an important feature of poetic language. It is about poets’ consciousness and aesthetics pursuit. To realize defamiliarization of language, poets must use particular words and images or other skills which new to readers to create a sense of surprise and freshness. Defamiarization not only applies to poetry creation but also to poetry translation. The application of defamiliarization to translation can faithfully reproduce the artistic manner of the original poems and give their readers aesthetic enjoyment. It also allows, in some degree, creating treason in translated texts against original. Of course, defamiliarization should never be overdone whether in poetry creation or in poetry translation. (Victor Shklovsky , 1990, 57)

The purpose of artistic translation techniques is to make objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms and image unusual, and to increase the difficulty and length of perception on the part of the target audience because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself so must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar are made to appear unfamiliar and innovative in one way or another. All these creative manipulations of the target text enhance the target audience’s discernment of the artistic merit in the target text. (Zhu Chunshen, 2002, 101-103)

Li Qingzhao was born (1084-1151) in Zhangqiu into a family of officials and scholars, Before she got married, her poetry was already well known among intellectual. In 1101 she married Zhao Mingcheng, with whom she shared interests in art collection and epigraphy. After Zhao started his official career, she often felt lonely and suffered lovesickness. Hence these experiences inspired some of the love poems that she wrote. When Northern Song capital of Kaifeng fell in 1126 to the Jurchens during the Jin–Song wars, fighting took place in Shandong and their house was ruined. The couple fled to Nanjing, where they lived for one year. Zhao died in 1129 when route to an official post. The death of her husband was a cruel stroke for her life. Li described her married life and the turmoil of her flight in an afterword to her husband's posthumously published work, Jin shi lu（金石录). (Zhang Bing, 2000, 98-100)

Her earlier poetry portrays her carefree life as a young lady of high society, and is marked by its elegance. Li subsequently settled in Hangzhou, in which the Song government was established. She insisted in writing poetry and published the Jin shi lu. According to some contemporary records, she had a briefly marriage with a man named Zhang Ruzhou who treated her relentlessly, and she divorced him within months. She overcame the criticism of her marriage. Though only around a hundred of her poems are known to survive, mostly of them in the form of Ci are tracing her winding fortunes in life. Li is credited with the first detailed critique of the metrics of Chinese poetry. She was regarded as a master of WanYue School “the delicate restraint”. (Zhang Bing, 2000, 98-100)

====1.1 Shklovsky’s Definition of Defamiliarization====

Defamiliarization, as a literature writing technique, was first put up by a Russian formalist, Viktor Shklovsky in the early 20th century. He explained the concept in his essay Art as Technique which comprised the first chapter of his seminal Theory of Prose, first published in 1925:"The purpose of art is to impart the sensation of things as they are perceived and not as they are known. The technique of art is to make objects unfamiliar, to make forms difficult, to increase the difficulty and length of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic in itself and must be prolonged”. Therefore, “defamiliarization” stands for the quality of art and literature. In literature, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to the readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity.(Victor Shklovsky, 1991, 78-79)

====1.2 Features of Defamiliarization in Translation====

In Chen Lin and Zhang Chunbai’s Defamiliarization Effect in Literature Translation, they named up two distinctive features of defamiliarization in translation.One is alienization and the other is hybridization.( Chen Lin, Zhang Chunbai, 2006:93)

Alienization, is the similarity among defamiliarization, alienating and foreignizing, means to retain the language and culture differences of the source text, maintain the visibility of the foreign, in order to give the target readers a fresh experience of authenticity.

Hybridization claims to combine foreign and domestic elements to produce a hybrid text, which has both the features of the foreignness and the domestic, thus it gives the receivers a sensation of newness and freshness. The author of this thesis takes domestication as one aspect of hybridization, for no matter how strict foreignization is, it could not avoid domestic element during translating. In Jin Bing’s doctoral dissertation (2007), he propo sed to represent defamiliarization technique of the original text in translated text as much as possible, and foreignization is an effective translation strategy to achieve defamiliarization. However, foreignization is not the only way to achieve defamiliarization, as it’s opposite, there are many ways towards this end. (Zheng Engyue, 2003, 19-21)

=====1.2.1 Advantages of Defamiliarization=====

To create the translated version newness, promote intercultural communication and complementary advantages, the tactics of defamiliarization also embodies translator’s subjectivity, as the appearance of cultural turn proposed by Susan Bassinet against the culture invasion, and this theory is accepted by more and more people. This technique is meant to be especially useful in distinguishing poetry from prose, for, as Aristotle said, “poetic language must appear strange and wonderful” (Shklovsky, 1990).Defamiliarization draws attention to the use of common language in such a way as to alter one’s perception of an easily understandable object or concept. The use of defamiliarization both differs and defers, since apply of the technique alters one’s perception of a concept (to defer), and forces one to think about the concept in different, often more complex, terms (to differ). (Li Ruijie, 2013, 56)

=====1.2.2 Disadvantages of Defamiliarization=====

Defamiliarization increases the difficulty of comprehension, the new expression or form distance itself from target receiver, thus lost many audiences, and prohibit culture spreading. Sometimes, translator would sacrifice faith and fluency in order to create novel effect, so demand reader’s patience and sensibility. Excessive making works with coinage word, unusual format or rebel against the target grammar, only found that works meaningless. (Li Xuexin, 2009, 13-15)

===2. A brief Introduction of Li Qingzhao===

Before analyzing the translation versions of Li Qingzhao’s Ci, a general understanding of the characteristics and aesthetic value of Li’s Ci is very necessary.

====2.1. Li Qingzhao’s life and her Poem====

Li Qingzhao, a talented and prolific poetess, exerted great influences on the classic Chinese lyric poetry. In Song Dynasty, lyric poetry reached its most thriving period. Among numerous poets, Li Qingzhao, as a female, shocked the male-dominated field of lyric poetry and formed her unique style. She is deemed the founder of Wanyue School of Song Poem. (Deng Hongmei, 2000, 34)

Her tortuous life experience and extraordinary fate made the keynotes of her poem various from one period to another. In the early years of her life, they are full of joy and happiness; but in her later life, there are filled with loneliness and sorrow. Her early work---''Zuihuayin'', is the reflection of life without difficulties and worries, this work written during she was apart from her husband. Shengshengman was created at the time when she lost her husband whilst the country was shattered and at stake. Through her poem, readers would see the ups and downs in her life. Her lyrics poetry was called “Yi’an Ti” due to the particularities of her own style.(Deng Hongmei, 2000, 56)

====2.2Research on Li’s Poem in Domestic and Abroad====

A comprehensive knowledge of history and state quo of researches on Li Qingzhao at home and abroad is a significant premise of the comparative study of Li’s poem.

The study of Li Qingzhao’s poems in western word, mainly in America, raised scholars’ interest in the 1950s and 1960s. Wang Honggong’s One Hundred Poems from the Chinese and Hu Pinqing’s Li Qingzhao were published. In 1965, Cyril Birth’s Anthology of Chinese Literature from Early Times to the Fourteenth Century was published in New York. In that book, five poems of Li Qingzhao’s were translated by C.H.Kwock and Vincent Mc Hugh; three were translated by a Chinese American scholar, Xu Jieyi. In 1980s, the study thrived in America. Two all-translated were published. One is the co-translated edition by Wang Honggong and ZhongLing. The other is James Cryer. Those translated poems were chose as textbook materials by American universities. However, because of the abstruse language, culture barrier, and the difficulty in translating poem itself, overseas scholars usually could not make their rendering faithful to the original. (Wang Zhongwen, 2000,79)

At home, Bing Xin(冰心) is the first person set out to translate Li Qingzhao’ poem. Many domestic translators like Xu Yuanchong, from the theory of “Three Beauties”, Lin Yutang published The Importance of Understanding: Translations from the Chinese by LIN YUTANG, the celebrated couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published Song Lyrics in 2001, Xu Zhongjie published 100 Chinese Ci Poems in English Verse in 1986, Chen Zumei, who studied Li’s poem from feminism and other translators include Zhu Chunshen, Gong Jinhao, Mao Yumei and so on. Through different translation criteria and strategies, those perspectives cast new light to the translation study of Li Qingzhao’s poem. (Wang Zhongwen, 2000, 90)

===3. Defamiliarization on Words Level in Shengshengman and Zuihuayin===

Poetry is the most personal and concentrated of the four literature forms (poetry, short story, novel and drama), no redundancy, no phatic language, where, as a unit, words are of greater importance than in any other type of texts. This paper mainly discusses reduplicated words, verbs, colloquialism supported by detailed examples. Poetry presents thing in order to convey a feeling, and therefore concrete the language, each represents something else---a feeling, a behavior, a view of life as well as itself. (Gan Wanni, 2012, 34)

====3.1 Analysis of Translation of Reduplicated Words====

Reduplicated word, as the name suggests, is to repeat the same character twice or more times to form a format which bears the identical meaning of a character repeated. It is a kind of lexical devices to deepen the tone or sentiment in literature. Applied appropriately, reduplicated word could make literary works sound beautiful, fluent and forceful. However, applied inappropriately, it could make works awkward and blunt. It is rationally to say that Li Qingzhao favors reduplicated word, for in one fourth of her poem remain now, she successfully used reduplicated words to express her emotion.(Schulte, R.and John Biguenet, 1992, 34)

Her typical work which applies reduplicated words is Shengshengman.

“寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。乍暖还寒时候，最难将息。

三杯两盏淡酒，怎敌他、晚来风急？雁过也，正伤心，却是旧时相识。

满地黄花堆积。憔悴损，如今有谁堪摘？守着窗儿，独自怎生得黑？

梧桐更兼细雨，到黄昏、点点滴滴。这次第，怎一个、愁字了得！”（陈祖美 2003：108）

This piece of work enjoys the largest number of translation versions from different translators among all her works. The first fourteen characters are: “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚”,they precisely describe the loneliness , melancholy and nostalgia of the homeland of the poetess after losing her husband. Six different translation versions collected are as follows:

1. I seek but seek in vain,

I search but search again.

I feel so sad, so drear,

So lonely, without cheer. (Xu Yuanchong)

2. So dim, so dark.

So dense, so dull,

So damp, so dank, so dead! (Lin Yutang)

3. Seeking,seeking,

Chilly and quite,

Desolate, painful and miserable. (Yang Xianyi）

4. Searching and searching, seeking and seeking,

So chill, so clear,

dreary,

and dismal,

and forlorn. (Stephen Owen)

5. Seeking

seeking

Searching

searching

over and over

lonely and forlorn

Sighing;

grieving

sighing

In the same round (Kwock&McHugh)

6. Seek…seek, search....search;

Lone...lone, cold...cold;

Sad...sad, pain...pain, moan...moan. (Liu Wuji)

Li Qingzhao used fourteen repetitious Chinese characters to vent the heartbroken feeling and her worry about her convulsive country. In order to imitate the acoustic effects created by the fourteen reiterated words, almost all the translators adopted the words with sound symbolism characteristics, for the sake of conveying similar emotions.

Among the six versions,No.1 Xu paraphrased them into the sentence in rhythmic way, using end rhyme throughout the whole poem to create the musical beauty, but he abandons reduplicated words and just illustrate the meaning which slacking down the artistic conception of the original poem to some extent. No.(3,4)use single, non-repeated words. Leave alone whether those versions fully express the spirit of fourteen characters, those using single repeated or non-repeated words sound better than paraphrased sentences for keeping the freshness and novelty of the original.

Kwock&McHugh(N0.5) vividly represents the original both in form and content, the novel arrangement of the words, successfully imitated the scenes in the original poem. The specially designed lines of verse gave the readers the feelings of seeking and searching over and over again. The visual beauty is a means to complement the deficiency in acoustic beauty, thus, in author’s opinion; his version is the best of all versions in realizing defamiliarization effect.

Lin Yutang(No.2) doesn’t repeat the same words, but he carefully picks out words with the same beginning letter “d” to create the feeling of duplication and use exclamation “so” to enhance the theme. His version also is a good example to retain and create defamiliarization effect, giving readers a fresh shock of sadness. From the aspect of form, this version depicted the beauty of balance in English and also corresponded with beauty of antithesis in Chinese. It was a wonderful interpretation and a unique creation in itself.

No.6, the translator adopted literal translation. Although the translated version bears similarity in form with the original one, it lacks true beauty in sound and meaning. The literal translation obviously damaged the sorrowful atmosphere, thus this version lost the melancholy and deep grief reflected in the original version. By piling up words, the translators get nothing but the empty shell of the original poem.

Another example is “点点滴滴”,also from the same verse. Following are translation versions collected:

1.On parasol-trees leaves a fine rain drizzles

As twilight grizzles. (Xu Yuanchong)

2.In a drizzle so light, dripping-dropping into the oncoming night,

In the garden wutong trees stand blurred. (Zhu Chunsheng)

3.On drying leaves of plane trees should there be

A drizzle pattering, pattering towards the eve! (Liu Guoshan)

4.Against the tung and plane trees, the wind rises high.

The drizzle becomes trickles, as eve draws nigh. (Xu Zhongjie)

5.And the drizzle on the kola nut, keeps on droning: Pit-a-pat, pit-a-pat! (Lin Yutang)

6.The drizzles falls on the wutong trees, raindrops drip down at dusk. (Yang Xianyi)

No.1, to pursue the rhythmic beauty, Xu used drizzles to describe the sound of rain, as well as forming rhyme harmony on the last word. This kind of translation blurred the defamiliarization effect since ignorant repeated words.No.2,No.3,No.5,translators uses different repeated words, such as dripping-dropping, pattering-pattering, pit-at-pat, pit-at-pat. From the author’s viewpoint, Lin’s translation is the best, pit-a-pat is onomatopoetic word, and conforms to the English expressive convention. The version of No.4 seems disagree with the poem mood, as poetess can hear clearly raindrops drips on the leaves, the rain should become mild gradually, “the drizzle become trickles” is the situation of a storm, not the rain draws to stop.No.6 picks the word “drip down” also wanting forceful and sound beauty.

====3.2 Translation of Verbs====

Unlike English, Chinese poetry is skillfully using verb to vivify the image, often linked with rhetorical devices. Word transformation is mostly common, such as adjective or noun transformed to verb. There existed many instances; the author would like to choose two verbs from the Zuihuayin which would analyzed in this paper.
Taking “帘卷西风”from Zuihuayin as an example:

“薄雾浓云愁永昼，瑞脑消金兽。佳节又重阳，玉枕纱厨，半夜凉初透。东篱把酒黄昏后，
有暗香盈袖。莫道不消魂，帘卷西风，人比黄花瘦。”

This verse was written to express Li Qingzhao’s yearning for her husband. It’s the Double Ninth Day---the Chinese festival of the senior and family get-together. The west wind blows, makes people feel chilly and distressed, especially when the poetess was alone. Translation versions are assembled as following:

1. What with curtains being folded—
by violent blasts from the west (Xu Zhongjie)

2. The curtain lifted by the western wind (Qiu Xiaolong)

3. When the west wind rolls up my bamboo curtain (Mao Yumei)

4. With the door-curtains flapping in the west wind (Gong Jinghao)

5. Only, when the west wind stir the curtain (Lucy Chow Ho)

In the original, hyperbaton was used to achieve the harmonious beauty of rhymes, actually only could west wind blast curtain actually but the original text is “帘卷西风”,the reasonable sequence is “西风卷帘”.

Among five translation versions above, the verb was translated into different words.No.1, “blast” emphasizes on strength and makes a loud noise. No.2, “lift” presents position changed of curtain roused by wind, but the curtain should whirl in that situation, not just lift seems as holding by something.No.3, “roll up” is an ordinary word, though faithfully to the source text, still not good enough.No.4,the word “flap” sounds like we heard the sound of wind makes curtain toss with power. From the view of author of this essay, No.5 is more preferable. “Stir” vividly describes the situation; furthermore, revealing the mirthless of the character, thus, translator prolonged the perception length, increased the aesthetic sensibility, which defamiliarization is pursuing all the time, translation is a creation instead of the slave of original without soul.

“三杯两盏淡酒，怎敌他、晚来风急?”The verb in this sentence used very vividly, how few cups of liquor withstand the wind at the dusk; Li Qingzhao personifies the natural thing, which is widely applied to express defamiliarization. Follows are various translation versions.

1.By cup on cup of wine so dry oh,
How can I endure at dusk the drift
Of wind so swift? (Xu Yuanchong）

2.Three cups of thin wine would utterly fail.
To cope with the rising evening gale. (Xu Zhongjie)

3.How can a few cups of thin wine,
Bring warmth against the chilly winds of sunset? (Lin Yutang)

4.Three or two cups of light wine,
How can they ward off the strong? (Yang Xianyi)

Among the four versions, No.1 chooses the first person view to express coldness felt at dusk by the poet, which slashed the effect of defamiliarization as change rhetoric to narrative speech.No.2, the verb “cope with” is not as strong as the original, “cope with” means solving something, working out or settling down, but not very positively and actively.No.3 employed the preposition “against” also not so forcefully. From the point of author, Yang translates best, on the one hand faithfully keep the form of resource text, on the other hand reproduce the defamiliarization by using the verb phrase “ward off”, meaning to shun, avoid, or escape the chilly wind. There is no absolute equivalence between the SL and TL, only the most natural closest to the former.

====3.2 Translation of Colloquialism====

Colloquialism refers to the types of speech or to usages not on a formal level, is often mistakenly used with a connotation of disapproval, as if it meant “vulgar” or ”bad” or “incorrect’ usage，whereas it is merely a familiar style used in speaking and writing. Li was adept and noted for refining colloquial words from folk languages, which was full of musical quality and vividness after her polishing. Her colloquial words seemed plain and amiable like daily dialogues with friends or just whisper to herself, but extraordinary beautiful and pleasant to the ear. (Zhan Chongyang, 2013, 79)

Shengshengman, for instance, is typically colloquialised as the whole. Here, the author picks up “守着窗儿，独自怎生得黑”to set as an example. “怎生得黑”is an ancient Chinese vernacular expression of “how to spend the night.” The defamiliarization effect of the original lies in its familiar wording but fresh feeling of lonely depiction. Collected translations are as follows:

1. Sitting alone at the window, how could I but quicken the pace of darkness
Which won’t thicken? (Xu Yuanchong）

2. Standing by the window---watching in anguish stark.
Could I bear alone the sight until it is dark? (Xu Zhongjie)

3. I remain by my window. Why is the day so dark, all alone? (Mao Yumei)

Xu Yuanchong’s version (No.1) and Xu Zhongjie’s(No.2)version sound influent and not easy to read. In order to keep the rhyming, Professor Xu Yuanchong makes a pair of “quicken” and “thicken”. However, his witty rhyming is not appropriate in the aspect of keeping defamiliarized colloquial style. Rhyming seems exquisitely modified that is not as natural and casual as daily language. Xu Zhongjie’s “anguish stark” sounds sophisticated and wordy which disobeys the features of vernacular or colloquial language. Mao Yumei’s translation（No.3)sounds simple and it is oral daily language.” All alone” put at the end prolongs the tone which makes the structure loose. Hers represents the original style best of the three, thus best keeps the defamiliarization effect of the casual style.

Another sentence is“这次第，怎一个、愁字了得?”

1.How, in the word “Miserable,” can one find------
The total effects of all these on the mind! (Xu Zhongjie)

2.Oh, what can I do with a grief
Beyond belief! (Xu Yuanchong)

3.Is this the kind of mood and moment, to be expressed by one word “sad”?
(Lin Yutang)

4.At the time like this, what immense sorrow I must bear! (Yang Xianyi)

The above four versions are all translated by domestic translators. They chose different words to express “愁”,like miserable, grief, sad and sorrow. But the No.3 similar to the original forms thus more loyalty. The poetess was touched by the dismal sight and feeling melancholy of her life and the shattered country, so the Lin Yutang’s translation “the kind of mood and moment” is more proper, and the word “sad” also fit for the colloquial style. Defamiliarization in this sentence means to express complicated sentiment in a flat way, Lin successful retains the flavor in simple words.

====4. Defamiliarization on Image Level====

Image is often the final touch that distills and sharpens the meaning of poetry. In ancient Chinese poetry which boasts the construction of a profound meaning with very succinct language, image is especially central to its artistic value among the various composing elements. Image in itself as an intuitive language that transcends the barriers between different semiotic languages, therefore it can be sensed across those different nations. Just as the Chinese poetic convention suggests, a work of art is best enjoyable when it transmits a sense of beauty in an implicit way. And image is such a way of talking silently. Moreover, as Zhu Guangqian(朱光潜)says, the pleasure of poetry resides in the sound and imagery.(《诗论》): “诗以情趣为主，情趣见于声音，寓于意象。”)This paper divides image into cultural-loaded images and natural images.

=====4.1 Cultural-Loaded images=====

This kind of category is the juxtaposition of allusion and complicated sentiment in certain culture.

1.Translation the image of “雁” in the Shengshengman

The sentence “雁过也，正伤心，却是旧时相识.”The translation versions collected as follow:

1. Myself, into woe, a flight of wild geese has thrown.

But with them, very familiar I have grown. (Xu Zhongjie)

2.I recognize the geese flying overhead:

My old friends,

Bring not the old memories back! (Lin Yutang)

3. It breaks my heart, alas,

To see the wild geese pass,

For they are my acquaintances of old. (Xu Yuanchong)

4. Wild geese fly past, while I’am broken-hearted;

But I recognize they are my old friends. (Yang Xianyi&Gladys Yang)

5. Overhead,a heart-rending line

South-bound wild geese at morn

Yet old acquaintances of mine. (Zhu Chunshen)

After studying some versions, the author find most translators tend to translate “雁” into “geese”(Lin Yutang),or “wild geese(Xu Yuanchong),also “swan geese” translated by some people. But translators must can’t ignore the connotation meaning in target culture, geese in English means idiot, fool, reflecting derogative emotion.The slang “wild geese chase” indicates doing something in vain. Zhu Chunshen translated “雁”into “a heart-rending line--south--bound wild geese”, then he explained in the footnote, “geese in ancient China was message carrier, the poetess see geese passed, but doesn’t receive any letter, creating a melancholy feeling”. “雁” is a migrant bird that migrates from south to north in spring and return in autumn. Sometimes, their migrant movement is a sign of season.

Besides, in Chinese ancient culture, “鸿雁传书”indicates love letter transferring written by lovers. At that time, Li was compelled to move to the south and her nation was invaded by enemy, she had no sense of belonging where her family were and didn’t know when her wandering days would end. Upon hearing the sound of geese, she can’t help being broken-hearted because of nation defeated and family lost. The image make readers resonate with the poetess. Considering of the culture diversity, translators should add footnote accordingly. The complementary information endeavors to convey original’s culture connotation, it’s also the defamiliarization goal, avoiding blunt and obscurity of different culture.

Another important image is “梧桐”,is an image rich in cultural meanings. It is straight, huge and tall. As early as two thousand years ago, it was closely related to the mysterious legendary bird---phoenix. It was said wutong was the only tree where a phoenix would choose to inhabit and land on. According to the ancient tale, “ 梧”was the male and “桐” was the female. They were noted for the marital bliss and harmony. Therefore, it is often used to symbolize loyalty in love in Chinese literature. The sorrow triggered by autumn is often found in old poetry. In poem, this image stands for “sorrow, bitterness, distressed” when the tree was linked with rain, giving people the feeling of coldness.

From the mainly English versions collected, “梧桐”was translated into “kola nut”(Lin Yutang), “platan (Xu YuanChong), “the tung and platan tree”(Xu Zhongjie), lola nut is a tree in tropical Africa, this kind of translation was mistaken, platan refers to French platan, tung is a specie of tree, producing oil, those translation definitely lost its cultural connotation. The author of this paper prefers Zhu Chunsheng’s translation version: Wutong tree. Wutong carries exotic charming to the fullest, evoking readers imagination, at the same time promote culture communication. Readers can understand this kind of tree after read the poem. Borrowed words always enlarge another language in this way.

====4.2 Natural Images====

Pure scenery depiction means the scene is universe, such as some flower, tree, mountain, stream but usually combined with emotional revelation.

The image “黄花” usually translated into “yellow flower”, “chrysanthemum”, “yellow chrysanthemum”. Different versions are collected as follow:

1. As compared with chrysanthemums,

I look slimmer e’en at my best. (Xu Zhongjie)

2. I would show a thinner face than yellow flowers. (Xu Yuanchong)

3. I look thinner than the chrysanthemum. (Mao Yumei)

4. I find myself thinner than the yellow flowers. (Chu Dagao)

Chrysanthemum is a formal word while yellow flower is a more blurred one, “yellow” in Chinese always tinged with sickness or fading, for this reason, readers may arouse curiosity of what this flower looks like and associate with figure of poetess, who is languid and haggard in plight. This image appears in both lyrics, carefully compare, it expresses different mood, in Zhuhuayin, Li is lonely missing her far-away husband, the flower stands for her noble,unsullied and aloof character, while in Shengshengman, the flower is withered, fallen, inanimate. From that point, translators may adopt two translation versions to same noun, the first fit chrysanthemum, easily be related with certain shape, fragrance and color, the second translated into yellow flower, would be more imaginary about the unfamiliar word, thus prolong the aesthetic reception. (Zhan Chongyang, 2013, 46-47)

====Conclusion====

Poetry is the superior form of literature with the characteristics of its terseness in language, indeterminism in words, abstruseness and ambiguity in meaning, sharpness in emotion, felicity in rhetorical strategy and distinctiveness in rhythm. To reproduce the style and reveal the beauty of the original text will absolutely confronted with resistance form restricted factors both in linguistic and cultural aspects. After weighing various methods, the author of this paper think defamiliarization could best retain the spirit whilst making freshness in the translated one. (Xu Yuanchong, 2013, 67)

The concept of defamiliarization translation can facilitate understanding and appreciation of Li Qingzhao’s poem from a new perspective. The artistic techniques of translation are employed to render objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms alienized, and to increase the difficulty and duration of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar is made to appear unfamiliar and fresh in one way or another. All of these creative manipulations enhance the recipient’s discernment of the artistic material in the target text. (Victor Shklovsky, 1979, 106)

And that stimulates the translator, one who is adept at subjective manipulation, and who treasures freedom and artistry, to devote him to the pursuit of the alienizing translation effect for art’s sake. The defamiliarization translation theory provides some fascinating insights into Li’s verse translation practice. Breaking the initial norm of sticking to the source culture, translation version is closer to the target-culture end in the continuum between the source culture and target culture. Translation Chinese poetry, translator must bear in mind that Chinese flavor and poetry spirit should make ends meet, thus, readers could understand Chinese culture while they appreciate translation. (Gan Wanni, 2012, 95-98)

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==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 谭媛媛 Tan Yuanyuan 202070080642 MTI==

===Abstract===

Because of the cultural differences between China and western countries, interpreters are required to do both the surface interpretation of the language itself and the deep interpretation of the meaning conveyed in that culture. During the process of interpretation, dealing with cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences inappropriately can cause misunderstanding, resulting in communicative suspension. This paper, while analyzing the cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences, expounds on the specific coping translation strategies that an interpreter should take in dealing with cultural differences in the process of interpretation.

===Key Words===
interpretation, cultural differences, coping stratcgics

===摘要===
由于中西文化存在很大的差异,对于口译员来说，除了掌握译出语语言表层次的信息外，更要掌握译出语语言深层次的文化内涵。在口译过程中，若不恰当处理由文化差异引起的文化障碍问题，就会产生误解，导致交际中止。本文分析了口译中因文化差异而引起的文化障碍问题，并着重指出了口译中应对文化差异现象的翻译策略。

===关键词===
口译，文化差异，应对策略

===Introduction===

The wave of globalization sweeping the world has provided vehicles, tools and channels for cultural exchange and dissemination among countries. At the same time, globalization has brought out the holistic quality of cultural spirit, prompting people to pay attention to the overall examination of problems, recognize certain commonalities of human cultures, and generate new cultural concepts such as "global consciousness" and "global values". However, due to the different geographical locations, social environments, religious beliefs, ways of thinking and living habits of different ethnic groups, different regions have a variety of cultural characteristics, and therefore there are huge cultural differences, and cultural conflicts will become more complex.（Jian Fang，Zhang Jian,2012）

No matter from which perspective, interpreters play the role of bridge and link. Therefore, when interpreting, interpreters should fully consider the cultural differences between China and the West, seek the common ground of cross-cultural communication, and establish a harmonious language communication atmosphere on the basis of improving mutual understanding in order to avoid the phenomenon of cultural conflict in interpreting communication. (Lu Naisheng,1993)

===The Problem of Cultural Barriers Caused by Cultural Differences in Interpretation===

Mr. Wang Zuoliang points out that "the greatest difficulty in translation is the difference between two cultures." He believes that "the interpreter must be a cultural person in the true sense of the word." The differences between Chinese and Western peoples in terms of thinking, values, historical culture and cultural imagery, as well as traditional customs and religious beliefs, have led to cultural differences between the peoples. Therefore, in the process of interpretation activities, the interpreter needs not only to translate the literal meaning of the original language, but more importantly, to grasp its unique cultural connotation and be able to convey it to the other party through language.（Lian Shuneng,1993）

According to American translation theorist Eugene Naida, translation is an exchange between two cultures, "For a truly successful translation, it is even more important to be familiar with two cultures than to master two languages. For words have meaning only in the cultural context in which they . function in the cultural context in which they are used." Therefore, a translator cannot reach a true sense of communication if he or she does not have the support of culture in the process of translation. (Jia Dejiang,1998)

====Cultural barriers caused by the way of thinking====

Generally speaking, Western culture belongs to linear rational way of thinking, which emphasizes logic, hierarchy and abstraction; while Chinese culture belongs to spiral thinking, which emphasizes discernment, enlightenment and emotional meaning. Westerners tend to think that Chinese people are too subtle and even logically confused. Chinese people may also think that Westerners are too cumbersome and sometimes feel uncomfortable because of their overly direct expressions. (Lu Naisheng,1993)

Therefore, interpreters should not only correctly understand the difference between Chinese and Western cultures during the interpretation process, but also take appropriate measures to compensate for the understanding barrier caused by this difference. This difference is manifested in the language: Chinese sentences are clear and concise, while English sentences are compact and tightly structured, emphasizing the subordination and modification between components, and mostly using conjunctions, prepositions and relational words to link sentences together.(Edward Spir,2006)

For example, the Chinese have the traditional virtue of respecting the elderly. To show courtesy, the host will say to the visitor, “您比我年长，您请上坐”. If the translator translates it literally as, “You are older than me. You take the upper seat.” Westerners will definitely feel uncomfortable when they hear it and think to themselves: Am I that old? At this time, the original meaning of the Chinese expression has been distorted, so the contradiction arises.(Jia Dejiang,1998)

====Cultural barriers caused from values====

Values are a deep element of cultural composition, which is both a part of social culture and the result of long-term penetration and accumulation of social and cultural factors in people's minds. Chinese people talk about collectivism, while Westerners advocate individualism. The Chinese focus on the group, highlighting the role of the collective is the mainstream of their values, highlighting their own will be suspected of arrogance and arrogance. The British and Americans advocate the primacy of the individual, fully expressing their own values and highlighting individual contributions. Humility is deeply rooted in Chinese values and is a Chinese virtue, yet sometimes it is not as welcome in the eyes of Westerners. This obvious difference in values inevitably leads to a culture clash. （Deng Yanchang,2006）

A classic example: at a party, a foreign guest complimented a Chinese lady, praising her for being very beautiful, when the Chinese lady replied, “哪里，哪里”. The accompanying translator on the side, however, translated word-for-word into, “where, where ”. This was difficult for the visitor to understand. So he had no choice but to answer, “from up to toe”.And at this time the Chinese lady was also very dissatisfied, thinking that the foreigner was disrespectful to her.

====Cultural barriers from historical culture and cultural imagery====

Cultural imagery is a cognitive pattern agreed upon in different national or community cultures. Cultural imagery coalesces the wisdom of each nation, and is the crystallization of history and culture. Throughout the long history of each nation, they have appeared in people's language, forming a cultural symbol with a relatively fixed and unique cultural meaning. (Bai Jingyu,2000)

For example, in a business event, the Chinese side said something like this, “建立‘一条龙’服务中心”.The interpreter translated it as “set up the ,one-dragon service center to provide a coordinated process service for foreign investors in obtaining approval".“一条龙” was translated into“one dragon”.The word "龙" means something evil in the West, but "auspicious" in China, so it is easy to misunderstand if you don't understand the situation. Another example is that the phrase "望子成龙" should never be translated as “to hope one"'s child can become a dragon"，but to“to hope one’s child can be somebody”. （Deng Yanchang,2006）

====Cultural barriers caused by traditional customs and religious beliefs====

Different countries have different traditional customs. Chinese people give "New Year's Lucky money" to the younger generation during the Chinese New Year, but "Chinese New Year" does not exist in Western countries, so they do not understand why they have to give money. On the contrary, Christmas, Halloween and other holidays in Western countries do not exist in Chinese traditional culture, and we do not fully understand the importance of these holidays, even though they are very popular in China nowadays.

Cultural barriers due to differences in religious beliefs often occur in the interpretation process. “Sleep with father" is a biblical euphemism, which means the same as "go the heaven" and "kick the bucket". It means the same as "go the heaven" and "kick the bucket", but for those who do not understand Western religions, it is likely to be mistranslated as "与父亲睡觉", which would be ridiculous.（Lu Naisheng,1993）

Look at the following example:
If this sentence is understood as
"约翰是可靠的，他不吃鱼，还玩游戏", it is because the translator failed to understand " eats no fish " and "play the game". After the Protestants overthrew the old government, the Protestants refused to eat fish on Ramadan to show their loyalty to Protestantism. So "" means "loyalty" and " to eat no fish " means "loyalty" and " to play the game "means "race",The correct meaning of the word is Therefore, the correct meaning is "John is reliable, he is both loyal and upright".

====Cultural barriers caused by non-verbal language behaviors====

The means of communication between people is not limited to verbal language. Non-verbal language, such as:eyes, facial expressions, gestures, distance between speakers, and physical contact, etc. are all conveying information to people around them. Ethnic cultures differ in their expressions of non-verbal language communication. This cultural aspect of difference should be taken into account when communicating across languages.（Zhang Wen,2002）

In one example, an American teacher, who was new to China, noticed that several students were looking at the student grade book she happened to have open during recess without permission. This teacher seriously told the students that this was rude behavior and that they should be careful to respect the privacy of others. Personal things are not to be looked at without the person's permission. Several students felt embarrassed and didn't know what to say, so they gave an apologetic smile. This smile upset the American teacher even more, and she thought that the students not only disrespected her, but also mocked her. The reason for her misunderstanding was that she did not understand that the Han Chinese often use laughter to express embarrassment and apology.

Another example is that when Chinese people see a cute child, they can't help but go up and touch or pat it to show their affection for it. A Chinese mother would feel proud and smug when she encounters such a situation, while a Western mother is not used to this practice and considers it rude to pet her child, or even offensive.

===Strategies for Handling the Phenomenon of Cultural Differences in Interpretation===

Eugene Naida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward a. The whole set of theories and methods on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation has caused strong repercussions in the translation theoretical circles and is considered one of the most representative theories on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation, the core of which is his principle of "functional equivalence". This principle emphasizes that what translators pursue is not literal correspondence, but the reflection of cultural factors in the translated text to achieve functional equivalence. (叶子南，2001:38) This view of Naida, although presented mainly for translation, is also useful for dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation.

Given that interpretation is very different from translation, it should not, and cannot, exactly replicate the strategies for dealing with cultural phenomena in translation. The focus of interpreting is not to transmit cultural connotations, but to serve the communication on the spot, so the treatment of cultural phenomena in interpreting should be in line with the characteristics of interpreting. According to the criteria of "accuracy, smoothness and speed" and the specific characteristics of interpretation such as "on-site, present and limited time", the first step in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation should be to find the "nearest natural equivalence" between English and Chinese, and to try to find the "nearest natural equivalence" from the target language. (Bai Jingyu,2000)

In dealing with cultural phenomena, interpreters should first try to find the "nearest natural equivalents" between English and Chinese, and try to find authentic expressions or interpretation methods from the target language for the understanding of listeners. According to the above principles and requirements, the following strategies can be used in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation:

====Flexible use of naturalization and dissimilation====

Naturalization in interpretation is to express the linguistic and cultural factors in the source language in the closest equivalent form in the target language as far as possible, and transform them into a form familiar to and understood by the audience of the target language. This undoubtedly avoids the cultural conflicts and understanding barriers caused by the differences between the source language culture and the target language culture, and enables listeners to better understand the original language for interactive communication between the two sides of the conversation. Many scholars advocate that cultural phenomena in interpretation should be dealt with mainly by naturalization. This view has its own validity. In many occasions, the focus of interpretation is not to perform cultural output, but to provide services for both parties in the live communication. (Bai Jingyu,2000)

The first step in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation is to find the "nearest natural equivalent" to the source language culture in the target language, and try to find authentic expressions or explanatory methods from the target language for the audience's understanding. For example, the use of naturalization means to put Chinese allusions "三个和尚没水吃" into " Everyone‘s business is no one"s business." is very easy to be understood by native English speakers in Western countries.(Deng Yanchang, Liu Runqing,2006)

However, when using naturalization to deal with cultural factors, we should also see that while naturalization reduces the difficulty of audience acceptance and comprehension, it also sacrifices many cultural features of the source language, which may result in the loss of a large amount of accompanying information and prevent the audience from fully appreciating the original connotation of the source language and the foreign culture. For example, for foreigners who want to learn Chinese, in order to explain the cultural implications contained therein, he will translate“她有沉鱼落雁之容，闭月羞花之貌" by naturalization to “Her beauty would make the fish sink, the wild geese fall down and the moon hide herself, and put the flowers to shame.”（Deng Yanchang,2006）

Therefore, while emphasizing that interpretation should be mainly naturalized, it is important not to overlook the value of the means of dissimilation. This is because besides providing services to both parties of live communication, interpretation also has the function of cultural transmission, which is conducive to enhancing mutual understanding among peoples. For the specific forms and expressions containing strong cultural color and ethnicity, the dissimilation means can best reflect the ethnic color of the source language and make the audience feel novel and vivid, thus opening their eyes and gaining knowledge and enlightenment, especially on occasions such as tourism interpretation and banquet interpretation. (Bai Jingyu,2000)

In order to meet the needs of cultural exchange, interpreters should undoubtedly adopt the strategy of heterogeneity as much as possible in the process of interpretation, so as to retain the heterogeneous components in the source language to the greatest extent possible and transmit the information in the source language to the audience as originally as possible. In addition, the use of dissimilation can enrich the linguistic expressions of the target language and inject fresh blood into the culture of the target language, so that the language and culture of the target language can continue to develop and maintain vitality.（Edward Spir,2006）

====Rational Use of Direct Translation, Substitution, Paraphrase, Interpretation and Other Translation Methods====

The German functionalist translation theory, which emerged in the 1970s, advocates a "purpose-oriented" approach, which frees the translator and the translator from the bondage of the original language and regards translation as a purposive act. Functionalist scholars especially pointed out that their theory is also suitable for interpretation. The theory requires the translator to determine the strategies to be used in the translation process based on the specific requirements of the client and the translation purpose and the actual situation of the potential readers (or listeners) on the basis of a full understanding of the original language. (Bai Jingyu,2000)

The functionalist translation theory emphasizes flexibility and practicality in the translation process, which is a great inspiration for translators to flexibly use various translation methods to deal with cultural factors in interpretation. Combined with the specific characteristics and requirements of interpretation and the actual situation of the interpretation site, translation methods such as direct translation, substitution, meaning translation and interpretation should be flexibly used in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation according to the needs. (Bai Jingyu,2000)

=====Direct translation method=====

Language is the carrier of culture, which reflects the cultural traditions and psychological habits of a nation. Direct translation not only preserves these cultural features and avoids ambiguities, but also facilitates cultural exchange and enriches the vocabulary of the target language. Without affecting the understanding of the audience, direct translation is preferable if the source and target languages can be unified or largely unified in content and form. The direct translation method is the fullest manifestation of dissimilation at the linguistic level. It is the fullest expression of alienation at the linguistic level. For example, " Let sleeping dogs lie" is directly translated as “勿惹睡狗”. “火上加油” is directly translated “Pour oil on the flame”.

=====Substitution Method=====
The substitution method is also called the "reciprocity method". It is a method of translation by applying words and expressions in the target language that have different expressions but are similar in meaning to the cultural concepts of the source language. The substitution method is the most typical manifestation of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena. For example, the Chinese idiom "冰冻三尺非一日之寒" is translated into " Rome cannot be built in one day”. English idiom "to spend money like water " translated into "挥金如土" is a good example.(Wang Kefei,1997)

====Intentional translation method=====

When the source language and the target language cannot be unified in terms of content and form or cannot be harmonized, translation is a method of expressing the meaning of the source language in the language of the target language from the meaning of the source language, free from the superficial form of the source language. The meaning translation method is also a common method of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena in interpretation. It is mainly applied to occasions where cultural communication is not the purpose. (Bai Jingyu,2000)

For example, during the second session of the Ninth National People's Congress, Premier Zhu Rongji held a press conference. In response to a reporter's question about the "U.S. accusation of China's theft of U.S. nuclear technology," Premier Zhu stated a series of reasons and then concluded that "The U.S. has been accused of stealing nuclear technology from China. After stating a series of reasons, he concluded that,“我们为什么还要冒政治.上的风险和道德上的风险去盗窃什么人的军事机密呢?所以，所谓中国盗窃美国军事机密的问题可以认为是一种天方夜谭”.The last sentence of the translator's translation reads“So, the alleged Chinese theft of U.S. military technology is only a fiction.” Here, "天方夜谭" is not translated directly as"TheArabianNights"，but is instead translated as " fiction ".

This shows that the interpreter is fully aware of the cultural differences between Chinese and Western cultures and adopts the method of paraphrasing and flexibly and accurately conveys the speaker's meaning to the audience in the target language. As we all know, in Chinese culture, when people refer to an absurd, unsubstantiated phenomenon or statement, they often say: 这简直是天方夜谭。But in English-speaking cultures, The Arabian Nights is not synonymous with ridiculous or absurd. Therefore, the word "天方夜谭" has a much richer connotation in Chinese than the same word has in English.（Bao Huinan,2001）

=====Interpretation=====

Chinese and English belong to different language families, and they are very different in terms of cultural and historical background, cultural psychological structure, thinking styles and methods, and language expression. Although there are some cultural concepts in the two languages that are equivalent, corresponding or basically corresponding, most of them are not corresponding or completely corresponding, and some concepts are completely vacant in the target language.(Bao Huinan,2001) When trying to preserve the cultural characteristics of the source language and the literal translation cannot make the audience understand its meaning, the cultural phenomenon of the source language can be properly explained to facilitate the audience's understanding. This method is called interpretation. Interpretation is actually a means of alienation-a disguised form of expression, similar to literal translation and annotation. The interpretation method is not only easy for the audience to understand, but also can retain the cultural flavor of the source language. It is a good way to deal with cultural gaps in interpreting. The interpretation method is mainly applicable to the following scope (Bai Jingyu,2000)

1) Proper nouns formed in the accumulation of source language culture
诸葛亮—-Zhuge Liang，a master mind in Chinese history.
Mickey Mouse—-指一个小人物或一件微不足道的小事

2) Abbreviations, special phrases or collocations formed in a specific cultural atmosphere
三资企业—-refers to“外资”，namely, foreign- funded enterprise; “合资”， joint adventure
and“独资”，wholly foreign-owned or funded enterprise.
An LDC—-指 “a life and death commodity”始用于英国报刊，一般指成本低廉，但却是人类赖以生存的商品，如水。

3) Lingo, idiom, allusion, slang or colloquialism
解铃还需系铃人—-“Let him who tied the bell on the tiger take it off”, meaning, whoever started that trouble ends it himself.”

4)Special cultural words

敬老日—- Generally speaking, this phrase refers to the Double Ninth Festival in China，a day of giving and advocating more concern for the senior citizens.
the Beatles—-指英国的披头士乐队，20世纪六七十年代曾风靡全球。

=====Simple translation and no translation=====

Chinese people use more adjectives when narrating and describing people and things, especially when introducing landscapes and historical sites, adjectives and four-character patterns are quite frequent. For example, when introducing a lake, we often hear commentary similar to the following: “ 湖水澄澈如镜，水光天接，湖中有十多个高矮不等的小岛被水相望，似断似续，烟水迷茫，错落有致....”. If during the interpreting process, the interpreter translates the described words one by one according to the original language, it is likely to be thankless and make people feel that the language is extremely exaggerated and ridiculous. In this case, omitting some adjectives will not affect the overall situation. It is undeniable that some of the special expressions in different nationalities and different languages cannot be translated or equivalently translated. Especially in time-stressed interpretation situations, it is inevitable to encounter difficult problems, such as humor in English. No matter how you translate them, the meanings of, puns, allegorical words with puns in Chinese, and word-breaking games in Chinese, etc., cannot fully reflect their meanings. In this case, you can use "no translation" or incomplete translation. For example, Chinese people are used to introducing themselves by saying: "我姓张，弓长张。"Directly translating it as “My family name is Zhang”is enough.(Lu Naisheng,1993)

===Conclusion===

Interpretation is a cross-language communication activity as well as a cross-cultural communication activity. Due to the commonality and individuality of culture, the cultural characteristics carried by different language systems in cross-cultural communication appear the same, partly the same, gaps and conflicts. Therefore, the interpreter must not only be proficient in both the source language and the target language, but also understand the two cultures and understand the differences between the two cultures reflected in the differences in language expression. In addition, due to the characteristics of interpreting: timeliness, directness, diversity of occasions and forms, as well as the looseness of oral expression, resulting in the cultural sensitivity of the interpreter, the broad aspect of knowledge and the ability to deal with cultural differences There are higher requirements.

Therefore, interpreters should focus on cultivating cross-cultural awareness, increasing their sensitivity to the differences between the two cultures, and mastering the principles and methods to fill the gaps in understanding between different cultures. For interpreters, cross-cultural awareness refers to a cognitive standard and adjustment method formed by the translator consciously or unconsciously in cross-cultural communication. It is the interpreter’s unique way of thinking, judgment, and The sensitivity of cultural factors. The interpreter is the carrier of cross-cultural awareness, and the broad cultural information foundation is the fundamental guarantee for the completion of cross-cultural communication. Only by following the principles of culture can the translator better control the language and make the target language truly accurate, decent and fluent.(Bai Jingyu,2000)

===Reference===

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张文.论口译面对的文化差异问题[J]. 北京第二外国语学院学报，1998年第3期 [8]. 张燕.文化差异对口译的影响[J]. 外语教学，2002年5月第3期

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--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 13:59, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

==On Translation Strategies of Different Style, Taking English Journalistic Style and English Literary Style as an Example 张银柳 Zhang Yinliu 202070080649==

===Abstract===

With the consistent development of the cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, translation plays a more and more pivotal role in the world stage. It can not only help Chinese to have a better understanding of foreign cultures and promote the cooperation, but also spread the Chinese cultures to the international world. Translation strategies are the focus of translation works, especially during the process of translating Chinese to English. It’s very necessary to have a thorough study about the translation strategies. While towards different styles of text, different translation strategies should be applied relatively. This thesis focuses on translation strategies of two styles - journalistic style and literary style.
The thesis firstly introduces main functons and types of texts. Then it depicts the characteristics and translation principles of journalistic style text and literary style text. In the main part, the thesis explores the translation strategies that suits for the two types based on different characteristics, including domestication, foreignization, omission,restructure and etc. This thesis is expected to make some contributions to the study of translation strategies and the practice of translation.

===Key Words===

Translation strategies; text-types; journalistic style; literary style.

===中文摘要===

随着中外文化交流的不断发展，翻译在世界舞台上扮演着越来越重要的角色。它不仅可以帮助中国人更好地了解外国文化，促进合作，而且可以将中国文化传播到世界。翻译策略是翻译工作的重点，特别是在汉译英过程中。对翻译策略进行深入研究是有必要的。在针对不同样式的文本时，应相对地采用不同的翻译策略。本文主要研究两种体裁的翻译策略：新闻体裁和文学体裁。
本文首先介绍主要的文本功能以及文本类型，然后探讨新闻风格文本和文学风格文本的语言特点及翻译原则。论文的主体部分结合了两种文本的特点，探讨了归化，异化，省译，重构等翻译策略。本文有望为翻译策略的研究和翻译的实践做出贡献。

===关键词===

翻译策略; 文本类型; 新闻体裁; 文学体裁.

===Introduction===

Translation strategies are critical in translation process. Towards texts in different styles that have different models of texts’ structure and communicative functions, translation strategies are quite variable. There are a great number of scholars both from China and the international world who have devoted themselves to dive into and research the most effective and practical strategies.

However, there are still lack of thorough researches about translation strategies for different text styles. In this thesis, the first part is about the introduction and analysis of former scholars’ researches and the whole picture of this thesis. Then, the thesis will discuss the development, characteristics and functions of different-style texts from the perspective of linguistics.From the perspective of language characteristics,literary style texts are vivid,full of feelings and connotation-contained, while journalistic style texts are new, objective,true and political-related. From the perspective of translation principles, literary style texts are based on equivalence priciple and accuracy,while journalistic style texts are based on accuracy,purpose and readability. The main part is about the translation strategies of source texts in journalistic style and literary style respectively and the analysis of examples, such as the domestication, foreignization in literary-style texts and the omission , restructure, amplification and imitation in journalistic-style text. In concluding part, the thesis will generalize the main idea and make an objective appreciation about the thesis.

===Theoretical Framework===
====Background and development of Texts’ styles====

According to the research, there is still no specific definition of distinguishing differences of texts styles. Some scholars claim texts’ styles to be registers, even some equal them to speech events. Qin Xiubai, a famous Chinese language and teaching professor, introduced that there were two main schools of the study of Texts styles’- the Swalesian School represented by John M.S wales and V.K.Bhatia and the Australian School represented by J.R.Martin. John Martin believes that styles of texts mean a bunch of social events in which the members have the same communicative goal. While V.K.Bhatia believes that styles of texts are identifiable communicative events that have obvious inner structural features, conventionally happening in specific careers or academic communities.

We can tell from the two schools’ views that styles of texts are a kind of communicative events with its special communicative purpose and clear structures. From this point, translators or interpreters can exert theory to analyze texts’ styles and recognize the intentions of writers as well as keep the functional and sense equivalence between the source texts and target texts. J.R.Martin take texts’ styles as a communication-orientated process of social communication with steps. Eggins view texts of styles as a type of activity with steps that orientated on communicative purposes. So that the difference of texts styles is on the level of values in use rather than the contents of discourse, characteristics of forms or other rules.

Huang Guowen once said that every text plays a communicative role in a specific social and cultural environment, and people belonging to a specific social and cultural background can usually see its communicative purpose. (Huang Guowen,2001) The text is a combination of communicative symbols for the exchange of information between the sender and the recipient. In order to achieve a certain communicative purpose, the sender must choose an appropriate genre and corresponding manifestation to convey the information, and the recipient is expected to respond accordingly. Thus, the function of texts can be realized. Christiane Nord summarized four functions of texts from the perspective of translation. They are referential function, expressive function, appellative function and phatic function. (Nord, 1997)

====Main functions of texts====

=====The Referential Function=====
The referential function of a text means the reference to or description of objects or phenomena of the world. It is mainly expressed through the denotative value of the lexical items presented in the text and can be analyzed through the nature of the objects. It is orientated toward objects in real or fictitious worlds. There are several functions of referential function: informative function, directive function and didactic function. If the referent is a fact or state of things unknown to the receiver, such as an accident, the text function may consist in informing the readers. If the referent is the description of an object, such as the illustration of using a washing machine, the text function may be directive. If it is a whole field that the receivers are to learn, such as physics, the function may be didactic.

=====The Expressive Function=====

The expressive function refers to the sender’s attitude to toward the objects or phenomena. This function is sender-orientated. The expressive function of the text may be subdivided according to what it is expressed. If the sender expresses individual feelings or emotions, such as a public speech, it will be an emotive sub-function. If what is expressed is an evaluation, like comments, the sub-function will be evaluative.

=====The Appellative Function=====

The appellative function refers to use of language to make the receiver feel or do something. The appellative function “receiver-orientated. It aims at the receivers’ sensitivity or disposition to act and tries to induce receivers to respond in a particular way. It can be broken into several sub-functions: illustrative function, persuasive function, advertising function and pedagogical function. If we want to illustrate a hypothesis by an example, we appeal to the reader’s previous experience to knowledge, That’s what called illustrative function. If we want to persuade someone to do something or to share a particular viewpoint, we appeal to their sensitivity and their secret desires. That’s what called persuasive function. If we want to let someone by a particular product, we tend to describe those qualities of the product that are presumed to have positive values in receivers’ value system. That’s advertising function. If we wan to educate a person, we may appeal to their susceptibility to ethical and moral principles. That’s pedagogical function.

====Main Text - types====

Katharina Reiss, founder of German translation functionalism, put forward text-typology theory in Possibilities and Limitations in Translation Criticism. She believes that there are four texts, including the context-focused text, the form-focused text, the appeal-focused text and the audio-media text.
Peter Newmark, representative of the British linguistic school of translation theory, based on the study of former linguisticians, he put forward the following six functions of texts - expressive function, informative function, the vocative function, the aesthetic function, the phatic function and the meta-lingual function. A text may has several functions at the same time, but only has one major function. Taking a whole consideration of the two theories, the main texts are the following three, expressive texts, informative texts and vocative texts. Journalistic-style texts and literary-style texts are mainly connected with the informative and expressive function respectively.

=====The Expressive Texts=====

Language is a tool for people to communicate with each other. Through language, people can express their thoughts, affection, wills, desires, opinions, attitude, etc. This is the expressive function of language. The core of expressive function is the speaker's thoughts. The speaker uses words to express feelings, regardless of the reaction of others.Typical expressive-function texts include the following three types. The first ones are serious and imaginative literature which contain lyrics, short stories, long novels and plays. The second type is authoritative texts, including a variety of genres, whose authority comes from the status of the author or language skills, such as senior government officials and political party leaders’ speeches, such as declarations, legal regulations, documents as well as literary and academic works written by authority figures etc. The third type is texts that express writers’ ideas directly, without direct readers, like autobiography, private letters, etc.

===== The Informative Texts=====

In interactions, people often have to describe, narrate or explain the situation of relevant things. This involves the information function of language. The core is the external environment, which is the reported insights and theories. The informative text usually has a fixed format, such as textbook, technical reports, newspaper articles, scientific papers, meeting minutes, etc.

===== The Vocative Texts=====

People often use words to evoke others' sympathy or prompt them to take some actions. That shows the imperative function of language. The core of this function is the readers or audiences. The speaker wants readers or audiences to feel and follow the intent of the text and act as expected. Typical vocative texts are notices, advertisements, instructions, requests, appeals, etc.

===Literary Stylistics and Journalistic Stylistics===

With the appearance of societal pragmatics, pragmatics and functional grammar, scholars recognized the importance of language functions. They tried to classify the texts in the light of language functions and divided them into two main types. One is literary style, the other is non-literary style. Snell-Hornby classified literary texts as Bible, drama, film, lyric poetry, modern literature, classic works, children literature, literature in 1990 and pastime novel.

====Language Characteristics====

=====For literary style=====
======Vividness======
In literary works, writers use words or language to vividly describe or portray people, objects, things to reflect the world’s various situations or expose social reality, they will use appropriate techniques to render the atmosphere and create an immersive feeling for readers. For Example, “The bullfrogs trump to usher in the night, and the note of the whip-poor-will is borne on the rippling wind from over the water.” Through the use of verbs such as "trump", "usher" and "is borne", the images of frogs, hawks and wind blowing on the water surface in the evening are vividly depicted. That happens a lot in literary works.

======Emotional expression======
As we all know, all things and objects are embodiment of writers’ feelings and emotions. In literary creation, whether it is to portray characters or to describe scenery, often inadvertently or intentionally contains or carries the writer’s own emotions. In other words, expressing emotion includes direct expression and indirect expression. The lyricism of this kind of literature can effectively arouse the emotional resonance of readers.

======Connotation======
Connotation means that writers do not always describe people or things in all-round aspects with every details, but can depict in limited number of words to show or imply infinite meaning or artistic conception, leaving readers with imagination. That will be unforgettable for a long time. For example, “ From my mother’s sleep I fell into the State. And I hunched in its belly till my wet fur froze.” In this two sentences, “Sleep” metaphorically means in the mother’s womb, can also refer to the poet’s lofty ideals and ambitions. The capitalized "State" can refer to both the world and the poet’s motherland - The United States.

===== For journalistic style=====
Journalistic-style texts vary a lot from the the literary-style texts. As an unique texts which are shown to billions of audience, the characteristics of news are mainly in following four aspects: Truth, objective, new and political-related.

======Truthfulness======
First, as the definition indicates news is about facts，which first should be true. “News lays claim to the qualities of truthfulness and accuracy-properties often implied by the term objectivity, a concept used to legitimize the journalistic text while at the same time recognizing the multidimensional and elusive nature of truth. News asks to be accepted as, at the very least, an approximation to truth, and certainly close enough to the truth to be worthy of our trust in its integrity”(McNair, 1998:2)

======Newness======
If the news isn’t new, it should have been called “olds”. This is more than a joke. News is reported to make a contrast to the convention, strike people by surprise and keep them in suspense. “News is not about somebody bitten by a dog, but about a dog bitten by a man”, “News is just something that can move women to scream: My Gosh!” The two old sayings have been taken as most vivid descriptions of news, featuring its distinctive characteristics of newness.

======Objectivity======
The objectivity is one of the most important professional concepts of news and has caught great attention in news circle. “The basic content of this principle is the content must be completely true, fair and neutral, not fictitious, and not biased or subjective” (Yang Xiyou 2009, 6)When writing news or reports, media workers shouldn’t put their subjective feelings into the reports. And the use of vocabulary should also be fair and neutral. When international news media, such as BBC and VOA, report about China Diaoyu Islands issue, they generally use Sankaku Islands and Diaoyu Island. When translating these words, the translator should be faithful to the original text and translate these two names. However, due to ideological, political or historical reasons, the use of vocabulary may deviate from the principle of objectivity, such as: in the report of Russia and Japan’s dispute on islands, only the Russian address- “ Kuril Islands” was used, but the Japanese address- “Four Northern Islands” was not used. When translating, the translator should add “Thousand Southern Islands” and “Four Northern”.

======Political Relevance======
Although news is objective, absolutely objective and fair reports do not exist. The media has never been able to completely get rid of the shackles of political and economic power or ideology. The content of the report tends to obey the interests of the country. The use of political vocabulary in English current affairs news must also faithfully reflect the country’s political standpoint. Regarding to the English translation of the Diaoyu Islands, the Chinese news media translate into “Diaoyu Islands”, while the Japanese news media and some Western news media call it “Senkaku Islands”. From the usage of these words, it is obvious to see the political stance. When translating these political words, translators must be very cautious. In addition to be faithful to the original text, translators or interpreters should also consider our country’s interests.

====Translation principles====
Translation is the process of transforming signs or representations into another signs or representations.(Nord, 2001:6) Generally speaking, according to the object of translation, translation can be divided into two kinds: literary translation and non-literary translation. In literary translation the object is only the literary work, such as pot, novel and so on, and it focuses on the expression of contents, emotions and rhetoric of the original.

===== For literary style=====
Although literary translation and non-literary translation share basic principles, literary translation which has its unique ways, is rather different from non-literary translation. Translating literary works is not only a process of transforming languages but also a process of recreating because literature belongs to a part of art. This is the most important feature of literary translation and also the basic translation principles.

======Equivalence-based principle======
Equivalence-based principle equals to “Dynamic equivalence” proposed by Eugene A. Nida, a famous American translation theorist. This principle points that translators should work hard in different languages and different cultures to find translation equivalents between them, and use appropriate methods to reorganize the form and semantic structure of the original text. Dynamic equivalence includes four aspects: one is lexical equivalence, the other is syntactic equivalence, the third is textual equivalence, the fourth is sense equivalence. In literary translation, sense equivalence is the core. For example, the Chinese sentence “青年小伙子们，有事没事，总想和小芹说句话” can be translated in to “Young men sought every excuse to talk with Xiao Qin”.This shows sense equivalence.

======Accuracy-based principle======
No matter how beautiful the texts are, the accuracy is always the most important, rather than the forms. Be Faithful to the content of the original text, the translator must fully express the content of the original text without any tampering, distortion, omission or arbitrary deletion. The more accurate the words be chosen, the better the translation texts will be. For example, when translating “ 微风”, we’d better translate it into “breeze” or “gentle breeze” rather than “gentle wind” since the breeze is more accurate.

=====For Journalistic style=====
Journalistic-style texts belong to the informative texts according to the above analysis. Translation principles of Journalistic are mainly mainly purposiveness, accuracy and readability.

======Purpose-based principle======
Purpose" is the basic principle of journalistic-style texts translation, and other principles are based on this principle. For information-based texts, “ translation skopos ”, the German functionalist translation theory, was put forward by Rice, Vermeer, and Nord. Skopos has great significance in guiding of translation. This is because the purpose of information-based translation is very strong, that is, the translation has a clear goal - to provide information. Snell Hornby believes: “More practical the texts is, more clear its function is. The more the translation tends to focus on the target language.”

As far as the journalistic text is concerned, the purpose of its translation is conveying the information and communication, allowing readers to easily understand the intention of the speaker. The translation should conform to the audience’s needs, cultural expectations, beliefs and cognitive status as much as possible, and it is meaningful in the communication environment of the target language culture. For example, in news, sometimes vocabulary vacancies are caused by the absence of equivalence in the translation, and it is impossible to use completely equivalent and accurate words to express its connotation during translation. In this case, domestication can be applied. Considering the specific translation purpose, context and characteristics of the target language, if the purpose of translation is to spread foreign cultures, foreignization strategies can be adopted. That’s the purpose-based translation principle.

======Accuracy-based principle======
The purpose of informative text is to convey information. Therefore, the translation work of the information text should be accurate, clear and precise. The translator can’t deliberately or unintentionally miss any original author’s information. In journalistic style, the accuracy is critical. A slight difference of words can make huge results. Especially, for those news related with politics and business. A word with different emotional sense can make a complete opposite statement. A small movement of a point can cause millions capital loss. For example, 1.33 million and 13.3 million has the huge difference. This principle is similar to the “faith” proposed by Yan Fu. “Faith” means “faithfulness”. The translation of linguistic-style texts should confirm to accuracy.

======Readability-based principle======
Generally speaking, the terminology of information-based texts is neutral and has no obvious personal characteristics or regional colors. In news, even though there are more facts that personal emotions and feeling, translators or interpreters can make small adjustment of the speakers to make the report readable. In short, when translating, based on the readers’ language level, various translation methods should be mobilized on the premise of not changing the original intent of the article and report. It may make the content and layout of the article easier to understand, fluent and concise. But be sure to keep the source language texts’ characteristics.

===Translation strategies===
Translation strategies refer to the thoughts, process, methods and procedure during the process of translation. Towards original texts with different texts styles, translation strategies also vary in a large degree. The thesis will discuss from two typical stylistic texts - literary style and journalistic style. According to The Modern Chinese Dictionary, strategies indicate guidelines and means which are deigned on the basis of the situations concerned. While methods are the ways and procedures in solving real problems. However, the two are relative to each other. In simple words strategies are the guidelines of the concrete methods. The concrete methods should be adopted in the direction of their strategies. Based on the above, a conclusion in drawn that translation strategies are the guidelines for realizing a particular translation aim, yet translation methods the concrete ways employed by translators to make the particular translation aim come true.

====Translation strategies in literary style====
In the book Translation Criticism the Potentials & Limitations, Reiss pointed out that “Translation of literary works would better be called free rendering than translations, especially when the personality of the translator and the force of his artistic temperament result in a TL version standing on its own, indebted to the original as a model and a source of inspiration. (Reiss, 2004:91) This description indicates the characteristics of literary translation.

===== Domestication=====
Domestication is firstly coined by L.Venuti in his book ''The Translator’s Invisibility'' called “guihua” in Chinese. Domestication is a strategy by which the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the original text is erased in the translation in order to meet its readers’ aesthetic and reception psychology. As Venuti argues the adoption of domesticating strategy is the cultural disparity and imperialism. In the 1980s translation studies underwent “cultural turn”, and since then translation has being studied in the cultural and social contexts. The dominance of transparent discourse in English-language translation was decisively challenged at the turn of the twentieth century.Eugene Nida is the representative of domestication by his assertion on dynamic equivalence that “A translation of dynamic equivalence aims at complete naturalness of expression and tries to relate the receptor to modes of behavior relevant within the context of his own culture.” (Nida, 2004:159) He maintains that the function of translation is to communicate and it is important for the reader to understand what is conveyed by the translation, which takes the reader’s response into consideration. He claims that the reader of the target text should have the similar comprehension and appreciation as does the reader of the source text. Domestication tries to avoid cultural dispute and eliminate cultural barriers to achieve successful cross-cultural communication. The domesticating translation is one of naturalness and smoothness,
which is the advantage of domestication. Here are three main methods that can achieve domestication strategy. They are paraphrasing, adaptation and replacement.

======paraphrasing======

Domestication by the method of paraphrasing is effective in dealing with a simple expression behind which there is a heavy cultural load. We should adapt paraphrasing strategy.

Example1

ST: 如囊萤如映雪家虽贫学不辍 (Wang Yinglin, 1986)

TT1: Then we have one who put fireflies in a bag, and again another who used the white glare from snow. Although their families were poor, these men studied
unceasingly.

TT2: One enclosed some glow-worms in a transparent bag, another read by the light reflected by the snow. Although their families were poor, they never ceased learning.
Annotation: in order to read by their light.

TT3: Che-yin, when a boy, being poor, read his book by the light of a glow-worm which he confined. And Sun-kang, in winter, read his book by the light reflected from snow. Though their families were poor they studied incessantly.

The original text is from a classical book in china named Three-Character Classic.“囊萤”and “映雪” are Chinese allusions urging children to work hard at their study. Each of the contracted expressions has a story behind it. By reading T1 and T2, readers cannot understand the allusion to the full and the logic between the expressions of “put fireflies in a bag/enclosed some glow-worms in a transparent bag”and“used the white glare from snow”and the expressions about the persons’ industry at their studies. T3 paraphrases the sentence and makes logic explicit by introducing the heroes in the allusions and explaining what they used the fireflies/glow-worms for. This is effective in translation.

======Adaptation======

In order to achieve naturalness of expression, grammar, lexicon and culture. Adaptations are necessary. For terms which identify culturally different objects but with somewhat similar functions, adaptation shows its advantage in translation.

Example2

ST: 老少爷们，从麻木的状态中苏醒过来吧。(Moyan，2003:85)

TT: Come out of your stupor, my friends. ( Goldblatt, 2004:293)

Address terms, as an indispensable part of conversations and communications, can reflect the tradition and culture of a nation. In all languages, address terms play an important role in social intercourse. Set in Northeast countryside of China, “ 老少爷们”is a typical address term of China’s northern dialect. And it is usually used by a man, showing some masculinity. It’s an oral expression often addressed to males. Goldblatt translate it as “my friends”, often used in an English speech to strike a chord in listeners and get them united or in favor of the speaker, conspicuously in an adaptation way.

Example3

ST: 凡训蒙须讲究详训诂明句读（Wang Yinglin,1986）

TT1: In the education of the young, there should be explanation and elucidation, careful teaching of the interpretations of commentators, and due attention to paragraphs and sentences.

TT2: Whoever teaches boys, ought to discuss and examine deeply (the meaning of the characters); Explain their derivation, mark distinctly the periods and the punctuation.

TT3: Every one that instructs youth should explain fully what he teaches; should illustrate the present and the past, and distinguish clearly the comma and the period.
There are two kinds of adaptation in the translation of this Chinese line. First, it is the domestication of the Chinese term “句读”. Actually, ancient Chinese classics do not have any punctuation marks and the “句读” refers to the longer or shorter pause in the classics according to the meaning of the text. All three translators domesticate the Chinese term by the concept of punctuation in the English language and render it respectively as “paragraphs and sentences”, “the periods and the punctuation” and “the comma and the period”. Although the three kinds of rendering differ from each other on the level of punctuation, they have much the same function—the target text reader can easily understand in what way “句读” functions in a Chinese text. Thus dynamic equivalence is achieved. The second adaptation is the change of parts of speech—the change from verb to noun. Giles changes the verbs “训”, “讲究” and “训诂” in the Chinese text into nouns “education”, “explanation and elucidation”, “interpretations” and “attention”.

======Replacement======

Example 4

ST:勤有功戏无益戒之哉宜勉力 (Wang Yinglin, 1986)

TT: Diligence has its reward; play has no advantages. Oh, be on your guard, and put forth your strength.

This is an example of domestication on the lexical level. “哉” in Chinese is a particle of exclamatory or of interrogative value. In this line, it functions as an exclamatory particle. It helps to make up the syllable in the Chinese version and express the author’s emotion of instructing the young. Giles translates it into the correspondent English exclamatory particle “Oh” which retains the tone of a similar function as is in the source text. It achieves dynamic equivalence in terms of reader’s response to the rhetoric.

=====Foreignization=====

Foreignization designates the type of translation in which a target text is produced which deliberately breaks the target conventions by retaining the foreignness of the original. It functions to preserve the foreignness and value of the foreign language culture in the source text. It takes the readers of the target language culture to a foreign culture, making the readers of the translated text feel the differences and enjoy the alien atmosphere. It is more faithful to the language features of the source text than domestication does, and it keeps the flavor of the original language. Venuti and other scholars who advocate foreignization hold that foreignization enable readers of the translated text to learn about the alien culture of the source language text, which is often the reading aim of the readers who are capable of understanding the alien culture. (Venuti, 1995)

======phonetic compensation======

Among the three translators, Giles is said to be an excellent English language master who was able to compose English poems. His translation of poems is generally in accordance with the composing and rhyming schemes of English poems, often with good rhythm. (Mu Shixiong, 2004:166) Though Giles is good at translating poems, he does not translate this text into a completely rhythmical one. Instead, he adds pronunciation to every Chinese character in the text to make a phonetic compensation so that the readers can still appreciate the ending rhyme of the original Chinese text. Giles does make an effort to create rhythmical effect whenever it is possible. In literary texts, phonetic compensation is always applied in translation of poem and prose.

Example5

ST:养不教父之过教不严师之惰

TT: To feed without teaching is the father’s fault. To teach without severity is the teacher’s laziness.

Each line of the translation has a rhythmic focus. Respectively they are:“feed”,“without”and“teaching”in the first line; “father” and “fault” in the second line;“teach”,“without”and“severity” in the third line; and “teacher” and “laziness” in the fourth line. In this way, and together with the phonetic compensation, formal equivalence is achieved and by reading the phonetic compensation, target readers can feel the same rhythm of the original text and response the same as the readers of the source text.

======Transliteration======

Transliteration is a method that an item is translated according to its pronunciation rather than its meaning. This technique is often applied to translate ecological culture-loaded terms, like names of places, person, rivers, mountains or countries. There are two systems in use for transliteration Chinese characters: the Wade-Giles system of Romanization and the pinyin system of Romanization. For better transference of Chinese culture, the latter system is suggested. For some material culture-loaded terms, such as “仁”, “义”, “君子” and so on, transliteration might be preferable to any other methods. These terms represent the key concept of Confucianism, and any other English equivalent expressions may lead to misunderstanding. Thus, it is the most convenient and effective way to expose target readers in Chinese culture. For some time, the pinyin translation of these terms may be as acceptable and comprehensible as “kongfu” or “mahjong”. Certainly, for the sake of target readers’ understanding, an annotation is always needed to provide the further explanation of the cultural meanings of these terms.

Example6

ST: 南容三复“白圭”，孔子以其兄之子妻之。(Liu Dianjue, 46)

TT1: Nan Jung in reciting the I Song repeated the verse about the sceptre of white jade three times. (In consequence of which) Master Kung gave him his elder brother’s daughter to marry. (Waley, 131)

TT2: Nan Rong repeated over and over again the lines about the white jade sceptre. Confucius gave him his elder brother’s daughter in marriage. (D.C. Lau, 181)

======Amplification======

Amplification refers to add information behind some terms that is familiar to source language readers but unfamiliar to target language readers. By amplification, the connotation can be better conveyed to foreign readers.

Example 7

ST:论语者二十篇群弟子记善言

TT: The Lunyu (the book of discourses and dialogues) contains twenty chapters. The disciples (of Confucius) have therein related his excellent sayings.

In this example, the Chinese text does not mention the ancient Chinese sage Confucius, and the information on whose sayings had been recorded in the book “Lun-yu” is implicit, which can be inferred from the context by native Chinese, once they combine the notion of “论语”with their background knowledge. However, western readers do not have enough knowledge to appreciate the value of the “Lun-yu”if the title was translated without the mention of Confucius.

==== Translation strategies in journalistic style====

===== Amplification=====

Sometimes, the translator needs to add proper words to complete the structure of the target texts, because mews sometimes needs more information to explain the inner meaning. The following examples are offered to illustrate the point.

Example 8

ST: The real James Bond? (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 250)

TT:谁是真正的邦德?

There are no subject and predicate in the target text if the translator renders the headline by literal translation. Therefore,“谁是” is added in order to clarify the text.

Example 9

ST: Kings rout rockets, 101-74 (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 225)

TT: 国王队击败火箭队，比分为 101 比 74

“比分为”is added in the target text to make the translation complete in sentence structure and meaning.

Example 10
ST:Reuters bests and worsts of the world cup (Huang Ruihong, 2004-06-15)

TT:路透社评出世界最佳和最差球队

“评出” is added in the target text. Otherwise, there will be no predicate in the target text. Consequently, the translation will make no sense to the target reader. Translator should transfer new messages accurately and clearly to the target reader. To achieve this goal, amplification is often adopted to supplement necessary words or background information, which effectively avoids misunderstanding on the part of the target reader.

=====Omission=====

Omission refers to the strategy to delete unnecessary words or phrases from the target text. News headlines are featured by its brevity. Redundant words can be omitted either to conform to the norms of the target language or to achieve the effect of succinctness.

Example11
ST: You need to sleep less than you think (Zou Shuang, 2005)
TT: 适当少睡有益健康
As we know, English is a hypotactic language, which pays great attention to overt cohesion. Without the pronoun‘you’, the source text will be ungrammatical. By contrast, Chinese belongs to paratactic language, which attaches importance to covert coherence. When the translator does not render the word‘you’ into“你”, it won’t affect comprehension at all. In addition, the target text is succinct by leaving out the pronoun‘you’. Therefore, omission is adopted in this example.

Example12

ST: Vogue says Queen Elizabeth II among world’s most glamorous (China Daily, 2007-11-07)

TT:英女王跻身“全球最具魅力女性”排行榜

As it is well known to most Chinese readers that the Queen of UK is Elizabeth II (伊莉莎白二世), there is no need to keep it in the target text. Otherwise, the translation will be too long as a headline. The recommended version, thus, becomes 英女王跻身“全球最具魅力女性”排行榜.

=====Imitation=====
English news are featured by its vivid language, such as play on word, figures of speech, etc. They add special flavor to the text with the aim to attract readers’ eye. Obviously, to reproduce these aesthetic effect enjoys the privilege among the available methods. Throughout the history of translation theory, the idea of imitation has been manifested clearly by Alexander Fraser Tytler when he wrote: the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original in his famous essay on the Principles of Translation. (Munaday, 2001: 26) The following examples may illustrate the above idea.

Example 13

ST:A tale of two hearts (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 199).

TT:双心记

This headline tells a story that a patient has an artificial heart planted in his body. The headline is a parody of the novel A Tale of Two Cities written by Charles Dickens. The target text (双心记) is also a parody of “双城记”.

Example14

ST: Soccer kicks off with violence (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 200)

TT:足球开踢，拳打脚踢

This is a humorous news headline because of the use of pun. The phrase ‘kick off’ refers to the start of a football match, and it also implies that there is a fight in the football field. The meanings of the pun are successfully transferred by the target text with the recommended translation. The translator does a good job in reproducing the humorous sense.

=====Restructure=====
The target text should be acceptable and meaningful in a sense that it is coherent with the situation in which it is received. Once translated, the translator revises the order and rearranges all words into a perfect sentence. In doing so, the news is more logical and tuned with the habit of native readers' think and reading. It can be treated as an important technique used in translating news headline from Chinese into English or English to Chinese.

Example 15

ST: A third of Londoners must work from home during Olympics to avoid tube

TT: 奥运交通压力大 1/3伦敦人须在家上班 (2011-09-27 08:33)

“A third” occurred in the beginning of the source text, but “奥运会” comes first in the target text. The source text can be translate into “1/3的伦敦人必须在家上班,在奥运会期间避免交通混乱”if there is not any translation strategies used. The translator rearranges the words order to emphasize the special time---Olympics.

Example16

ST: Mahfud proposes ‘Special Zoo’ for corrupt officials

TT: 印尼高官提议建“贪官动物园” (2011-11-30 16:02)

In order to satirize the corrupt officials, the translator exchanges the order of “special” and “贪官” during the translation process. It can be achieve some good effect to expose the corrupt officials in language sense.

Example 17

ST:‘Ready for winter’ campaign launches

TT: 苏格兰打响“迎冬战役”(2011-10-24 12:06)

The translator reorders the expression “Ready for winter” and “launches” during the translation process. Besides, the translator adds a subject to this sentence so that it can appeal to the readers’ thinking patterns. In order to make the readers or audiences understand the translated version smoothly and easily, the words or phrases are adjusted to accord with their thinking pattern. Restructuring refers to rearranging the words in logic order to make the translation more potential readers or audiences into the first consideration, making them understand the translated version easily.

===== Adaptation=====
Adaptation is a translation method, which refers to use an especially free translation, it relates to selecting, adding, deleting, and constructing cautiously instead of simply translating one word to another word. In order to make the translated version more proper to a certain readers or audiences, adaptation always make some essential changes for a special aim So adaptation is an activity which the news translators absorb the most important content from the source text on the basis of the particular requirement of the readers or audiences, then make some suitable adjustments. When the translators are doing some adaptation, though the form and style of the source text are altered in a way, the main idea of the source text must be kept.Though adaptation is not acted as a main translation method by some traditional translation theorists, adaptation is getting more and more popular and arousing more and more
attention these days. You can see the term adaptation frequently showed in some authoritative journals and newspapers, etc.

Example 18

ST: Poor People May Be Quicker to Be Kind

TT:穷人更有同情心 (2011-12-29 08:56)

“Quicker”means“更快”, but here it is translated into “更有”, “快” is an adjective, “有”is a verb, they have different characters.“Kind”means“友善的”, it is an adjective, but it is translated into“同情心”, which is a noun. If the translator does not use some translation strategies like adaptation, the target text is unreadable.

Example 19

ST: Americans say Asia more important than EU: survey

TT：多数美国人看好亚洲 (2011-09-16 08:43)

“Important” is an adjective, and a comparative degree used in the source text. But the source text is translated in a totally different way, for it is translated into a verb “看好”. Adaptation should be used here to make sure the translation aim is achieved.

Example 20

ST: Lend your voices to ‘talking bins’

TT:“能说会唱垃圾桶”将亮相伦敦。

If“talking bins” is translated into “会说话的垃圾桶”, it is so ordinary. But the translator adopt the adaptation strategy to translated it into“能说会唱垃圾桶”, it becomes very vivid, and it may leave a deep impression on the readers.

===Conclusion===
The research conducted in this thesis is a fairly thorough study on the translation strategies of literary-style texts and journalistic-style texts. Through detailed discussion, several translation strategies have been analyzed and summarized. This thesis also studies the texts’ functions and main types of texts. The texts functions are referential function, expressive function and appellative function. The texts can be divided into three types- informative, expressive and vocative texts. On the basis of characteristics of different texts, detailed methods are applied. For literary-style texts, there are domestication and foreignization strategies. For journalistic-style texts, there are strategies like omission, restructure,adaption, imitation and amplification. Journalistic texts and literary texts are quite different, so the translation strategies are different. This thesis has a clear analysis about the translation strategies. However, it still owns a lot of drawbacks, such as the structure is too complicated, lack some of the former people’s study fruit. Hoping this thesis can make some contributions to the translation study and exercise process.

===References===

[1] McNair, Brain. ''The sociology of Journalism'' [M]. A Hodder Arnold Publication,1998.

[2] Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' [M]. London and New York: Routledge,2001.

[3] Newmark, P. ''Approaches to Translation'' ［M］. New York: Prentice Hall, 1981: 39.

[4] Nord, Christiane. ''Translating as A Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Approaches Explained'' [M]. Shanghai : Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001:6.

[5] Reiss, Katharina. ''Translation Criticism the Potentials & Limitations'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004:91.

[6] Venuti, L. ''The Translator’s Invisibility—A History of Translation''[M]. London & New York: Routledge,1995.

[7] 黄瑞红.新闻英语的词汇特色和语法特征[J],《陕西广播电视大学学报》,2004 年第 6 卷第 2 期.

[8] 刘殿爵. 论语[M]. 北京:中华书局,2011.

[9] 穆诗雄.《跨文化传播——中国古典诗歌英译论》[M],合肥:中国科学技术大学出版社,2004.

[10]王应麟.《三字经》[M],长沙:岳麓书社,1986.

[11]许明武.新闻英语与翻译 [M],北京:中国对外翻译出版公司,2003.

[12]邹爽.浅谈英语新闻标题的翻译 [J],《湖北财经高等专科学校学报》,2005 年第 17 卷第 2 期.

[13]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-09/27/content_13797729.htm

[14]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-11/30/content_14191000.htm

[15]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-10/24/content_13962189.htm

[16]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-12/29/content_14347771.htm

[17]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-09/16/content_13712704.htm
--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 02:20, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Study on the Ideology of 2020 Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis 李泳珊 Li Yongshan 202020080614==

<center>李泳珊 Li Yongshan 202020080614</center>

===Abstract===

Ideology and translation studies always attract the attention of scholars in the field of translation studies. Nowadays, the empirical research method combining corpora and critical discourse analysis has provided more intuitive and convincing argument support for researches in this area. In this paper, critical discourse analysis is combined with translation studies so as to substantially discuss the controlling role of ideology in the translation of Government Work Report. Due to limited time and energy, the author has not set up his/her own corpora and failed in applying SPSS, CiteSpace, NoteExpress, EmEditor and other statistical software to collect and analyze corpus. However, this research is carried out from the perspective of critical discourse analysis and solid evidence will be provided as much as possible.

Ideology and translation studies has attracted the attention of scholars in the field of translation studies for a long time. Nowadays, the empirical research method combining corpora and critical discourse analysis has provided more intuitive and convincing argument support for researches in this area. In this paper, critical discourse analysis is combined with translation studies so as to substantially discuss the controlling role of ideology in the translation of Government Work Report. Due to limited time and energy, the author has not set up his/her own corpora and failed in applying SPSS, CiteSpace, NoteExpress, EmEditor and other statistical software to collect and analyze corpus. However, this research is carried out from the perspective of critical discourse analysis and solid evidence will be provided as much as possible. --[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui

===Key words===

Critical Discourse Analysis; Government Work Report,;Ideology

===摘要===

意识形态与翻译研究一直在翻译研究领域受到学者关注。今天，以语料库和批评话语分析结合的实证研究方法更是为此方面的研究提供了更直观、更有考证依据的论据支撑。本文将批评性话语分析与翻译研究结合起来，重点探讨了意识形态对《政府工作报告》翻译的操控作用。但受限于时间和能力，笔者未能建立起自己的语料库，利用科学的统计软件如SPSS、CiteSpace、NoteExpress、EmEditor等进行语料收集和分析。本文将仅从批评话语分析视角进行研究，并尽可能地提供足够的实证。

===关键词===

批评话语分析；政府工作报告；意识形态

===1. Introduction===

====1.1 The Interpretation of Ideology====

The meaning of ideology is multiple.A lot of people have tried to explain it.As mentioned by L.Althusser in Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses, "Ideology equals Illusion/Hint, (L.Althusser, Lenin and Philosophy, London: Monthly Review Press, 1971, p.162) meaning that the essence of the reality could be cracked by following the hint of illusion."

"Kress and Hodge define ideology by depicting the ideological properties of language. They argue that ideology is a systematic body of thought organized in a particular point of view" (Kress & Hodge, 1979: 6). While they lay stress on the relation between language and ideology, Fowler defines ideology as "something neutral"which refers to the general view and ideas of how people understand the world and their experiences and how they organize their lives. He adds that "these implicit beliefs constitute 'common sense' and provide the normative basis for discourse" (Fowler, 1996: 10-11).

However, according to Fairclough, "ideology is the result of power relations and power struggles " that are "implicit in the conventions with which people interact linguistically and of which they are often unaware" (Fairclough , 1989: 2).

"Furthermore, VanDijk (1993) expands the definition of "ideology", which includes three main elements, which are society, cognition and discourse. Among them, society refers to powerful relations and the interests of certain groups, cognition is in relation to beliefs and values in life, and discourse deals with the relationship between language use and ideology, involving concealment and manipulation. It is clear from the above description that critical discourse analysts disagree on the scope of ideology,but they still share a common rationale in the relationship between language and ideology. Ideology uses language as a vehicle to express itself, and language as a return reflects hides or constructs ideology."(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22)

"Rhetorically, ideology achieves its natural status through the mutual interference between denotation and connotation. If denotation equals the first meaning, connotation is the second implication. However, the signifier of connotation (the second implication) is denotation. Hence, a complete sentence can embody the ideology." (Tu Youxiang, Rhetoric and Ideology, Page 15)

"In S/Z, Roland Barthes divided articles into Articles Inspiring People to Write and Articles, Attracting People to Read, and then made corresponding assessment. "Yet, the fundamental evaluation on articles could neither be carried out from the perspective of sciences because sciences were not applied for measurement, nor derive from ideology because an article's ideological value (involving morality, aesthetics, politics and truth) is a kind of value of representation rather than value of production (ideology is “Reflection” rather than Creation)." (Tu Youxiang, Rhetoric and Ideology, Page 16)

"Barthes and Nietzsche held that the subject is a kind of fiction. Through this kind of fiction, ideology can naturally come and hide. Language structure and ideological structure penetrate each other and establish a seamlessly intimate relationship. 'The role of a complete sentence is to push the story forward while explanatory codes act in contravention, cut off, interrupt and suspend the sentence and delay the disclosure of truth. Seemingly, explanatory codes curb the natural extension of sentence, but the sentence's effective composition is enhanced to play a stronger part. Nevertheless, the truth (predicate and object) is the completer and terminator and appears to terminate the narration (sentence).' From the perspective of sentence patterns, diverse and complicated narrations are exactly the embodiment of ideology. Also, continuous innovation of narration modes can be regarded as a breakthrough from the conventionalized ideology (pushing the limit and recognizing the generation)." (Tu Youxiang, Rhetoric and Ideology, Page 17)

====1.2 Ideology and Translation Studies====

=====1.2.1 Brief Introduction of Development Process of Ideology and Translation Studies=====

"In 1980s and 1990s, as the emergence of Manipulation School and the "Cultural Turn" of translation studies, scholars began to pay attention to the role played by ideology and other factors beyond the text in manipulating translation. From the publishing of The Manipulation of Literature (Hermans,1985), a work making the Manipulation School known to the world (Lefevere et. al. first pointed out that translation as a kind of rewriting would be restricted by the target language ideology and poetics rules),contemporary ideology and translation studies have developed a history of about 40 years. In two decades (from 1985 to 2005), many western and Chinese scholars published their works on this research subject, including Lefevere,1992, Hermans, 1999, Benjamin, 2004, Wang Xiaoyuan (1999), Yang Liu (2001), Sun Yifeng (2003), Zha Jianming (2004) and Fang Kaiduan (2005) etc..." (Wang Dongfeng,Ideology and the Study of Translation,p.71)

"In the aspect of theoretical innovation, Lefevere, a representative figure of western manipulation school, first put forward the idea of 'Translation is a rewriting' (Hermans, 1985) and then elaborated 'Two Key Elements' influencing translations: Ideology (External Mechanism) and Poetics (Internal Mechanism). He further held that as the sponsor controlled ideology, professionals manipulated poetics (Lefevere, 1992a:14-15)." (Wang Dongfeng,Ideology and the Study of Translation,p.72

"Venuti, a structuralist, defined translation as the initiative restructuring of foreign text so as to reflect the difference between the target language and the original language in ideology, culture, language and politics. In the meantime, he appealed that translators should adopt the resistant translation strategy and translate by means of foreignization." (Venuti, 1992: 10-14)''(Wang Dongfeng,Ideology and the Study of Translation,p.72)

"Bassnett, another supporter of Manipulation School, indicated that restrained by ideology and certain cultural factors, original text sometimes was presented to readers in the form of translated version. Such translation could be pseudo-translation, and “collusion” existed between the author/translator and readers (Lefevere&Bassnett, 1998: 25-40)."(Wang Dongfeng,Ideology and the Study of Translation,p.72)

=====1.2.2 Government Work Report Translation’s Requirements and Limitations on Ideological Expression=====

Government Work Report is the most representative literary form in the international publicity translation. In essence, it possesses distinctive political characteristics and sets extremely high requirements on translation language proficiency. Government Work Report (hereinafter refer to as GWR), as a typical political text, is mainly applied to summarize works completed last year and emphasize the next year's tasks, which can intensively reflect the government's priority of work during a certain period. As the institutional discourse, GWR largely reflects the then ideology and social development track. Since English Version of GWR serves as an important approach for the world to know China's situation, the translation of GWR plays a vital role. In this paper, critical discourse analysis is combined with translation studies to emphatically discuss the role of ideology in manipulating the GWR translation.

==== 1.3 The Definition of Critical Discourse Analysis and Its Current Research and Application====

"Originating from critical linguistics, Critical Discourse Analysis (hereinafter referred to as CDA) has absorbed many disciplines'research results including linguistics, sociology and psychology and achieved a development at the end of 1970s, aiming at revealing the hidden ideology by analyzing the linguistic form and exploring the relationship between language/ideology and rights." (Fowler R., E. Hodge., E． Kress., Trew T. Language and control［M]., London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1979.)

CDA has been widely applied to study the meaning of ideology in mass media discourse such as advertising, news report, political oration, official documents and laws and regulations, which has laid a foundation for this research. Besides, the impact of ideology is a main issue in GWRs translation and involves two different languages and ideologies, which proves the availability of CDA in GWR translation. In this paper, the author has compared and at the same time analyzed the English Version and Chinese Version of GWR from the perspective of CDA, and further discussed the relationship between ideology and translation.

In recent two decades, more and more foreign scholars have applied the corpora technology to CDA and corresponding research content mainly involves the following four aspects:
First is News Media Discourse Studies: For example, Baker and McEnery adopted the corpora method to analyze the British media's role in the refugee discourse construction and further investigated characteristics of British newspapers in reporting Muslim and Islam. Through making a comparison between English newspapers and French newspapers in Canada, Vessey analyzed and elaborated the ideology and national identity in different languages.-

The Second is Political Discourse and War Discourse Studies. For example, Partington surveyed President Clinton’s assistants and wolf pack press corps in the white house during his early ruling. Jeffries & Walker revealed the ideological characteristics during the new labour period through analyzing key words of newspapers during Blair’s period. Similarly, through analyzing CNN, News Week and New York Times, Kim researched American Media’s discourse practice on the North Korea’s image. Bevitori conducted a diachronic study on presidential speeches and analyzed the discourse construction of presidential speeches. Salama researched the phenomena of American media’s context restructuring of Wahabee Religion before and after “9·11”, reflecting the changes in attitude.

The Third is Legal Discourse Studies. Potts and Kjur (2016) established their own corpora and analyzed the legal discourse construction made by the International Criminal Court of Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.

The Fourth is Climatic Discourse Studies. Nerlichet al. (2012) conducted a contrastive analysis of climatic discourse in The Times and Time and further probed into similarities and differences between British climate reports and American climate reports.'' (Kang Jiaping, Jiang Zhanhao, Study on the Ideology of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Corpora and Critical Discourse Analysis, Journal of Heilongjiang College of Education, March 2020, P123)

This paper has chosen the English Version and Chinese Version of 2020 Government Work Report issued by Premier Li Keqiang as the research object and made a comparative analysis of GWRs and corresponding translated versions in the aspect of Classification, Mode and Conversion so as to conclude answers for the following questions:
1. Compared with the original text, which are changes in Classification, Mode and Conversion in the translated text?
2. From the perspective of CDA, what has triggered these changes? How can translators explain GWR from the perspective of CDA? As the relationship between ideology and translation is the research priority, answers to the following questions will be self-evident:
1) How does ideology control the translation process of GWRS?
2) Why are some parts of the original text altered and translated in another way?

===2.Critical Discourse Analysis===

==== 2.1 Classification====

"According to the CDA, for the variations of 'categories' in GWRs translation, the addressers intentionally or unintentionally incorporate their ideology into discourse at all levels of linguistic form, including lexical choice. A comparative analysis of the 'categories' in GWRs and their translations reveals the variations of 'categories', and the author will explain them from an ideological point of view.'(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22)

Example (1): The same one Chinese character "发展" in the Chinese version of GWR is translated differently in English. Different words denote different ideological meanings. A basic reason for this is that "发展" can be used as both a noun and a verb in Chinese. Therefore, there are different words used in English for a Chinese character with different parts of speech.

For example, when used as a noun:
a). 优化民营经济发展环境——We will foster an enabling environment for the development of the private sector.

b).推动制造业升级和新兴产业发展。——We will encourage the upgrading of manufacturing and the growth of emerging industries.

When used as a verb:
a).发展工业互联网——We will promote the industrial Internet

b).发展社会研发机构——develop private R&D institutions

c).发展创业投资——We will support the growth of venture capital investment

In the three examples of the verb, "promote" means "to advance", while "support" means "to back up and give aid to". In these two examples, both "promote" and "support the growth" signify assisting, weakening the role and status of the government in economic development, in a bid to express the idea that "support the free development of the market, and the government will also take the initiative "to provide assistance". In the second example, in "develop private R&D institutions", the word "develop" is used to express a strong subjective initiative, which indicates that the state or the government will play a dominant role in the establishment and development of private R&D institutions, implying the national conditions and ideology of China.

(2) "In the GWR translation, different lexical choices reveal different ideological meanings of the source, which is achieved due to the translators' accurate understanding of the source ideology."(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p.22) Such translation makes it easier for foreign readers to understand the context and policies of China.

For example, "四风" in the source is translated as "formalities for formalities'sake, bureaucratism, hedonism, and extravagance"."四风" is a policy related to rectifying the discipline of Party members and cadres, but foreign readers do not know if it is translated literally. Therefore, a specific description is required so as to take care of foreign readers in a better way. It is obvious that a general character in Chinese is translated into a specific illustration in English.

However, the translation technique for "四风" is not an one-off. For other expressions, such as the translation for “放管服”改革——reforms to streamline administration and delegate power, improve regulation, and upgrade services.

The translators changes the choice of words out of consideration for the ideology of the readers, in a bid to take into account the ideological differences between the source readers and the target readers of the paper.

(3) The English version of 促进祖国和平统一: The word "统一" in 促进统一（2020年） is translated as "reunification" in English. As we all know, the Chinese character "统一" means unification in English, but in this case, the prefix "re-" is added to it. According to Longman's Dictionary of Contemporary English, "re-" means "again" and the word “unification” with a prefix "re-" means "back to the previous country". Thus, the Chinese character "统一" here refers to reunite to the previous country. The purposeful addition of "re-" implies a different ideological meaning.

For the Chinese people, there is no doubt that Taiwan has always been a part of China, even though it has been separated from the motherland for historical reasons and has not yet returned. However, since foreign readers may not know the history of China, and some Western countries even consider Taiwan as an "independent country," a word-for-word translation may lead to misunderstandings, so "reunification" is employed to emphasize the fact that Taiwan and the motherland belong to one China. In this case, the variation of lexical choice is explained in different socio-historical contexts of the source and the translated text.

(4)“提高城乡居民基础养老金最低标准 ” is translated as We will increase the minimum basic old-age pension for rural and non-working urban residents.”

The Chinese phrase “城乡居民” in this context is translated as "rural and non-working urban residents "

And “将参保不足 1 年的农民工等失业人员都纳入常住地保障” is translated as “We will see that rural migrant workers and others out of work who are in the scheme less than a year are covered in the locality where they are living. ”

“农民工” is translated as “rural migrant workers”.

Through the change in lexical choice, the target reader can acquire the information more easily than through word-by-word translation. This case demonstrates that the variation of lexical choice in translated texts is vital for illustrating their meaning.

Above all are critical analysis of the variations in lexical choice which reveals the ideological impact on lexical choice in GWRS translation, despite the fact that some variations may occur due to Chinese-English language diversity. For example, some different lexical choices disclose different ideological meanings of the source text, some variations indicate ideological considerations for the target readers, while other variations may expose the influence of different historical contexts between China and Western countries.

==== 2.2 Mode====

=====2.2.1 Modal verbs=====

"Modal verbs and personal pronouns are bound up with an addressor's or writer's attitude and ideological implication in the discourse and will be used to analyze the potential ideological implications in the GWRS and their translation. As a direct grammatical means of representing "mood", modal verbs often denote a specific and important interpersonal meaning in discourse.In English modal verbs, such as "can, could, may, might, must, will, shall, should, need to, ought to", imply different meanings and degrees of ability, probability, willingness and obligation. Modal verbs also exist in Chinese to convey the attitude of the addressor or writer.

Zhang Guanming counted 25 modal auxiliary verbs in Chinese, including “能，可以，会，可能，得，敢，肯，愿意，情愿，乐意，想，要，应，应该，应当，该，值得，配，别，甭，好，一定，得，必须".

Different modal verbs express different degrees of attitude and implication to the addressor or writer. Therefore, an analysis of the use of modal verbs helps us perceive the meaning of the addressor or writer.''(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22)

A).我们要更加紧密地团结在以习近平同志为核心的党中央周围，——We must rally more closely around the Party Central Committee with Comrade Xi Jinping at its core.

B)各国应携手共进。——all countries should work together

C)中国坚定不移走和平发展道路——China will continue to pursue peaceful development,

D)各级政府必须真正过紧日子——Governments at all levels must truly tighten their belt.

E)出台的政策既保持力度又考虑可持续性，根据形势变化还可完善——the policies we adopt should be both forceful and sustainable, and they may be adjusted as called for.

F)我们一定能开创民族复兴的美好未来。——With these efforts, we can surely create a beautiful future for the rejuvenation of the Chinese nation.

G)创新直达实体经济的货币政策工具——As we work to develop new monetary policy instruments that can directly stimulate the real economy.

H)要用改革开放办法，稳就业、保民生、促消费，拉动市场、稳定增长,——We need to pursue reform and opening up as a means to stabilize employment, ensure people's well-being, stimulate consumption, energize the market, and achieve stable growth.

I）走出一条有效应对冲击、实现良性循环的新路子。——We need to blaze a new path that enables us to respond effectively to shocks and sustain a positive growth cycle.

As can be seen in Example A, the translation uses the modal verb "must" to show the central government's resolute attitude toward adhering to Xi Jinping's leadership, as well as a strong call and implication to the people. It reflects the ideology and collectivist spirit of showing loyalty to the paramount leader of the CPC Central Committee that is unique to China.
The use of "must" in Example D also demonstrates the Chinese government is demanding in implementing initiatives for combating corruption and building a clean government.

As can be seen in Example B, the translation uses the modal verb "should". It shows a tone of hope and appeal, which is a weaker tone of suggestion rather than a demanding tone of command as that in Example A. It expresses the wish of the Chinese government represented by the addressor.
The translation of Example C uses the modal verb "will", which expresses a firm determination and the action to be taken, indicating the Chinese government's impregnable belief in the peaceful rise of China.

Example E employs the modal verbs "should" and "may" in a slightly weaker tone, because the context of economic and social development under the epidemic prevention and control is mentioned in the preceding sentence. Alongside that, since specific local policies for epidemic prevention and control and economic recovery are set by local governments individually, the central government uses a suggestive tone here.

Examples F and G both use “can”, indicating a possible situation and a capability of achieving the goal.
Example H uses the modal verb “need to”, conveying an urgent need, a call for urgency.

Modal verb variations can also be manifested in being added to the source text. For example, in "I", the source text does not use the modal verb, but the subject "we" and the modal verb "need to" are added to the question, and the modal verb here also expresses the urgent desire to achieve the goal mentioned in the source sentence.

The different use of modal verbs may also imply different attitudes toward these policies. The social contexts in which they are produced and interpreted may provide some clues to the variation and change of modal verbs. Both the author and the translators are close to the Chinese, so that the modal meaning expressed in the Chinese version can be agreed with the readers.

However, due to the distance from the foreign readers and their receptivity, the translators chose different expressions with less initiative and more objectivity. But in general, in the choice of modal verbs, the translators mainly chose auxiliary verbs that can convey the attitude of the source text, from which the ideology of their own side can be better interpreted, and taking care of the ideology of foreign readers is a secondary consideration.

=====2.2.2 Personal pronouns=====

"The use of personal pronouns is another way to show modal meaning. According to systematic functional grammar, personal pronouns have interpersonal and attitudinal functions in addition to their cohesion functions. Generally speaking, the choice of personal pronouns is influenced by concerns including power relations, social status, and the degree of intimacy between the participants involved in the communication. Different choices of personal pronouns reveal different attitudes of the speaker or writer toward the target audience or reader."

"From the perspective of critical discourse analysis, personal pronouns are not used in a random way, but are linked to certain ideological meanings. For example, the use of certain personal pronouns may have a certain political effect and produce a specific relationship between the addressor and the listener. This paper focuses on the analysis of the personal pronouns GWR and their translation from the viewpoint of critical discourse analysis, as a way to perceive the attitude and interpersonal meanings that the addressors or writers are trying to convey." (Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p.22)

（1）Translated Personal Pronouns ：

A).我们要坚持对台工作大政方针——We will adhere to the major principles and policies on work related to Taiwan

B).我们要全面准确贯彻“一国两制”、“港人治港”、“澳人治澳”、高度自治的方针——We will fully and faithfully implement the policy of One Country, Two Systems, under which the people of Hong Kong govern Hong Kong and the people of Macao govern Macao, with a high degree of autonomy for both regions.

（2）Added Personal Pronouns：

A).支持港澳发展经济——We will support Hong Kong and Macao in growing their economies,

B).完善促进两岸交流合作、深化两岸融合发展、保障台湾同胞福祉的制度安排和政策措施——We will improve institutional arrangements, policies, and measures to encourage exchanges and cooperation between the two sides of the Taiwan Strait, further cross-Strait integrated development, and protect the wellbeing of our fellow compatriots in Taiwan.

C).需要说明的是，我们没有提出全年经济增速具体目标——I would like to point out that we have not set a specific target for economic growth this year.

D).加强监管，防止资金“空转”套利。——We should tighten regulation and prevent funds from simply circulating in the financial sector for the sake of arbitrage.

E）为把我国建设成为富强民主文明和谐美丽的社会主义现代化强国、实现中华民族伟大复兴的中国梦不懈奋斗！——Let all of us work together with perseverance to build China into a great modern socialist country that is prosperous, strong, democratic, culturally advanced, harmonious, and beautiful, and realize the Chinese Dream of national rejuvenation.

According to statistics, there are 308 "we" in the English translation. From the above examples, we can see that most of the personal pronouns "we" are used by the technique of amplification, including other personal pronouns "I", "all of us", etc. This is because in the Chinese version which is the source, there are mostly impersonal subjects, noun subjects, or imperative sentences that denote calls or orders. However, in English, except for the imperative sentences where the personal pronoun subject can be missing, generally it can not be omitted in any other cases.

"Under most circumstances, 'we' is the top priority in translation, because in political reports, the use of 'we' is more authoritative than 'I'. This usage is called 'loyal we'."(A Study of the Ideology of the <Government Work Report> under the Visual Threshold of Corpus and Critical Discourse Analysis, Kang Jiaping and Jiang Zhanyao, Journal of Heilongjiang Teachers' Development Institute, March 2020, p. 126) The Reports represents the Central People's Government, which is itself "authoritative". The "we" in the translation also naturally reflects "authority" correspondingly.

Secondly, most of the actions in the government work report are issued by the Chinese government, and the use of "we" also reflects the collectivist spirit of unified action of the government from top to bottom. Thirdly, although the Chinese government is the originator of most of the actions in the report, sometimes different departments are responsible for the implementation of specific measures; therefore, the use of "we" instead of "Chinese government" or "so-and-so department" is also slightly more colloquial and approachable, which makes it easier for domestic readers to immerse themselves in devoting into the construction of economic and social development. For foreign readers, "we" is also more easily accepted. Therefore, the translators also took into account the social and ideological significance of the language forms used when translating the Reports.

==== 2.3 Conversion====

"Traditionally, 'transformation' refers to the change of different grammatical structures, but in CDA, the meaning of 'transformation' should be interpreted in terms of discourse, context and purpose." (Fowler, 1991: 90-91). This suggests that critical discourse analysis values the change of ideological meaning and the influence of context and purpose on "transformation". Therefore, "transformation" can be applied to translation studies to investigate the ideological impact of translation by analyzing the changes of "transformation" between the source language and the translated one.

In the analysis of "transformation" in GWR and its translation process, nominalization and inactivation are used to disclose the ideological changes in translation. Nominalization refers to the process of converting verb structures into nouns or noun phrases. According to Fairclough (1995), this lack of mood, time, and participants caused by nominalization is considered ideologically significant because it obscures the reader's causality and responsibility, so that the addressor's or writer's attitude and perception of certain events is not yet clear.

Inactivation is the transformation of active voice into passive one in which the relevant participants are removed for most of the time, making causality unclear. Thus, by using inactivation, discourse can become more objective and less subjective, leaving a different impression on the reader and thus expressing different ideological meanings. More importantly, inactivation also has functions as thematization, in which the object is placed at the beginning of the sentence as a subject. In this way, by emphasizing the object and hiding the agent, the ideological purpose of shifting the reader's focus and hiding the cause-and-effect relationship is achieved.

For example:

=====2.3.1 Nominalization=====

A)传统产业加快升级。——upgrading in traditional industries accelerated.

B)受全球疫情冲击，世界经济严重衰退，——The shock of the Covid-19 pandemic has sent the world economy into severe recession,

C)金融等领域风险有所积聚——There are increasing risks in the financial sector and other areas.

D)政府工作存在不足——There is still room for improvement in the work of government.

It can be seen from the above examples that in the original Chinese text, the subject and predicate in the four examples are very prominent. However, in the translation, nominalization is done, which emphasizes the emphasis of the original text.
For example, in A), "upgrade" is a verb and serves as a predicate; but in the translation, upgrading is nominalized and used as the subject, and its status is more prominent than in the original.

In B), "Affected by the global epidemic" was originally used as an adverbial of cause, but it was nominalized as the subject in the question, highlighting the direct impact of the epidemic on the world economic recession, and its status is higher than that of the adverbial in the original text.

C) The key word in the original text can be "risk accumulation", but because the adverbial term "finance and other fields" is in front, its position is weakened; and the sentence pattern "There be" is used in the translation, and the subject is nominalized as " The whole sentence of "increasing risks" is highlighted.

D) The full expression of the original text should be "In the government work, there are deficiencies." The implied meaning is "I should improve and upgrade the government work." The translation directly points out the implied meaning, straightforward and straightforward, and the subject is treated as " "room for improvement" is also used in the sentence pattern "There be", and the points that the original text wants to emphasize are highlighted.

It can be seen that the processing of English translation is more flexible, and it also takes into account the ideology of foreign readers, that is, they prefer concise and direct expression, while the expression of domestic readers is more subtle and prefer verbs.

=====2.3.2 Active to passive=====

A).城镇新增就业 1352 万人——Around 13.52 million new urban jobs were added.

B).国际收支基本平衡。——A basic equilibrium was maintained in the balance of payments.

C)..重大区域战略深入实施。——progress was made in implementing major development strategies for regions.

D).改革开放迈出重要步伐。——Major headway was made in reform and opening up.

E).供给侧结构性改革继续深化，—— Supply-side structural reform was further advanced.

F).重要领域改革取得新突破。——and breakthroughs in reform were made in key areas.

In the first part of the report, in the review of the work and achievements in 2019, a large number of passive voice translation methods are used to highlight the achievements since 2019 and weaken the reporter and the government as these achievements The presence of the promoter of In fact, in the Chinese context, the above example is also a kind of "active expression passive" sentence structure, which is more concise and more focused.

===3.Conclusion===

From the perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis, this article conducts a superficial and tentative analysis of the ideological influence reflected in the Chinese-English translation of the 2020 government work report.The analysis found that,

(1) in terms of classification,
a) the translation will choose different corresponding words in English depending on the situation for the same word in the original text. And this is because in English I like to use different words to show the richness and diversity of the words of the article, while in Chinese I like to use the same word to rhyme and compare to show momentum.
b) In the process of translation, the translation will be selectively interpreted, that is, supplementary translation of some conventional abbreviations in the original text, so that foreign readers can better understand.
c) Some specific words will be translated asymmetrically in the translation to reflect their own ideology. For example, the "reunification of the motherland" on the Taiwan issue is translated as "reunification" because China wants to convey to the world the principle that "the Taiwan issue is China's internal affair."

(2) In terms of modal
a) The translation will choose different modal verbs according to the content and attitude of the original text. The choice of these different modal verbs expresses the different requirements and soft and hard attitudes of the Chinese government in various fields such as domestic economic development, epidemic prevention and control, motherland reunification, social problem resolution, diplomacy, and international issues, thus reflecting the Chinese government's ideology.
b) There are a large number of additional translations of personal pronouns in the translation, and most of them have chosen the plural of the first personal pronoun "we". It shows the collectivism that the Chinese government is accustomed to, and God is also caring for foreign ideologies.

(3) In terms of conversion, there are many nominalizations and active-to-passive translations in the translation. These two kinds of translation processes make the key points to be emphasized in the original text more directly highlighted in the translation, and at the same time respect the expression habits of English, which are also caring for foreign ideologies.

In general, the translation of the 2020 government work report more reflects China's own ideology. The reason is also obvious.
First, this is China's government work report, which also determines that the translation must reflect China's ideology.
Second, the government work report is made at the two sessions each year. It is mainly a summary of the work of the past year and planning for the work of the next year. It is mainly for the domestic people, so it naturally has a strong Chinese ideology;
but The translation is of course aimed at foreign readers, so translation processing will also show reasonable concern about foreign ideology and expression habits. As a political report, he must have a more obvious political ideology than other styles, which is inevitable in every country. Finally, the richness and variability of vocabulary in the translation of the 2020 government work report is still not as good as the report of the native English-speaking countries, which can be improved.

===4.Limitations===

====4.1 Insufficient data support====

In this paper, a comparative analysis is conducted solely on the two versions of the government work report in English and Chinese in 2020. Firstly, the evidence is insufficient in the part of applied critical discourse analysis, which should be done to the best of its ability.

The author envisage to use data analysis software such as SPSS and CiteSpace to conduct a translation comparative analysis for the Chinese and English versions of the government work report for a total of 8 years since President Xi Jinping took office in 2013, and an analysis of ideological diachrony. By analyzing the change of top 10 high-frequency keywords in the reports over the past 8 years, we can take a glimpse of the socio-economic development of China and the shift of the government's focus during this period. By analyzing the changes in the choice and frequency of personal pronouns and modal verbs used in the reports over the years, and by analyzing the frequency of nominalization and inactivation in the translation of sentences, we can see the changes in the ideology of the translators and the Chinese government they represent when translating the reports.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui

However, since it is a need to use corpus construction software, such as EmEditor, to collect the corpus and classify and denoise the data before doing data analysis, it is not a task that can be accomplished at a stroke; only then is the analysis done with analysis software such as SPSS and CiteSpace. However, the author has a strong interest in this research method, and will make further efforts.

====4.2 Insufficient theoretical support====

The author does not have a deep understanding of critical discourse analysis, nor does he/she expound the Introduction clearly. Her understanding of the specific analysis methods is also shallow, so she cannot do a comprehensive and accurate analysis in the Analysis section of the paper.
Second, the author’s understanding of ideology is fuzzy. Therefore, in the latter part of the analysis, when it is necessary to return to the study of ideology at the end, she is unable to conduct the analysis in a precise way.

===5.Bibliography===

[1].《意识形态与翻译研究》，王东风，中山大学出版社，2006年12月

[2].《修辞学与意识形态》，屠有祥，人民出版社，2013年3月

[3].《外宣翻译导论》，张健，国防工业出版社，2013年12月

[4].《语料库和批评话语分析视阈下的<政府工作报告>意识形态研究》,康佳萍、姜占好，黑龙江教师发展学院学报，2020年3月

[5].《基于CiteSpace的外交翻译暨外交话语研究的可视化分析(2000—2018)》，牛文惠、刘磊，黑河学院学报，2020年第二期

[6].《国内翻译意识形态研究（1998-2018）——基于NoteExpress的可视化分析》，李志阳，2020年第二期

[7].《翻译对意识形态的创构———以宇文所安《文心雕龙》英译本为例》，胡作友、张丁慧，外语学刊，2020年第四期

[8].《批评性话语分析视角下的政府工作报告英译研究》，高媛，2016年

[9].《从翻译操纵理论看2015年政府工作报告英译》，王海云、李慧慧，现代交际，2016年第五期

[10].《论译者对政治文本的操控——以2009年政府工作报告为例》，徐静怡、陈思，2009年12月

--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 18:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Translation Strategies from Contrastive English-Chinese Studies and Chinese-English Translation and Interpretation Based on the Principle of “Faithfulness, Comprehensibility and Elegance” 聂晓楼 Nie Xiaolou 202020080628==

<center>聂晓楼 Nie Xiaolou 202020080628</center>

===Abstract===

English and Chinese belongs to two different language families. While the former belongs to Indo-European language family, the latter belongs to Sino-Tibetan language family. Therefore, they differ in many aspects--type, psychology, aesthetic, culture, rhetorical devices, syntactic pattern, lexical meaning, discourse organization, semantic structure, pragmatic structure, textual structure, textual cohesive devices and so on. Taking the English translations of Chinese essays by Zhang Peiji for example, this paper, based on the principle of “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”, studies the differences between English and Chinese in terms of psychology, aesthetics, textual structure, textual cohesive devices etc, and further provides appropriate translation strategies for Chinese-English translation. Readers can improve their translating ability after the acquisition of the knowledge of the differences between the two languages and corresponding translation strategies.

===Key words===

English; Chinese; “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”

===摘要===

英语属于印欧语系（Indo-European），汉语属于汉藏语系（Sino-Tibetan）。英汉两种语言在语言类型、语言心理、语言审美、文化、修辞、句法结构、词汇语义、话语组织、语义、语用、语篇结构以及语篇衔接手段等方面都存在差异。本文以张培基英译散文为例，以“信、达、雅”原则为指导，从英汉语言心理、英汉语言审美、英汉语篇结构、英汉语篇衔接手段等方面对比英语同汉语的不同之处，并提供相应的翻译策略。读者通过了解英汉两种语言在各方面的差异，并学习相应翻译策略，能够提高汉英翻译水平。

===关键词===

英语;汉语;“信、达、雅”

===1. Introduction===

Essay is a flexible and casual literary form, free from the restrictions of rhythm of poetry, plot of novel, and act and scene of drama. This paper focuses on English and Chinese essays. Based on Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”, the paper makes an analysis of the original and translated texts selected from Zhang Peij’s English translations of Chinese essays and the original texts, and studies the differences between English and Chinese in terms of psychology, aesthetics, textual structure, textual cohesive devices etc, and therefore sums up a variety of translation strategies and methods for Chinese-English translation.

===2. “Faithfulness, Comprehensibility and Elegance”===

“Faithfulness, comprehensibility and Elegance” is a translation principle put forward by YanFu in his work ''Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays''. He stated that “Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness (xin), comprehensibility (da) and elegance (ya). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not comprehensible is no translation at all. Comprehensibility is therefore of prime importance” (Chan 2004: 69). “In addition to faithfulness and comprehensibility, we should strive for elegance in translation.” (ibid: 70)

This paper, based on the translation principle “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”, compares English and Chinese through the analysis of some texts selected from Zhang Peiji’s English translations of Chinese essays and the original texts.

===3. Comparison of English and Chinese===

A major difference between English and Chinese is that English is a hypotactic language while Chinese an paratactic language, which from the perspective of philosophy means that English people’s way of thinking is of rationality while Chinese people’s way of thinking is of wuxing (Pan 1997: 361). Rationality in English language means that English sentences emphasize overt morphology and the integrity of form, so we call English a morphological language. Instead, Chinese sentences do not have many hypotactic markers. Therefore, the meaning of Chinese sentences can only be understood through wuxing, in other words, intuition, thus we often call Chinese people’s way of thinking intuitive thinking (Liu 1992: 326).

The inflected forms in modern English mainly include conjugation, declension, and affixation. However, there is no inflected forms in Chinese language and the grammatical meaning of Chinese sentences is expressed through the use of words, the arrangement of word order, the implied meaning etc.(连淑能, 1993: 4) Therefore, when translating Chinese into English, we are supposed to exhibit the implicit grammatical relation in the original texts through hypotactic markers. For example:

Example 1:其中有些人是因为年事已高，力不从心。这不是艺术的死亡，而是艺术的离体，他自己无可自责，社会也会尊重他在艺术上曾经作出的贡献(Zhang 2007: 289)。
Some writers lay down their pens because they are too old to be equal to the task. We call it retirement from art rather than death of art. They have nothing to blame themselves for. And society at large will pay tribute to the contributions they have already made to art (Zhang 2007: 291).

The expression “有些人” in the first sentence is plural, which includes both men and women. While the word “他” in the second sentence is single, only including men. Actually, “有些人” and “他” in the original text refer to the same concept but they differ in number and gender. When translating the original sentences into English, we have to take the harmony of form into consideration.

Due to the difference in inflection between English and Chinese, Mr. Zhang translated “他” into “They” to be in agreement with the subject “they” in the first sentence, which characterizes hypotaxis in English language. Though it seems that the translation is not faithful to the original text, the former actually expresses what the latter means. That is to say, the translation is comprehensible to the target reader.

There is no inflected forms in Chinese while English is rich in inflected form. Therefore, when translating Chinese into English, translators are supposed to keep the consistency of gender, number, case, tense, style, voice, mood, comparatives, and person, etc. within the context, and to use the inflected forms in English to express the conceptual and grammatical meaning in the original Chinese text.

Chinese pays attention to subjective narration, while English gives consideration to both subjective and objective description and tends to objective description. Taking root in the psychology of Chinese people, the long standing thematic thinking always subtly reflects Chinese people’s consciousness of “everything exists for me”.

Take the Chinese sentence “作业不写了” as an example. It is a human being rather than “作业”（"homework" in English） who performs the action “写”("writing" in English). That is to say, the subject should be a human being, which reflects Chinese people’s subject consciousness--Chinese speakers always discuss a topic which they make comments on. Since the agent in sentences with a “topic-comment” structure is self-explanatory, it is always deleted in a Chinese sentence. This well characterizes Chinese sentences as loose.

English language, where the subject is given priority to, has a strict “subject-predicate” structure which is highly grammaticalized. However, the topic rather than the subject is given priority to in a Chinese sentence. It may not be in agreement with the subject since it is more grammaticalized than the latter. Therefore, the “topic-comment” structures in Chinese sentences should be translated into “subject-predicate” structures in English when we do Chinese-English translation.

Example 2:页数不多的往往立刻通读，篇幅大的，只把正文任择一二章节略加翻阅，就插在书架上。(Zhang 2007: 26)
If it happens to be a thin one, I often finish reading it at one sitting. Otherwise, I often browse through one or two chapters or sections before putting it onto my bookshelf. (Zhang 2007: 28)

There are two “topic-comment” structures with the form of a clause in this example. In a “topic-comment” structure with the form of a clause, the meaning of the topic and that of the comment show a logical relation between two clauses. A “topic-comment” structure with the form of a clause has a close relationship with conditional clauses, and in this example conditional clauses serve as topics. The logical relation in this example is: If..., ... Otherwise..., ... The conditional relation should be translated in the corresponding English sentence with the addition of conjunctions between the original clauses in the process of Chinese-English translation.

Example 3:线装书大概用笔加圈，洋装书竟用红铅笔划粗粗的线。(Zhang 2007: 27)
If it is a threadbound Chinese book, I use a writing brush to draw small circles as markings. Otherwise, I use a red pencil to draw heavy underlines. (Zhang 2007: 29)

There are also two “topic-comment” structures with the form of a clause in this example. Therefore, Mr. Zhang added the two conjunctions “if” and “Otherwise” to show the logical relation in the original sentences.

Impersonal subjects always appear in English sentences, while personal subjects are used more frequently in Chinese sentences.

Example 4:买到了几册新书，一册一册地加盖藏书印记，我最感到快悦的是这时候。(Zhang 2007: 26)
Whenever I have some new acquisitions, it always gives me great pleasure and satisfaction to stamp my ex-libris on them one by one. (Zhang 2007: 28)

It is obvious that the subject of the original sentence “我最感到快悦的是这时候”（"it always gives me great pleasure and satisfaction to..."） is “I” ("我" in Chinese), which refers to the author. However, Mr. Zhang translates this sentence as “it always gives me great pleasure and satisfaction to...”, where the personal subject “I” is transformed into the impersonal subject “it”, according with English natural expressions.

Example 5:这种死亡他自己感到很痛苦，别人看了心里也很难受。(Zhang 2007: 289)
This kind of death causes not only much pain to the writer himself, but much sadness to other people as well. (Zhang 2007: 291)
much sadness to other people
In this example, “这种死亡”（"This kind of death" in English） serves as the topic and “他自己感到很痛苦”（"causes... much pain to the writer himself" in English) as well as “别人看了心里也很难受”（"much sadness to other people" in English） serve as comments. Since the two comments take sentence as its form, they have separately “他” and “别人” as the subject. However, in the English translation by Mr. Zhang, “This kind of death” ("这种死亡" in Chinese) serves as the subject with “他” and “别人” transforming into objects, which shows the tendency to use impersonal subjects in English sentences. The translation is not only faithful to the source text but also comprehensible.

Chinese people’s subject consciousness brings about the tendency to use personal subjects. Instead, English people’s object consciousness explains why impersonal subjects are used frequently in English sentences. Therefore, when doing Chinese-English translation, we can transform personal subject into impersonal subject. That is to say, the subject can be abstract nouns, inanimate things or the impersonal subject “it” (Lian 2010: 106, 113).

Chinese sentences always have a “topic-comment” structure, while English sentences always have a “subject-predicate” structure. Therefore, in a Chinese-English translation, the semantic relation between the topic and the comment in the original sentence should be presented through the use of conjunctions to accord with the syntactic features of English sentences.

English sentences have a basic “subject-predicate” structure. English words are under the restraint of morphological changes; words and clauses are connected through cohesive devices; pronouns accord with the words mentioned above (Lian 2010: 90-91) .

As a result, English sentences are closely related to each other. However, since Chinese sentences are free from the restraint of morphological changes, it is not necessary that the object should accord with the subject in a Chinese sentence. Chinese sentences are loose because of the diversity, complexity and flexibility of the “subject-object” structure.

Example 6:借来的书，在我好像过不来瘾似的，必要是自己买的才满足。(Zhang 2007: 26)
It seems that books bought can better satisfy my bibliomania than books borrowed. (Zhang 2007: 28)

The original sentence is composed of three parts without conjunctions between them. But there exists the semantic relation in it--the comparative relation between “books borrowed” ("借来的书" in Chinese) and “books bought” ("自己买的" in Chinese). Therefore, the comparative relation should be expressed in English translation. Mr. Zhang employed the expression “rather than” to combine the original three parts into one sentence, expressing the beauty of the translation’s syntactic structure.

Example 7:据说，任何爱吃糖果的人，只要叫他到糖果铺中去做事，见了糖果就会生厌。(Zhang 2007: 27)
It is said that those who have a great liking for candies will sicken to see them when later they happen to work in a candy store. (Zhang 2007: 29)

Mr. Zhang combined the four parts in the original texts into one sentence through the use of “who” and “when” to make the English transaltion compact and coherent, expressing the beauty of the translation’s syntactic structure.

Example 8:像针尖上一滴水滴在大海里，我的日子滴在时间的流里，没有声音，也没有影子。(Zhang 2007: 55)
Like a drop of water falling off a needle point into the ocean, my days are quietly dripping into the stream of time without leaving a trace. (Zhang 2007: 57)

There are four loose sentences in the original text. However, the two short sentences “没有声音” and “也没有影子” have been transformed separately into the adverb “quietly” and the propositional phrase “without leaving a trace” as an complement of the action “日子滴在时间的流里”, making the English sentences compact. Simile is employed in the translation as well as in the source text, which shows faithfulness in the translation.

Example 9:作家不能当隐士，适当的社会活动和文学活动可以开阔眼界，活跃思想，对创作也是有帮助的。(Zhang 2007: 290)
Being no hermit, a writer stands to benefit in writing as long as he gets properly involved with social and literary activities to widen his field of vision and stimulate his thinking. (Zhang 2007: 292)

The original text consists of four short sentences without overt conjunctions connecting them, and it includes two subjects “作家” ("a writer" in English) and “适当的社会活动和文学活动” ("gets properly involved with social and literary activities" in English). Mr. Zhang combined the four parts into one sentence, “作家” ("a writer" in English) being the subject, “不能当隐士” being transformed into the absolute nominative construction “Being no hermit”. The addition of “as long as” in the translation indicates the semantic relationship between the second part and the fourth part. Besides, Mr. Zhang added “to” to transform “可以开阔眼界，活跃思想” into the adverbial of purpose. All the transformations made express what the author wanted to express.

Sentences like loose sentences, compressed sentences, run-on sentences, short sentences, etc., are frequently used in Chinese. On the contrary, the grammatical relationship is expressed through the arrangement of word order and flexible use of various cohesive devices in English sentences, thus English sentences are compact with a clear logical relationship between the matrix clauses and the subordinate clauses.

Therefore, in Chinese-English translation, the translator is supposed to add conjunctions appropriately to connect the short sentences in the original text, indicating the implicit grammatical and logical relationship. Consequently, readers are able to understand the sentence meaning without even relying on the context.

Category words are used to express the category which behaviour, phenomenon, property and other factors belong to; they are often used to refer to other things in Chinese. For example, “情绪” in the Chinese sentence “那你的恹恹欲睡的情绪又将如何” and “情味” in “常不禁会感觉到难以名言的寂寞的情味” are category words.

There are many category words in Chinese language for a better form of expression. Instead, category words are much less frequently used in English language. The sameness in number, property and other aspects are avoided in English language.

Example 10:我一向没有对于任何问题作高深研究的野心，因之所买的书范围较广，宗教、艺术、文学、社会、哲学、历史、生物，各方面差不多都有一点。(Zhang 2007: 26)
Since I have never entertained ambition for making a profound study of any subject, the books I have acquired cover almost everything--religion, art, literature, sociology, philosophy, history, biology, etc. (Zhang 2007: 28)

“范围” in the original text belongs to category words. Thus, it is unnecessary to translate it in English. Therefore, the English translation should avoid the use of the corresponding English expression “the range of”. Compare the following sentence with Mr. Zhang’s translation:
... the range of the books I have acquired covers almost everything...
It is obvious that Mr. Zhang’s translation is more natural. Moreover, Mr. Zhang omitted the translation of “各方面差不多都有一点” because what the expression means has already been contained in “the books I have acquired cover almost everything”.

Category words in Chinese always express objects’ categories. Though they are indispensable to the correctness of grammar and the expression of mood, they are of little practical significance in that they just repeat the semantic meaning of a precedent expression. When doing Chinese-English translation, we are supposed to omit the translation of category words and rather translate the content nouns before them.

English language has the tendency to the use of nouns and thus is stative. On the contrary, verbs rather than nouns are more frequently used in Chinese sentences, thus Chinese language is dynamic (Lian 2010: 133). In Chinese-English translation, the dynamic Chinese sentences should be translated into stative English sentences.

In Example 7, “爱吃糖果” is translated as “have a great liking for candies” rather than “like candies”. The verb “爱” is transformed into the noun “liking” and posited t after the verb “have” as its object（连淑能，P148）, which characterizes English language as stative.

Example 11:自我入书店以后，对于书的贪念也已消除了不少......(Zhang 2007: 27)
Likewise, ever since I began to work in a bookstore, my obsession with books has been very much on the decline. (Zhang 2007: 29)

Prepositions are always posited before nouns or noun phrases. Therefore, English language uses prepositions as frequently as nouns. The priority to the use of both nouns and prepositions makes it more clear that English is a stative language (Lian 2010:145). The verb “消除” has been translated as the prepositional phrase “on the decline”, thus the dynamic Chinese sentence has been transformed into stative English sentence.

Example 12:我自己就是浪费了很多时间的一个人。(Zhang 2007: 216)
Personally, I am also a fritterer. (Zhang 2007: 218)

Mr. Zhang translated the expression “浪费很多时间的一个人” as the noun phrase “a fritterer”, the noun derived from the verb “fritter”, rather than “a person who fritter a lot of time” in which the verb “fritter” is directly used, making the translation stative.

Example 13:青翠的叶上已经凝集着细密的露珠，这显然是昨夜被人遗弃了的。(Zhang 2007: 119)
The numerous fine dewdrops on the fresh green leaves clearly showed that the roses had just been cast away the previous night. (Zhang 2007: 120)

The expression “凝集着” in the original sentence can be either translated or omitted. Generally, it is unnecessary to translate verbs of this kind. Mr. Zhang translated the first half part as “The numerous fine dewdrops on the fresh green leaves”, directly omitting the translation of “凝集着” since the prepositional phrase “on the fresh green leaves” has already expressed its meaning.

Chinese language is dynamic while English language is stative. In Chinese-English translation, firstly, abstract nouns can be used to express actions, behaviors, changes, states and so on in the original texts; secondly, verbs in the original texts can be replaced by common nouns which express behaviors or actions (Lian 2010: 138); thirdly, translators can use prepositions more frequently; fourthly, grammaticalized verbs or weak verbs can be used instead. (Lian 2010: 147)

Generally, English language avoids repetition; it repeats words or phrases only for emphasis or for the use of rhetorical devices. English natives are not interested in the repetition in syllables, words or sentence patterns (Lian 2010: 221). Translators are supposed to replace the repeated expression with a new one or omit the repeated part or explain it in a different way as long as the meaning of the original text is explicitly expressed. In this way, the translation will be concise and powerful, and it will fit more into English people’s language habits (Lian 2010: 223).

Example 14:我虽爱买书，而对于书却不甚爱惜。(Zhang 2007: 27)
Much as I love books, I take little care of them. (Zhang 2007: 29)

The second part of the original sentence repeats the noun “书”. However, Mr. Zhang replaced “books” ("书" in Chinese) with the pronoun “them”, avoiding the repetition of “books” and connecting the two sentences.

Example 15:书籍到了我的手里，我的习惯是先看序文，次看目录。(Zhang 2007: 26)
As soon as a new book comes to hand, I always read the preface first and then the table of contents. (Zhang 2007: 28)

The repeated verb “read” ("看" in Chinese) has been omitted in the translation.

In the fourth example, Mr. Zhang added the subject “I” (“我” in Chinese) before the sentence “买到了几册新书”, making the English sentence complete in terms of syntactic structure.

English language often uses pronouns to avoid repetition, while Chinese language uses less pronouns and tends to repeat words and phrases. In terms of coordination, repeated words or phrases are usually deleted in English but repeated in Chinese. Moreover, English sentences avoids repetition of words through the use of synonyms or hyponyms. Instead, Chinese sentences repeat the words to express the beauty of the balance in form. Therefore, when doing Chinese-English translation, translators are supposed to avoid the repetition in meaning through replacing, deleting, or transforming the repeated parts.

Nevertheless, it is necessary to add the subject when translating Chinese sentences into English because the subject is often omitted in Chinese while English is a language with a strict “subject-predicate” structure.

Because English is a hypotactic language but Chinese an paratactic language, cohesion in English and Chinese differs a lot. In terms of textual cohesion, there are mainly two differences between English and Chinese: one is that the cohesion in English is implicit while that in Chinese is explicit; the other is that the two languages differ in sentence division. There is no clear division between a phrase and a clause (which was previously called a simple sentence), between a clause and a sentence (which was previously called a compound sentence), between a sentence and sentence groups. (Shao 2013: 390)Because of this difference, the addition of conjunctions is needed in Chinese-English translation.

Example 16:经我看过的书，统体干净的很少。(Zhang 2007: 27)
Consequently, the books I have read are rarely clean. (Zhang 2007: 29)

Mr. Zhang added the adverb “consequently” in the translation. According to the context, the reason for “经我看过的书，统体干净的很少” is explained in the preceding sentence “线装书大概用笔加圈，洋装书竟用红铅笔划粗粗的线”. Therefore, when translating these sentences, we should express the causality between the two sentences. The adverb “consequently” well expresses it.

Example 17:我不禁头涔涔而泪潸潸了。(Zhang 2007: 55)
At the thought of this, sweat oozes from my forehead and tears trickle down my cheeks. (Zhang 2007: 57)

Mr. Zhang added the expression “At the thought of this” in the translation, which links the preceding sentence and the following sentence and expresses the implicit meaning in the original text.

Example 18:我觉察他去的匆匆了，伸出手遮挽时，他又从遮挽着的手边过去......(Zhang 2007: 55)
Aware of its fleeting presence, I reach out for it only to find it brushing past my outstretched hands. (Zhang 2007: 57)

The translation adds the expression “only to find” to connect the second and third parts of the original text, making overt the implicit meaning that the author was regretful for his failing to grasp his time.

Example 19:怕只怕三杯下肚，豪情大发，嘟嘟嘟，来个瓶底朝天......(Zhang 2007: 290)
The trouble is after three cups of alcohol he will get wild and unrestrained and end in gulping down a whole bottle. (Zhang 2007: 289)

Mr. Zhang combined the four parts in the original text into one English sentence, showing the logical relationship between these parts. In the original text, “来个瓶底朝天” is the result of “三杯下肚，豪情大发”; the semantic relationship between the two parts has been shown through the addition of the verb phrase “end in” in the English translation. Actually, Mr. Zhang deleted the translation of “嘟嘟嘟”, which seems not to be faithful to the original text. However, it is unnecessary to translate this expression since it means nothing here.

Words, phrases and clauses are often connected through various cohesive devices in English, which shows that English emphasizes overt cohesion. On the contrary, much less or even no cohesive devices are used in Chinese, which shows the tendency toward implicit cohesion in Chinese. In Chinese-English translation, it is necessary to add relational words, conjunctions, prepositions and so on, or change the form of words in the translation to express the grammatical and logical relationship in the original text.

===4.Conclusion===

This paper first makes a brief introduction of essay, and then provides the definition of Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”. Then, it compares the differences between English and Chinese in terms of psychology, aesthetics, textual structure, textual cohesive devices etc., and makes an analysis of the original and translated texts selected from Zhang Peij’s English translations of Chinese essays and the original texts to see whether the translation is faithful, comprehensive and elegant. Finally, the paper provides some strategies for Chinese-English Translation. However, the paper only compares English and Chinese from limited aspects and it only covers several texts. There remains some problems to be solved.

===References===

Leo Tak-hung Chan. (2004). Twentieth-Century Chinese Translation Theory. John Benjamin Publishing Company.

Lian Shuneng 连淑能. (2010). 英汉对比研究 [Contrastive Studies of English and Chinese]. Beijing: 高等教育出版社.

Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1992). 汉英对比与翻译 Nanchang: Jiangxi Education Press江西教育出版社.

Pan Wenguo 潘文国. (1997/2002) 汉英语对比纲要 [An Outline of Chinese-English Contrastive Study]，Beijing: Beijing Language and Culture University Press北京语言文化大学出版社.

Shao Zhihong 邵志洪. (2013). 新编英汉研究对比 [Contrastive Studies Between English and Chinese]. Shanghai: East China University of Science and TechnologyPress 华东理工大学出版社.

Zhang Peiji 张培基. (2007) 英译中国现代散文选（一） [Selected Modern Chinese Essays 1]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 14:06, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou

History of Translation Studies 9

2020-12-21T15:58:00Z

Liu Ou: /* Methods of English Translation of Scenic Spot Name */

这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第九部分(Part 9)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。

学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。

*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]
*Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].

='''Comparative Studies'''=

==Comparison of Modes of Expression and Ways of Thinking Between English and Chinese Language in Cultural Perspective 易欢 Yi Huan==

<center>Yi Huan 易欢 202020080663</center>
===Abstract===
The English language and Chinese language,with their own characteristics, embody their own cultural heritage and manifest different modes of thinking. Conspicuously, among language, culture and mode of thinking, there exists a closely related interaction. The culture affects thought, conversely, thought can reflect the culture. While language is under the impact of the both, presents the thinking and cultural differences in a most direct way. Therefore, this paper, from the perspective of culture, makes a comparative study of English and Chinese language forms and ways of thinking. It is quite significant for the development of translation in cross-cultural communication.

===Key words===
language form; mode of thinking; English and Chinese language; culture

===摘要===
英汉语言各具特色，蕴含各自历史文化底蕴，彰显不同的思维模式。显然，语言，文化与思维之间形成了某种紧密联系的互动关系。文化影响思维，反之，思维也会体现文化，而语言受两者的影响，亦是阐明思维与文化差异的最直接的方式。因此，本文将从文化视域下，对比探究英汉语言形式与思维方式，这对于跨文化交际下翻译发展来说至关重要。

===关键词===
语言形式；思维模式；英汉语言；文化

===1. Introduction===
The relationship between language and thought is widely discussed among scholars at home and abroad. Karl Marx once remarks that language is a tool, carrier, shell, and a “dress” of thought. That is to say, language by nature is the embodiment of human thoughts. Language is therefore closely related to and supported by human thoughts. Also thought will further facilitate the development of language, Sapir once states, “ Thought processes set in, as a kind of psychic overflow, almost at the beginning of linguistic expression; further, that the concept once defined, necessarily reacted on the life of its linguistic symbols, encouraging further linguistic growth.”(1921:12)

Meanwhile, language is part of culture. And language, as a system of signs with its own cultural substances and values, may be viewed as a symbol of cultural identity. For example, a person who moves from his or her speech community to another one, will easily exposes himself or herself as a newcomer in communication since the language he uses may betray his cultural identity. While each culture also has its own peculiarities and can throw influence on the language system. Hence, language is the carrier and the representation of culture, and as a mirror of culture, language is strongly influenced and shaped by culture.

Moreover, the thought also is largely influenced by its culture. Human thinking is the brain’s generalized and indirect reflecting process of the general characteristics and laws of objective things.” (Liu Kuilin, 1989:9) It is a dynamic process of reflecting the objective facts and worlds. Hence it is largely influenced by the outside cultures. In general, different culture leads to different thinking patterns which is demonstrated most in their own language. That is to say, the relationship among culture, mode of thinking and language is closely related like three parts of a whole. And in this paper, it is going to compare different mode of thinking and ways of expression between Chinese and English, so as to better understand cross-culture communication.

===2. The comparison of modes of thinking with the representation of ways of expression in English and Chinese===

The language, thought and culture are independent but closely interrelated as we have discussed before. And in different countries, there exist different thinking patterns, then it is going to illustrate four types of opposite Chinese and Occidental thinking ways and present the reflection upon their language, and trace back to the cultural and historical foundations for these phenomena. While it just compares these modes of thought in a general way, and they are not simply manifested as opposite to each other, but intermingled to some extent with the exchange of culture and the common ground imparted in all human beings.

===2.1 Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking===
When Premier Zhou and Secretary of State Kissinger drafted “Shanghai Sino-US Communique,” Kissinger once said that the thought of Oriental is to seek the common ground among differences, while the thought of the Occidental are accustomed to seeking differences among the similarities. To some extent, it shows that Chinese emphasizes synthesis and English tends to be analytical. Holistic thinking puts emphasis on the integral concepts and the universal connection of objects. While analytical thinking will tend to focus more on labeling and analyzing different parts that eventually make up the whole. there must be some certain cultural background to the formation of western and Chinese mode of thinking.

Actually, the formation of Chinese thinking mode can derive from Chinese people’s perspectives towards nature. In Chinese classical philosophy, the conception of “One” better demonstrates the holistic view. According to Taoism, “All things obtained the One and became alive and kept growing.”(Tao Te Ching, chapter 36). Chuang Tzu promotes the concept of “One” to the state of the “unity of heaven and human”, and believes that the heaven and man, and the thing and self can all merge into one organically connected whole. Moreover, the essence that Chinese philosophy stresses the holistic view lies in the systematic evaluation and comprehensive grasp of all things, aiming to have a comprehensive and accurate understanding towards everything. Then such philosophy facilitates Chinese people to develop holistic thinking.

While, in western culture, Plato firstly advocates the “subject-object dichotomy” and then explains the world from a dualistic angle. In addition, the people can also be influenced by Aristotle’s syllogism, and always emphasize reasonable thinking in accordance with certain procedures, just like analyzing geometric problems in which one should derive the unknown, then demonstrate the process meticulously and finally draw a logical conclusion. It is exactly the characteristic of analytic thinking in which the object is divided into parts and one should investigate them respectively.

Undeniably, thinking patterns can best be demonstrated in their language. In a word, Analytical thinking involves detachment of the object from its context, a tendency to focus on attributes of the object in order to assign it to categories, and a preface for using rules about the categories to explain and predict the object’s behavior. Holistic thinking involves an orientation to the context or field as a whole, including attention to relationships between a focal object and the field, and a preference for explaining and predicting events on the basis of such relatiobnships. And parataxis and hypotaxis are exactly the concrete manifestations of holistic thinking and analytical thinking.

In the field of linguistics and translation studies, parataxis, as opposed to hypotaxis, is the single most important feature distinguishing the Chinese language from English, with Chinese showing paratactic prominence and English hypotactic prominence. Nida once stated, “ So far as English and Chinese are concerned, the most important difference linguistically is the contrast between hypotaxis and parataxis.” (1982, 16) Liu Miqing believes that hypotaxis and parataxis can be viewed as the heterogeneous characteristics.(1992: 18). Zhang Li proposes that Chinese, in terms of grammar, belongs to parataxis, one of whose overall features lies in conciseness and economy. (1994: 84)

Hence, English uses many conjunctions, prepositions and other connective means to make links between phrases and words, because of which the language is more logical and better organized. on the other hand, in Chinese, the arranging of clauses is one after the other without connectives showing the relations between them. Hypotaxis can be viewed as the external logic forms of composing words into sentences, and parataxis the internal cognition of wording and phrasing. From the comparisons, we may see that the differences between hypotaxis and parataxis have resulted in the different sentence structures and language expression forms. Here are some examples:

(1) The thirty-two chapters of a novel — if we consider how to read a novel first —are an attempt to make something as formed and controlled as a building: but words are more impalpable than bricks; reading is a longer and more complicated process than seeing.(Virginal Woolf, How Should One Read a Book?)
我们先来讨论一下小说的读法。一部三十二章的小说，作者努力把它塑造成像建筑物一样有形态、受制约的东西。然而，字句之比于砖瓦，更加触摸不到；阅读比之于观看，是个更为长久而复杂的过程。(Selected from the Anthology of Chinese and English Prose)

(2）门铃一声响，来了客人。从不谢客，礼当接待。忙把袜子穿上，整冠而出。来客红光满面，一开口就知道是远客。（楼适夷，《夜间来客——“名人”被访实录》）
Suddenly the doorbell rang，announcing the arrival of a visitor. As Mr. Huang had never refused any visitor before, this one should be received with courtesy too. Quickly putting his socks back on and smoothing his hair，he hurried to the door，and there he was encountered by a man with a fat glowing face.(Lou Shiyi, A Night Visitor— A True Story a ‘Celebrity’ Being Interviewed. Translated by Zhang Peiji)

From the two examples above，we can percept that English is of very hypotaxis. In the first example, one prominent feature is the abundant conjunctions, like “if”, “how”, “but” and “than”. And the sentence structures are tightly knitted with distinct subject-predicate. While in the Chinese version, it is in lack of these overt conjunctive devices. In the second example, in the source language, it uses more than ten verbs in succession, and narrates chronologically. Although it is loosely organized, all of these verbs are arranged in order and present with a clear clue.

Therefore, when translating, the translator must demonstrate the hidden logical structure. But it is not absolute to confine English to hypotaxis and Chinese to parataxis, they just differentiate each other in the degree. Actually in English, Julius Caesar also famously said, “I came, I saw, I conquer.” And in some Chinese works, writers also tend to use the logical and connective sentences. That is to say, it is just the matter of degree, there are also hypotaxis in Chinese and parataxis in English. Moreover, as the exchanges in the world extend, the Chinese and English thinking modes can also be influenced respectively.

===2.2 subject-oriented thinking and object-targeted thinking===

It is well known that Chinese culture and Occidental Culture are quite different, Chinese culture stresses the subject, while Occidental people prefer the objective way of thinking. As China has confronted the severe natural and geographic condition, since the pre-Qin Dynasty, the governor would never think the outside world as the opposite side of human beings. And Chinese people also advocate the harmony between men and nature, which has been retained till now. Moreover, the Chinese Confucian school, Taoism and Buddhism all stress the subject. Lao Tsu said: “ Man models himself after the Earth; the Earth models itself after the Heaven; the Heaven models itself after Tao；Tao models itself after the Nature. ” (Tao Te Ching, chapter 25) Mencius also stated, “All things under heaven are being prepared for me.” (Mencius, chapter 1)

Hence, since ancient times, the Chinese people have tended to consider all things from an anthropocentric standpoint. The outstanding scholar Qian Mu states that “In short, Chinese culture takes human and human affairs as a core. Human and human affairs refer to all reality and ideal when human beings are getting along with each other. The manifestation and achievement of Chinese culture is around the core. The reason why Chinese culture can be fused into a whole is that Chinese culture shows its value through its core-human and human affairs.” (1971: 331) Hence, Chinese culture is human-centered. It is, essentially, a kind of humanistic culture, under the deep influence of which the subjective thought-pattern has come into being.

The subjective thought pattern refers to observing, analyzing, learning and studying objects anthropocentrically and view human beings as the part of a whole nature. On the contrary, the occidental objective thinking takes objects and nature as core, and pay more attention to the observation and research of the objects. The occidental culture originated in Greek peninsular and its coastal areas, where the sages in Ancient Greece has looked upon the cosmos and nature, and always investigated the natural mystery. And based on the dichotomy and antithesis, gradually, the spirit of occidental culture is to separate subjective from objective and to conquer nature.

Hence the occidental tradition takes nature as cognitive object. Unlike Chinese culture and tradition, the occidental rationalism advocates objective attitudes. Francis Bacon once remarked that authority, habit, prejudice and exaggeration are barriers to truth. To seek truth, one should overcome these obstacles. Owing to English people’s objective thinking, they often use impersonal to account the events, and try to be objective. G. Leech and J. Svartvik point out: “Formal written language often goes with an impersonal style; i.e. one which the speaker does not refer directly to himself or readers, but avoids the pronouns I, you, we. Some of the common features of impersonal language are passives, sentences beginning with introductory it, and abstract nouns.”(1974: 25 )

While Chinese people’s subjective thinking pattern demonstrates itself in Chinese in two notable ways: animate subjects and the majority use of active voice. Actually, according to Shen Xiaolong, the configuration of Chinese character demonstrates the subject-oriented thinking pattern. Based on the pictographs, the Chinese characters refer to the object and its ideographs are people-oriented. Hence in English-Chinese translation, the translator should transform from subjective thinking to objective thinking, for instance:

The sight of the big tree always reminds me of my childhood. (连淑能)
一看见那棵大树，我便想起了童年的情景。

A good idea suddenly occur on me.
我突然想出了一个好主意。

The two English sentences, with the abstract subjects: “The sight of the big tree” and “ A good idea” are quite natural to English readers, while in Chinese it is quite queer and none of Chinese people are accustomed to use them in such way. Hence, in Chinese version, it begins with the personal subject “我” and sounds quite smooth and comprehensible to the Chinese readers.

Moreover, in English, the two expletive words (it and there) are frequently used to show their objectivity in the text. At the same time, in Chinese, there are many no-subject sentences, like “下雪了” “该去学校啦” “太冷了”. While such kind of expression are not allowed in English, for it appears to be complete with a subject in English grammar. Hence, in English, they can be expressed in this way: “it snows”, “It is time to go to school” and “It is too cold”. And owing to English objective thinking, the English passive voice, especially the impersonal passive of “it” is used as the subject, such as “it is believed”, “it is said”, “it is reported”, etc., expresses the facts or ideas in an objective, indirect and roundabout way.

It is obvious that the English passive sentences should be converted into the Chinese active sentences. Although the sentence structures are changed, the meanings still remain the same as the original sentences. Also in English “there” and “there be” patterns are impersonal expressions, But in Chinese translation, concrete persons and things are usually used instead. For instance:

(1) 公交车来了。
There comes the bus.
(2) 我家有五口人。
There are 5 people in my family.

Clearly, the sentences above reveal that in Chinese there must be certain subjects supplanting the “there” or “there be” pattern. In general, with the influence of the respective modes of thinking, Chinese tends to be subjective and English prefers objection, but it is not necessarily absolute. In English, we can also find numerous personal subjects like “I think”, “I believe”. And in Chinese, it often uses the passive tense in the writings in Classical Chinese, such as “受制于人” (be restricted by) “为人所骗” (be cheated by). Hence, it is also quite common to begin with personal subjects in English and use objective subject and passive tense in Chinese. Clearly, it is a matter of degree.

===2.3 Concrete thinking and abstract thinking===
Thinking in images and thinking in notions are two forms of thought activities. Generally speaking, Chinese people are well good at thinking in images, while English–speaking people are well developed in thinking in notions. These two tendencies are rooted in their own cultures (包惠南, 2001: 26). Actually, the change and development of Chinese characters is the best illustration. As we all know Chinese language is vivid and full of images and the Chinese character is characterized by pictographs. For example, the character “人” (man) is like the two legs of a person; and “从” (follow) looks like that one person is followed by another; the “山” (mountain) is the shape of a mountain.

Therefore, from ancient times, Chinese people tend to borrow the images of outside world to form their own hieroglyphs. Following such kind of thought model, concrete thinking is established and reflected in Chinese language. As Nakamura remarks, “The Chinese people had a high regard for particulars, and presented content concretely in accordance with their way of thinking, naturally fond of complex multiplicity expressed in concrete form.” ( 1991, 217) While Occidental people prefer abstract thinking which takes concept, judgment and reasoning as form of thinking, and expresses ideas and emotions through logical sentences.

Since the English letters are based on the Greek alphabet, and it is hard to form a pictograph to express the meaning of the word which can only come from the object description of the nature. Also in the process of learning and analyzing the objective world, the occidental aim at exploring the essence and origin of the world. By means of classification and analysis, they try to find the universals of the same kind of objects and combine them together to form a so-called “the World of form” or “the ideal world”.

Moreover, they are fairly interested in the properties of things, and examine them carefully and thoroughly. Their explorations about mathematics, geometry and astronomy contribute to abstract thinking. In the aspect of linguistic expression, the English language tends to be more abstract or logical. Abstract language refers to the language that uses method of abstract diction to express the complex ideas which lie mainly in abstract nouns. G. M.Young once pointed，“an excessive reliance on the noun at the expense of the verb will, in the end, detach the mind of the writer from the realities of here and now, from when and how and in what mood the thing was done. and insensibly induce a habit of abstraction, generalization and vagueness.”

While in Chinese language, the concrete, clear and picturesque words are widely used, just as R. Flesch states, “ Chinese dose more to you than just simplify your constructions… They formed the habit of expressing ideas by metaphors, similes, and all aegis, in short, by every known devices for making a thing plain by comparing it with something else.” (1946: 15-16) The two different kinds of thinking patterns also can be demonstrated in the artistic design of literary works. For instance, the poem《凉州词》written by Wang Han, and the poem《登高》 writer by Du Fu can fully exemplify the concrete and picturesque Chinese language, and both of them are translated by Xu Yuanchong.

葡萄美酒夜光杯，
欲饮琵琶马上催。— 王翰《凉州词》
With wine of grapes the cups of jade would glow at night,
Drinking to pipa songs, we are summoned to fight.

无边落木萧萧下，
不尽长江滚滚来。—杜甫《登高》
The boundless forest sheds its leaves shower by shower,
The endless river rolls it’s waves hour after hour.

In the two poems above, the poets use several concrete images like “wine of grapes”, “cups of jade” “boundless forest” and “ endless river”. It is easy to visualize the certain situation that poets depict for us, when we read these lines. While in English there are more abstract nouns to replace the function of verb and express abstract meanings, which sometimes can cause puzzlement for Chinese people. For instance, in Benjamin Franklin’s The Autobiography:
“To help myself live without fault, I made a list of what I considered the 13 virtues. These virtues are: 1 Temperance, 2 Self-control, 3 Silence, 4 Order, 5 Firmness of mind, 6 Savings, 7 Industry, 8 Honesty, 9 Justice, 10 Cleanliness, 11, calmness, 12 Morality, 13 Humbleness.”

“为了使自己生活中不犯错误，特别列出我认为应该身体力行的 13 条守则。这些守则
是：1.节制饮食 2.自我克制 3. 沉默寡言 4. 有条不紊 5. 坚定信念 6.勤俭节约 7. 工作勤奋8. 忠诚老实 9. 办事公正 10. 衣着整洁 11.平心静气 12. 品行高尚 13.谦虚恭顺。”
There are 13 abstract words in English and they are translated into Chinese concretely with the verbs to govern the phrases. So that it would be vividly explained what do these abstract words convey in a specific way.

Wisdom prepares for the worst; but folly leaves the worst for the day it comes.
智者防范于未然，愚者临渴掘井。（陈文伯译）

In the sentence, “wisdom” and “folly” are two abstract nouns, but they actually refer to certain people. The expression in English is quite common and concise, while Chinese people are accustomed to the thinking in images, hence, in the translation, the concept of two abstract nouns is materialized as two people with certain properties. So that Chinese people can better understand the implicit meaning.

===2.4 circular thinking and linear thinking===

According to Robert Kaplan who analyzes different discourses and their different organization in different notions, students from different cultural backgrounds adopt different patterns of writing. The Chinese text, in contrast with the English text which is organized in a linear structure, is usually arranged in circular structure (1966:1-2).
Circular thinking can also be known as inductive thinking in which we infer a conclusion on the basis of facts and draw a conclusion from particular to general. From ancient times, traditional Chinese medicine already sets a model for us. They follow the principles of “inspection”, “inquiry”, “listening” and “smelling” and can finally make a diagnosis.

And underlying the observations, Chinese people will finally draw a conclusion and are not always accustomed to express their opinions directly. Actually, it can derive from the traditional Chinese culture where the Confucianism immensely governs people’s thought. Under the influence of “the doctrine of mean” and the underlined “mutual harmony” in traditional Chinese philosophy, which cultivate Chinese to avoid direct confrontation and conflicts and take a mean course while they are thinking. Hence such kind of circular thinking model can be reflected upon the Chinese language where ideas are often organized and linked in an overall framework, and does not state the topic directly in the opening lines but constantly lays out relevant or even irrelevant information to provide many-sided perspectives for judging.

While, on the contrary, the occidental thinking pattern tends to be linear, or we can say it is a kind of deductive thinking model. It starts from general to particular, from abstract to concrete, and from outcome to reason. The occidental prefer to directly talk about the topic at the beginning without reservation. As a matter of fact, it is deeply influenced by the Greek philosophy. The way of thinking is inherited from the Greek philosophers, such as Plato and Aristotle, especially Aristotelian logical and reasonable thinking. Aristotle puts forward two thought patterns: “ deduction and induction”, while he himself views the deductive method superior to the inductive one.

Just as Guo remarks, “ For over 2000 years, syllogism and deduction have been a mainstream for western culture and thought.” And also Aristotle generalizes the discourse into four parts: beginning, poising a question, analysis and expounding, conclusion, which can be viewed as an epitome of occidental linear thinking pattern. In general, English thought pattern is a straight pattern. And so a text is usually centered on a topic in the form of the topic sentence of topic paragraph and then it is developed in a deductive method, directly by many sentences in a sequence. So, the crucial part is usually put at the beginning of an English sentence, but at the end of a Chinese sentence. Here are some examples:

(1) Soccer is a difficult sport. A player must be able to run steadily without rest. Sometimes a player must hit the ball with his or her head. Players must be willing to bang into or be banged into by others. They must put up with aching feet and sore muscles.
足球运动员必须不停地奔跑，有时得用头顶球，撞别人或被别人撞，必须忍受双腿和肌肉的疼痛，所以说，足球是一项难度大的运动。

There is another example to view how Chinese people and American people express their own emotions. The two excerpts are from the Keynote Speech By H.E. Xi Jinping President of the people’s Republic of China At the Opening Ceremony of The third China International Import Expo and President Obama’ speech at Fu Dan University in Shanghai respectively.

(2) 各位来宾，
女士们，先生们，朋友们：
Distinguished Guests,
Ladies and Gentlemen,
Dear Friends,
在各方共同努力下，第三届中国国际进口博览会开幕了！首先，我代表中国. 政府和中国人民，并以我个人的名义，向各位嘉宾，表示热烈的欢迎！对各位新老朋友，表示诚挚的问候！
With concerted efforts of all parties, the third China International Import Expo (CIIE) is now open. At the outset, let me extend, on behalf of the government and people of China as well as in my own name, a hearty welcome to all the distinguished guests. To the many old and new friends, I give you my warm greetings and best regards.

Good afternoon. It is a great honor for me to be here in Shanghai, and to have this opportunity to speak with all of you.
诸位下午好。我感到很荣幸能够有机会到上海跟你们交谈。

Obviously, in the first example, in English versions, the topic sentence is presented first, then it begins to illustrate the topic in a logical way to convince us that soccer is a difficult sport. Then in the second example, we can see that the president Xi and American former President Obama show their delight in quite different ways. We Chinese people tend to express our joy at the end of discourse, while American people are willing to show their emotions at the beginning, which also vividly presents the Chinese linear thinking and Occidental circular thinking.

Although the distinction is widely recognized at home and abroad, it is not categorically clear about the line between Chinese and English. Actually, many ancient writers in China are fond of coming straight to the point and hit the nail on the head in a precise way. Liang Qichao, an excellent ancient scholar in Qing Dynasty, proposes in his the Methodology of Composition above Middle School, that the most important thing is to make readers get the writer’s purpose at a glance when reading an article, so that it can touch and gain the reader’s interest. Hence it is hard to say that English is Linear and Chinese is circular as Robert Kaplan defines.

===3. Conclusion===
The discussions of the comparison between Chinese and Occidental thinking models have been carried out for a long time. In this paper, through the comparison of four opposite types of modes of thinking: Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking, subject-oriented thinking vs object-targeted thinking, concrete thinking vs abstract thinking, and linear thinking vs circular thinking, and presenting how they reflect upon their language, it demonstrates that cultural diversity and different historical origin may dominate the formation of thinking patterns. Since in the sea of the Chinese and Occidental language and thought, the culture is like a mirror which reflects all-embracing phenomena. That is to say, language, thought and culture are essentially associated with each other.

While there are also some other types of comparison among modes of thought like “static thinking vs dynamic thinking”, “fuzzy thinking vs accurate thinking” and so on. Moreover, we have to classify the writing style and genre of the articles, which would set up different principles in diction, and we can not lump together under one head. Hence this paper just tries to compare them in a general way, so that we can have a relatively overall view about the two languages. Since the thought impacts upon the language, we have to firstly understand how people view about the world around them, and then it is greatly useful to learn a second language well and to better perform in the cross-cultural communication with the extent of cultural exchanges nowadays.

=== Reference===
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* Lian Shuneng. 连淑能. (2002) 论中西思维方式【J】 On Chinese and Western modes of thinking. Dalian: Foreign language and teaching. 外语与外语教学.
*Liu Kuilin. 刘奎林. (1989) 《思维、思维科学导论》【M】 Introduction to Thinking and Thinking Science. Beijing: Workers publishing House 工人出版社.
*Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (1992) 《汉英对比翻译》【M】 Contrastive Study and Translation between English and Chinese, Nanchang: Jiangxi Education Press, 江西教育出版社.
*Qian Mu. 钱穆，(1977)《世界局势与中国文化》The World Situation and Chinese Culture【M】 Taibei: Taipei Dongda Book Co.LTD. 台北东大图书公司.
*Shen Xiaolong. 申小龙. (1994) 汉字构形的主体思维及其人文精神 . 【J】The Subjective thinking and humanistic spirit of Chinese Characters《学术月刊》 Academic Monthly, 1994 (14), 74.
*Wang Dehua. 汪德华. (2003) 英汉思维方式对其语言、文字的影响【J】. The influence of Thinking Modes of English and Chinese on Their Language and Character. 外语与外语教学, Foreign Language and Teaching, 2003 (3), 36.
*Zhang Li. 张黎. (1994) 《文化的深层选择———汉语意合语法论》【M】on Chinese Parataxis Grammar. Changchun: Jilin Education Press. 吉林教育出版社.
*Zhang Sijie & Zhang Boran. 张思洁, 张柏然. 形合与意合的哲学思维反思【J】Parataxis versus Hypotaxis— a Reflection on the Relation between Language, Philosophy and modes of Thinking, 中国翻译 Chinese Translation. 2001 (7), 13.
--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 08:46, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Comparison of Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance 曾良 Zeng Liang 英语笔译 MTI 202070080578==

===Abstract===

In the late 1960s, the famous American translator Eugene Nida proposed the theory of functional equivalence, which has boosted the development of translation theory. The theory is based on modern linguistics, social semiotics and information theory. Its equivalence is not confined to the corrrespondence in vocabulary and grammar between the original language and the target language. Meanwhile, the correspondence of response between the original readers and the target readers is also paid attention. Nida points out that translation should accord with original text in meaning, rather than form, and he also pays much attention to the response of the target readers. He thinks that expressing the target language properly and appropriately is the key in translation, exerting great guiding significance for translators.

With the further effect of western translation theories on Chinese translation theories, Chinese translators also propose different translation theories. Based on Chinese classical aesthetics and literary criticism, Yan Fu, a famous translator of China, proposes the famous translation standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, which has a deep influence on China’s translation circle and provides an important translation theory for Chinese translators.

Nida's functional equivalence and Yan Fu's faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance all provide important translation standards for translators and have a pivotal role in the history of translation theories. At the same time, by analyzing the Chinese translation of ''Vanity Fair'' written by Thackery, the similarities and differences between these two theories will be presented, aiming to have a better understanding in translation.

===Key words===

Functional Equivalence; Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; similarities and differences; ''Vanity Fair''

===摘要===

20世纪60年代末。美国著名翻译家尤金·奈达提出了翻译理论发展史上具有里程碑意义的“功能对等”翻译理论，该理论以现代语言学、社会符号学以及信息论为理论基础，其对等并未局限于原语和目的语之间词汇和语法的转换，对原语读者的感受和目的语言读者的感受是否一致也同样关注。奈达提倡翻译并未形式的对等而是客观内容的对等，他还重视目的语接受者的反应，以合适、贴切的目的语表达视为翻译的中心任务，这对翻译工作者具有重要的指导意义。

随着西方翻译理论对中国翻译理论的影响日益加深，中国翻译家也逐渐提出了自己的翻译理论。中国著名翻译家严复基于中国传统美学和文学评论，提出了著名的“信达雅”翻译标准。这一翻译标准在中国翻译界影响深远，为翻译工作者提供了很重要的翻译理论。

奈达和严复的翻译理论都为翻译工作者提供了重要的翻译标准，在翻译理论史上都具有举足轻重的作用。同时，这两大理论具有许多相似之处和不同点。本文通过对萨克雷《名利场》的中文译本进行分析，并通过对信息文本的处理来对比分析两大理论，找到两者的异同点，希望能对两大翻译理论的理解有一定的促进作用。

===关键词===

功能对等；信达雅；异同；《名利场》

===Introduction===

Looking back on the history of Chinese and western translation, it can be seen that translation theories are rich and colorful. In the western translation field, Nida is recognized as an outstanding representative. His "Functional equivalence" theory has broken through the traditional formal equivalence theory and has had a broad and far-reaching impact. In the Chinese translation circle, Yan Fu is the most influential one. He puts forward the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which is a milestone in the history of Chinese translation theory and promotes the development of Chinese translation theory (Tan Kai 2011, 43).

Although Nida and Yan Fu are in different social environment, and their translation standards are once questioned and denied, it is undeniable that these two translation standards are still the most authoritative and vital in Chinese and Western translation circles (Zhang Yimei 2020, 180).

Despite the different social environment and the imperfect translation standards, it is undeniable that these two are still the most authoritative and vital ones in Chinese and Western translation circles (Zhang Yimei 2020, 180).

====Introduction of Functional Equivalence====

Eugene Nida is a well-known contemporary western linguistics, an expect that researches Bible, and a translation theorist as well. His translation view, which is called functional equivalence, has set off a wave of enthusiasm in the translation field (Zhang Yimei 2020,180).

In 1964, Nida put forward "formal equivalence" and "dynamic equivalence" in the book ''Toward A Science of Translating''(Nida 1964, 45). However, he did not give a clear definition of "dynamic equivalence" until 1969 in the book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' (Nida 1969, 34). In 1993, the expression "dynamic equivalence" was superseded by "functional equivalence" in his work ''From One Language to Another'' (Nida 1993, 67). Dynamic Equivalence is defined "in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it is essentially the same manner as the receptors in the source language (Nida 1969, 24). "

Functional equivalence emphasizes the response of equivalence rather than the form of equivalence. In the process of evaluating the quality of translation, one should not only see whether the form is consistent with the original text, or whether the content is fluent and smooth, but also check whether the response of the target language readers is consistent with the original readers or whether the effect produced by the target text is consistent with the original text (Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). It is impossible to be faithful to the original to full extent. There are many reasons for this. For example, the language ability and knowledge background of translators can cause differences in translation.

In ''Language, Culture and Translating'', Nida divided functional equivalence into two levels: the minimal level and the maximal level (Nida 2001, 78). The minimal level of functional equivalence is defined as "The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it". The maximal level is stated as "The readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did" (Nida 1993, 118). The two definitions of equivalence reveal that the minimal level is realistic, whereas the maximal level is ideal. According to Nida, good translations always lie between the two levels (Nida 1995, 224).

====Introduction of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====

Yan Fu is a famous enlightenment thinker and educator in modern China, as well as an outstanding translation theorist. His three principles of translation—faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, were widely accepted as the essential criteria for understanding translation since the early 20th century. It appeared in Yan Fu’s preface to his translation of Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'' (1898) （Zhang Xi 2014, 1):

"Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness (Xin), expressiveness (da) and elegance (ya). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive, or fluent, is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance. Since China’s opening to foreign trade by sea, there has been no lack of interpreters and translators. But if you assign them any book to translate and tell them to meet these two requirements, few can do so (Yan Fu 2009, 202)."

Based on his understanding of ancient Buddhist Scriptures translation and translation practices, Yan Fu advanced “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which has a great contribution to the history of China’s translation and has become the fundamental tenets of Chinese translation theory in the 20th century (Zhang Xi 2014, 2).

According to Yan’s three principles, the translator should be faithful in conveying the message of the original text, fluent in the expression of the target language, and elegant in the writing style. "Faithfulness" emphasizes the fidelity to the original text. Yan pointed out that translator couldn’t begin his work until he has grasped the spirit and logic of the original text. "Expressiveness" stresses the fluency and acceptability that the translation expresses. "Elegance" reflects that Yan pays much attention to readers’ thought. Yan said in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethics'' (Yan Fu 2009, 202):

"Confucious said, ‘Diction should be expressive.’ He also added, ‘Diction without elegance cannot reach far.’ The three principles should be the basic elements of any writing, and the tenet for translators. Apart from faithfulness and expressiveness, I seek for elegance. (Yan Fu 2009, 202)"

Many people reagrd Yan’s translation standard as a golden rule, however, there are also some criticisms of it. Most criticism comes from the denial of standard "elegance". According to Yan Fu, elegance means using Chinese characters of pre-Han dynasty to express original text. He is inclined to use classical style of writing in pursuing elegance because of two reasons. Firstly, he believes that boring language cannot expand the influence of translated text; secondly, most of the readers of that time are knowledgeable people from the upper class and the translations are foreign philosophy and social science (Zhang Yimei 2020, 180).

Therefore, the common readers cannot understand the real meaning of the original text. "Elegance" now has been modified by later generations, which refers to that the translation should be literary and elegant. Although there are still some doubts about the standard "elegance", the contribution and influence of Yan’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” are undeniable (Zhang Yimei 2020, 180).

===Theoretial Foundation===

====Theoretical Foundation of Nida’s Functional Equivalence====

=====Modern Linguistic=====

Based on modern linguistic, functional equivalence has a close relationship with linguistics (Guo Dingju 2013, 15). Nida successfully applied the research of modern linguistics into translation theory. He used semantic theories, especially the method of semantic componential analysis to analyze referring meaning and associative meaning of vocabulary objectively and accurately (Guo Dingju 2013, 16). He transformed Chomsky’s core sentence theory, deep structure and surface structure, created a relatively complete process of interlingual conversion, and proposed a three-stage theory of the translation process (Zhu Haotong 2006, 64).

According to Nida, various language structures have many similarities and deep structure is more common than surface structure (Nida 1964, 68). Therefore, through the interlingual conversion of deep structure, the fidelity to the original text can be ensured to the greatest extent. At the same time, since the surface structure of the translated text is the free expression of the conversion of deep structure, the smoothness of the translated text can be ensured as much as possible. The faithful and smooth translations create conditions for the equivalence of readers’ reaction, which makes it possible to achieve functional equivalence(Nida 1964, 68).

=====Information Theory=====

Functional equivalence is also based on information theory. Nida believes that translation is an activity of transforming the information expressed in one language into another, that is to say, the information encoded in one code is transformed into another(Nida 1984, 34). The purpose of translating is to communicate by conveying information (Zhu Haotong 2006, 64). Only when the target language readers obtain the same information as the original readers, the relationship between the target language readers and target information is basically the same as the relationship between original language readers and original information (Nida 1964, 68).

Nida notices that the original readers’ ability to accept information is different from that of target language readers (Zhu Haotong 2006, 64). Generally speaking, the information receptive ability of original language readers is better than target language readers, especially when the original language and the target language belong to different language systems and cultures (Zhu Haotong 2006, 64). Nida stresses that in order to let the target language readers obtain the same information as the original readers, translators can change appropriately the form of the original text for the target readers to better understand the translation (Nida 1984, 34).

=====Social Semiotics=====

Functional equivalence is also based on social semiotics. Nida believes that translating is to translate the meaning of the original, and social semiotics is the most comprehensive system to analyze the meaning (Zhu Haotong 2006, 65).

In the book ''Language, Culture and Translation'', Nida points out that using social semiotics, the science that researches all codes and symbols in human society, to study translation is the most comprehensive way, and the key that is superior to any other translation methods to carry on interlingual translation is that social semiotics studies all codes in human society, and focuses on studying language, the most comprehensive and complex semiotic systems used by human. Therefore, in terms of decoding and encoding, the translation method of social semiotics is more comprehensive than any other translation methods (Nida 1993, 67).

====Theoretical Foundation of Yan Fu’s Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====

=====Chinese Aesthetics=====

Aesthetics is at first a branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of art, beauty and taste with creation and appreciation of beauty (Guo dingju 2013, 18). It has a great impact on traditional Chinese translation theories and standards. In 1898, Yan Fu put forward the famous translation standard “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which has always been the central idea of Chinese translation theory and aesthetics (Yan Fu 2009, 202). Its influence is far-reaching and almost no one can match with it today.

"Faithfulness" means the meaning of the target text should be faithful to the original text with accurate words and without arbitrary omission or deletion. "Expressiveness" means that the form of the target text is not constrained and the translation is smooth and clear. "Elegance" refers to that the words of translation should be appropriate and vivid, and the translation should be concise and elegant like the original. "Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" reveal the essence of translation (Yan Fu 2009, 202). Compared with the long-winded theoretical explanation abroad, these three words cover almost all the content of translation aesthetics, and fully reflect the concise beauty of Chinese characters (Guo Dingju 2013, 18).

Chinese aesthetics mainly comes from the ancient asetheics, which is the theoretical foundation of Yan Fu’s translation theory of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance (Guo Dingju 2013, 19).

=====Literary Criticism=====

Literary criticism (or literary studies) is the study, evaluation, and interpretation of literature. Modern literary criticism is often influenced by literary theory, which is the philosophical discussion of literature's goals and methods (Guo Dingju 2013, 19).

On the whole, literary criticism can be divided into two categories. One is the body of study focused on ethics and human emotions. The other is a bulk of explorations centered around the craftmanship of literary works (Li Jianzhong 2009, 45). The core of Chinese literary criticism is the theory of literary creation (Li Jianzhong 2009, 46).

There are mainly three types of literary criticism in the early 20th century from the aspect of criticism functions. The first type of literary criticism focuses on literary works. The critics of this type analyze literay works with their own experience and wisdom, which is called art-oriented criticism, Lu Xun being one of the representative. The second type aims at the independent cultural value. The critics try to dig out its philosophical, psychological, ethnic and linguistic significance of works. The third one is society-oriented criticism serving politics, which works well in the period of political struggels (Wang Yunxi 2007, 78).

===Comparative Studies on Translation theories of Nida and Yan Fu===

====Introdution of ''Vanity Fair'' and Yang Bi’s Translation Versions====

=====About ''Vanity Fair''=====

''Vanity Fair'' is Mr. Thackeray’s most important work. The novel takes place during the Napoleonic Wars and tells the stories of two contrasted girls: Amelia Sedley, the daughter of a wealthy merchant, a good natured, loveable though simple-minded young girl, and Rebecca (Becky) Sharp, an orphan who is a strong-willed and cunning young woman. These two girls met at Miss Pinkerton’s Academy for young ladies, the former driven by delicate heart and the latter by social ambition (Guo Dingju 2013, 21).

At the begining, Becky lived in a rich life and her social state was promoted step by step relying on some ignoble means. But Amelia suffered great sorrow because of her father’s bankruptcy. However, several years later, their lives were totally changed. They seemed to go back to their origianl work. Becky gained nothing, and Amelia returned to happy life again (Thackeray 2006，178).

This novel gains great success and shapes the image of a bad woman, Becky. You may hate her, but you will never forget her once you read this wonderful novel. Although she is a charater living in a different time and world, you can feel her presence in our world, even in any society. ''Vanity Fair'' is one of the greatest literary works describing society at that time (Guo Dingju 2013, 21).

The capitalists’ accumulation and the 19th society are all presented to readers through Thackeray’s description. This novel reflects the degradation and social hypocrisy and people at that time try every means to keep in contact with the upper class. The title of this novel reveals the theme: the treasures of vanity fair, that is money and position, desirable but transient. Thackeray’s idea is that although one may live in vanity fair, he doesn’t need to be a slave to its values, which will eventually turn into emptiness (Thackeray 2006, 89).

=====Yang Bi’s Translation of ''Vanity Fair''=====

There are many Chinese translation versions of ''Vanity Fair''. Among these versions, Yang Bi’s translation version ranks the first, which has been published for four times by different publications. Yang Bi’s version of ''Vanity Fair'' was firstly published by People’s Literature Publication in 1957, then re-published in 1997 and 2000. The latest version was published by The Commercial Press in 2012. Yang Bi’s translation version of ''Vanity Fair'' was praised and encouraged by many translators, such as Fu Lei (Guo Dingju 2013, 23).

Yang Bi shows target language readers a sense of wholeness by smooth sentence structure amd takes related cultural background into consideration. Owing to her proficiency in Chinese, she can convey the meaning of the original text appropriately to Chinese readers, hence having a great response from Chinese readers (Guo Dingju 2013, 23).

====An Analysis on Nida’s Functional Equivalence from Translation of ''Vanity Fair''====

Thackeray has a sharp eye on his literary works, especially in ''Vanity Fair'', which requires an outstanding understanding and expressive ability of the translator when translating. When comparing the English and Chinese version of ''Vanity Fair'', it’s easy to find that Yang Bi’s translation is good at dealing with words, sentences, chapters, and rhetorical devices. Her translation is natural and smooth that the target language readers feel like reading the traditional novels (Zhang Yanmei 2019, 16). In this paper, two main aspects will be analyzed by the author.

=====At Lexical Level=====

In traditional grammar, one of the kernel parts is Part of Speech. Some regular rules are deeply rooted in our minds, such as adjectives modify nouns, adverbs modify verbs and adjectives, and conjunctions connect parts of sentences. People who learn foreign languages are familiar with these rules. However, the quality of translation will be influenced if these rules are brought into the translation. Under this circumstance, Nida suggests abandoning the traditional grammar and adopting new seven-part-of-speech system(Nida 1943, 89), those are

(1) entities, such as woman, desk, dictionary, and so on;

(2) activities, such as walk, run, swim and so on;

(3) states, such as dead, excited, happy and so on;

(4) characteristics, such as tall, huge, fat and so on;

(5) processes, such as shorten, grow, enlarge and so on;

(6) links, such as when, during, below and so on;

(7) deictics, such as that, there, this and so on (Nida 1986, 20).

From the translation of Yang Bi’s ''Vanity Fair'', we can find that the target text is flexible and functional equivalence of Nida is achieved at the lexical level. Free translation is the main translation method that she adopts. What’s more, she combines different translation techniques, such as combination, addition, and omission to reproduce the origianl meaning in the target language (Zhang Yanmei 2019, 16).

Exampe 1:

ST1: ...for what can be prettier than an image of Love on his knees before Beauty？(Thackeray 2006, 138)

TT1: ……痴情男子向美貌佳人跪下求婚，还不是一幅最赏心悦目的画吗? (杨必 2013, 47)

In ST1, "Love" and "Beauty" are two entities according to Nida’s classification of words(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19). In the original text, Thackeray describes a scene in which Baron proposes to Rebecca. He uses abstract words "Love" and "Beauty" to represent Baron and Rebecca. In TT1, Yang Bi translates "Love" and "Beauty" into "痴情男子" and "美貌佳人" to reproduce the meaning of the original text. Although the words in ST1 are abstract and the words in TT1 are concrete, the meaning of the origianl text is greatly reproduced in the translation, and the translation is even more vivid than the original one. What’s more, the translation contains a humorous tone, and the target language readers can feel humorous and interesting(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19). If we translate "Love" and "Beauty" into "爱情" and "美人", the literal menaing and charm of original text are lost and the style of original text is not reproduced in the target language.

=====At Syntactical Level=====

A sentence is the basic unit of language. In the process of translating Englsih sentences into Chinese, the translator should comprehend the original writer’s intention and then express it in the target language. Thus, the arrangement of sentences should be considered. On the syntactical level, English has long compound sentences which belong to hypotactic sentence, while Chinese has more short sentences which belong to paratactic sentence. What’s more, there are many distinctions between English and Chinese sentences which requires the translator to make proper adjustments. In order to overcome the obstacles of long sentences in translation, Nida put forward a suggestion that one long difficult sentence can be divided into several core sentences. Nida uses the concept of core kernel sentence (Nida 1946, 55). He thinks there are seven types of kernel sentence in English:

(1) subject + predicate + adverbial, such as, John wrote slowly;

(2) subject + predicate + object, such as, John hit Bill;

(3) subject + predicate + object + object, such as, John gave Mary a gift;

(4) subject + be + subject complement, such as, John is in the restaurant;

(5) subject + be + attributive, such as, John is kind;

(6) subject + be + indefinite article + noun, such as, John is a man;

(7) subject + be + pronoun+noun, such as, John is my friend.

The above seven sentences are understandable in human language. No matter what language you speak in communicating with others, the people you talk with can understand your meaning as long as you use simple sentences (Guo Dingju 2013, 32). Nida believes that experienced translators often break down complex sentences into simple sentences when translating the origianl text (Nida 1946, 56). The translator often needs to make proper adjustments and rebuild the sentence structure in the target text. Many examples in Yang Bi’s translation of ''Vanity Fair'' are discovered to simplify the sentences. From her translation, we also find out that functional equivalence is achieved at the syntactical level in Yang Bi’s translation.

Example 2:

ST2: His first marriage with the daughter of the noble Binkie had been made under the auspices of his parents; and as he often told Lady Crawley in her lifetime she was such a confounded quarrelsome high-bred jade that when she died he was hanged if he would ever take another of her sort, at her ladyship’s demise he kept his promise, and selected for a second wife Miss Rose Dawson, daughter of Mr.Johm Thomas Dawson, ironmonger, of Mudbury.
(Thackeray 2016, 75)

TT2: 他第一次结婚的时候,奉父母之命娶了一位贵族小姐,是平葛家里的女儿。克劳来夫人活着的时候，他就常常当面说她是个讨人嫌的婆子，礼数又足，嘴巴子又碎；并且说等她死了之后，死也不愿意再娶这么一个老婆了。他说到做到：妻子去世以后，他就挑了墨特白菜铁器商人约翰·汤姆士·道生的女儿露丝·道生做填房。
(Yang Bi 2013, 76)

In ST2, there is a long and complex sentence and the word quantity of this sentence is eighty. According to Nida’s theory, this long sentence can be divided into several kernel sentences (Nida 1946,76). Yang Bi carefully simplified this long sentence into several short sentences.

(1) 他第一次结婚的时候，奉父母之命娶了一位贵族小姐，是葛平家里的女儿。

His first marriage with the daughter of the noble had been undre the auspices of his parents.

(2) 他经常跟克莱劳夫人说一些事。

He often told Lady Crawley in her lifetime.

(3) 她是个讨人嫌的婆子，礼数又足，嘴巴子又卖力。

She was such a confounded quarrelsome high-bred jade.

(4) 她死后，他许下承诺。

He was hanged after her death.

(5) 他不会再娶这么一个老婆了。

He would never take another of her sort.

(6) 妻子去世后，他遵守了自己的承诺。

At her ladyship’s demise he kept his promise.

(7) 他挑了墨特白菜铁器商人约翰·汤姆士·道生的女儿露丝·道生做填房。

He selected for a second wife Miss Rose Dawson, daughter of Mr. John Thomas Dawson, ironmonger, of Mudbury.

In this example, the sentence structure is transformed from a long complex sentence into seven short simple sentences. Although the sentence structure is different, the meaning of the original is expressed completely in its translation and the target language readers can have a good understanding of the original meaning.

====An Analysis on Yan Fu’s Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance from Translation of ''Vanity Fair''====

The translation of Yang Bi’s ''Vanity Fair'' is a good example of combination of Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegence(Guo Dingju 2013, 23). We will analyze Yang Bi’s translation of ''Vanity Fair'' from lrxical and sentence level.

=====At Lexical level=====

Literary words demands that the translator has good command of comprehensive and expressive abilities. Although many words are equivalence in English-Chinese dictionary, yet it is not easy to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance with mere literal meaning equivalence (Guo Dingju 2013, 25). Thackeray is very particular about the words, so it is not easy for the translator to express the original meaning. But Yang Bi grasps the original meaning and does quite well in his translation, which makes the translation vivid and interesting. Let’s look at how to achieve faithfulness, expressive and elegance in her translation.

Example 3:

ST3: …for what can be prettier than an image of Love on his knees before Beauty? (Thackeray 2006, 138)

TT3: ……痴情公子向美貌佳人跪下求婚，还不是一幅最赏心悦目的画吗？ (杨必 2013, 47)

In ST3, there is a scene of Baron proposing marriage to Rebecca. Thackeray uses the abstract words "an image of Love" and "Beauty" to refer to Baron and Rebecca. What’s more, the original text contains a ridiculous tone, and readers can feel humorous from Thackeray’s words. Only when the translator translates the style and spirit of the original faithfully can faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance be achieved (Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19).

If the words "prettier", "an image of Love" and "Beauty" are translated into "更好看" "爱情形象" "美人" respectively, the style and charm of the original are lost and faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are not achieved in the translation. In Yang Bi’s translaton ,she achieves faithfulness, expressiveness and elegence by her good mastering of language. In TT3, "痴情男子" "美貌佳人" and "赏心悦目" reproduce the further meaning of the original text, which achieves the standard of Yan Fu’s faithfulness. What’s more, expressiveness is also achieved in her translation because the translation is smooth. Meanwhile, these groups of words are elegant, which convey the style and charm of the original text and conform to the characteristcs of literary works. Thus, elegance is also achieved in Yang Bi’s translation (Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19).

=====At Sentence Level=====

English and Chinese are different in many aspects. For example, English sentences are tree-structure and there are many long complex sentences in English, while Chinese sentences are bamboo-structure and they are usually short. English sentences emphasize hypotaxis, while Chinese sentences stress parataxis (Guo Dingju 2013, 40). Thus, it is impracticable to translate English into Chinese without changing sentence structures and it is difficult for the translator to achieve Yan Fu’s standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. There are many long sentences in ''Vanity Fair'', so it is a challenging work for Yang Bi to translate them into Chinese. However, by researching Yang Bi’s translation, we will find out her good performance of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance.

Example 4:

ST4: The amiable behavior of Mr.Crawley, and Lady Jane’s kind reception of her, highly flattered Miss Briggs, who was enabled to speak a good word for the latter, after the cards of the Southdown family had been presented to Miss Crawley. (Thackeray 2006, 74)

TT4: 布立葛丝小姐看看克劳莱先生的态度那么客气，吉恩小姐又待她热情，觉得受宠若惊，等到沙吴赛家里的名片送到克劳莱小姐面前，她就找机会给吉恩小姐说了些好话。(Yang Bi 1997, 6)

In the original sentence, the abstract words "behavior" and "reception" are the subject of the sentence, which shows the static feature of English. If translate it into "克劳莱先生的客气态度和吉恩小姐的热情接待使布立葛丝小姐受宠若惊……" without changing sentence structure, we will find that it doesn’t conform to the expression habits of Chinese. Although it seems to be faithful to the original form and meaning, it is stiff. On the contrary, Yang Bi changes its sentence structure and uses the object of the original as the subject in target language. With this adjustment, Yang Bi changes static language into dynamic one and faithfully reproduces the meaning of the original into target language. What’s more, her translation is smooth and full of beauty of literary works. In a word, the translation of this sentence conform to the standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance.

====A Comparative Study on Translation Theory of Nida and Yan Fu====

===== Similarities =====

Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are very popular in the translation field, which have been used as golden rules in the process of translating (Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). In fact, there are many similarities between them. This paper will research two main similarities of them.

One similarity of them is that they both pay attention to readers’ response. In Nida’s opinion, one of important ways of evaluating translation works is the target text reader’s response to the information conveyed by the original author. Thus, when evaluating a translation work we should pay attention to target language readers. Meanwhile, we should compare the reaction of original readers with the reaction of target readers to see if they are consistent (Nida & Taber 1969, 22).

Yan Fu also attaches great importance to readers. The purpose of his translation is to enlighten the ruling class, who are more proficient in classical Chinese. So Yan Fu advocates using the words and grammar of Han Dynasty (Guo Dingju 2013, 43). Therefore, Nida and Yan Fu both pay attention to readers.

The other similarity is that they both emphasize on conveying information. Nida believes that translation is communication. Translation works are useless if they cannot play the role of communicating (Zhu Haotong 2006, 64). Therefore, the relationship between the target language recipient and the translation information should be the same as the relationship between the original language recipient and the original information (Nida 1969, 30). But sometimes it is difficult to completely convey information in the original text into the target text. In this case, the translator must change the form of the target language to some extent.

Yan Fu also stresses on conveying the original information. He points out that words and phrases can be reversed, added and deleted freely (Guo Dingju 2013, 44). We need not care too much about the order of phrases without losing the original meaning.

By comparing the similarities of Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories, we can find out that they both pay attention to readers and emphasize on conveying information of the original text.

===== Differences =====

Although there are many similarities between these two thoeries, there are still some differences because of the different cultural background, personal consciousness and other factors. Firstly, functional equivalence is more logic and scientific than faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. The former is closely related to multiple disciplines, and it is more systematic, while the latter is merely based on literature and aesthetics (Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). Secondly, Nida gives detailed explanation of functional equivalence, which is clear and accurate, while the explanation of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance given by Yan Fu is somewhat ambiguous (Zhang Yimei 2020, 181). There are a lot of arguments on the explanation of "elegance". What’s more, the concrete explanation of "faithfulness" is not clear. Whether the target text should only be "faithful" to the content of the original text or the content and style of the original is not explicit to translators. Thirdly, in guiding sense, Nida’s functional equivalence mentions four aspects, that is, lexical equivalence, syntactical equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence, and he gives six principles on how to achieve functional equivalence (Nida 1964, 67). However, Yan Fu doesn’t mention how to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, so translators can only use them as the translation standard.

===Conclusion===

With the further communication between Western and Chinese culture, it is vital to study literature as it is a bridge to connect different cultures and a good medium to know the colorful world. ''Vanity Fair'' is a literary work that gains a great popularity in the nineteenth century because it satirizes the hypocrisy of the upper class (Guo Dingju 2013, 22). However, it is difficult to translate it from English into Chinese because of the differences between these two languages. By a coincidence, Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance can be used as a guidance in the process of translation.

From the comparison above, it is known that there are some similarities and differences between these two thoeries. It is believed that these two translation theories both play an important role in translation, guiding us to better understand different cultures.

====Implements====

Based on analysis above, we can see that Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are conducive to our translating works and it is feasible to apply them into translation practice. By comparing Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories, we know that there are many similarities and differences between them and we can find out that Nida’s functional equivalence is systematic and scientific, while the explanation of Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance is not very clear, and the specific ways to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are not given (Zhang Yimei 2020, 181).

What’s more, from the point of modern translation theories, both Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories are very limited. Their theories are suitable in some fields, while in other fields they are not very proper (Guo Ding 2013, 48). All in all, we should learn from other’s strong points to make up one’s deficiencies to make our translation better and apply them into our translation practice.

====Limitations====

Translation of literary works is a very difficult and demanding thing, which requires a good command of both English and Chinese languages, and an excellent understanding of two cultures. Although the author have spared efforts to do the study, there still exist some limitations. Firstly, the examples of Vanity Fair used in the analysis is very limited, so its generalizability is far from adequate. Secondly, this study is restricted because it only takes one translation version of ''Vanity Fair'' as a case study instead of a comparative study between different translation versions.

===References===

Nida, Eugene Albert. (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating''. Leiden: Brill Archive.

Nida, Eugene Albert, and Charles Russell Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill Archive.

Nida, Eugene Albert, and Jan de Waard. (1986). ''From One Language to Another''. Nashville: Thomas Nelson.

Nida, Eugene Albert. (1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Languages Education Press.

Thackeray, William. (2006）. ''Vanity Fair''. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.

Chen Minjie 陈岷婕. (2013). 浅谈严复的信达雅与奈达的功能对等 [On Yan Fu’s "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance" and Nida’s "Functional Equivalence"]. ''科教文汇'' The Science Education Article Collects (236) 94-97.

Guo Dingju 郭丁菊. (2013). 功能对等理论与信达雅翻译理论的比较研究 [A Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness Expressiveand Elegance]. Harbin: Northeast Forestry University 东北农业大学.

Li Jianzhong 李建中. (2009). 中国文学批评史 [History of Chinese Literary Criticism]. Beijing: Peking University Press 北京大学出版社.

Tan Kai 谭凯. (2011). 严复“信、达、雅”和奈达“功能对等”理论的比较研究 [A Comparative Study on Yan Fu’s "Faithfulness Expressive and Elegance" and Nida’s "Functional Equivalence"]. ''青年作家'' Young Writers (1) 43-44.

Wang Yunxi 王运熙, Gu Yisheng 顾易生. (2007). 中国文学批评史新编 [A New History of Chinese Literary Criticism]. Shanghai: Shanghai Classics Publishing House 上海古籍出版社.

Yan Fu 严复 (2009). 《天演论》译例言 [Preface to ''Evolution and Ethics'']. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.

Yang Bi 杨必. (2013)《名利场》 [''Vanity Fair'']. Beijing: People’s Literature Publishing House 人民文学出版社.

Zhang Yanmei 张妍梅. (2019). 功能对等理论视角下《名利场》的翻译 [A Study on The Translation of ''Vanity Fair'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory]. Lanzhou: Lanzhou Jiaotong University 兰州交通大学.

Zhang Xi 张曦. (2014). 翻译硕士备考指南 [A Guide Book to MTI]. Shanghai: Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press 上海交通大学出版社.

Zhang Yimei 张忆美. (2020). 对比“信达雅”与功能对等 [A Comparison on "Faithfulness Expressiveness and Elegance" and Functional Equivalence]. ''中国学术期刊电子出版社'' China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House (2) 180-181.

Zhu Haotong 朱浩彤. (2006). 奈达“功能对等”理论基础的再思考 [Some Thoughts on the Theoretical Bases of Nida’s "Functional Equivalence"]. ''福建医科大学学报'' Journal of Fujiann Medical University (3) 62-65.

--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 15:03, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==English Translation of 2019 ''Government Work Report'' from the Perspective of Eco-translatology 义子楚 Yi Zichu 202070080618 英语笔译==

===Abstract===
In recent years, with the deepening of the reform and opening up, the ''Government Work Report'' has become China's foreign political communication hub conducive to a better understanding by the international community of the work of the Chinese government. Therefore, how to effectively write the corresponding English version and how to fully convey the message of the government's work is one of the main problems for translators. Eco-translatology is an ecological paradigm and research field which defines that translation is adaptation and selection and highlights multi-dimension transformation. This thesis analyzes the English translation of the ''2019 Government Work Report'' from three perspectives: linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions. It is shown that eco-translatology help improve the quality of the English translation of ''2019 Government Work Report'' .

===Key words=== eco-translatology; ''2019 Government Work Report''; multi-dimension transformation

===摘要===
近年来，随着改革开放的不断深入，《政府工作报告》已变成中国对外政治交流的枢纽，有利于加深国际社会对中国政府工作的了解。因此，如何有效地编写《中国政府工作报告》对应的英文版本，从而全面清晰地解释政府工作的内容是政府对外翻译的主要问题之一。生态翻译理论从生态学视角对翻译进行综观的整体性研究，是一个‘翻译即适应与选择’的生态范式和研究领域。本文主要从生态翻译学的多维翻译理论着手，通过语言维、文化维和交际维三个角度对《2019政府工作报告》的英译版本进行分析。分析显示生态翻译理论较好地解决了政府工作报告中翻译难题，提高了英文翻译的质量。

===关键词===生态翻译学，《政府工作报告》，多维转换理论

===Introduction===
The ''Government Work Report'' of the State Council is a review of the work within a year, which the National People's Congress on the Prime Minister of State Court reports to the National People's Congress and the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, including the task of deployment, and the transmission of the priority tasks. Over the past four decades and since reform and opening up, China's overall political, economic, cultural and military strength has grown steadily, and so has its voice in the world. On the one hand, China is recognized and supported by the international community in economic, political and cultural fields. On the other hand, countries hope to have a deeper understanding of China, strengthen ties with China and realize common development. Due to this, the translation of external publicity is particularly important. Let China know more about the world and let the world know more about China.Cheng Zhenqiu，2003)

As the latest work report of the year, the ''2019 Government Work Report'' is not only a comprehensive summary of the work of the government in 2018, but also a plan for the work of the government in 2019. It covers the latest political, economic, cultural and diplomatic developments in China. Eco-translatology theory, which originated in China, provides a new and unique perspective for translation studies and has made great progress in the past two decades. Through the interpretation of the core concepts of eco-translatology, the essay interprets the report language from the perspectives of vocabulary and syntax, and proposes translation strategies based on language dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension, so as to provide reference for the translation of external publicity materials. In order to understand the Government Work Report accurately, we must be combined with the society and culture of China. （Cheng Zhenqiu，2003）

In order to proves that eco-translation is conductive and practical in the process of translating the Government Work Report and summarizes several useful strategies in translating political texts. Moreover, this thesis analyzes the features of ''Government Work Report'', which provides a clear mind for translators in selecting the proper strategies in translation process of the ''Government Work Report''. The essay includes three chapters. The first part introduces the research background of the study and the significance of the study, and also illustrates the previous research on the translation of ''Government Work Report'' at home and abroad. Chapter two surrounds on the theoretical framework of eco-translatology including adaptation and selection principle and multi-dimensional translation principle. Chapter three, as one of the main chapter of the thesis, analyzes the translation of the 2019 Government Work Report from the perspective of eco-translatology.（Cheng Zhenqiu，2003）

===1.Introduction of Government Work Report===

''Government Work Report'' has the features of com prehension and objection, using the data to tell the achievements of all aspects and obey the practical and realistic rules to implementing the plan. Government Work Report emphasizes on the key point of works which has plain and innovative writing style. As a typical political text, Government Work Report manifests distinctive features. First, we need to understand the characteristics of the words, phrases, and sentences in the report so that we can translate them naturally and logically.(Zhou Ji,2006)

====1.1 Lexical Level ====
For ''Government Work Report'' has its own features at m any levels, it often uses the formal and concise words, terminology and plain words at lexical level. And the new, popular words and words with Chinese characteristics are also employed. Therefore, it is very necessary to pay attention to the features at lexical level when analyzing the Government Work Report.(Zhou Ji,2006)

=====1.1.1Formal and Concise Words=====
The expressions like “认真贯彻”(fully implement), “坚定不移纠正”(take stern action against)are quite formal and not common in colloquial conversation. Some expressions like “砥砺奋进”(forged ahead), “攻坚克难”(overcame difficulties) are quite condensed so that the simplest word can explain more meanings. The Chinese four-word structure characteristic can fully satisfy the need of concision, therefore, there are many this kind of structure occurred in the Government Work Report. (Zhou Ji,2006)

=====1.1.2 Terms with Chinese Characteristics=====
As the ''Government Work Reports'' involve many professional fields like politics, economics, livelihood, medicine and technology. Therefore, terms in different fields are inevitable，such as “半拉子”工程 ( Make sure that projects financed by such debts are not stopped half way.); “河长制、湖长制”( river chiefs and lake chiefs ) ; “革命老区” ( old revolutionary base areas ); “民族地区”( areas with large ethnic minority populations ) ; “携号转网”( keep their numbers and switching carriers ); “厕所革命”( the Toilet Revolution ). These words are all unique terms for China ’s national conditions in recent years. If they are translated literally, it will inevitably lead to differences in the understanding of target language readers. In this case, translators must adapt to the ecological environment.(Zhou Ji,2006)

=====1.1.3 New and Popular Words=====
The new words here refer to the popular expressions of the year. They are widely known by people. The internet and other media are also frequently and widely used, such as “好差评”(government service evaluation system); “互联网+”(Internet Plus); “包干制”(the creation of ceilings in funding that enable the retention of unused funds)”僵尸企业”(zombie enterprises);”大病保险”(serious disease insurance ); “绿色发展”(green development). They are too popular on the Chinese social life to let even the government leaders use them and create new ones.(Zhou Ji,2006)

====1.2 Syntactic Level====
In Chinese, the grammatical subject is always absent in a sentence. In Government Work Report, there have lots of this kind of structure frequently. English is a metamorphic language which requires a large number of logical word clauses to build the integrity of language form and meaning. In English grammar, the subject is inevitable so that it can be a complete sentence. (Zhou Ji,2006)
Eg: “困难不容低估，信心不可动摇，干劲不能松懈。” (The difficulties we face must not be underestimated, our confidence must not be weakened, and the energy we bring to our work must not be allowed to wane.)
It is clear that there is no subject in these sentences. However, it adds “we face” and “we bring to work” as subjects to make foreign readers better understand.

====1.3 Rhetorical Level ====
In terms of the rhetorical devices in Government Work Report, repetition, parataxis, metaphor and personification are the figures of speech most frequently used.(Zhou Ji,2006)

In terms of the rhetorical devices in Government Work Report, repetition, parataxis, metaphor and personification are the figures of speech most frequently adopted. (Zhou Ji,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

=====1.3.1 Repetition and Parataxis=====
Repetition and parataxis structure have the reinforcement effect which make the language of Government Work Report vivid and easy to be understood. Although in Chinese, repetition has both the emphasis and coherence effect, in the translation it is not just repeating one word but also keep the similar linguistic structure.
Eg: “进一步稳就业、稳金融、稳外贸、稳外资、稳投资、稳预期”(take further steps to ensure stable employment, a stable financial sector, stable foreign trade, stable foreign investment, stable domestic investment, and stable expectations)
“获得感、幸福感、安全感”(enable people to feel more satisfied, happy, and secure)
“增进稳增长、促改革、调结构、惠民生、防风”(sustain healthy economic development and maintain social stability)

Metaphor and personification, which seem not fit the formal style of Government Work Report, are actually adopted for certain purpose. A metaphor as a figure of speech identifies something as being the same as some unrelated thing for rhetorical effect, thus highlighting the similarities between the two.

Eg:“我国发展仍处于重要战略机遇期，拥有足够的韧性、巨大的潜力和不断迸发的创新活力” (China is still in an important period of strategic opportunity for development and has ample resilience, enormous potential, and great creativity to unleash. )
“在实际执行中，既要把好货币供给总闸门，不搞 “大水漫灌” (In implementation, we will ensure the valve on aggregate monetary supply is well controlled and refrain from using a deluge of stimulus policies)
“放水养鱼”(an accommodative effect)

Repetition and parataxis structure have reinforced that makes the language of ''Government Work Report'' vivid and easy to be understood. Although in Chinese, repetition has both the emphasis and coherence, in the translation it is not just repeating one word but also keep the similar linguistic structure.
Eg: “进一步稳就业、稳金融、稳外贸、稳外资、稳投资、稳预期”(take further steps to ensure stable employment, a stable financial sector, stable foreign trade, stable foreign investment, stable domestic investment, and stable expectations) “获得感、幸福感、安全感”(enable people to feel more satisfied, happy, and secure) “增进稳增长、促改革、调结构、惠民生、防风”(sustain healthy economic development and maintain social stability) Metaphor and personification, which seem not fit the formal style of Government Work Report, are actually adopted for certain purpose. A metaphor as a figure of speech identifies something as being the same as some unrelated thing for rhetorical effect, thus highlighting the similarities between the two. Eg:“我国发展仍处于重要战略机遇期，拥有足够的韧性、巨大的潜力和不断迸发的创新活力” (China is still in an important period of strategic opportunity for development and has ample resilience, enormous potential, and great creativity to unleash. )“在实际执行中，既要把好货币供给总闸门，不搞 “大水漫灌” (In implementation, we will ensure the valve on aggregate monetary supply is well controlled and refrain from using a deluge of stimulus policies)“放水养鱼”(an accommodative effect)

===2.A Brief Introduction to Eco-translatology===

Eco-translatology as a transdisciplinary approach to eco-translatology studies, is a holistic study of translation using ecological rationality and an ecological perspective. It is considered an ecological paradigm of translation which is adaptation and selection. Translator-centered theory, adaptation and selection, and translation ecological environment are the three core concepts of the theory. The theory requires that the translator's subjective and active role be exerted, and continuous adaptation and choice be made in the translation process to meet the entire translation ecological environment, that is, the harmony between the translator and the original, target, and target language readers. Three-dimensional translation methods such as dimension and communicative dimension to get the original text with higher integration.（Hu Gengshen，2001）

====2.1 Evolution of Eco-translatology====
Eco-translation was firstly generated in the beginning of 21st century. Before it was initiated by scholars in China, there was no such notion in theory. In this sense, it could be seen as a new school which “was built from ground” (Haggas, 2011). Eco-translation looks into translation from a brand new perspective. Therefore, many new terms and concepts are adopted in the relative studies. Both of confusion and contribution present themselves in the foundation of eco-translation. To better understand the theory, we need to figure out the basis on which it is formed

====2.2 Focuses of Eco-translatology====
=====2.2.1 Adaption and Selection=====
The relationship between “adaptation” and “selection” has rarely been discussed before the emergence of “translation adaptation and selection theory”, a basic research of eco-translatology, let alone a special topic, systematic description and explanation. According to the theory of adaptation and selection, translators should make both adaptation and selection. There are choices in adaptation, namely adaptive selection; There is adaptation, or selective adaptation. The specific characteristics of such selective adaptation and adaptive selection are as follows: first, “adaptation” -- translators' adaptation to the ecological environment of translation; The second is “selection” -- the translator carries out the selection of the target text with the “identity” of the translation ecological environment. Translation is described as an alternate cycle of adaptation and selection. The internal relations of this cycle are as follows: “the purpose of adaptation is survival and effectiveness, and the means of adaptation is optimization; and the method of choice is “tide weak stay strong”. The criterion of translation criticism is also expressed from the perspective of “adaptation/selection”. The best choice is adaptive; The best translation is the one with the highest degree of integration, adaptation and selection.(Hu Gengshen，2013）

=====2.2.2 Multi-dimension Transformation=====
Language dimension refers to the translator's emphasis on language level, including word use, language structure, language form and other aspects of translation. “Translators should have a deep understanding of the expression habits and methods of the original language, and choose language forms from different dimensions and perspectives, so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the original language” (Hu Gengshen,2013:57). Translators should avoid word-for-word translation for the formal level of language, and should further combine the target language with the imaginary language ecosystem. In this way, it is helpful to further realize the balance between the ecology of the source language and the ecology of the target language of translation, and provide the readers with a harmonious and thought-provoking translation.(Hu Gengshen，2013）

Cultural dimension is an important translation method for translators to improve the quality of translation and realize the multi-dimensional transformation from different levels. The expression of different languages symbolizes different cultures. Of course there are big differences between the original and the target language culture. In the process of translation, to avoid misunderstanding of the original readers fully, conversion of the translator should try to reproduce the original language cultural ecology system, fully implement the original language ecological balance of ecosystem, and the target language to reproduce the original culture, thought and emotion and so on various aspects of the elements, the correct translation methods dealing with the unique cultural connotation, rich in every country to achieve successful communication and exchanges. Translators should understand the value orientation of the original language and culture and focus on the transformation of cultural connotation to achieve the best translation.(Hu Gengshen，2013）

Adaptive selection of communicative dimension focuses on whether the communicative intention in the original text is successfully realized in translation. If the communicative intention of the original information is not realized, the information processed by the translation will have no meaning at all. Translators pay attention to many aspects and levels, including the transformation of language information and cultural connotation, and at the same time, should pay attention to whether the communicative purpose is successfully achieved in the transformation. By all means, it is forbidden to translate the original text faithfully and ignore the deep connotation of the original text.(Hu Gengshen，2013）

By all means, it is forbidden to translate the original text faithfully and ignore the deep connotation of the original text. In a word, the focus of the multi-dimensional transformation in ecological translation theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation from three aspects of language, culture and communication. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, and the higher the quality of the translation will be. (Hu Gengshen，2013）

===3.E-C Translation of 2019 Government Work Report from an Eco-translatology Perspective===
From the perspective of the eco-translatology theory, the multi-dimensional transformation which includes the linguistics dimensional transformation, culture dimensional transformation and communication dimensional can help translator understand and translate effectively.

====3.1 Linguistic Dimension====
The transformation of linguistic dimension refers to the transformation of linguistic form and structure during the practice of translation so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the target language. English is a hypotaxis language, which focuses on the integrity of sentence structure while Chinese is a paratonic language, whose language form is simple, but often the deep meaning needs the reader to dig. Highly condensed Chinese expressions are often used in government reports(Tong Xiaohua,2006)

Example 1 我们坚持不搞“大水漫灌”式强刺激(We were firm in choosing not to adopt a deluge of strong stimulus policies.) “大水灌溉” is an irrigation method commonly used in Chinese agricultural production which water is poured directly into the ground. Not only does it waste water, but it is also prone to secondary salinization under drought conditions. This term is used to refer to a simple and broad way of working in the process of economic reform. In the Chinese ecological environment, it is not difficult for Chinese readers to understand the meaning of metaphors and related words, so a cognitive model for English readers is needed. In order to adapt to the ecological environment, the translator did not translate the metaphor of “flooding”, but chose to translate the economic structural reform model it represents. This not only adapts to the impact of cognitive context on the English language ecology, but also reduces the difficulty in understanding English readers. (Tong Xiaohua,2006)

Example 2 “增强人民群众获得感、幸福感、安全感”(Enable people to feel more satisfied, happy and secure.) In the Government Work Report, “sense of gain, sense of happiness and sense of security” is people's expectation for a better life, and has become a familiar word in the original language. However, in the process of English translation, the translator does not repeat the word “sense”, but turns these three words into three adjectives, which are concise and clear(Tong Xiaohua,2006)

Example 3 “绿色发展人人有责，贵在行动、成在坚持”(Promoting green development is down to every last one of us; its success hinges on action and commitment.) The translator doesn’t translate “贵在行动、成在坚持” into”its value lies in action and its success hinges on commitment”word by word while take the way of integrating. It is a model that targets economic growth and social development as efficient, harmonious and sustainable. In today's world, green development has become an important trend. Many countries regard green development as an industry and also an important measure to promote economic restructuring, and it is also a highlight. Green development means safety, environmental protection and sustainable development. “Green” often appears on topics related to life, such as “Green Peace” and green food. In traditional Chinese culture, “green” represents wealth, honor or prosperity, which reflects people's hope for a better life. From a linguistic perspective, translators translate “green development” to “green,” which conveys the concept of healthy development in China. It can also be accepted by readers. (Tong Xiaohua,2006)

====3.2 Cultural Dimension====
The transformation of cultural dimension means that the translator should pay attention to the transmission and interpretation of cultural connotation in the process of translation, taking into account the cultural differences of the source language. The ''Government Work Report'' is a summary of the work of the Chinese government in various fields in the past year. The purpose of the report is to let foreign audiences know the content of the report. In particular, the report covers a large number of vocabularies with Chinese characteristics and cultural form. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)

Example 4”双随机，一公开”(Oversight conducted through the random selection of both inspectors and inspection targets and the prompt release of results was implemented nationwide.) It means, during the supervision process, the inspection objects are randomly selected, law enforcement inspectors are randomly selected, and the inspection results and investigation results are made public to the society in a timely manner. If the literal translation is only superficial, the readers of the target language will be confused. In order to solve this cultural difference, the translator added the complete connotation of each phrase to realize the intention of conveying cultural connotation. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)

Example 5 “思危方能居安”(Only alertness to danger will ensure safety.) In Chinese, it means”居安思危，思则有备，有备无患”, which means that even though you are in a peaceful environment, you are aware of the possibility of danger. To be mentally prepared for unexpected events. When translating, the translator takes full account of this difference in thinking and understands it as a literal translation after modern Chinese. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)

Example 6 “是广大干部群众筚路蓝缕、千辛万苦干出来的” (...have been made by our officials and people through perseverance and hard work.) “筚路蓝缕” refers that people drive a simple car, wearing ragged clothes to split the mountains. The use of great hardships in the original text fully reflects the hard-won achievements and presents a very vivid image in front of people. However, for the target language readers, this cultural connotation is missing, therefore, the translator chooses to omit the specific image of “enduring hardships” and directly translate its persistence and diligence, which is more understood and accepted by the target language readers(Tong Xiaohua,2014)

Example 6 “是广大干部群众筚路蓝缕、千辛万苦干出来的” (...have been made by our officials and people through perseverance and hard work.) “筚路蓝缕” refers that people drive a simple car, wearing ragged clothes to split the mountains. The use of great hardships in the original text fully reflects the hard-won achievements and presents a very vivid image in front of people. However, for the target language readers, this cultural connotation is missing, therefore, the translator chooses to omit the specific image of “enduring hardships” and directly translate its persistence and diligence, which is more understood and accepted by the target language readers(Tong Xiaohua,2014)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====3.3 Communicative Dimension====
From the perspective of the essence of translation, the ultimate purpose of translation is to meet the needs of communication between people and achieve smooth communication. The communicative dimension mainly reflects the communication between different languages, with different factors such as the way of expression and the way of construction, etc. Chinese expression cannot find the corresponding words or sentences in English expression. Therefore, the theory of adaptive selection is particularly important in translation practice.(Tong Xiaohua,2014)

Example 7”大班额”问题 (“The problem of oversized classes”)
For western countries, due to different economic development levels and different education systems, the problem of “large class size” is relatively strange to western countries. Therefore, it is necessary to explain the concept of “large class size” in order to achieve the purpose of communication.

Example 8”继续推进保障性住房建设和城镇棚户区改造”(We will continue to build government subsidized housing and rebuild rundown urban areas.)
“保障性住房”is a fixed standard, price or rent housing provided by the government to families with low and middle-income housing difficulties. “Shantytown renovation” is a livelihood project launched by the Chinese government to renovate dilapidated old houses in cities and towns and improve housing conditions for poor families. These are the unique policies of the Chinese government to achieve the comprehensive implementation of poverty alleviation, translators need to adapt to the target language readers to understand the transformation.

Example 9 “加大”破、立、降”力度” (We strengthened work to cut ineffective supply, foster new growth drivers, and reduce costs in the real economy.)
In the sentence, there are only three simple and clear words—”破、立、降”，which is usually seen in the Chinese. It lacks the objects, as we have discussed before, English sentence must be complete. If it is literally translated, the foreign readers will be confused and different meanings will be produced. So due to the purpose of communication, the translator adds the specific objects to be better understood.

In short, the emphasis of three-dimensional translation in eco-translatology theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation of translation from three aspects: language, culture, and communication. Although in the process of translation practice the translator is not limited to multi-dimensional transformation. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, the better the translation will be.(Tong Xiaohua,2014)

===Conclusion===

During the process of translation, many factors should be taken into consideration in order to fit with the actual situations and catch public’s attention quickly. Different languages have their language systems and certain features in expression. As the most important carrier of culture, language can also be regarded as an extremely complex linguistic system. Translation is the process of transforming different cultures. Therefore, both source language and target language’s culture should be considered carefully. As a result, every translator is supposed to think about all the aspects before translating and select the most suitable words and sentence patterns.

Because of its important political status and function, the Government Work Report has its unique linguistic features, such as the use of formal words, four-character words and Chinese characteristic words. The mastery of its language features lays a foundation for the application and analysis of multi-dimensional translation strategies. Aiming at the same word in different parts of the sentence translation, the translator should choose according to the sentences and words in the context. Due to the differences between Chinese and English, translators mainly adopt the translation techniques of free translation or joint translation to deal with the translation of parallel structures. In cultural adaptation in the process of translation, or from the historical allusion and the Chinese characteristic vocabulary and culture, the analysis can be concluded that the Government Work Report (斜体)in English translation does not affect the ecological balance and harmonious between the original language and target language, the translator mainly uses the province translation or free translation skills to deal with allusions. For some corresponding expression in target language vocabulary, they can be directly applied with those unable to find corresponding expression in target language. Finally, translators can use these skills to achieve communicative intention. (Yang Guang,2017)

First of all, we have explained the significance and background of the essay. The preview studies of political texts are also included. In the first chapter, we analyze the characteristics of 2019 Chinese ''Government Work Report'' from three levels and also give specific examples to further explain. In the second chapter, We introduce the concept of eco-translatology and mainly explain the two core theoretical principles of eco-transtology to build the foundation of the essay. In the third chapter, we have discussed the ''Government Work Report'' translation from the perspective of eco-translatology with multi-dimension theory and in this way, we have summarized that eco-translatology can be applied to Government Work Report translation. (Yang Guang,2017)

However, this study still has its limitations. Firstly, the eco-translatology is a new theory which is not systematic and it is a new perspective to the translation of political text, which may not be convincing in the global range of translation areas. Meanwhile, as the Government Work Report is a special political document, the readership is not very wide, so it is difficult to conduct an in-depth investigation on the readers' acceptance, so as to make an in-depth analysis on the shortcomings of the English translation of the Government Work Report. (Yang Guang,2017)

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==A Simple Comparison between Nida and Catford’s Translation Theory of Equivalence - 欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling, 202070080603 MTI英语笔译==
<center>欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling </center>
===Abstract===
Abstract: Nida and Catford shared the same period of translation studies but carried on their studies from different perspectives. Nida put forward two types of equivalence and accordingly some methods to achieve his ideal equivalent response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). His equivalence theory was built on his ideas about nature of translation, which was the process of reproducing in the receptor language the message of source language(Nida, 1964: 12). So Nida tends to provide a new direction which is oriented by the receptors. The nature and task of translation in Nida’s opinion formed a theoretical basis to set the equivalence theory in a comprehensive and systematic way.

Catford, in another way, held a idea that any theory of translation must draw upon a general linguistic theory and therefore presented the equivalence at different linguistic levels between source language and target language(Catford, 1965: 1). In his opinion, the equivalence exists between the categories and the conditions to examine the equivalence lie on the relatable extent with the features of substance. Therefore, Catford’s theories seem to be more of abstract. The paper intends to develop a comparative study upon Nida and Catford’s theory of equivalence and my thoughts on their application in translation practices.

===Key words===
Nida; Cartford; equivalence theory; linguistic theories

===题目===
《论翻译对等理论——奈达与卡特福特比较研究》

===摘要===
奈达和卡特福德在翻译学研究中处于同一时期，但二人开展的研究却是基于于不同的角度。奈达提出了两种对等类型，并提出了相应的策略以达到他理想的对等状态，即使译文接受者获得与原文接受者相同的反应（芒迪, 2008: 42）。他的对等理论建立在他关于翻译本质的观点之上，即在接受语中再现源语信息的过程（奈达, 1964: 12）。因此奈达提供了一种以译文接受者为导向的新研究方向，并基于对翻译的性质和任务的界定构成了对等理论的理论基础。

另一方面，卡特福德认为任何翻译理论都必须借鉴一般语言学理论，因此提出了源语言和目的语在不同语言层面上的对等（卡特福德, 1965: 1）。他认为对等是通过范畴表现出来，而判断对等的条件就是原文和译文中各个范畴特性的相关性，因此卡特福特的理论似乎更具抽象性。本文旨在对奈达和卡特福德的对等理论进行比较研究，并对二者在翻译实践中的应用进行思考。

===关键词===

奈达；卡特福德；对等理论；语言学理论

===1.Introduction===

====1.1.Nida’s Theory of Equivalence====
Nida’s translation theories were formed along with the process of his translating the ''Bible''. Through the reflection upon these translation practices, he defined the nature of translation and pointed out the task of translators. Afterwards, he discarded the old term such as “literal”, “free” and “faithful” translation by putting forward the theory of equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42) . The equivalence in Nida’s theory can be achieved at two levels: formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. The two approaches were put forward to realize his ideal translation that equivalent effect between source language receptors and target language receptors(Munday, 2008: 42).

By bringing the two concepts up, Nida provided two directions when working on a translation work as well as standards of evaluating the work after it was done. Specifically, formal equivalence in Nida’s definition is the status of translation being equivalent with the source text in both contents and forms. To achieve this status, translators should be oriented towards the source text’s message and structure. And dynamic, or functional equivalence, turned further to a new focus on the response of receptor. If the target language receptors react to the translation in the same way as source language receptors do to the source text, the success of a translation is then achieved in Nida’s functional equivalence theory(Munday, 2008: 42).

His theory put forward a new trend of translation studies at that time. Nida’s equivalence theory directed people to evaluate a translation by judging and comparing the response of receptors in stead of considering the correctness and accuracy of translation or comparing the formal and stylistic features between source language and target language. In a comprehensive and systematic way, Nida’s equivalence theory elaborated the approaches and the ideal status of translation based on his understanding on the nature of translation, and this equivalence theory has always been praised as his greatest achievement in translation studies(Munday, 2008: 42).

====1.2.Cartford’s Theory of Equivalence====
Catford’s translation theories were built on the discipline of linguistics, and his equivalence theory was included of course. Catford stated in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' that the theory of translation is concerned with a certain type of relation between languages and is consequently a branch of Comparative Linguistics(Catford, 1965: 20). His theory of equivalence was also originated from his definition of the nature of translation, which is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language( Catford, 1965: 20).

In his opinion, in the process of translation, translators are supposed to replace every grammatical and lexical items in the source language with equivalents in the target language. So in this way, the equivalence in Catford’s theory can be graded into different levels according to the extent of the replacement, and then he put forward the distinction of full translation and partial translation. Moreover, he raised another pair of concepts: textual equivalence and formal corresponding, and it may give a clearer picture for us to understand his theory( Catford, 1965: 20).

If the target language text can be judged by bilinguals or linguists equivalent with the source language text in any given discourse or occasion, the textual equivalence is achieved. As regards the formal corresponding, Catford defined it as an approximate status when any target language category occupies, as nearly as possible, in the same place in the structure of the target language as the given source language category occupies in the source language. This pair of concepts presented two different degrees of equivalence and have become a valuable source in translation studies(Catford, 1965: 20).

===2.Similarities and Differences===

====2.1.The Similarities between the Two Theories====
As representatives of the linguistic school of western translation theory, Nida and John Catford's translation theories try to analyze and describe translation more objectively, accurately and scientifically from the linguistic level. The influence of linguistics was exerted in both of their equivalence theory. Also, some translation methods were put forward based on the linguistic level by them. Besides, the approach to achieve the equivalence upheld by Nida and Catford was similar. They tended to depart from the previous word-for-word or literal translation methods and promoted a natural closeness of target text with the source text. Since they held a similar idea that absolute equivalence in translating is never possible, the approach in their view to achieve the equivalence turned out be moderate and flexible(Nida, 1984: 14).

=====2.1.1.The Influence of Linguistics in Both Theories=====
Nida was considered as a representative of communicative theory school, and therefore, he built his equivalence theory based on the communicative purpose. Basically, in the view of Nida, translation can be seen as a communicative activity and the transformation of linguistic form is necessary. From this the influence of Chomsky's linguistics, especially his transformational-generative grammar. Nida believes that Chomsky's transformational-generative view of on language is of great importance to the process of translation(Munday, 2008: 40).

Specifically, the transformational-generative was used for Nida to describe the process of translation, which includes the grammar analysis, transferring and restructuring and the reproducing the information of source text. Chomsky’s generative–transformational model was incorporated in the description of translation process by Nida and, at the same time, it provides the basis of his building of dynamic equivalence, as a component of “the science of translation” in his eyes(Munday, 2008: 40).

Similarly, the influence of Chomsky’s linguistic theories can also be found in Catford’s theory in the following aspects. Firstly, as is defined by Catford, translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language, and here the definition claims that there is sometimes no entire translation but a simple replacement by textual material at one or more levels of language. To be specific, the replacement between source language and target language may be at grammar or lexis levels(Catford, 1965: 20).

Secondly, through his classifications of translation in terms of the extent, levels and ranks, Catford actually gives some standards to discuss the nature of translation equivalence, and these concepts are presented based on the linguistic knowledge. For example, the distinction between full and partial is related to the extent of source text which is submitted to the translation process, and the extent may involve linguistic elements, such as lexical items. The same case occurs in the definitions of total and restricted translation, in which phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are all considered as the elements when estimating the replacement(Li Yang, 2014: 94).

=====2.1.2.The Approach to Achieving Equivalence=====
The key role played by Nida is to point the road away from strict word-for-word equivalence.His introduction of the concepts of formal and dynamic equivalence was crucial in introducing a receptor-based orientation to translation theory(Munday, 2008: 40).

He also divided meaning into linguistic meaning, referential meaning and emotive meaning. Furthermore, several techniques such as hierarchical structuring, componential analysis and semantic structure analysis were presented to analyse the structure of words and differentiating similar words in related lexical fields. The classification of the three meanings and aided translation techniques serve as crucial elements in the mechanism of back-transformation presented by Nida. By the application of back-transformation, the surface structure of the source text is analyzed into the basic elements of the deep structure; these elements are transferred in the translation process into the deep structure of the receptor language and then restructured semantically and stylistically into the surface structure of the target text(Munday, 2008: 40).

The similar approach pointed out by Catford is translation shift, which consists of two major types: level shifts and category shifts. Catford made a distinction in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation between textual equivalence and formal correspondence''. Furthermore, textual equivalence refers to the specific relationship of the source text and translated text while formal correspondence is presented and defined based on the systematic concepts of both source and receptor languages. Since the differences between the two concepts are obvious, the occurrence of translation shift is inevitable(Li Zhidan, 2014:93).

Therefore, by presenting the translation shifts, Catford meant to depart from formal correspondence in the process of going from source language to target language, which means, in a sense, he wanted to achieve the status of equivalence through the approach. In other words, level shifts and categories are presented as some techniques in the process of translation, which can be regarded as similarity when compared to Nida’s theory described above(Catford, 1965: 73).

====2.2.The Differences between the Two Theories====
Before comparing the two theories in terms of the following points, we should make it clear that the development of the two equivalence theories were started with the views of translation nature. Nida and Catford put forward their understandings toward the nature of translation, and, consequently, the central problem of translation practice and the central task of translators were proposed. In Nida’s view, translation is to reproduce information of the original text and exert the same feeling of the receptors with the source language readers(Munday, 2008: 42).

Based on this receptors-oriented and text-centered principle, his equivalence theory turns to be more dynamic because the readers’ response, which is the essential factor to examine, occurs only in the process of the transferring of information. In other words, the behavior of encoding and decoding is a must once the equivalence is achieved. The equivalence in Catford’s view, by contrast, which lies in the internal structure of linguistics, turns out to be more static. The nature of translation given by Catford is the replacement of equivalent textual material between two languages(Catford, 1965: 20).

By saying textual material, he held the idea that equivalence only occurs within the language and through its categories. The context of language and the components of linguistics including phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are considered as elements to examine the equivalence. And in this case, the equivalence between the source text and target text is to be realized by the equivalence of contextual features of both the source and target languages. Catford’s theory of equivalence, in this sense, differed from Nida’s theory by research methods(Catford, 1965: 22).

=====2.2.1.Different Conditions of Equivalence=====
Functional equivalence described by Nida put a great emphasis on communicative effect of translation. He believed if the communication can be created between the source text and its receptors, the equivalent effect should be made when the translated text was presented in front of its receptors. Therefore, the comparison of receptors’ response between source language and target language would be necessary when it comes to the conditions of Nida’s equivalence theory. Besides, the meaning and style of the both texts should also be analyzed in a comparative way because this two factors are very influential in the formulating of receptors’ response. (Munday, 2008: 42)

Firstly, by the division of formal equivalence and functional equivalence by Nida, he tried to generalize the two types of equivalence that focused respectively on the faithfulness and closeness of the receptor language with the source language in both from and the equivalent response. Thus, the conditions to achieve formal equivalence may include accuracy and correctness of translation, which is determined by the approximation to source text structure. Furthermore, Nida put forward “four basic requirements of a translation” as the conditions to examine the achieving of equivalent response, which are making sense, conveying the spirit and manner of the original, having a natural and easy form of expression, producing a similar response. These requirements were generalized to be the conditions of a success of translation. (Munday, 2008: 42)

Since Catford defines translation equivalence as the empirical phenomenon, he discussed the conditions of translation equivalence by specific points within the context of sentences. First, the equivalence from his view is between categories including grammar, lexis, phonology and contextual meanings. From this we can know the same meaning at a linguistic level is hard to be achieved between source language and target language.From this we can know that it's difficult to achieve the same meaning at a linguistic level between source language and target language. In this case, he describe a condition by pointing out a concept of total translation, in which the texts or items in source language and target language are interchangeable in a given situation(Catford, 1965: 49).

In this way, he presented a new condition to evaluate equivalence. Based on this, he further his discussion on total translation by examining the overlapping contextual meanings in the items of source language and target language. He claimed contextual meanings include relationship to certain situational features, a more abstract and broad way to discuss equivalence. Therefore, another condition of equivalence was described as the overlapping extent of situational features common to the contextual meanings. To conclude, Catford classified the conditions of equivalence on different scopes of translation. In the process of evaluating the equivalence in total translation, phonological translation or graphological translation, the examining of the relatable features between source text and target text should be made(Catford, 1965: 49).

=====2.2.2.Different Classifications of Equivalence=====
Since Nida and Catford held different views on the conditions required to achieve the equivalence, they classified translations from different perspective. Nida raised a classification of two types of equivalence: formal equivalence and functional equivalence. These two types actually reflect a shallow to deep tendency of Nida's researches on structure of language. Nida believed that different languages should have the same deep structure and the same functions between languages lead to equivalence in translation. In his view, the functional equivalence occurs when the response of target language receptors is as same as possible the response of source language receptors(Munday, 2008: 42).

In describing equivalence, Nida pointed out that the correspondence between the original form and the target form should not be excessively pursued in translation. Instead, attention should be focused on accurately conveying the meaning of the original text in a natural way. By this dynamic equivalence theory ,Nida paved a road away from the static mode of focusing on the comparison of texts. He believed that only when the target receptors understand the translation thoroughly, the same response can be achieved, and this is the main task of translation. Therefore, Nida’s classification was based on the specific situation in which the receptors communicate with the texts(Munday, 2008: 43).

In Catford’s view, translation is the replacement of textual material. From this definition, he actually drew a line between source language and target language because by textual material he meant to point out that there would be no entire translation of meaning. In his words, at one or more levels of language there may be simple replacement by non-equivalent target language material(Catford, 1965: 20).

Based on this, Catford classified translation into categories in terms of the extent, levels and ranks. Full translation and partial translation are divided by the extent of parts replaced in the process of translation. This two concepts are maybe the basic components of his later presenting of formal correspondence. In his view, formal correspondence is an approximate status in which categories cannot be replaced totally in another language. And by dividing total translation and restricted translation, he intended to involve the replacement of grammar and lexis and consequential replacement of phonology and graphology in his definition. All of these classification provide certain perspective to evaluate the translation and help to create a structure when analyzing the language. In a word, the classifications by Catford was built in the internal language(Catford, 1965: 20).

=====2.2.3.Different Research Approaches=====
To some extent, the research method employed by Nida and Catford was shaped under the guidance of different linguistic theories. Guided by the transformational-generative grammar by Chomsky, Nida analyzed the structure of language and put forward the back-transformation theory that entails the transferring of surface structure to deep structure between source language and target language(Munday, 2008: 38). So the research methods adopted by Nida turns to be more flexible and have a focus on dynamic factor when discussing equivalence. Since Nida's translation theories were built up consciously to serve the research on the translation of ''Bible'', his theories may have distinctive features in guiding the translation practices(Munday, 2008: 38).

In another aspect, Nida held a view that "meaning is universal" and emphasized the common ground between languages, which reflect in his equivalence theory, information conveyed by meaning is the focus To be specific, the equivalence can only be examined during the communication of these information between texts and receptors. Oriented by this communicative principle, Nida therefore took the reader's response as the standard to evaluate the translation. In a word, Nida described the equivalence and its mechanism in a developing process, during which the texts, context and receptors are performing their dynamic role. In a word, Nida’s carried out its study by the method of dynamic comparison, and through his discussion of receptor-oriented principle, his theories greatly contribute to the later translation practices(Munday, 2008: 38).

By contrast, in the process of Catford’s research on equivalence, the system-functional linguistics by Halliday was incorporated. The substance, form and context Language, which are the three basic levels in Halliday’s theory (Halliday, 2004: 16), constitute the categories of Catford’s equivalence theory. Moreover, language was defined by Catford as a patterned behavior and this behavior is casually related to various other features of the situation in which it occurs(Catford, 1965: 2).

Therefore, in terms of research methods, Catford carried out his comparative study mostly from the static and fixed perspective of language. Most of the examples he took are words, phrases and sentences, which are the units of language. He pay little attention to the dynamic context and receptors’ reaction. In describing the formal correspondence, he also held a view that categories of every language is defined in terms of relations holding within the language. In this way, his research methods seem to be more static and fixed in the internal structure of language. Due to the static traits, Catford’s theories may be properly used for reference in academic study on languages because his theories exactly provide a macro framework(Catford, 1965: 27).

===3.My Thoughts on the Two Theories===

====3.1.My Thoughts on Nida’s Theory====

=====3.1.1Strengths and Contributions of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====
In my view, there are many strengths and contributions of Nida’s translation equivalence theory. Firstly, Nida’s research integrated multiple disciplines, which means he set up his theory on a strong basis and it has convincing examples and explanations from various perspectives. The development of Nida’s translation theory can be generally divided into three stages: the stage of descriptive linguistics, the stage of communicative theory and the stage of social semiotics. Nida also developed its equivalence theory from formal equivalence, dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence along with the three stages(Tan, 2017: 132).

Secondly, Nida’s equivalence theory is of significance in training translators, guiding translation practice and more importantly, his functional equivalence offers approaches to studying the communication between the cultures of source language and target language. Nida emphasized the importance of translator's initiative in the translation process because he put forward a principle of equivalent effect. This effect cannot be formulated within the language or items of a text, but through the subjective activities of translators.Therefore, Nida's functional equivalence and dynamic equivalence have offered a guidance to the translators to consider the needs of the target receptors, and to convey the message of source language into the expression that conforms to the habits of the target language(Nida, 1964: 159).

=====3.1.2.Deficiency of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====
Nida’s functional equivalence was mainly applied to the translation of the ''Bible'' , and the criterion of the ''Bible'' translation in his view is to convey the will of God faithfully. Therefore, the translation theory may tend to emphasize on the content rather than the form. For this reason, the range of its application may be limited. For example, when it comes to the translation of poetry that has its own aesthetic value in its form, people cannot simply discuss and analyze it according to Nida’s equivalence theory(Munday, 2008: 38).

What’s more, in Nida’s theory, equivalence is oriented by the response of receptors. However, sometimes, the equivalent effect between source language readers and target language readers is hard to achieve because receptors of different cultures may have different responses. And translation is actually a cross-cultural communication through the translators, who may have their own translation purpose, preference and expressions, so the equivalent effect is also restricted by the difference of translators(Munday, 2008: 42).

====3.2.My Thoughts on Catford’s Theory====

=====3.2.1.Strengths and Contributions of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====
Catford developed his equivalence by going deep into internal system of language. In my opinion, the most important strength of his theory is that he built the equivalence theory in a complete set of linguistic model, which provides a scientific and systematic theory. By introducing broad types of translation respectively according to extent, levels and ranks, he present new categories to discuss the nature of translation and the task of translators. By describing the translation shifts, he made a distinction of formal correspondence and translation equivalence and explained the conditions when equivalence occurs. Furthermore, since Catford believed there is no “total” translation in a strict way for the replacement by all equivalents at all levels can never be achieved, he sought to avoid the rigid trend toward the absolute equivalence and developed his theory in a more scientific and mature wayCaford, 1965:22).

====3.2.2.Deficiency of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory====
Firstly, Catford carried out his research on the structural transformation of the source language and target language simply from the perspective of linguistics. The equivalence in his view is between textual materials, and this equivalence can be achieved at one or more categories in the materials. Therefore, his theory is also limited and underestimates the influence of subjective activities of translators(Wang, 2008: 166).

Secondly, Catford did not pay enough attention to the cross-cultural factors in translation. On his discussion on the limits of translatability, he even pointed out that it may be not necessary to distinguish linguistic untranslatability from cultural untranslatability for the cultural untranslatability may be just caused by the impossibility of finding a equivalent collocation in the target language. This shows he explained the cultural within a linguistic category. I think the translation involves more than language itself or the substituting of lexical terms and grammars, but also cultural elements. Therefore, the research method of Carford’s theory is rather incomplete(Catford, 1965: 101).

===4.Conclusion===
In conclusion, the two theories are developed based on two types of equivalence. Nida presented formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence while Catford put forward formal correspondence and textual equivalence. The two theories share some points in their theoretical basis and approach to achieving equivalence. Besides, Nida and Catford also have their own understanding on the nature of translation and the main task for translators, so they had a distinctive research method in building up their theories especially in the classification of equivalence and the description of conditions. Supported by various theories from other disciplines, the two theories were set up in a systematic way possessing many strengths in such aspects as innovative perspective and scientific research method. However, it need to be emphasized that the two kinds of translation theory should be discussed and evaluated in a critical way and the analysis should be made on the scope of their application(Munday, 2008: 42; Catford, 1965: 27).

===References===

Catford, John Cunnison 卡特福德 (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' 《翻译的语言学理论》. London: Oxford University Press 伦敦：牛津大学出版社.

Halliday, M. A. K. 韩礼德, and C. Matthiessen 马蒂恩森 (2004). ''An Introduction to Functional Grammar''《功能语法导论》. London: Edward Arnold 伦敦：爱德华·阿诺德出版社.

Li, Yang 李杨 (2014). 《纵观翻译等值——卡特福德、奈达比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida.'' 天津商务职业学院学报''Journal of Tianjin College of Commerce'', 第2卷第1期 Vol. 2, No. 1 , 93-95.

Li, Zhidan 李志丹 (2014). 《卡特福德和奈达“对等”翻译理论思辨》 ''Comparing Catford and Nida's Translation Theory of “Equivalence Theory”'' 哈尔滨学院学报 ''Journal of Harbin University'', 第35卷第6期 Vol. 35 No. 6, 93-95.

Munday, Jeremy芒迪 (2008). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' 《翻译学导论：理论与实践》. London ; New York : Routledge 伦敦；纽约：劳特利奇出版社.

Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达, and Charles Russell Taber 泰伯, eds 著(2004). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' 翻译理论与实践. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海：上海外语教育出版社.

Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达 (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating'' 《翻译的科学探索》. Leiden: Brill Archive 莱顿：博睿学术出版社.

Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达. (1984). ''Approaches to Translating in the Western World'' 《西方世界的翻译方法》, 《外语教学与研究》 ''Foreign Language Teaching and Research'', 1984年第2期, 9-15.

Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜 (2017). ''Translation Studies'' 翻译学. Shnghai: Fudan University Press. 上海：复旦大学出版社.

Wang, Ning 汪宁 (2008). 《论翻译中的等值——卡特福德、奈达和巴斯耐特比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford, E.A Nida and Susan Bassnett''. 科技信息 ''Science & Technology Information'', 2008年第三期, 2008(3), 166.

--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 14:46, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Comparision between the traslation systems proposed by Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing 石海瑶 Shi Haiyao 202070080605 英语笔译==
<center>石海瑶 Shi Haiyao 20207080605</center>

===Abstract===
The structure of a discipline can not only enhance people's overall understandings to the discipline, but also plays a guiding role in its development. Since the 21st century, the study of translatology in China has entered a new stage of development and the construction of the system of translatology has received extensive attention. In September 2005, ''A Series of Translation Studies in China'' was written by Professor Tan Zaixi, which theoretically constructed the internal and external structure of translatology. Later in October 2009, Dr. Yi Jing constructed a relatively macro structure of translatology in his PhD dissertation, ''On the Construction of the System of Translatology''. This paper first gives a brief overview of these two systems of translatology and then makes a comparative analysis of their similarities and differences from multiple perspectives. Finally, the author puts forward its own thoughts on this two systems of translatology.

===Key words===
Tan Zaixi; Yi Jing; systems of translatology; comparative analysis

===摘要===
一个学科的体系构建不仅能够促进人们对学科的全方位了解，还能引领该学科的发展。21世纪以来,我国译学研究进入新的发展时期，译学体系构建广受关注。2005年9月，谭载喜教授著《翻译学》，从理论上构建了翻译学的内部和外部框架。2009年10月，易经博士在其毕业论文《试论翻译学体系的构建》中构建了一个较为宏观的翻译学体系框架。本文首先对这两大翻译学体系进行简要概述，之后从多个角度对二者的相似点和不同之处作出对比分析。最后，作者提出本人对这两大翻译学体系的思考和认识。

===关键词===
谭载喜；易经；翻译体系；对比分析

===Introduction===

====Tan Zaixi’s Translation System====

In his book ''A Series of Translation Studies in China'', Tan Zaixi put forward his views on the internal structure of translatology. He deemed that translatology can be divided into three parts: general translatoloty, special translatology and applied translatology. In a more specific sense, translatology should not only include a macroscopic discussion of translation, but also cover a specialized study of bilingual translation as translation (interlingual translation) is the conversion from one language to another (Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). The former of which has theoretical value and helps people understand the essence of translation; the latter has practical value and contributes to guiding translation practice.(Tan Zaixi, 2005:21)

Specifically, the research content of general translatology contains the following four aspects: Firstly, study the human language, culture and the general rules of translation; Secondly, study the general process of translation and the status of translation in the whole scientific system as well as the relationship between translation and other disciplines; Thirdly, discuss the nature, function and standard of translation as well as the general responsibilities and conditions of translators from a macro perspective; Fourthly, investigate the history of translation from the perspective of synchronic and diachronic translation studies (including not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation). Differing from general translation, the study of special translation includes three aspects: Firstly, study the specific problem of mutual translation between two languages; Secondly, make a comparison between the two languages and cultures; Thirdly, put forward theories that can guide translation between two specific languages. Moreover, applied translatology is directly related to translation practice, which covers two aspects: On the one hand, it studies how to apply theories of general translatology and special translatology to translation practice, translation teaching, translation criticism, compilation of translation reference books and machine translation; On the other hand, it aims to explain the purposes, functions, standards procedures and methods of translation as well as their interrelations on a micro level.(Tan Zaixi, 2005:21)

In fact, the above three parts of translatology are closely linked and inseparable that knowledge of special translatology and applied transltology are the foundation of studying general translatology, in turn, the knowledge of general translatology can also guide the study of special translatology. Thus, we can see both general translatology and special translatology need to conduct further research into applied translatology and obtain feedback information from the practical application of the theories so as to continuously develop and improve the theories. (Tan Zaixi, 2005:22)

From the above explanation, the diagram of Tan Zaixi's system of translatology can be drawn as following:

[[File:Tan Zaixi.jpg]]

====Yi Jing’s Translation System====
According to Yi Jing’s thoughts, the system of translatology should include: introduction of translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). These five parts constitute the organic system of translatology. IT helps people to form a relatively basic and comprehensive understandings of the macro system of translatology, it is the foreshadowing and general outline of the system of translatology, taking the concrete question research as the main body. In terms of the TTH, TTI, TTP and MTT, their relationship is complementary, mutual influence and mutual support, which together constitute the organic wholeness of the macro system of translatology(Yi Jing, 2009:197).

The IT can be divided into the following five aspects: Firstly, the foundation of translatology. By reviewing the development of Chinese and foreign translation practice and theory, the necessity of the construction of translatology are explained. Since there is no consensus on the independent status of translatology, this part needs to be included in the IT. If the independent discipline status of translatology is widely recognized in the future, this part can be omitted. Secondly, the value of translation, that is, the role of translation at different levels. Generally speaking, the value of translation involves the individual value, social value, ideological and cultural value, literary value and language value of translation. Thirdly, translation practice as well as the nature, definition and position of translatology. In addition, the object, basic task, purpose, research method and research status of translatology, and the basic structure of translation system are also introduced accordingly. The core research object of translatology is the practice of bilingual conversion. The main task is to explore the development of translation practice and translation theory, and to reveal the historical context of translation development. The purpose of translatology research is to sum up history, study the present, promote the translation research and practical work at present and in the future, and to a certain extent, promote the spiritual and cultural construction of human beings. The basic research method of translatology is based on empirical description and combined with principle. The research status of translatology mainly includes the development of translation practice and translation studies in various periods of history, the schools of translation studies and the representative figures and theories of various schools, the main or popular topics in translatology and the development direction of translation studies. At last, the basic characteristics of translatology. Eg. stability and openness, comprehensive integrity and discipline independence. Generally speaking, the IT is a comprehensive and general description of translatology, and an introduction to the whole system of translatology(Yi Jing, 2009:198-200).

The TTH mainly focuses on the development of translation practice and translation theory, and also discusses the development of translation history theory itself. There are five important branches of TTH: introduction of TTH, history of translation practice, history of translation theory, thematic history and meta-theory of TTH. The introduction is a general descriptive branch of TTH, which generally describes translation history theory; the study of history of translation practice covers the study of general history and dynastic history; the exploration of the history of translation theory and the collation of the formation of translatology are very necessary for people to understand the development of translation theory and translatology itself, and play an instructive role in today's translation research; the thematic history involves the study of translators, translation works, history of translatology, translation history and culture, translation institution history, translation teaching history and so on; the meta-theory of TTH studies translation history theory itself, that is, the development and research situation of TTH itself(Yi Jing, 2009:200-215).

The TTI consists of the general theory and the specific theory. The general theory refers to the fundamental viewpoint of translation practice, it is a theoretical branch of studying the fundamental principles of translation practice as well as the understanding of the most universal, general and basic principles of translation practice. The specific theory involves a series of basic problems derived from the general theory, it covers a wide range of aspects, including transltion’s meaning, translation’s standard, methodology, process, style, subject, types and so forth.(Yi Jing, 2009:215-268).

The TTP refers to the applied research of translation theory, which is the concrete application and confirmatory research of translation theory in practical activities. It is mainly divided into three aspects: practical analysis, translation criticism and translation teaching. Practical analysis is to prove the correctness of the existing theory with examples, and to illustrate the applicability of the theory, it can produce three kinds of results, that is, complete application, partial application and complete inadaptability. The main task of translation criticism is to evaluate the translation process and its translated works. The third branch is the teaching of translation, it discusses how to apply the basic knowledge of translation to translation teaching and language teaching, so as to cultivate students' language ability, translation practical ability and translation theory level. (Yi Jing, 2009:268-281).

The MTT is a theory formed by studying the discipline of translatology itself. Its research object is the theoretical system and discipline group of translatology, which should include at least the following eight branches: (1) the regularity, rationality and validity of the description of translation, including terms, concepts, propositions, etc; (2) the research object, function, nature and status of discipline, theoretical structure, logical category, progressive standard and the research method of translatology itself; (3) the way of forming the theory of translatology and the different research paradigms, which reveal the deep-seated structure, internal contradiction and development rule of the translatology hidden from the theory of translation; (4) The principles that should be followed in the construction of the theory of translatology; (5) The role of social and cultural conditions in the emergence and development of translation theories and methods in a certain historical context; (6) The study of the community of translatology, the identification of various academic groups, the analysis of the influence of these groups and their connections on translation theory; (7) Applying basic meta-theory categories to identify and summarize the current situation of translation theory, and to reveal the major theoretical problems in translation studies; (8) Other issues concerning the examination of translatology itself(Yi Jing, 2009:281-287).

From the above explanation, the diagram of Yi jing’s system of translatology can be drawn as following:
[[File:shihaiyao.jpg]]

The translations of the above terms are as following:

[[File:Shu Yu.jpg]]

===Similarities and Differences===

====The Similarities between the Two systems====

=====Both deem translatology as an independent discipline=====

In 1951, Dong Qiusi published ''On the Construction of Translation Theory'' , which clearly put forward the idea of establishing translatology. In 1987, the first national seminar on translation theory was held, which unfolded a new era of the construction of translatology in China. Tan Zaixi came up with the slogan of establishing translatology in his paper ''Translatology must be established'', which triggered extraordinary response. Whether translation can become an independent discipline has been heated discussed in translation circles.

From the above descriptions, we can see that both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing have a strong consciousness and a clear orientation of discipline towards translatology. Tan Zaixi holds the view that translatology is a science to study translation, which is an essential communicative activity of human beings. It has its own rules, which can be categorized, summarized and described by scientific methods, and can serve the communicative activities of human beings. According to Yi Jing, the formation of the independent discipline status of translatology is the inevitable result of the historical accumulation of translation practice and translation theory as well as an urgent requirement for the development of the whole translation field to modern and contemporary times.

It is based on the consensus that translatology is an independent discipline that Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward their own views on the construction of the system of translatology. Therefore, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that translation is an independent discipline, which is the first similarity of their system of translatology.

=====Both define bilingual conversion as object of translation=====

In the 1950s, from the perspective of semiotics, Jakobson divided translation into three categories according to different language signs: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. Intralingual translation refers to that to explain other verbal symbols using original language symbols in the same language field. Interlingual translation refers to the translation between two different languages, and Intersemiotic translation refers to the translation that to explain verbal symbols by using non-verbal symbols.

For this theory, Tan Zaixi pointed out in his translation system that translation (specifically refers to intralingual translation) is a plural and theoretical perspective of switching from one language to another(Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). It indicates that Tan Zaixi's views on object of translation practice is bilingual conversion. Yi Jing also suggested that the specific research object of translatology is bilingual conversion and some phenomena related to bilingualism(Yi Jing, 2009:132).

Therefore, it is obvious that the two systems insist that the object of translatology is bilingual conversion.

=====Both identify comprehensive faithfulness as standard of translation=====
The discussion about standards of translation has always been a hot spot in the translation circles, which is the core problem and key task of translation theory. Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing reach an agreement that the standard of translation should be based on sufficient translation practice. Tan Zaixi proposed that the general standard of translation is that "all translations must be faithful to the original text". Taking this abstract standard as the premise, a series of specific standards can be produced, such as "faithful to the original content ", " faithful to the original form ", " faithful to the original effect ", " faithful to the original function" and so on, which serve different purposes(Tan Zaixi, 2005:38). And Yi Jing believed that "comprehensive faithfulness to content, form and style" is the highest standard of translation and the most ideal condition of translation(Yi Jing, 2009:239).

As mentioned above, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that the standard of translation is comprehensive faithfulness. To elaborate it, they also list different aspects of faithfulness, which can be adjusted to specific requirements according to different text types, whereas there is consensus on the core idea of faithfulness.
Next, I will explore the differences between the two translation systems.

====The differences between the Two Translation Systems====

=====Different structures of translation system=====

From the above diagram of Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing’s system of translatology, we can know that Tan Zaixi’s system of transltology merely includes three parts, that is general translatology, special translatology and applied translatology. The research contents of each part are not clearly distinguished and classified, especially the definition of general translation and special translation is vague, which should be further discussed. In contrast to the system of Yi Jing, he divided it into five parts, that is introduction of the translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). For these five parts, Yi Jing clearly illustrated the branches of each part, and its division is rigorous, each branch forms a logical and well-connected system, leaving people a refreshing impression. Moreover, this system exploratory and open, Yi Jing suggested that he holds a welcoming attitude to other systems of translatology, and it can not be assumed arbitrarily that the system is more comprehensive and profound than others.

Thus, we get to know that Tan Zaixi’s system of translatology is more general and rough, while Yi Jing’s is more systematic and inclusive.

=====Different views on the study of translation history=====

Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward different views on the study of translation history. In Tan Zaixi's translation system, the general translation refers to the history of translation, that is, to study the history of translation from the perspective of diachronic and synchronic translatology, which includes not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation(Tan Zaixi, 2005:21). While in Yi Jing’s system of translatology, one of the five branches of TTH mentioned: the study of translation history can be multi-angle and multilevel. From the time span of the study, translation can either be general or dynastic; it can study the translation history of translators and different text genres, or discipline translation history, such as literary translation history, scientific translation history and religious translation history(Yi Jing, 2009:211).

we can know that Tan Zaixi's study of translation history is more macroscopic, which based on different countries, different regions and different historical periods, while the study of translation history of Yi Jing is more specific and detailed, taking translators and various literary genres into account, in addition, he proposed that vertical comparison and horizontal comparison can be used in these factors, reaching almost every aspect of the issue.

=====Different views on translation process=====

For the process of translation, Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing presented their views. Tan divided the process of translation into two types, namely, psychological process and practical operation process. Psychological process is the embodiment of human brain receiving and transforming information, but Tan did not put forward specific steps for practical operation process, which is still open to question. In Yi Jing’s system of translatology, the translation process theory is mentioned in the second branch of the TTI. Yi Jing thought that the translation process can be divided into broad sense and narrow sense. The process of translation in a broad sense includes the selection of the original text, the preparation before translation, the specific translation process, the refinement of the translation and the process of testing and evaluating the translation; the narrow sense refers to the process from reading and understanding the original text to finalizing the translation(Yi Jing, 2009:253).

From the above descriptions, we can see that they define the translation process from different angles. Tan Zaixi divides the translation process into two aspects: psychology and practical operation, while the study of translation process proposed by Yi Jing is more multi-angle, and its broad translation process is not only confined to the process itself, but more comprehensive.

===My Thoughts on the Two Systems===

====My Thoughts on Tan Zaixi’s Translation System====

=====Contributions of Tan’s Translation System=====

First of all, Tan Zaixi's construction of translation system has laid solid foundation on some basic pioneering works of translatology. The establishment of basic concepts and categories is the basic work of discipline construction. Before the publication of A Series of Translation Studies in China, the art theory and science theory of translation and whether translation can become a science were the focus of scholars in the translation circles, but the polysemous word "translatology" is not defined. Thus, two different concepts were confused, that is translation and translatology, they discusses two different levels of problems, and emphasizes on personal reasons in a one-side way, resulting in two incompatible theories of translatology between art school and science school. In this book, Tan Zaixi clearly defined the concept of translation and translatology, clarified some vague understandings, and promoted the development of translatology.

Secondly, Tan Zaixi's translation system has a strong sense and a clear orientation of discipline. The significance of the definition that "translatology is an independent discipline" is not merely its theoretical value, but it involves many important issues about the theoretical development and how to construct the discipline. With a clear sense of independent discipline, Tan Zaixi discussed some constructive and guiding problems such as the research object and field of translatology, the discipline framework of translatology, and the research approach. His unique translation system is a valuable exploration and attempt in Chinese translation circles.

Moreover, in Mr. Tan's view, translatology is not merely a discipline with Chinese characteristics. Because it involves different languages and cultures, Translatology should be constructed from four dimensions: past and present, at home and abroad. In this regard, he believes that a comparative study of Chinese and Western translation theories should be carried out with the open mind of "harmony in diversity", which is undoubtedly of great value. Construction of translatology needs to integrate Chinese and Western theoretical resources as well as learn widely from other’s strong points. Based on this, Tan Zaixi's construction of translatology fully reflects his broad mind.

=====Deficiencies of Tan’s Translation System=====

As is known to us, Tan Zaixi has made great contribution on the construction of the system of translatology, but there is no perfect system in the world. Here, I list two points remain to be discussed.

Firstly, the definition of general translation and special translation is not clear enough. In the actual translation process and translation research, general and special are contradictory and unified. Tan Zaixi's view on special translation includes the study of the specific translation of two languages, and the general principles of translatology needs to find out the common law by studying the translation of different languages. Therefore, the general rules of translatology must also be included in the research object of special translation, but this does not appear in its translation system, so its integrity is still open to question.

Secondly, Tan Zaixi discusses the construction of the system of translatology in A Series of Translation Studies in China, but the branches of its translation system are not fully explained in this book, such as the responsibilities of translators in general translation and for the contents of applied translation, it has only put forward the idea, but has not made the detailed explanation. In addition, the structure of the book is not organized according to its translation system, this is indeed a great pity.

=====My Perspective towards Tan’s Translation System=====

The great influence and contribution of Tan’s translation system on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not universal. According to the advantages and disadvantages of this system, we should treat in a dialectical way. Tan’s translation system has made foundation on the establishment of translatology and played a pioneering role in the development of translatology, but some deficiencies are avoidless. Therefore, we should treat Tan Zaimxi’s translation system in a comprehensive view. On the whole, Tan’s translation system can be regarded as a great progress and precious treasure in translation circles.

====My Thoughts on Yi Jing’s Translation System====

=====Contributions of Yi’s Translation System=====
First of all, the construction of the system of translatology proposed by Yi Jing based on a large number of theoretical research and historical data analysis. Yi Jing collated many kinds of materials in the field of translation, analyzed the views of many scholars and came to his own understandings, so that the system of translatology is coherent and smooth in writing. He selectively analyzed the views expressed by important scholars at home and abroad in the construction of translatology and made a comprehensive comparison of the proposed translation system model. Drawing on the essence of others' thoughts, he put forward his unique system of translatology, and strove to deepen the research on the construction of the system of translatology.

In addition, the framework of Yi’s translation system is clear and rational. He comprehensively introduced the Chinese and foreign translation theory research, each part is closely related, making the reader know at a glance. Yi Jing abandoned the conceptual knowledge infusion and rigid theoretical instruction, and focused more attention on tracing back to the source. He regarded the role of Chinese and foreign translation in the development process in a dialectical way with an open mind. At the same time, the dynamical development of translation system is manifested in the construction of complex translation system. He explained deeply that the establishment of translatology is the necessity of social development and the inevitable result of the academic development, all of these have played a positive role in guiding readers to view the current Chinese translation system from a correct perspective.

=====Deficiencies of Yi’s Translation System=====

However, nothing is perfect, Yi Jing’s translation system is no exception without doubt.

Firstly, in the construction of the system of translatology, there are some viewpoints need to be further analyzed. The construction of translation system is a grand subject, which can not be completely completed in such a PhD dissertation, thus it leads to not comprehensive enough. For example, Yi Jing put forward the theory of translation history and clarified its new structure, but the analysis is not detailed enough, and it mainly focused on describing the research methods of translation history and attention points during the process.

Moreover, the traditional translation history research is divided into two branches: the history of translation practice and the history of translation theory. The author thinks that the division is too simple in terms of the importance and reality requires of the theory of translation’s history. Therefore, apart from the above two branches, the theory of translation’s history should cover another three branches: introduction of TTH, thematic history and meta-theory. In this section, the author focuses on the disadvantages of the traditional division. But he doesn't make a thorough analysis of his new division. What is the necessity of such a division of the theory of translation history? what are the advantages of such a division? Can this division completely avoid the flaws of the traditional division? Actually, the author did not give a strong illustration of these substantive problems, nor did he explain them in detail, which directly leads to a sense of relative superficiality.

=====My perspective towards Yi’s Translation System=====

Although there are more or less shortcomings in the analysis of viewpoint argumentation, this dissertation provides a new perspective and path for the discipline of translatology, and to some extent, makes up for the deficiency of the traditional construction of translation system. According to Yi Jing’s summary and organization of a variety of materials in the field of translation at home and abroad, he is not only reproduce the history of translation but make history. Generally speaking, the author believes that the contribution of Yi Jing’s translation system to the development of translatology is far greater than its deficiencies.

===Conclusion===

This paper first gives a brief introduction of the two translation systems, based on it, drawing corresponding diagrams for the two translation systems, and then compares the similarities and differences between the two systems in detail. At last, the author puts forward her own thoughts on this two translation systems in a dialectical way. Through the above comparison, we can find that both Tan Zaixi’s translation system and Yi Jing’s translation system have their own advantages and disadvantages, but their virtues far outweigh faults and differences are greater than similarities. Both of them have made great contributions to the construction of translation system with their own unique strengths.

===Refrences===

[1]Chen Fukan陈福康.(2000)中国译学理论史稿[A History of Translation Theory in China]].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海:上海外语教育出版社.

[2]Fang Mengzhi方梦之.(2016)当今世界翻译研究的格局—兼论21世纪中国翻译研究的崛起[The Pattern of Translation Studies in the World -- On the Rise of Chinese Translation Studies in the 21st Century] 外语教学理论与实践. Foreign Language Learning Theory and Pactice（3):55-63.

[3]Lan Hongjun蓝红军.(2018)从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究[From Subject Consciousness to Theoretical Construction: A Study of Chinese Translation Theory (1987-2017).]中国翻译.Chinese Translation(39):7-16.

[4]Tan Zaixi谭载喜.(1987)必须建立翻译学[Translatology muct be Established].中国翻译.Chinese Translation.(b3): 2-7.

[5]Tan Zaixi谭载喜.(2005)翻译学[A Series of Translation Studies in China].Wu Han:Hu Bei Education Press 武汉:湖北教育出版社,.

[6]Xu Jun,Mu Lei许钧,穆雷.(2009)翻译学概论[An Introduction to Translation Studies].Nan Jing:Yi Lin Press 南京:译林出版社.

[7]Yi Jing易经.(2009)试论翻译学体系的构建[On the Construction of the System of Translatology].Hu Nan Normal University 湖南师范大学.

==Comparison of translation theories by Eugene nida and Susan Bassnett 胡慧芳 Hu Huifang 202020080604==

胡慧芳 Hu Huifang 20202008060

==='''Abstract'''===
Eugene Nida and Susan Bassnett are both famous translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Nida proposed the translation theory of "dynamic equivalence", and Bassnett proposed the concept of "cultural equivalence". Although Nida and Bassnett emphasized the concept of "equivalence" or "equivalence" in their respective translation theories, the theoretical content is quite different. This article starts with the background of the two people's translation theories and the interpretation of their respective translation concepts, to make a preliminary comparative analysis of the differences and similarities between the two people's translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding of the two people's translation theories.

==='''Key Words'''===
Eugene Nida ;Susan Bassnett; dynamic equivalence; cultural equivalence

===摘要===
尤金·奈达与苏珊·巴斯奈特都是西方翻译史上著名的大翻译理论家和翻译家。奈达提出了“动态对等”的翻译理论，而巴斯奈特提出了“文化等值”的概念。奈达和巴斯奈特虽然在各自的翻译理论中都强调了“对等”或“等值”的概念，但理论内容却大相径庭。本文从两人翻译理论产生的背景和对各自翻译观的解读入手，来对两人的翻译理论的不同点和相通性进行初步对比分析处理，从而达到对两人翻译理论更深理解。

===关键词===
尤金·奈达；苏珊·巴斯奈特；功能对等；文化等值

===1.Introduction===
Eugene Nida is a well-known American translator, translation theorist, and PhD in linguistics. He was born in Oklahoma City in the south-central United States. In 1936, he studied at the University of California, and later received a master's degree in Greek "Bible New Testament" studies from the University of Southern California. In 1943, he received a PhD in linguistics under the guidance of Bloomfield and others. He served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Association for a long time, and in 1968 he was the president of the American Linguistic Society.

In addition to translation theory, Nida has engaged in research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, and communication engineering. He has also been engaged in Bible translation work for a long time, and has investigated a large number of languages, especially minor languages in Africa and Latin America. . Nida is engaged in translation studies and has written many books. From 1945 to 1986, he published nearly 200 articles and more than 30 books (including co-authored and co-edited works), including 16 monographs on translation and linguistics, the most important of which is "Toward a Science of Translation" "The Theory and Practice of translation" etc.

His "dynamic equivalence" translation theory and "reader's response theory" translation standards not only have considerable influence in the western translation circles, but also promote the transformation of Chinese translation theory circles. Dr. Nida broke the research paradigm that emphasized static analysis in traditional Chinese translation theory research, and put forward a new idea of open translation theory research, which has brought enlightenment for the establishment of a new translation theory model in my country's translation theory community.

Susan Bassnett is a professor, translator, author and Courier at the Graduate School of Comparative Literature Theory and Translation at the University of Warwick, United Kingdom. As a leading figure in the school of Translation culture, her concept of "cultural equivalence" and related translation theories have exerted a great influence on contemporary translation studies.

There are some similarities between Nida's "dynamic equivalence" and Barnett's "cultural equivalence", but there are also many differences. This paper starts with the "similarities and differences" and "differences" between the two, in order to have a more comprehensive understanding of these two theorists and translators and their translation theories, so as to deepen the understanding and understanding of their translation purposes. Theory.

===2.The background of the two translation theories===

Before the birth of cultural translation school, linguistic school, functional school and structuralist school were the main schools in the field of western translation theory research. Representatives of the linguistic school, Jacob Button, Catford, and Nida, put more emphasis on equivalence in translation issues. They believe that translation is to replace one language material with an equivalent language material; functional school The representative figures Les, Nord and Mantari believe that the focus of translation studies should be the target text, not the original text. Their theoretical sources are mainly communication theory, action theory, information theory and reception aesthetics.

But whether it is the linguistic school, the functional school or the structuralist school, in their research process, they are more or less trying to achieve language equivalence from all levels of text content and form. Translation researchers] hope to find a scientific and effective method to solve the various problems faced by translation, but cultural diversity determines the diversity of text cultural connotations. Therefore, these researchers have encountered great troubles when they encounter a context that is quite different from their own cultural background. The cultural translation school was born to better solve these problems.

Before the 1970s, translation theorists mainly studied various translation problems from linguistics. After the 1970s and 1980s, the acceleration of globalization, the acceleration of information dissemination, and the diversification of communication methods have made the relationship between language and culture closer. In information dissemination, language differences have become more prominent, and the status and role of translation activities have also changed. Therefore, with the acceleration of globalization and the popularization of multicultural views and values, translation theory researchers who conform to the trend of the times pay more and more attention to the diverse cultural values embodied in translated texts.

===2.1 The background of Eugene Nida’s cultural equivalence theory===
Nida's "dynamic equivalence" translation theory was deeply influenced by his time. At the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, linguistic studies in the United States really started. It was not until the beginning of the 20th century that American linguists who studied in Europe and were influenced by Europe began to study American linguistics. They developed American descriptive linguistics and structural linguistics. Beginning in the 1940s, American linguistics began to have a huge impact on world linguistics research. During this period, the representative figures in American linguistics were Boas, Sapir and Bloomfield.

Although their theories are not exactly the same, they are basically structuralism and descriptive linguistics (Liu Runqing, 2002). Nida learned and grew up during this period. In 1943, he obtained a doctorate in linguistics under the guidance of two famous masters, Bloomfield and Fries. Therefore, his thinking is deeply influenced by Bloomfield, an American structuralist, and Sapir, a human linguist, and he emphasizes the collection and analysis of language materials in language research.

Since the 1950s, Nida has been the executive secretary of the Translation Department of the American Bible Society for many years. Nida has proposed and started to use dynamic equivalence theory to guide the practical work of "Bible" translation. In translation projects organized by the American Bible Society since the 1950s, translators have generally followed the theory of dynamic equivalence (Tan Zaixi, 1991).

===2.2 The background of Bassnett’s cultural equivalence theory===
As one of the most representative figures of the cultural translation school, Susan Bassnet's translation concept with cultural translation theory as the core has had a significant impact on contemporary translation studies. In the introduction to "Translation, History and Culure" (Translation, History and Culure), Andre, Lefevere and Susan Basnett proposed that "Culural lurn" (culural lurn)-the term, this is the concept that was first proposed from here.

According to Bassnett, the linguistics of translation faces the following problems: Machine translation method is an effective method, but it is not applicable to literary translation. In response to this situation, Bassnett points out that translation research methods should undergo a cultural turn (cultural turn). In her opinion, translators must carry out their translation activities in a specific cultural context, and they should not carry out their translation activities in cultural isolation under the influence of their own cultural background. In short, Bassnett's view of cultural translation is that translation is not a purely linguistic activity, but is rooted in and influenced by linguistic culture.

===3.Susan Bassnett and Eugene Nida’s translation theory===

===3.1 Nida' s“dynamic equivalence" Theory===
“Dynamic equivalence” is the core conception of Nida ’s translation theories. the essence of it is a receptor-centered theory of translation that aims at achieving a“dynamic”equivalence between the effect obtained from respective readers of the originaltext and the translated version, which requires that translators view from the angle of the sense and spirit of the original instead of rigidly adhering to language structures of it. That is, not rigidly adheringto formal equivalence. The theory of“dynamic equivalence" is the most well- known and the most frequently discussed theory, and the focus of discussions on it may attribute to different interpretations of the term "equivalence".

3.1.1The nature of "equivalence"

"Equivalence" is an important proposition in translation, because it involves the essence of translation, translation norms, quality and translation evaluation and other key issues. "Mathematical equivalence" is the relationship between absolute symmetry and equivalence in mathematics. But in many English dictionaries it has an obscure meaning that something is similar or essentially the same. So, does the concept of equivalence in translation theory derive from its absolute mathematical reference, or is it borrowed from its vague meaning as a word in general linguistics? According to many translation theorists, including Nida, the latter may mean more than the former.

" Equivalence" is a scientific descriptive notion that is more objective that "loyalty" or "faith", for the concept of "loyalty"or "faith" refers to attitudes of translators while "faithful translation" indicates the quality of translation. But "equivalence" involves no translator' s attitudes, and thus let us get a more explicit conception. The "equivalence” needed in translation is a comprehensive impact, not mechanically synthesizing equivalence of linguistics,semantics and pragmatics, but taking into account factors in different levels all around with artistical views and accomplishments of different cultures and languages.

The historic contribution of Nida's" dynamic equivalence" is that it provides a convincing solution to the dispute of literal translation and free translation held by many western translation theorists for about 2000 years. Literal translation emphasizes equivalence in language forms and the effect oftranslation is overlooked while free translation focuses much more on “beauty” of translation effect with litle regard to equivalence.Nida' s "dynamic equivalence". however, puts emphasis on equivalence of both effects and then solves this contradiction.

3.1.2 Views on Nida s theory of " dynamic equivalence”
It has been mentioned above that Nida s "dynamic equivalence" theory is the most influential as well as the most frequently criticized and reproached due to dfferent interpretations of the theory. And here, a ittle more comments are given to be shared.

3.1.2.1Apprehension of the theory
What Nida's values a lot in dynamic equivalence" is that receptors of the two languages ( SL and TL) have approximately similar response and get basically equivalent ffect( Yang Liu， 2006). The great contribution Nida made was to shift the focus from the comparison of the source- language and the target- language texts to acomparison of the two communication processes involved." (Jin Ti,,1998:231) Thus, Nida's dynamic equivalence " focuses mainly onthe relative side of " equivalence " rather than absolutizes the term,which may imply that the equivalence theory in translation does originally mean something relative, obscure and indistinct.

As a relative conception, the goal " dynamic equivalence" pursues is that the readers of the translation can obtain basically similar message smoothly from the translated text as the readers of theoriginal do from the original text, including their perception of the main essence, specific facts and artistic conception, although the two texts may vary greatly or entirely in forms. This goal can be applied to almost all types of translation. For all of these viewpoints,Nida and his theory have encountered constant criticism and reproaching.

To sum up, those who oppose the theory believe that the equivalence in translation is impossible forever, because the translation involves at least two different languages, cultures, etc., it is rather difficult for the locals, while in favor of people think equivalence can be realized on the senses and style not only, and in effect can be achieved. Nida made it very clear that "reactions can never be the same," but that "a high degree of reaction equivalence" is required and possible; As for "functional equivalence", Nida explained that no translation can be completely equivalent.

Actually, different translations represent varying degrees of equivalence, That is, "equivalence" doesn't mean identity as its mathematical meaning. (Nida, 2001:87) In order to stress the conception of function and meanwhile avoid misunderstanding, Nida holds that the expression“functional equivalence" is much more satisfactory in describing the degrees of adequacy of a translation（Nida, 2001:91). So, Nida, as he puts it explicitly in his works, doesn' t prescribe something " identical" or total equivalence between the original and the translated texts, but expects high degrees of closeness" to ine ongmal and reproducing nearest translated message to the originai message.

He advocates that translators work hard to pursue equivaiencerather than identity". Professor Jin Di may have standpoint identical to Nida' s, he holds that the term " equivalence" in Nida ' s theory indicates a linguistic notion that is different from "identity", and " equivalence"is a relative conception, which requires no totally identical effect, but striving for the closest impact produced by the translation within a possible range as what is produced to readers of the original text by the ST (Jin Ti,, 1998:44).

3.1.3 Theoretical Practice of "Functional Equivalence" in China-A Comment on the Translation of "A Madman's Diary"
Here are three examples to analyze the theory of "functional equivalence" used in the "Madman's Diary" in the translation of "The Call" by Yang Xianyi and his wife.

（1）“我同赵贵翁有什么仇.....把古久先生的陈年流水簿子，踹了一脚....”(鲁迅，2019: 08)

“what grudge Mr. Zhao has against me...Itrod on Mr. Gu Jiu's old ledgers.." (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 23)

If this example is literally translated "赵贵翁", it may be translated as "Zhao Guiweng" in many cases, so that the translation person seems rigid and the translation traces are too obvious. Yang Xianyi and his wife directly translated "Mr. Zhao" in the translation, which conforms to the native language habits of foreigners and avoids the appearance of translation accent. This translation achieves functional equivalence for the translation of personal words in the original text (Chen Weijia, 2009). The "old-year running book" here is a characteristic term of China's old society period, which means "old account book". If literally translated as "aged jour-nal", obviously there is no "old ledgers" which is more suitable for the time.
Time backgroud. The Yangs’ translation handled the translation of characteristic nouns well and reached the result of information equivalent translation.

(2)“陈老五赶上前，硬把我拖回家中了。”(鲁迅，2019: 09)

“Old Chen hurried forward and draggedme home." (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)

The personal pronoun "陈老五", if translated literally, might be translated as "Chen Laowu". Yang Xianyi translated "Old Chen", which is more authentic. "Chen Lao Wu" may be the habitual name of this person by the locals, rather than the name Chen Lao Wu. The Yangs' translation as "Lao Chen" here conforms to the Chinese people's habit of addressing acquaintances and conforms to the original cultural background (金瑞, 邵华, 2018).

(3)“狼子村的佃户来告荒....”(鲁迅，2019: 09)

“a tenant of ours from Wolf Cub Villagecame to report the failure of the crop..." ( 杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)

"狼子村" is a place noun. If it is simply translated as "The Wolf Child Village", it is obviously inappropriate. Such translated names are not only not beautiful enough, but also cannot express the charm of Chinese place names. Here, the expression of "Cub" in "Wolf Cub Village" of the Young couple is quite vivid and accurate. "Cub" means "cub" and it is used here in line with the original meaning. Yang Xianyi has certain accomplishments in the translation of Chinese-specific place nouns, and conveys the Chinese-specific culture well in the translation process.

===3.2 Bassnett's "cultural equivalence" theory===

According to Bassnett, the goal of translation should be to shift from the generally accepted text to culture, which is called cultural transformation. If we compare culture to the human body, then language is the human heart. The mind, language and body coordinate with each other to maintain vitality and vitality. When performing heart surgery on a patient, the surgeon must consider the patient's overall physical condition. The same is true of translation practice. In the process of translating a target language into a target language, parliamentarians must consider double standards of linguistic accuracy and cultural adaptation, and must not deprive cultures and treat translations separately.

3.2.1 Translation methods and strategies
Regarding translation methods, Bassnett believes that language and text materials in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, and therefore different translation methods. For example, for original texts that are descriptive, or contain certain cultural beliefs, or are technological in nature, the translator should try to literally translate from a cultural perspective when translating. If the original text does not belong to the above three types of texts, then the translator can play relatively freely when translating, use more translation skills, and less consider the limitations of the original text culture on translation activities. It can be said that the degree of freedom of such translation activities is relatively high.

Regarding translation strategy, Bassnett believes that the translator's translation activity is a process of information transmission. In this process, the translator should first find the cultural factors in the original text that are different from the target language, and then understand these factors in depth, and try to retain these factors on this basis. Such a strategy helps readers of other countries to better understand the connotation expressed in the original text, and enable them to have a more accurate understanding of the cultural context of the original text.

3.2.2 Content and form of translation
As far as the content and form of the translation are concerned, Bassnett regards cultural exchange as the focus of translation, and she believes that the original flavor of the original language text should be kept as much as possible. At the same time, she also pointed out that literary translation must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, the translation of poetry is not simply a translation of the original poem content, but a new understanding and creation in translation. The translator must use his own translation skills and literary quality to create new content.

But at the same time, the form and content of the poem are unified. The length of the syllables and the distribution of rhymes in the form are also conveying the content. The information of the times is all revealed behind it.
Therefore, if the original form of the poem is discarded in the translation, Then it cannot fully reflect the content of the original poem. Take Chinese rhyme poems as an example. When its prosperity turned from its peak to its decline in the Tang Dynasty, the strict flat correspondence and cohesion were not only for making people melodious and catchy, but its pursuit of form revealed that The literati in the era remembered the dead Tang Dynasty and their strong unsatisfied political demands.

3.2.3 "Intelligibility" of the translation
Before the rise of the school of cultural Translation, translation researchers sometimes translated the literary language in the original text into simple and clear language so that readers could better understand the translation and thus remove the metaphor and association in the literature. In this way, the translation will indeed become easier to understand, but the literariness of the work is reduced, and the interest and depth of the work cannot achieve the effect of the original text. Therefore, According to Bassnett, the "intelligibility" of translation should not be based on abandoning the original style and artistry, but on striving to maintain the original style.

3.2.4 Evaluation Criteria of Translation
For the evaluation criteria of translations, Bassnett believes that the evaluation criteria of translations are not unique. The standards for translating academic articles and applied and literary articles are different. When checking and evaluating the standard of translation, we should start from the target of translation, and judge the translation based on whether the translation can meet the needs of the target. In short, the translation should meet the needs of readers in different cultural contexts as a starting point, and use a suitable translated language that can meet this demand.

3.2.5 Examples of Bassnett's Cultural Translation Theory-Taking 《道德经》‘s Arthur Willy's Translation and Gu Zhengkun's Translation as Examples

原文:

“六亲不和，有孝慈(孝子)。”(章十八)

辜译: "Filiality and benevolence come along with the family feud,"

韦利译:“It was when the six near ones were no longer at peace that there was talkof dutiful sons." (Waley, 1999:37 )

"六亲" in modern Chinese generally refer to all family members and relatives, but in ancient Chinese there are specific references to father and son, brothers, and couples. Gu Zhengkun knows that family ethical relations are not as complicated in the West as in China, so he adopted the approach of being close to Western readers and translated it as "the family; while Wiley used the method of alienation in order to get close to the original work, calling it "sixnear ons" , And supplemented by the notes at the end of the chapter to further explain the specific meaning of "six relatives". (the six near ones: father, son, elder brother, younger brother, husband and wife.). Both translators have realized the function of the language opposite to them. The equivalence of the above. That is to realize the equivalence of cultural functions, but also convey the meaning of cultural connotation.

原文:“虽有拱璧以先驷马” (章六十二)

辜译:It would be better to present to the emperor Tao than jade disks followed by ateam of four horses." ( 辜正坤，1995: 251 )

韦利译:“Rather than send a team of four horses, preceded by a disc ofjade.e.."(Waley,1999:131 )

Both translators translated "驷马" into "four horses", which is correct. In ancient China, the number of horses pulling carts was used to reflect the rank of status, such as driving two horses as a parallel, three horses as a stallion, and four horses as a parcel. Usually the emperor drives six, princes drive five, Qing drives four, doctors three, scholars two, and common people one. There are also horse-drawn chariots in wars, usually one carriage with four horses and three passengers. If the translator can comment on this, it will better help the target readers to understand the ancient Chinese horse culture.

===4.The difference between the two translation thoughts===

Nida's translation thought is mainly influenced by the structuralist translator, which is reflected in his use of syntactic structure analysis method, the semantic component analysis method popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, and the core ideas similar to Chomsky's deep structure syntactic analysis. From the perspective of language translation (interlingual translation), this paper makes a structural analysis of language expression forms and translation programs. However, the essence of Nida's translation thoughts lies not only in his view of language structuralism, but also in "translation is science", "translation and communication", "translation must emphasize readers' reflection" and many other propositions. Moreover, Nida's contributions to translation theory, especially to Bible translation theory, and his position in contemporary American and Western translation studies are very important and widely recognized. (Tan Zaixi, 1991)

But Bassnett's "cultural translation view" focuses on cultural exchanges, with culture first, and information second. Through translation to introduce the unique culture of each nation, explain the similarities and differences between each other, so as to promote the comparative study of two languages and cultures. Bassnett also pointed out that culture puts forward various requirements for translation, and these requirements are closely related to the nature of the original text. In the process of translation, the translator should demonstrate the unique charm of different cultures through translation, so that people of different cultural backgrounds can communicate and communicate in a true cultural sense.

===5.The similarity of the two translation ideas===
Nida believes that the service object of translation is the recipient. It is necessary to evaluate and judge the quality of the translation. It is not only necessary to compare the language form of the translation and the original text, but also to see how the recipient reflects the translation. Only when the translated works are easy to understand and in proper form can they be widely accepted by the public. Bassnett’s cultural translation view also emphasizes that translation should meet the requirements of different objects in a certain culture. In order to meet the requirements of different specific groups, the translator must find a suitable translated language functionally. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that translation works should focus on the demands of recipients of translation at different levels.

Nida believes that when there is a contradiction between form and content in the process of translation, form should give way to content. Bethnet also believes that in the process of functional equivalence, translators will not be limited by literary images. It can be seen that two translation theorists pay more attention to the content and form of translation.

Nida pointed out that the languages and cultures of the world have 90% similarities and only 10% differences. Bassnett also believes that the translator should perform functional equivalence in the target language culture based on the target language; the reading object and the original language's function in the original language culture. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that the source language and the target language can communicate and communicate in terms of culture. Although there is a cultural loss in the translation process, there are more similarities between different languages. Similarities or similarities (ie cultural common core).

===6. Conclusion===
Both Nida and Bassnett are great translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Their theoretical research ideas and academic vision are broad, and their insights are unique, which give people deep inspiration. In the process of translation research, the two masters placed translation in the multi-dimensional space of the original text and the target text, investigated from different angles to reveal the essence of translation, and achieved fruitful results. The two translations: principles and methods. There are both common points and their own characteristics. We should work hard to understand the characteristics and development trajectories of the two major translation theories, and find out the contributions and shortcomings of the two major translation theories. In order to find things that Chinese translation theories can learn from, to promote the development of Chinese translation studies.

===References===

[1]Nida, Eugene and Charles Taber. The Theory of Translation[M]. Leiden:E. J Brill,1969.

[2]Liao Qiyi.(2000).廖七一.''当代西方翻译理论探索''.[Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory].译林出版社[Yilin Publishing House]

[3] Liu Runqing.(2002).刘润清.''西方语言学流''派[Schools of Western Linguistics].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press]

[4]Lu Gang. (2006). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation].''中国比较文化''[Chinese Comparative Culture]

[5]Tan Zaixi. (1991). 谭载喜. ''西方翻译简史''. [Western Translator Business History]. 商务印书馆[The Commercial Press ]

[6]Duan Feng. 段峰.(2006). 苏珊·巴斯奈特文学翻译思想述评. [A Review of Susan Bassnett's Literary Translation Thoughts]. ''四川大学学报''[Journal of Sichuan University]

[7]Lu Gang. (2010). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation]. ''扬州大学学报''[Journal of Yangzhou University]

[8]Deng Ju, Qin Zhongshu.(2007). 邓巨，秦中书.苏珊·巴斯奈特翻译思想述评[A Review of Susan Bassnett's Translation Thoughts. ''四川文理学院学报''[Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science]

[9]Luo Chengli. 罗承丽.(2010). 操纵与构建：苏珊·巴斯奈特“文化翻译中”思想研究. [Manipulation and Construction: Susan Bassnett's "Cultural Translation" Thought Research].''北京语言大学''[Beijing Language and Culture University]

[10]Waley,Arthur.The Way and Its Power:A study of the Tao Te Ching and its Place in Chinese Thought.London:Allen and Unwin，1934.

[11]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call].江西教育出版社[Jiangxi Education Press]

[12]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call]. 杨宪益，戴乃迭，译.北京外文出版社[Beijing Foreign Languages Publishing House]

[13]Gu Zhengkun. 辜正坤.(2008). ''老子道德经''[ Tao Te Ching].北京大学出版社[Peking University Press]

--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 01:07, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==A Comparative Study Between the Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory 吴一露 Wu Yilu 202070080610 MTI 英语笔译==
<center> 吴一露 Wu Yilu 202070080610</center>

===Abstract===

Skopos theory and the theory put forward by Yan Fu, that is “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, are one of the most representative translation theories respectively in the history of Chinese and Western translation theories. And these two theories have a profound impact to Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will compare the similarities and differences between these two theories as well as their historical contributions and limitations. It aims to get a deeper understanding of Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory and a better application of theories in practice. In the meantime, the collision and comparative analysis of Chinese and Western theories will also promote the study of translation theories and provide a reference for guiding translation practice.

===Key words===

Skopos Theory; Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; Hans Vermeer; Yan Fu

===目的论和严复理论的比较研究===
===摘要===

目的论和严复提出的翻译理论即 “信达雅”分别是中西方翻译理论史上最具代表性的翻译理论之一。并且这两种翻译理论对中西方翻译理论和实践产生了深刻的影响。本文将对比研究目的论以及严复理论的同异，结合比较这两种理论的历史贡献及局限,旨在加深对目的论和“信达雅”理解，并将理论更好地运用到翻译实践中。同时中西方理论的碰撞和对比分析，也会促进翻译理论研究和为指导翻译实践提供依据。

===关键词===

目的论；信达雅；汉斯·弗米尔；严复

===1. Introduction===

Skopos is the Greek word for “aim” or “purpose” and was introduced into translation theory in the 1970s by the German linguists Hans J. Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and of the action of translating. The theory holds the idea that translating and interpreting should primarily take the function of target text into full consideration. The creation of Skopos theory is a significant achievement of western translation theories, providing a new perspective for translation study. (Dun Guangang 2011, 248)

In 1897, Yan Fu set down the triple translation criteria of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance,” (that are Xin, Da, Ya in Chinese), which has an influence on the development of translation practice and theory for almost half a century after it came into being and it still exerts great influence on contemporary TS. (Chen Fukang 2000, 107）With the scope of integration and exchanges between China and Western world expanding to various fields, this paper will reexamine these influential theories by comparing their similarities, differences and influences, so as to deepen our understanding of translation theory study.

===2. Introduction of Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory===

====2.1 Skopos Theory====

“Skopos theory comprises the idea that translating and interpreting means to produce a target text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances”. (Vermeer, Hans J.1987a, 26). The purpose decides everything, from the translation strategy and translation method, to the choice of the form and content of the original work and the production of the target text. All translation behaviours should take purpose into consideration.

=====2.1.2 The Development of Skopos Theory=====

The creation of Skopos theory in not going to happen overnight; it is a gradual process that can the skopos theory become the core of functionalist approach, which is initially proposed by Hans Vermeer. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 255) Its formation and development experienced mostly three periods.

(1) Katharina Reiss’s research

The book Possibilities and Limits of Translation Criticism, written by Katharina Reiss in 1971, marked the appearance of German translation theories and was the first time raised the idea that text function could be listed as a standard of translation criticism and came up with thoughts of functional translation theory. The core of her translation theory is text typology, including informative text (content-focused), expressive text (form-focused), operative text (appeal-focused) and the auto-medial text, which laid a foundation for Skopos theory.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 257)

(2) Hans J. Vermeer: Skopos theories and beyond

Vermeer, Reiss’s student, casting off the chains of Functional Equivalence, thought that “translation is not a mechanical language interpretation, but an activity with an aim or purpose.” According to Action Theory, human action is a kind of purposeful behavior in a given situation. In his opinion, translation also is such a kind of action with purpose on the foundation of a source text. Hence, Vermeer names his theory Skopos theory, a theory of purposeful action. Hans J. Vermeer believed that the purpose of a text determines the translation strategies. It is readers that determine translation purpose. So translators should better to consider integrally both the purpose of translation and special circumstances of target-text readers before interpreting.（Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 154）

(3) Justa Holz-Manttari and Christiane Nord: the theory of translational action and Function plus Loyalty Principle

Manttari differentiated “translation” and “translation action”. She thought that “translation” is simply transformative action while “translation action” is more intricate behavior designed to transfer message overcoming culture and language barriers. In Christiane Nord’s Translating as a Purposeful Activity-Functionalist Approaches Explained, she defines the Skopos theory as the prime principle determining any translation process. But Nord also found there were some drawbacks of Skopos theory, so she putted forward the “loyalty principle”: the responsibility of translators towards to their partners in translational interaction. (Christiane Nord, 1997)

=====2.1.3 Rules of Skopos Theory=====

There are three rules of Skopos theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.

The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “skopos rule”, which means that a translation action is determined by its skopos; in other words, that is “ the end justifies the means” (Reiss Katharina & Vermeer Hans J. 1984). As defined by Vermeer and translated by Nord, the Skopos rule states: “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The Skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.” (Christiane Nord, 1997)

Whether the function of the source text or passages of the source text can be preserved or have to be modified or even changed all decided by the purpose of translation. The skopos is divided into three forms: translator purpose, communicative purpose of the translated text and the purpose of using some kind of translation strategies. Coherence rule talks about that the target text must be coherent with the source text, given target text receivers circumstances and knowledge (Pochhacker, Franz 1995, 32). Translators should pick out what is meaningful in the receivers’ condition.

The last rule, fidelity rule, is also called as inter-textual rule which means the ‘inter-textual coherence’ should exists between the source text and target text. Just like Nord (2001) said a translation is an “offer of information”about “a preceding offer of information”, it is expected to bear some kind of relationship with the corresponding source text. It means that the source text and target text should be coherent with each other, and the coherent aspects between them including special collocations, sentence length, grammatical features, or even rhetorical devices, in style, in function, etc. In accordance to this, the form of the target text would be determined by both translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation’s purpose. (Dun Guangang 2011,251)

These three rules connect with each other. From the three basic rules above mentioned we can see that the fidelity rule is considered subordinate to the coherence rule, and the both of rules are subordinated to skopos rule. (Vermeer, Hans J. 1989,187) From above three rules, we come to a conclusion that the evaluation criterion of translation is “adequacy”—dynamic standard —rather than “equivalence”. Therefore, translator should not be literalists who rigidly adhere to the words of the source text.

====2.2 Yan Fu’s Theory====

Yan Fu (1854-1921) was an outstanding Chinese Scholar and translator who had studied abroad from 1877 to 1879 in Britain. In this period, he was interested in western politics and started to learn academic theories of capitalist politics. His solid foundation of language as well as rich reserves of theories made adequate preparations for his future translation work. (Chen Fukang 2000, 105）

Because realizing that it was important for old China to catch up western countries in fields of politics, economy, culture, ideology and institutions, this famous Chinese translator devoted his life to importing western ideas and theories by translating various foreign works, including Evolution and Ethics, Yuan Fu (the Chinese version of The Wealth of Nations), The Spirit of Laws and other essays. It is these translated works and his translation theories --- “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” that impressed large numbers of Chinese scholars profoundly, which also contributed to his everlasting name in the history of Chinese translation theory study.(Chen Fukang 2000, 113）

=====2.2.1 The Development of Yan Fu’s Theory=====

(1)The proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”

The idea of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” （Xin, Da, Ya) was firstly seen in The Dhammapada sequence （《法句经序》）written by Zhi Qian , a venerable monk and a translator of Buddhist scriptures in the Three Kingdoms Period. But as a translation theory, it is known to the public and handed down because of Yan Fu. (Chen Fukang 2000, 106) In 1898, Yan Fu made a conclusion of all the debates related to translation since Han dynasty and Tang dynasty after research. Then he put forward “the three difficulties for translating” in the preface of the translation of T.H. Huxley’s book Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays more than one hundred years ago.

The first draft of Evolution and Ethics was finished in 1895. As this was the first book he translated, he met many difficulties in translating and got a lot of thoughts. Then he put his thoughts into Yiliyan （《译例言》）: “ Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. ” (Yan Fu, 1987) However, there are still some people holding the opinion that these translation thoughts of Yan Fu took their ideas from the three principles of famous British translator Tytler.

(2)The evolution of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”

Since this translation theory was put forward, it have inspired continuous debates for nearly one hundred years and the interpretation of the later scholars cannot be ignored. There are four main directions of this evolution.

The May Fourth New Culture Movement ushered in a new epoch vernacular literature and translation, which changed the status of Classical Chinese and Vernacular Chinese. So Yan Fu’s interpretation of “Elegance”, which refers to application of Classical Chinese before Han dynasty, became out of step with the Times. (Chen Fukang 2000, 108) Attempting to prove the rationality of “Elegance”, many translators made new interpretations of it, while there are also some made adjustments on the basis of Yan Fu’s theory.

Qu Qiubai suggested using Vernacular Chinese instead of classical one; Lin Yutang, Liu Zhongdei and Zhu Wenzhen proposed to change “Elegance” into “Beauty”, “Closeness” and “Appropriate” respectively. Among which “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness” not only inherits rational thoughts, but also overcomes limitations of “Elegance”. So this principle is a remarkable symbol presenting that China’s translation theories are becoming mature.(Liu Qijia 2000, 97)

Besides, Lu Xun simplified this three-character standard, turning it into a two-character one--- “faithfulness and smoothness” (Xin Shun Shuo). From “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” to “Faithfulness, Smoothness and Beauty”, from “Similarity in Spirit” to “Sublimation”, we can see that the translation spirit of Yan Fu is carried forward and how profound an impact this theory made. (Chen Fukang 2000, 112)

=====2.2.2 Main Contents of Yan Fu’s Theory=====

Whenever the criteria of translation is discussed in China, the principle of translation proposed by Yan Fu would be mentioned, namely: “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. From the perspective of Yan Fu, “Faithfulness” referred to the meaning of the target text should be close to that of the original one, that was, being faithful to the original meaning, as well as its sentimental color, style and flavor.(Yan Fu, 1987)

There are two aspects of “Faithfulness”: being faithful to the original work and to target readers. “Expressiveness” meant the target text should be coherent and clear, there being no need to follow the exact order of words and sentences structure of the original language but reorganize and elaborate to respect the rules of target language. (Yan Fu, 1987)

And “Elegance” indicated that the target text should be of refinement in language, namely, the use of ancient Chinese before Han dynasty so as to meet the expectation of target readers who were well-educated in China. He claimed that “where language has no refinement, its effects will not extend far”(言之无文，行之不远). (Chen Fukang 2000, 108）

In Yan Fu’s point of view, “Faithfulness” is the core while “Expressiveness” and “Elegance” are two measures, which can be noticed from the order of these three characters. (Chen Fukang 2000, 107) That means “Faithfulness” is the premise and basis of translation and the other two are the aim of translation. So these three standards are integrated.

===3. Similiarities and Differences===

====3.1 The Similarities betweeen these Two Theories====

Although Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory originated in two different countries and cultural environments, and there are hundreds of years between the times when they were put forward, these two theories have many similarities.

=====3.1.1 Fidelity Rule and Faithfulness=====

The Fidelity rule in Skopos theory is similar to “Faithfulness” in Yan Fu’s theory.

Comparing the two theories of translation, we find that both theories have a criterion based on the original text and pursue the principle of fidelity, which is only expressed in different words. Fidelity rule in Skopos theory holds that translator should respect both the original author and readers in the translation process. Translation is to try to reach an agreement with the original work's intention and translator is responsible not only to readers but also to the original author, reconciling the purpose of the translation with the author's intention and mediating between the two. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 256)

In Nord’s opinion , the faithfulness principle gives translator the right to make changes to the original text according to the purpose of translation, showing an open, tolerant and dynamic view of translation; on the other hand, it requires translator to be responsible for all parties involved in the translation, to explain or interpret his or her translation strategy, and to reach an understanding and consensus among all parties. (Christiane Nord, 1997)

This coincides with Yan Fu's "Faithfulness", which emphasizes not to deviate from the original text. And "Faithfulness" is the premise and foundation of translation. (Chen Fukang 2000, 107) In the process of translation, translator is required to correctly understand the original text and then reproduce it in another language. If the ideas, expressions, and emotions in the translation are not consistent with the original work, then it violates the requirement of "Faithfulness", as well as the requirement of the fidelity rule in Skopos theory. Thus, we can find that both theories emphasize the importance of faithfulness to the original text.

=====3.1.2 Coherence Rule and Expressiveness=====

The coherence principle in Skopos theory is similar to the “Expressiveness” in the Yan Fu’s theory.

In short, they both emphasize the fluency and smoothness of the translation from the point of view of readers’ receptivity and comprehension, so that receiver can accept and understand the translation smoothly. The coherence principle refers that translation should be readable and acceptable, so as to achieve interlingual coherence and to be consistent with the communicative situation of the target readers. As elaborated by Nord, a communicative interaction can only be regarded as successful if the receivers interpret it as being sufficiently coherent with their situation. (Christiane Nord 1997, 32)

Under this rule, the receivers of the target text, their cultural background, social circumstances, expectations, values and norms should all be taken into consideration as major factors to produce meaningful translations. In translation, translator should reproduce the content and form of the original text as much as possible, and such translations usually require extensive annotation so that readers can have a better understanding of the translation. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)

This point is consistent with Yan Fu's viewpoint in his translation work, Evolution and Ethics · Yiyanli : “ 顾信矣，不达，虽译，犹不译也(A translation is faithful but not expressive, then it is not a qualified translation)。” (Yan Fu, 1987) According to Yan, “Expressiveness” means to reproduce the meaning of the original text in a way that is consistent with the terminological conventions of the target language, which also emphasizes the understandability of the translation. That is to say, translator should focus on conveying the content of the original text and conveying the meaning and gist of the original text, rather than sticking to the order of the words and sentences in the original text.

At the same time, Yan also points out that the sentence structure in English is very different from that in Chinese. If one mechanically translates long sentences from English, the Chinese translation will certainly be unintelligible. (Yan Fu, 1987) Therefore, a translator must first understand the main idea of the original text clearly before he can translate it without compromising the original meaning. It can be seen that both Skopos theory and Yan Fu's theory emphasize expressing the main idea of the original text in a way that can be understood by the target readers.

=====3.1.3 Skopos Rule and Elegance=====

The Skopos rule in the Skopos theory is similar to “Elegance” in Yan Fu’s theory to some extent.

The Skopos rule states that the purpose of translation determines the entire act of translation at the macro level. In the meantime, translator must decide what methods and strategies to use in translation based on the function of the translation in the target culture. Vermeer regards the recipient of the translation as an important part of the translation requirements and "one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of the translation". Translation is "the text produced in the target language environment for the purpose of translation and for the target readers.”.(Christiane Nord 1997, 12)

While in Yan Fu’s theory, “Elegance” is more specific, as it is based on the specific era and target readers at that time he lived. Because in the 19th century, the books Yan Fu translated were not for the general public, but for old literati and intellectuals who had the right to speak at that time. And most of them respected the old and discriminated against the new, advocating the ancient language while opposing the promotion of the vernacular language. There was no way to introduce Western ideas and knowledge to the scholarly class in China without taking into account their feelings. It is clear that he was thinking from the perspective of target readers, then this theory was put forward. (Chen Fukang 2000, 109) So, in essence, both theories share the same reader-centered viewpoint.

====3.2 The Differences between these Two Theories====

Although there are many similarities between these two translation theories, big differences in the theoretical system, translation standards and translators' status still exist. These differences are not only caused by the different traditions of Chinese and Western theories, but also by the differences in cultural background and personal theoretical knowledge. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)

=====3.2.1 Different Theoretical Systems=====

Skopos theory is closely integrated with other disciplines. This theory was born out of the behavioral theory. Vermeer places Skopos theory in the framework of cross-cultural communication. He denies that translation is a purely linguistic transformation, and pays more attention to communication and culture.It makes the translation theory more logical, scientific and systematic. (Dun Guangang 2011. 242) Thus, it breaks the text-centered translation research tradition, providing a new perspective for translation study. A theoretical system with diversified translation standards was formed.

Skopos theory clearly puts forward some translation concepts, such as the three rules, and there is a clear hierarchy among the three rules, with both Fidelity rule and Coherence rule being subordinate to the Skopos rule. It makes clear to translator the standards and principles that they should follow.In addition, it also made a distinction between intertextual coherence and intratextual coherence, adequate translation and equivalent translation, and translation and translation action.(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)

But Yan Fu’s theory is relatively abstract and vague. Although it concludes the translation requirements, it is not as clear as Skopos theory. Different translators have different interpretations of these three translation criteria. Some think that "Faithfulness" refers to the faithfulness to the original work's ideological content, while others think it is faithful to the content and linguistic style of the original work, which leads to differences in content and form. Zhu Guang Qian and Tang Ren even advocated condensing “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” into “Faithfulness”; people’s understanding of “Elegance” was even more diverse. Besides, Yan Fu's theory is not closely integrated with other disciplines and focuses more on content and aesthetics.(Chen Fukang 2000, 348）

Therefore, Yan Fu's theory is not clearly demonstrated and scientifically summarized, which easily cause ambiguity. It is not as theoretical and systematic as Skopos theory, and tends to be more of an empirical theory.

=====3.2.2 Different Translation Standards=====

Before the emergence of Skopos theory, the mainstream translation standard was functional equivalence. The emergence of the Skopos theory broke through the constraint of equivalence，replacing the "faithfulness principle" as the first principle with the Skopos rule. The success of a translation depends on whether the intended purpose of translation is achieved. "Skopos" usually refers to the communicative purpose of the translation, that is, "the communicative function of the translation in the target socio-cultural context for the target readers". Therefore, the Skopos theory pays more attention to the translation requirements, the target readers, the target language’s environment and culture. It has a broader scope of application, increasing the number of alternative translation strategies, which opened the shackles of translators.（Vermeer, Hans J. 1989, 186)

In contrast, Yan Fu's translation theory, which can also be regarded as a translation standard, puts forward requirements for translations in three directions. Although “Faithfulness” is the first among the three, Yan Fu also emphasized the importance of “Expressiveness” and “Elegance”. In Yan Fu's view, these three standards are integrated. Even he himself didn’t explain it clearly. In this way, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are only three abstract translation criteria, rather than a systematic translation theory. And it has different requirements to different types of text. The requirements are highest for literary works, lower for philosophical and social science works, and even lower for science and technology related works, official documents and the like.(Chen Fukang 2000, 108)

=====3.2.3 Different Translator Status=====

For a long time in the past, the role and subject status of translators have not received enough attention and research. Traditional translation theories holds that translators should be subordinate to the original text in the translation process. However, Skopos theory emphasizes the subjectivity of translator and frees translators from the prison of the faithfulness standard of translation theory. According to Vermeer, the purpose determines translation action. And the intended purpose is determined by many factors: (1) translator's basic purpose (e.g. to earn a living), (2) the communicative purpose of the translation (e.g. to enlighten readers), and (3) the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation method (e.g. adopting literal translation to illustrate the grammatical structure of a language). (He Xiaoling 2012, 46)

So translators has more freedom and rights. They can have their own judgment and understanding in the translation process. They can adopt different translation strategies, like omission or addition, according to different translation purposes. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 257) Therefore, under Skopos theory, translator is the medium of communication between the author and readers, original text and translated text. He plays a creative role in the translation process, instead of just converting two different languages mechanically. At the same time, translator acts as a central role in the translation process who is responsible for the results of the whole translation activity. (He Xiaoling 2012, 46)

However, in Yan Fu's theory, the content of the translation cannot deviate from the original work. The role of translator is more to convey the meaning of the original work to readers after understanding the ideological basis of the original author. He should strive for the consistency or similarity between the translated text and the original, without compromising the readability and acceptability of the translated text. Therefore, under this theory, translator is more of a bridge between the original work and the translated text. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156) This would still be original text-centered, and translator would not be able to exercise much initiative.

As we can see, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Faithfulness” still advocates the primacy of the original text. Compared with the subjective initiative of translator in Skopos theory, translator's act is largely passive .

===4. A Comparative Study of the Contribution and Limitation of these Two Theories===

Skopos theory proposed by Vermeer and the theory proposed by Yan Fu play an important role in Chinese and Western translation theories respectively. Then what are the similarities and differences between the two theories in terms of their contributions and shortcomings? Through the analysis in this chapter, we can glimpse the development trend and characteristics of translation theory in the world of Chinese and Western translation.

====4.1 Contributions of these Two Theories====

When the linguistic dominance in translation studies was questioned before the birth of Skopos theory, translation studies gradually shifted to a cultural orientation, Vermeer placed translation in the framework of cross-cultural communication, which freed translation from the shackles of Nida's equivalence theory, and liberated translation studies from the constraints of source-text-oriented approach .(Tan Zaixi 2004, 242)

In Skopos theory, the status of the source text is not as important as that of the target text. Vermeer regards the original text only as a "source of information", which provides only the information needed for the translation commission, and is no longer the only or the highest criterion for evaluating the translation. ( Hans J. Vermeer 1982, 98.) Taking the purpose of translation as the starting point and foundation of translation has greatly changed our original concept of translation.

More emphasis is placed on the purpose of translation, the function of translated work and translators’ subjectivity. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) The social and communicative effects of translation, as well as that of readers and translation are also of great importance , thus a multifaceted and integrated translation standard was formed. Therefore, the creation of Skopos theory has finally freed translation research from the confinement brought about by “equivalence” and provided a new direction for translation study.

Skopos theory has played a subversive role in the history of Western translation, while Yan Fu's theory is to a greater extent a summary and refinement of the previous theories of Chinese translation schools. But it has played a pivotal role in the history of Chinese translation and has long been valued by translation scholars. The contribution of this theory to translation lies not only in proposing a far-reaching translation standard, but also in its rich vitality. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) This is because this translation standard summarizes the main characteristics of translation work to a great extent and shows the requirements of translation work. Secondly, because of its inclusive nature, after several generations of scholars' discussions, the meaning of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” has already exceeded the definition given by Yan Fu.

In particular, there are various new interpretations of "Elegance" in literary translation, no longer sticking to the use of ancient Chinese before the Han Dynasty, but focusing on the use of literary style, writing style, and rhetoric. Over the past 100 years, Yan Fu's theory has aroused translators’ long-term thinking and exploration of translation theory, then its academic connotation has been unceasingly explored, which, in return, has been continuously developed and perfected, and has become the classic of Chinese translation thought. In the words of Shen Suru, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is “still the most well-known and influential translation principle and standard, and no other principle or standard can replace it”.(Shen Suru 2001,7)

====4.2 Limitations of these Two Theories====

Although Skopos theory has made a great breakthrough to translation theory, it has some shortcomings of its own. Firstly, it overemphasizes the purpose of translation and translator, while neglecting rich meaning and multifunctionality of the original text, which undermines the ontological meaning of translation, and is not suitable for some text types. Skopos theory contains a certain degree of idealism, focusing on analysis and refinement, and sometimes it tends to neglect the integrity. As a result, sometimes the stylistic and semantic features of the original text are lost in order to achieve the translation goal. Many scholars have also criticized Skopos theory. Among them, Pym argues that it is a matter of common sense that translation has a purpose, and there is no need to make a fuss over the theory. (Pym Anthony, 1996)

Besides, Newmark claims that the “purpose-oriented” view is overkill. He strongly resents the approach of Skopos theory which eliminates the authority of texts and is oriented to translator's culture. Secondly, the possibility of realizing the purpose of translation depends on the conditions of the target culture rather than the culture of the source language, so fidelity to the original text is only a possibility. (Dun Guangang 2011, 247) Thus we can see that the coherence rule and fidelity rule are not universally applicable.

Obviously, there are also limitations to Yan Fu’s theory. Compared with Skopos theory, Yan Fu's theory gives sufficient attention to the original text, but, as we mentioned earlier, it is an abstract and general theory, which is more theoretical rather than expository. The lack of analysis and discussion of specific issues keeps the theory at an abstract level, making it difficult for translator to grasp the degree: what degree can be called “Faithfulness”, what degree can be called “Expressiveness”, and what degree can be called “Elegance”?(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) It is this ambiguity that makes this theory less scientific and accurate than Skopos theory. Thus its guiding role in practice is greatly reduced.

In addition, as a product of the times, Yan Fu’s theory is deeply influenced by the background of the time, and cannot be scientifically combined with other disciplines, which once again limits the application of this theory.

===5. Conclusion===

There are many similarities between the theory of purpose and Yan Fu's translation theory, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, in terms of pursuing fidelity and consistency, and observing reader adaptation, while there are also many differences in the theoretical systems, translation standards, and translator status. Although both theories have certain limitations, it is undeniable that they both provide important guidance for translation practice.

Through a comparative study of these two typical Chinese and Western translation theories, we can find that the Western translation theory pays more attention to scientific argumentation method. It attempts to combine with many other disciplines, and takes them as the theoretical support. Thus, the translation theory model is constantly proposed and improved, and the translation research perspective is expanded. Similarly, Yan Fu's theory is constantly being carried forward, and its influence is far-reaching.

Nowadays, as the world is in the period of fast development, dramatic change and great integration, Chinese and Western thoughts and cultures are deeply interwoven. We should adhere to the essence of Chinese translation theory while learning Western theory, so as to better master the essence of both, grasp the development trend of translation theory, and more actively guide our translation practice.

===Reference===

Christiane Nord. (1997). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity''. Kinderhook: St. Jerome Publishing.

Reiss Katharina & Vermeer Hans J. (1984). Groundwork for a general theory of translation. Tubingen: Niemeyer.

Pochhacker Franz. (1995). Simultaneous interrupting: a functionalist perspective. Hermes: Journal of linguistics, (14): 31-53.

Pym, Anthony. (1996). Material Text Transfer as a Key to the Purpose of Translation. Kent, Ohio: Institute of Applied Linguistics.

Vermeer Hans J. (1982a). Translation als informationsangebot. Lebende sprachen, 27(3)97-101.

Vermeer Hans J. (1987a). What does it mean to translate. ''Indian journal of applied linguistic'', 13(2):25-33.

Vermeer Hans J. (1989a). Skopos and Commission in Translational Action. Andrew Chersterman: ''The Translation Studies Reader'', 173-187.

Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2000). ''中国译学理论史稿'' [A History of Translation Theory in China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.

Dun Guangang 顿官刚.（2011). ''西方翻译理论文献宣读'' [Selected Readings in Western Translation Theory]. Hunan: Hunan Normal University Press 湖南师范大学出版社.

He Xiaoling 閤小玲. (2012). 浅析目的论视角下的译者主体性 [An Analysis of Translator Subjectivity in the Perspective of Purpose Theory]. Journal of Liuzhou Teachers College ''柳州师专学报''. (4):45-47.

Liu Qijia 刘期家. (2000). 论信达雅的历史发展轨迹 [On the historical development trajectory of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance]. Journal of Sichuan International Studies University ''四川外语学院学报''. (2):96-101.

Shen Suru 沈苏儒.(2001). 翻译的最高境界——信达雅漫谈 [The Highest Level of Translation - A Compendium of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.

Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2004). ''西方翻译简史'' [ A Short History of Translation in the West]. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.

Yan Fu严复. (1897). ''天演论·译例言'' [Evolution and Ethics· Yiliyan]. News Collection ''国闻汇编''.

Zhou Mengzhen 周锰珍. (2007). “目的论”与“信达雅”——中西方两种译论的比较 ['Skopos Theory' and 'Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance': A Comparison of Two Translation Theories in China and the West]. Academic Forum ''学术论坛''. (8):154-158.

--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 15:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Comparison of Eileen Chang’s Self-Translation and Conventional Translation from the Perspective of Gender 纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian 202020080605==

<center>纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian </center>

===Abstract===

As a representative of Chinese feminist literature, Eileen Chang’s feminist thoughts and gender consciousness have been fully reflected in her creation process. Besides, she is not only a writer, but also a translator. Studying her translation strategies in self-translation and conventional translation and exploring the gender consciousness reflected in her process of translation can help the further development of translation studies of Chang, make up for the lack of translation evaluation of Chinese women and it is also conducive to the further development of gender study in the context of China.

===Key words===

Eileen Chang, gender, self-translation, conventional translation

===题目===
性别视角下张爱玲自译与他译对比研究

===摘要===

张爱玲作为中国女性主义文学的代表人物，在她的创作过程中，女性主义思想、性别意识得到了充分的体现。张爱玲本人除了是一个作家外，也身兼译者的身份，从性别视角研究其自译与他译文本中所采取的翻译策略及其体现出来的性别意识，有助于张爱玲翻译研究的进一步发展，弥补中国翻译史中女性翻译史的欠缺，也有利于性别研究在中国语境下的进一步发展。

===关键词===

张爱玲，性别，自译，他译

===1. Introduction===

Eileen Chang, as a Chinese well-known female writer in the 20th century, her novels and proses have attracted much attention, so that many scholars focus on her literary creation achievement but ignore her translation. Numerous books aiming to introduce the Chinese translation history make no mention of Eileen Chang's identity as a translator. (Ma Ruofei 2007: 1)

In fact, Eileen Chang should be reckoned with in the translation field in that she has also made significant contributions in translation. Mao Dun has pointed out that “ The person who can translate literature books must be someone who has talent in creation”（Luo Xinzhang & Chen Yingnian 2009：413）, and looking back the Chinese history, we can find that there are not so many Chinese writers who can also translate, but Eileen Chang is one of them.

She, with her powerful creative talent and bilingual skills, has translated diverse works, including a variety of novels, proses and poems, at the same time, she has also made her contributions in compiling movie scripts. Here, the translations that will be talked about are her self-translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'' (''The Golden Cangue'') and conventional translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea''. (Ma Ruofei 2007: 1)

Eileen Chang, as a leader of feminist literature in China, the feminism thought is profoundly embodied in her literary creation and translation, however, speaking up for women has not limited her exploration of male identity, in the process of depicting the typical characters with different genders, Eileen Chang, as an author or a translator, represents different gender identities. (Ma Yue & Mu Lei 2010: 67)

===2. Gender and Translation===

Since the rise of feminism in the western continent in the 20th century, the topic of gender has always been placed at the core of its theoretical development. Feminism translation theory thought that between women and translation there was some kind of similarity - both of them were placed in the inferior position. So they combined feminism and translation, advocating from the feminist standpoint, using language to create positive intervention to change women' s weak position in translation, so that it can criticize the traditional translation theories which degrade women and translation to the bottom of the society or literature. (Meng Lingzi 2016: 23)

During this period, the research on the relationship between gender and translation has seen the influence of gender identity on translation, which is a big development. However, the over-emphasis on the opposition between the two sexes has its limitations. (Meng Lingzi 2016: 23)

As Sherry Simon has pointed out, “...Another interesting area of investigation would be the way gender identities have been disguised through translation” (Sherry 2005:159), that is, gender identity can be disguised during translation, or the identity represented by the translator is not a single fixed one.With the development and innovation of various theories, translation studies from the perspective of gender, when it is developed into the 1980s, under the influence of post-structuralism theory, its focus has shifted from the over-emphasis on the opposition between men and women to the exploration of meaning and gender fluidity.

This chapter, facing such a change of gender translation studies, aims to study Eileen Chang' s translations from the perspective of gender liquidity. To some extent, this chapter breaks the status quo that the study on Eileen Chang is onefold about feminism and explores her gender identity transformation in translation to dig out the influences that different gender identities make to the translation. (Ma Ruofei 2007: 46)

===3. The Gender Identities in Eileen Chang' s Self-translation -- ''Jinsuo Ji''===

As one of the most representative works of Eileen Chang, ''Jinsuo Ji'' was once honored as “the greatest novella in the history of Chinese literature”(Hsia 1999: 398) by Hsia, while Fu Lei (whose early pseudonym is Xun Yu) also gave a high evaluation of this work, and he said that it was “one of the most great achievements in our literary world”(Xun Yu 1994: 121).

In order to perfectly present the culture and thought of the original work, Eileen Chang chose to translate it by herself. It takes her nearly 10 years to rewrite or self-translate ''Jinsuo Ji'', including four different versions: ''Pink Tears'', ''The Rouge of The North'', ''Yuan Nv'' and ''The Golden Cangue''. However, due to the cultural differences, the English version is far less successful than the Chinese version especially the first two English versions do not receive much attention. It was not until 1971 that her fourth English version was produced and chosen into ''Twentieth - Century Chinese Stories''(1921).

Finished in 1943，''Jinsuo Ji'' mainly depicts how Ch’ i-ch’ iao, an ordinary girl from a vendor' s family, gradually changes her mental state because of the oppression of the feudal family. Being forced to marry a crippled person, she depresses her love towards Chiang Chi-tse, her brother-in-law, and idles thirty years in Chiang family like insanity. Under such circumstance, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s personality is finally distorted. She destroys her son's marriage and tortures her daughter-in-law to death. Besides, her daughter' s marriage is ended by her. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 134)

Eileen Chang' s works overturns the traditional patriarchal discourse, turning to the female as the center of her literature creation, and in her works, the main objects are those ordinary women who live a tragic life. These works fully show her sympathy to the fate of these women, and reflect her intense gender consciousness which is also reflected in her translation.

====3.1 The Performace of Translator' s Female Identity====

In ''Jinsuo Ji'', Ch’ i-ch’ iao is definitely a beautiful and healthy girl. However, she has to marry a disabled husband with an ugly appearance. In the face of such a marriage, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s sorrow is obvious, and hoping for love, she turns her eyes to Chiang Chi-tse. However, the reality proves to her that Chiang Chi-tse' s so-called emotion is just a use. Eileen Chang, as a female translator, is full of sympathy for Ch'i-ch'iao's situation, and this sympathy is fully reflected in her translation. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 134)

ST：
（七巧的手直打颤，扇柄上的杏黄须子在她额上苏苏摩擦着......）七巧低着头，沐浴在光辉里，细细的音乐，细细的喜悦.....这些年了，她跟他捉迷藏似的，只是近不得身，原来还有今天！(Eileen Chang 1992: 108)

TT：
( Ch'i-ch'iao's hands trembled until the yellow tassel on the fan handle rustled against her forehead...) Ch’ i-ch’ iao bowed her head, basking in glory, in the soft music of his voice and the delicate pleasure of this occasion. So many years now, she had been playing hide-and-seek with him and never could get close, and there had still been a day like this in store for her. (Eileen Chang 1971: 163)

Comparing the source text with the target text, it can be found that Eileen Chang makes three main additions here: “of his voice”, “of this occasion” and “in store” to explicate the implied information in the source text, which more powerfully reveal Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s strong feelings of love and uneasiness for Chiang Chi-tse all the time. From then on, it can be seen that Ch' i-ch' iao once placed her hope in Chiang Chi-tse for love. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 142)

However, from the description in the following text, we can find that for Chiang Chi-tse, the affection with Ch' i-ch' iao is just for regulating his life. Eileen Chang clarifies Ch' i-ch' iao' s emotion in the translation and reveals Chiang Chi-tse' s so-called emotion in the later text, which can show the tragic color of Ch’ i-ch’ iao to express the translator’ s sympathy for the character. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 142)

====3.2 The Performace of Translator' s Male Identity====

In ''Jinsuo Ji'', the author uses a large number of metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival condition. In order to more intuitively present such a state to the readers, Eileen Chang tries her best to translate from the male identity, which to a certain extent derogates the female consciousness of the text, to show the passiveness and helplessness of female characters under a specific era background. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 145)

ST:
娟姑娘扶了正，做了芝寿的替身。(Eileen Chang 1992: 130)

TT：
Miss Chuan was made a wife and became Chih-shou' s substitute. (Eileen Chang 1971: 191)

The source text describes that after the death of Ch' i-ch’ iao' s daughter-in-law Chih-shou, Chuan, as a concubine of Ch' ang - pai, was supported as his wife. The expression “扶了正” is full of metaphorical color, “正” is a metaphor for the official wife, and “扶” indicates that Chuan is a passive object controlled by others. In the translation, Eileen Chang uses the passive voice to translate “扶了正” into “was made a wife” to convey the manipulated situation implied in the source text. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 145)

In addition, here Chang uses the article “a” instead of “the”, just as there will be others to take the place of Chih-shou after her death, the position of the official wife is also low in the feudal family. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 145)

Another typical example in which the translator expresses herself as a male to show the passive position of the female is reflected in the translation of Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai’ s separation scene:

ST：
长安和长白分了家搬出来住。(Eileen Chang 1992: 130)

TT：
Ch’ ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang - pai and moved out of the house. (Eileen Chang 1971: 191)

The original describes the scene in which Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai split up after Ch' i-ch' iao' s death. Here “分家” is a phrase with metaphorical color.

Instead of translating it directly into “divide the property”, Eileen Chang, from the perspective of male identity, conceals the hidden information of the original in the translation. She translates the sentence “长安和长白分了家” into “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai”, which reveals the fact that in the feudal family of China, men had the right to inherit the family while women were subordinated. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 144)

====3.3 The Disappearance of Translator' s Gender Identity====

In the process of translation, Eileen Chang not only uses the identity of male or female to flexibly express the meaning of the original text, but also appropriately conceals her gender identity in some situations to reveal the reality of all characters including both sexes.

ST：
（去年她戴了丈夫的孝，今年婆婆又过世了。）现在正式挽了叔公九老太爷出来为他们分家。(Eileen Chang 1992: 104)

TT：
（Last year, she wore mournings for her husband and this year, her mother - in - law had passed away.）Now her husband’ s uncle, Ninth Old Master, was formerly invited to come and divide the property among the survivors. (Eileen Chang 1971: 157)

The source text shows us that after the death of the old woman in power of Chiang Mansion, a group of men and women gathered to separate their families. In the translation of the text, Eileen Chang does not make too many adjustments, but only abstracts the word “他们” which indicates “them” into “survivors”, a word with multiple meanings. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 146)

Firstly, the survivors are indeed “alive” relative to the old woman who died, so the “survivors” can convey the meaning of the original text. Secondly, to some extent, in Eileen Chang' s eyes, both men and women are struggling in the mud in this turbulent era shrouded by feudal ideology, and everyone is a survivor of suffering. Therefore, she uses the word “survivors” to reveal the abuses of the era and sigh over life. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 146)

Due to the work itself has strong female consciousness, therefore, as a translator, Eileen Chang inevitably translates from female perspective most of the time, but this does not mean that female translators do not have the male consciousness, from the second case, we can see that the identity of the translator can be transformed. In addition, the fluidity of the translator's gender identity is not only reflected in Eileen Chang's translation of female texts, but also reflected in her translation of male texts. (Wang Jing 2011: 104)

===4. The Gender Identities in Eileen Chang’ s Conventional Translation -- ''The Old Man and the Sea''===

''The Old Man and the Sea'' is an outstanding masterpiece of the famous American writer Ernest Miller Hemingway. It was published in 1952 and won the Pulitzer Prize in the second year. In 1954, Hemingway also won the Nobel Prize of Literature. Eileen Chang left Shanghai and arrived in Hong Kong in 1952, just after the publication of ''The Old Man and the Sea''. Invited by the press office of the U.S. Consulate General in Hong Kong, Eileen Chang began to participate in a large-scale Chinese-translation project of American literary works, including ''The Old Man and the Sea''. (Mao Pingping 2018: 171)

Once the work was published, it attracted a wide attention. During that period, even priests and preachers began to quote Hemingway’ s philosophical and thought-provoking quotes in ''The Old Man and the Sea''. This book is translated into dozens of languages and published all over the world, with high praise from critics and readers. The first person in China who gets this great work into well translated is Eileen Chang.

''The Old Man and the Sea'' tells the story of a special fishing experience of an old fisherman named Santiago. After eighty-four days without getting a fish, he was lucky enough to catch a huge marlin. However, the marlin dragged the old man and the boat along for two days and nights. In these two days and nights the old man had gone through the most difficult trials he had ever gone through. With strong will, he finally killed the big marlin and tied it to the bow. However, unfortunately, a group of big sharks came after smelling the smell of blood and the old man fought with them to the death. At last, the old man’ s life was saved, but the sharks had eaten up the great marlin, and what the old man dragged back was a bare skeleton.

When it comes to ''The Old Man and the Sea'', in the prologue of its Chinese version, Eileen Chang expresses her affection of this work many times and different from the self-translation in which she has taken a bold rewriting, in the translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang is more faithful to the original, and only presents her subjectivity in the choice of the gender identity. Eileen Chang expresses her understanding of the gender of the source text in the prologue, and then creatively translates the gender-loaded words in the text accordingly.(Eileen Chang 1979: 5)

====4.1 The Performace of Translator' s Female Identity====

It is undeniable that female translators depict emotions more deeply and delicately than male translators. Therefore, in the process of translating The Old Man and the Sea, Eileen Chang, as a female herself, is particularly adept in showing the emotional characteristics of Sandiego. “...In her translations, she uses rephrasing, color words and onomatopoeia words which are full of feminine characteristics. Those words hint about her feminist thoughts and subtly reveal her identity as a female translator.” (Mao Pingping 2018: 171)

ST：
“Come on.” the old man said aloud. “Make another turn. Just smell them. Aren’ t they lovely? Eat them good now and there is the tuna. Hard and cold and lovely.” (Hemingway 1985: 39)

TT：
“再兜一个圈子。你闻闻看。这沙丁鱼可爱不可爱? 好好地吃它们吧，不时还可以吃吃那鳍鱼。硬硬的，冷的，可爱的。”(Eileen Chang 1979: 29)

Here Eileen Chang uses a number of reduplicated words “闻闻”, “可爱不可爱”, “好好地”, “吃吃” and “硬硬的” to translate the dialogue between the old man and the fish, or in other words, the old man’ s self-talk, to soften the whole image of Sandiac and also show his loneliness.

====4.2 The Disappearance of Translator' s Gender Identity====

As a work of men power, the word “man” can be found throughout the whole novel, and translation of this word has mainly two kinds of different ways, one is to follow the novel emotional qualitative, translating it into “男子汉” or some words having the similar meaning, and this way is often taken by many male translators. The second way is to expand the scope of objects, translating it into “人” or “人类” which includes both men and women. (Wang Jing 2011: 103)

To some extent, the latter way blurs gender identity or conceals gender identity to achieve gender balance in the meaning. Eileen Chang mainly adopts the second method in her translation:

ST:
It is what a man must do．(Hemingway 1985: 23)

TT:
男子汉就应该这样。(Hai Guan 1979: 15)

男子汉就该这么干。(Wu Lao 2009: 21)

活总是要干的。(Eileen Chang 1979: 16)

Wu Lao and Hai Guan both translate “man” into the concept of “male”, while Eileen Chang avoids using such words in translation. Here she translates the original text into a sentence pattern without subject, omits the subject with gender description, and in fact blurs the gender boundary of the words, thus breaking the arbitrary power of male discourse.

====4.3 The Performance of Translator' s Male Identity====

For the translation of “man”, Eileen Chang has also adopted another translation method:

ST：
“But man is not made for defeat,” he said. “A man can be destroyed but not defeated.”(Hemingway 1985: 96)

TT：
“但是人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个男子汉可以被消灭，但是不能被打败。”(Eileen Chang 1979: 81）

“可是一个人并不是生来要给打败的，”他说。“你尽可把他消灭掉，可就是打不败他。”（Hai Guan 1979: 79）

“不过人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个人可以被毁灭，但不能给打败。”（Wu Lao 2009: 99）

Here, contrary to the previous example, Hai Guan and Wu Lao translate “man” into “人”, while Eileen Chang translates “man” into “男子汉”which means male, pointing out that “a male can be destroyed”. Compared with Hai' s and Wu' s translation, Chang’ s translation, though excluding the female crowd, emphasizes the limitation of male power.

Eileen Chang's translation is very characteristic. By taking advantage of different gender identities to give play to her translator's subjectivity, Eileen Chang transformed the image of Santiago, a tough man who fought bravely against nature created by Ernest Hemingway in the original text, into the image of a fisherman, a symbol of gender equality and a representative of all mankind. (Mao Pingping 2018: 171)

Through the self-translation and conventional translation of Eileen Chang, we can see that the gender identity of the translator is not unchangeable, either in the feminist text (''Jinsuo Ji'') or in the text expressing the male discourse power (''The Old Man and the Sea''). The translator can adjust his/her gender identity to represent different genders and thus achieve his/her translation purpose.

===5. Reasons for the Transformation of Gender Identity===

====5.1 Cultural Context====

Malinowski, a Polish anthropologist, first put forward the concept of “context” and he divides context into cultural context and situational context. Here I mainly expound the influence of the cultural context on the transformation of the translator’ s gender identity in the two literary works ''Jinsuo Ji'' and ''The Old Man and the Sea''. “The literary creation of any country or region cannot be separated from the rendering of the corresponding cultural context...A good translation cannot be achieved without a profound understanding of the context of the text.” (Xi Peihua 2017, 121)

The creation context of ''Jinsuo ji'' is different from that of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', and the social background of the readers of the target language and the source language is also different, which both affect the choice of the translator’ s gender identity.

For example, Eileen Chang' s work ''Jinsuo Ji'' reflects the difficult survival of Chinese women in the feudal family under the background of the 20th century. The original text uses many metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival, and it’ s not difficult for the source language readers who are in the same social background to understand the indicating meaning of those words. However, when the text is put into a different context while the text content is presented in the same way, it is not easy for the target language readers to understand. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 145)

For example, the expression “分家” in the sentence “长安和长白分了家搬出来住” has not only the surface meaning of “separation” but the implied cultural meaning that “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai” which is the hidden information the target language readers won' t get if the translator did not take appropriate measures to make up for the differences of context. Therefore, in her translation, Chang clarifies the cultural characteristics of the source language through the transformation of gender identity. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 144)

====5.2 The Gender of the Translator and the Purpose of Translation====

As a female translator, Eileen Chang' s female thought is inevitably reflected in her process of translation. And in addition to some unconscious female thinking, it is believed that Eileen Chang' s adoption of different gender identities is more consciously chosen according to her translation purpose. For example, in the translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'', Eileen Chang translates from the perspective either of her own or the gender identity or of the opposite sex, the ultimate purpose is to express the struggle and survival of the female characters in the patriarchal society and expressing her lament for that era.

And in ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang expresses her different understanding of this work in her translation preface that the old fisherman shows astonishing perseverance in his struggle with the sea -- not superhuman, but a kind of grace and spirit due to all human beings. (Eileen Chang 1979: 12)

Therefore, Eileen Chang, based on her understanding of the work, attempts to abstract the image of “old fisherman” into all mankind through her translation, and either from a female identity perspective, from a male perspective or conceal her gender identity in her translation the purpose is to weaken the male discourse in the original text. (Eileen Chang 1979: 12)

===6. Conclusion===

Through this comparative study on Eileen Chang' s self-translation and conventional translation, we can see that Eileen Chang, as a female translator, can not only translate feminine literature from a female perspective, but translate male literature from heterosexual gender perspective.

On the other hand, in the same literary work’s translation, her gender identity is not fixed, for example, in translating the female literary, in order to better achieve the purpose of translation, the translator can translate from a male perspective. In a word, this chapter provides the corresponding empirical evidence for the fluidity of translator' s gender identity, breaking the current situation that the research on Eileen Chang' s translation mainly focuses on her feminism.

===References===

Chang Eileen, trans. (1971). ''The Golden Cangue. Twentieth-century Chinese Stories''[M]. NY: Columbia University Press.

Eileen Chang 张爱玲. (1955). 金锁记[M]. [''The Gold Cangue'']. 上海印书馆. [Shanghai Press].

Ma Ruofei 马若飞. (2007). 张爱玲翻译研究[D]. [Eileen Chang Translation Studies]. 北京语言大学. [Beijing Language and Culture University].

Ernest Hemingway. (1985). ''The Old Man and the Sea''[M]. Printed in Great Britain by St Edmundsbury Press, Bury St Edmunds, Suffolk.

Ernest Hemingway. (1979). 老人与海[M]. [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 张爱玲译, 香港: 香港今日世界出版社. [Hong Kong: Hong Kong Today World Press].

Ernest Hemingway. (1979). 老人与海[M]. [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 海观译, 上海译文出版社. [Shanghai Translation Publishing House].

Ernest Hemingway. (2009). 老人与海[M]. [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 吴劳译, 上海译文出版社. [Shanghai Translation Publishing House].

Luo Xinzhang, Chen Yingnian 罗新璋，陈应年. (2009). 翻译论集[C].[''Translation Theory Collection'']. 北京: 商务印书馆. [Beijing: The Commercial Press].

Ma Yue, Mu Lei 马悦, 穆雷. (2010). 译者性别身份流动性 :女性主义翻译研究的新视角[J]. [Translator’s Gender Identity Mobility: a New Perspective on Feminist Translation Studies]. 解放军外国语学院学报. [Journal of PLA University of Foreign Languages]. 66-70.

Mao Pingping 毛萍萍. (2018). 张爱玲《老人与海》译作中女性主义的东方色彩[J]. [Oriental Feminism in Eileen Chang' s Translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 大众文艺. [Popular Literature]. 171-173.

Meng Lingzi 孟令子. (2016). 从女性主义翻译到性别翻译[J]. [From Feminist Translation to Gender and Translation]. 中国翻译. [Chinese Translators Journal]. 23-31.

Simon, Sherry. (1996). Gender in Translation: Cultural Identity and the Politics of Transmission[M]. London: Routledge.

Wang Jing 王璟. (2011). 性别意识与文学翻译——张爱玲翻译个案研究[J]. [Gender Awareness and Literary Translation: A Case Study of Eileen Chang' s Translation]. 中国外语. [Chinese Foreign Language]. 102-106.

Wang Xiaoying 王晓莺. (2015). 离散译者张爱玲的中英翻译——一个后殖民女性主义的解读[M]. [''Diaspora Translator Eileen Chang’s Chinese-English Translation——A Postcolonial Feminist Interpretation'']. 广州:中山大学出版社. [Guangzhou: Sun Yat-sen University Press].

Xi Peihua 席培华. (2017). 浅谈语境文化对英美文学翻译的影响[J]. [On the Influence of Context Culture on the Translation of English and American Literature]. 黑龙江教育学院学报. [Journal of Heilongjiang Institute of Education]. 121-123.

='''Art of Translation'''=

==A Comparative Study of Two English Versions of Bian Cheng from the Perspective of Translation Ethics Gui Yizhi 桂一枝 202070080587==
<center>Gui Yizhi 桂一枝 202070080587</center>

===Abstract===

Translation is a kind of cultural communication. As long as trans-cultural contacts between different nations and countries occur, problems in ethics would inevitably arise. The nature of translation determines that translation and its researches need the study of ethics as their guidance. The Chinese outstanding contemporary literary works ''Bian Cheng'' has been translated into many different languages, which now enjoys a high reputation among the world. Many researchers have studied its English version from different translation theoretic perspective. This thesis intends to compare two English version of ''Bian Cheng'' translated by Gladys Yang and Ching Ti & Robert Payne respectively within the frame work of Chesterman’s five models of translation ethics, and examine the presentation of translation ethics in these two version.

===Key Words===

Translation ethics, ''Bian Cheng'', Chesterman

===题目===

翻译伦理视域下《边城》两英译本的比较研究

===摘要===

翻译是一项跨文化交流活动。只要不同国家，民族间发生的跨文化行为就不可避免地产生伦理问题。翻译的本质属性决定了翻译活动和翻译研究需要伦理学的指导。《边城》作为我国当代的优秀文学作品曾被翻译成多国文字，在世界文坛上饱享盛誉，很多学者从不同的翻译理论角度对此英译本做过分析研究，本文将从翻译伦理角度，以切斯特曼的五大翻译伦理模式为理论框架，对《边城》的两个英译本——戴乃迭和金堤与白英的译本进行比较评析，探讨翻译伦理在两译本中的体现。

翻译伦理；边城；切斯特曼

===1. Research Background===

Since the late 1970s when the study of translation was proposed to be established as a discipline, it has been developing significantly, going far beyond traditional translation studies. Ideas about translation have sprung up like mushrooms.

From the popularity of functionalism to the emergence of poly-system theory and norm theory in the 1970s and 1980s, scholarship on translation had converted from traditional study focusing mainly on textual matters, more often than not within a linguistic or a literary framework to the study of cultural, commercial, social, historical and political factors related to the texts. Thus, it largely broadened scholars' horizon and enriched the research scope to make translation as a reformulated subject of lively, interdisciplinary debate, paving way to the "cultural turn". (Luo 2009: 61)

With the acceleration of globalization redefining national and cultural boundaries, the "cultural turn" in translation studies in the 1990s further introduced many newer theoretical perspectives. Cultural, national, postcolonial, ideological and gender studies, etc. began hitting the field. Translation was never purely regarded as the process of the transfer between languages but also the transfer between cultures. Regarding translation as an intercultural activity now, the translator as a "cultural mediator" has to handle the relations between Self and the Other to coordinate diversified cultural relationships and resolve cultural conflict to promote understanding and communication among nations. Since ethics as a discipline focuses on moral principles guiding human behavior in social relations, translation as a particular kind of activity involving a series of relations can naturally fall into the field of the study of ethics.

It was under such circumstances that the ethics of translation entered the field of the translation study, and became a hot topic in the late 1990s. Just as Pym claims in his article: "ethics has become a cross-cultural concern as it has in translation studies. Consequently, the study of translation ethics has been appealing to some scholars and should be given much more emphasis by the whole translation circle." It's now widely accepted that translation study has returned to the questions of ethics.(Pym 2001:129-138)

===2. Literature Review===

====2.1 Studies on Translation Ethics aboard====

After the cultural turn in 1970s, a trend of investigating translation studies from the perspective of ethics begins in translation theorists. The development of translation ethics and the major influential scholars’ viewpoints are clarified in the following section.
It was in the 1980s that the ethics-oriented approaches began emerging in translation studies abroad. Antoine Berman, a French translator and philosopher, is considered the initiator of the study of translation ethics. Early in 1984, Berman first put forward the concept of "translation ethics" in an international seminar on philosophy based on the fierce critics of the western translation tradition of only focusing on "transmitting sense" and advocated that translation ethics should be regarded as one branch of translation studies.(Berman 1992: 3)

Influenced and enlightened by Berman, Lawrence Venuti, a translation theorist of American deconstructionist, also expresses his concerns on translation ethics by advocating "an ethics of difference". He invents the two words "domestication" and "resistancy" to define the different ethical attitudes and practice of translators. Venuti pays more attention to the social and political factors in translation by advocating the translation strategy of foreignization to resist the cultural hegemony in contemporary Anglo-American culture. Therefore, his thoughts about translation ethics with a basic character of "resistancy" seem more realistic and profound.(Venuti 2004)

As the initiator of "the return to ethics" in The Translator in 2001, the French translation theorist Anthony Pym has also made great contributions to the study of translation ethics. Unlike Venuti, who is greatly influenced by Berman, he is not totally in favor of Berman's theory of translation ethics, which he regards as too rigid, pedantic and abstract, for he thinks the debate about "how to translate" over the centuries is always confined to the dichotomy of domestication and foreignization, with Berman's no exception. Pym’s basic idea is that translators should be more loyal to their profession than to the source and target organ. The reason lies in that the whole accountability of professional translators is grounded in the profession itself. Translators check each other's work, drawing on past translations for guidance. They derive their norms from the existing professional context. Just as international scientific community, translators are a community that survives via its own system of checks and balances (Pym 2001:129-138).

In 1990s, Chesterman, an influential Finish scholar, makes a great contribution to the completeness of translation ethics. He puts forward a quite different view on translation ethics, focusing on the values instead of rights and obligations of the translators. Chesterman (1997a) considers values to be the primary notion. In his opinion, there are four values — truth, trust, clarity and understanding, all of which form a fairly comprehensive notion of translation ethics. Later in 2001, Chesterman published a paper "Proposal for a Hieronymic Oath" in a special issue of the journal The Translator, entitled "the return to Ethics". In his paper, he firstly put forward four models of translation ethics: the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication and the norm-based ethics. Another model named ethics of commitment was added later so as to essentially regularize the translator's ethical behavior. His proposal of five models of translation ethics has caused a big stir in the academic field, which is considered objective, descriptive and systematic. This classification provides us with a multi-dimensional method of assessing translation practice, for it has assimilated many research results from existing translation theories such as functionalist, norm theory, etc.(Chesterman 2001:139-153)

====2.2 Studies on Translation Ethics at home====

With the development of the studies on translation ethics in the west, some of Chinese translation scholars have also begun to turn their attention to this issue on translation studies. Professor Lu Jun is the first person to propose "translation ethics" based on the theories of Jurgen Harbermas, communicative ethics in his book ''Span Cultural Barriers — Reconstruction of the Tower of Babel'' written in 2001. In this book, He regards translation activity as "a kind of dialogue and communication between different cultures that requires people to conform to some principles and norms for such intercultural communications will involve more complicated issues..., to be more specific, translation activity itself needs the guidance of ethics". (Lu 2001: 272)

Generally speaking, from Professor Lu Jun's view, the theoretical principle of translation ethics is to pursue equality and justice, to oppose linguistic and cultural hegemony and to seek mutual respect and benefits in different cultures. His research on translation ethics has widened the scopes of translation ethics and has contributed a lot to the study of translation ethics.

With more and more foreign theories of translation ethics translated and introduced in China, some of the researchers begin to apply these research achievements into translation practice. Professor Sun Zhili creatively identifies five responsibilities for the translator to take based on Chesterman5s five models of translation ethics in combination with a consideration of Chinese translation context, namely, the responsibility of representing the original, of fulfilling one's client's requirements, of conforming to the socio-cultural norms of the receiving country, of satisfying the demands of the TL reader, and finally of abiding by one's professional ethics and becomes the first person to interprets the translator's responsibilities from the perspective of translation ethics.(Sun 2007: 14-18)

Professor Xu Jun makes a tentative discussion of the ethical problems in translation in his article ''essay on three levels of translation activities'' in 1998. In his opinion, every responsible translator should seriously consider and treat questions presented by "willingness", "reality", and "morality", he proposes that "the establishment of translation standards and the adoption of translation strategies are bound by moral ties...if given careful observation, activities from the choosing of the texts to be translated, the adopting of the translation strategies to the rewriting and editing of the translated texts are all constrained and influenced by various ethical problems... Therefore, translators should consider from both the aesthetic level and the moral level".(Xu 1998: 49-54)

====2.3. the Translation of ''Bian Cheng''====

The thesis adopts the classic modern novel ''Bian Cheng'' owing to its distinguished language and unique style of writing. Set in the border town Chatong and the nearby rural areas in West Human of 30's, Bian Cheng tells a tragic love story between the beautiful young girl Cuicui and the young man Nuosong. It is the representative work of Shen Congwen who has a high reputation in the Chinese literature circle. He is regarded as "one of the half-dozen great authors of modern Chinese literature" (Kinkley, 1987). He has even been nominated for the "Nobel Literature Prize" in 1987. Therefore, this novel is worth appreciating and analyzing.

There are four English version of ''Bian Cheng''. As early as 1936, the English magazine issued in China with the aim of promoting the exchange between the Chinese and western cultures named T'ien Hsia Monthly began to serialize the English version of Bianchen titled ''Green Jade and Green Jade'' translated by Xing Molei (the pen name of Shao Xunmei) and his girlfriend Emily Hahn. It was not until another English version titled ''The Frontier City'' contained in T''he Chinese Earth: Stories By Shen Tsung-wen'' translated by Ching Ti & Robert Payne and published by George Allen & Unwin Ltd. in 1936 came into being that Bian Cheng became very popular in the western countries and also evoked much interest in the author himself. And this version was reprinted by Columbia University Press in 1982. In the 1980's, Yang Xianxi, the top-rank translator and Forerunner, inspired by the success of Penguin Books in the UK, called for the publishing of a series of books called "Panda Books" to introduce Chinese representative literary works to the world. This series of books included ''The Border Town and Other Stories'' translated by Yang Xianyi's wife Gladys Yang, The fourth version was translated by American Sinologist and translator Jeffrey Kinkley, which was published in 2009 by HarperCollins Publishers. These four English translations span 73 years and have witnessed the history of the English translation of modern Chinese literature.

Based on the previous studies, this thesis will choose these two English versions of Biancheng translated by Ching Ti & Robert Payne and Gladys Yang, and make a comparative study of them from the perspective of Chesterman’s Five Models of Translation Ethics.

===3.Chesterman’s Five Models of Translation Ethics===

Chesterman's five models of translation ethics are the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication, the norm-based ethics and ethics of commitment.

Ethics of representation is closely concerned with faithfulness, which has been discussed for years in the translation circle. This model requires that translators should reproduce with full loyalty to the original text, the original author, the original language, and the original culture. In Chesterman's words, “the ethical imperative is to represent the source text, or the source author's intention, accurately, without adding, omitting or changing anything”. Ethics of representation means that the translation can substitute or represent the source text.(Chesterman 2001: 139)

The ethics of service requires the translator to "act ethically if his translation complies with the instructions set by the client and fulfills the purpose of the translation as set by the client and accepted or negotiated by the translator", and the translator should be "loyal above all to the client, but also to the target readers and to the original writer".(Chesterman 2001: 140)

The ethics of communication sees translation as "an interlingual and cross-cultural communication, the emphasis of which is not on representing the Other but on communicating with Others in the cross-cultural communication" and asks the translator to be "a mediator working to achieve cross-cultural understanding".(Chesterman 2001: 141)

Norm-based Ethics is the fourth model of translation ethics Chesterman proposes, which belongs to the branch of "descriptive translation studies". Toury (1995) gives a definition of norm like "the general values of ideas shared by a community as to what is right or wrong, adequate or inadequate into performance instruction appropriate for and applicable to particular situations". That is to say, norms are what the majority expects what translation should be like. Translators should not challenge the current norms in translation circle.(Chesterman 2001: 142)

The ethics of commitment is further raised by Chesterman, which rests on a practical evaluation of translation activity: "I take commitment to be the glue that binds practitioners to the value of the practice. It is thus also a virtue, supporting the striving for excellence, the wanting to be a good translator". He proposes nine points for the comprehension of the professional ethics of translators: commitment, loyalty to the profession, understanding, truth, clarity, trustworthiness, truthfulness, justice, striving for excellence.(Chesterman 2001: 147)

===4. Comparison of the Two English Versions of ''Bian Cheng''===

====4.1 Different Translator Focuses on Different Translation Ethics====

Ching & Payne's translation was published in ''the Chinese Earth: Stories by Shen The Chinese Earth: Stories by Shen Ts'ung-wen'' in 1947 by George Allen & Unwin Ltd in London, England. The author aims to introduce Chinese novels to English readers, making the Border Town known to readers in Western countries. Since then, western readers have gradually know Shen Congwen. The translation was republished by Columbia University Press in 1982. After the founding of New China, Shen Congwen's works were once banned. It was not until the 1980s that his books returned to people's vision. Gladys 's translation is contained in ''Border Town and Other Stories'', published by China Literature Publishing House in 1981, which aims to promote representative Chinese literary works to the world.(Xiang 2019:92)

Different translations deal with the frame structure of the original work differently. The Ching & Payne translation adds an 8-page translation preface to the front of the text. In the translation preface, the translator first explains the reason and importance of adding the preface to the translation. Furthermore, the translator introduced the writing styles of Shen Congwen and Lu Xun; third, the translator introduced Shen Congwen’s life and his position in the Chinese literary world; finally, the translator analyzed the theme and content of ''Border Town''. However, Gladys 's version only has a short preface about brief introduction of Shen Congwen. The Ching & Payne translation was published in 1947. In order to meet the needs of translation service ethics and communication ethics, based on the fact that Western world and western readers did not know much about Chinese culture as well as Shen Congwen, so the translator gave a lot of introduction Shen Congwen and Border Town. Gladys’s version was published in 1981. Before this time, Shen Congwen’s works were once listed as banned books. During this period, overseas research on Shen Congwen has never stopped. In the 1980s, there was even Overseas Shen Congwen Craze. So based on the relationship between the translator, the sponsor and the readers, different translator will focus on different translation ethics during their translation activities.(Xiang 2019:92)

====4.2 Places and Culture-loaded Words Translation====

Table1 comparison of places names in two versions

源语/金白译/戴译

四川/ Szechuan/ Szechuan

辰州/ Chenshow/ Chenshow

桃源/ Taoyuan/ Taoyuan

沅水/ Yua Sui/ River Yuan

白河/ White Stream/ White River

湖南/ Hunan/ Hunan

秀山/ Hsiushan Mountain/ Mount Xiu

茶峒/ Ch’a-t’ung/ Chatong

酉水/ Yu Sui/ The You

洞庭湖/ T-ung-ting Lake/ Lake Dongting

The ethics of communication believes that translation is a cross-cultural and cross-language communication activity. The translator should first be faithful to the translation ethics in the "cultural communication space", not the source or target culture. The ultimate goal of translation is promoting communication and cooperation between the two parties. Therefore, the two translators followed different communicative ethics in different times. In order to effectively achieve the purpose of communication, Ching & Payne adopted Wade-Giles Romanization, which was acceptable to the English world. This way is easy to be taken by readers and promotes effective communication. At that time, Gladys was commissioned by the magazine Chinese Literature at the time, and her translation had to serve as her "patron". For the translation of place names, Gladys 's translation used the phonetic system which was the standard rules for translating names of places and persons at that time. When personal ethics conflict with social ethics, the subjectivity of the translator will be controlled by the "patron". Ching & Payne translated earlier, and their version was published by George Allen & Unwin Ltd. Therefore, compared to Gladys, the "patron" of the Ching & Payne’s version are themselves.(Xiang 2019:93)

Table 2 comparison of culture-loaded words in two versions

源语/ 金白译/ 戴译

油坊/ Oilshops/ Tung oil presses

桐油/ Wood-oil/ Tung oil

唢呐/ Flute/ Trumpet

糍粑/ Cake/ Ciba

纤夫/ Haulers/ Towman

上帝/ God/ Jade Emperor

蓬船/ Junk/ Craft

青盐/ Green salt/ Rock salt

法器/ Musical instrument/ Stock-in-trade

粉条/ Rice noddles/ Bean-vermicelli

喽啰/ bandit/ Whirligig

陀螺/ Delicate silk gowns/ Dark satin jackets over long gowns

From Table2 we can see that Gladys's translation adopts the strategy of foreignization, preserving Chinese culture and following the ethic of representation. It also contains serving factors for the "patron". In a sense, it unifies the ethics of representation and service. While Ching & Payne’s version focuses more on the target language readers’ understanding, and give up to represent the culture-loaded words that are unfamiliar to target language readers by using the translation strategy of domestication. Its aim is to entertain the readers. In order to effectively achieve better communication with target language readers, he mainly follows the communication ethics in translation ethics.(Xiang 2019:93)

====4.3 Representation of the Aesthetic Prospect====

One of the most distinctive features of Bian Cheng lies in its unity of objective scene and subjective emotion to successfully create the beauty of aesthetic prospect. Contemporary literary theorist Tong Qingbing defines the aesthetic prospect as “an image system of a fusion of feelings with the scenery depicted represented in the lyrical works, which can evoke readers’ association and imagination, and surpasses the concrete vision and ascends an extensive artistic space.” So, it's the translators’ responsibility to represent the aesthetic prospect of the source text. Now, let’s take a look at the following examples.(Tong 1998: 194)

[Example 1]

[STI]由四川过湖南去，靠东有一条官路。这条官路将近湘西边境到了一个名为“茶峒”的小山城时，有一小溪，溪边有座白色小塔，塔下住了一户单独的人家。这人家只有一个老人，一个女孩，一只黄狗。(沈从文，1981:1)

[TT-1] The highway running east from Sichuan to Hunan comes, just west of the border, to Chatong, a small town in the hills. Near by a stream flows past a small pagoda, at the foot of which lives a solitary household: an old man, a girl and a dog. (Gladys, 1981:5)

[TT-2] From Szechuan there is a highway running east to Hunan. When the road reaches the small mountain city of Ch'a-t'ung, just inside the border of Hunan, it crosses a river, near the river you will find a white pagoda and a small isolated cottage, where there once lived a family which consisted of an old man, a girl and a yellow dog. (Ching, 1982:190)

This is the beginning paragraph of Bian Cheng. Without any decorative words and ostentatious expressions, the author uses three short and succinct sentences with fewer verbs to depict a static landscape painting through the juxtaposition of eight images -- "官路", "小山城"，"小溪", "白色", "小塔七", "单独的人家", "老人", "女孩子" and "黄狗", making us associated with harmony, peace and tranquility as well as loneliness with the repetition of the Chinese character "一". The character "一" embodies the "blue" aesthetic mentality and literary creation view of Shen Congwen, who once said: I feel so lonely, perhaps from which I hope to be close to the beauty still left in my impression? Here in the beginning of the novel, by using his usual simple and plain writing style, the author successfully fuses his feelings with the natural setting to convey his deep love and concern towards the characters and what will happen next. (Wang 2012: 25)

In Gladys Yang’s version, she pays full attention to the simple writing style and the esthetics connotation embodied in the use of the character "一" in the original. Besides using three simple sentences, almost the same in the length, with no more than three verbs and seven "a (an)" and one "the" to fully represent the eight images to retain the aesthetic prospect of peacefulness and loneliness, She also translates "单独" (的人家)into a "solitary" household, the meaning of which contains the two connotations of "alone" and "lonely"，which further deepens the beauty of solemn, quiet and loneliness embodied in the original.(Wang 2012: 25)

Compared with Gladys Yang's version, Ching Ti's also fully represents the eight images of the original. But with the translation of "单独"(的人家)into an "isolated" cottage which conveys less emotional overtones than "solitary" and the use of complicated and rambling sentences with nearly five verbs, the original aesthetic connotations are involuntarily broken by him. To sum up, Gladys’s translation better represents the aesthetic prospect of the original than Ching Ti's.(Wang 2012: 25)

====4.4 Conflict between the Ethics of Representation and the Norm-based Ethics====

As Chesterman argues: "the representation model is vulnerable to arguments about the impossibility of totally true representation, about the relative status of the original and translations, about the illusion of perfect equivalence". Accordingly, the ethics of representation can easily conflict with other models of translation ethics, especially the norm-based ethics.(Chesterman 2001:39-154)

From the linguistic point of view, the vital difference between Chinese and English lies in parataxis and hypotaxis which are two different devices that help realize the cohesion in language. Chinese prefers parataxis which depend coherence in meaning and sentences are organized in a topic-comment structure without overt logical markers in many cases. While English favors hypotaxis which lays great emphasis on logical relation and sentences are organized in the S-P (subject-predicate) patterns with various explicit logical markers of overt cohesion. Inevitably translators have to notice and deal with such a difference between Chinese and English.(Wang 2012: 34)

Let's look at the following examples:

[Example 1]

[STI] 话虽轻轻的，那男的却听得出，且从声音上听得出翠翠年纪，便带笑道：“怎么，你骂人！你不愿意上去，要呆在这儿，回头水里大鱼来咬了你，可不要叫喊！”
翠翠说：“鱼咬了我也不管你的事。” (沈从文，1981:24)

[TTl-l] Low as the words were, he caught them, and realized that she was no more than a girl. "Such language from a child!" he teased, chuckling, "you stay here, mind a big fish doesn't bite you—don't expect me to rescue you!"
"Whether it bites me or not, that's none of your business!" (Gladys, 1981:26)

[TTl-2] She spoke under her breath, but the man heard her. He guessed her age from her voice, and answered laughingly: "So you like cursing, eh? Wbll if you don't want to go, you can wait here、 but don't be surprised if a fish comes out of the water and bites you."

"Eyen if a fish does bite me, I'll never have anything to do with you!" the girl retorted. (Ching, 1982: 211)

Under such conflict, taking the target readers’ maximum acceptability into consideration, Gladys Yang has adopted relatively flexible translation strategies to try to retain the linguistic feature of Chinese by using as less overt logical markers as possible. While Ching Ti chooses to meet target readers, expectations by fully employing the hypotactic structure of the English language, for he exchanges the original diffusive structure into long and complicated sentences with logical markers.(Wang 2012: 35)

Under such conflict, taking the target readers’ maximum acceptability into consideration, Gladys Yang has adopted relatively flexible translation strategies to try to retain the linguistic feature of Chinese by using as less overt logical markers as possible. While Ching Ti chooses to meet target readers, expectations by fully employing the hypotactic structure of the English language, for he exchanges the original diffusive structure into long and complicated sentences with logical markers.(Wang, 2012 35)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===5. Conclusion===

After a theoretical study of translation ethics and a practical analysis of the two English versions of ''Bian Cheng'' within the framework of Chesterman5s five models of translation ethics, we 'can conclude that the present study of translation ethics, with Chesterman's five models as its representative, does open a new perspective for not only translation studies but also for the translation practice and evaluation. This chapter mainly deals with the major findings as well as some limitations and suggestions for further study.

This thesis focuses on the comparison of the two English versions of ''Bian Cheng'' under Chesterman's five models of ethics namely the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, and the ethics of communication, norm-based ethics and the ethics of professional commitment.

It mainly applies the ethics of representation into evaluation from the aspects of the representation of the aesthetic prospect, the ethnological color, the character images through dialogues, and the cultural-specific of the original, based on which the conflict between the ethics of representation and norm-based ethics at certain linguistic and cultural levels and the mediation by the ethics of service & communication under the guidance of the ethics of professional commitment as a whole are also examined carefully. Generally speaking, both of the translators put the ethics of representation in an important position, though Gladys Yang has done better jobs in representing the original, both in form and spirit, than Ching Ti. It's not only because Gladys Yang is more highly skilled in translating than Ching Tii but also because they put different factors into first consideration in translation with the former being faithful and loyal to the original and the latter meeting the target readers' expectations.

And when the conflict between the ethics of representation and norm-based ethics emerges, the ethics of service & communication will serve as mediators to guide their translation, generally, Gladys Yang chooses to preserve the original to a maximum, that is to say, she prefers to take the ethics of representation into first consideration, based on which she will adopt relatively flexible translation strategies to make her translation acceptable by conforming to norm-based ethics to some extent. While Ching Ti lays primary emphasis on norm-based ethics, always putting target readers' expectations first by violating the ethics of representation. But both of their coordination or mediation is under the guidance of the ethics of professional commitment as a whole from a higher level, instead of abusing their professional power to mediate arbitrarily.

In a word, with different ethics influencing the translators most, the two English versions possess different characteristics. Guided mainly by the norm-based ethics, Ching Ti tends to take the strategy of "domestication" to make his version colloquial, smooth and simple for the target public to get amusement. While Gladys Yang highlights the ethics of representation to adopt the strategy of foreignization mostly to make her version formal, exquisite, serious and academic to some extent, which mainly appeal to those target readers who are interested in Chinese culture.

===References===

Berman, A. (1992). ''The Experience of the Foreign: Cultural and Translation in Romantic Germany''[M], Trans. S. Heyvaert. Albany: State University of New York Press.

Venuti, L. (2004). ''The Translator Invisibility: A History of Translation''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

Pym, A. (2001). ''The Return to Ethics in Translation Studies''[J]. The Translator: Studies in Intercultural Communication .

Chesterman, A. (2001). ''Proposal for a hieronymic oath''[J]. The Translator: Studies in Intercultural Communication .

Shen Congwen. (1982). ''The Frontier City in the Chinese Earth: Stories by Shen Tsfung wen''[M], trans. Ching Ti & R. Payne. New York: Columbia University Press.

Shen Congwen. (1981). ''The Border Town and Other Stories''[M]. Translated by Gladys Yang. Beijing: Chinese Literature Press.

Luo Xianfeng 骆贤凤. (2009).中西翻译伦理研究述评[A Review of the Research on Chinese and Western Translation Ethics].《中国翻译》''Chinese Translation'' 3，13-17。

Lv Jun 吕俊. (2001).《跨越文化障碍一巴比塔的重建》[''Cross cultural barriers--Reconstruction of Barbita''] Nanjing: Southeast University Press 南京：东南大学出版社

Sun Zhhili 孙致礼.(2007).译者的职责 [Responsibilities of the translator]《中国翻译》''Chinese Tranlation''，4, 14-18。

Shen Congwen 沈从.(1981).《边城》[''The Frontier City''] Nanchang: Jiangxi People Press 南昌：江西人民出版社

Xiang Rendong 向仍东.翻译伦理视角下《边城》英译研究 [Interpretation of Two English Version of BIancheng in Light of Translation ethics][J].语文学刊. Language and literature Learning(2019). 39(04):91-95.

Tong qingbin 童庆炳.(1998).《文学理论教程》[''Literary Theory Course''] Beijing: Higher Education Press 北京：高等教育出版社。

Wang Weiping 王卫萍. 翻译伦理视域下《边城》两英译本的比较研究 [A Comparative Study of Two English Versions of ''Biancheng''—from the Perspective of Translation Ethics] [D]. Nanjing Normal University 南京师范大学,2012.--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 06:58, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==A study of English Translation of Chinese Cultural Classics from the Perspective of Communication==

==Study on the English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation 刘欧 202070080597 MTI英语笔译==
<center>刘欧 Liu Ou 202070080597</center>

==='''Abstract'''===

With the deepening of reform and opening up, China has become increasingly connected with the world. A large number of Chinese people go abroad to witness the world, meanwhile, an increasing number of foreign friends are also visiting China. Hunan, as a province with abundant tourist resources, has many scenic spots. To attract more foreign tourists, the translation of scenic spots names should also be accurate. Bassnet’s View of Cultural Translation holds that the process of translating Chinese into English is not only a conversion between two different languages, but also a cross-cultural communication between the two languages. Adopting the View of Culture Translation as the guiding principle of Hunan scenic spots will help foreign tourists understand the cultural connotation behind the scenic spots while enjoying the beautiful scenery. This is of great benefit to promote Sino-foreign friendship and enhance the world's understanding of China.

==='''Key words'''===
English Translation; Hunan Scenic Spots Names; the View of Culture Translation

==='''摘要'''===
随着改革开放的不断深化，中国与世界的联系日益紧密。大批中国人走出国门开眼看世界的同时，越来越多的外国友人也来中国游览观光。湖南作为旅游资源大省，拥有许多风光迤逦的旅游景点。在欢迎国外游客的同时，旅游景点名翻译也应当准确达意。巴斯奈特的文化翻译观认为，汉语翻译成英语的过程不但是两种不同语言之间的转换，更是两种语言的跨文化交流。采用文化翻译观作为湖南旅游景点的指导思想，有利于增进外国游客在饱览景区美景的同时，了解景区背后的文化内涵。这对于促进中外友谊，增进世界对中国的了解都大有裨益。

==='''关键词'''===
英语翻译;湖南旅游景点;文化翻译观

==='''Introduction'''===

Cross-cultural communication is becoming more and more frequent with the development of globalization. Meanwhile, transnational tourism has become the most popular way of communication. It is a kind of pleasure to experience foreign culture in visiting the cultural heritages and scenic spots. As a country with long history, China attracts a large number of foreign tourists every year(Xin Xin, 2012). Hunan is located in the hinterland of China's southeast, with beautiful and distinctive natural scenery. It has long been known as tourists attraction since ancient times. It is in such an environment that the ancestors of Hunan Province constantly strive for self-improvement, hard work and innovation. All the historical relics and cultural landscapes they left here, such as ancient cities, villages, gardens, temples, memorial archways, academies, dwellings, temples, grottoes, cemeteries, all bear their spiritual quality and cultural connotation.

To understand the history and profundity of the culture of Hunan Province, the best way is to go there to appreciate its natural scenery and historical relics, and experience its local customs. (Hunan Provincial Department of Culture, 2014) These local tourist attractions can not only display beautiful natural scenery, but also spread excellent culture. Standardizing the translation of scenic spots names is an important opportunity to show the beauty of Hunan culture to foreign tourists(Xiao Fuliang, 2016).

The name of tourist attractions refers to the names of natural and cultural landscapes in tourist attractions. Some of these names are engraved on stone tablets, some are engraved on the signboards of scenic spots, and some appear in various publicity materials such as tourist brochures, scenic maps and websites. In order to leave a good impression on tourists and attract them to visit, the names of tourist attractions are usually short, concise, vivid and attractive (Pan Hong, 2016).

This paper attempts to analyze whether the English translations of some scenic spots in Hunan Province have achieved the desired effect of publicity from the perspective of cultural translation. At the same time, if there were some improper translation in the English translation of Hunan scenic spots, the author will give his own translation for reference.

=== The Introduction of the View of Culture Translation ===
Before the emergence of cultural translation school, linguistic school, functional school and structuralism school were the main schools in the field of western translation theory. Jakobson, Catford and Nida, the representatives of the linguistic school, put more emphasis on equivalence in translation. They claim that translation is to replace another language with an equivalent language material; while Les, Nord and Mantari, the representatives of functional school, believe that the focus of translation studies should be on the target text rather than the original text. Their research sources are communication theory, action theory, information theory and reception aesthetics theory. But whether it is linguistic school, functional school or structuralism school, in their research process, all try to achieve language equivalence more or less from all levels of text content and form. Translation researchers hope to find a scientific and effective way to solve the various problems in translation, but the cultural diversity determines the cultural connotation of the text. Therefore, these researchers encounter great difficulties when they encounter the context which is quite different from their own cultural background, and the emergence of cultural translation school is meant to solve such problems.

After the 1970s and 1980s, with the acceleration of globalization, the acceleration of information dissemination and the diversification of communication modes, the relationship between language and culture has become closer. In the process of information dissemination, differences among language become more and more prominent, and the status and role of translation activities have also changed. Therefore, with the acceleration of globalization and the popularization of multicultural views and values, translation theory researchers who conform to the trend of the times pay more and more attention to the diversity of cultural values embodied in the translated text.

In 1990, Translation, History and Culture, co-edited by Andre Lefevere and Bassnett, was published, marking a cultural turn in the field of translation. The concept of cultural translation emphasizes that translation is not only a bilingual communication, but also a kind of cross-cultural communication; the purpose of translation is to break through language barriers and promote cultural exchange; the essence of translation is to transmit cross-cultural information and reproduce the cultural activities of the original with the target language; the main purpose of translation is cultural transplantation and cultural blending, but cultural transplantation is a process; Language is not the operation form of translation, but the cultural information . (Bassnett Susan, 1992: 13) Bassnett emphasizes that “translation is the communication within and between cultures”. (Bassnett Susan, 1990: 10-11) She believes that translators should carry out translation activities in a specific cultural context, and translators should never carry out translation activities in isolation under the influence of their own cultural background. In short, Bassnett's “cultural translation view” is that translation is not a mere language activity. It is rooted in and influenced by the culture in which the language is located.

==== The Purpose of Translation ====
As for the purpose of translation, Bassnett thinks that the primary purpose of translation is to allow readers from two or more different cultural backgrounds to communicate with each other through the medium of text, and the exchange of information should be placed in the second place of translation purpose. Through effective translation, translators can not only introduce the cultural characteristics of different nationalities to other readers, but also promote the communication between different cultures and promote the comparative study between the two cultures(Bassnett Susan, 1990).

====Translation Methods and Strategies====
As for the translation method, Bassnett thinks that the language and text materials in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, so there should be different translation methods. For example, for the original text which is descriptive, contains some cultural beliefs, or is of scientific and technological, the translator should try to use literal translation from the perspective of culture. If the source text does not belong to the above three types of texts, then the translator can play a relatively free role in translation, make more use of translation skills and pay less attention to the restrictions of the original text culture on translation activities.

It can be said that the degree of freedom of such translation activities is relatively high. As for translation strategy, Bassnett considers that the translator's translation activity is a process of information transmission. In this process, the translator should first find out the cultural factors in the original text which are different from those in the target language, and then deeply understand these factors, and try to retain these factors. Such a strategy is conducive to the readers of other countries to better understand the connotation of the original text and make them have a more accurate understanding of the cultural context of the original text(Bassnett Susan, 1990).

====Content and Form of Translation ====
As for the content and form of the translation, Bassnett takes cultural exchange as the focus of translation. She believes that the original flavor of the original language should be retained as much as possible. At the same time, she also proposes that translation of literary must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, poetry translation is not a simple translation of the original text, but a fresh understanding and creation in translation. The translator should use his own translation skills and literary literacy to create new content(Bassnett Susan, 1990).

====“Intelligibility” of Translation ====
Before the rise of cultural translation school, translation researchers sometimes translated literary language into plain language and deleted literary metaphor and association in order to make the translation better understood by readers. In this way, the translation will become very easy to understand, but the literary nature of the work is reduced, and the interest and depth can not reach the effect of the original text. Therefore, Bassnett thinks that the “intelligibility” of the translation should not be based on the abandonment of the style and artistry of the original text, but should try to keep the original flavor of the original text (Bassnett Susan, 1990)
.
====Evaluation Criteria of Translation ====
As for the evaluation standard of translation, Bassnett thinks that the evaluation standard of translation is not unique. The standard of translating academic articles is different from that of practical and literary articles. When examining and evaluating the standards of translation, we should start from the service object of the translation, and judge whether the translation can meet the needs of the service object. In short, translation should be based on meeting the needs of readers in different cultural contexts, and appropriate translation should be used to meet the needs(Bassnett Susan, 1990).

===2.The Existing English Translated Versions of Names of Hunan Scenic Spots===
There are 15 major tourist areas and many tourist spots in Hunan, and there are many historic sites with a long history. Such as Mountain Heng, one of the Five Sacred Mountains in China. Dongting Lake, Shaoshan Mountain, the former residence of Chairman Mao Zedong, Wulingyuan, which shows the characteristics of strangeness, danger, seclusion, beauty and wildness, and Yuelu Academy with a thousand years of history(Chen Jiao, 2013). In order to publicize and spread the culture of Hunan Province all over the world, we should standardize the English translation of Hunan scenic spots names. Meanwhile, we should translate these scenic spot names understandable from the guiding theory of the View of Culture Translation.

====Improper English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names====
When tourists enjoy the beautiful scenery, the name of the scenic spot is the first information that leaps into the their sight. In order to attract the attention of tourists, induce the tourists of English speaking countries to have a strong interest in the culture and landscape of the tourist destination, stimulate their desire to buy tourism products and promote the development of tourism, translators should pay attention to the cross-cultural awareness when translating the names of scenic spots, so as to provide accurate information as well as the cultural connotation to the tourists from English speaking countries and those who understand English.

However, the author finds that there are many improper translations in the English translation of scenic spots nemes in Hunan Province, which brings a lot of inconvenience to tourists from English speaking countries, and also has a negative impact on the publicity of scenic spots. These improper translations mainly exist in the following aspects:

Firstly, the different versions of translation in the same or different scenic spots.
For example, as one of the four wonders of Mountain Heng, scenic spot “水帘洞” has two translated names, which are translated as “water screen cave” in the official website of Mountain Heng tourism website, while it is translated into “waterfall cave” on the route map. The English translation of “雁峰寺” on Hengyang tourism route map is Yan Feng Si, while on Hengyang tourism website it is “The Goose Mountain Temple”. There are also two different versions of the English translation of the name of the scenic spot “烟雨池”. It was translated as “Yanyuchi” on Hengyang tourism route map, but on Hengyang tourism website, the free translation method is adopted, that is, “Misty Rain Pond”(Wang Zaiyu, Jiang Shihong, 2012).

Secondly, the overuse of transliteration.
Huiyan Peak, located on the bank of Xiangjiang River in Yanfeng District, Hengyang City, is the most famous peak among the 72 peaks of Mountain Heng. It is also known as the No.1 peak of Mountain Heng, and ranks the first of Eight Sceneries in Hengyang. There are many famous beautiful and charming scenic spots on Huiyan Peak. These landscape names reflect the geographical, historical and cultural features of Hengyang, and also contain rich cultural information. However, many scenic spots with rich history and culture on Huiyan Peak are translated by transliteration, which makes the cultural and historical information of theses scenic spots completely lost. For example, “望雁台” ( Wangyantai) , “回雁阁”( Huiyange) , “平沙落雁” ( Pingshaluoyan) ,“回雁亭” ( Huiyanting), “归雁亭”( Guiyanting) are all transliterated. Another example is “南天门”, the original translation of which is “Nantianmen”. In fact, Taoists often build gates near the top of famous mountains, implying that they are the gateway to heaven. The “南天门” refers to the south gate leading to the top of Mountain Heng. Therefore, it is better to be translated as “Southern Gate to Heaven”.

Of course, transliteration is one of the common translation methods of scenic spot names translation, but if transliteration is used too much that without considering the cultural connotation of the original language, the name of scenic spot will be obscure and foreign tourists will be confused. Standing in front of these Pinyin, foreign tourists can not understand the cultural connotation of the names of scenic spots. So it is difficult for them to realize the historical and cultural stories of these scenic spot according to the transliterated names. Therefore, excessive transliteration will affect the transmission of scenic spot name information, make it difficult for English speaking tourists to understand the rich cultural connotation of scenic spot names, which will reduce the readability of the translations and thus affect the development of China's tourism industry and the spread of culture abroad. Therefore, the translator should carefully consider and choose the appropriate translation method.

===3. The Strategies of English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation ===
Tourism translation is a cross language, cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication activities. Compared with other types of translation, it is more direct, more prominent, more typical and more comprehensive in cross-cultural and cross psychological communication. (Chen Gang, 2004)

==== Characteristics and Methods of Tourism English Translation ====
According to the view of cultural translation, Bassnett believes that texts in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, so there should be different translation methods. For example, for the original text which is descriptive, contains some cultural beliefs, or is of scientific and technological contents, the translator should try to adopt literal translation from the perspective of culture. In the process of translation, the translator should first find out the cultural factors different from the target language in the original text, and then understand these factors, and try to retain them. Such a strategy is conducive to the readers of other countries to better understand the connotation of the original text and help them have a more accurate understanding of the cultural background of the original text.

==== Characteristics of Tourism English Translation ====
The translation of tourism materials is different from the translation of official documents and written materials. The translation of these materials generally emphasizes that the translation is completely consistent with the original content, while tourism English only attracts foreign tourists by explaining the scenic spots and introducing the local customs. Some English tourist materials are concise and accurate. On the contrary, the tourist materials written in Chinese emphasizes style and the beauty of sentences. Therefore, the translation of scenic spots names in English requires creativity, which should be concise, fascinating and easy to remember(Xin Xin, 2012).

==== Methods of English Translation of Scenic Spot Name ====

In the translation of scenic spot name, in order to let foreign tourists understand Chinese culture and scenic spots, flexible translation methods should be adopted to effectively convey tourism information and Chinese culture(Jia Wenbo, 2004). The translation of the scenic spot name is of great significance although the names are not contain too much vocabularies. How to use translation methods and skills flexibly by following the translation theory becomes very important. This requires the translators to be faithful to the content and style of the original materials in the process of translation.They should try to retain the cultural factors in the original text, and make it easy to understand for the target readers to accept at the same time.

Literal translation, free translation, literal translation+transliteration, transliteration+ explanation and cultural analogy are commonly used in scenic spot name translation. Through the study of the translation methods of translating the names of these scenic spots, we can use the translation skills more accurately and ultimately improve the translation ability(Xin Xin, 2012).

1. Literal Translation

Literal translation is helpful to convey the information of the source language such as place names, characters and events. (Chen Jiao, 2013) For these particular names or general names of scenic spots, it’s better to adopt the literal translation, namely word for word translation. The allusions of the figures in Nanyue Temple such as “苏武牧羊”（Su Wu Shepherding Sheep）”、“达摩东渡”（Dharm Sailing Eastward）；Fairy tale such as“后羿射日”（Houyi Shooting the Suns）、“盘古开天”（Pangu Creating the Universe）、“精卫填海”（Jingwei Filling the Sea）.

2. Free Translation

Free translation refers to the translation method to translate the connotative meaning when the literal meaning and connotative meaning of the original text are inconsistent (Niu Xinsheng, 2013). In addition, translation techniques such as domestication and free translation are also discussed. Due to the differences in language and culture between English and Chinese, there are differences in language form and content between the two languages. Therefore, translators need to grasp the differences between the two languages and cultures to ensure that the information of the original text are properly transmitted to the target readers. If the names of some scenic spots contain rich cultural connotations and cannot be translated by literal translation, then the names of such scenic spots are mostly translated by free translation, that is, words with the same meaning but different forms are translated. For example,“爱晚亭”, the name was originated from a famous poem written by Du Mu (803-853) in Tang dynasty. But the official translation in the scenic spot was “the Lovely Evening Pavilion”. However, the real meaning of “晚” in the name was not "evening" but "late autumn". Hence some scholars translate it as “the Autumn-Admiring Pavilion” and “the Maple-leaves Admiring Pavilion”(Chen Jiao, 2013).

3.Transliteration + Literal Translation

The front contains the proper name for a specific person or place name, and a fixed general name for the name of a scenic spot. Transliteration and literal translation can be used in translation. For example, "南岳庙" (Nanyue Temple), "洞庭湖" (Dongting Lake), "岳麓山"(Yuelu Mountain),"崀山" (Langshan Mountain), "湘江"(Xiangjiang River) etc.

4.Transliteration + Explanation

The advantage of transliteration is that it does not need any explanation, and its disadvantage is that it can not fully arouse people's interest and attention. For foreign tourists, it is difficult to connect the original meaning of the original text with the Chinese pronunciation of the scenic spot. In order to follow the original author's intention and its own pronunciation, we adopt the method of combining the two to make up for the shortcomings. For example,"柳浪闻莺"liu'lang'wen'ying (listening to Orioles Singing in the willows), "鬼见愁"gui'jian'chou (sight that disorders devils)(Xin Xin, 2012). In order to help foreign tourists understand the background knowledge of China's human history, local conditions and customs, some relevant information can be appropriately added to the original text when translating. For example, when introducing "吊脚楼", if we just translate it as Diaojiaolou , it is difficult for tourists to understand the literal translation of it, so it is advisable that supplement the explanation of “suspended wood house built on stilts”. For example, in the introduction of traditional festivals in Zhangjiajie, “六月六” is translated into Liu Yue Liu Festival. In order to help tourists understand the specific connotation of the festival, the translation should be followed by an appropriate explanation: It usually takes place on the sixth day of the lunar six month, when all the members of the family get together to have dinner and hold a rite to pay sacrifice to their ancestors. This supplement can help foreign tourists understand the meaning of these traditional festivals quickly(Chen Jiao, 2013).

Meanwhile, cultural analogy is also an effective skill in explanation. Analogy refers to the transformation of unfamiliar cultural information in the source language into similar information in the cultural context of the target language in order to eliminate the cultural strangeness contained in the source language and arouse the sense of similarity for the English speaking tourists. In other words, borrow the similar places of interest, legends and historical stories in English to translate the scenic spot name in Chinese, which can narrow the distance between the two different language for the readers and they can better understand the meaning of the original text. For example, Mountain Hengshan the scenic spot “祝融峰” is said to be the residence of Zhu Rong, the God of Fire. Its translation is "Zhu Rong peak", Zhu Rong, the Chinese Prometheus(Chen Jiao, 2013). Prometheus, the hero of stealing fire in ancient Roman legend, is a familiar figure for Western tourists. It has great similarity with Zhu Rong, the Chinese God of Fire. When the tourists look at this translated name, they will have a better understanding of the the scenic spot.

=== Conclusion ===
Under the background of globalization, peace and development have become the theme of the times, and the revise of the traditional translation theory is needed. On the other hand, cultural translation, based on the cultural theory of anthropology, advocates that the connotation of other cultures should be properly conveyed in translation, showing respect and understanding of other cultures; translators should highlight the characteristics of different cultures through translation, so that people from different cultural backgrounds can truly realize the communication and exchange in the cultural sense. Therefore, it is in line with the mainstream of the times to deeply study and understand Bassnett's cultural translation theory, which can help us better carry out translation activities under the background of globalization, so as to promote the exchange and dialogue between the Eastern and Western cultures from a macro perspective.

As a part of the translation of tourist materials, the translation of scenic spot names should not only convey the basic tourism information, but also show the Chinese culture to foreign tourists. One of the main purposes of tourists coming to China is to understand the Chinese culture. Therefore, translators need to have a keen cross-cultural awareness, make the translation conform to the target language, enhance the readability to the target language readers, and choose the most suitable translation method to convey the historical and cultural connotation contained in the name of scenic spots to the greatest extent, so as to promote the development of China's tourism industry globally and spread China's tourism culture abroad.

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*Xiong Lin 熊玲. (2013). 对张家界景点名称英译的探析.长春教育学院学报 (08)67-68

*Jia Wenbo贾文波．(2004)应用翻译功能论[M]．北京：中国对外翻译出版公司 134－156

*Huan Provincial Department of Culture and Tourism 湖南省文化和旅游厅.湖南文物名胜概览 http://whhlyt.hunan.gov.cn/whhlyt/wlxx/fwms/201407/t20140717_5385818.html

--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 15:50, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==A Contrastive Study on the Translation of Li Qingzhao’s Shengshengman and Zuihuayin from the Perspective of Defamiliarization 祝美梅 student no. 202070080632 Major: MTI 英语笔译==

==='''Abstract'''===

Poetry is what lost in translation. As Robert Frost said, for its concise words, specific forms, unique cultural allusion and images, the translatability of poetry has always been a controversial topic in translation field. However, since all human beings are endowed by nature with the same mind as has similar function so that they can communicate with one another. Thus, as a product of thought, poetry is understandable, enjoyable and translatable from author’s view. This thesis aims to study poetry translation according to the theory of defamiliarization, which was proposed by Russian formalist Shklovsky. (Viktor Shklovsky, 1990, 35-38)

==='''Key Words'''===

Defamiliarization Theory; Shengshengman; Zuihuayin; English Versions

==='''摘要'''===

译诗则诗。诗歌以其凝练的词语，特定的形式，涵盖的独特文化典故和意象，是否可译一直是译界极具争论的话题。本文旨在由俄国形式主义什克洛夫斯基提出的陌生化理论下研究诗歌翻译。陌生化，虽然是文学写作技巧，同样适应于翻译。在文学作品中，作家通过使熟悉的事物陌生化引起读者的兴趣和好奇，延长审美感知长度。勒菲弗尔说，翻译即改写。这一翻译策略尤其适合于诗歌翻译。李清照，作为历史上最有名的女词人之一，其“易安体”本就以其化故为新，以俗为雅的特点与“陌生化”有异曲同工之处。《声声慢》、《醉花阴》是她前后截然不同两个时期的代表作。本文试以俄国形式主义者什克洛夫斯基提出的“陌生化”为理论指导，以李清照词《声声慢》、《醉花阴》的多个译本为研究对象，分析对比不同译者的英译，尝试研究在译文中怎样重现文本陌生化和制造译本的陌生化，以期证明陌生化理论对李清照词英译的指导作用。(什克洛夫斯基, 1990, 35-38)

==='''关键词'''===

陌生化理论；《声声慢》；《醉花阴》；英译版本

===Introduction===

The best way to know a nation is to enjoy her poetry. As an art of language and an invaluable treasury of national language, poetry distinguishes itself by its distinct style, refined language and fresh artistic conception. Poetry is conceived the store of human knowledge and experience. Therefore, to enable people of different languages to have a successful grasp of the meaning of poems, poetry translation is one of the most important sections in the cross-cultural communication in the globalization time. (Gong Guangming, 2004:395)

Defamiliarization is an important feature of poetic language. It is about poets’ consciousness and aesthetics pursuit. To realize defamiliarization of language, poets must use particular words and images or other skills which new to readers to create a sense of surprise and freshness. Defamiarization not only applies to poetry creation but also to poetry translation. The application of defamiliarization to translation can faithfully reproduce the artistic manner of the original poems and give their readers aesthetic enjoyment. It also allows, in some degree, creating treason in translated texts against original. Of course, defamiliarization should never be overdone whether in poetry creation or in poetry translation. (Victor Shklovsky , 1990, 57)

The purpose of artistic translation techniques is to make objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms and image unusual, and to increase the difficulty and length of perception on the part of the target audience because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself so must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar are made to appear unfamiliar and innovative in one way or another. All these creative manipulations of the target text enhance the target audience’s discernment of the artistic merit in the target text. (Zhu Chunshen, 2002, 101-103)

Li Qingzhao was born (1084-1151) in Zhangqiu into a family of officials and scholars, Before she got married, her poetry was already well known among intellectual. In 1101 she married Zhao Mingcheng, with whom she shared interests in art collection and epigraphy. After Zhao started his official career, she often felt lonely and suffered lovesickness. Hence these experiences inspired some of the love poems that she wrote. When Northern Song capital of Kaifeng fell in 1126 to the Jurchens during the Jin–Song wars, fighting took place in Shandong and their house was ruined. The couple fled to Nanjing, where they lived for one year. Zhao died in 1129 when route to an official post. The death of her husband was a cruel stroke for her life. Li described her married life and the turmoil of her flight in an afterword to her husband's posthumously published work, Jin shi lu（金石录). (Zhang Bing, 2000, 98-100)

Her earlier poetry portrays her carefree life as a young lady of high society, and is marked by its elegance. Li subsequently settled in Hangzhou, in which the Song government was established. She insisted in writing poetry and published the Jin shi lu. According to some contemporary records, she had a briefly marriage with a man named Zhang Ruzhou who treated her relentlessly, and she divorced him within months. She overcame the criticism of her marriage. Though only around a hundred of her poems are known to survive, mostly of them in the form of Ci are tracing her winding fortunes in life. Li is credited with the first detailed critique of the metrics of Chinese poetry. She was regarded as a master of WanYue School “the delicate restraint”. (Zhang Bing, 2000, 98-100)

====1.1 Shklovsky’s Definition of Defamiliarization====

Defamiliarization, as a literature writing technique, was first put up by a Russian formalist, Viktor Shklovsky in the early 20th century. He explained the concept in his essay Art as Technique which comprised the first chapter of his seminal Theory of Prose, first published in 1925:"The purpose of art is to impart the sensation of things as they are perceived and not as they are known. The technique of art is to make objects unfamiliar, to make forms difficult, to increase the difficulty and length of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic in itself and must be prolonged”. Therefore, “defamiliarization” stands for the quality of art and literature. In literature, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to the readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity.(Victor Shklovsky, 1991, 78-79)

====1.2 Features of Defamiliarization in Translation====

In Chen Lin and Zhang Chunbai’s Defamiliarization Effect in Literature Translation, they named up two distinctive features of defamiliarization in translation.One is alienization and the other is hybridization.( Chen Lin, Zhang Chunbai, 2006:93)

Alienization, is the similarity among defamiliarization, alienating and foreignizing, means to retain the language and culture differences of the source text, maintain the visibility of the foreign, in order to give the target readers a fresh experience of authenticity.

Hybridization claims to combine foreign and domestic elements to produce a hybrid text, which has both the features of the foreignness and the domestic, thus it gives the receivers a sensation of newness and freshness. The author of this thesis takes domestication as one aspect of hybridization, for no matter how strict foreignization is, it could not avoid domestic element during translating. In Jin Bing’s doctoral dissertation (2007), he propo sed to represent defamiliarization technique of the original text in translated text as much as possible, and foreignization is an effective translation strategy to achieve defamiliarization. However, foreignization is not the only way to achieve defamiliarization, as it’s opposite, there are many ways towards this end. (Zheng Engyue, 2003, 19-21)

=====1.2.1 Advantages of Defamiliarization=====

To create the translated version newness, promote intercultural communication and complementary advantages, the tactics of defamiliarization also embodies translator’s subjectivity, as the appearance of cultural turn proposed by Susan Bassinet against the culture invasion, and this theory is accepted by more and more people. This technique is meant to be especially useful in distinguishing poetry from prose, for, as Aristotle said, “poetic language must appear strange and wonderful” (Shklovsky, 1990).Defamiliarization draws attention to the use of common language in such a way as to alter one’s perception of an easily understandable object or concept. The use of defamiliarization both differs and defers, since apply of the technique alters one’s perception of a concept (to defer), and forces one to think about the concept in different, often more complex, terms (to differ). (Li Ruijie, 2013, 56)

=====1.2.2 Disadvantages of Defamiliarization=====

Defamiliarization increases the difficulty of comprehension, the new expression or form distance itself from target receiver, thus lost many audiences, and prohibit culture spreading. Sometimes, translator would sacrifice faith and fluency in order to create novel effect, so demand reader’s patience and sensibility. Excessive making works with coinage word, unusual format or rebel against the target grammar, only found that works meaningless. (Li Xuexin, 2009, 13-15)

===2. A brief Introduction of Li Qingzhao===

Before analyzing the translation versions of Li Qingzhao’s Ci, a general understanding of the characteristics and aesthetic value of Li’s Ci is very necessary.

====2.1. Li Qingzhao’s life and her Poem====

Li Qingzhao, a talented and prolific poetess, exerted great influences on the classic Chinese lyric poetry. In Song Dynasty, lyric poetry reached its most thriving period. Among numerous poets, Li Qingzhao, as a female, shocked the male-dominated field of lyric poetry and formed her unique style. She is deemed the founder of Wanyue School of Song Poem. (Deng Hongmei, 2000, 34)

Her tortuous life experience and extraordinary fate made the keynotes of her poem various from one period to another. In the early years of her life, they are full of joy and happiness; but in her later life, there are filled with loneliness and sorrow. Her early work---''Zuihuayin'', is the reflection of life without difficulties and worries, this work written during she was apart from her husband. Shengshengman was created at the time when she lost her husband whilst the country was shattered and at stake. Through her poem, readers would see the ups and downs in her life. Her lyrics poetry was called “Yi’an Ti” due to the particularities of her own style.(Deng Hongmei, 2000, 56)

====2.2Research on Li’s Poem in Domestic and Abroad====

A comprehensive knowledge of history and state quo of researches on Li Qingzhao at home and abroad is a significant premise of the comparative study of Li’s poem.

The study of Li Qingzhao’s poems in western word, mainly in America, raised scholars’ interest in the 1950s and 1960s. Wang Honggong’s One Hundred Poems from the Chinese and Hu Pinqing’s Li Qingzhao were published. In 1965, Cyril Birth’s Anthology of Chinese Literature from Early Times to the Fourteenth Century was published in New York. In that book, five poems of Li Qingzhao’s were translated by C.H.Kwock and Vincent Mc Hugh; three were translated by a Chinese American scholar, Xu Jieyi. In 1980s, the study thrived in America. Two all-translated were published. One is the co-translated edition by Wang Honggong and ZhongLing. The other is James Cryer. Those translated poems were chose as textbook materials by American universities. However, because of the abstruse language, culture barrier, and the difficulty in translating poem itself, overseas scholars usually could not make their rendering faithful to the original. (Wang Zhongwen, 2000,79)

At home, Bing Xin(冰心) is the first person set out to translate Li Qingzhao’ poem. Many domestic translators like Xu Yuanchong, from the theory of “Three Beauties”, Lin Yutang published The Importance of Understanding: Translations from the Chinese by LIN YUTANG, the celebrated couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published Song Lyrics in 2001, Xu Zhongjie published 100 Chinese Ci Poems in English Verse in 1986, Chen Zumei, who studied Li’s poem from feminism and other translators include Zhu Chunshen, Gong Jinhao, Mao Yumei and so on. Through different translation criteria and strategies, those perspectives cast new light to the translation study of Li Qingzhao’s poem. (Wang Zhongwen, 2000, 90)

===3. Defamiliarization on Words Level in Shengshengman and Zuihuayin===

Poetry is the most personal and concentrated of the four literature forms (poetry, short story, novel and drama), no redundancy, no phatic language, where, as a unit, words are of greater importance than in any other type of texts. This paper mainly discusses reduplicated words, verbs, colloquialism supported by detailed examples. Poetry presents thing in order to convey a feeling, and therefore concrete the language, each represents something else---a feeling, a behavior, a view of life as well as itself. (Gan Wanni, 2012, 34)

====3.1 Analysis of Translation of Reduplicated Words====

Reduplicated word, as the name suggests, is to repeat the same character twice or more times to form a format which bears the identical meaning of a character repeated. It is a kind of lexical devices to deepen the tone or sentiment in literature. Applied appropriately, reduplicated word could make literary works sound beautiful, fluent and forceful. However, applied inappropriately, it could make works awkward and blunt. It is rationally to say that Li Qingzhao favors reduplicated word, for in one fourth of her poem remain now, she successfully used reduplicated words to express her emotion.(Schulte, R.and John Biguenet, 1992, 34)

Her typical work which applies reduplicated words is Shengshengman.

“寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。乍暖还寒时候，最难将息。

三杯两盏淡酒，怎敌他、晚来风急？雁过也，正伤心，却是旧时相识。

满地黄花堆积。憔悴损，如今有谁堪摘？守着窗儿，独自怎生得黑？

梧桐更兼细雨，到黄昏、点点滴滴。这次第，怎一个、愁字了得！”（陈祖美 2003：108）

This piece of work enjoys the largest number of translation versions from different translators among all her works. The first fourteen characters are: “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚”,they precisely describe the loneliness , melancholy and nostalgia of the homeland of the poetess after losing her husband. Six different translation versions collected are as follows:

1. I seek but seek in vain,

I search but search again.

I feel so sad, so drear,

So lonely, without cheer. (Xu Yuanchong)

2. So dim, so dark.

So dense, so dull,

So damp, so dank, so dead! (Lin Yutang)

3. Seeking,seeking,

Chilly and quite,

Desolate, painful and miserable. (Yang Xianyi）

4. Searching and searching, seeking and seeking,

So chill, so clear,

dreary,

and dismal,

and forlorn. (Stephen Owen)

5. Seeking

seeking

Searching

searching

over and over

lonely and forlorn

Sighing;

grieving

sighing

In the same round (Kwock&McHugh)

6. Seek…seek, search....search;

Lone...lone, cold...cold;

Sad...sad, pain...pain, moan...moan. (Liu Wuji)

Li Qingzhao used fourteen repetitious Chinese characters to vent the heartbroken feeling and her worry about her convulsive country. In order to imitate the acoustic effects created by the fourteen reiterated words, almost all the translators adopted the words with sound symbolism characteristics, for the sake of conveying similar emotions.

Among the six versions,No.1 Xu paraphrased them into the sentence in rhythmic way, using end rhyme throughout the whole poem to create the musical beauty, but he abandons reduplicated words and just illustrate the meaning which slacking down the artistic conception of the original poem to some extent. No.(3,4)use single, non-repeated words. Leave alone whether those versions fully express the spirit of fourteen characters, those using single repeated or non-repeated words sound better than paraphrased sentences for keeping the freshness and novelty of the original.

Kwock&McHugh(N0.5) vividly represents the original both in form and content, the novel arrangement of the words, successfully imitated the scenes in the original poem. The specially designed lines of verse gave the readers the feelings of seeking and searching over and over again. The visual beauty is a means to complement the deficiency in acoustic beauty, thus, in author’s opinion; his version is the best of all versions in realizing defamiliarization effect.

Lin Yutang(No.2) doesn’t repeat the same words, but he carefully picks out words with the same beginning letter “d” to create the feeling of duplication and use exclamation “so” to enhance the theme. His version also is a good example to retain and create defamiliarization effect, giving readers a fresh shock of sadness. From the aspect of form, this version depicted the beauty of balance in English and also corresponded with beauty of antithesis in Chinese. It was a wonderful interpretation and a unique creation in itself.

No.6, the translator adopted literal translation. Although the translated version bears similarity in form with the original one, it lacks true beauty in sound and meaning. The literal translation obviously damaged the sorrowful atmosphere, thus this version lost the melancholy and deep grief reflected in the original version. By piling up words, the translators get nothing but the empty shell of the original poem.

Another example is “点点滴滴”,also from the same verse. Following are translation versions collected:

1.On parasol-trees leaves a fine rain drizzles

As twilight grizzles. (Xu Yuanchong)

2.In a drizzle so light, dripping-dropping into the oncoming night,

In the garden wutong trees stand blurred. (Zhu Chunsheng)

3.On drying leaves of plane trees should there be

A drizzle pattering, pattering towards the eve! (Liu Guoshan)

4.Against the tung and plane trees, the wind rises high.

The drizzle becomes trickles, as eve draws nigh. (Xu Zhongjie)

5.And the drizzle on the kola nut, keeps on droning: Pit-a-pat, pit-a-pat! (Lin Yutang)

6.The drizzles falls on the wutong trees, raindrops drip down at dusk. (Yang Xianyi)

No.1, to pursue the rhythmic beauty, Xu used drizzles to describe the sound of rain, as well as forming rhyme harmony on the last word. This kind of translation blurred the defamiliarization effect since ignorant repeated words.No.2,No.3,No.5,translators uses different repeated words, such as dripping-dropping, pattering-pattering, pit-at-pat, pit-at-pat. From the author’s viewpoint, Lin’s translation is the best, pit-a-pat is onomatopoetic word, and conforms to the English expressive convention. The version of No.4 seems disagree with the poem mood, as poetess can hear clearly raindrops drips on the leaves, the rain should become mild gradually, “the drizzle become trickles” is the situation of a storm, not the rain draws to stop.No.6 picks the word “drip down” also wanting forceful and sound beauty.

====3.2 Translation of Verbs====

Unlike English, Chinese poetry is skillfully using verb to vivify the image, often linked with rhetorical devices. Word transformation is mostly common, such as adjective or noun transformed to verb. There existed many instances; the author would like to choose two verbs from the Zuihuayin which would analyzed in this paper.
Taking “帘卷西风”from Zuihuayin as an example:

“薄雾浓云愁永昼，瑞脑消金兽。佳节又重阳，玉枕纱厨，半夜凉初透。东篱把酒黄昏后，
有暗香盈袖。莫道不消魂，帘卷西风，人比黄花瘦。”

This verse was written to express Li Qingzhao’s yearning for her husband. It’s the Double Ninth Day---the Chinese festival of the senior and family get-together. The west wind blows, makes people feel chilly and distressed, especially when the poetess was alone. Translation versions are assembled as following:

1. What with curtains being folded—
by violent blasts from the west (Xu Zhongjie)

2. The curtain lifted by the western wind (Qiu Xiaolong)

3. When the west wind rolls up my bamboo curtain (Mao Yumei)

4. With the door-curtains flapping in the west wind (Gong Jinghao)

5. Only, when the west wind stir the curtain (Lucy Chow Ho)

In the original, hyperbaton was used to achieve the harmonious beauty of rhymes, actually only could west wind blast curtain actually but the original text is “帘卷西风”,the reasonable sequence is “西风卷帘”.

Among five translation versions above, the verb was translated into different words.No.1, “blast” emphasizes on strength and makes a loud noise. No.2, “lift” presents position changed of curtain roused by wind, but the curtain should whirl in that situation, not just lift seems as holding by something.No.3, “roll up” is an ordinary word, though faithfully to the source text, still not good enough.No.4,the word “flap” sounds like we heard the sound of wind makes curtain toss with power. From the view of author of this essay, No.5 is more preferable. “Stir” vividly describes the situation; furthermore, revealing the mirthless of the character, thus, translator prolonged the perception length, increased the aesthetic sensibility, which defamiliarization is pursuing all the time, translation is a creation instead of the slave of original without soul.

“三杯两盏淡酒，怎敌他、晚来风急?”The verb in this sentence used very vividly, how few cups of liquor withstand the wind at the dusk; Li Qingzhao personifies the natural thing, which is widely applied to express defamiliarization. Follows are various translation versions.

1.By cup on cup of wine so dry oh,
How can I endure at dusk the drift
Of wind so swift? (Xu Yuanchong）

2.Three cups of thin wine would utterly fail.
To cope with the rising evening gale. (Xu Zhongjie)

3.How can a few cups of thin wine,
Bring warmth against the chilly winds of sunset? (Lin Yutang)

4.Three or two cups of light wine,
How can they ward off the strong? (Yang Xianyi)

Among the four versions, No.1 chooses the first person view to express coldness felt at dusk by the poet, which slashed the effect of defamiliarization as change rhetoric to narrative speech.No.2, the verb “cope with” is not as strong as the original, “cope with” means solving something, working out or settling down, but not very positively and actively.No.3 employed the preposition “against” also not so forcefully. From the point of author, Yang translates best, on the one hand faithfully keep the form of resource text, on the other hand reproduce the defamiliarization by using the verb phrase “ward off”, meaning to shun, avoid, or escape the chilly wind. There is no absolute equivalence between the SL and TL, only the most natural closest to the former.

====3.2 Translation of Colloquialism====

Colloquialism refers to the types of speech or to usages not on a formal level, is often mistakenly used with a connotation of disapproval, as if it meant “vulgar” or ”bad” or “incorrect’ usage，whereas it is merely a familiar style used in speaking and writing. Li was adept and noted for refining colloquial words from folk languages, which was full of musical quality and vividness after her polishing. Her colloquial words seemed plain and amiable like daily dialogues with friends or just whisper to herself, but extraordinary beautiful and pleasant to the ear. (Zhan Chongyang, 2013, 79)

Shengshengman, for instance, is typically colloquialised as the whole. Here, the author picks up “守着窗儿，独自怎生得黑”to set as an example. “怎生得黑”is an ancient Chinese vernacular expression of “how to spend the night.” The defamiliarization effect of the original lies in its familiar wording but fresh feeling of lonely depiction. Collected translations are as follows:

1. Sitting alone at the window, how could I but quicken the pace of darkness
Which won’t thicken? (Xu Yuanchong）

2. Standing by the window---watching in anguish stark.
Could I bear alone the sight until it is dark? (Xu Zhongjie)

3. I remain by my window. Why is the day so dark, all alone? (Mao Yumei)

Xu Yuanchong’s version (No.1) and Xu Zhongjie’s(No.2)version sound influent and not easy to read. In order to keep the rhyming, Professor Xu Yuanchong makes a pair of “quicken” and “thicken”. However, his witty rhyming is not appropriate in the aspect of keeping defamiliarized colloquial style. Rhyming seems exquisitely modified that is not as natural and casual as daily language. Xu Zhongjie’s “anguish stark” sounds sophisticated and wordy which disobeys the features of vernacular or colloquial language. Mao Yumei’s translation（No.3)sounds simple and it is oral daily language.” All alone” put at the end prolongs the tone which makes the structure loose. Hers represents the original style best of the three, thus best keeps the defamiliarization effect of the casual style.

Another sentence is“这次第，怎一个、愁字了得?”

1.How, in the word “Miserable,” can one find------
The total effects of all these on the mind! (Xu Zhongjie)

2.Oh, what can I do with a grief
Beyond belief! (Xu Yuanchong)

3.Is this the kind of mood and moment, to be expressed by one word “sad”?
(Lin Yutang)

4.At the time like this, what immense sorrow I must bear! (Yang Xianyi)

The above four versions are all translated by domestic translators. They chose different words to express “愁”,like miserable, grief, sad and sorrow. But the No.3 similar to the original forms thus more loyalty. The poetess was touched by the dismal sight and feeling melancholy of her life and the shattered country, so the Lin Yutang’s translation “the kind of mood and moment” is more proper, and the word “sad” also fit for the colloquial style. Defamiliarization in this sentence means to express complicated sentiment in a flat way, Lin successful retains the flavor in simple words.

====4. Defamiliarization on Image Level====

Image is often the final touch that distills and sharpens the meaning of poetry. In ancient Chinese poetry which boasts the construction of a profound meaning with very succinct language, image is especially central to its artistic value among the various composing elements. Image in itself as an intuitive language that transcends the barriers between different semiotic languages, therefore it can be sensed across those different nations. Just as the Chinese poetic convention suggests, a work of art is best enjoyable when it transmits a sense of beauty in an implicit way. And image is such a way of talking silently. Moreover, as Zhu Guangqian(朱光潜)says, the pleasure of poetry resides in the sound and imagery.(《诗论》): “诗以情趣为主，情趣见于声音，寓于意象。”)This paper divides image into cultural-loaded images and natural images.

=====4.1 Cultural-Loaded images=====

This kind of category is the juxtaposition of allusion and complicated sentiment in certain culture.

1.Translation the image of “雁” in the Shengshengman

The sentence “雁过也，正伤心，却是旧时相识.”The translation versions collected as follow:

1. Myself, into woe, a flight of wild geese has thrown.

But with them, very familiar I have grown. (Xu Zhongjie)

2.I recognize the geese flying overhead:

My old friends,

Bring not the old memories back! (Lin Yutang)

3. It breaks my heart, alas,

To see the wild geese pass,

For they are my acquaintances of old. (Xu Yuanchong)

4. Wild geese fly past, while I’am broken-hearted;

But I recognize they are my old friends. (Yang Xianyi&Gladys Yang)

5. Overhead,a heart-rending line

South-bound wild geese at morn

Yet old acquaintances of mine. (Zhu Chunshen)

After studying some versions, the author find most translators tend to translate “雁” into “geese”(Lin Yutang),or “wild geese(Xu Yuanchong),also “swan geese” translated by some people. But translators must can’t ignore the connotation meaning in target culture, geese in English means idiot, fool, reflecting derogative emotion.The slang “wild geese chase” indicates doing something in vain. Zhu Chunshen translated “雁”into “a heart-rending line--south--bound wild geese”, then he explained in the footnote, “geese in ancient China was message carrier, the poetess see geese passed, but doesn’t receive any letter, creating a melancholy feeling”. “雁” is a migrant bird that migrates from south to north in spring and return in autumn. Sometimes, their migrant movement is a sign of season.

Besides, in Chinese ancient culture, “鸿雁传书”indicates love letter transferring written by lovers. At that time, Li was compelled to move to the south and her nation was invaded by enemy, she had no sense of belonging where her family were and didn’t know when her wandering days would end. Upon hearing the sound of geese, she can’t help being broken-hearted because of nation defeated and family lost. The image make readers resonate with the poetess. Considering of the culture diversity, translators should add footnote accordingly. The complementary information endeavors to convey original’s culture connotation, it’s also the defamiliarization goal, avoiding blunt and obscurity of different culture.

Another important image is “梧桐”,is an image rich in cultural meanings. It is straight, huge and tall. As early as two thousand years ago, it was closely related to the mysterious legendary bird---phoenix. It was said wutong was the only tree where a phoenix would choose to inhabit and land on. According to the ancient tale, “ 梧”was the male and “桐” was the female. They were noted for the marital bliss and harmony. Therefore, it is often used to symbolize loyalty in love in Chinese literature. The sorrow triggered by autumn is often found in old poetry. In poem, this image stands for “sorrow, bitterness, distressed” when the tree was linked with rain, giving people the feeling of coldness.

From the mainly English versions collected, “梧桐”was translated into “kola nut”(Lin Yutang), “platan (Xu YuanChong), “the tung and platan tree”(Xu Zhongjie), lola nut is a tree in tropical Africa, this kind of translation was mistaken, platan refers to French platan, tung is a specie of tree, producing oil, those translation definitely lost its cultural connotation. The author of this paper prefers Zhu Chunsheng’s translation version: Wutong tree. Wutong carries exotic charming to the fullest, evoking readers imagination, at the same time promote culture communication. Readers can understand this kind of tree after read the poem. Borrowed words always enlarge another language in this way.

====4.2 Natural Images====

Pure scenery depiction means the scene is universe, such as some flower, tree, mountain, stream but usually combined with emotional revelation.

The image “黄花” usually translated into “yellow flower”, “chrysanthemum”, “yellow chrysanthemum”. Different versions are collected as follow:

1. As compared with chrysanthemums,

I look slimmer e’en at my best. (Xu Zhongjie)

2. I would show a thinner face than yellow flowers. (Xu Yuanchong)

3. I look thinner than the chrysanthemum. (Mao Yumei)

4. I find myself thinner than the yellow flowers. (Chu Dagao)

Chrysanthemum is a formal word while yellow flower is a more blurred one, “yellow” in Chinese always tinged with sickness or fading, for this reason, readers may arouse curiosity of what this flower looks like and associate with figure of poetess, who is languid and haggard in plight. This image appears in both lyrics, carefully compare, it expresses different mood, in Zhuhuayin, Li is lonely missing her far-away husband, the flower stands for her noble,unsullied and aloof character, while in Shengshengman, the flower is withered, fallen, inanimate. From that point, translators may adopt two translation versions to same noun, the first fit chrysanthemum, easily be related with certain shape, fragrance and color, the second translated into yellow flower, would be more imaginary about the unfamiliar word, thus prolong the aesthetic reception. (Zhan Chongyang, 2013, 46-47)

====Conclusion====

Poetry is the superior form of literature with the characteristics of its terseness in language, indeterminism in words, abstruseness and ambiguity in meaning, sharpness in emotion, felicity in rhetorical strategy and distinctiveness in rhythm. To reproduce the style and reveal the beauty of the original text will absolutely confronted with resistance form restricted factors both in linguistic and cultural aspects. After weighing various methods, the author of this paper think defamiliarization could best retain the spirit whilst making freshness in the translated one. (Xu Yuanchong, 2013, 67)

The concept of defamiliarization translation can facilitate understanding and appreciation of Li Qingzhao’s poem from a new perspective. The artistic techniques of translation are employed to render objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms alienized, and to increase the difficulty and duration of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar is made to appear unfamiliar and fresh in one way or another. All of these creative manipulations enhance the recipient’s discernment of the artistic material in the target text. (Victor Shklovsky, 1979, 106)

And that stimulates the translator, one who is adept at subjective manipulation, and who treasures freedom and artistry, to devote him to the pursuit of the alienizing translation effect for art’s sake. The defamiliarization translation theory provides some fascinating insights into Li’s verse translation practice. Breaking the initial norm of sticking to the source culture, translation version is closer to the target-culture end in the continuum between the source culture and target culture. Translation Chinese poetry, translator must bear in mind that Chinese flavor and poetry spirit should make ends meet, thus, readers could understand Chinese culture while they appreciate translation. (Gan Wanni, 2012, 95-98)

===Reference===

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==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 谭媛媛 Tan Yuanyuan 202070080642 MTI==

===Abstract===

Because of the cultural differences between China and western countries, interpreters are required to do both the surface interpretation of the language itself and the deep interpretation of the meaning conveyed in that culture. During the process of interpretation, dealing with cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences inappropriately can cause misunderstanding, resulting in communicative suspension. This paper, while analyzing the cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences, expounds on the specific coping translation strategies that an interpreter should take in dealing with cultural differences in the process of interpretation.

===Key Words===
interpretation, cultural differences, coping stratcgics

===摘要===
由于中西文化存在很大的差异,对于口译员来说，除了掌握译出语语言表层次的信息外，更要掌握译出语语言深层次的文化内涵。在口译过程中，若不恰当处理由文化差异引起的文化障碍问题，就会产生误解，导致交际中止。本文分析了口译中因文化差异而引起的文化障碍问题，并着重指出了口译中应对文化差异现象的翻译策略。

===关键词===
口译，文化差异，应对策略

===Introduction===

The wave of globalization sweeping the world has provided vehicles, tools and channels for cultural exchange and dissemination among countries. At the same time, globalization has brought out the holistic quality of cultural spirit, prompting people to pay attention to the overall examination of problems, recognize certain commonalities of human cultures, and generate new cultural concepts such as "global consciousness" and "global values". However, due to the different geographical locations, social environments, religious beliefs, ways of thinking and living habits of different ethnic groups, different regions have a variety of cultural characteristics, and therefore there are huge cultural differences, and cultural conflicts will become more complex.（Jian Fang，Zhang Jian,2012）

No matter from which perspective, interpreters play the role of bridge and link. Therefore, when interpreting, interpreters should fully consider the cultural differences between China and the West, seek the common ground of cross-cultural communication, and establish a harmonious language communication atmosphere on the basis of improving mutual understanding in order to avoid the phenomenon of cultural conflict in interpreting communication. (Lu Naisheng,1993)

===The Problem of Cultural Barriers Caused by Cultural Differences in Interpretation===

Mr. Wang Zuoliang points out that "the greatest difficulty in translation is the difference between two cultures." He believes that "the interpreter must be a cultural person in the true sense of the word." The differences between Chinese and Western peoples in terms of thinking, values, historical culture and cultural imagery, as well as traditional customs and religious beliefs, have led to cultural differences between the peoples. Therefore, in the process of interpretation activities, the interpreter needs not only to translate the literal meaning of the original language, but more importantly, to grasp its unique cultural connotation and be able to convey it to the other party through language.（Lian Shuneng,1993）

According to American translation theorist Eugene Naida, translation is an exchange between two cultures, "For a truly successful translation, it is even more important to be familiar with two cultures than to master two languages. For words have meaning only in the cultural context in which they . function in the cultural context in which they are used." Therefore, a translator cannot reach a true sense of communication if he or she does not have the support of culture in the process of translation. (Jia Dejiang,1998)

====Cultural barriers caused by the way of thinking====

Generally speaking, Western culture belongs to linear rational way of thinking, which emphasizes logic, hierarchy and abstraction; while Chinese culture belongs to spiral thinking, which emphasizes discernment, enlightenment and emotional meaning. Westerners tend to think that Chinese people are too subtle and even logically confused. Chinese people may also think that Westerners are too cumbersome and sometimes feel uncomfortable because of their overly direct expressions. (Lu Naisheng,1993)

Therefore, interpreters should not only correctly understand the difference between Chinese and Western cultures during the interpretation process, but also take appropriate measures to compensate for the understanding barrier caused by this difference. This difference is manifested in the language: Chinese sentences are clear and concise, while English sentences are compact and tightly structured, emphasizing the subordination and modification between components, and mostly using conjunctions, prepositions and relational words to link sentences together.(Edward Spir,2006)

For example, the Chinese have the traditional virtue of respecting the elderly. To show courtesy, the host will say to the visitor, “您比我年长，您请上坐”. If the translator translates it literally as, “You are older than me. You take the upper seat.” Westerners will definitely feel uncomfortable when they hear it and think to themselves: Am I that old? At this time, the original meaning of the Chinese expression has been distorted, so the contradiction arises.(Jia Dejiang,1998)

====Cultural barriers caused from values====

Values are a deep element of cultural composition, which is both a part of social culture and the result of long-term penetration and accumulation of social and cultural factors in people's minds. Chinese people talk about collectivism, while Westerners advocate individualism. The Chinese focus on the group, highlighting the role of the collective is the mainstream of their values, highlighting their own will be suspected of arrogance and arrogance. The British and Americans advocate the primacy of the individual, fully expressing their own values and highlighting individual contributions. Humility is deeply rooted in Chinese values and is a Chinese virtue, yet sometimes it is not as welcome in the eyes of Westerners. This obvious difference in values inevitably leads to a culture clash. （Deng Yanchang,2006）

A classic example: at a party, a foreign guest complimented a Chinese lady, praising her for being very beautiful, when the Chinese lady replied, “哪里，哪里”. The accompanying translator on the side, however, translated word-for-word into, “where, where ”. This was difficult for the visitor to understand. So he had no choice but to answer, “from up to toe”.And at this time the Chinese lady was also very dissatisfied, thinking that the foreigner was disrespectful to her.

====Cultural barriers from historical culture and cultural imagery====

Cultural imagery is a cognitive pattern agreed upon in different national or community cultures. Cultural imagery coalesces the wisdom of each nation, and is the crystallization of history and culture. Throughout the long history of each nation, they have appeared in people's language, forming a cultural symbol with a relatively fixed and unique cultural meaning. (Bai Jingyu,2000)

For example, in a business event, the Chinese side said something like this, “建立‘一条龙’服务中心”.The interpreter translated it as “set up the ,one-dragon service center to provide a coordinated process service for foreign investors in obtaining approval".“一条龙” was translated into“one dragon”.The word "龙" means something evil in the West, but "auspicious" in China, so it is easy to misunderstand if you don't understand the situation. Another example is that the phrase "望子成龙" should never be translated as “to hope one"'s child can become a dragon"，but to“to hope one’s child can be somebody”. （Deng Yanchang,2006）

====Cultural barriers caused by traditional customs and religious beliefs====

Different countries have different traditional customs. Chinese people give "New Year's Lucky money" to the younger generation during the Chinese New Year, but "Chinese New Year" does not exist in Western countries, so they do not understand why they have to give money. On the contrary, Christmas, Halloween and other holidays in Western countries do not exist in Chinese traditional culture, and we do not fully understand the importance of these holidays, even though they are very popular in China nowadays.

Cultural barriers due to differences in religious beliefs often occur in the interpretation process. “Sleep with father" is a biblical euphemism, which means the same as "go the heaven" and "kick the bucket". It means the same as "go the heaven" and "kick the bucket", but for those who do not understand Western religions, it is likely to be mistranslated as "与父亲睡觉", which would be ridiculous.（Lu Naisheng,1993）

Look at the following example:
If this sentence is understood as
"约翰是可靠的，他不吃鱼，还玩游戏", it is because the translator failed to understand " eats no fish " and "play the game". After the Protestants overthrew the old government, the Protestants refused to eat fish on Ramadan to show their loyalty to Protestantism. So "" means "loyalty" and " to eat no fish " means "loyalty" and " to play the game "means "race",The correct meaning of the word is Therefore, the correct meaning is "John is reliable, he is both loyal and upright".

====Cultural barriers caused by non-verbal language behaviors====

The means of communication between people is not limited to verbal language. Non-verbal language, such as:eyes, facial expressions, gestures, distance between speakers, and physical contact, etc. are all conveying information to people around them. Ethnic cultures differ in their expressions of non-verbal language communication. This cultural aspect of difference should be taken into account when communicating across languages.（Zhang Wen,2002）

In one example, an American teacher, who was new to China, noticed that several students were looking at the student grade book she happened to have open during recess without permission. This teacher seriously told the students that this was rude behavior and that they should be careful to respect the privacy of others. Personal things are not to be looked at without the person's permission. Several students felt embarrassed and didn't know what to say, so they gave an apologetic smile. This smile upset the American teacher even more, and she thought that the students not only disrespected her, but also mocked her. The reason for her misunderstanding was that she did not understand that the Han Chinese often use laughter to express embarrassment and apology.

Another example is that when Chinese people see a cute child, they can't help but go up and touch or pat it to show their affection for it. A Chinese mother would feel proud and smug when she encounters such a situation, while a Western mother is not used to this practice and considers it rude to pet her child, or even offensive.

===Strategies for Handling the Phenomenon of Cultural Differences in Interpretation===

Eugene Naida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward a. The whole set of theories and methods on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation has caused strong repercussions in the translation theoretical circles and is considered one of the most representative theories on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation, the core of which is his principle of "functional equivalence". This principle emphasizes that what translators pursue is not literal correspondence, but the reflection of cultural factors in the translated text to achieve functional equivalence. (叶子南，2001:38) This view of Naida, although presented mainly for translation, is also useful for dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation.

Given that interpretation is very different from translation, it should not, and cannot, exactly replicate the strategies for dealing with cultural phenomena in translation. The focus of interpreting is not to transmit cultural connotations, but to serve the communication on the spot, so the treatment of cultural phenomena in interpreting should be in line with the characteristics of interpreting. According to the criteria of "accuracy, smoothness and speed" and the specific characteristics of interpretation such as "on-site, present and limited time", the first step in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation should be to find the "nearest natural equivalence" between English and Chinese, and to try to find the "nearest natural equivalence" from the target language. (Bai Jingyu,2000)

In dealing with cultural phenomena, interpreters should first try to find the "nearest natural equivalents" between English and Chinese, and try to find authentic expressions or interpretation methods from the target language for the understanding of listeners. According to the above principles and requirements, the following strategies can be used in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation:

====Flexible use of naturalization and dissimilation====

Naturalization in interpretation is to express the linguistic and cultural factors in the source language in the closest equivalent form in the target language as far as possible, and transform them into a form familiar to and understood by the audience of the target language. This undoubtedly avoids the cultural conflicts and understanding barriers caused by the differences between the source language culture and the target language culture, and enables listeners to better understand the original language for interactive communication between the two sides of the conversation. Many scholars advocate that cultural phenomena in interpretation should be dealt with mainly by naturalization. This view has its own validity. In many occasions, the focus of interpretation is not to perform cultural output, but to provide services for both parties in the live communication. (Bai Jingyu,2000)

The first step in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation is to find the "nearest natural equivalent" to the source language culture in the target language, and try to find authentic expressions or explanatory methods from the target language for the audience's understanding. For example, the use of naturalization means to put Chinese allusions "三个和尚没水吃" into " Everyone‘s business is no one"s business." is very easy to be understood by native English speakers in Western countries.(Deng Yanchang, Liu Runqing,2006)

However, when using naturalization to deal with cultural factors, we should also see that while naturalization reduces the difficulty of audience acceptance and comprehension, it also sacrifices many cultural features of the source language, which may result in the loss of a large amount of accompanying information and prevent the audience from fully appreciating the original connotation of the source language and the foreign culture. For example, for foreigners who want to learn Chinese, in order to explain the cultural implications contained therein, he will translate“她有沉鱼落雁之容，闭月羞花之貌" by naturalization to “Her beauty would make the fish sink, the wild geese fall down and the moon hide herself, and put the flowers to shame.”（Deng Yanchang,2006）

Therefore, while emphasizing that interpretation should be mainly naturalized, it is important not to overlook the value of the means of dissimilation. This is because besides providing services to both parties of live communication, interpretation also has the function of cultural transmission, which is conducive to enhancing mutual understanding among peoples. For the specific forms and expressions containing strong cultural color and ethnicity, the dissimilation means can best reflect the ethnic color of the source language and make the audience feel novel and vivid, thus opening their eyes and gaining knowledge and enlightenment, especially on occasions such as tourism interpretation and banquet interpretation. (Bai Jingyu,2000)

In order to meet the needs of cultural exchange, interpreters should undoubtedly adopt the strategy of heterogeneity as much as possible in the process of interpretation, so as to retain the heterogeneous components in the source language to the greatest extent possible and transmit the information in the source language to the audience as originally as possible. In addition, the use of dissimilation can enrich the linguistic expressions of the target language and inject fresh blood into the culture of the target language, so that the language and culture of the target language can continue to develop and maintain vitality.（Edward Spir,2006）

====Rational Use of Direct Translation, Substitution, Paraphrase, Interpretation and Other Translation Methods====

The German functionalist translation theory, which emerged in the 1970s, advocates a "purpose-oriented" approach, which frees the translator and the translator from the bondage of the original language and regards translation as a purposive act. Functionalist scholars especially pointed out that their theory is also suitable for interpretation. The theory requires the translator to determine the strategies to be used in the translation process based on the specific requirements of the client and the translation purpose and the actual situation of the potential readers (or listeners) on the basis of a full understanding of the original language. (Bai Jingyu,2000)

The functionalist translation theory emphasizes flexibility and practicality in the translation process, which is a great inspiration for translators to flexibly use various translation methods to deal with cultural factors in interpretation. Combined with the specific characteristics and requirements of interpretation and the actual situation of the interpretation site, translation methods such as direct translation, substitution, meaning translation and interpretation should be flexibly used in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation according to the needs. (Bai Jingyu,2000)

=====Direct translation method=====

Language is the carrier of culture, which reflects the cultural traditions and psychological habits of a nation. Direct translation not only preserves these cultural features and avoids ambiguities, but also facilitates cultural exchange and enriches the vocabulary of the target language. Without affecting the understanding of the audience, direct translation is preferable if the source and target languages can be unified or largely unified in content and form. The direct translation method is the fullest manifestation of dissimilation at the linguistic level. It is the fullest expression of alienation at the linguistic level. For example, " Let sleeping dogs lie" is directly translated as “勿惹睡狗”. “火上加油” is directly translated “Pour oil on the flame”.

=====Substitution Method=====
The substitution method is also called the "reciprocity method". It is a method of translation by applying words and expressions in the target language that have different expressions but are similar in meaning to the cultural concepts of the source language. The substitution method is the most typical manifestation of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena. For example, the Chinese idiom "冰冻三尺非一日之寒" is translated into " Rome cannot be built in one day”. English idiom "to spend money like water " translated into "挥金如土" is a good example.(Wang Kefei,1997)

====Intentional translation method=====

When the source language and the target language cannot be unified in terms of content and form or cannot be harmonized, translation is a method of expressing the meaning of the source language in the language of the target language from the meaning of the source language, free from the superficial form of the source language. The meaning translation method is also a common method of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena in interpretation. It is mainly applied to occasions where cultural communication is not the purpose. (Bai Jingyu,2000)

For example, during the second session of the Ninth National People's Congress, Premier Zhu Rongji held a press conference. In response to a reporter's question about the "U.S. accusation of China's theft of U.S. nuclear technology," Premier Zhu stated a series of reasons and then concluded that "The U.S. has been accused of stealing nuclear technology from China. After stating a series of reasons, he concluded that,“我们为什么还要冒政治.上的风险和道德上的风险去盗窃什么人的军事机密呢?所以，所谓中国盗窃美国军事机密的问题可以认为是一种天方夜谭”.The last sentence of the translator's translation reads“So, the alleged Chinese theft of U.S. military technology is only a fiction.” Here, "天方夜谭" is not translated directly as"TheArabianNights"，but is instead translated as " fiction ".

This shows that the interpreter is fully aware of the cultural differences between Chinese and Western cultures and adopts the method of paraphrasing and flexibly and accurately conveys the speaker's meaning to the audience in the target language. As we all know, in Chinese culture, when people refer to an absurd, unsubstantiated phenomenon or statement, they often say: 这简直是天方夜谭。But in English-speaking cultures, The Arabian Nights is not synonymous with ridiculous or absurd. Therefore, the word "天方夜谭" has a much richer connotation in Chinese than the same word has in English.（Bao Huinan,2001）

=====Interpretation=====

Chinese and English belong to different language families, and they are very different in terms of cultural and historical background, cultural psychological structure, thinking styles and methods, and language expression. Although there are some cultural concepts in the two languages that are equivalent, corresponding or basically corresponding, most of them are not corresponding or completely corresponding, and some concepts are completely vacant in the target language.(Bao Huinan,2001) When trying to preserve the cultural characteristics of the source language and the literal translation cannot make the audience understand its meaning, the cultural phenomenon of the source language can be properly explained to facilitate the audience's understanding. This method is called interpretation. Interpretation is actually a means of alienation-a disguised form of expression, similar to literal translation and annotation. The interpretation method is not only easy for the audience to understand, but also can retain the cultural flavor of the source language. It is a good way to deal with cultural gaps in interpreting. The interpretation method is mainly applicable to the following scope (Bai Jingyu,2000)

1) Proper nouns formed in the accumulation of source language culture
诸葛亮—-Zhuge Liang，a master mind in Chinese history.
Mickey Mouse—-指一个小人物或一件微不足道的小事

2) Abbreviations, special phrases or collocations formed in a specific cultural atmosphere
三资企业—-refers to“外资”，namely, foreign- funded enterprise; “合资”， joint adventure
and“独资”，wholly foreign-owned or funded enterprise.
An LDC—-指 “a life and death commodity”始用于英国报刊，一般指成本低廉，但却是人类赖以生存的商品，如水。

3) Lingo, idiom, allusion, slang or colloquialism
解铃还需系铃人—-“Let him who tied the bell on the tiger take it off”, meaning, whoever started that trouble ends it himself.”

4)Special cultural words

敬老日—- Generally speaking, this phrase refers to the Double Ninth Festival in China，a day of giving and advocating more concern for the senior citizens.
the Beatles—-指英国的披头士乐队，20世纪六七十年代曾风靡全球。

=====Simple translation and no translation=====

Chinese people use more adjectives when narrating and describing people and things, especially when introducing landscapes and historical sites, adjectives and four-character patterns are quite frequent. For example, when introducing a lake, we often hear commentary similar to the following: “ 湖水澄澈如镜，水光天接，湖中有十多个高矮不等的小岛被水相望，似断似续，烟水迷茫，错落有致....”. If during the interpreting process, the interpreter translates the described words one by one according to the original language, it is likely to be thankless and make people feel that the language is extremely exaggerated and ridiculous. In this case, omitting some adjectives will not affect the overall situation. It is undeniable that some of the special expressions in different nationalities and different languages cannot be translated or equivalently translated. Especially in time-stressed interpretation situations, it is inevitable to encounter difficult problems, such as humor in English. No matter how you translate them, the meanings of, puns, allegorical words with puns in Chinese, and word-breaking games in Chinese, etc., cannot fully reflect their meanings. In this case, you can use "no translation" or incomplete translation. For example, Chinese people are used to introducing themselves by saying: "我姓张，弓长张。"Directly translating it as “My family name is Zhang”is enough.(Lu Naisheng,1993)

===Conclusion===

Interpretation is a cross-language communication activity as well as a cross-cultural communication activity. Due to the commonality and individuality of culture, the cultural characteristics carried by different language systems in cross-cultural communication appear the same, partly the same, gaps and conflicts. Therefore, the interpreter must not only be proficient in both the source language and the target language, but also understand the two cultures and understand the differences between the two cultures reflected in the differences in language expression. In addition, due to the characteristics of interpreting: timeliness, directness, diversity of occasions and forms, as well as the looseness of oral expression, resulting in the cultural sensitivity of the interpreter, the broad aspect of knowledge and the ability to deal with cultural differences There are higher requirements.

Therefore, interpreters should focus on cultivating cross-cultural awareness, increasing their sensitivity to the differences between the two cultures, and mastering the principles and methods to fill the gaps in understanding between different cultures. For interpreters, cross-cultural awareness refers to a cognitive standard and adjustment method formed by the translator consciously or unconsciously in cross-cultural communication. It is the interpreter’s unique way of thinking, judgment, and The sensitivity of cultural factors. The interpreter is the carrier of cross-cultural awareness, and the broad cultural information foundation is the fundamental guarantee for the completion of cross-cultural communication. Only by following the principles of culture can the translator better control the language and make the target language truly accurate, decent and fluent.(Bai Jingyu,2000)

===Reference===

简芳，张健.口译活动中的文化障碍问题[J]. 湖北广播电视大学学报，2012年1月第1期

连淑能.英汉对比研究[M].北京:高等教育出版社，1993年版

刘微微.浅谈口译中文化差异的应对策略[J].哈尔滨职业技术学院学报，2008 年第1期[4].沙保华.文化差异与口译[J].四川外语学院学报(重庆)，1995年第1期

熊薇.文化差异对口译的影响[J].语言文字，2009.8

杨震，黄斗.口译中中西文化冲突的沟通和处理[J].广西师范学院学报(哲学社会科学版)，2008年10月第4期

张文.论口译面对的文化差异问题[J]. 北京第二外国语学院学报，1998年第3期 [8]. 张燕.文化差异对口译的影响[J]. 外语教学，2002年5月第3期

Edward Spir, Language: An Introduction of the Study of Speech, Echo Library, 2006.

Bai Jingyu, Culture and Translation, China Social Science Press, 2000.

Lu Naisheng, Differences between Chinese and English and Translation, East China Chemical Engineering Institute Press, 1993.

Wang Kefei, Understanding the Nature of Translation, Foreign Languages and Foreign Language Teaching, 1997.

Jia Dejiang, A Tentative Discussion on Cultural Perspective and English-Chinese Translation, Hunan People' 's Publishing House, 1998.

Deng Yanchang, Liu Runqing, Language and Culture - Comparison of Chinese and English Languages and Cultures, Foreign Language Teaching and Language Research Press, 2006.

Bao Huinan, Cultural Context and Language Translation, China International Translation Publication Company, 2001.
--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 13:59, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

==On Translation Strategies of Different Style, Taking English Journalistic Style and English Literary Style as an Example 张银柳 Zhang Yinliu 202070080649==

===Abstract===

With the consistent development of the cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, translation plays a more and more pivotal role in the world stage. It can not only help Chinese to have a better understanding of foreign cultures and promote the cooperation, but also spread the Chinese cultures to the international world. Translation strategies are the focus of translation works, especially during the process of translating Chinese to English. It’s very necessary to have a thorough study about the translation strategies. While towards different styles of text, different translation strategies should be applied relatively. This thesis focuses on translation strategies of two styles - journalistic style and literary style.
The thesis firstly introduces main functons and types of texts. Then it depicts the characteristics and translation principles of journalistic style text and literary style text. In the main part, the thesis explores the translation strategies that suits for the two types based on different characteristics, including domestication, foreignization, omission,restructure and etc. This thesis is expected to make some contributions to the study of translation strategies and the practice of translation.

===Key Words===

Translation strategies; text-types; journalistic style; literary style.

===中文摘要===

随着中外文化交流的不断发展，翻译在世界舞台上扮演着越来越重要的角色。它不仅可以帮助中国人更好地了解外国文化，促进合作，而且可以将中国文化传播到世界。翻译策略是翻译工作的重点，特别是在汉译英过程中。对翻译策略进行深入研究是有必要的。在针对不同样式的文本时，应相对地采用不同的翻译策略。本文主要研究两种体裁的翻译策略：新闻体裁和文学体裁。
本文首先介绍主要的文本功能以及文本类型，然后探讨新闻风格文本和文学风格文本的语言特点及翻译原则。论文的主体部分结合了两种文本的特点，探讨了归化，异化，省译，重构等翻译策略。本文有望为翻译策略的研究和翻译的实践做出贡献。

===关键词===

翻译策略; 文本类型; 新闻体裁; 文学体裁.

===Introduction===

Translation strategies are critical in translation process. Towards texts in different styles that have different models of texts’ structure and communicative functions, translation strategies are quite variable. There are a great number of scholars both from China and the international world who have devoted themselves to dive into and research the most effective and practical strategies.

However, there are still lack of thorough researches about translation strategies for different text styles. In this thesis, the first part is about the introduction and analysis of former scholars’ researches and the whole picture of this thesis. Then, the thesis will discuss the development, characteristics and functions of different-style texts from the perspective of linguistics.From the perspective of language characteristics,literary style texts are vivid,full of feelings and connotation-contained, while journalistic style texts are new, objective,true and political-related. From the perspective of translation principles, literary style texts are based on equivalence priciple and accuracy,while journalistic style texts are based on accuracy,purpose and readability. The main part is about the translation strategies of source texts in journalistic style and literary style respectively and the analysis of examples, such as the domestication, foreignization in literary-style texts and the omission , restructure, amplification and imitation in journalistic-style text. In concluding part, the thesis will generalize the main idea and make an objective appreciation about the thesis.

===Theoretical Framework===
====Background and development of Texts’ styles====

According to the research, there is still no specific definition of distinguishing differences of texts styles. Some scholars claim texts’ styles to be registers, even some equal them to speech events. Qin Xiubai, a famous Chinese language and teaching professor, introduced that there were two main schools of the study of Texts styles’- the Swalesian School represented by John M.S wales and V.K.Bhatia and the Australian School represented by J.R.Martin. John Martin believes that styles of texts mean a bunch of social events in which the members have the same communicative goal. While V.K.Bhatia believes that styles of texts are identifiable communicative events that have obvious inner structural features, conventionally happening in specific careers or academic communities.

We can tell from the two schools’ views that styles of texts are a kind of communicative events with its special communicative purpose and clear structures. From this point, translators or interpreters can exert theory to analyze texts’ styles and recognize the intentions of writers as well as keep the functional and sense equivalence between the source texts and target texts. J.R.Martin take texts’ styles as a communication-orientated process of social communication with steps. Eggins view texts of styles as a type of activity with steps that orientated on communicative purposes. So that the difference of texts styles is on the level of values in use rather than the contents of discourse, characteristics of forms or other rules.

Huang Guowen once said that every text plays a communicative role in a specific social and cultural environment, and people belonging to a specific social and cultural background can usually see its communicative purpose. (Huang Guowen,2001) The text is a combination of communicative symbols for the exchange of information between the sender and the recipient. In order to achieve a certain communicative purpose, the sender must choose an appropriate genre and corresponding manifestation to convey the information, and the recipient is expected to respond accordingly. Thus, the function of texts can be realized. Christiane Nord summarized four functions of texts from the perspective of translation. They are referential function, expressive function, appellative function and phatic function. (Nord, 1997)

====Main functions of texts====

=====The Referential Function=====
The referential function of a text means the reference to or description of objects or phenomena of the world. It is mainly expressed through the denotative value of the lexical items presented in the text and can be analyzed through the nature of the objects. It is orientated toward objects in real or fictitious worlds. There are several functions of referential function: informative function, directive function and didactic function. If the referent is a fact or state of things unknown to the receiver, such as an accident, the text function may consist in informing the readers. If the referent is the description of an object, such as the illustration of using a washing machine, the text function may be directive. If it is a whole field that the receivers are to learn, such as physics, the function may be didactic.

=====The Expressive Function=====

The expressive function refers to the sender’s attitude to toward the objects or phenomena. This function is sender-orientated. The expressive function of the text may be subdivided according to what it is expressed. If the sender expresses individual feelings or emotions, such as a public speech, it will be an emotive sub-function. If what is expressed is an evaluation, like comments, the sub-function will be evaluative.

=====The Appellative Function=====

The appellative function refers to use of language to make the receiver feel or do something. The appellative function “receiver-orientated. It aims at the receivers’ sensitivity or disposition to act and tries to induce receivers to respond in a particular way. It can be broken into several sub-functions: illustrative function, persuasive function, advertising function and pedagogical function. If we want to illustrate a hypothesis by an example, we appeal to the reader’s previous experience to knowledge, That’s what called illustrative function. If we want to persuade someone to do something or to share a particular viewpoint, we appeal to their sensitivity and their secret desires. That’s what called persuasive function. If we want to let someone by a particular product, we tend to describe those qualities of the product that are presumed to have positive values in receivers’ value system. That’s advertising function. If we wan to educate a person, we may appeal to their susceptibility to ethical and moral principles. That’s pedagogical function.

====Main Text - types====

Katharina Reiss, founder of German translation functionalism, put forward text-typology theory in Possibilities and Limitations in Translation Criticism. She believes that there are four texts, including the context-focused text, the form-focused text, the appeal-focused text and the audio-media text.
Peter Newmark, representative of the British linguistic school of translation theory, based on the study of former linguisticians, he put forward the following six functions of texts - expressive function, informative function, the vocative function, the aesthetic function, the phatic function and the meta-lingual function. A text may has several functions at the same time, but only has one major function. Taking a whole consideration of the two theories, the main texts are the following three, expressive texts, informative texts and vocative texts. Journalistic-style texts and literary-style texts are mainly connected with the informative and expressive function respectively.

=====The Expressive Texts=====

Language is a tool for people to communicate with each other. Through language, people can express their thoughts, affection, wills, desires, opinions, attitude, etc. This is the expressive function of language. The core of expressive function is the speaker's thoughts. The speaker uses words to express feelings, regardless of the reaction of others.Typical expressive-function texts include the following three types. The first ones are serious and imaginative literature which contain lyrics, short stories, long novels and plays. The second type is authoritative texts, including a variety of genres, whose authority comes from the status of the author or language skills, such as senior government officials and political party leaders’ speeches, such as declarations, legal regulations, documents as well as literary and academic works written by authority figures etc. The third type is texts that express writers’ ideas directly, without direct readers, like autobiography, private letters, etc.

===== The Informative Texts=====

In interactions, people often have to describe, narrate or explain the situation of relevant things. This involves the information function of language. The core is the external environment, which is the reported insights and theories. The informative text usually has a fixed format, such as textbook, technical reports, newspaper articles, scientific papers, meeting minutes, etc.

===== The Vocative Texts=====

People often use words to evoke others' sympathy or prompt them to take some actions. That shows the imperative function of language. The core of this function is the readers or audiences. The speaker wants readers or audiences to feel and follow the intent of the text and act as expected. Typical vocative texts are notices, advertisements, instructions, requests, appeals, etc.

===Literary Stylistics and Journalistic Stylistics===

With the appearance of societal pragmatics, pragmatics and functional grammar, scholars recognized the importance of language functions. They tried to classify the texts in the light of language functions and divided them into two main types. One is literary style, the other is non-literary style. Snell-Hornby classified literary texts as Bible, drama, film, lyric poetry, modern literature, classic works, children literature, literature in 1990 and pastime novel.

====Language Characteristics====

=====For literary style=====
======Vividness======
In literary works, writers use words or language to vividly describe or portray people, objects, things to reflect the world’s various situations or expose social reality, they will use appropriate techniques to render the atmosphere and create an immersive feeling for readers. For Example, “The bullfrogs trump to usher in the night, and the note of the whip-poor-will is borne on the rippling wind from over the water.” Through the use of verbs such as "trump", "usher" and "is borne", the images of frogs, hawks and wind blowing on the water surface in the evening are vividly depicted. That happens a lot in literary works.

======Emotional expression======
As we all know, all things and objects are embodiment of writers’ feelings and emotions. In literary creation, whether it is to portray characters or to describe scenery, often inadvertently or intentionally contains or carries the writer’s own emotions. In other words, expressing emotion includes direct expression and indirect expression. The lyricism of this kind of literature can effectively arouse the emotional resonance of readers.

======Connotation======
Connotation means that writers do not always describe people or things in all-round aspects with every details, but can depict in limited number of words to show or imply infinite meaning or artistic conception, leaving readers with imagination. That will be unforgettable for a long time. For example, “ From my mother’s sleep I fell into the State. And I hunched in its belly till my wet fur froze.” In this two sentences, “Sleep” metaphorically means in the mother’s womb, can also refer to the poet’s lofty ideals and ambitions. The capitalized "State" can refer to both the world and the poet’s motherland - The United States.

===== For journalistic style=====
Journalistic-style texts vary a lot from the the literary-style texts. As an unique texts which are shown to billions of audience, the characteristics of news are mainly in following four aspects: Truth, objective, new and political-related.

======Truthfulness======
First, as the definition indicates news is about facts，which first should be true. “News lays claim to the qualities of truthfulness and accuracy-properties often implied by the term objectivity, a concept used to legitimize the journalistic text while at the same time recognizing the multidimensional and elusive nature of truth. News asks to be accepted as, at the very least, an approximation to truth, and certainly close enough to the truth to be worthy of our trust in its integrity”(McNair, 1998:2)

======Newness======
If the news isn’t new, it should have been called “olds”. This is more than a joke. News is reported to make a contrast to the convention, strike people by surprise and keep them in suspense. “News is not about somebody bitten by a dog, but about a dog bitten by a man”, “News is just something that can move women to scream: My Gosh!” The two old sayings have been taken as most vivid descriptions of news, featuring its distinctive characteristics of newness.

======Objectivity======
The objectivity is one of the most important professional concepts of news and has caught great attention in news circle. “The basic content of this principle is the content must be completely true, fair and neutral, not fictitious, and not biased or subjective” (Yang Xiyou 2009, 6)When writing news or reports, media workers shouldn’t put their subjective feelings into the reports. And the use of vocabulary should also be fair and neutral. When international news media, such as BBC and VOA, report about China Diaoyu Islands issue, they generally use Sankaku Islands and Diaoyu Island. When translating these words, the translator should be faithful to the original text and translate these two names. However, due to ideological, political or historical reasons, the use of vocabulary may deviate from the principle of objectivity, such as: in the report of Russia and Japan’s dispute on islands, only the Russian address- “ Kuril Islands” was used, but the Japanese address- “Four Northern Islands” was not used. When translating, the translator should add “Thousand Southern Islands” and “Four Northern”.

======Political Relevance======
Although news is objective, absolutely objective and fair reports do not exist. The media has never been able to completely get rid of the shackles of political and economic power or ideology. The content of the report tends to obey the interests of the country. The use of political vocabulary in English current affairs news must also faithfully reflect the country’s political standpoint. Regarding to the English translation of the Diaoyu Islands, the Chinese news media translate into “Diaoyu Islands”, while the Japanese news media and some Western news media call it “Senkaku Islands”. From the usage of these words, it is obvious to see the political stance. When translating these political words, translators must be very cautious. In addition to be faithful to the original text, translators or interpreters should also consider our country’s interests.

====Translation principles====
Translation is the process of transforming signs or representations into another signs or representations.(Nord, 2001:6) Generally speaking, according to the object of translation, translation can be divided into two kinds: literary translation and non-literary translation. In literary translation the object is only the literary work, such as pot, novel and so on, and it focuses on the expression of contents, emotions and rhetoric of the original.

===== For literary style=====
Although literary translation and non-literary translation share basic principles, literary translation which has its unique ways, is rather different from non-literary translation. Translating literary works is not only a process of transforming languages but also a process of recreating because literature belongs to a part of art. This is the most important feature of literary translation and also the basic translation principles.

======Equivalence-based principle======
Equivalence-based principle equals to “Dynamic equivalence” proposed by Eugene A. Nida, a famous American translation theorist. This principle points that translators should work hard in different languages and different cultures to find translation equivalents between them, and use appropriate methods to reorganize the form and semantic structure of the original text. Dynamic equivalence includes four aspects: one is lexical equivalence, the other is syntactic equivalence, the third is textual equivalence, the fourth is sense equivalence. In literary translation, sense equivalence is the core. For example, the Chinese sentence “青年小伙子们，有事没事，总想和小芹说句话” can be translated in to “Young men sought every excuse to talk with Xiao Qin”.This shows sense equivalence.

======Accuracy-based principle======
No matter how beautiful the texts are, the accuracy is always the most important, rather than the forms. Be Faithful to the content of the original text, the translator must fully express the content of the original text without any tampering, distortion, omission or arbitrary deletion. The more accurate the words be chosen, the better the translation texts will be. For example, when translating “ 微风”, we’d better translate it into “breeze” or “gentle breeze” rather than “gentle wind” since the breeze is more accurate.

=====For Journalistic style=====
Journalistic-style texts belong to the informative texts according to the above analysis. Translation principles of Journalistic are mainly mainly purposiveness, accuracy and readability.

======Purpose-based principle======
Purpose" is the basic principle of journalistic-style texts translation, and other principles are based on this principle. For information-based texts, “ translation skopos ”, the German functionalist translation theory, was put forward by Rice, Vermeer, and Nord. Skopos has great significance in guiding of translation. This is because the purpose of information-based translation is very strong, that is, the translation has a clear goal - to provide information. Snell Hornby believes: “More practical the texts is, more clear its function is. The more the translation tends to focus on the target language.”

As far as the journalistic text is concerned, the purpose of its translation is conveying the information and communication, allowing readers to easily understand the intention of the speaker. The translation should conform to the audience’s needs, cultural expectations, beliefs and cognitive status as much as possible, and it is meaningful in the communication environment of the target language culture. For example, in news, sometimes vocabulary vacancies are caused by the absence of equivalence in the translation, and it is impossible to use completely equivalent and accurate words to express its connotation during translation. In this case, domestication can be applied. Considering the specific translation purpose, context and characteristics of the target language, if the purpose of translation is to spread foreign cultures, foreignization strategies can be adopted. That’s the purpose-based translation principle.

======Accuracy-based principle======
The purpose of informative text is to convey information. Therefore, the translation work of the information text should be accurate, clear and precise. The translator can’t deliberately or unintentionally miss any original author’s information. In journalistic style, the accuracy is critical. A slight difference of words can make huge results. Especially, for those news related with politics and business. A word with different emotional sense can make a complete opposite statement. A small movement of a point can cause millions capital loss. For example, 1.33 million and 13.3 million has the huge difference. This principle is similar to the “faith” proposed by Yan Fu. “Faith” means “faithfulness”. The translation of linguistic-style texts should confirm to accuracy.

======Readability-based principle======
Generally speaking, the terminology of information-based texts is neutral and has no obvious personal characteristics or regional colors. In news, even though there are more facts that personal emotions and feeling, translators or interpreters can make small adjustment of the speakers to make the report readable. In short, when translating, based on the readers’ language level, various translation methods should be mobilized on the premise of not changing the original intent of the article and report. It may make the content and layout of the article easier to understand, fluent and concise. But be sure to keep the source language texts’ characteristics.

===Translation strategies===
Translation strategies refer to the thoughts, process, methods and procedure during the process of translation. Towards original texts with different texts styles, translation strategies also vary in a large degree. The thesis will discuss from two typical stylistic texts - literary style and journalistic style. According to The Modern Chinese Dictionary, strategies indicate guidelines and means which are deigned on the basis of the situations concerned. While methods are the ways and procedures in solving real problems. However, the two are relative to each other. In simple words strategies are the guidelines of the concrete methods. The concrete methods should be adopted in the direction of their strategies. Based on the above, a conclusion in drawn that translation strategies are the guidelines for realizing a particular translation aim, yet translation methods the concrete ways employed by translators to make the particular translation aim come true.

====Translation strategies in literary style====
In the book Translation Criticism the Potentials & Limitations, Reiss pointed out that “Translation of literary works would better be called free rendering than translations, especially when the personality of the translator and the force of his artistic temperament result in a TL version standing on its own, indebted to the original as a model and a source of inspiration. (Reiss, 2004:91) This description indicates the characteristics of literary translation.

===== Domestication=====
Domestication is firstly coined by L.Venuti in his book ''The Translator’s Invisibility'' called “guihua” in Chinese. Domestication is a strategy by which the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the original text is erased in the translation in order to meet its readers’ aesthetic and reception psychology. As Venuti argues the adoption of domesticating strategy is the cultural disparity and imperialism. In the 1980s translation studies underwent “cultural turn”, and since then translation has being studied in the cultural and social contexts. The dominance of transparent discourse in English-language translation was decisively challenged at the turn of the twentieth century.Eugene Nida is the representative of domestication by his assertion on dynamic equivalence that “A translation of dynamic equivalence aims at complete naturalness of expression and tries to relate the receptor to modes of behavior relevant within the context of his own culture.” (Nida, 2004:159) He maintains that the function of translation is to communicate and it is important for the reader to understand what is conveyed by the translation, which takes the reader’s response into consideration. He claims that the reader of the target text should have the similar comprehension and appreciation as does the reader of the source text. Domestication tries to avoid cultural dispute and eliminate cultural barriers to achieve successful cross-cultural communication. The domesticating translation is one of naturalness and smoothness,
which is the advantage of domestication. Here are three main methods that can achieve domestication strategy. They are paraphrasing, adaptation and replacement.

======paraphrasing======

Domestication by the method of paraphrasing is effective in dealing with a simple expression behind which there is a heavy cultural load. We should adapt paraphrasing strategy.

Example1

ST: 如囊萤如映雪家虽贫学不辍 (Wang Yinglin, 1986)

TT1: Then we have one who put fireflies in a bag, and again another who used the white glare from snow. Although their families were poor, these men studied
unceasingly.

TT2: One enclosed some glow-worms in a transparent bag, another read by the light reflected by the snow. Although their families were poor, they never ceased learning.
Annotation: in order to read by their light.

TT3: Che-yin, when a boy, being poor, read his book by the light of a glow-worm which he confined. And Sun-kang, in winter, read his book by the light reflected from snow. Though their families were poor they studied incessantly.

The original text is from a classical book in china named Three-Character Classic.“囊萤”and “映雪” are Chinese allusions urging children to work hard at their study. Each of the contracted expressions has a story behind it. By reading T1 and T2, readers cannot understand the allusion to the full and the logic between the expressions of “put fireflies in a bag/enclosed some glow-worms in a transparent bag”and“used the white glare from snow”and the expressions about the persons’ industry at their studies. T3 paraphrases the sentence and makes logic explicit by introducing the heroes in the allusions and explaining what they used the fireflies/glow-worms for. This is effective in translation.

======Adaptation======

In order to achieve naturalness of expression, grammar, lexicon and culture. Adaptations are necessary. For terms which identify culturally different objects but with somewhat similar functions, adaptation shows its advantage in translation.

Example2

ST: 老少爷们，从麻木的状态中苏醒过来吧。(Moyan，2003:85)

TT: Come out of your stupor, my friends. ( Goldblatt, 2004:293)

Address terms, as an indispensable part of conversations and communications, can reflect the tradition and culture of a nation. In all languages, address terms play an important role in social intercourse. Set in Northeast countryside of China, “ 老少爷们”is a typical address term of China’s northern dialect. And it is usually used by a man, showing some masculinity. It’s an oral expression often addressed to males. Goldblatt translate it as “my friends”, often used in an English speech to strike a chord in listeners and get them united or in favor of the speaker, conspicuously in an adaptation way.

Example3

ST: 凡训蒙须讲究详训诂明句读（Wang Yinglin,1986）

TT1: In the education of the young, there should be explanation and elucidation, careful teaching of the interpretations of commentators, and due attention to paragraphs and sentences.

TT2: Whoever teaches boys, ought to discuss and examine deeply (the meaning of the characters); Explain their derivation, mark distinctly the periods and the punctuation.

TT3: Every one that instructs youth should explain fully what he teaches; should illustrate the present and the past, and distinguish clearly the comma and the period.
There are two kinds of adaptation in the translation of this Chinese line. First, it is the domestication of the Chinese term “句读”. Actually, ancient Chinese classics do not have any punctuation marks and the “句读” refers to the longer or shorter pause in the classics according to the meaning of the text. All three translators domesticate the Chinese term by the concept of punctuation in the English language and render it respectively as “paragraphs and sentences”, “the periods and the punctuation” and “the comma and the period”. Although the three kinds of rendering differ from each other on the level of punctuation, they have much the same function—the target text reader can easily understand in what way “句读” functions in a Chinese text. Thus dynamic equivalence is achieved. The second adaptation is the change of parts of speech—the change from verb to noun. Giles changes the verbs “训”, “讲究” and “训诂” in the Chinese text into nouns “education”, “explanation and elucidation”, “interpretations” and “attention”.

======Replacement======

Example 4

ST:勤有功戏无益戒之哉宜勉力 (Wang Yinglin, 1986)

TT: Diligence has its reward; play has no advantages. Oh, be on your guard, and put forth your strength.

This is an example of domestication on the lexical level. “哉” in Chinese is a particle of exclamatory or of interrogative value. In this line, it functions as an exclamatory particle. It helps to make up the syllable in the Chinese version and express the author’s emotion of instructing the young. Giles translates it into the correspondent English exclamatory particle “Oh” which retains the tone of a similar function as is in the source text. It achieves dynamic equivalence in terms of reader’s response to the rhetoric.

=====Foreignization=====

Foreignization designates the type of translation in which a target text is produced which deliberately breaks the target conventions by retaining the foreignness of the original. It functions to preserve the foreignness and value of the foreign language culture in the source text. It takes the readers of the target language culture to a foreign culture, making the readers of the translated text feel the differences and enjoy the alien atmosphere. It is more faithful to the language features of the source text than domestication does, and it keeps the flavor of the original language. Venuti and other scholars who advocate foreignization hold that foreignization enable readers of the translated text to learn about the alien culture of the source language text, which is often the reading aim of the readers who are capable of understanding the alien culture. (Venuti, 1995)

======phonetic compensation======

Among the three translators, Giles is said to be an excellent English language master who was able to compose English poems. His translation of poems is generally in accordance with the composing and rhyming schemes of English poems, often with good rhythm. (Mu Shixiong, 2004:166) Though Giles is good at translating poems, he does not translate this text into a completely rhythmical one. Instead, he adds pronunciation to every Chinese character in the text to make a phonetic compensation so that the readers can still appreciate the ending rhyme of the original Chinese text. Giles does make an effort to create rhythmical effect whenever it is possible. In literary texts, phonetic compensation is always applied in translation of poem and prose.

Example5

ST:养不教父之过教不严师之惰

TT: To feed without teaching is the father’s fault. To teach without severity is the teacher’s laziness.

Each line of the translation has a rhythmic focus. Respectively they are:“feed”,“without”and“teaching”in the first line; “father” and “fault” in the second line;“teach”,“without”and“severity” in the third line; and “teacher” and “laziness” in the fourth line. In this way, and together with the phonetic compensation, formal equivalence is achieved and by reading the phonetic compensation, target readers can feel the same rhythm of the original text and response the same as the readers of the source text.

======Transliteration======

Transliteration is a method that an item is translated according to its pronunciation rather than its meaning. This technique is often applied to translate ecological culture-loaded terms, like names of places, person, rivers, mountains or countries. There are two systems in use for transliteration Chinese characters: the Wade-Giles system of Romanization and the pinyin system of Romanization. For better transference of Chinese culture, the latter system is suggested. For some material culture-loaded terms, such as “仁”, “义”, “君子” and so on, transliteration might be preferable to any other methods. These terms represent the key concept of Confucianism, and any other English equivalent expressions may lead to misunderstanding. Thus, it is the most convenient and effective way to expose target readers in Chinese culture. For some time, the pinyin translation of these terms may be as acceptable and comprehensible as “kongfu” or “mahjong”. Certainly, for the sake of target readers’ understanding, an annotation is always needed to provide the further explanation of the cultural meanings of these terms.

Example6

ST: 南容三复“白圭”，孔子以其兄之子妻之。(Liu Dianjue, 46)

TT1: Nan Jung in reciting the I Song repeated the verse about the sceptre of white jade three times. (In consequence of which) Master Kung gave him his elder brother’s daughter to marry. (Waley, 131)

TT2: Nan Rong repeated over and over again the lines about the white jade sceptre. Confucius gave him his elder brother’s daughter in marriage. (D.C. Lau, 181)

======Amplification======

Amplification refers to add information behind some terms that is familiar to source language readers but unfamiliar to target language readers. By amplification, the connotation can be better conveyed to foreign readers.

Example 7

ST:论语者二十篇群弟子记善言

TT: The Lunyu (the book of discourses and dialogues) contains twenty chapters. The disciples (of Confucius) have therein related his excellent sayings.

In this example, the Chinese text does not mention the ancient Chinese sage Confucius, and the information on whose sayings had been recorded in the book “Lun-yu” is implicit, which can be inferred from the context by native Chinese, once they combine the notion of “论语”with their background knowledge. However, western readers do not have enough knowledge to appreciate the value of the “Lun-yu”if the title was translated without the mention of Confucius.

==== Translation strategies in journalistic style====

===== Amplification=====

Sometimes, the translator needs to add proper words to complete the structure of the target texts, because mews sometimes needs more information to explain the inner meaning. The following examples are offered to illustrate the point.

Example 8

ST: The real James Bond? (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 250)

TT:谁是真正的邦德?

There are no subject and predicate in the target text if the translator renders the headline by literal translation. Therefore,“谁是” is added in order to clarify the text.

Example 9

ST: Kings rout rockets, 101-74 (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 225)

TT: 国王队击败火箭队，比分为 101 比 74

“比分为”is added in the target text to make the translation complete in sentence structure and meaning.

Example 10
ST:Reuters bests and worsts of the world cup (Huang Ruihong, 2004-06-15)

TT:路透社评出世界最佳和最差球队

“评出” is added in the target text. Otherwise, there will be no predicate in the target text. Consequently, the translation will make no sense to the target reader. Translator should transfer new messages accurately and clearly to the target reader. To achieve this goal, amplification is often adopted to supplement necessary words or background information, which effectively avoids misunderstanding on the part of the target reader.

=====Omission=====

Omission refers to the strategy to delete unnecessary words or phrases from the target text. News headlines are featured by its brevity. Redundant words can be omitted either to conform to the norms of the target language or to achieve the effect of succinctness.

Example11
ST: You need to sleep less than you think (Zou Shuang, 2005)
TT: 适当少睡有益健康
As we know, English is a hypotactic language, which pays great attention to overt cohesion. Without the pronoun‘you’, the source text will be ungrammatical. By contrast, Chinese belongs to paratactic language, which attaches importance to covert coherence. When the translator does not render the word‘you’ into“你”, it won’t affect comprehension at all. In addition, the target text is succinct by leaving out the pronoun‘you’. Therefore, omission is adopted in this example.

Example12

ST: Vogue says Queen Elizabeth II among world’s most glamorous (China Daily, 2007-11-07)

TT:英女王跻身“全球最具魅力女性”排行榜

As it is well known to most Chinese readers that the Queen of UK is Elizabeth II (伊莉莎白二世), there is no need to keep it in the target text. Otherwise, the translation will be too long as a headline. The recommended version, thus, becomes 英女王跻身“全球最具魅力女性”排行榜.

=====Imitation=====
English news are featured by its vivid language, such as play on word, figures of speech, etc. They add special flavor to the text with the aim to attract readers’ eye. Obviously, to reproduce these aesthetic effect enjoys the privilege among the available methods. Throughout the history of translation theory, the idea of imitation has been manifested clearly by Alexander Fraser Tytler when he wrote: the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original in his famous essay on the Principles of Translation. (Munaday, 2001: 26) The following examples may illustrate the above idea.

Example 13

ST:A tale of two hearts (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 199).

TT:双心记

This headline tells a story that a patient has an artificial heart planted in his body. The headline is a parody of the novel A Tale of Two Cities written by Charles Dickens. The target text (双心记) is also a parody of “双城记”.

Example14

ST: Soccer kicks off with violence (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 200)

TT:足球开踢，拳打脚踢

This is a humorous news headline because of the use of pun. The phrase ‘kick off’ refers to the start of a football match, and it also implies that there is a fight in the football field. The meanings of the pun are successfully transferred by the target text with the recommended translation. The translator does a good job in reproducing the humorous sense.

=====Restructure=====
The target text should be acceptable and meaningful in a sense that it is coherent with the situation in which it is received. Once translated, the translator revises the order and rearranges all words into a perfect sentence. In doing so, the news is more logical and tuned with the habit of native readers' think and reading. It can be treated as an important technique used in translating news headline from Chinese into English or English to Chinese.

Example 15

ST: A third of Londoners must work from home during Olympics to avoid tube

TT: 奥运交通压力大 1/3伦敦人须在家上班 (2011-09-27 08:33)

“A third” occurred in the beginning of the source text, but “奥运会” comes first in the target text. The source text can be translate into “1/3的伦敦人必须在家上班,在奥运会期间避免交通混乱”if there is not any translation strategies used. The translator rearranges the words order to emphasize the special time---Olympics.

Example16

ST: Mahfud proposes ‘Special Zoo’ for corrupt officials

TT: 印尼高官提议建“贪官动物园” (2011-11-30 16:02)

In order to satirize the corrupt officials, the translator exchanges the order of “special” and “贪官” during the translation process. It can be achieve some good effect to expose the corrupt officials in language sense.

Example 17

ST:‘Ready for winter’ campaign launches

TT: 苏格兰打响“迎冬战役”(2011-10-24 12:06)

The translator reorders the expression “Ready for winter” and “launches” during the translation process. Besides, the translator adds a subject to this sentence so that it can appeal to the readers’ thinking patterns. In order to make the readers or audiences understand the translated version smoothly and easily, the words or phrases are adjusted to accord with their thinking pattern. Restructuring refers to rearranging the words in logic order to make the translation more potential readers or audiences into the first consideration, making them understand the translated version easily.

===== Adaptation=====
Adaptation is a translation method, which refers to use an especially free translation, it relates to selecting, adding, deleting, and constructing cautiously instead of simply translating one word to another word. In order to make the translated version more proper to a certain readers or audiences, adaptation always make some essential changes for a special aim So adaptation is an activity which the news translators absorb the most important content from the source text on the basis of the particular requirement of the readers or audiences, then make some suitable adjustments. When the translators are doing some adaptation, though the form and style of the source text are altered in a way, the main idea of the source text must be kept.Though adaptation is not acted as a main translation method by some traditional translation theorists, adaptation is getting more and more popular and arousing more and more
attention these days. You can see the term adaptation frequently showed in some authoritative journals and newspapers, etc.

Example 18

ST: Poor People May Be Quicker to Be Kind

TT:穷人更有同情心 (2011-12-29 08:56)

“Quicker”means“更快”, but here it is translated into “更有”, “快” is an adjective, “有”is a verb, they have different characters.“Kind”means“友善的”, it is an adjective, but it is translated into“同情心”, which is a noun. If the translator does not use some translation strategies like adaptation, the target text is unreadable.

Example 19

ST: Americans say Asia more important than EU: survey

TT：多数美国人看好亚洲 (2011-09-16 08:43)

“Important” is an adjective, and a comparative degree used in the source text. But the source text is translated in a totally different way, for it is translated into a verb “看好”. Adaptation should be used here to make sure the translation aim is achieved.

Example 20

ST: Lend your voices to ‘talking bins’

TT:“能说会唱垃圾桶”将亮相伦敦。

If“talking bins” is translated into “会说话的垃圾桶”, it is so ordinary. But the translator adopt the adaptation strategy to translated it into“能说会唱垃圾桶”, it becomes very vivid, and it may leave a deep impression on the readers.

===Conclusion===
The research conducted in this thesis is a fairly thorough study on the translation strategies of literary-style texts and journalistic-style texts. Through detailed discussion, several translation strategies have been analyzed and summarized. This thesis also studies the texts’ functions and main types of texts. The texts functions are referential function, expressive function and appellative function. The texts can be divided into three types- informative, expressive and vocative texts. On the basis of characteristics of different texts, detailed methods are applied. For literary-style texts, there are domestication and foreignization strategies. For journalistic-style texts, there are strategies like omission, restructure,adaption, imitation and amplification. Journalistic texts and literary texts are quite different, so the translation strategies are different. This thesis has a clear analysis about the translation strategies. However, it still owns a lot of drawbacks, such as the structure is too complicated, lack some of the former people’s study fruit. Hoping this thesis can make some contributions to the translation study and exercise process.

===References===

[1] McNair, Brain. ''The sociology of Journalism'' [M]. A Hodder Arnold Publication,1998.

[2] Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' [M]. London and New York: Routledge,2001.

[3] Newmark, P. ''Approaches to Translation'' ［M］. New York: Prentice Hall, 1981: 39.

[4] Nord, Christiane. ''Translating as A Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Approaches Explained'' [M]. Shanghai : Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001:6.

[5] Reiss, Katharina. ''Translation Criticism the Potentials & Limitations'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004:91.

[6] Venuti, L. ''The Translator’s Invisibility—A History of Translation''[M]. London & New York: Routledge,1995.

[7] 黄瑞红.新闻英语的词汇特色和语法特征[J],《陕西广播电视大学学报》,2004 年第 6 卷第 2 期.

[8] 刘殿爵. 论语[M]. 北京:中华书局,2011.

[9] 穆诗雄.《跨文化传播——中国古典诗歌英译论》[M],合肥:中国科学技术大学出版社,2004.

[10]王应麟.《三字经》[M],长沙:岳麓书社,1986.

[11]许明武.新闻英语与翻译 [M],北京:中国对外翻译出版公司,2003.

[12]邹爽.浅谈英语新闻标题的翻译 [J],《湖北财经高等专科学校学报》,2005 年第 17 卷第 2 期.

[13]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-09/27/content_13797729.htm

[14]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-11/30/content_14191000.htm

[15]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-10/24/content_13962189.htm

[16]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-12/29/content_14347771.htm

[17]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-09/16/content_13712704.htm
--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 02:20, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Study on the Ideology of 2020 Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis 李泳珊 Li Yongshan 202020080614==

<center>李泳珊 Li Yongshan 202020080614</center>

===Abstract===

Ideology and translation studies always attract the attention of scholars in the field of translation studies. Nowadays, the empirical research method combining corpora and critical discourse analysis has provided more intuitive and convincing argument support for researches in this area. In this paper, critical discourse analysis is combined with translation studies so as to substantially discuss the controlling role of ideology in the translation of Government Work Report. Due to limited time and energy, the author has not set up his/her own corpora and failed in applying SPSS, CiteSpace, NoteExpress, EmEditor and other statistical software to collect and analyze corpus. However, this research is carried out from the perspective of critical discourse analysis and solid evidence will be provided as much as possible.

Ideology and translation studies has attracted the attention of scholars in the field of translation studies for a long time. Nowadays, the empirical research method combining corpora and critical discourse analysis has provided more intuitive and convincing argument support for researches in this area. In this paper, critical discourse analysis is combined with translation studies so as to substantially discuss the controlling role of ideology in the translation of Government Work Report. Due to limited time and energy, the author has not set up his/her own corpora and failed in applying SPSS, CiteSpace, NoteExpress, EmEditor and other statistical software to collect and analyze corpus. However, this research is carried out from the perspective of critical discourse analysis and solid evidence will be provided as much as possible. --[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui

===Key words===

Critical Discourse Analysis; Government Work Report,;Ideology

===摘要===

意识形态与翻译研究一直在翻译研究领域受到学者关注。今天，以语料库和批评话语分析结合的实证研究方法更是为此方面的研究提供了更直观、更有考证依据的论据支撑。本文将批评性话语分析与翻译研究结合起来，重点探讨了意识形态对《政府工作报告》翻译的操控作用。但受限于时间和能力，笔者未能建立起自己的语料库，利用科学的统计软件如SPSS、CiteSpace、NoteExpress、EmEditor等进行语料收集和分析。本文将仅从批评话语分析视角进行研究，并尽可能地提供足够的实证。

===关键词===

批评话语分析；政府工作报告；意识形态

===1. Introduction===

====1.1 The Interpretation of Ideology====

The meaning of ideology is multiple.A lot of people have tried to explain it.As mentioned by L.Althusser in Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses, "Ideology equals Illusion/Hint, (L.Althusser, Lenin and Philosophy, London: Monthly Review Press, 1971, p.162) meaning that the essence of the reality could be cracked by following the hint of illusion."

"Kress and Hodge define ideology by depicting the ideological properties of language. They argue that ideology is a systematic body of thought organized in a particular point of view" (Kress & Hodge, 1979: 6). While they lay stress on the relation between language and ideology, Fowler defines ideology as "something neutral"which refers to the general view and ideas of how people understand the world and their experiences and how they organize their lives. He adds that "these implicit beliefs constitute 'common sense' and provide the normative basis for discourse" (Fowler, 1996: 10-11).

However, according to Fairclough, "ideology is the result of power relations and power struggles " that are "implicit in the conventions with which people interact linguistically and of which they are often unaware" (Fairclough , 1989: 2).

"Furthermore, VanDijk (1993) expands the definition of "ideology", which includes three main elements, which are society, cognition and discourse. Among them, society refers to powerful relations and the interests of certain groups, cognition is in relation to beliefs and values in life, and discourse deals with the relationship between language use and ideology, involving concealment and manipulation. It is clear from the above description that critical discourse analysts disagree on the scope of ideology,but they still share a common rationale in the relationship between language and ideology. Ideology uses language as a vehicle to express itself, and language as a return reflects hides or constructs ideology."(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22)

"Rhetorically, ideology achieves its natural status through the mutual interference between denotation and connotation. If denotation equals the first meaning, connotation is the second implication. However, the signifier of connotation (the second implication) is denotation. Hence, a complete sentence can embody the ideology." (Tu Youxiang, Rhetoric and Ideology, Page 15)

"In S/Z, Roland Barthes divided articles into Articles Inspiring People to Write and Articles, Attracting People to Read, and then made corresponding assessment. "Yet, the fundamental evaluation on articles could neither be carried out from the perspective of sciences because sciences were not applied for measurement, nor derive from ideology because an article's ideological value (involving morality, aesthetics, politics and truth) is a kind of value of representation rather than value of production (ideology is “Reflection” rather than Creation)." (Tu Youxiang, Rhetoric and Ideology, Page 16)

"Barthes and Nietzsche held that the subject is a kind of fiction. Through this kind of fiction, ideology can naturally come and hide. Language structure and ideological structure penetrate each other and establish a seamlessly intimate relationship. 'The role of a complete sentence is to push the story forward while explanatory codes act in contravention, cut off, interrupt and suspend the sentence and delay the disclosure of truth. Seemingly, explanatory codes curb the natural extension of sentence, but the sentence's effective composition is enhanced to play a stronger part. Nevertheless, the truth (predicate and object) is the completer and terminator and appears to terminate the narration (sentence).' From the perspective of sentence patterns, diverse and complicated narrations are exactly the embodiment of ideology. Also, continuous innovation of narration modes can be regarded as a breakthrough from the conventionalized ideology (pushing the limit and recognizing the generation)." (Tu Youxiang, Rhetoric and Ideology, Page 17)

====1.2 Ideology and Translation Studies====

=====1.2.1 Brief Introduction of Development Process of Ideology and Translation Studies=====

"In 1980s and 1990s, as the emergence of Manipulation School and the "Cultural Turn" of translation studies, scholars began to pay attention to the role played by ideology and other factors beyond the text in manipulating translation. From the publishing of The Manipulation of Literature (Hermans,1985), a work making the Manipulation School known to the world (Lefevere et. al. first pointed out that translation as a kind of rewriting would be restricted by the target language ideology and poetics rules),contemporary ideology and translation studies have developed a history of about 40 years. In two decades (from 1985 to 2005), many western and Chinese scholars published their works on this research subject, including Lefevere,1992, Hermans, 1999, Benjamin, 2004, Wang Xiaoyuan (1999), Yang Liu (2001), Sun Yifeng (2003), Zha Jianming (2004) and Fang Kaiduan (2005) etc..." (Wang Dongfeng,Ideology and the Study of Translation,p.71)

"In the aspect of theoretical innovation, Lefevere, a representative figure of western manipulation school, first put forward the idea of 'Translation is a rewriting' (Hermans, 1985) and then elaborated 'Two Key Elements' influencing translations: Ideology (External Mechanism) and Poetics (Internal Mechanism). He further held that as the sponsor controlled ideology, professionals manipulated poetics (Lefevere, 1992a:14-15)." (Wang Dongfeng,Ideology and the Study of Translation,p.72

"Venuti, a structuralist, defined translation as the initiative restructuring of foreign text so as to reflect the difference between the target language and the original language in ideology, culture, language and politics. In the meantime, he appealed that translators should adopt the resistant translation strategy and translate by means of foreignization." (Venuti, 1992: 10-14)''(Wang Dongfeng,Ideology and the Study of Translation,p.72)

"Bassnett, another supporter of Manipulation School, indicated that restrained by ideology and certain cultural factors, original text sometimes was presented to readers in the form of translated version. Such translation could be pseudo-translation, and “collusion” existed between the author/translator and readers (Lefevere&Bassnett, 1998: 25-40)."(Wang Dongfeng,Ideology and the Study of Translation,p.72)

=====1.2.2 Government Work Report Translation’s Requirements and Limitations on Ideological Expression=====

Government Work Report is the most representative literary form in the international publicity translation. In essence, it possesses distinctive political characteristics and sets extremely high requirements on translation language proficiency. Government Work Report (hereinafter refer to as GWR), as a typical political text, is mainly applied to summarize works completed last year and emphasize the next year's tasks, which can intensively reflect the government's priority of work during a certain period. As the institutional discourse, GWR largely reflects the then ideology and social development track. Since English Version of GWR serves as an important approach for the world to know China's situation, the translation of GWR plays a vital role. In this paper, critical discourse analysis is combined with translation studies to emphatically discuss the role of ideology in manipulating the GWR translation.

==== 1.3 The Definition of Critical Discourse Analysis and Its Current Research and Application====

"Originating from critical linguistics, Critical Discourse Analysis (hereinafter referred to as CDA) has absorbed many disciplines'research results including linguistics, sociology and psychology and achieved a development at the end of 1970s, aiming at revealing the hidden ideology by analyzing the linguistic form and exploring the relationship between language/ideology and rights." (Fowler R., E. Hodge., E． Kress., Trew T. Language and control［M]., London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1979.)

CDA has been widely applied to study the meaning of ideology in mass media discourse such as advertising, news report, political oration, official documents and laws and regulations, which has laid a foundation for this research. Besides, the impact of ideology is a main issue in GWRs translation and involves two different languages and ideologies, which proves the availability of CDA in GWR translation. In this paper, the author has compared and at the same time analyzed the English Version and Chinese Version of GWR from the perspective of CDA, and further discussed the relationship between ideology and translation.

In recent two decades, more and more foreign scholars have applied the corpora technology to CDA and corresponding research content mainly involves the following four aspects:
First is News Media Discourse Studies: For example, Baker and McEnery adopted the corpora method to analyze the British media's role in the refugee discourse construction and further investigated characteristics of British newspapers in reporting Muslim and Islam. Through making a comparison between English newspapers and French newspapers in Canada, Vessey analyzed and elaborated the ideology and national identity in different languages.-

The Second is Political Discourse and War Discourse Studies. For example, Partington surveyed President Clinton’s assistants and wolf pack press corps in the white house during his early ruling. Jeffries & Walker revealed the ideological characteristics during the new labour period through analyzing key words of newspapers during Blair’s period. Similarly, through analyzing CNN, News Week and New York Times, Kim researched American Media’s discourse practice on the North Korea’s image. Bevitori conducted a diachronic study on presidential speeches and analyzed the discourse construction of presidential speeches. Salama researched the phenomena of American media’s context restructuring of Wahabee Religion before and after “9·11”, reflecting the changes in attitude.

The Third is Legal Discourse Studies. Potts and Kjur (2016) established their own corpora and analyzed the legal discourse construction made by the International Criminal Court of Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.

The Fourth is Climatic Discourse Studies. Nerlichet al. (2012) conducted a contrastive analysis of climatic discourse in The Times and Time and further probed into similarities and differences between British climate reports and American climate reports.'' (Kang Jiaping, Jiang Zhanhao, Study on the Ideology of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Corpora and Critical Discourse Analysis, Journal of Heilongjiang College of Education, March 2020, P123)

This paper has chosen the English Version and Chinese Version of 2020 Government Work Report issued by Premier Li Keqiang as the research object and made a comparative analysis of GWRs and corresponding translated versions in the aspect of Classification, Mode and Conversion so as to conclude answers for the following questions:
1. Compared with the original text, which are changes in Classification, Mode and Conversion in the translated text?
2. From the perspective of CDA, what has triggered these changes? How can translators explain GWR from the perspective of CDA? As the relationship between ideology and translation is the research priority, answers to the following questions will be self-evident:
1) How does ideology control the translation process of GWRS?
2) Why are some parts of the original text altered and translated in another way?

===2.Critical Discourse Analysis===

==== 2.1 Classification====

"According to the CDA, for the variations of 'categories' in GWRs translation, the addressers intentionally or unintentionally incorporate their ideology into discourse at all levels of linguistic form, including lexical choice. A comparative analysis of the 'categories' in GWRs and their translations reveals the variations of 'categories', and the author will explain them from an ideological point of view.'(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22)

Example (1): The same one Chinese character "发展" in the Chinese version of GWR is translated differently in English. Different words denote different ideological meanings. A basic reason for this is that "发展" can be used as both a noun and a verb in Chinese. Therefore, there are different words used in English for a Chinese character with different parts of speech.

For example, when used as a noun:
a). 优化民营经济发展环境——We will foster an enabling environment for the development of the private sector.

b).推动制造业升级和新兴产业发展。——We will encourage the upgrading of manufacturing and the growth of emerging industries.

When used as a verb:
a).发展工业互联网——We will promote the industrial Internet

b).发展社会研发机构——develop private R&D institutions

c).发展创业投资——We will support the growth of venture capital investment

In the three examples of the verb, "promote" means "to advance", while "support" means "to back up and give aid to". In these two examples, both "promote" and "support the growth" signify assisting, weakening the role and status of the government in economic development, in a bid to express the idea that "support the free development of the market, and the government will also take the initiative "to provide assistance". In the second example, in "develop private R&D institutions", the word "develop" is used to express a strong subjective initiative, which indicates that the state or the government will play a dominant role in the establishment and development of private R&D institutions, implying the national conditions and ideology of China.

(2) "In the GWR translation, different lexical choices reveal different ideological meanings of the source, which is achieved due to the translators' accurate understanding of the source ideology."(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p.22) Such translation makes it easier for foreign readers to understand the context and policies of China.

For example, "四风" in the source is translated as "formalities for formalities'sake, bureaucratism, hedonism, and extravagance"."四风" is a policy related to rectifying the discipline of Party members and cadres, but foreign readers do not know if it is translated literally. Therefore, a specific description is required so as to take care of foreign readers in a better way. It is obvious that a general character in Chinese is translated into a specific illustration in English.

However, the translation technique for "四风" is not an one-off. For other expressions, such as the translation for “放管服”改革——reforms to streamline administration and delegate power, improve regulation, and upgrade services.

The translators changes the choice of words out of consideration for the ideology of the readers, in a bid to take into account the ideological differences between the source readers and the target readers of the paper.

(3) The English version of 促进祖国和平统一: The word "统一" in 促进统一（2020年） is translated as "reunification" in English. As we all know, the Chinese character "统一" means unification in English, but in this case, the prefix "re-" is added to it. According to Longman's Dictionary of Contemporary English, "re-" means "again" and the word “unification” with a prefix "re-" means "back to the previous country". Thus, the Chinese character "统一" here refers to reunite to the previous country. The purposeful addition of "re-" implies a different ideological meaning.

For the Chinese people, there is no doubt that Taiwan has always been a part of China, even though it has been separated from the motherland for historical reasons and has not yet returned. However, since foreign readers may not know the history of China, and some Western countries even consider Taiwan as an "independent country," a word-for-word translation may lead to misunderstandings, so "reunification" is employed to emphasize the fact that Taiwan and the motherland belong to one China. In this case, the variation of lexical choice is explained in different socio-historical contexts of the source and the translated text.

(4)“提高城乡居民基础养老金最低标准 ” is translated as We will increase the minimum basic old-age pension for rural and non-working urban residents.”

The Chinese phrase “城乡居民” in this context is translated as "rural and non-working urban residents "

And “将参保不足 1 年的农民工等失业人员都纳入常住地保障” is translated as “We will see that rural migrant workers and others out of work who are in the scheme less than a year are covered in the locality where they are living. ”

“农民工” is translated as “rural migrant workers”.

Through the change in lexical choice, the target reader can acquire the information more easily than through word-by-word translation. This case demonstrates that the variation of lexical choice in translated texts is vital for illustrating their meaning.

Above all are critical analysis of the variations in lexical choice which reveals the ideological impact on lexical choice in GWRS translation, despite the fact that some variations may occur due to Chinese-English language diversity. For example, some different lexical choices disclose different ideological meanings of the source text, some variations indicate ideological considerations for the target readers, while other variations may expose the influence of different historical contexts between China and Western countries.

==== 2.2 Mode====

=====2.2.1 Modal verbs=====

"Modal verbs and personal pronouns are bound up with an addressor's or writer's attitude and ideological implication in the discourse and will be used to analyze the potential ideological implications in the GWRS and their translation. As a direct grammatical means of representing "mood", modal verbs often denote a specific and important interpersonal meaning in discourse.In English modal verbs, such as "can, could, may, might, must, will, shall, should, need to, ought to", imply different meanings and degrees of ability, probability, willingness and obligation. Modal verbs also exist in Chinese to convey the attitude of the addressor or writer.

Zhang Guanming counted 25 modal auxiliary verbs in Chinese, including “能，可以，会，可能，得，敢，肯，愿意，情愿，乐意，想，要，应，应该，应当，该，值得，配，别，甭，好，一定，得，必须".

Different modal verbs express different degrees of attitude and implication to the addressor or writer. Therefore, an analysis of the use of modal verbs helps us perceive the meaning of the addressor or writer.''(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22)

A).我们要更加紧密地团结在以习近平同志为核心的党中央周围，——We must rally more closely around the Party Central Committee with Comrade Xi Jinping at its core.

B)各国应携手共进。——all countries should work together

C)中国坚定不移走和平发展道路——China will continue to pursue peaceful development,

D)各级政府必须真正过紧日子——Governments at all levels must truly tighten their belt.

E)出台的政策既保持力度又考虑可持续性，根据形势变化还可完善——the policies we adopt should be both forceful and sustainable, and they may be adjusted as called for.

F)我们一定能开创民族复兴的美好未来。——With these efforts, we can surely create a beautiful future for the rejuvenation of the Chinese nation.

G)创新直达实体经济的货币政策工具——As we work to develop new monetary policy instruments that can directly stimulate the real economy.

H)要用改革开放办法，稳就业、保民生、促消费，拉动市场、稳定增长,——We need to pursue reform and opening up as a means to stabilize employment, ensure people's well-being, stimulate consumption, energize the market, and achieve stable growth.

I）走出一条有效应对冲击、实现良性循环的新路子。——We need to blaze a new path that enables us to respond effectively to shocks and sustain a positive growth cycle.

As can be seen in Example A, the translation uses the modal verb "must" to show the central government's resolute attitude toward adhering to Xi Jinping's leadership, as well as a strong call and implication to the people. It reflects the ideology and collectivist spirit of showing loyalty to the paramount leader of the CPC Central Committee that is unique to China.
The use of "must" in Example D also demonstrates the Chinese government is demanding in implementing initiatives for combating corruption and building a clean government.

As can be seen in Example B, the translation uses the modal verb "should". It shows a tone of hope and appeal, which is a weaker tone of suggestion rather than a demanding tone of command as that in Example A. It expresses the wish of the Chinese government represented by the addressor.
The translation of Example C uses the modal verb "will", which expresses a firm determination and the action to be taken, indicating the Chinese government's impregnable belief in the peaceful rise of China.

Example E employs the modal verbs "should" and "may" in a slightly weaker tone, because the context of economic and social development under the epidemic prevention and control is mentioned in the preceding sentence. Alongside that, since specific local policies for epidemic prevention and control and economic recovery are set by local governments individually, the central government uses a suggestive tone here.

Examples F and G both use “can”, indicating a possible situation and a capability of achieving the goal.
Example H uses the modal verb “need to”, conveying an urgent need, a call for urgency.

Modal verb variations can also be manifested in being added to the source text. For example, in "I", the source text does not use the modal verb, but the subject "we" and the modal verb "need to" are added to the question, and the modal verb here also expresses the urgent desire to achieve the goal mentioned in the source sentence.

The different use of modal verbs may also imply different attitudes toward these policies. The social contexts in which they are produced and interpreted may provide some clues to the variation and change of modal verbs. Both the author and the translators are close to the Chinese, so that the modal meaning expressed in the Chinese version can be agreed with the readers.

However, due to the distance from the foreign readers and their receptivity, the translators chose different expressions with less initiative and more objectivity. But in general, in the choice of modal verbs, the translators mainly chose auxiliary verbs that can convey the attitude of the source text, from which the ideology of their own side can be better interpreted, and taking care of the ideology of foreign readers is a secondary consideration.

=====2.2.2 Personal pronouns=====

"The use of personal pronouns is another way to show modal meaning. According to systematic functional grammar, personal pronouns have interpersonal and attitudinal functions in addition to their cohesion functions. Generally speaking, the choice of personal pronouns is influenced by concerns including power relations, social status, and the degree of intimacy between the participants involved in the communication. Different choices of personal pronouns reveal different attitudes of the speaker or writer toward the target audience or reader."

"From the perspective of critical discourse analysis, personal pronouns are not used in a random way, but are linked to certain ideological meanings. For example, the use of certain personal pronouns may have a certain political effect and produce a specific relationship between the addressor and the listener. This paper focuses on the analysis of the personal pronouns GWR and their translation from the viewpoint of critical discourse analysis, as a way to perceive the attitude and interpersonal meanings that the addressors or writers are trying to convey." (Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p.22)

（1）Translated Personal Pronouns ：

A).我们要坚持对台工作大政方针——We will adhere to the major principles and policies on work related to Taiwan

B).我们要全面准确贯彻“一国两制”、“港人治港”、“澳人治澳”、高度自治的方针——We will fully and faithfully implement the policy of One Country, Two Systems, under which the people of Hong Kong govern Hong Kong and the people of Macao govern Macao, with a high degree of autonomy for both regions.

（2）Added Personal Pronouns：

A).支持港澳发展经济——We will support Hong Kong and Macao in growing their economies,

B).完善促进两岸交流合作、深化两岸融合发展、保障台湾同胞福祉的制度安排和政策措施——We will improve institutional arrangements, policies, and measures to encourage exchanges and cooperation between the two sides of the Taiwan Strait, further cross-Strait integrated development, and protect the wellbeing of our fellow compatriots in Taiwan.

C).需要说明的是，我们没有提出全年经济增速具体目标——I would like to point out that we have not set a specific target for economic growth this year.

D).加强监管，防止资金“空转”套利。——We should tighten regulation and prevent funds from simply circulating in the financial sector for the sake of arbitrage.

E）为把我国建设成为富强民主文明和谐美丽的社会主义现代化强国、实现中华民族伟大复兴的中国梦不懈奋斗！——Let all of us work together with perseverance to build China into a great modern socialist country that is prosperous, strong, democratic, culturally advanced, harmonious, and beautiful, and realize the Chinese Dream of national rejuvenation.

According to statistics, there are 308 "we" in the English translation. From the above examples, we can see that most of the personal pronouns "we" are used by the technique of amplification, including other personal pronouns "I", "all of us", etc. This is because in the Chinese version which is the source, there are mostly impersonal subjects, noun subjects, or imperative sentences that denote calls or orders. However, in English, except for the imperative sentences where the personal pronoun subject can be missing, generally it can not be omitted in any other cases.

"Under most circumstances, 'we' is the top priority in translation, because in political reports, the use of 'we' is more authoritative than 'I'. This usage is called 'loyal we'."(A Study of the Ideology of the <Government Work Report> under the Visual Threshold of Corpus and Critical Discourse Analysis, Kang Jiaping and Jiang Zhanyao, Journal of Heilongjiang Teachers' Development Institute, March 2020, p. 126) The Reports represents the Central People's Government, which is itself "authoritative". The "we" in the translation also naturally reflects "authority" correspondingly.

Secondly, most of the actions in the government work report are issued by the Chinese government, and the use of "we" also reflects the collectivist spirit of unified action of the government from top to bottom. Thirdly, although the Chinese government is the originator of most of the actions in the report, sometimes different departments are responsible for the implementation of specific measures; therefore, the use of "we" instead of "Chinese government" or "so-and-so department" is also slightly more colloquial and approachable, which makes it easier for domestic readers to immerse themselves in devoting into the construction of economic and social development. For foreign readers, "we" is also more easily accepted. Therefore, the translators also took into account the social and ideological significance of the language forms used when translating the Reports.

==== 2.3 Conversion====

"Traditionally, 'transformation' refers to the change of different grammatical structures, but in CDA, the meaning of 'transformation' should be interpreted in terms of discourse, context and purpose." (Fowler, 1991: 90-91). This suggests that critical discourse analysis values the change of ideological meaning and the influence of context and purpose on "transformation". Therefore, "transformation" can be applied to translation studies to investigate the ideological impact of translation by analyzing the changes of "transformation" between the source language and the translated one.

In the analysis of "transformation" in GWR and its translation process, nominalization and inactivation are used to disclose the ideological changes in translation. Nominalization refers to the process of converting verb structures into nouns or noun phrases. According to Fairclough (1995), this lack of mood, time, and participants caused by nominalization is considered ideologically significant because it obscures the reader's causality and responsibility, so that the addressor's or writer's attitude and perception of certain events is not yet clear.

Inactivation is the transformation of active voice into passive one in which the relevant participants are removed for most of the time, making causality unclear. Thus, by using inactivation, discourse can become more objective and less subjective, leaving a different impression on the reader and thus expressing different ideological meanings. More importantly, inactivation also has functions as thematization, in which the object is placed at the beginning of the sentence as a subject. In this way, by emphasizing the object and hiding the agent, the ideological purpose of shifting the reader's focus and hiding the cause-and-effect relationship is achieved.

For example:

=====2.3.1 Nominalization=====

A)传统产业加快升级。——upgrading in traditional industries accelerated.

B)受全球疫情冲击，世界经济严重衰退，——The shock of the Covid-19 pandemic has sent the world economy into severe recession,

C)金融等领域风险有所积聚——There are increasing risks in the financial sector and other areas.

D)政府工作存在不足——There is still room for improvement in the work of government.

It can be seen from the above examples that in the original Chinese text, the subject and predicate in the four examples are very prominent. However, in the translation, nominalization is done, which emphasizes the emphasis of the original text.
For example, in A), "upgrade" is a verb and serves as a predicate; but in the translation, upgrading is nominalized and used as the subject, and its status is more prominent than in the original.

In B), "Affected by the global epidemic" was originally used as an adverbial of cause, but it was nominalized as the subject in the question, highlighting the direct impact of the epidemic on the world economic recession, and its status is higher than that of the adverbial in the original text.

C) The key word in the original text can be "risk accumulation", but because the adverbial term "finance and other fields" is in front, its position is weakened; and the sentence pattern "There be" is used in the translation, and the subject is nominalized as " The whole sentence of "increasing risks" is highlighted.

D) The full expression of the original text should be "In the government work, there are deficiencies." The implied meaning is "I should improve and upgrade the government work." The translation directly points out the implied meaning, straightforward and straightforward, and the subject is treated as " "room for improvement" is also used in the sentence pattern "There be", and the points that the original text wants to emphasize are highlighted.

It can be seen that the processing of English translation is more flexible, and it also takes into account the ideology of foreign readers, that is, they prefer concise and direct expression, while the expression of domestic readers is more subtle and prefer verbs.

=====2.3.2 Active to passive=====

A).城镇新增就业 1352 万人——Around 13.52 million new urban jobs were added.

B).国际收支基本平衡。——A basic equilibrium was maintained in the balance of payments.

C)..重大区域战略深入实施。——progress was made in implementing major development strategies for regions.

D).改革开放迈出重要步伐。——Major headway was made in reform and opening up.

E).供给侧结构性改革继续深化，—— Supply-side structural reform was further advanced.

F).重要领域改革取得新突破。——and breakthroughs in reform were made in key areas.

In the first part of the report, in the review of the work and achievements in 2019, a large number of passive voice translation methods are used to highlight the achievements since 2019 and weaken the reporter and the government as these achievements The presence of the promoter of In fact, in the Chinese context, the above example is also a kind of "active expression passive" sentence structure, which is more concise and more focused.

===3.Conclusion===

From the perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis, this article conducts a superficial and tentative analysis of the ideological influence reflected in the Chinese-English translation of the 2020 government work report.The analysis found that,

(1) in terms of classification,
a) the translation will choose different corresponding words in English depending on the situation for the same word in the original text. And this is because in English I like to use different words to show the richness and diversity of the words of the article, while in Chinese I like to use the same word to rhyme and compare to show momentum.
b) In the process of translation, the translation will be selectively interpreted, that is, supplementary translation of some conventional abbreviations in the original text, so that foreign readers can better understand.
c) Some specific words will be translated asymmetrically in the translation to reflect their own ideology. For example, the "reunification of the motherland" on the Taiwan issue is translated as "reunification" because China wants to convey to the world the principle that "the Taiwan issue is China's internal affair."

(2) In terms of modal
a) The translation will choose different modal verbs according to the content and attitude of the original text. The choice of these different modal verbs expresses the different requirements and soft and hard attitudes of the Chinese government in various fields such as domestic economic development, epidemic prevention and control, motherland reunification, social problem resolution, diplomacy, and international issues, thus reflecting the Chinese government's ideology.
b) There are a large number of additional translations of personal pronouns in the translation, and most of them have chosen the plural of the first personal pronoun "we". It shows the collectivism that the Chinese government is accustomed to, and God is also caring for foreign ideologies.

(3) In terms of conversion, there are many nominalizations and active-to-passive translations in the translation. These two kinds of translation processes make the key points to be emphasized in the original text more directly highlighted in the translation, and at the same time respect the expression habits of English, which are also caring for foreign ideologies.

In general, the translation of the 2020 government work report more reflects China's own ideology. The reason is also obvious.
First, this is China's government work report, which also determines that the translation must reflect China's ideology.
Second, the government work report is made at the two sessions each year. It is mainly a summary of the work of the past year and planning for the work of the next year. It is mainly for the domestic people, so it naturally has a strong Chinese ideology;
but The translation is of course aimed at foreign readers, so translation processing will also show reasonable concern about foreign ideology and expression habits. As a political report, he must have a more obvious political ideology than other styles, which is inevitable in every country. Finally, the richness and variability of vocabulary in the translation of the 2020 government work report is still not as good as the report of the native English-speaking countries, which can be improved.

===4.Limitations===

====4.1 Insufficient data support====

In this paper, a comparative analysis is conducted solely on the two versions of the government work report in English and Chinese in 2020. Firstly, the evidence is insufficient in the part of applied critical discourse analysis, which should be done to the best of its ability.

The author envisage to use data analysis software such as SPSS and CiteSpace to conduct a translation comparative analysis for the Chinese and English versions of the government work report for a total of 8 years since President Xi Jinping took office in 2013, and an analysis of ideological diachrony. By analyzing the change of top 10 high-frequency keywords in the reports over the past 8 years, we can take a glimpse of the socio-economic development of China and the shift of the government's focus during this period. By analyzing the changes in the choice and frequency of personal pronouns and modal verbs used in the reports over the years, and by analyzing the frequency of nominalization and inactivation in the translation of sentences, we can see the changes in the ideology of the translators and the Chinese government they represent when translating the reports.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui

However, since it is a need to use corpus construction software, such as EmEditor, to collect the corpus and classify and denoise the data before doing data analysis, it is not a task that can be accomplished at a stroke; only then is the analysis done with analysis software such as SPSS and CiteSpace. However, the author has a strong interest in this research method, and will make further efforts.

====4.2 Insufficient theoretical support====

The author does not have a deep understanding of critical discourse analysis, nor does he/she expound the Introduction clearly. Her understanding of the specific analysis methods is also shallow, so she cannot do a comprehensive and accurate analysis in the Analysis section of the paper.
Second, the author’s understanding of ideology is fuzzy. Therefore, in the latter part of the analysis, when it is necessary to return to the study of ideology at the end, she is unable to conduct the analysis in a precise way.

===5.Bibliography===

[1].《意识形态与翻译研究》，王东风，中山大学出版社，2006年12月

[2].《修辞学与意识形态》，屠有祥，人民出版社，2013年3月

[3].《外宣翻译导论》，张健，国防工业出版社，2013年12月

[4].《语料库和批评话语分析视阈下的<政府工作报告>意识形态研究》,康佳萍、姜占好，黑龙江教师发展学院学报，2020年3月

[5].《基于CiteSpace的外交翻译暨外交话语研究的可视化分析(2000—2018)》，牛文惠、刘磊，黑河学院学报，2020年第二期

[6].《国内翻译意识形态研究（1998-2018）——基于NoteExpress的可视化分析》，李志阳，2020年第二期

[7].《翻译对意识形态的创构———以宇文所安《文心雕龙》英译本为例》，胡作友、张丁慧，外语学刊，2020年第四期

[8].《批评性话语分析视角下的政府工作报告英译研究》，高媛，2016年

[9].《从翻译操纵理论看2015年政府工作报告英译》，王海云、李慧慧，现代交际，2016年第五期

[10].《论译者对政治文本的操控——以2009年政府工作报告为例》，徐静怡、陈思，2009年12月

--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 18:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Translation Strategies from Contrastive English-Chinese Studies and Chinese-English Translation and Interpretation Based on the Principle of “Faithfulness, Comprehensibility and Elegance” 聂晓楼 Nie Xiaolou 202020080628==

<center>聂晓楼 Nie Xiaolou 202020080628</center>

===Abstract===

English and Chinese belongs to two different language families. While the former belongs to Indo-European language family, the latter belongs to Sino-Tibetan language family. Therefore, they differ in many aspects--type, psychology, aesthetic, culture, rhetorical devices, syntactic pattern, lexical meaning, discourse organization, semantic structure, pragmatic structure, textual structure, textual cohesive devices and so on. Taking the English translations of Chinese essays by Zhang Peiji for example, this paper, based on the principle of “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”, studies the differences between English and Chinese in terms of psychology, aesthetics, textual structure, textual cohesive devices etc, and further provides appropriate translation strategies for Chinese-English translation. Readers can improve their translating ability after the acquisition of the knowledge of the differences between the two languages and corresponding translation strategies.

===Key words===

English; Chinese; “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”

===摘要===

英语属于印欧语系（Indo-European），汉语属于汉藏语系（Sino-Tibetan）。英汉两种语言在语言类型、语言心理、语言审美、文化、修辞、句法结构、词汇语义、话语组织、语义、语用、语篇结构以及语篇衔接手段等方面都存在差异。本文以张培基英译散文为例，以“信、达、雅”原则为指导，从英汉语言心理、英汉语言审美、英汉语篇结构、英汉语篇衔接手段等方面对比英语同汉语的不同之处，并提供相应的翻译策略。读者通过了解英汉两种语言在各方面的差异，并学习相应翻译策略，能够提高汉英翻译水平。

===关键词===

英语;汉语;“信、达、雅”

===1. Introduction===

Essay is a flexible and casual literary form, free from the restrictions of rhythm of poetry, plot of novel, and act and scene of drama. This paper focuses on English and Chinese essays. Based on Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”, the paper makes an analysis of the original and translated texts selected from Zhang Peij’s English translations of Chinese essays and the original texts, and studies the differences between English and Chinese in terms of psychology, aesthetics, textual structure, textual cohesive devices etc, and therefore sums up a variety of translation strategies and methods for Chinese-English translation.

===2. “Faithfulness, Comprehensibility and Elegance”===

“Faithfulness, comprehensibility and Elegance” is a translation principle put forward by YanFu in his work ''Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays''. He stated that “Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness (xin), comprehensibility (da) and elegance (ya). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not comprehensible is no translation at all. Comprehensibility is therefore of prime importance” (Chan 2004: 69). “In addition to faithfulness and comprehensibility, we should strive for elegance in translation.” (ibid: 70)

This paper, based on the translation principle “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”, compares English and Chinese through the analysis of some texts selected from Zhang Peiji’s English translations of Chinese essays and the original texts.

===3. Comparison of English and Chinese===

A major difference between English and Chinese is that English is a hypotactic language while Chinese an paratactic language, which from the perspective of philosophy means that English people’s way of thinking is of rationality while Chinese people’s way of thinking is of wuxing (Pan 1997: 361). Rationality in English language means that English sentences emphasize overt morphology and the integrity of form, so we call English a morphological language. Instead, Chinese sentences do not have many hypotactic markers. Therefore, the meaning of Chinese sentences can only be understood through wuxing, in other words, intuition, thus we often call Chinese people’s way of thinking intuitive thinking (Liu 1992: 326).

The inflected forms in modern English mainly include conjugation, declension, and affixation. However, there is no inflected forms in Chinese language and the grammatical meaning of Chinese sentences is expressed through the use of words, the arrangement of word order, the implied meaning etc.(连淑能, 1993: 4) Therefore, when translating Chinese into English, we are supposed to exhibit the implicit grammatical relation in the original texts through hypotactic markers. For example:

Example 1:其中有些人是因为年事已高，力不从心。这不是艺术的死亡，而是艺术的离体，他自己无可自责，社会也会尊重他在艺术上曾经作出的贡献(Zhang 2007: 289)。
Some writers lay down their pens because they are too old to be equal to the task. We call it retirement from art rather than death of art. They have nothing to blame themselves for. And society at large will pay tribute to the contributions they have already made to art (Zhang 2007: 291).

The expression “有些人” in the first sentence is plural, which includes both men and women. While the word “他” in the second sentence is single, only including men. Actually, “有些人” and “他” in the original text refer to the same concept but they differ in number and gender. When translating the original sentences into English, we have to take the harmony of form into consideration.

Due to the difference in inflection between English and Chinese, Mr. Zhang translated “他” into “They” to be in agreement with the subject “they” in the first sentence, which characterizes hypotaxis in English language. Though it seems that the translation is not faithful to the original text, the former actually expresses what the latter means. That is to say, the translation is comprehensible to the target reader.

There is no inflected forms in Chinese while English is rich in inflected form. Therefore, when translating Chinese into English, translators are supposed to keep the consistency of gender, number, case, tense, style, voice, mood, comparatives, and person, etc. within the context, and to use the inflected forms in English to express the conceptual and grammatical meaning in the original Chinese text.

Chinese pays attention to subjective narration, while English gives consideration to both subjective and objective description and tends to objective description. Taking root in the psychology of Chinese people, the long standing thematic thinking always subtly reflects Chinese people’s consciousness of “everything exists for me”.

Take the Chinese sentence “作业不写了” as an example. It is a human being rather than “作业”（"homework" in English） who performs the action “写”("writing" in English). That is to say, the subject should be a human being, which reflects Chinese people’s subject consciousness--Chinese speakers always discuss a topic which they make comments on. Since the agent in sentences with a “topic-comment” structure is self-explanatory, it is always deleted in a Chinese sentence. This well characterizes Chinese sentences as loose.

English language, where the subject is given priority to, has a strict “subject-predicate” structure which is highly grammaticalized. However, the topic rather than the subject is given priority to in a Chinese sentence. It may not be in agreement with the subject since it is more grammaticalized than the latter. Therefore, the “topic-comment” structures in Chinese sentences should be translated into “subject-predicate” structures in English when we do Chinese-English translation.

Example 2:页数不多的往往立刻通读，篇幅大的，只把正文任择一二章节略加翻阅，就插在书架上。(Zhang 2007: 26)
If it happens to be a thin one, I often finish reading it at one sitting. Otherwise, I often browse through one or two chapters or sections before putting it onto my bookshelf. (Zhang 2007: 28)

There are two “topic-comment” structures with the form of a clause in this example. In a “topic-comment” structure with the form of a clause, the meaning of the topic and that of the comment show a logical relation between two clauses. A “topic-comment” structure with the form of a clause has a close relationship with conditional clauses, and in this example conditional clauses serve as topics. The logical relation in this example is: If..., ... Otherwise..., ... The conditional relation should be translated in the corresponding English sentence with the addition of conjunctions between the original clauses in the process of Chinese-English translation.

Example 3:线装书大概用笔加圈，洋装书竟用红铅笔划粗粗的线。(Zhang 2007: 27)
If it is a threadbound Chinese book, I use a writing brush to draw small circles as markings. Otherwise, I use a red pencil to draw heavy underlines. (Zhang 2007: 29)

There are also two “topic-comment” structures with the form of a clause in this example. Therefore, Mr. Zhang added the two conjunctions “if” and “Otherwise” to show the logical relation in the original sentences.

Impersonal subjects always appear in English sentences, while personal subjects are used more frequently in Chinese sentences.

Example 4:买到了几册新书，一册一册地加盖藏书印记，我最感到快悦的是这时候。(Zhang 2007: 26)
Whenever I have some new acquisitions, it always gives me great pleasure and satisfaction to stamp my ex-libris on them one by one. (Zhang 2007: 28)

It is obvious that the subject of the original sentence “我最感到快悦的是这时候”（"it always gives me great pleasure and satisfaction to..."） is “I” ("我" in Chinese), which refers to the author. However, Mr. Zhang translates this sentence as “it always gives me great pleasure and satisfaction to...”, where the personal subject “I” is transformed into the impersonal subject “it”, according with English natural expressions.

Example 5:这种死亡他自己感到很痛苦，别人看了心里也很难受。(Zhang 2007: 289)
This kind of death causes not only much pain to the writer himself, but much sadness to other people as well. (Zhang 2007: 291)
much sadness to other people
In this example, “这种死亡”（"This kind of death" in English） serves as the topic and “他自己感到很痛苦”（"causes... much pain to the writer himself" in English) as well as “别人看了心里也很难受”（"much sadness to other people" in English） serve as comments. Since the two comments take sentence as its form, they have separately “他” and “别人” as the subject. However, in the English translation by Mr. Zhang, “This kind of death” ("这种死亡" in Chinese) serves as the subject with “他” and “别人” transforming into objects, which shows the tendency to use impersonal subjects in English sentences. The translation is not only faithful to the source text but also comprehensible.

Chinese people’s subject consciousness brings about the tendency to use personal subjects. Instead, English people’s object consciousness explains why impersonal subjects are used frequently in English sentences. Therefore, when doing Chinese-English translation, we can transform personal subject into impersonal subject. That is to say, the subject can be abstract nouns, inanimate things or the impersonal subject “it” (Lian 2010: 106, 113).

Chinese sentences always have a “topic-comment” structure, while English sentences always have a “subject-predicate” structure. Therefore, in a Chinese-English translation, the semantic relation between the topic and the comment in the original sentence should be presented through the use of conjunctions to accord with the syntactic features of English sentences.

English sentences have a basic “subject-predicate” structure. English words are under the restraint of morphological changes; words and clauses are connected through cohesive devices; pronouns accord with the words mentioned above (Lian 2010: 90-91) .

As a result, English sentences are closely related to each other. However, since Chinese sentences are free from the restraint of morphological changes, it is not necessary that the object should accord with the subject in a Chinese sentence. Chinese sentences are loose because of the diversity, complexity and flexibility of the “subject-object” structure.

Example 6:借来的书，在我好像过不来瘾似的，必要是自己买的才满足。(Zhang 2007: 26)
It seems that books bought can better satisfy my bibliomania than books borrowed. (Zhang 2007: 28)

The original sentence is composed of three parts without conjunctions between them. But there exists the semantic relation in it--the comparative relation between “books borrowed” ("借来的书" in Chinese) and “books bought” ("自己买的" in Chinese). Therefore, the comparative relation should be expressed in English translation. Mr. Zhang employed the expression “rather than” to combine the original three parts into one sentence, expressing the beauty of the translation’s syntactic structure.

Example 7:据说，任何爱吃糖果的人，只要叫他到糖果铺中去做事，见了糖果就会生厌。(Zhang 2007: 27)
It is said that those who have a great liking for candies will sicken to see them when later they happen to work in a candy store. (Zhang 2007: 29)

Mr. Zhang combined the four parts in the original texts into one sentence through the use of “who” and “when” to make the English transaltion compact and coherent, expressing the beauty of the translation’s syntactic structure.

Example 8:像针尖上一滴水滴在大海里，我的日子滴在时间的流里，没有声音，也没有影子。(Zhang 2007: 55)
Like a drop of water falling off a needle point into the ocean, my days are quietly dripping into the stream of time without leaving a trace. (Zhang 2007: 57)

There are four loose sentences in the original text. However, the two short sentences “没有声音” and “也没有影子” have been transformed separately into the adverb “quietly” and the propositional phrase “without leaving a trace” as an complement of the action “日子滴在时间的流里”, making the English sentences compact. Simile is employed in the translation as well as in the source text, which shows faithfulness in the translation.

Example 9:作家不能当隐士，适当的社会活动和文学活动可以开阔眼界，活跃思想，对创作也是有帮助的。(Zhang 2007: 290)
Being no hermit, a writer stands to benefit in writing as long as he gets properly involved with social and literary activities to widen his field of vision and stimulate his thinking. (Zhang 2007: 292)

The original text consists of four short sentences without overt conjunctions connecting them, and it includes two subjects “作家” ("a writer" in English) and “适当的社会活动和文学活动” ("gets properly involved with social and literary activities" in English). Mr. Zhang combined the four parts into one sentence, “作家” ("a writer" in English) being the subject, “不能当隐士” being transformed into the absolute nominative construction “Being no hermit”. The addition of “as long as” in the translation indicates the semantic relationship between the second part and the fourth part. Besides, Mr. Zhang added “to” to transform “可以开阔眼界，活跃思想” into the adverbial of purpose. All the transformations made express what the author wanted to express.

Sentences like loose sentences, compressed sentences, run-on sentences, short sentences, etc., are frequently used in Chinese. On the contrary, the grammatical relationship is expressed through the arrangement of word order and flexible use of various cohesive devices in English sentences, thus English sentences are compact with a clear logical relationship between the matrix clauses and the subordinate clauses.

Therefore, in Chinese-English translation, the translator is supposed to add conjunctions appropriately to connect the short sentences in the original text, indicating the implicit grammatical and logical relationship. Consequently, readers are able to understand the sentence meaning without even relying on the context.

Category words are used to express the category which behaviour, phenomenon, property and other factors belong to; they are often used to refer to other things in Chinese. For example, “情绪” in the Chinese sentence “那你的恹恹欲睡的情绪又将如何” and “情味” in “常不禁会感觉到难以名言的寂寞的情味” are category words.

There are many category words in Chinese language for a better form of expression. Instead, category words are much less frequently used in English language. The sameness in number, property and other aspects are avoided in English language.

Example 10:我一向没有对于任何问题作高深研究的野心，因之所买的书范围较广，宗教、艺术、文学、社会、哲学、历史、生物，各方面差不多都有一点。(Zhang 2007: 26)
Since I have never entertained ambition for making a profound study of any subject, the books I have acquired cover almost everything--religion, art, literature, sociology, philosophy, history, biology, etc. (Zhang 2007: 28)

“范围” in the original text belongs to category words. Thus, it is unnecessary to translate it in English. Therefore, the English translation should avoid the use of the corresponding English expression “the range of”. Compare the following sentence with Mr. Zhang’s translation:
... the range of the books I have acquired covers almost everything...
It is obvious that Mr. Zhang’s translation is more natural. Moreover, Mr. Zhang omitted the translation of “各方面差不多都有一点” because what the expression means has already been contained in “the books I have acquired cover almost everything”.

Category words in Chinese always express objects’ categories. Though they are indispensable to the correctness of grammar and the expression of mood, they are of little practical significance in that they just repeat the semantic meaning of a precedent expression. When doing Chinese-English translation, we are supposed to omit the translation of category words and rather translate the content nouns before them.

English language has the tendency to the use of nouns and thus is stative. On the contrary, verbs rather than nouns are more frequently used in Chinese sentences, thus Chinese language is dynamic (Lian 2010: 133). In Chinese-English translation, the dynamic Chinese sentences should be translated into stative English sentences.

In Example 7, “爱吃糖果” is translated as “have a great liking for candies” rather than “like candies”. The verb “爱” is transformed into the noun “liking” and posited t after the verb “have” as its object（连淑能，P148）, which characterizes English language as stative.

Example 11:自我入书店以后，对于书的贪念也已消除了不少......(Zhang 2007: 27)
Likewise, ever since I began to work in a bookstore, my obsession with books has been very much on the decline. (Zhang 2007: 29)

Prepositions are always posited before nouns or noun phrases. Therefore, English language uses prepositions as frequently as nouns. The priority to the use of both nouns and prepositions makes it more clear that English is a stative language (Lian 2010:145). The verb “消除” has been translated as the prepositional phrase “on the decline”, thus the dynamic Chinese sentence has been transformed into stative English sentence.

Example 12:我自己就是浪费了很多时间的一个人。(Zhang 2007: 216)
Personally, I am also a fritterer. (Zhang 2007: 218)

Mr. Zhang translated the expression “浪费很多时间的一个人” as the noun phrase “a fritterer”, the noun derived from the verb “fritter”, rather than “a person who fritter a lot of time” in which the verb “fritter” is directly used, making the translation stative.

Example 13:青翠的叶上已经凝集着细密的露珠，这显然是昨夜被人遗弃了的。(Zhang 2007: 119)
The numerous fine dewdrops on the fresh green leaves clearly showed that the roses had just been cast away the previous night. (Zhang 2007: 120)

The expression “凝集着” in the original sentence can be either translated or omitted. Generally, it is unnecessary to translate verbs of this kind. Mr. Zhang translated the first half part as “The numerous fine dewdrops on the fresh green leaves”, directly omitting the translation of “凝集着” since the prepositional phrase “on the fresh green leaves” has already expressed its meaning.

Chinese language is dynamic while English language is stative. In Chinese-English translation, firstly, abstract nouns can be used to express actions, behaviors, changes, states and so on in the original texts; secondly, verbs in the original texts can be replaced by common nouns which express behaviors or actions (Lian 2010: 138); thirdly, translators can use prepositions more frequently; fourthly, grammaticalized verbs or weak verbs can be used instead. (Lian 2010: 147)

Generally, English language avoids repetition; it repeats words or phrases only for emphasis or for the use of rhetorical devices. English natives are not interested in the repetition in syllables, words or sentence patterns (Lian 2010: 221). Translators are supposed to replace the repeated expression with a new one or omit the repeated part or explain it in a different way as long as the meaning of the original text is explicitly expressed. In this way, the translation will be concise and powerful, and it will fit more into English people’s language habits (Lian 2010: 223).

Example 14:我虽爱买书，而对于书却不甚爱惜。(Zhang 2007: 27)
Much as I love books, I take little care of them. (Zhang 2007: 29)

The second part of the original sentence repeats the noun “书”. However, Mr. Zhang replaced “books” ("书" in Chinese) with the pronoun “them”, avoiding the repetition of “books” and connecting the two sentences.

Example 15:书籍到了我的手里，我的习惯是先看序文，次看目录。(Zhang 2007: 26)
As soon as a new book comes to hand, I always read the preface first and then the table of contents. (Zhang 2007: 28)

The repeated verb “read” ("看" in Chinese) has been omitted in the translation.

In the fourth example, Mr. Zhang added the subject “I” (“我” in Chinese) before the sentence “买到了几册新书”, making the English sentence complete in terms of syntactic structure.

English language often uses pronouns to avoid repetition, while Chinese language uses less pronouns and tends to repeat words and phrases. In terms of coordination, repeated words or phrases are usually deleted in English but repeated in Chinese. Moreover, English sentences avoids repetition of words through the use of synonyms or hyponyms. Instead, Chinese sentences repeat the words to express the beauty of the balance in form. Therefore, when doing Chinese-English translation, translators are supposed to avoid the repetition in meaning through replacing, deleting, or transforming the repeated parts.

Nevertheless, it is necessary to add the subject when translating Chinese sentences into English because the subject is often omitted in Chinese while English is a language with a strict “subject-predicate” structure.

Because English is a hypotactic language but Chinese an paratactic language, cohesion in English and Chinese differs a lot. In terms of textual cohesion, there are mainly two differences between English and Chinese: one is that the cohesion in English is implicit while that in Chinese is explicit; the other is that the two languages differ in sentence division. There is no clear division between a phrase and a clause (which was previously called a simple sentence), between a clause and a sentence (which was previously called a compound sentence), between a sentence and sentence groups. (Shao 2013: 390)Because of this difference, the addition of conjunctions is needed in Chinese-English translation.

Example 16:经我看过的书，统体干净的很少。(Zhang 2007: 27)
Consequently, the books I have read are rarely clean. (Zhang 2007: 29)

Mr. Zhang added the adverb “consequently” in the translation. According to the context, the reason for “经我看过的书，统体干净的很少” is explained in the preceding sentence “线装书大概用笔加圈，洋装书竟用红铅笔划粗粗的线”. Therefore, when translating these sentences, we should express the causality between the two sentences. The adverb “consequently” well expresses it.

Example 17:我不禁头涔涔而泪潸潸了。(Zhang 2007: 55)
At the thought of this, sweat oozes from my forehead and tears trickle down my cheeks. (Zhang 2007: 57)

Mr. Zhang added the expression “At the thought of this” in the translation, which links the preceding sentence and the following sentence and expresses the implicit meaning in the original text.

Example 18:我觉察他去的匆匆了，伸出手遮挽时，他又从遮挽着的手边过去......(Zhang 2007: 55)
Aware of its fleeting presence, I reach out for it only to find it brushing past my outstretched hands. (Zhang 2007: 57)

The translation adds the expression “only to find” to connect the second and third parts of the original text, making overt the implicit meaning that the author was regretful for his failing to grasp his time.

Example 19:怕只怕三杯下肚，豪情大发，嘟嘟嘟，来个瓶底朝天......(Zhang 2007: 290)
The trouble is after three cups of alcohol he will get wild and unrestrained and end in gulping down a whole bottle. (Zhang 2007: 289)

Mr. Zhang combined the four parts in the original text into one English sentence, showing the logical relationship between these parts. In the original text, “来个瓶底朝天” is the result of “三杯下肚，豪情大发”; the semantic relationship between the two parts has been shown through the addition of the verb phrase “end in” in the English translation. Actually, Mr. Zhang deleted the translation of “嘟嘟嘟”, which seems not to be faithful to the original text. However, it is unnecessary to translate this expression since it means nothing here.

Words, phrases and clauses are often connected through various cohesive devices in English, which shows that English emphasizes overt cohesion. On the contrary, much less or even no cohesive devices are used in Chinese, which shows the tendency toward implicit cohesion in Chinese. In Chinese-English translation, it is necessary to add relational words, conjunctions, prepositions and so on, or change the form of words in the translation to express the grammatical and logical relationship in the original text.

===4.Conclusion===

This paper first makes a brief introduction of essay, and then provides the definition of Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”. Then, it compares the differences between English and Chinese in terms of psychology, aesthetics, textual structure, textual cohesive devices etc., and makes an analysis of the original and translated texts selected from Zhang Peij’s English translations of Chinese essays and the original texts to see whether the translation is faithful, comprehensive and elegant. Finally, the paper provides some strategies for Chinese-English Translation. However, the paper only compares English and Chinese from limited aspects and it only covers several texts. There remains some problems to be solved.

===References===

Leo Tak-hung Chan. (2004). Twentieth-Century Chinese Translation Theory. John Benjamin Publishing Company.

Lian Shuneng 连淑能. (2010). 英汉对比研究 [Contrastive Studies of English and Chinese]. Beijing: 高等教育出版社.

Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1992). 汉英对比与翻译 Nanchang: Jiangxi Education Press江西教育出版社.

Pan Wenguo 潘文国. (1997/2002) 汉英语对比纲要 [An Outline of Chinese-English Contrastive Study]，Beijing: Beijing Language and Culture University Press北京语言文化大学出版社.

Shao Zhihong 邵志洪. (2013). 新编英汉研究对比 [Contrastive Studies Between English and Chinese]. Shanghai: East China University of Science and TechnologyPress 华东理工大学出版社.

Zhang Peiji 张培基. (2007) 英译中国现代散文选（一） [Selected Modern Chinese Essays 1]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 14:06, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou

History of Translation Studies 9

2020-12-21T15:56:17Z

Liu Ou: /* Translation Methods and Strategies */

这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第九部分(Part 9)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。

学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。

*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]
*Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].

='''Comparative Studies'''=

==Comparison of Modes of Expression and Ways of Thinking Between English and Chinese Language in Cultural Perspective 易欢 Yi Huan==

<center>Yi Huan 易欢 202020080663</center>
===Abstract===
The English language and Chinese language,with their own characteristics, embody their own cultural heritage and manifest different modes of thinking. Conspicuously, among language, culture and mode of thinking, there exists a closely related interaction. The culture affects thought, conversely, thought can reflect the culture. While language is under the impact of the both, presents the thinking and cultural differences in a most direct way. Therefore, this paper, from the perspective of culture, makes a comparative study of English and Chinese language forms and ways of thinking. It is quite significant for the development of translation in cross-cultural communication.

===Key words===
language form; mode of thinking; English and Chinese language; culture

===摘要===
英汉语言各具特色，蕴含各自历史文化底蕴，彰显不同的思维模式。显然，语言，文化与思维之间形成了某种紧密联系的互动关系。文化影响思维，反之，思维也会体现文化，而语言受两者的影响，亦是阐明思维与文化差异的最直接的方式。因此，本文将从文化视域下，对比探究英汉语言形式与思维方式，这对于跨文化交际下翻译发展来说至关重要。

===关键词===
语言形式；思维模式；英汉语言；文化

===1. Introduction===
The relationship between language and thought is widely discussed among scholars at home and abroad. Karl Marx once remarks that language is a tool, carrier, shell, and a “dress” of thought. That is to say, language by nature is the embodiment of human thoughts. Language is therefore closely related to and supported by human thoughts. Also thought will further facilitate the development of language, Sapir once states, “ Thought processes set in, as a kind of psychic overflow, almost at the beginning of linguistic expression; further, that the concept once defined, necessarily reacted on the life of its linguistic symbols, encouraging further linguistic growth.”(1921:12)

Meanwhile, language is part of culture. And language, as a system of signs with its own cultural substances and values, may be viewed as a symbol of cultural identity. For example, a person who moves from his or her speech community to another one, will easily exposes himself or herself as a newcomer in communication since the language he uses may betray his cultural identity. While each culture also has its own peculiarities and can throw influence on the language system. Hence, language is the carrier and the representation of culture, and as a mirror of culture, language is strongly influenced and shaped by culture.

Moreover, the thought also is largely influenced by its culture. Human thinking is the brain’s generalized and indirect reflecting process of the general characteristics and laws of objective things.” (Liu Kuilin, 1989:9) It is a dynamic process of reflecting the objective facts and worlds. Hence it is largely influenced by the outside cultures. In general, different culture leads to different thinking patterns which is demonstrated most in their own language. That is to say, the relationship among culture, mode of thinking and language is closely related like three parts of a whole. And in this paper, it is going to compare different mode of thinking and ways of expression between Chinese and English, so as to better understand cross-culture communication.

===2. The comparison of modes of thinking with the representation of ways of expression in English and Chinese===

The language, thought and culture are independent but closely interrelated as we have discussed before. And in different countries, there exist different thinking patterns, then it is going to illustrate four types of opposite Chinese and Occidental thinking ways and present the reflection upon their language, and trace back to the cultural and historical foundations for these phenomena. While it just compares these modes of thought in a general way, and they are not simply manifested as opposite to each other, but intermingled to some extent with the exchange of culture and the common ground imparted in all human beings.

===2.1 Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking===
When Premier Zhou and Secretary of State Kissinger drafted “Shanghai Sino-US Communique,” Kissinger once said that the thought of Oriental is to seek the common ground among differences, while the thought of the Occidental are accustomed to seeking differences among the similarities. To some extent, it shows that Chinese emphasizes synthesis and English tends to be analytical. Holistic thinking puts emphasis on the integral concepts and the universal connection of objects. While analytical thinking will tend to focus more on labeling and analyzing different parts that eventually make up the whole. there must be some certain cultural background to the formation of western and Chinese mode of thinking.

Actually, the formation of Chinese thinking mode can derive from Chinese people’s perspectives towards nature. In Chinese classical philosophy, the conception of “One” better demonstrates the holistic view. According to Taoism, “All things obtained the One and became alive and kept growing.”(Tao Te Ching, chapter 36). Chuang Tzu promotes the concept of “One” to the state of the “unity of heaven and human”, and believes that the heaven and man, and the thing and self can all merge into one organically connected whole. Moreover, the essence that Chinese philosophy stresses the holistic view lies in the systematic evaluation and comprehensive grasp of all things, aiming to have a comprehensive and accurate understanding towards everything. Then such philosophy facilitates Chinese people to develop holistic thinking.

While, in western culture, Plato firstly advocates the “subject-object dichotomy” and then explains the world from a dualistic angle. In addition, the people can also be influenced by Aristotle’s syllogism, and always emphasize reasonable thinking in accordance with certain procedures, just like analyzing geometric problems in which one should derive the unknown, then demonstrate the process meticulously and finally draw a logical conclusion. It is exactly the characteristic of analytic thinking in which the object is divided into parts and one should investigate them respectively.

Undeniably, thinking patterns can best be demonstrated in their language. In a word, Analytical thinking involves detachment of the object from its context, a tendency to focus on attributes of the object in order to assign it to categories, and a preface for using rules about the categories to explain and predict the object’s behavior. Holistic thinking involves an orientation to the context or field as a whole, including attention to relationships between a focal object and the field, and a preference for explaining and predicting events on the basis of such relatiobnships. And parataxis and hypotaxis are exactly the concrete manifestations of holistic thinking and analytical thinking.

In the field of linguistics and translation studies, parataxis, as opposed to hypotaxis, is the single most important feature distinguishing the Chinese language from English, with Chinese showing paratactic prominence and English hypotactic prominence. Nida once stated, “ So far as English and Chinese are concerned, the most important difference linguistically is the contrast between hypotaxis and parataxis.” (1982, 16) Liu Miqing believes that hypotaxis and parataxis can be viewed as the heterogeneous characteristics.(1992: 18). Zhang Li proposes that Chinese, in terms of grammar, belongs to parataxis, one of whose overall features lies in conciseness and economy. (1994: 84)

Hence, English uses many conjunctions, prepositions and other connective means to make links between phrases and words, because of which the language is more logical and better organized. on the other hand, in Chinese, the arranging of clauses is one after the other without connectives showing the relations between them. Hypotaxis can be viewed as the external logic forms of composing words into sentences, and parataxis the internal cognition of wording and phrasing. From the comparisons, we may see that the differences between hypotaxis and parataxis have resulted in the different sentence structures and language expression forms. Here are some examples:

(1) The thirty-two chapters of a novel — if we consider how to read a novel first —are an attempt to make something as formed and controlled as a building: but words are more impalpable than bricks; reading is a longer and more complicated process than seeing.(Virginal Woolf, How Should One Read a Book?)
我们先来讨论一下小说的读法。一部三十二章的小说，作者努力把它塑造成像建筑物一样有形态、受制约的东西。然而，字句之比于砖瓦，更加触摸不到；阅读比之于观看，是个更为长久而复杂的过程。(Selected from the Anthology of Chinese and English Prose)

(2）门铃一声响，来了客人。从不谢客，礼当接待。忙把袜子穿上，整冠而出。来客红光满面，一开口就知道是远客。（楼适夷，《夜间来客——“名人”被访实录》）
Suddenly the doorbell rang，announcing the arrival of a visitor. As Mr. Huang had never refused any visitor before, this one should be received with courtesy too. Quickly putting his socks back on and smoothing his hair，he hurried to the door，and there he was encountered by a man with a fat glowing face.(Lou Shiyi, A Night Visitor— A True Story a ‘Celebrity’ Being Interviewed. Translated by Zhang Peiji)

From the two examples above，we can percept that English is of very hypotaxis. In the first example, one prominent feature is the abundant conjunctions, like “if”, “how”, “but” and “than”. And the sentence structures are tightly knitted with distinct subject-predicate. While in the Chinese version, it is in lack of these overt conjunctive devices. In the second example, in the source language, it uses more than ten verbs in succession, and narrates chronologically. Although it is loosely organized, all of these verbs are arranged in order and present with a clear clue.

Therefore, when translating, the translator must demonstrate the hidden logical structure. But it is not absolute to confine English to hypotaxis and Chinese to parataxis, they just differentiate each other in the degree. Actually in English, Julius Caesar also famously said, “I came, I saw, I conquer.” And in some Chinese works, writers also tend to use the logical and connective sentences. That is to say, it is just the matter of degree, there are also hypotaxis in Chinese and parataxis in English. Moreover, as the exchanges in the world extend, the Chinese and English thinking modes can also be influenced respectively.

===2.2 subject-oriented thinking and object-targeted thinking===

It is well known that Chinese culture and Occidental Culture are quite different, Chinese culture stresses the subject, while Occidental people prefer the objective way of thinking. As China has confronted the severe natural and geographic condition, since the pre-Qin Dynasty, the governor would never think the outside world as the opposite side of human beings. And Chinese people also advocate the harmony between men and nature, which has been retained till now. Moreover, the Chinese Confucian school, Taoism and Buddhism all stress the subject. Lao Tsu said: “ Man models himself after the Earth; the Earth models itself after the Heaven; the Heaven models itself after Tao；Tao models itself after the Nature. ” (Tao Te Ching, chapter 25) Mencius also stated, “All things under heaven are being prepared for me.” (Mencius, chapter 1)

Hence, since ancient times, the Chinese people have tended to consider all things from an anthropocentric standpoint. The outstanding scholar Qian Mu states that “In short, Chinese culture takes human and human affairs as a core. Human and human affairs refer to all reality and ideal when human beings are getting along with each other. The manifestation and achievement of Chinese culture is around the core. The reason why Chinese culture can be fused into a whole is that Chinese culture shows its value through its core-human and human affairs.” (1971: 331) Hence, Chinese culture is human-centered. It is, essentially, a kind of humanistic culture, under the deep influence of which the subjective thought-pattern has come into being.

The subjective thought pattern refers to observing, analyzing, learning and studying objects anthropocentrically and view human beings as the part of a whole nature. On the contrary, the occidental objective thinking takes objects and nature as core, and pay more attention to the observation and research of the objects. The occidental culture originated in Greek peninsular and its coastal areas, where the sages in Ancient Greece has looked upon the cosmos and nature, and always investigated the natural mystery. And based on the dichotomy and antithesis, gradually, the spirit of occidental culture is to separate subjective from objective and to conquer nature.

Hence the occidental tradition takes nature as cognitive object. Unlike Chinese culture and tradition, the occidental rationalism advocates objective attitudes. Francis Bacon once remarked that authority, habit, prejudice and exaggeration are barriers to truth. To seek truth, one should overcome these obstacles. Owing to English people’s objective thinking, they often use impersonal to account the events, and try to be objective. G. Leech and J. Svartvik point out: “Formal written language often goes with an impersonal style; i.e. one which the speaker does not refer directly to himself or readers, but avoids the pronouns I, you, we. Some of the common features of impersonal language are passives, sentences beginning with introductory it, and abstract nouns.”(1974: 25 )

While Chinese people’s subjective thinking pattern demonstrates itself in Chinese in two notable ways: animate subjects and the majority use of active voice. Actually, according to Shen Xiaolong, the configuration of Chinese character demonstrates the subject-oriented thinking pattern. Based on the pictographs, the Chinese characters refer to the object and its ideographs are people-oriented. Hence in English-Chinese translation, the translator should transform from subjective thinking to objective thinking, for instance:

The sight of the big tree always reminds me of my childhood. (连淑能)
一看见那棵大树，我便想起了童年的情景。

A good idea suddenly occur on me.
我突然想出了一个好主意。

The two English sentences, with the abstract subjects: “The sight of the big tree” and “ A good idea” are quite natural to English readers, while in Chinese it is quite queer and none of Chinese people are accustomed to use them in such way. Hence, in Chinese version, it begins with the personal subject “我” and sounds quite smooth and comprehensible to the Chinese readers.

Moreover, in English, the two expletive words (it and there) are frequently used to show their objectivity in the text. At the same time, in Chinese, there are many no-subject sentences, like “下雪了” “该去学校啦” “太冷了”. While such kind of expression are not allowed in English, for it appears to be complete with a subject in English grammar. Hence, in English, they can be expressed in this way: “it snows”, “It is time to go to school” and “It is too cold”. And owing to English objective thinking, the English passive voice, especially the impersonal passive of “it” is used as the subject, such as “it is believed”, “it is said”, “it is reported”, etc., expresses the facts or ideas in an objective, indirect and roundabout way.

It is obvious that the English passive sentences should be converted into the Chinese active sentences. Although the sentence structures are changed, the meanings still remain the same as the original sentences. Also in English “there” and “there be” patterns are impersonal expressions, But in Chinese translation, concrete persons and things are usually used instead. For instance:

(1) 公交车来了。
There comes the bus.
(2) 我家有五口人。
There are 5 people in my family.

Clearly, the sentences above reveal that in Chinese there must be certain subjects supplanting the “there” or “there be” pattern. In general, with the influence of the respective modes of thinking, Chinese tends to be subjective and English prefers objection, but it is not necessarily absolute. In English, we can also find numerous personal subjects like “I think”, “I believe”. And in Chinese, it often uses the passive tense in the writings in Classical Chinese, such as “受制于人” (be restricted by) “为人所骗” (be cheated by). Hence, it is also quite common to begin with personal subjects in English and use objective subject and passive tense in Chinese. Clearly, it is a matter of degree.

===2.3 Concrete thinking and abstract thinking===
Thinking in images and thinking in notions are two forms of thought activities. Generally speaking, Chinese people are well good at thinking in images, while English–speaking people are well developed in thinking in notions. These two tendencies are rooted in their own cultures (包惠南, 2001: 26). Actually, the change and development of Chinese characters is the best illustration. As we all know Chinese language is vivid and full of images and the Chinese character is characterized by pictographs. For example, the character “人” (man) is like the two legs of a person; and “从” (follow) looks like that one person is followed by another; the “山” (mountain) is the shape of a mountain.

Therefore, from ancient times, Chinese people tend to borrow the images of outside world to form their own hieroglyphs. Following such kind of thought model, concrete thinking is established and reflected in Chinese language. As Nakamura remarks, “The Chinese people had a high regard for particulars, and presented content concretely in accordance with their way of thinking, naturally fond of complex multiplicity expressed in concrete form.” ( 1991, 217) While Occidental people prefer abstract thinking which takes concept, judgment and reasoning as form of thinking, and expresses ideas and emotions through logical sentences.

Since the English letters are based on the Greek alphabet, and it is hard to form a pictograph to express the meaning of the word which can only come from the object description of the nature. Also in the process of learning and analyzing the objective world, the occidental aim at exploring the essence and origin of the world. By means of classification and analysis, they try to find the universals of the same kind of objects and combine them together to form a so-called “the World of form” or “the ideal world”.

Moreover, they are fairly interested in the properties of things, and examine them carefully and thoroughly. Their explorations about mathematics, geometry and astronomy contribute to abstract thinking. In the aspect of linguistic expression, the English language tends to be more abstract or logical. Abstract language refers to the language that uses method of abstract diction to express the complex ideas which lie mainly in abstract nouns. G. M.Young once pointed，“an excessive reliance on the noun at the expense of the verb will, in the end, detach the mind of the writer from the realities of here and now, from when and how and in what mood the thing was done. and insensibly induce a habit of abstraction, generalization and vagueness.”

While in Chinese language, the concrete, clear and picturesque words are widely used, just as R. Flesch states, “ Chinese dose more to you than just simplify your constructions… They formed the habit of expressing ideas by metaphors, similes, and all aegis, in short, by every known devices for making a thing plain by comparing it with something else.” (1946: 15-16) The two different kinds of thinking patterns also can be demonstrated in the artistic design of literary works. For instance, the poem《凉州词》written by Wang Han, and the poem《登高》 writer by Du Fu can fully exemplify the concrete and picturesque Chinese language, and both of them are translated by Xu Yuanchong.

葡萄美酒夜光杯，
欲饮琵琶马上催。— 王翰《凉州词》
With wine of grapes the cups of jade would glow at night,
Drinking to pipa songs, we are summoned to fight.

无边落木萧萧下，
不尽长江滚滚来。—杜甫《登高》
The boundless forest sheds its leaves shower by shower,
The endless river rolls it’s waves hour after hour.

In the two poems above, the poets use several concrete images like “wine of grapes”, “cups of jade” “boundless forest” and “ endless river”. It is easy to visualize the certain situation that poets depict for us, when we read these lines. While in English there are more abstract nouns to replace the function of verb and express abstract meanings, which sometimes can cause puzzlement for Chinese people. For instance, in Benjamin Franklin’s The Autobiography:
“To help myself live without fault, I made a list of what I considered the 13 virtues. These virtues are: 1 Temperance, 2 Self-control, 3 Silence, 4 Order, 5 Firmness of mind, 6 Savings, 7 Industry, 8 Honesty, 9 Justice, 10 Cleanliness, 11, calmness, 12 Morality, 13 Humbleness.”

“为了使自己生活中不犯错误，特别列出我认为应该身体力行的 13 条守则。这些守则
是：1.节制饮食 2.自我克制 3. 沉默寡言 4. 有条不紊 5. 坚定信念 6.勤俭节约 7. 工作勤奋8. 忠诚老实 9. 办事公正 10. 衣着整洁 11.平心静气 12. 品行高尚 13.谦虚恭顺。”
There are 13 abstract words in English and they are translated into Chinese concretely with the verbs to govern the phrases. So that it would be vividly explained what do these abstract words convey in a specific way.

Wisdom prepares for the worst; but folly leaves the worst for the day it comes.
智者防范于未然，愚者临渴掘井。（陈文伯译）

In the sentence, “wisdom” and “folly” are two abstract nouns, but they actually refer to certain people. The expression in English is quite common and concise, while Chinese people are accustomed to the thinking in images, hence, in the translation, the concept of two abstract nouns is materialized as two people with certain properties. So that Chinese people can better understand the implicit meaning.

===2.4 circular thinking and linear thinking===

According to Robert Kaplan who analyzes different discourses and their different organization in different notions, students from different cultural backgrounds adopt different patterns of writing. The Chinese text, in contrast with the English text which is organized in a linear structure, is usually arranged in circular structure (1966:1-2).
Circular thinking can also be known as inductive thinking in which we infer a conclusion on the basis of facts and draw a conclusion from particular to general. From ancient times, traditional Chinese medicine already sets a model for us. They follow the principles of “inspection”, “inquiry”, “listening” and “smelling” and can finally make a diagnosis.

And underlying the observations, Chinese people will finally draw a conclusion and are not always accustomed to express their opinions directly. Actually, it can derive from the traditional Chinese culture where the Confucianism immensely governs people’s thought. Under the influence of “the doctrine of mean” and the underlined “mutual harmony” in traditional Chinese philosophy, which cultivate Chinese to avoid direct confrontation and conflicts and take a mean course while they are thinking. Hence such kind of circular thinking model can be reflected upon the Chinese language where ideas are often organized and linked in an overall framework, and does not state the topic directly in the opening lines but constantly lays out relevant or even irrelevant information to provide many-sided perspectives for judging.

While, on the contrary, the occidental thinking pattern tends to be linear, or we can say it is a kind of deductive thinking model. It starts from general to particular, from abstract to concrete, and from outcome to reason. The occidental prefer to directly talk about the topic at the beginning without reservation. As a matter of fact, it is deeply influenced by the Greek philosophy. The way of thinking is inherited from the Greek philosophers, such as Plato and Aristotle, especially Aristotelian logical and reasonable thinking. Aristotle puts forward two thought patterns: “ deduction and induction”, while he himself views the deductive method superior to the inductive one.

Just as Guo remarks, “ For over 2000 years, syllogism and deduction have been a mainstream for western culture and thought.” And also Aristotle generalizes the discourse into four parts: beginning, poising a question, analysis and expounding, conclusion, which can be viewed as an epitome of occidental linear thinking pattern. In general, English thought pattern is a straight pattern. And so a text is usually centered on a topic in the form of the topic sentence of topic paragraph and then it is developed in a deductive method, directly by many sentences in a sequence. So, the crucial part is usually put at the beginning of an English sentence, but at the end of a Chinese sentence. Here are some examples:

(1) Soccer is a difficult sport. A player must be able to run steadily without rest. Sometimes a player must hit the ball with his or her head. Players must be willing to bang into or be banged into by others. They must put up with aching feet and sore muscles.
足球运动员必须不停地奔跑，有时得用头顶球，撞别人或被别人撞，必须忍受双腿和肌肉的疼痛，所以说，足球是一项难度大的运动。

There is another example to view how Chinese people and American people express their own emotions. The two excerpts are from the Keynote Speech By H.E. Xi Jinping President of the people’s Republic of China At the Opening Ceremony of The third China International Import Expo and President Obama’ speech at Fu Dan University in Shanghai respectively.

(2) 各位来宾，
女士们，先生们，朋友们：
Distinguished Guests,
Ladies and Gentlemen,
Dear Friends,
在各方共同努力下，第三届中国国际进口博览会开幕了！首先，我代表中国. 政府和中国人民，并以我个人的名义，向各位嘉宾，表示热烈的欢迎！对各位新老朋友，表示诚挚的问候！
With concerted efforts of all parties, the third China International Import Expo (CIIE) is now open. At the outset, let me extend, on behalf of the government and people of China as well as in my own name, a hearty welcome to all the distinguished guests. To the many old and new friends, I give you my warm greetings and best regards.

Good afternoon. It is a great honor for me to be here in Shanghai, and to have this opportunity to speak with all of you.
诸位下午好。我感到很荣幸能够有机会到上海跟你们交谈。

Obviously, in the first example, in English versions, the topic sentence is presented first, then it begins to illustrate the topic in a logical way to convince us that soccer is a difficult sport. Then in the second example, we can see that the president Xi and American former President Obama show their delight in quite different ways. We Chinese people tend to express our joy at the end of discourse, while American people are willing to show their emotions at the beginning, which also vividly presents the Chinese linear thinking and Occidental circular thinking.

Although the distinction is widely recognized at home and abroad, it is not categorically clear about the line between Chinese and English. Actually, many ancient writers in China are fond of coming straight to the point and hit the nail on the head in a precise way. Liang Qichao, an excellent ancient scholar in Qing Dynasty, proposes in his the Methodology of Composition above Middle School, that the most important thing is to make readers get the writer’s purpose at a glance when reading an article, so that it can touch and gain the reader’s interest. Hence it is hard to say that English is Linear and Chinese is circular as Robert Kaplan defines.

===3. Conclusion===
The discussions of the comparison between Chinese and Occidental thinking models have been carried out for a long time. In this paper, through the comparison of four opposite types of modes of thinking: Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking, subject-oriented thinking vs object-targeted thinking, concrete thinking vs abstract thinking, and linear thinking vs circular thinking, and presenting how they reflect upon their language, it demonstrates that cultural diversity and different historical origin may dominate the formation of thinking patterns. Since in the sea of the Chinese and Occidental language and thought, the culture is like a mirror which reflects all-embracing phenomena. That is to say, language, thought and culture are essentially associated with each other.

While there are also some other types of comparison among modes of thought like “static thinking vs dynamic thinking”, “fuzzy thinking vs accurate thinking” and so on. Moreover, we have to classify the writing style and genre of the articles, which would set up different principles in diction, and we can not lump together under one head. Hence this paper just tries to compare them in a general way, so that we can have a relatively overall view about the two languages. Since the thought impacts upon the language, we have to firstly understand how people view about the world around them, and then it is greatly useful to learn a second language well and to better perform in the cross-cultural communication with the extent of cultural exchanges nowadays.

=== Reference===
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*Kaplan, R. B. “Cultural Thought Patterns in Intercultural Education in Language Learning”, A Journal of Applied Linguistics, 1966.
*Leech, G. and Svartvik, J. A Communicative Grammar of English Longman, 1974.
*Nakamura, Hajime. Ways of Thinking of Eastern Peoples—Indian, China, Tibet, Japan. London:Kegan Paul International, 1997.
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*Bao Huinan. 包惠南. (2001)【M】文化语境与语言翻译 Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation. 中国对外翻译出版公司.
* Lian Shuneng. 连淑能. (2002) 论中西思维方式【J】 On Chinese and Western modes of thinking. Dalian: Foreign language and teaching. 外语与外语教学.
*Liu Kuilin. 刘奎林. (1989) 《思维、思维科学导论》【M】 Introduction to Thinking and Thinking Science. Beijing: Workers publishing House 工人出版社.
*Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (1992) 《汉英对比翻译》【M】 Contrastive Study and Translation between English and Chinese, Nanchang: Jiangxi Education Press, 江西教育出版社.
*Qian Mu. 钱穆，(1977)《世界局势与中国文化》The World Situation and Chinese Culture【M】 Taibei: Taipei Dongda Book Co.LTD. 台北东大图书公司.
*Shen Xiaolong. 申小龙. (1994) 汉字构形的主体思维及其人文精神 . 【J】The Subjective thinking and humanistic spirit of Chinese Characters《学术月刊》 Academic Monthly, 1994 (14), 74.
*Wang Dehua. 汪德华. (2003) 英汉思维方式对其语言、文字的影响【J】. The influence of Thinking Modes of English and Chinese on Their Language and Character. 外语与外语教学, Foreign Language and Teaching, 2003 (3), 36.
*Zhang Li. 张黎. (1994) 《文化的深层选择———汉语意合语法论》【M】on Chinese Parataxis Grammar. Changchun: Jilin Education Press. 吉林教育出版社.
*Zhang Sijie & Zhang Boran. 张思洁, 张柏然. 形合与意合的哲学思维反思【J】Parataxis versus Hypotaxis— a Reflection on the Relation between Language, Philosophy and modes of Thinking, 中国翻译 Chinese Translation. 2001 (7), 13.
--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 08:46, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Comparison of Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance 曾良 Zeng Liang 英语笔译 MTI 202070080578==

===Abstract===

In the late 1960s, the famous American translator Eugene Nida proposed the theory of functional equivalence, which has boosted the development of translation theory. The theory is based on modern linguistics, social semiotics and information theory. Its equivalence is not confined to the corrrespondence in vocabulary and grammar between the original language and the target language. Meanwhile, the correspondence of response between the original readers and the target readers is also paid attention. Nida points out that translation should accord with original text in meaning, rather than form, and he also pays much attention to the response of the target readers. He thinks that expressing the target language properly and appropriately is the key in translation, exerting great guiding significance for translators.

With the further effect of western translation theories on Chinese translation theories, Chinese translators also propose different translation theories. Based on Chinese classical aesthetics and literary criticism, Yan Fu, a famous translator of China, proposes the famous translation standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, which has a deep influence on China’s translation circle and provides an important translation theory for Chinese translators.

Nida's functional equivalence and Yan Fu's faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance all provide important translation standards for translators and have a pivotal role in the history of translation theories. At the same time, by analyzing the Chinese translation of ''Vanity Fair'' written by Thackery, the similarities and differences between these two theories will be presented, aiming to have a better understanding in translation.

===Key words===

Functional Equivalence; Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; similarities and differences; ''Vanity Fair''

===摘要===

20世纪60年代末。美国著名翻译家尤金·奈达提出了翻译理论发展史上具有里程碑意义的“功能对等”翻译理论，该理论以现代语言学、社会符号学以及信息论为理论基础，其对等并未局限于原语和目的语之间词汇和语法的转换，对原语读者的感受和目的语言读者的感受是否一致也同样关注。奈达提倡翻译并未形式的对等而是客观内容的对等，他还重视目的语接受者的反应，以合适、贴切的目的语表达视为翻译的中心任务，这对翻译工作者具有重要的指导意义。

随着西方翻译理论对中国翻译理论的影响日益加深，中国翻译家也逐渐提出了自己的翻译理论。中国著名翻译家严复基于中国传统美学和文学评论，提出了著名的“信达雅”翻译标准。这一翻译标准在中国翻译界影响深远，为翻译工作者提供了很重要的翻译理论。

奈达和严复的翻译理论都为翻译工作者提供了重要的翻译标准，在翻译理论史上都具有举足轻重的作用。同时，这两大理论具有许多相似之处和不同点。本文通过对萨克雷《名利场》的中文译本进行分析，并通过对信息文本的处理来对比分析两大理论，找到两者的异同点，希望能对两大翻译理论的理解有一定的促进作用。

===关键词===

功能对等；信达雅；异同；《名利场》

===Introduction===

Looking back on the history of Chinese and western translation, it can be seen that translation theories are rich and colorful. In the western translation field, Nida is recognized as an outstanding representative. His "Functional equivalence" theory has broken through the traditional formal equivalence theory and has had a broad and far-reaching impact. In the Chinese translation circle, Yan Fu is the most influential one. He puts forward the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which is a milestone in the history of Chinese translation theory and promotes the development of Chinese translation theory (Tan Kai 2011, 43).

Although Nida and Yan Fu are in different social environment, and their translation standards are once questioned and denied, it is undeniable that these two translation standards are still the most authoritative and vital in Chinese and Western translation circles (Zhang Yimei 2020, 180).

Despite the different social environment and the imperfect translation standards, it is undeniable that these two are still the most authoritative and vital ones in Chinese and Western translation circles (Zhang Yimei 2020, 180).

====Introduction of Functional Equivalence====

Eugene Nida is a well-known contemporary western linguistics, an expect that researches Bible, and a translation theorist as well. His translation view, which is called functional equivalence, has set off a wave of enthusiasm in the translation field (Zhang Yimei 2020,180).

In 1964, Nida put forward "formal equivalence" and "dynamic equivalence" in the book ''Toward A Science of Translating''(Nida 1964, 45). However, he did not give a clear definition of "dynamic equivalence" until 1969 in the book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' (Nida 1969, 34). In 1993, the expression "dynamic equivalence" was superseded by "functional equivalence" in his work ''From One Language to Another'' (Nida 1993, 67). Dynamic Equivalence is defined "in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it is essentially the same manner as the receptors in the source language (Nida 1969, 24). "

Functional equivalence emphasizes the response of equivalence rather than the form of equivalence. In the process of evaluating the quality of translation, one should not only see whether the form is consistent with the original text, or whether the content is fluent and smooth, but also check whether the response of the target language readers is consistent with the original readers or whether the effect produced by the target text is consistent with the original text (Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). It is impossible to be faithful to the original to full extent. There are many reasons for this. For example, the language ability and knowledge background of translators can cause differences in translation.

In ''Language, Culture and Translating'', Nida divided functional equivalence into two levels: the minimal level and the maximal level (Nida 2001, 78). The minimal level of functional equivalence is defined as "The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it". The maximal level is stated as "The readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did" (Nida 1993, 118). The two definitions of equivalence reveal that the minimal level is realistic, whereas the maximal level is ideal. According to Nida, good translations always lie between the two levels (Nida 1995, 224).

====Introduction of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====

Yan Fu is a famous enlightenment thinker and educator in modern China, as well as an outstanding translation theorist. His three principles of translation—faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, were widely accepted as the essential criteria for understanding translation since the early 20th century. It appeared in Yan Fu’s preface to his translation of Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'' (1898) （Zhang Xi 2014, 1):

"Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness (Xin), expressiveness (da) and elegance (ya). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive, or fluent, is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance. Since China’s opening to foreign trade by sea, there has been no lack of interpreters and translators. But if you assign them any book to translate and tell them to meet these two requirements, few can do so (Yan Fu 2009, 202)."

Based on his understanding of ancient Buddhist Scriptures translation and translation practices, Yan Fu advanced “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which has a great contribution to the history of China’s translation and has become the fundamental tenets of Chinese translation theory in the 20th century (Zhang Xi 2014, 2).

According to Yan’s three principles, the translator should be faithful in conveying the message of the original text, fluent in the expression of the target language, and elegant in the writing style. "Faithfulness" emphasizes the fidelity to the original text. Yan pointed out that translator couldn’t begin his work until he has grasped the spirit and logic of the original text. "Expressiveness" stresses the fluency and acceptability that the translation expresses. "Elegance" reflects that Yan pays much attention to readers’ thought. Yan said in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethics'' (Yan Fu 2009, 202):

"Confucious said, ‘Diction should be expressive.’ He also added, ‘Diction without elegance cannot reach far.’ The three principles should be the basic elements of any writing, and the tenet for translators. Apart from faithfulness and expressiveness, I seek for elegance. (Yan Fu 2009, 202)"

Many people reagrd Yan’s translation standard as a golden rule, however, there are also some criticisms of it. Most criticism comes from the denial of standard "elegance". According to Yan Fu, elegance means using Chinese characters of pre-Han dynasty to express original text. He is inclined to use classical style of writing in pursuing elegance because of two reasons. Firstly, he believes that boring language cannot expand the influence of translated text; secondly, most of the readers of that time are knowledgeable people from the upper class and the translations are foreign philosophy and social science (Zhang Yimei 2020, 180).

Therefore, the common readers cannot understand the real meaning of the original text. "Elegance" now has been modified by later generations, which refers to that the translation should be literary and elegant. Although there are still some doubts about the standard "elegance", the contribution and influence of Yan’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” are undeniable (Zhang Yimei 2020, 180).

===Theoretial Foundation===

====Theoretical Foundation of Nida’s Functional Equivalence====

=====Modern Linguistic=====

Based on modern linguistic, functional equivalence has a close relationship with linguistics (Guo Dingju 2013, 15). Nida successfully applied the research of modern linguistics into translation theory. He used semantic theories, especially the method of semantic componential analysis to analyze referring meaning and associative meaning of vocabulary objectively and accurately (Guo Dingju 2013, 16). He transformed Chomsky’s core sentence theory, deep structure and surface structure, created a relatively complete process of interlingual conversion, and proposed a three-stage theory of the translation process (Zhu Haotong 2006, 64).

According to Nida, various language structures have many similarities and deep structure is more common than surface structure (Nida 1964, 68). Therefore, through the interlingual conversion of deep structure, the fidelity to the original text can be ensured to the greatest extent. At the same time, since the surface structure of the translated text is the free expression of the conversion of deep structure, the smoothness of the translated text can be ensured as much as possible. The faithful and smooth translations create conditions for the equivalence of readers’ reaction, which makes it possible to achieve functional equivalence(Nida 1964, 68).

=====Information Theory=====

Functional equivalence is also based on information theory. Nida believes that translation is an activity of transforming the information expressed in one language into another, that is to say, the information encoded in one code is transformed into another(Nida 1984, 34). The purpose of translating is to communicate by conveying information (Zhu Haotong 2006, 64). Only when the target language readers obtain the same information as the original readers, the relationship between the target language readers and target information is basically the same as the relationship between original language readers and original information (Nida 1964, 68).

Nida notices that the original readers’ ability to accept information is different from that of target language readers (Zhu Haotong 2006, 64). Generally speaking, the information receptive ability of original language readers is better than target language readers, especially when the original language and the target language belong to different language systems and cultures (Zhu Haotong 2006, 64). Nida stresses that in order to let the target language readers obtain the same information as the original readers, translators can change appropriately the form of the original text for the target readers to better understand the translation (Nida 1984, 34).

=====Social Semiotics=====

Functional equivalence is also based on social semiotics. Nida believes that translating is to translate the meaning of the original, and social semiotics is the most comprehensive system to analyze the meaning (Zhu Haotong 2006, 65).

In the book ''Language, Culture and Translation'', Nida points out that using social semiotics, the science that researches all codes and symbols in human society, to study translation is the most comprehensive way, and the key that is superior to any other translation methods to carry on interlingual translation is that social semiotics studies all codes in human society, and focuses on studying language, the most comprehensive and complex semiotic systems used by human. Therefore, in terms of decoding and encoding, the translation method of social semiotics is more comprehensive than any other translation methods (Nida 1993, 67).

====Theoretical Foundation of Yan Fu’s Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====

=====Chinese Aesthetics=====

Aesthetics is at first a branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of art, beauty and taste with creation and appreciation of beauty (Guo dingju 2013, 18). It has a great impact on traditional Chinese translation theories and standards. In 1898, Yan Fu put forward the famous translation standard “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which has always been the central idea of Chinese translation theory and aesthetics (Yan Fu 2009, 202). Its influence is far-reaching and almost no one can match with it today.

"Faithfulness" means the meaning of the target text should be faithful to the original text with accurate words and without arbitrary omission or deletion. "Expressiveness" means that the form of the target text is not constrained and the translation is smooth and clear. "Elegance" refers to that the words of translation should be appropriate and vivid, and the translation should be concise and elegant like the original. "Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" reveal the essence of translation (Yan Fu 2009, 202). Compared with the long-winded theoretical explanation abroad, these three words cover almost all the content of translation aesthetics, and fully reflect the concise beauty of Chinese characters (Guo Dingju 2013, 18).

Chinese aesthetics mainly comes from the ancient asetheics, which is the theoretical foundation of Yan Fu’s translation theory of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance (Guo Dingju 2013, 19).

=====Literary Criticism=====

Literary criticism (or literary studies) is the study, evaluation, and interpretation of literature. Modern literary criticism is often influenced by literary theory, which is the philosophical discussion of literature's goals and methods (Guo Dingju 2013, 19).

On the whole, literary criticism can be divided into two categories. One is the body of study focused on ethics and human emotions. The other is a bulk of explorations centered around the craftmanship of literary works (Li Jianzhong 2009, 45). The core of Chinese literary criticism is the theory of literary creation (Li Jianzhong 2009, 46).

There are mainly three types of literary criticism in the early 20th century from the aspect of criticism functions. The first type of literary criticism focuses on literary works. The critics of this type analyze literay works with their own experience and wisdom, which is called art-oriented criticism, Lu Xun being one of the representative. The second type aims at the independent cultural value. The critics try to dig out its philosophical, psychological, ethnic and linguistic significance of works. The third one is society-oriented criticism serving politics, which works well in the period of political struggels (Wang Yunxi 2007, 78).

===Comparative Studies on Translation theories of Nida and Yan Fu===

====Introdution of ''Vanity Fair'' and Yang Bi’s Translation Versions====

=====About ''Vanity Fair''=====

''Vanity Fair'' is Mr. Thackeray’s most important work. The novel takes place during the Napoleonic Wars and tells the stories of two contrasted girls: Amelia Sedley, the daughter of a wealthy merchant, a good natured, loveable though simple-minded young girl, and Rebecca (Becky) Sharp, an orphan who is a strong-willed and cunning young woman. These two girls met at Miss Pinkerton’s Academy for young ladies, the former driven by delicate heart and the latter by social ambition (Guo Dingju 2013, 21).

At the begining, Becky lived in a rich life and her social state was promoted step by step relying on some ignoble means. But Amelia suffered great sorrow because of her father’s bankruptcy. However, several years later, their lives were totally changed. They seemed to go back to their origianl work. Becky gained nothing, and Amelia returned to happy life again (Thackeray 2006，178).

This novel gains great success and shapes the image of a bad woman, Becky. You may hate her, but you will never forget her once you read this wonderful novel. Although she is a charater living in a different time and world, you can feel her presence in our world, even in any society. ''Vanity Fair'' is one of the greatest literary works describing society at that time (Guo Dingju 2013, 21).

The capitalists’ accumulation and the 19th society are all presented to readers through Thackeray’s description. This novel reflects the degradation and social hypocrisy and people at that time try every means to keep in contact with the upper class. The title of this novel reveals the theme: the treasures of vanity fair, that is money and position, desirable but transient. Thackeray’s idea is that although one may live in vanity fair, he doesn’t need to be a slave to its values, which will eventually turn into emptiness (Thackeray 2006, 89).

=====Yang Bi’s Translation of ''Vanity Fair''=====

There are many Chinese translation versions of ''Vanity Fair''. Among these versions, Yang Bi’s translation version ranks the first, which has been published for four times by different publications. Yang Bi’s version of ''Vanity Fair'' was firstly published by People’s Literature Publication in 1957, then re-published in 1997 and 2000. The latest version was published by The Commercial Press in 2012. Yang Bi’s translation version of ''Vanity Fair'' was praised and encouraged by many translators, such as Fu Lei (Guo Dingju 2013, 23).

Yang Bi shows target language readers a sense of wholeness by smooth sentence structure amd takes related cultural background into consideration. Owing to her proficiency in Chinese, she can convey the meaning of the original text appropriately to Chinese readers, hence having a great response from Chinese readers (Guo Dingju 2013, 23).

====An Analysis on Nida’s Functional Equivalence from Translation of ''Vanity Fair''====

Thackeray has a sharp eye on his literary works, especially in ''Vanity Fair'', which requires an outstanding understanding and expressive ability of the translator when translating. When comparing the English and Chinese version of ''Vanity Fair'', it’s easy to find that Yang Bi’s translation is good at dealing with words, sentences, chapters, and rhetorical devices. Her translation is natural and smooth that the target language readers feel like reading the traditional novels (Zhang Yanmei 2019, 16). In this paper, two main aspects will be analyzed by the author.

=====At Lexical Level=====

In traditional grammar, one of the kernel parts is Part of Speech. Some regular rules are deeply rooted in our minds, such as adjectives modify nouns, adverbs modify verbs and adjectives, and conjunctions connect parts of sentences. People who learn foreign languages are familiar with these rules. However, the quality of translation will be influenced if these rules are brought into the translation. Under this circumstance, Nida suggests abandoning the traditional grammar and adopting new seven-part-of-speech system(Nida 1943, 89), those are

(1) entities, such as woman, desk, dictionary, and so on;

(2) activities, such as walk, run, swim and so on;

(3) states, such as dead, excited, happy and so on;

(4) characteristics, such as tall, huge, fat and so on;

(5) processes, such as shorten, grow, enlarge and so on;

(6) links, such as when, during, below and so on;

(7) deictics, such as that, there, this and so on (Nida 1986, 20).

From the translation of Yang Bi’s ''Vanity Fair'', we can find that the target text is flexible and functional equivalence of Nida is achieved at the lexical level. Free translation is the main translation method that she adopts. What’s more, she combines different translation techniques, such as combination, addition, and omission to reproduce the origianl meaning in the target language (Zhang Yanmei 2019, 16).

Exampe 1:

ST1: ...for what can be prettier than an image of Love on his knees before Beauty？(Thackeray 2006, 138)

TT1: ……痴情男子向美貌佳人跪下求婚，还不是一幅最赏心悦目的画吗? (杨必 2013, 47)

In ST1, "Love" and "Beauty" are two entities according to Nida’s classification of words(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19). In the original text, Thackeray describes a scene in which Baron proposes to Rebecca. He uses abstract words "Love" and "Beauty" to represent Baron and Rebecca. In TT1, Yang Bi translates "Love" and "Beauty" into "痴情男子" and "美貌佳人" to reproduce the meaning of the original text. Although the words in ST1 are abstract and the words in TT1 are concrete, the meaning of the origianl text is greatly reproduced in the translation, and the translation is even more vivid than the original one. What’s more, the translation contains a humorous tone, and the target language readers can feel humorous and interesting(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19). If we translate "Love" and "Beauty" into "爱情" and "美人", the literal menaing and charm of original text are lost and the style of original text is not reproduced in the target language.

=====At Syntactical Level=====

A sentence is the basic unit of language. In the process of translating Englsih sentences into Chinese, the translator should comprehend the original writer’s intention and then express it in the target language. Thus, the arrangement of sentences should be considered. On the syntactical level, English has long compound sentences which belong to hypotactic sentence, while Chinese has more short sentences which belong to paratactic sentence. What’s more, there are many distinctions between English and Chinese sentences which requires the translator to make proper adjustments. In order to overcome the obstacles of long sentences in translation, Nida put forward a suggestion that one long difficult sentence can be divided into several core sentences. Nida uses the concept of core kernel sentence (Nida 1946, 55). He thinks there are seven types of kernel sentence in English:

(1) subject + predicate + adverbial, such as, John wrote slowly;

(2) subject + predicate + object, such as, John hit Bill;

(3) subject + predicate + object + object, such as, John gave Mary a gift;

(4) subject + be + subject complement, such as, John is in the restaurant;

(5) subject + be + attributive, such as, John is kind;

(6) subject + be + indefinite article + noun, such as, John is a man;

(7) subject + be + pronoun+noun, such as, John is my friend.

The above seven sentences are understandable in human language. No matter what language you speak in communicating with others, the people you talk with can understand your meaning as long as you use simple sentences (Guo Dingju 2013, 32). Nida believes that experienced translators often break down complex sentences into simple sentences when translating the origianl text (Nida 1946, 56). The translator often needs to make proper adjustments and rebuild the sentence structure in the target text. Many examples in Yang Bi’s translation of ''Vanity Fair'' are discovered to simplify the sentences. From her translation, we also find out that functional equivalence is achieved at the syntactical level in Yang Bi’s translation.

Example 2:

ST2: His first marriage with the daughter of the noble Binkie had been made under the auspices of his parents; and as he often told Lady Crawley in her lifetime she was such a confounded quarrelsome high-bred jade that when she died he was hanged if he would ever take another of her sort, at her ladyship’s demise he kept his promise, and selected for a second wife Miss Rose Dawson, daughter of Mr.Johm Thomas Dawson, ironmonger, of Mudbury.
(Thackeray 2016, 75)

TT2: 他第一次结婚的时候,奉父母之命娶了一位贵族小姐,是平葛家里的女儿。克劳来夫人活着的时候，他就常常当面说她是个讨人嫌的婆子，礼数又足，嘴巴子又碎；并且说等她死了之后，死也不愿意再娶这么一个老婆了。他说到做到：妻子去世以后，他就挑了墨特白菜铁器商人约翰·汤姆士·道生的女儿露丝·道生做填房。
(Yang Bi 2013, 76)

In ST2, there is a long and complex sentence and the word quantity of this sentence is eighty. According to Nida’s theory, this long sentence can be divided into several kernel sentences (Nida 1946,76). Yang Bi carefully simplified this long sentence into several short sentences.

(1) 他第一次结婚的时候，奉父母之命娶了一位贵族小姐，是葛平家里的女儿。

His first marriage with the daughter of the noble had been undre the auspices of his parents.

(2) 他经常跟克莱劳夫人说一些事。

He often told Lady Crawley in her lifetime.

(3) 她是个讨人嫌的婆子，礼数又足，嘴巴子又卖力。

She was such a confounded quarrelsome high-bred jade.

(4) 她死后，他许下承诺。

He was hanged after her death.

(5) 他不会再娶这么一个老婆了。

He would never take another of her sort.

(6) 妻子去世后，他遵守了自己的承诺。

At her ladyship’s demise he kept his promise.

(7) 他挑了墨特白菜铁器商人约翰·汤姆士·道生的女儿露丝·道生做填房。

He selected for a second wife Miss Rose Dawson, daughter of Mr. John Thomas Dawson, ironmonger, of Mudbury.

In this example, the sentence structure is transformed from a long complex sentence into seven short simple sentences. Although the sentence structure is different, the meaning of the original is expressed completely in its translation and the target language readers can have a good understanding of the original meaning.

====An Analysis on Yan Fu’s Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance from Translation of ''Vanity Fair''====

The translation of Yang Bi’s ''Vanity Fair'' is a good example of combination of Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegence(Guo Dingju 2013, 23). We will analyze Yang Bi’s translation of ''Vanity Fair'' from lrxical and sentence level.

=====At Lexical level=====

Literary words demands that the translator has good command of comprehensive and expressive abilities. Although many words are equivalence in English-Chinese dictionary, yet it is not easy to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance with mere literal meaning equivalence (Guo Dingju 2013, 25). Thackeray is very particular about the words, so it is not easy for the translator to express the original meaning. But Yang Bi grasps the original meaning and does quite well in his translation, which makes the translation vivid and interesting. Let’s look at how to achieve faithfulness, expressive and elegance in her translation.

Example 3:

ST3: …for what can be prettier than an image of Love on his knees before Beauty? (Thackeray 2006, 138)

TT3: ……痴情公子向美貌佳人跪下求婚，还不是一幅最赏心悦目的画吗？ (杨必 2013, 47)

In ST3, there is a scene of Baron proposing marriage to Rebecca. Thackeray uses the abstract words "an image of Love" and "Beauty" to refer to Baron and Rebecca. What’s more, the original text contains a ridiculous tone, and readers can feel humorous from Thackeray’s words. Only when the translator translates the style and spirit of the original faithfully can faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance be achieved (Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19).

If the words "prettier", "an image of Love" and "Beauty" are translated into "更好看" "爱情形象" "美人" respectively, the style and charm of the original are lost and faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are not achieved in the translation. In Yang Bi’s translaton ,she achieves faithfulness, expressiveness and elegence by her good mastering of language. In TT3, "痴情男子" "美貌佳人" and "赏心悦目" reproduce the further meaning of the original text, which achieves the standard of Yan Fu’s faithfulness. What’s more, expressiveness is also achieved in her translation because the translation is smooth. Meanwhile, these groups of words are elegant, which convey the style and charm of the original text and conform to the characteristcs of literary works. Thus, elegance is also achieved in Yang Bi’s translation (Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19).

=====At Sentence Level=====

English and Chinese are different in many aspects. For example, English sentences are tree-structure and there are many long complex sentences in English, while Chinese sentences are bamboo-structure and they are usually short. English sentences emphasize hypotaxis, while Chinese sentences stress parataxis (Guo Dingju 2013, 40). Thus, it is impracticable to translate English into Chinese without changing sentence structures and it is difficult for the translator to achieve Yan Fu’s standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. There are many long sentences in ''Vanity Fair'', so it is a challenging work for Yang Bi to translate them into Chinese. However, by researching Yang Bi’s translation, we will find out her good performance of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance.

Example 4:

ST4: The amiable behavior of Mr.Crawley, and Lady Jane’s kind reception of her, highly flattered Miss Briggs, who was enabled to speak a good word for the latter, after the cards of the Southdown family had been presented to Miss Crawley. (Thackeray 2006, 74)

TT4: 布立葛丝小姐看看克劳莱先生的态度那么客气，吉恩小姐又待她热情，觉得受宠若惊，等到沙吴赛家里的名片送到克劳莱小姐面前，她就找机会给吉恩小姐说了些好话。(Yang Bi 1997, 6)

In the original sentence, the abstract words "behavior" and "reception" are the subject of the sentence, which shows the static feature of English. If translate it into "克劳莱先生的客气态度和吉恩小姐的热情接待使布立葛丝小姐受宠若惊……" without changing sentence structure, we will find that it doesn’t conform to the expression habits of Chinese. Although it seems to be faithful to the original form and meaning, it is stiff. On the contrary, Yang Bi changes its sentence structure and uses the object of the original as the subject in target language. With this adjustment, Yang Bi changes static language into dynamic one and faithfully reproduces the meaning of the original into target language. What’s more, her translation is smooth and full of beauty of literary works. In a word, the translation of this sentence conform to the standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance.

====A Comparative Study on Translation Theory of Nida and Yan Fu====

===== Similarities =====

Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are very popular in the translation field, which have been used as golden rules in the process of translating (Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). In fact, there are many similarities between them. This paper will research two main similarities of them.

One similarity of them is that they both pay attention to readers’ response. In Nida’s opinion, one of important ways of evaluating translation works is the target text reader’s response to the information conveyed by the original author. Thus, when evaluating a translation work we should pay attention to target language readers. Meanwhile, we should compare the reaction of original readers with the reaction of target readers to see if they are consistent (Nida & Taber 1969, 22).

Yan Fu also attaches great importance to readers. The purpose of his translation is to enlighten the ruling class, who are more proficient in classical Chinese. So Yan Fu advocates using the words and grammar of Han Dynasty (Guo Dingju 2013, 43). Therefore, Nida and Yan Fu both pay attention to readers.

The other similarity is that they both emphasize on conveying information. Nida believes that translation is communication. Translation works are useless if they cannot play the role of communicating (Zhu Haotong 2006, 64). Therefore, the relationship between the target language recipient and the translation information should be the same as the relationship between the original language recipient and the original information (Nida 1969, 30). But sometimes it is difficult to completely convey information in the original text into the target text. In this case, the translator must change the form of the target language to some extent.

Yan Fu also stresses on conveying the original information. He points out that words and phrases can be reversed, added and deleted freely (Guo Dingju 2013, 44). We need not care too much about the order of phrases without losing the original meaning.

By comparing the similarities of Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories, we can find out that they both pay attention to readers and emphasize on conveying information of the original text.

===== Differences =====

Although there are many similarities between these two thoeries, there are still some differences because of the different cultural background, personal consciousness and other factors. Firstly, functional equivalence is more logic and scientific than faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. The former is closely related to multiple disciplines, and it is more systematic, while the latter is merely based on literature and aesthetics (Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). Secondly, Nida gives detailed explanation of functional equivalence, which is clear and accurate, while the explanation of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance given by Yan Fu is somewhat ambiguous (Zhang Yimei 2020, 181). There are a lot of arguments on the explanation of "elegance". What’s more, the concrete explanation of "faithfulness" is not clear. Whether the target text should only be "faithful" to the content of the original text or the content and style of the original is not explicit to translators. Thirdly, in guiding sense, Nida’s functional equivalence mentions four aspects, that is, lexical equivalence, syntactical equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence, and he gives six principles on how to achieve functional equivalence (Nida 1964, 67). However, Yan Fu doesn’t mention how to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, so translators can only use them as the translation standard.

===Conclusion===

With the further communication between Western and Chinese culture, it is vital to study literature as it is a bridge to connect different cultures and a good medium to know the colorful world. ''Vanity Fair'' is a literary work that gains a great popularity in the nineteenth century because it satirizes the hypocrisy of the upper class (Guo Dingju 2013, 22). However, it is difficult to translate it from English into Chinese because of the differences between these two languages. By a coincidence, Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance can be used as a guidance in the process of translation.

From the comparison above, it is known that there are some similarities and differences between these two thoeries. It is believed that these two translation theories both play an important role in translation, guiding us to better understand different cultures.

====Implements====

Based on analysis above, we can see that Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are conducive to our translating works and it is feasible to apply them into translation practice. By comparing Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories, we know that there are many similarities and differences between them and we can find out that Nida’s functional equivalence is systematic and scientific, while the explanation of Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance is not very clear, and the specific ways to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are not given (Zhang Yimei 2020, 181).

What’s more, from the point of modern translation theories, both Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories are very limited. Their theories are suitable in some fields, while in other fields they are not very proper (Guo Ding 2013, 48). All in all, we should learn from other’s strong points to make up one’s deficiencies to make our translation better and apply them into our translation practice.

====Limitations====

Translation of literary works is a very difficult and demanding thing, which requires a good command of both English and Chinese languages, and an excellent understanding of two cultures. Although the author have spared efforts to do the study, there still exist some limitations. Firstly, the examples of Vanity Fair used in the analysis is very limited, so its generalizability is far from adequate. Secondly, this study is restricted because it only takes one translation version of ''Vanity Fair'' as a case study instead of a comparative study between different translation versions.

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--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 15:03, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==English Translation of 2019 ''Government Work Report'' from the Perspective of Eco-translatology 义子楚 Yi Zichu 202070080618 英语笔译==

===Abstract===
In recent years, with the deepening of the reform and opening up, the ''Government Work Report'' has become China's foreign political communication hub conducive to a better understanding by the international community of the work of the Chinese government. Therefore, how to effectively write the corresponding English version and how to fully convey the message of the government's work is one of the main problems for translators. Eco-translatology is an ecological paradigm and research field which defines that translation is adaptation and selection and highlights multi-dimension transformation. This thesis analyzes the English translation of the ''2019 Government Work Report'' from three perspectives: linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions. It is shown that eco-translatology help improve the quality of the English translation of ''2019 Government Work Report'' .

===Key words=== eco-translatology; ''2019 Government Work Report''; multi-dimension transformation

===摘要===
近年来，随着改革开放的不断深入，《政府工作报告》已变成中国对外政治交流的枢纽，有利于加深国际社会对中国政府工作的了解。因此，如何有效地编写《中国政府工作报告》对应的英文版本，从而全面清晰地解释政府工作的内容是政府对外翻译的主要问题之一。生态翻译理论从生态学视角对翻译进行综观的整体性研究，是一个‘翻译即适应与选择’的生态范式和研究领域。本文主要从生态翻译学的多维翻译理论着手，通过语言维、文化维和交际维三个角度对《2019政府工作报告》的英译版本进行分析。分析显示生态翻译理论较好地解决了政府工作报告中翻译难题，提高了英文翻译的质量。

===关键词===生态翻译学，《政府工作报告》，多维转换理论

===Introduction===
The ''Government Work Report'' of the State Council is a review of the work within a year, which the National People's Congress on the Prime Minister of State Court reports to the National People's Congress and the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, including the task of deployment, and the transmission of the priority tasks. Over the past four decades and since reform and opening up, China's overall political, economic, cultural and military strength has grown steadily, and so has its voice in the world. On the one hand, China is recognized and supported by the international community in economic, political and cultural fields. On the other hand, countries hope to have a deeper understanding of China, strengthen ties with China and realize common development. Due to this, the translation of external publicity is particularly important. Let China know more about the world and let the world know more about China.Cheng Zhenqiu，2003)

As the latest work report of the year, the ''2019 Government Work Report'' is not only a comprehensive summary of the work of the government in 2018, but also a plan for the work of the government in 2019. It covers the latest political, economic, cultural and diplomatic developments in China. Eco-translatology theory, which originated in China, provides a new and unique perspective for translation studies and has made great progress in the past two decades. Through the interpretation of the core concepts of eco-translatology, the essay interprets the report language from the perspectives of vocabulary and syntax, and proposes translation strategies based on language dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension, so as to provide reference for the translation of external publicity materials. In order to understand the Government Work Report accurately, we must be combined with the society and culture of China. （Cheng Zhenqiu，2003）

In order to proves that eco-translation is conductive and practical in the process of translating the Government Work Report and summarizes several useful strategies in translating political texts. Moreover, this thesis analyzes the features of ''Government Work Report'', which provides a clear mind for translators in selecting the proper strategies in translation process of the ''Government Work Report''. The essay includes three chapters. The first part introduces the research background of the study and the significance of the study, and also illustrates the previous research on the translation of ''Government Work Report'' at home and abroad. Chapter two surrounds on the theoretical framework of eco-translatology including adaptation and selection principle and multi-dimensional translation principle. Chapter three, as one of the main chapter of the thesis, analyzes the translation of the 2019 Government Work Report from the perspective of eco-translatology.（Cheng Zhenqiu，2003）

===1.Introduction of Government Work Report===

''Government Work Report'' has the features of com prehension and objection, using the data to tell the achievements of all aspects and obey the practical and realistic rules to implementing the plan. Government Work Report emphasizes on the key point of works which has plain and innovative writing style. As a typical political text, Government Work Report manifests distinctive features. First, we need to understand the characteristics of the words, phrases, and sentences in the report so that we can translate them naturally and logically.(Zhou Ji,2006)

====1.1 Lexical Level ====
For ''Government Work Report'' has its own features at m any levels, it often uses the formal and concise words, terminology and plain words at lexical level. And the new, popular words and words with Chinese characteristics are also employed. Therefore, it is very necessary to pay attention to the features at lexical level when analyzing the Government Work Report.(Zhou Ji,2006)

=====1.1.1Formal and Concise Words=====
The expressions like “认真贯彻”(fully implement), “坚定不移纠正”(take stern action against)are quite formal and not common in colloquial conversation. Some expressions like “砥砺奋进”(forged ahead), “攻坚克难”(overcame difficulties) are quite condensed so that the simplest word can explain more meanings. The Chinese four-word structure characteristic can fully satisfy the need of concision, therefore, there are many this kind of structure occurred in the Government Work Report. (Zhou Ji,2006)

=====1.1.2 Terms with Chinese Characteristics=====
As the ''Government Work Reports'' involve many professional fields like politics, economics, livelihood, medicine and technology. Therefore, terms in different fields are inevitable，such as “半拉子”工程 ( Make sure that projects financed by such debts are not stopped half way.); “河长制、湖长制”( river chiefs and lake chiefs ) ; “革命老区” ( old revolutionary base areas ); “民族地区”( areas with large ethnic minority populations ) ; “携号转网”( keep their numbers and switching carriers ); “厕所革命”( the Toilet Revolution ). These words are all unique terms for China ’s national conditions in recent years. If they are translated literally, it will inevitably lead to differences in the understanding of target language readers. In this case, translators must adapt to the ecological environment.(Zhou Ji,2006)

=====1.1.3 New and Popular Words=====
The new words here refer to the popular expressions of the year. They are widely known by people. The internet and other media are also frequently and widely used, such as “好差评”(government service evaluation system); “互联网+”(Internet Plus); “包干制”(the creation of ceilings in funding that enable the retention of unused funds)”僵尸企业”(zombie enterprises);”大病保险”(serious disease insurance ); “绿色发展”(green development). They are too popular on the Chinese social life to let even the government leaders use them and create new ones.(Zhou Ji,2006)

====1.2 Syntactic Level====
In Chinese, the grammatical subject is always absent in a sentence. In Government Work Report, there have lots of this kind of structure frequently. English is a metamorphic language which requires a large number of logical word clauses to build the integrity of language form and meaning. In English grammar, the subject is inevitable so that it can be a complete sentence. (Zhou Ji,2006)
Eg: “困难不容低估，信心不可动摇，干劲不能松懈。” (The difficulties we face must not be underestimated, our confidence must not be weakened, and the energy we bring to our work must not be allowed to wane.)
It is clear that there is no subject in these sentences. However, it adds “we face” and “we bring to work” as subjects to make foreign readers better understand.

====1.3 Rhetorical Level ====
In terms of the rhetorical devices in Government Work Report, repetition, parataxis, metaphor and personification are the figures of speech most frequently used.(Zhou Ji,2006)

In terms of the rhetorical devices in Government Work Report, repetition, parataxis, metaphor and personification are the figures of speech most frequently adopted. (Zhou Ji,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

=====1.3.1 Repetition and Parataxis=====
Repetition and parataxis structure have the reinforcement effect which make the language of Government Work Report vivid and easy to be understood. Although in Chinese, repetition has both the emphasis and coherence effect, in the translation it is not just repeating one word but also keep the similar linguistic structure.
Eg: “进一步稳就业、稳金融、稳外贸、稳外资、稳投资、稳预期”(take further steps to ensure stable employment, a stable financial sector, stable foreign trade, stable foreign investment, stable domestic investment, and stable expectations)
“获得感、幸福感、安全感”(enable people to feel more satisfied, happy, and secure)
“增进稳增长、促改革、调结构、惠民生、防风”(sustain healthy economic development and maintain social stability)

Metaphor and personification, which seem not fit the formal style of Government Work Report, are actually adopted for certain purpose. A metaphor as a figure of speech identifies something as being the same as some unrelated thing for rhetorical effect, thus highlighting the similarities between the two.

Eg:“我国发展仍处于重要战略机遇期，拥有足够的韧性、巨大的潜力和不断迸发的创新活力” (China is still in an important period of strategic opportunity for development and has ample resilience, enormous potential, and great creativity to unleash. )
“在实际执行中，既要把好货币供给总闸门，不搞 “大水漫灌” (In implementation, we will ensure the valve on aggregate monetary supply is well controlled and refrain from using a deluge of stimulus policies)
“放水养鱼”(an accommodative effect)

Repetition and parataxis structure have reinforced that makes the language of ''Government Work Report'' vivid and easy to be understood. Although in Chinese, repetition has both the emphasis and coherence, in the translation it is not just repeating one word but also keep the similar linguistic structure.
Eg: “进一步稳就业、稳金融、稳外贸、稳外资、稳投资、稳预期”(take further steps to ensure stable employment, a stable financial sector, stable foreign trade, stable foreign investment, stable domestic investment, and stable expectations) “获得感、幸福感、安全感”(enable people to feel more satisfied, happy, and secure) “增进稳增长、促改革、调结构、惠民生、防风”(sustain healthy economic development and maintain social stability) Metaphor and personification, which seem not fit the formal style of Government Work Report, are actually adopted for certain purpose. A metaphor as a figure of speech identifies something as being the same as some unrelated thing for rhetorical effect, thus highlighting the similarities between the two. Eg:“我国发展仍处于重要战略机遇期，拥有足够的韧性、巨大的潜力和不断迸发的创新活力” (China is still in an important period of strategic opportunity for development and has ample resilience, enormous potential, and great creativity to unleash. )“在实际执行中，既要把好货币供给总闸门，不搞 “大水漫灌” (In implementation, we will ensure the valve on aggregate monetary supply is well controlled and refrain from using a deluge of stimulus policies)“放水养鱼”(an accommodative effect)

===2.A Brief Introduction to Eco-translatology===

Eco-translatology as a transdisciplinary approach to eco-translatology studies, is a holistic study of translation using ecological rationality and an ecological perspective. It is considered an ecological paradigm of translation which is adaptation and selection. Translator-centered theory, adaptation and selection, and translation ecological environment are the three core concepts of the theory. The theory requires that the translator's subjective and active role be exerted, and continuous adaptation and choice be made in the translation process to meet the entire translation ecological environment, that is, the harmony between the translator and the original, target, and target language readers. Three-dimensional translation methods such as dimension and communicative dimension to get the original text with higher integration.（Hu Gengshen，2001）

====2.1 Evolution of Eco-translatology====
Eco-translation was firstly generated in the beginning of 21st century. Before it was initiated by scholars in China, there was no such notion in theory. In this sense, it could be seen as a new school which “was built from ground” (Haggas, 2011). Eco-translation looks into translation from a brand new perspective. Therefore, many new terms and concepts are adopted in the relative studies. Both of confusion and contribution present themselves in the foundation of eco-translation. To better understand the theory, we need to figure out the basis on which it is formed

====2.2 Focuses of Eco-translatology====
=====2.2.1 Adaption and Selection=====
The relationship between “adaptation” and “selection” has rarely been discussed before the emergence of “translation adaptation and selection theory”, a basic research of eco-translatology, let alone a special topic, systematic description and explanation. According to the theory of adaptation and selection, translators should make both adaptation and selection. There are choices in adaptation, namely adaptive selection; There is adaptation, or selective adaptation. The specific characteristics of such selective adaptation and adaptive selection are as follows: first, “adaptation” -- translators' adaptation to the ecological environment of translation; The second is “selection” -- the translator carries out the selection of the target text with the “identity” of the translation ecological environment. Translation is described as an alternate cycle of adaptation and selection. The internal relations of this cycle are as follows: “the purpose of adaptation is survival and effectiveness, and the means of adaptation is optimization; and the method of choice is “tide weak stay strong”. The criterion of translation criticism is also expressed from the perspective of “adaptation/selection”. The best choice is adaptive; The best translation is the one with the highest degree of integration, adaptation and selection.(Hu Gengshen，2013）

=====2.2.2 Multi-dimension Transformation=====
Language dimension refers to the translator's emphasis on language level, including word use, language structure, language form and other aspects of translation. “Translators should have a deep understanding of the expression habits and methods of the original language, and choose language forms from different dimensions and perspectives, so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the original language” (Hu Gengshen,2013:57). Translators should avoid word-for-word translation for the formal level of language, and should further combine the target language with the imaginary language ecosystem. In this way, it is helpful to further realize the balance between the ecology of the source language and the ecology of the target language of translation, and provide the readers with a harmonious and thought-provoking translation.(Hu Gengshen，2013）

Cultural dimension is an important translation method for translators to improve the quality of translation and realize the multi-dimensional transformation from different levels. The expression of different languages symbolizes different cultures. Of course there are big differences between the original and the target language culture. In the process of translation, to avoid misunderstanding of the original readers fully, conversion of the translator should try to reproduce the original language cultural ecology system, fully implement the original language ecological balance of ecosystem, and the target language to reproduce the original culture, thought and emotion and so on various aspects of the elements, the correct translation methods dealing with the unique cultural connotation, rich in every country to achieve successful communication and exchanges. Translators should understand the value orientation of the original language and culture and focus on the transformation of cultural connotation to achieve the best translation.(Hu Gengshen，2013）

Adaptive selection of communicative dimension focuses on whether the communicative intention in the original text is successfully realized in translation. If the communicative intention of the original information is not realized, the information processed by the translation will have no meaning at all. Translators pay attention to many aspects and levels, including the transformation of language information and cultural connotation, and at the same time, should pay attention to whether the communicative purpose is successfully achieved in the transformation. By all means, it is forbidden to translate the original text faithfully and ignore the deep connotation of the original text.(Hu Gengshen，2013）

By all means, it is forbidden to translate the original text faithfully and ignore the deep connotation of the original text. In a word, the focus of the multi-dimensional transformation in ecological translation theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation from three aspects of language, culture and communication. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, and the higher the quality of the translation will be. (Hu Gengshen，2013）

===3.E-C Translation of 2019 Government Work Report from an Eco-translatology Perspective===
From the perspective of the eco-translatology theory, the multi-dimensional transformation which includes the linguistics dimensional transformation, culture dimensional transformation and communication dimensional can help translator understand and translate effectively.

====3.1 Linguistic Dimension====
The transformation of linguistic dimension refers to the transformation of linguistic form and structure during the practice of translation so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the target language. English is a hypotaxis language, which focuses on the integrity of sentence structure while Chinese is a paratonic language, whose language form is simple, but often the deep meaning needs the reader to dig. Highly condensed Chinese expressions are often used in government reports(Tong Xiaohua,2006)

Example 1 我们坚持不搞“大水漫灌”式强刺激(We were firm in choosing not to adopt a deluge of strong stimulus policies.) “大水灌溉” is an irrigation method commonly used in Chinese agricultural production which water is poured directly into the ground. Not only does it waste water, but it is also prone to secondary salinization under drought conditions. This term is used to refer to a simple and broad way of working in the process of economic reform. In the Chinese ecological environment, it is not difficult for Chinese readers to understand the meaning of metaphors and related words, so a cognitive model for English readers is needed. In order to adapt to the ecological environment, the translator did not translate the metaphor of “flooding”, but chose to translate the economic structural reform model it represents. This not only adapts to the impact of cognitive context on the English language ecology, but also reduces the difficulty in understanding English readers. (Tong Xiaohua,2006)

Example 2 “增强人民群众获得感、幸福感、安全感”(Enable people to feel more satisfied, happy and secure.) In the Government Work Report, “sense of gain, sense of happiness and sense of security” is people's expectation for a better life, and has become a familiar word in the original language. However, in the process of English translation, the translator does not repeat the word “sense”, but turns these three words into three adjectives, which are concise and clear(Tong Xiaohua,2006)

Example 3 “绿色发展人人有责，贵在行动、成在坚持”(Promoting green development is down to every last one of us; its success hinges on action and commitment.) The translator doesn’t translate “贵在行动、成在坚持” into”its value lies in action and its success hinges on commitment”word by word while take the way of integrating. It is a model that targets economic growth and social development as efficient, harmonious and sustainable. In today's world, green development has become an important trend. Many countries regard green development as an industry and also an important measure to promote economic restructuring, and it is also a highlight. Green development means safety, environmental protection and sustainable development. “Green” often appears on topics related to life, such as “Green Peace” and green food. In traditional Chinese culture, “green” represents wealth, honor or prosperity, which reflects people's hope for a better life. From a linguistic perspective, translators translate “green development” to “green,” which conveys the concept of healthy development in China. It can also be accepted by readers. (Tong Xiaohua,2006)

====3.2 Cultural Dimension====
The transformation of cultural dimension means that the translator should pay attention to the transmission and interpretation of cultural connotation in the process of translation, taking into account the cultural differences of the source language. The ''Government Work Report'' is a summary of the work of the Chinese government in various fields in the past year. The purpose of the report is to let foreign audiences know the content of the report. In particular, the report covers a large number of vocabularies with Chinese characteristics and cultural form. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)

Example 4”双随机，一公开”(Oversight conducted through the random selection of both inspectors and inspection targets and the prompt release of results was implemented nationwide.) It means, during the supervision process, the inspection objects are randomly selected, law enforcement inspectors are randomly selected, and the inspection results and investigation results are made public to the society in a timely manner. If the literal translation is only superficial, the readers of the target language will be confused. In order to solve this cultural difference, the translator added the complete connotation of each phrase to realize the intention of conveying cultural connotation. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)

Example 5 “思危方能居安”(Only alertness to danger will ensure safety.) In Chinese, it means”居安思危，思则有备，有备无患”, which means that even though you are in a peaceful environment, you are aware of the possibility of danger. To be mentally prepared for unexpected events. When translating, the translator takes full account of this difference in thinking and understands it as a literal translation after modern Chinese. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)

Example 6 “是广大干部群众筚路蓝缕、千辛万苦干出来的” (...have been made by our officials and people through perseverance and hard work.) “筚路蓝缕” refers that people drive a simple car, wearing ragged clothes to split the mountains. The use of great hardships in the original text fully reflects the hard-won achievements and presents a very vivid image in front of people. However, for the target language readers, this cultural connotation is missing, therefore, the translator chooses to omit the specific image of “enduring hardships” and directly translate its persistence and diligence, which is more understood and accepted by the target language readers(Tong Xiaohua,2014)

Example 6 “是广大干部群众筚路蓝缕、千辛万苦干出来的” (...have been made by our officials and people through perseverance and hard work.) “筚路蓝缕” refers that people drive a simple car, wearing ragged clothes to split the mountains. The use of great hardships in the original text fully reflects the hard-won achievements and presents a very vivid image in front of people. However, for the target language readers, this cultural connotation is missing, therefore, the translator chooses to omit the specific image of “enduring hardships” and directly translate its persistence and diligence, which is more understood and accepted by the target language readers(Tong Xiaohua,2014)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====3.3 Communicative Dimension====
From the perspective of the essence of translation, the ultimate purpose of translation is to meet the needs of communication between people and achieve smooth communication. The communicative dimension mainly reflects the communication between different languages, with different factors such as the way of expression and the way of construction, etc. Chinese expression cannot find the corresponding words or sentences in English expression. Therefore, the theory of adaptive selection is particularly important in translation practice.(Tong Xiaohua,2014)

Example 7”大班额”问题 (“The problem of oversized classes”)
For western countries, due to different economic development levels and different education systems, the problem of “large class size” is relatively strange to western countries. Therefore, it is necessary to explain the concept of “large class size” in order to achieve the purpose of communication.

Example 8”继续推进保障性住房建设和城镇棚户区改造”(We will continue to build government subsidized housing and rebuild rundown urban areas.)
“保障性住房”is a fixed standard, price or rent housing provided by the government to families with low and middle-income housing difficulties. “Shantytown renovation” is a livelihood project launched by the Chinese government to renovate dilapidated old houses in cities and towns and improve housing conditions for poor families. These are the unique policies of the Chinese government to achieve the comprehensive implementation of poverty alleviation, translators need to adapt to the target language readers to understand the transformation.

Example 9 “加大”破、立、降”力度” (We strengthened work to cut ineffective supply, foster new growth drivers, and reduce costs in the real economy.)
In the sentence, there are only three simple and clear words—”破、立、降”，which is usually seen in the Chinese. It lacks the objects, as we have discussed before, English sentence must be complete. If it is literally translated, the foreign readers will be confused and different meanings will be produced. So due to the purpose of communication, the translator adds the specific objects to be better understood.

In short, the emphasis of three-dimensional translation in eco-translatology theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation of translation from three aspects: language, culture, and communication. Although in the process of translation practice the translator is not limited to multi-dimensional transformation. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, the better the translation will be.(Tong Xiaohua,2014)

===Conclusion===

During the process of translation, many factors should be taken into consideration in order to fit with the actual situations and catch public’s attention quickly. Different languages have their language systems and certain features in expression. As the most important carrier of culture, language can also be regarded as an extremely complex linguistic system. Translation is the process of transforming different cultures. Therefore, both source language and target language’s culture should be considered carefully. As a result, every translator is supposed to think about all the aspects before translating and select the most suitable words and sentence patterns.

Because of its important political status and function, the Government Work Report has its unique linguistic features, such as the use of formal words, four-character words and Chinese characteristic words. The mastery of its language features lays a foundation for the application and analysis of multi-dimensional translation strategies. Aiming at the same word in different parts of the sentence translation, the translator should choose according to the sentences and words in the context. Due to the differences between Chinese and English, translators mainly adopt the translation techniques of free translation or joint translation to deal with the translation of parallel structures. In cultural adaptation in the process of translation, or from the historical allusion and the Chinese characteristic vocabulary and culture, the analysis can be concluded that the Government Work Report (斜体)in English translation does not affect the ecological balance and harmonious between the original language and target language, the translator mainly uses the province translation or free translation skills to deal with allusions. For some corresponding expression in target language vocabulary, they can be directly applied with those unable to find corresponding expression in target language. Finally, translators can use these skills to achieve communicative intention. (Yang Guang,2017)

First of all, we have explained the significance and background of the essay. The preview studies of political texts are also included. In the first chapter, we analyze the characteristics of 2019 Chinese ''Government Work Report'' from three levels and also give specific examples to further explain. In the second chapter, We introduce the concept of eco-translatology and mainly explain the two core theoretical principles of eco-transtology to build the foundation of the essay. In the third chapter, we have discussed the ''Government Work Report'' translation from the perspective of eco-translatology with multi-dimension theory and in this way, we have summarized that eco-translatology can be applied to Government Work Report translation. (Yang Guang,2017)

However, this study still has its limitations. Firstly, the eco-translatology is a new theory which is not systematic and it is a new perspective to the translation of political text, which may not be convincing in the global range of translation areas. Meanwhile, as the Government Work Report is a special political document, the readership is not very wide, so it is difficult to conduct an in-depth investigation on the readers' acceptance, so as to make an in-depth analysis on the shortcomings of the English translation of the Government Work Report. (Yang Guang,2017)

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==A Simple Comparison between Nida and Catford’s Translation Theory of Equivalence - 欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling, 202070080603 MTI英语笔译==
<center>欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling </center>
===Abstract===
Abstract: Nida and Catford shared the same period of translation studies but carried on their studies from different perspectives. Nida put forward two types of equivalence and accordingly some methods to achieve his ideal equivalent response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). His equivalence theory was built on his ideas about nature of translation, which was the process of reproducing in the receptor language the message of source language(Nida, 1964: 12). So Nida tends to provide a new direction which is oriented by the receptors. The nature and task of translation in Nida’s opinion formed a theoretical basis to set the equivalence theory in a comprehensive and systematic way.

Catford, in another way, held a idea that any theory of translation must draw upon a general linguistic theory and therefore presented the equivalence at different linguistic levels between source language and target language(Catford, 1965: 1). In his opinion, the equivalence exists between the categories and the conditions to examine the equivalence lie on the relatable extent with the features of substance. Therefore, Catford’s theories seem to be more of abstract. The paper intends to develop a comparative study upon Nida and Catford’s theory of equivalence and my thoughts on their application in translation practices.

===Key words===
Nida; Cartford; equivalence theory; linguistic theories

===题目===
《论翻译对等理论——奈达与卡特福特比较研究》

===摘要===
奈达和卡特福德在翻译学研究中处于同一时期，但二人开展的研究却是基于于不同的角度。奈达提出了两种对等类型，并提出了相应的策略以达到他理想的对等状态，即使译文接受者获得与原文接受者相同的反应（芒迪, 2008: 42）。他的对等理论建立在他关于翻译本质的观点之上，即在接受语中再现源语信息的过程（奈达, 1964: 12）。因此奈达提供了一种以译文接受者为导向的新研究方向，并基于对翻译的性质和任务的界定构成了对等理论的理论基础。

另一方面，卡特福德认为任何翻译理论都必须借鉴一般语言学理论，因此提出了源语言和目的语在不同语言层面上的对等（卡特福德, 1965: 1）。他认为对等是通过范畴表现出来，而判断对等的条件就是原文和译文中各个范畴特性的相关性，因此卡特福特的理论似乎更具抽象性。本文旨在对奈达和卡特福德的对等理论进行比较研究，并对二者在翻译实践中的应用进行思考。

===关键词===

奈达；卡特福德；对等理论；语言学理论

===1.Introduction===

====1.1.Nida’s Theory of Equivalence====
Nida’s translation theories were formed along with the process of his translating the ''Bible''. Through the reflection upon these translation practices, he defined the nature of translation and pointed out the task of translators. Afterwards, he discarded the old term such as “literal”, “free” and “faithful” translation by putting forward the theory of equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42) . The equivalence in Nida’s theory can be achieved at two levels: formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. The two approaches were put forward to realize his ideal translation that equivalent effect between source language receptors and target language receptors(Munday, 2008: 42).

By bringing the two concepts up, Nida provided two directions when working on a translation work as well as standards of evaluating the work after it was done. Specifically, formal equivalence in Nida’s definition is the status of translation being equivalent with the source text in both contents and forms. To achieve this status, translators should be oriented towards the source text’s message and structure. And dynamic, or functional equivalence, turned further to a new focus on the response of receptor. If the target language receptors react to the translation in the same way as source language receptors do to the source text, the success of a translation is then achieved in Nida’s functional equivalence theory(Munday, 2008: 42).

His theory put forward a new trend of translation studies at that time. Nida’s equivalence theory directed people to evaluate a translation by judging and comparing the response of receptors in stead of considering the correctness and accuracy of translation or comparing the formal and stylistic features between source language and target language. In a comprehensive and systematic way, Nida’s equivalence theory elaborated the approaches and the ideal status of translation based on his understanding on the nature of translation, and this equivalence theory has always been praised as his greatest achievement in translation studies(Munday, 2008: 42).

====1.2.Cartford’s Theory of Equivalence====
Catford’s translation theories were built on the discipline of linguistics, and his equivalence theory was included of course. Catford stated in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' that the theory of translation is concerned with a certain type of relation between languages and is consequently a branch of Comparative Linguistics(Catford, 1965: 20). His theory of equivalence was also originated from his definition of the nature of translation, which is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language( Catford, 1965: 20).

In his opinion, in the process of translation, translators are supposed to replace every grammatical and lexical items in the source language with equivalents in the target language. So in this way, the equivalence in Catford’s theory can be graded into different levels according to the extent of the replacement, and then he put forward the distinction of full translation and partial translation. Moreover, he raised another pair of concepts: textual equivalence and formal corresponding, and it may give a clearer picture for us to understand his theory( Catford, 1965: 20).

If the target language text can be judged by bilinguals or linguists equivalent with the source language text in any given discourse or occasion, the textual equivalence is achieved. As regards the formal corresponding, Catford defined it as an approximate status when any target language category occupies, as nearly as possible, in the same place in the structure of the target language as the given source language category occupies in the source language. This pair of concepts presented two different degrees of equivalence and have become a valuable source in translation studies(Catford, 1965: 20).

===2.Similarities and Differences===

====2.1.The Similarities between the Two Theories====
As representatives of the linguistic school of western translation theory, Nida and John Catford's translation theories try to analyze and describe translation more objectively, accurately and scientifically from the linguistic level. The influence of linguistics was exerted in both of their equivalence theory. Also, some translation methods were put forward based on the linguistic level by them. Besides, the approach to achieve the equivalence upheld by Nida and Catford was similar. They tended to depart from the previous word-for-word or literal translation methods and promoted a natural closeness of target text with the source text. Since they held a similar idea that absolute equivalence in translating is never possible, the approach in their view to achieve the equivalence turned out be moderate and flexible(Nida, 1984: 14).

=====2.1.1.The Influence of Linguistics in Both Theories=====
Nida was considered as a representative of communicative theory school, and therefore, he built his equivalence theory based on the communicative purpose. Basically, in the view of Nida, translation can be seen as a communicative activity and the transformation of linguistic form is necessary. From this the influence of Chomsky's linguistics, especially his transformational-generative grammar. Nida believes that Chomsky's transformational-generative view of on language is of great importance to the process of translation(Munday, 2008: 40).

Specifically, the transformational-generative was used for Nida to describe the process of translation, which includes the grammar analysis, transferring and restructuring and the reproducing the information of source text. Chomsky’s generative–transformational model was incorporated in the description of translation process by Nida and, at the same time, it provides the basis of his building of dynamic equivalence, as a component of “the science of translation” in his eyes(Munday, 2008: 40).

Similarly, the influence of Chomsky’s linguistic theories can also be found in Catford’s theory in the following aspects. Firstly, as is defined by Catford, translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language, and here the definition claims that there is sometimes no entire translation but a simple replacement by textual material at one or more levels of language. To be specific, the replacement between source language and target language may be at grammar or lexis levels(Catford, 1965: 20).

Secondly, through his classifications of translation in terms of the extent, levels and ranks, Catford actually gives some standards to discuss the nature of translation equivalence, and these concepts are presented based on the linguistic knowledge. For example, the distinction between full and partial is related to the extent of source text which is submitted to the translation process, and the extent may involve linguistic elements, such as lexical items. The same case occurs in the definitions of total and restricted translation, in which phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are all considered as the elements when estimating the replacement(Li Yang, 2014: 94).

=====2.1.2.The Approach to Achieving Equivalence=====
The key role played by Nida is to point the road away from strict word-for-word equivalence.His introduction of the concepts of formal and dynamic equivalence was crucial in introducing a receptor-based orientation to translation theory(Munday, 2008: 40).

He also divided meaning into linguistic meaning, referential meaning and emotive meaning. Furthermore, several techniques such as hierarchical structuring, componential analysis and semantic structure analysis were presented to analyse the structure of words and differentiating similar words in related lexical fields. The classification of the three meanings and aided translation techniques serve as crucial elements in the mechanism of back-transformation presented by Nida. By the application of back-transformation, the surface structure of the source text is analyzed into the basic elements of the deep structure; these elements are transferred in the translation process into the deep structure of the receptor language and then restructured semantically and stylistically into the surface structure of the target text(Munday, 2008: 40).

The similar approach pointed out by Catford is translation shift, which consists of two major types: level shifts and category shifts. Catford made a distinction in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation between textual equivalence and formal correspondence''. Furthermore, textual equivalence refers to the specific relationship of the source text and translated text while formal correspondence is presented and defined based on the systematic concepts of both source and receptor languages. Since the differences between the two concepts are obvious, the occurrence of translation shift is inevitable(Li Zhidan, 2014:93).

Therefore, by presenting the translation shifts, Catford meant to depart from formal correspondence in the process of going from source language to target language, which means, in a sense, he wanted to achieve the status of equivalence through the approach. In other words, level shifts and categories are presented as some techniques in the process of translation, which can be regarded as similarity when compared to Nida’s theory described above(Catford, 1965: 73).

====2.2.The Differences between the Two Theories====
Before comparing the two theories in terms of the following points, we should make it clear that the development of the two equivalence theories were started with the views of translation nature. Nida and Catford put forward their understandings toward the nature of translation, and, consequently, the central problem of translation practice and the central task of translators were proposed. In Nida’s view, translation is to reproduce information of the original text and exert the same feeling of the receptors with the source language readers(Munday, 2008: 42).

Based on this receptors-oriented and text-centered principle, his equivalence theory turns to be more dynamic because the readers’ response, which is the essential factor to examine, occurs only in the process of the transferring of information. In other words, the behavior of encoding and decoding is a must once the equivalence is achieved. The equivalence in Catford’s view, by contrast, which lies in the internal structure of linguistics, turns out to be more static. The nature of translation given by Catford is the replacement of equivalent textual material between two languages(Catford, 1965: 20).

By saying textual material, he held the idea that equivalence only occurs within the language and through its categories. The context of language and the components of linguistics including phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are considered as elements to examine the equivalence. And in this case, the equivalence between the source text and target text is to be realized by the equivalence of contextual features of both the source and target languages. Catford’s theory of equivalence, in this sense, differed from Nida’s theory by research methods(Catford, 1965: 22).

=====2.2.1.Different Conditions of Equivalence=====
Functional equivalence described by Nida put a great emphasis on communicative effect of translation. He believed if the communication can be created between the source text and its receptors, the equivalent effect should be made when the translated text was presented in front of its receptors. Therefore, the comparison of receptors’ response between source language and target language would be necessary when it comes to the conditions of Nida’s equivalence theory. Besides, the meaning and style of the both texts should also be analyzed in a comparative way because this two factors are very influential in the formulating of receptors’ response. (Munday, 2008: 42)

Firstly, by the division of formal equivalence and functional equivalence by Nida, he tried to generalize the two types of equivalence that focused respectively on the faithfulness and closeness of the receptor language with the source language in both from and the equivalent response. Thus, the conditions to achieve formal equivalence may include accuracy and correctness of translation, which is determined by the approximation to source text structure. Furthermore, Nida put forward “four basic requirements of a translation” as the conditions to examine the achieving of equivalent response, which are making sense, conveying the spirit and manner of the original, having a natural and easy form of expression, producing a similar response. These requirements were generalized to be the conditions of a success of translation. (Munday, 2008: 42)

Since Catford defines translation equivalence as the empirical phenomenon, he discussed the conditions of translation equivalence by specific points within the context of sentences. First, the equivalence from his view is between categories including grammar, lexis, phonology and contextual meanings. From this we can know the same meaning at a linguistic level is hard to be achieved between source language and target language.From this we can know that it's difficult to achieve the same meaning at a linguistic level between source language and target language. In this case, he describe a condition by pointing out a concept of total translation, in which the texts or items in source language and target language are interchangeable in a given situation(Catford, 1965: 49).

In this way, he presented a new condition to evaluate equivalence. Based on this, he further his discussion on total translation by examining the overlapping contextual meanings in the items of source language and target language. He claimed contextual meanings include relationship to certain situational features, a more abstract and broad way to discuss equivalence. Therefore, another condition of equivalence was described as the overlapping extent of situational features common to the contextual meanings. To conclude, Catford classified the conditions of equivalence on different scopes of translation. In the process of evaluating the equivalence in total translation, phonological translation or graphological translation, the examining of the relatable features between source text and target text should be made(Catford, 1965: 49).

=====2.2.2.Different Classifications of Equivalence=====
Since Nida and Catford held different views on the conditions required to achieve the equivalence, they classified translations from different perspective. Nida raised a classification of two types of equivalence: formal equivalence and functional equivalence. These two types actually reflect a shallow to deep tendency of Nida's researches on structure of language. Nida believed that different languages should have the same deep structure and the same functions between languages lead to equivalence in translation. In his view, the functional equivalence occurs when the response of target language receptors is as same as possible the response of source language receptors(Munday, 2008: 42).

In describing equivalence, Nida pointed out that the correspondence between the original form and the target form should not be excessively pursued in translation. Instead, attention should be focused on accurately conveying the meaning of the original text in a natural way. By this dynamic equivalence theory ,Nida paved a road away from the static mode of focusing on the comparison of texts. He believed that only when the target receptors understand the translation thoroughly, the same response can be achieved, and this is the main task of translation. Therefore, Nida’s classification was based on the specific situation in which the receptors communicate with the texts(Munday, 2008: 43).

In Catford’s view, translation is the replacement of textual material. From this definition, he actually drew a line between source language and target language because by textual material he meant to point out that there would be no entire translation of meaning. In his words, at one or more levels of language there may be simple replacement by non-equivalent target language material(Catford, 1965: 20).

Based on this, Catford classified translation into categories in terms of the extent, levels and ranks. Full translation and partial translation are divided by the extent of parts replaced in the process of translation. This two concepts are maybe the basic components of his later presenting of formal correspondence. In his view, formal correspondence is an approximate status in which categories cannot be replaced totally in another language. And by dividing total translation and restricted translation, he intended to involve the replacement of grammar and lexis and consequential replacement of phonology and graphology in his definition. All of these classification provide certain perspective to evaluate the translation and help to create a structure when analyzing the language. In a word, the classifications by Catford was built in the internal language(Catford, 1965: 20).

=====2.2.3.Different Research Approaches=====
To some extent, the research method employed by Nida and Catford was shaped under the guidance of different linguistic theories. Guided by the transformational-generative grammar by Chomsky, Nida analyzed the structure of language and put forward the back-transformation theory that entails the transferring of surface structure to deep structure between source language and target language(Munday, 2008: 38). So the research methods adopted by Nida turns to be more flexible and have a focus on dynamic factor when discussing equivalence. Since Nida's translation theories were built up consciously to serve the research on the translation of ''Bible'', his theories may have distinctive features in guiding the translation practices(Munday, 2008: 38).

In another aspect, Nida held a view that "meaning is universal" and emphasized the common ground between languages, which reflect in his equivalence theory, information conveyed by meaning is the focus To be specific, the equivalence can only be examined during the communication of these information between texts and receptors. Oriented by this communicative principle, Nida therefore took the reader's response as the standard to evaluate the translation. In a word, Nida described the equivalence and its mechanism in a developing process, during which the texts, context and receptors are performing their dynamic role. In a word, Nida’s carried out its study by the method of dynamic comparison, and through his discussion of receptor-oriented principle, his theories greatly contribute to the later translation practices(Munday, 2008: 38).

By contrast, in the process of Catford’s research on equivalence, the system-functional linguistics by Halliday was incorporated. The substance, form and context Language, which are the three basic levels in Halliday’s theory (Halliday, 2004: 16), constitute the categories of Catford’s equivalence theory. Moreover, language was defined by Catford as a patterned behavior and this behavior is casually related to various other features of the situation in which it occurs(Catford, 1965: 2).

Therefore, in terms of research methods, Catford carried out his comparative study mostly from the static and fixed perspective of language. Most of the examples he took are words, phrases and sentences, which are the units of language. He pay little attention to the dynamic context and receptors’ reaction. In describing the formal correspondence, he also held a view that categories of every language is defined in terms of relations holding within the language. In this way, his research methods seem to be more static and fixed in the internal structure of language. Due to the static traits, Catford’s theories may be properly used for reference in academic study on languages because his theories exactly provide a macro framework(Catford, 1965: 27).

===3.My Thoughts on the Two Theories===

====3.1.My Thoughts on Nida’s Theory====

=====3.1.1Strengths and Contributions of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====
In my view, there are many strengths and contributions of Nida’s translation equivalence theory. Firstly, Nida’s research integrated multiple disciplines, which means he set up his theory on a strong basis and it has convincing examples and explanations from various perspectives. The development of Nida’s translation theory can be generally divided into three stages: the stage of descriptive linguistics, the stage of communicative theory and the stage of social semiotics. Nida also developed its equivalence theory from formal equivalence, dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence along with the three stages(Tan, 2017: 132).

Secondly, Nida’s equivalence theory is of significance in training translators, guiding translation practice and more importantly, his functional equivalence offers approaches to studying the communication between the cultures of source language and target language. Nida emphasized the importance of translator's initiative in the translation process because he put forward a principle of equivalent effect. This effect cannot be formulated within the language or items of a text, but through the subjective activities of translators.Therefore, Nida's functional equivalence and dynamic equivalence have offered a guidance to the translators to consider the needs of the target receptors, and to convey the message of source language into the expression that conforms to the habits of the target language(Nida, 1964: 159).

=====3.1.2.Deficiency of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====
Nida’s functional equivalence was mainly applied to the translation of the ''Bible'' , and the criterion of the ''Bible'' translation in his view is to convey the will of God faithfully. Therefore, the translation theory may tend to emphasize on the content rather than the form. For this reason, the range of its application may be limited. For example, when it comes to the translation of poetry that has its own aesthetic value in its form, people cannot simply discuss and analyze it according to Nida’s equivalence theory(Munday, 2008: 38).

What’s more, in Nida’s theory, equivalence is oriented by the response of receptors. However, sometimes, the equivalent effect between source language readers and target language readers is hard to achieve because receptors of different cultures may have different responses. And translation is actually a cross-cultural communication through the translators, who may have their own translation purpose, preference and expressions, so the equivalent effect is also restricted by the difference of translators(Munday, 2008: 42).

====3.2.My Thoughts on Catford’s Theory====

=====3.2.1.Strengths and Contributions of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====
Catford developed his equivalence by going deep into internal system of language. In my opinion, the most important strength of his theory is that he built the equivalence theory in a complete set of linguistic model, which provides a scientific and systematic theory. By introducing broad types of translation respectively according to extent, levels and ranks, he present new categories to discuss the nature of translation and the task of translators. By describing the translation shifts, he made a distinction of formal correspondence and translation equivalence and explained the conditions when equivalence occurs. Furthermore, since Catford believed there is no “total” translation in a strict way for the replacement by all equivalents at all levels can never be achieved, he sought to avoid the rigid trend toward the absolute equivalence and developed his theory in a more scientific and mature wayCaford, 1965:22).

====3.2.2.Deficiency of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory====
Firstly, Catford carried out his research on the structural transformation of the source language and target language simply from the perspective of linguistics. The equivalence in his view is between textual materials, and this equivalence can be achieved at one or more categories in the materials. Therefore, his theory is also limited and underestimates the influence of subjective activities of translators(Wang, 2008: 166).

Secondly, Catford did not pay enough attention to the cross-cultural factors in translation. On his discussion on the limits of translatability, he even pointed out that it may be not necessary to distinguish linguistic untranslatability from cultural untranslatability for the cultural untranslatability may be just caused by the impossibility of finding a equivalent collocation in the target language. This shows he explained the cultural within a linguistic category. I think the translation involves more than language itself or the substituting of lexical terms and grammars, but also cultural elements. Therefore, the research method of Carford’s theory is rather incomplete(Catford, 1965: 101).

===4.Conclusion===
In conclusion, the two theories are developed based on two types of equivalence. Nida presented formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence while Catford put forward formal correspondence and textual equivalence. The two theories share some points in their theoretical basis and approach to achieving equivalence. Besides, Nida and Catford also have their own understanding on the nature of translation and the main task for translators, so they had a distinctive research method in building up their theories especially in the classification of equivalence and the description of conditions. Supported by various theories from other disciplines, the two theories were set up in a systematic way possessing many strengths in such aspects as innovative perspective and scientific research method. However, it need to be emphasized that the two kinds of translation theory should be discussed and evaluated in a critical way and the analysis should be made on the scope of their application(Munday, 2008: 42; Catford, 1965: 27).

===References===

Catford, John Cunnison 卡特福德 (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' 《翻译的语言学理论》. London: Oxford University Press 伦敦：牛津大学出版社.

Halliday, M. A. K. 韩礼德, and C. Matthiessen 马蒂恩森 (2004). ''An Introduction to Functional Grammar''《功能语法导论》. London: Edward Arnold 伦敦：爱德华·阿诺德出版社.

Li, Yang 李杨 (2014). 《纵观翻译等值——卡特福德、奈达比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida.'' 天津商务职业学院学报''Journal of Tianjin College of Commerce'', 第2卷第1期 Vol. 2, No. 1 , 93-95.

Li, Zhidan 李志丹 (2014). 《卡特福德和奈达“对等”翻译理论思辨》 ''Comparing Catford and Nida's Translation Theory of “Equivalence Theory”'' 哈尔滨学院学报 ''Journal of Harbin University'', 第35卷第6期 Vol. 35 No. 6, 93-95.

Munday, Jeremy芒迪 (2008). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' 《翻译学导论：理论与实践》. London ; New York : Routledge 伦敦；纽约：劳特利奇出版社.

Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达, and Charles Russell Taber 泰伯, eds 著(2004). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' 翻译理论与实践. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海：上海外语教育出版社.

Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达 (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating'' 《翻译的科学探索》. Leiden: Brill Archive 莱顿：博睿学术出版社.

Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达. (1984). ''Approaches to Translating in the Western World'' 《西方世界的翻译方法》, 《外语教学与研究》 ''Foreign Language Teaching and Research'', 1984年第2期, 9-15.

Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜 (2017). ''Translation Studies'' 翻译学. Shnghai: Fudan University Press. 上海：复旦大学出版社.

Wang, Ning 汪宁 (2008). 《论翻译中的等值——卡特福德、奈达和巴斯耐特比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford, E.A Nida and Susan Bassnett''. 科技信息 ''Science & Technology Information'', 2008年第三期, 2008(3), 166.

--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 14:46, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Comparision between the traslation systems proposed by Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing 石海瑶 Shi Haiyao 202070080605 英语笔译==
<center>石海瑶 Shi Haiyao 20207080605</center>

===Abstract===
The structure of a discipline can not only enhance people's overall understandings to the discipline, but also plays a guiding role in its development. Since the 21st century, the study of translatology in China has entered a new stage of development and the construction of the system of translatology has received extensive attention. In September 2005, ''A Series of Translation Studies in China'' was written by Professor Tan Zaixi, which theoretically constructed the internal and external structure of translatology. Later in October 2009, Dr. Yi Jing constructed a relatively macro structure of translatology in his PhD dissertation, ''On the Construction of the System of Translatology''. This paper first gives a brief overview of these two systems of translatology and then makes a comparative analysis of their similarities and differences from multiple perspectives. Finally, the author puts forward its own thoughts on this two systems of translatology.

===Key words===
Tan Zaixi; Yi Jing; systems of translatology; comparative analysis

===摘要===
一个学科的体系构建不仅能够促进人们对学科的全方位了解，还能引领该学科的发展。21世纪以来,我国译学研究进入新的发展时期，译学体系构建广受关注。2005年9月，谭载喜教授著《翻译学》，从理论上构建了翻译学的内部和外部框架。2009年10月，易经博士在其毕业论文《试论翻译学体系的构建》中构建了一个较为宏观的翻译学体系框架。本文首先对这两大翻译学体系进行简要概述，之后从多个角度对二者的相似点和不同之处作出对比分析。最后，作者提出本人对这两大翻译学体系的思考和认识。

===关键词===
谭载喜；易经；翻译体系；对比分析

===Introduction===

====Tan Zaixi’s Translation System====

In his book ''A Series of Translation Studies in China'', Tan Zaixi put forward his views on the internal structure of translatology. He deemed that translatology can be divided into three parts: general translatoloty, special translatology and applied translatology. In a more specific sense, translatology should not only include a macroscopic discussion of translation, but also cover a specialized study of bilingual translation as translation (interlingual translation) is the conversion from one language to another (Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). The former of which has theoretical value and helps people understand the essence of translation; the latter has practical value and contributes to guiding translation practice.(Tan Zaixi, 2005:21)

Specifically, the research content of general translatology contains the following four aspects: Firstly, study the human language, culture and the general rules of translation; Secondly, study the general process of translation and the status of translation in the whole scientific system as well as the relationship between translation and other disciplines; Thirdly, discuss the nature, function and standard of translation as well as the general responsibilities and conditions of translators from a macro perspective; Fourthly, investigate the history of translation from the perspective of synchronic and diachronic translation studies (including not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation). Differing from general translation, the study of special translation includes three aspects: Firstly, study the specific problem of mutual translation between two languages; Secondly, make a comparison between the two languages and cultures; Thirdly, put forward theories that can guide translation between two specific languages. Moreover, applied translatology is directly related to translation practice, which covers two aspects: On the one hand, it studies how to apply theories of general translatology and special translatology to translation practice, translation teaching, translation criticism, compilation of translation reference books and machine translation; On the other hand, it aims to explain the purposes, functions, standards procedures and methods of translation as well as their interrelations on a micro level.(Tan Zaixi, 2005:21)

In fact, the above three parts of translatology are closely linked and inseparable that knowledge of special translatology and applied transltology are the foundation of studying general translatology, in turn, the knowledge of general translatology can also guide the study of special translatology. Thus, we can see both general translatology and special translatology need to conduct further research into applied translatology and obtain feedback information from the practical application of the theories so as to continuously develop and improve the theories. (Tan Zaixi, 2005:22)

From the above explanation, the diagram of Tan Zaixi's system of translatology can be drawn as following:

[[File:Tan Zaixi.jpg]]

====Yi Jing’s Translation System====
According to Yi Jing’s thoughts, the system of translatology should include: introduction of translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). These five parts constitute the organic system of translatology. IT helps people to form a relatively basic and comprehensive understandings of the macro system of translatology, it is the foreshadowing and general outline of the system of translatology, taking the concrete question research as the main body. In terms of the TTH, TTI, TTP and MTT, their relationship is complementary, mutual influence and mutual support, which together constitute the organic wholeness of the macro system of translatology(Yi Jing, 2009:197).

The IT can be divided into the following five aspects: Firstly, the foundation of translatology. By reviewing the development of Chinese and foreign translation practice and theory, the necessity of the construction of translatology are explained. Since there is no consensus on the independent status of translatology, this part needs to be included in the IT. If the independent discipline status of translatology is widely recognized in the future, this part can be omitted. Secondly, the value of translation, that is, the role of translation at different levels. Generally speaking, the value of translation involves the individual value, social value, ideological and cultural value, literary value and language value of translation. Thirdly, translation practice as well as the nature, definition and position of translatology. In addition, the object, basic task, purpose, research method and research status of translatology, and the basic structure of translation system are also introduced accordingly. The core research object of translatology is the practice of bilingual conversion. The main task is to explore the development of translation practice and translation theory, and to reveal the historical context of translation development. The purpose of translatology research is to sum up history, study the present, promote the translation research and practical work at present and in the future, and to a certain extent, promote the spiritual and cultural construction of human beings. The basic research method of translatology is based on empirical description and combined with principle. The research status of translatology mainly includes the development of translation practice and translation studies in various periods of history, the schools of translation studies and the representative figures and theories of various schools, the main or popular topics in translatology and the development direction of translation studies. At last, the basic characteristics of translatology. Eg. stability and openness, comprehensive integrity and discipline independence. Generally speaking, the IT is a comprehensive and general description of translatology, and an introduction to the whole system of translatology(Yi Jing, 2009:198-200).

The TTH mainly focuses on the development of translation practice and translation theory, and also discusses the development of translation history theory itself. There are five important branches of TTH: introduction of TTH, history of translation practice, history of translation theory, thematic history and meta-theory of TTH. The introduction is a general descriptive branch of TTH, which generally describes translation history theory; the study of history of translation practice covers the study of general history and dynastic history; the exploration of the history of translation theory and the collation of the formation of translatology are very necessary for people to understand the development of translation theory and translatology itself, and play an instructive role in today's translation research; the thematic history involves the study of translators, translation works, history of translatology, translation history and culture, translation institution history, translation teaching history and so on; the meta-theory of TTH studies translation history theory itself, that is, the development and research situation of TTH itself(Yi Jing, 2009:200-215).

The TTI consists of the general theory and the specific theory. The general theory refers to the fundamental viewpoint of translation practice, it is a theoretical branch of studying the fundamental principles of translation practice as well as the understanding of the most universal, general and basic principles of translation practice. The specific theory involves a series of basic problems derived from the general theory, it covers a wide range of aspects, including transltion’s meaning, translation’s standard, methodology, process, style, subject, types and so forth.(Yi Jing, 2009:215-268).

The TTP refers to the applied research of translation theory, which is the concrete application and confirmatory research of translation theory in practical activities. It is mainly divided into three aspects: practical analysis, translation criticism and translation teaching. Practical analysis is to prove the correctness of the existing theory with examples, and to illustrate the applicability of the theory, it can produce three kinds of results, that is, complete application, partial application and complete inadaptability. The main task of translation criticism is to evaluate the translation process and its translated works. The third branch is the teaching of translation, it discusses how to apply the basic knowledge of translation to translation teaching and language teaching, so as to cultivate students' language ability, translation practical ability and translation theory level. (Yi Jing, 2009:268-281).

The MTT is a theory formed by studying the discipline of translatology itself. Its research object is the theoretical system and discipline group of translatology, which should include at least the following eight branches: (1) the regularity, rationality and validity of the description of translation, including terms, concepts, propositions, etc; (2) the research object, function, nature and status of discipline, theoretical structure, logical category, progressive standard and the research method of translatology itself; (3) the way of forming the theory of translatology and the different research paradigms, which reveal the deep-seated structure, internal contradiction and development rule of the translatology hidden from the theory of translation; (4) The principles that should be followed in the construction of the theory of translatology; (5) The role of social and cultural conditions in the emergence and development of translation theories and methods in a certain historical context; (6) The study of the community of translatology, the identification of various academic groups, the analysis of the influence of these groups and their connections on translation theory; (7) Applying basic meta-theory categories to identify and summarize the current situation of translation theory, and to reveal the major theoretical problems in translation studies; (8) Other issues concerning the examination of translatology itself(Yi Jing, 2009:281-287).

From the above explanation, the diagram of Yi jing’s system of translatology can be drawn as following:
[[File:shihaiyao.jpg]]

The translations of the above terms are as following:

[[File:Shu Yu.jpg]]

===Similarities and Differences===

====The Similarities between the Two systems====

=====Both deem translatology as an independent discipline=====

In 1951, Dong Qiusi published ''On the Construction of Translation Theory'' , which clearly put forward the idea of establishing translatology. In 1987, the first national seminar on translation theory was held, which unfolded a new era of the construction of translatology in China. Tan Zaixi came up with the slogan of establishing translatology in his paper ''Translatology must be established'', which triggered extraordinary response. Whether translation can become an independent discipline has been heated discussed in translation circles.

From the above descriptions, we can see that both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing have a strong consciousness and a clear orientation of discipline towards translatology. Tan Zaixi holds the view that translatology is a science to study translation, which is an essential communicative activity of human beings. It has its own rules, which can be categorized, summarized and described by scientific methods, and can serve the communicative activities of human beings. According to Yi Jing, the formation of the independent discipline status of translatology is the inevitable result of the historical accumulation of translation practice and translation theory as well as an urgent requirement for the development of the whole translation field to modern and contemporary times.

It is based on the consensus that translatology is an independent discipline that Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward their own views on the construction of the system of translatology. Therefore, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that translation is an independent discipline, which is the first similarity of their system of translatology.

=====Both define bilingual conversion as object of translation=====

In the 1950s, from the perspective of semiotics, Jakobson divided translation into three categories according to different language signs: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. Intralingual translation refers to that to explain other verbal symbols using original language symbols in the same language field. Interlingual translation refers to the translation between two different languages, and Intersemiotic translation refers to the translation that to explain verbal symbols by using non-verbal symbols.

For this theory, Tan Zaixi pointed out in his translation system that translation (specifically refers to intralingual translation) is a plural and theoretical perspective of switching from one language to another(Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). It indicates that Tan Zaixi's views on object of translation practice is bilingual conversion. Yi Jing also suggested that the specific research object of translatology is bilingual conversion and some phenomena related to bilingualism(Yi Jing, 2009:132).

Therefore, it is obvious that the two systems insist that the object of translatology is bilingual conversion.

=====Both identify comprehensive faithfulness as standard of translation=====
The discussion about standards of translation has always been a hot spot in the translation circles, which is the core problem and key task of translation theory. Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing reach an agreement that the standard of translation should be based on sufficient translation practice. Tan Zaixi proposed that the general standard of translation is that "all translations must be faithful to the original text". Taking this abstract standard as the premise, a series of specific standards can be produced, such as "faithful to the original content ", " faithful to the original form ", " faithful to the original effect ", " faithful to the original function" and so on, which serve different purposes(Tan Zaixi, 2005:38). And Yi Jing believed that "comprehensive faithfulness to content, form and style" is the highest standard of translation and the most ideal condition of translation(Yi Jing, 2009:239).

As mentioned above, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that the standard of translation is comprehensive faithfulness. To elaborate it, they also list different aspects of faithfulness, which can be adjusted to specific requirements according to different text types, whereas there is consensus on the core idea of faithfulness.
Next, I will explore the differences between the two translation systems.

====The differences between the Two Translation Systems====

=====Different structures of translation system=====

From the above diagram of Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing’s system of translatology, we can know that Tan Zaixi’s system of transltology merely includes three parts, that is general translatology, special translatology and applied translatology. The research contents of each part are not clearly distinguished and classified, especially the definition of general translation and special translation is vague, which should be further discussed. In contrast to the system of Yi Jing, he divided it into five parts, that is introduction of the translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). For these five parts, Yi Jing clearly illustrated the branches of each part, and its division is rigorous, each branch forms a logical and well-connected system, leaving people a refreshing impression. Moreover, this system exploratory and open, Yi Jing suggested that he holds a welcoming attitude to other systems of translatology, and it can not be assumed arbitrarily that the system is more comprehensive and profound than others.

Thus, we get to know that Tan Zaixi’s system of translatology is more general and rough, while Yi Jing’s is more systematic and inclusive.

=====Different views on the study of translation history=====

Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward different views on the study of translation history. In Tan Zaixi's translation system, the general translation refers to the history of translation, that is, to study the history of translation from the perspective of diachronic and synchronic translatology, which includes not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation(Tan Zaixi, 2005:21). While in Yi Jing’s system of translatology, one of the five branches of TTH mentioned: the study of translation history can be multi-angle and multilevel. From the time span of the study, translation can either be general or dynastic; it can study the translation history of translators and different text genres, or discipline translation history, such as literary translation history, scientific translation history and religious translation history(Yi Jing, 2009:211).

we can know that Tan Zaixi's study of translation history is more macroscopic, which based on different countries, different regions and different historical periods, while the study of translation history of Yi Jing is more specific and detailed, taking translators and various literary genres into account, in addition, he proposed that vertical comparison and horizontal comparison can be used in these factors, reaching almost every aspect of the issue.

=====Different views on translation process=====

For the process of translation, Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing presented their views. Tan divided the process of translation into two types, namely, psychological process and practical operation process. Psychological process is the embodiment of human brain receiving and transforming information, but Tan did not put forward specific steps for practical operation process, which is still open to question. In Yi Jing’s system of translatology, the translation process theory is mentioned in the second branch of the TTI. Yi Jing thought that the translation process can be divided into broad sense and narrow sense. The process of translation in a broad sense includes the selection of the original text, the preparation before translation, the specific translation process, the refinement of the translation and the process of testing and evaluating the translation; the narrow sense refers to the process from reading and understanding the original text to finalizing the translation(Yi Jing, 2009:253).

From the above descriptions, we can see that they define the translation process from different angles. Tan Zaixi divides the translation process into two aspects: psychology and practical operation, while the study of translation process proposed by Yi Jing is more multi-angle, and its broad translation process is not only confined to the process itself, but more comprehensive.

===My Thoughts on the Two Systems===

====My Thoughts on Tan Zaixi’s Translation System====

=====Contributions of Tan’s Translation System=====

First of all, Tan Zaixi's construction of translation system has laid solid foundation on some basic pioneering works of translatology. The establishment of basic concepts and categories is the basic work of discipline construction. Before the publication of A Series of Translation Studies in China, the art theory and science theory of translation and whether translation can become a science were the focus of scholars in the translation circles, but the polysemous word "translatology" is not defined. Thus, two different concepts were confused, that is translation and translatology, they discusses two different levels of problems, and emphasizes on personal reasons in a one-side way, resulting in two incompatible theories of translatology between art school and science school. In this book, Tan Zaixi clearly defined the concept of translation and translatology, clarified some vague understandings, and promoted the development of translatology.

Secondly, Tan Zaixi's translation system has a strong sense and a clear orientation of discipline. The significance of the definition that "translatology is an independent discipline" is not merely its theoretical value, but it involves many important issues about the theoretical development and how to construct the discipline. With a clear sense of independent discipline, Tan Zaixi discussed some constructive and guiding problems such as the research object and field of translatology, the discipline framework of translatology, and the research approach. His unique translation system is a valuable exploration and attempt in Chinese translation circles.

Moreover, in Mr. Tan's view, translatology is not merely a discipline with Chinese characteristics. Because it involves different languages and cultures, Translatology should be constructed from four dimensions: past and present, at home and abroad. In this regard, he believes that a comparative study of Chinese and Western translation theories should be carried out with the open mind of "harmony in diversity", which is undoubtedly of great value. Construction of translatology needs to integrate Chinese and Western theoretical resources as well as learn widely from other’s strong points. Based on this, Tan Zaixi's construction of translatology fully reflects his broad mind.

=====Deficiencies of Tan’s Translation System=====

As is known to us, Tan Zaixi has made great contribution on the construction of the system of translatology, but there is no perfect system in the world. Here, I list two points remain to be discussed.

Firstly, the definition of general translation and special translation is not clear enough. In the actual translation process and translation research, general and special are contradictory and unified. Tan Zaixi's view on special translation includes the study of the specific translation of two languages, and the general principles of translatology needs to find out the common law by studying the translation of different languages. Therefore, the general rules of translatology must also be included in the research object of special translation, but this does not appear in its translation system, so its integrity is still open to question.

Secondly, Tan Zaixi discusses the construction of the system of translatology in A Series of Translation Studies in China, but the branches of its translation system are not fully explained in this book, such as the responsibilities of translators in general translation and for the contents of applied translation, it has only put forward the idea, but has not made the detailed explanation. In addition, the structure of the book is not organized according to its translation system, this is indeed a great pity.

=====My Perspective towards Tan’s Translation System=====

The great influence and contribution of Tan’s translation system on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not universal. According to the advantages and disadvantages of this system, we should treat in a dialectical way. Tan’s translation system has made foundation on the establishment of translatology and played a pioneering role in the development of translatology, but some deficiencies are avoidless. Therefore, we should treat Tan Zaimxi’s translation system in a comprehensive view. On the whole, Tan’s translation system can be regarded as a great progress and precious treasure in translation circles.

====My Thoughts on Yi Jing’s Translation System====

=====Contributions of Yi’s Translation System=====
First of all, the construction of the system of translatology proposed by Yi Jing based on a large number of theoretical research and historical data analysis. Yi Jing collated many kinds of materials in the field of translation, analyzed the views of many scholars and came to his own understandings, so that the system of translatology is coherent and smooth in writing. He selectively analyzed the views expressed by important scholars at home and abroad in the construction of translatology and made a comprehensive comparison of the proposed translation system model. Drawing on the essence of others' thoughts, he put forward his unique system of translatology, and strove to deepen the research on the construction of the system of translatology.

In addition, the framework of Yi’s translation system is clear and rational. He comprehensively introduced the Chinese and foreign translation theory research, each part is closely related, making the reader know at a glance. Yi Jing abandoned the conceptual knowledge infusion and rigid theoretical instruction, and focused more attention on tracing back to the source. He regarded the role of Chinese and foreign translation in the development process in a dialectical way with an open mind. At the same time, the dynamical development of translation system is manifested in the construction of complex translation system. He explained deeply that the establishment of translatology is the necessity of social development and the inevitable result of the academic development, all of these have played a positive role in guiding readers to view the current Chinese translation system from a correct perspective.

=====Deficiencies of Yi’s Translation System=====

However, nothing is perfect, Yi Jing’s translation system is no exception without doubt.

Firstly, in the construction of the system of translatology, there are some viewpoints need to be further analyzed. The construction of translation system is a grand subject, which can not be completely completed in such a PhD dissertation, thus it leads to not comprehensive enough. For example, Yi Jing put forward the theory of translation history and clarified its new structure, but the analysis is not detailed enough, and it mainly focused on describing the research methods of translation history and attention points during the process.

Moreover, the traditional translation history research is divided into two branches: the history of translation practice and the history of translation theory. The author thinks that the division is too simple in terms of the importance and reality requires of the theory of translation’s history. Therefore, apart from the above two branches, the theory of translation’s history should cover another three branches: introduction of TTH, thematic history and meta-theory. In this section, the author focuses on the disadvantages of the traditional division. But he doesn't make a thorough analysis of his new division. What is the necessity of such a division of the theory of translation history? what are the advantages of such a division? Can this division completely avoid the flaws of the traditional division? Actually, the author did not give a strong illustration of these substantive problems, nor did he explain them in detail, which directly leads to a sense of relative superficiality.

=====My perspective towards Yi’s Translation System=====

Although there are more or less shortcomings in the analysis of viewpoint argumentation, this dissertation provides a new perspective and path for the discipline of translatology, and to some extent, makes up for the deficiency of the traditional construction of translation system. According to Yi Jing’s summary and organization of a variety of materials in the field of translation at home and abroad, he is not only reproduce the history of translation but make history. Generally speaking, the author believes that the contribution of Yi Jing’s translation system to the development of translatology is far greater than its deficiencies.

===Conclusion===

This paper first gives a brief introduction of the two translation systems, based on it, drawing corresponding diagrams for the two translation systems, and then compares the similarities and differences between the two systems in detail. At last, the author puts forward her own thoughts on this two translation systems in a dialectical way. Through the above comparison, we can find that both Tan Zaixi’s translation system and Yi Jing’s translation system have their own advantages and disadvantages, but their virtues far outweigh faults and differences are greater than similarities. Both of them have made great contributions to the construction of translation system with their own unique strengths.

===Refrences===

[1]Chen Fukan陈福康.(2000)中国译学理论史稿[A History of Translation Theory in China]].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海:上海外语教育出版社.

[2]Fang Mengzhi方梦之.(2016)当今世界翻译研究的格局—兼论21世纪中国翻译研究的崛起[The Pattern of Translation Studies in the World -- On the Rise of Chinese Translation Studies in the 21st Century] 外语教学理论与实践. Foreign Language Learning Theory and Pactice（3):55-63.

[3]Lan Hongjun蓝红军.(2018)从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究[From Subject Consciousness to Theoretical Construction: A Study of Chinese Translation Theory (1987-2017).]中国翻译.Chinese Translation(39):7-16.

[4]Tan Zaixi谭载喜.(1987)必须建立翻译学[Translatology muct be Established].中国翻译.Chinese Translation.(b3): 2-7.

[5]Tan Zaixi谭载喜.(2005)翻译学[A Series of Translation Studies in China].Wu Han:Hu Bei Education Press 武汉:湖北教育出版社,.

[6]Xu Jun,Mu Lei许钧,穆雷.(2009)翻译学概论[An Introduction to Translation Studies].Nan Jing:Yi Lin Press 南京:译林出版社.

[7]Yi Jing易经.(2009)试论翻译学体系的构建[On the Construction of the System of Translatology].Hu Nan Normal University 湖南师范大学.

==Comparison of translation theories by Eugene nida and Susan Bassnett 胡慧芳 Hu Huifang 202020080604==

胡慧芳 Hu Huifang 20202008060

==='''Abstract'''===
Eugene Nida and Susan Bassnett are both famous translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Nida proposed the translation theory of "dynamic equivalence", and Bassnett proposed the concept of "cultural equivalence". Although Nida and Bassnett emphasized the concept of "equivalence" or "equivalence" in their respective translation theories, the theoretical content is quite different. This article starts with the background of the two people's translation theories and the interpretation of their respective translation concepts, to make a preliminary comparative analysis of the differences and similarities between the two people's translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding of the two people's translation theories.

==='''Key Words'''===
Eugene Nida ;Susan Bassnett; dynamic equivalence; cultural equivalence

===摘要===
尤金·奈达与苏珊·巴斯奈特都是西方翻译史上著名的大翻译理论家和翻译家。奈达提出了“动态对等”的翻译理论，而巴斯奈特提出了“文化等值”的概念。奈达和巴斯奈特虽然在各自的翻译理论中都强调了“对等”或“等值”的概念，但理论内容却大相径庭。本文从两人翻译理论产生的背景和对各自翻译观的解读入手，来对两人的翻译理论的不同点和相通性进行初步对比分析处理，从而达到对两人翻译理论更深理解。

===关键词===
尤金·奈达；苏珊·巴斯奈特；功能对等；文化等值

===1.Introduction===
Eugene Nida is a well-known American translator, translation theorist, and PhD in linguistics. He was born in Oklahoma City in the south-central United States. In 1936, he studied at the University of California, and later received a master's degree in Greek "Bible New Testament" studies from the University of Southern California. In 1943, he received a PhD in linguistics under the guidance of Bloomfield and others. He served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Association for a long time, and in 1968 he was the president of the American Linguistic Society.

In addition to translation theory, Nida has engaged in research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, and communication engineering. He has also been engaged in Bible translation work for a long time, and has investigated a large number of languages, especially minor languages in Africa and Latin America. . Nida is engaged in translation studies and has written many books. From 1945 to 1986, he published nearly 200 articles and more than 30 books (including co-authored and co-edited works), including 16 monographs on translation and linguistics, the most important of which is "Toward a Science of Translation" "The Theory and Practice of translation" etc.

His "dynamic equivalence" translation theory and "reader's response theory" translation standards not only have considerable influence in the western translation circles, but also promote the transformation of Chinese translation theory circles. Dr. Nida broke the research paradigm that emphasized static analysis in traditional Chinese translation theory research, and put forward a new idea of open translation theory research, which has brought enlightenment for the establishment of a new translation theory model in my country's translation theory community.

Susan Bassnett is a professor, translator, author and Courier at the Graduate School of Comparative Literature Theory and Translation at the University of Warwick, United Kingdom. As a leading figure in the school of Translation culture, her concept of "cultural equivalence" and related translation theories have exerted a great influence on contemporary translation studies.

There are some similarities between Nida's "dynamic equivalence" and Barnett's "cultural equivalence", but there are also many differences. This paper starts with the "similarities and differences" and "differences" between the two, in order to have a more comprehensive understanding of these two theorists and translators and their translation theories, so as to deepen the understanding and understanding of their translation purposes. Theory.

===2.The background of the two translation theories===

Before the birth of cultural translation school, linguistic school, functional school and structuralist school were the main schools in the field of western translation theory research. Representatives of the linguistic school, Jacob Button, Catford, and Nida, put more emphasis on equivalence in translation issues. They believe that translation is to replace one language material with an equivalent language material; functional school The representative figures Les, Nord and Mantari believe that the focus of translation studies should be the target text, not the original text. Their theoretical sources are mainly communication theory, action theory, information theory and reception aesthetics.

But whether it is the linguistic school, the functional school or the structuralist school, in their research process, they are more or less trying to achieve language equivalence from all levels of text content and form. Translation researchers] hope to find a scientific and effective method to solve the various problems faced by translation, but cultural diversity determines the diversity of text cultural connotations. Therefore, these researchers have encountered great troubles when they encounter a context that is quite different from their own cultural background. The cultural translation school was born to better solve these problems.

Before the 1970s, translation theorists mainly studied various translation problems from linguistics. After the 1970s and 1980s, the acceleration of globalization, the acceleration of information dissemination, and the diversification of communication methods have made the relationship between language and culture closer. In information dissemination, language differences have become more prominent, and the status and role of translation activities have also changed. Therefore, with the acceleration of globalization and the popularization of multicultural views and values, translation theory researchers who conform to the trend of the times pay more and more attention to the diverse cultural values embodied in translated texts.

===2.1 The background of Eugene Nida’s cultural equivalence theory===
Nida's "dynamic equivalence" translation theory was deeply influenced by his time. At the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, linguistic studies in the United States really started. It was not until the beginning of the 20th century that American linguists who studied in Europe and were influenced by Europe began to study American linguistics. They developed American descriptive linguistics and structural linguistics. Beginning in the 1940s, American linguistics began to have a huge impact on world linguistics research. During this period, the representative figures in American linguistics were Boas, Sapir and Bloomfield.

Although their theories are not exactly the same, they are basically structuralism and descriptive linguistics (Liu Runqing, 2002). Nida learned and grew up during this period. In 1943, he obtained a doctorate in linguistics under the guidance of two famous masters, Bloomfield and Fries. Therefore, his thinking is deeply influenced by Bloomfield, an American structuralist, and Sapir, a human linguist, and he emphasizes the collection and analysis of language materials in language research.

Since the 1950s, Nida has been the executive secretary of the Translation Department of the American Bible Society for many years. Nida has proposed and started to use dynamic equivalence theory to guide the practical work of "Bible" translation. In translation projects organized by the American Bible Society since the 1950s, translators have generally followed the theory of dynamic equivalence (Tan Zaixi, 1991).

===2.2 The background of Bassnett’s cultural equivalence theory===
As one of the most representative figures of the cultural translation school, Susan Bassnet's translation concept with cultural translation theory as the core has had a significant impact on contemporary translation studies. In the introduction to "Translation, History and Culure" (Translation, History and Culure), Andre, Lefevere and Susan Basnett proposed that "Culural lurn" (culural lurn)-the term, this is the concept that was first proposed from here.

According to Bassnett, the linguistics of translation faces the following problems: Machine translation method is an effective method, but it is not applicable to literary translation. In response to this situation, Bassnett points out that translation research methods should undergo a cultural turn (cultural turn). In her opinion, translators must carry out their translation activities in a specific cultural context, and they should not carry out their translation activities in cultural isolation under the influence of their own cultural background. In short, Bassnett's view of cultural translation is that translation is not a purely linguistic activity, but is rooted in and influenced by linguistic culture.

===3.Susan Bassnett and Eugene Nida’s translation theory===

===3.1 Nida' s“dynamic equivalence" Theory===
“Dynamic equivalence” is the core conception of Nida ’s translation theories. the essence of it is a receptor-centered theory of translation that aims at achieving a“dynamic”equivalence between the effect obtained from respective readers of the originaltext and the translated version, which requires that translators view from the angle of the sense and spirit of the original instead of rigidly adhering to language structures of it. That is, not rigidly adheringto formal equivalence. The theory of“dynamic equivalence" is the most well- known and the most frequently discussed theory, and the focus of discussions on it may attribute to different interpretations of the term "equivalence".

3.1.1The nature of "equivalence"

"Equivalence" is an important proposition in translation, because it involves the essence of translation, translation norms, quality and translation evaluation and other key issues. "Mathematical equivalence" is the relationship between absolute symmetry and equivalence in mathematics. But in many English dictionaries it has an obscure meaning that something is similar or essentially the same. So, does the concept of equivalence in translation theory derive from its absolute mathematical reference, or is it borrowed from its vague meaning as a word in general linguistics? According to many translation theorists, including Nida, the latter may mean more than the former.

" Equivalence" is a scientific descriptive notion that is more objective that "loyalty" or "faith", for the concept of "loyalty"or "faith" refers to attitudes of translators while "faithful translation" indicates the quality of translation. But "equivalence" involves no translator' s attitudes, and thus let us get a more explicit conception. The "equivalence” needed in translation is a comprehensive impact, not mechanically synthesizing equivalence of linguistics,semantics and pragmatics, but taking into account factors in different levels all around with artistical views and accomplishments of different cultures and languages.

The historic contribution of Nida's" dynamic equivalence" is that it provides a convincing solution to the dispute of literal translation and free translation held by many western translation theorists for about 2000 years. Literal translation emphasizes equivalence in language forms and the effect oftranslation is overlooked while free translation focuses much more on “beauty” of translation effect with litle regard to equivalence.Nida' s "dynamic equivalence". however, puts emphasis on equivalence of both effects and then solves this contradiction.

3.1.2 Views on Nida s theory of " dynamic equivalence”
It has been mentioned above that Nida s "dynamic equivalence" theory is the most influential as well as the most frequently criticized and reproached due to dfferent interpretations of the theory. And here, a ittle more comments are given to be shared.

3.1.2.1Apprehension of the theory
What Nida's values a lot in dynamic equivalence" is that receptors of the two languages ( SL and TL) have approximately similar response and get basically equivalent ffect( Yang Liu， 2006). The great contribution Nida made was to shift the focus from the comparison of the source- language and the target- language texts to acomparison of the two communication processes involved." (Jin Ti,,1998:231) Thus, Nida's dynamic equivalence " focuses mainly onthe relative side of " equivalence " rather than absolutizes the term,which may imply that the equivalence theory in translation does originally mean something relative, obscure and indistinct.

As a relative conception, the goal " dynamic equivalence" pursues is that the readers of the translation can obtain basically similar message smoothly from the translated text as the readers of theoriginal do from the original text, including their perception of the main essence, specific facts and artistic conception, although the two texts may vary greatly or entirely in forms. This goal can be applied to almost all types of translation. For all of these viewpoints,Nida and his theory have encountered constant criticism and reproaching.

To sum up, those who oppose the theory believe that the equivalence in translation is impossible forever, because the translation involves at least two different languages, cultures, etc., it is rather difficult for the locals, while in favor of people think equivalence can be realized on the senses and style not only, and in effect can be achieved. Nida made it very clear that "reactions can never be the same," but that "a high degree of reaction equivalence" is required and possible; As for "functional equivalence", Nida explained that no translation can be completely equivalent.

Actually, different translations represent varying degrees of equivalence, That is, "equivalence" doesn't mean identity as its mathematical meaning. (Nida, 2001:87) In order to stress the conception of function and meanwhile avoid misunderstanding, Nida holds that the expression“functional equivalence" is much more satisfactory in describing the degrees of adequacy of a translation（Nida, 2001:91). So, Nida, as he puts it explicitly in his works, doesn' t prescribe something " identical" or total equivalence between the original and the translated texts, but expects high degrees of closeness" to ine ongmal and reproducing nearest translated message to the originai message.

He advocates that translators work hard to pursue equivaiencerather than identity". Professor Jin Di may have standpoint identical to Nida' s, he holds that the term " equivalence" in Nida ' s theory indicates a linguistic notion that is different from "identity", and " equivalence"is a relative conception, which requires no totally identical effect, but striving for the closest impact produced by the translation within a possible range as what is produced to readers of the original text by the ST (Jin Ti,, 1998:44).

3.1.3 Theoretical Practice of "Functional Equivalence" in China-A Comment on the Translation of "A Madman's Diary"
Here are three examples to analyze the theory of "functional equivalence" used in the "Madman's Diary" in the translation of "The Call" by Yang Xianyi and his wife.

（1）“我同赵贵翁有什么仇.....把古久先生的陈年流水簿子，踹了一脚....”(鲁迅，2019: 08)

“what grudge Mr. Zhao has against me...Itrod on Mr. Gu Jiu's old ledgers.." (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 23)

If this example is literally translated "赵贵翁", it may be translated as "Zhao Guiweng" in many cases, so that the translation person seems rigid and the translation traces are too obvious. Yang Xianyi and his wife directly translated "Mr. Zhao" in the translation, which conforms to the native language habits of foreigners and avoids the appearance of translation accent. This translation achieves functional equivalence for the translation of personal words in the original text (Chen Weijia, 2009). The "old-year running book" here is a characteristic term of China's old society period, which means "old account book". If literally translated as "aged jour-nal", obviously there is no "old ledgers" which is more suitable for the time.
Time backgroud. The Yangs’ translation handled the translation of characteristic nouns well and reached the result of information equivalent translation.

(2)“陈老五赶上前，硬把我拖回家中了。”(鲁迅，2019: 09)

“Old Chen hurried forward and draggedme home." (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)

The personal pronoun "陈老五", if translated literally, might be translated as "Chen Laowu". Yang Xianyi translated "Old Chen", which is more authentic. "Chen Lao Wu" may be the habitual name of this person by the locals, rather than the name Chen Lao Wu. The Yangs' translation as "Lao Chen" here conforms to the Chinese people's habit of addressing acquaintances and conforms to the original cultural background (金瑞, 邵华, 2018).

(3)“狼子村的佃户来告荒....”(鲁迅，2019: 09)

“a tenant of ours from Wolf Cub Villagecame to report the failure of the crop..." ( 杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)

"狼子村" is a place noun. If it is simply translated as "The Wolf Child Village", it is obviously inappropriate. Such translated names are not only not beautiful enough, but also cannot express the charm of Chinese place names. Here, the expression of "Cub" in "Wolf Cub Village" of the Young couple is quite vivid and accurate. "Cub" means "cub" and it is used here in line with the original meaning. Yang Xianyi has certain accomplishments in the translation of Chinese-specific place nouns, and conveys the Chinese-specific culture well in the translation process.

===3.2 Bassnett's "cultural equivalence" theory===

According to Bassnett, the goal of translation should be to shift from the generally accepted text to culture, which is called cultural transformation. If we compare culture to the human body, then language is the human heart. The mind, language and body coordinate with each other to maintain vitality and vitality. When performing heart surgery on a patient, the surgeon must consider the patient's overall physical condition. The same is true of translation practice. In the process of translating a target language into a target language, parliamentarians must consider double standards of linguistic accuracy and cultural adaptation, and must not deprive cultures and treat translations separately.

3.2.1 Translation methods and strategies
Regarding translation methods, Bassnett believes that language and text materials in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, and therefore different translation methods. For example, for original texts that are descriptive, or contain certain cultural beliefs, or are technological in nature, the translator should try to literally translate from a cultural perspective when translating. If the original text does not belong to the above three types of texts, then the translator can play relatively freely when translating, use more translation skills, and less consider the limitations of the original text culture on translation activities. It can be said that the degree of freedom of such translation activities is relatively high.

Regarding translation strategy, Bassnett believes that the translator's translation activity is a process of information transmission. In this process, the translator should first find the cultural factors in the original text that are different from the target language, and then understand these factors in depth, and try to retain these factors on this basis. Such a strategy helps readers of other countries to better understand the connotation expressed in the original text, and enable them to have a more accurate understanding of the cultural context of the original text.

3.2.2 Content and form of translation
As far as the content and form of the translation are concerned, Bassnett regards cultural exchange as the focus of translation, and she believes that the original flavor of the original language text should be kept as much as possible. At the same time, she also pointed out that literary translation must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, the translation of poetry is not simply a translation of the original poem content, but a new understanding and creation in translation. The translator must use his own translation skills and literary quality to create new content.

But at the same time, the form and content of the poem are unified. The length of the syllables and the distribution of rhymes in the form are also conveying the content. The information of the times is all revealed behind it.
Therefore, if the original form of the poem is discarded in the translation, Then it cannot fully reflect the content of the original poem. Take Chinese rhyme poems as an example. When its prosperity turned from its peak to its decline in the Tang Dynasty, the strict flat correspondence and cohesion were not only for making people melodious and catchy, but its pursuit of form revealed that The literati in the era remembered the dead Tang Dynasty and their strong unsatisfied political demands.

3.2.3 "Intelligibility" of the translation
Before the rise of the school of cultural Translation, translation researchers sometimes translated the literary language in the original text into simple and clear language so that readers could better understand the translation and thus remove the metaphor and association in the literature. In this way, the translation will indeed become easier to understand, but the literariness of the work is reduced, and the interest and depth of the work cannot achieve the effect of the original text. Therefore, According to Bassnett, the "intelligibility" of translation should not be based on abandoning the original style and artistry, but on striving to maintain the original style.

3.2.4 Evaluation Criteria of Translation
For the evaluation criteria of translations, Bassnett believes that the evaluation criteria of translations are not unique. The standards for translating academic articles and applied and literary articles are different. When checking and evaluating the standard of translation, we should start from the target of translation, and judge the translation based on whether the translation can meet the needs of the target. In short, the translation should meet the needs of readers in different cultural contexts as a starting point, and use a suitable translated language that can meet this demand.

3.2.5 Examples of Bassnett's Cultural Translation Theory-Taking 《道德经》‘s Arthur Willy's Translation and Gu Zhengkun's Translation as Examples

原文:

“六亲不和，有孝慈(孝子)。”(章十八)

辜译: "Filiality and benevolence come along with the family feud,"

韦利译:“It was when the six near ones were no longer at peace that there was talkof dutiful sons." (Waley, 1999:37 )

"六亲" in modern Chinese generally refer to all family members and relatives, but in ancient Chinese there are specific references to father and son, brothers, and couples. Gu Zhengkun knows that family ethical relations are not as complicated in the West as in China, so he adopted the approach of being close to Western readers and translated it as "the family; while Wiley used the method of alienation in order to get close to the original work, calling it "sixnear ons" , And supplemented by the notes at the end of the chapter to further explain the specific meaning of "six relatives". (the six near ones: father, son, elder brother, younger brother, husband and wife.). Both translators have realized the function of the language opposite to them. The equivalence of the above. That is to realize the equivalence of cultural functions, but also convey the meaning of cultural connotation.

原文:“虽有拱璧以先驷马” (章六十二)

辜译:It would be better to present to the emperor Tao than jade disks followed by ateam of four horses." ( 辜正坤，1995: 251 )

韦利译:“Rather than send a team of four horses, preceded by a disc ofjade.e.."(Waley,1999:131 )

Both translators translated "驷马" into "four horses", which is correct. In ancient China, the number of horses pulling carts was used to reflect the rank of status, such as driving two horses as a parallel, three horses as a stallion, and four horses as a parcel. Usually the emperor drives six, princes drive five, Qing drives four, doctors three, scholars two, and common people one. There are also horse-drawn chariots in wars, usually one carriage with four horses and three passengers. If the translator can comment on this, it will better help the target readers to understand the ancient Chinese horse culture.

===4.The difference between the two translation thoughts===

Nida's translation thought is mainly influenced by the structuralist translator, which is reflected in his use of syntactic structure analysis method, the semantic component analysis method popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, and the core ideas similar to Chomsky's deep structure syntactic analysis. From the perspective of language translation (interlingual translation), this paper makes a structural analysis of language expression forms and translation programs. However, the essence of Nida's translation thoughts lies not only in his view of language structuralism, but also in "translation is science", "translation and communication", "translation must emphasize readers' reflection" and many other propositions. Moreover, Nida's contributions to translation theory, especially to Bible translation theory, and his position in contemporary American and Western translation studies are very important and widely recognized. (Tan Zaixi, 1991)

But Bassnett's "cultural translation view" focuses on cultural exchanges, with culture first, and information second. Through translation to introduce the unique culture of each nation, explain the similarities and differences between each other, so as to promote the comparative study of two languages and cultures. Bassnett also pointed out that culture puts forward various requirements for translation, and these requirements are closely related to the nature of the original text. In the process of translation, the translator should demonstrate the unique charm of different cultures through translation, so that people of different cultural backgrounds can communicate and communicate in a true cultural sense.

===5.The similarity of the two translation ideas===
Nida believes that the service object of translation is the recipient. It is necessary to evaluate and judge the quality of the translation. It is not only necessary to compare the language form of the translation and the original text, but also to see how the recipient reflects the translation. Only when the translated works are easy to understand and in proper form can they be widely accepted by the public. Bassnett’s cultural translation view also emphasizes that translation should meet the requirements of different objects in a certain culture. In order to meet the requirements of different specific groups, the translator must find a suitable translated language functionally. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that translation works should focus on the demands of recipients of translation at different levels.

Nida believes that when there is a contradiction between form and content in the process of translation, form should give way to content. Bethnet also believes that in the process of functional equivalence, translators will not be limited by literary images. It can be seen that two translation theorists pay more attention to the content and form of translation.

Nida pointed out that the languages and cultures of the world have 90% similarities and only 10% differences. Bassnett also believes that the translator should perform functional equivalence in the target language culture based on the target language; the reading object and the original language's function in the original language culture. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that the source language and the target language can communicate and communicate in terms of culture. Although there is a cultural loss in the translation process, there are more similarities between different languages. Similarities or similarities (ie cultural common core).

===6. Conclusion===
Both Nida and Bassnett are great translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Their theoretical research ideas and academic vision are broad, and their insights are unique, which give people deep inspiration. In the process of translation research, the two masters placed translation in the multi-dimensional space of the original text and the target text, investigated from different angles to reveal the essence of translation, and achieved fruitful results. The two translations: principles and methods. There are both common points and their own characteristics. We should work hard to understand the characteristics and development trajectories of the two major translation theories, and find out the contributions and shortcomings of the two major translation theories. In order to find things that Chinese translation theories can learn from, to promote the development of Chinese translation studies.

===References===

[1]Nida, Eugene and Charles Taber. The Theory of Translation[M]. Leiden:E. J Brill,1969.

[2]Liao Qiyi.(2000).廖七一.''当代西方翻译理论探索''.[Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory].译林出版社[Yilin Publishing House]

[3] Liu Runqing.(2002).刘润清.''西方语言学流''派[Schools of Western Linguistics].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press]

[4]Lu Gang. (2006). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation].''中国比较文化''[Chinese Comparative Culture]

[5]Tan Zaixi. (1991). 谭载喜. ''西方翻译简史''. [Western Translator Business History]. 商务印书馆[The Commercial Press ]

[6]Duan Feng. 段峰.(2006). 苏珊·巴斯奈特文学翻译思想述评. [A Review of Susan Bassnett's Literary Translation Thoughts]. ''四川大学学报''[Journal of Sichuan University]

[7]Lu Gang. (2010). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation]. ''扬州大学学报''[Journal of Yangzhou University]

[8]Deng Ju, Qin Zhongshu.(2007). 邓巨，秦中书.苏珊·巴斯奈特翻译思想述评[A Review of Susan Bassnett's Translation Thoughts. ''四川文理学院学报''[Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science]

[9]Luo Chengli. 罗承丽.(2010). 操纵与构建：苏珊·巴斯奈特“文化翻译中”思想研究. [Manipulation and Construction: Susan Bassnett's "Cultural Translation" Thought Research].''北京语言大学''[Beijing Language and Culture University]

[10]Waley,Arthur.The Way and Its Power:A study of the Tao Te Ching and its Place in Chinese Thought.London:Allen and Unwin，1934.

[11]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call].江西教育出版社[Jiangxi Education Press]

[12]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call]. 杨宪益，戴乃迭，译.北京外文出版社[Beijing Foreign Languages Publishing House]

[13]Gu Zhengkun. 辜正坤.(2008). ''老子道德经''[ Tao Te Ching].北京大学出版社[Peking University Press]

--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 01:07, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==A Comparative Study Between the Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory 吴一露 Wu Yilu 202070080610 MTI 英语笔译==
<center> 吴一露 Wu Yilu 202070080610</center>

===Abstract===

Skopos theory and the theory put forward by Yan Fu, that is “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, are one of the most representative translation theories respectively in the history of Chinese and Western translation theories. And these two theories have a profound impact to Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will compare the similarities and differences between these two theories as well as their historical contributions and limitations. It aims to get a deeper understanding of Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory and a better application of theories in practice. In the meantime, the collision and comparative analysis of Chinese and Western theories will also promote the study of translation theories and provide a reference for guiding translation practice.

===Key words===

Skopos Theory; Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; Hans Vermeer; Yan Fu

===目的论和严复理论的比较研究===
===摘要===

目的论和严复提出的翻译理论即 “信达雅”分别是中西方翻译理论史上最具代表性的翻译理论之一。并且这两种翻译理论对中西方翻译理论和实践产生了深刻的影响。本文将对比研究目的论以及严复理论的同异，结合比较这两种理论的历史贡献及局限,旨在加深对目的论和“信达雅”理解，并将理论更好地运用到翻译实践中。同时中西方理论的碰撞和对比分析，也会促进翻译理论研究和为指导翻译实践提供依据。

===关键词===

目的论；信达雅；汉斯·弗米尔；严复

===1. Introduction===

Skopos is the Greek word for “aim” or “purpose” and was introduced into translation theory in the 1970s by the German linguists Hans J. Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and of the action of translating. The theory holds the idea that translating and interpreting should primarily take the function of target text into full consideration. The creation of Skopos theory is a significant achievement of western translation theories, providing a new perspective for translation study. (Dun Guangang 2011, 248)

In 1897, Yan Fu set down the triple translation criteria of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance,” (that are Xin, Da, Ya in Chinese), which has an influence on the development of translation practice and theory for almost half a century after it came into being and it still exerts great influence on contemporary TS. (Chen Fukang 2000, 107）With the scope of integration and exchanges between China and Western world expanding to various fields, this paper will reexamine these influential theories by comparing their similarities, differences and influences, so as to deepen our understanding of translation theory study.

===2. Introduction of Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory===

====2.1 Skopos Theory====

“Skopos theory comprises the idea that translating and interpreting means to produce a target text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances”. (Vermeer, Hans J.1987a, 26). The purpose decides everything, from the translation strategy and translation method, to the choice of the form and content of the original work and the production of the target text. All translation behaviours should take purpose into consideration.

=====2.1.2 The Development of Skopos Theory=====

The creation of Skopos theory in not going to happen overnight; it is a gradual process that can the skopos theory become the core of functionalist approach, which is initially proposed by Hans Vermeer. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 255) Its formation and development experienced mostly three periods.

(1) Katharina Reiss’s research

The book Possibilities and Limits of Translation Criticism, written by Katharina Reiss in 1971, marked the appearance of German translation theories and was the first time raised the idea that text function could be listed as a standard of translation criticism and came up with thoughts of functional translation theory. The core of her translation theory is text typology, including informative text (content-focused), expressive text (form-focused), operative text (appeal-focused) and the auto-medial text, which laid a foundation for Skopos theory.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 257)

(2) Hans J. Vermeer: Skopos theories and beyond

Vermeer, Reiss’s student, casting off the chains of Functional Equivalence, thought that “translation is not a mechanical language interpretation, but an activity with an aim or purpose.” According to Action Theory, human action is a kind of purposeful behavior in a given situation. In his opinion, translation also is such a kind of action with purpose on the foundation of a source text. Hence, Vermeer names his theory Skopos theory, a theory of purposeful action. Hans J. Vermeer believed that the purpose of a text determines the translation strategies. It is readers that determine translation purpose. So translators should better to consider integrally both the purpose of translation and special circumstances of target-text readers before interpreting.（Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 154）

(3) Justa Holz-Manttari and Christiane Nord: the theory of translational action and Function plus Loyalty Principle

Manttari differentiated “translation” and “translation action”. She thought that “translation” is simply transformative action while “translation action” is more intricate behavior designed to transfer message overcoming culture and language barriers. In Christiane Nord’s Translating as a Purposeful Activity-Functionalist Approaches Explained, she defines the Skopos theory as the prime principle determining any translation process. But Nord also found there were some drawbacks of Skopos theory, so she putted forward the “loyalty principle”: the responsibility of translators towards to their partners in translational interaction. (Christiane Nord, 1997)

=====2.1.3 Rules of Skopos Theory=====

There are three rules of Skopos theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.

The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “skopos rule”, which means that a translation action is determined by its skopos; in other words, that is “ the end justifies the means” (Reiss Katharina & Vermeer Hans J. 1984). As defined by Vermeer and translated by Nord, the Skopos rule states: “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The Skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.” (Christiane Nord, 1997)

Whether the function of the source text or passages of the source text can be preserved or have to be modified or even changed all decided by the purpose of translation. The skopos is divided into three forms: translator purpose, communicative purpose of the translated text and the purpose of using some kind of translation strategies. Coherence rule talks about that the target text must be coherent with the source text, given target text receivers circumstances and knowledge (Pochhacker, Franz 1995, 32). Translators should pick out what is meaningful in the receivers’ condition.

The last rule, fidelity rule, is also called as inter-textual rule which means the ‘inter-textual coherence’ should exists between the source text and target text. Just like Nord (2001) said a translation is an “offer of information”about “a preceding offer of information”, it is expected to bear some kind of relationship with the corresponding source text. It means that the source text and target text should be coherent with each other, and the coherent aspects between them including special collocations, sentence length, grammatical features, or even rhetorical devices, in style, in function, etc. In accordance to this, the form of the target text would be determined by both translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation’s purpose. (Dun Guangang 2011,251)

These three rules connect with each other. From the three basic rules above mentioned we can see that the fidelity rule is considered subordinate to the coherence rule, and the both of rules are subordinated to skopos rule. (Vermeer, Hans J. 1989,187) From above three rules, we come to a conclusion that the evaluation criterion of translation is “adequacy”—dynamic standard —rather than “equivalence”. Therefore, translator should not be literalists who rigidly adhere to the words of the source text.

====2.2 Yan Fu’s Theory====

Yan Fu (1854-1921) was an outstanding Chinese Scholar and translator who had studied abroad from 1877 to 1879 in Britain. In this period, he was interested in western politics and started to learn academic theories of capitalist politics. His solid foundation of language as well as rich reserves of theories made adequate preparations for his future translation work. (Chen Fukang 2000, 105）

Because realizing that it was important for old China to catch up western countries in fields of politics, economy, culture, ideology and institutions, this famous Chinese translator devoted his life to importing western ideas and theories by translating various foreign works, including Evolution and Ethics, Yuan Fu (the Chinese version of The Wealth of Nations), The Spirit of Laws and other essays. It is these translated works and his translation theories --- “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” that impressed large numbers of Chinese scholars profoundly, which also contributed to his everlasting name in the history of Chinese translation theory study.(Chen Fukang 2000, 113）

=====2.2.1 The Development of Yan Fu’s Theory=====

(1)The proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”

The idea of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” （Xin, Da, Ya) was firstly seen in The Dhammapada sequence （《法句经序》）written by Zhi Qian , a venerable monk and a translator of Buddhist scriptures in the Three Kingdoms Period. But as a translation theory, it is known to the public and handed down because of Yan Fu. (Chen Fukang 2000, 106) In 1898, Yan Fu made a conclusion of all the debates related to translation since Han dynasty and Tang dynasty after research. Then he put forward “the three difficulties for translating” in the preface of the translation of T.H. Huxley’s book Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays more than one hundred years ago.

The first draft of Evolution and Ethics was finished in 1895. As this was the first book he translated, he met many difficulties in translating and got a lot of thoughts. Then he put his thoughts into Yiliyan （《译例言》）: “ Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. ” (Yan Fu, 1987) However, there are still some people holding the opinion that these translation thoughts of Yan Fu took their ideas from the three principles of famous British translator Tytler.

(2)The evolution of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”

Since this translation theory was put forward, it have inspired continuous debates for nearly one hundred years and the interpretation of the later scholars cannot be ignored. There are four main directions of this evolution.

The May Fourth New Culture Movement ushered in a new epoch vernacular literature and translation, which changed the status of Classical Chinese and Vernacular Chinese. So Yan Fu’s interpretation of “Elegance”, which refers to application of Classical Chinese before Han dynasty, became out of step with the Times. (Chen Fukang 2000, 108) Attempting to prove the rationality of “Elegance”, many translators made new interpretations of it, while there are also some made adjustments on the basis of Yan Fu’s theory.

Qu Qiubai suggested using Vernacular Chinese instead of classical one; Lin Yutang, Liu Zhongdei and Zhu Wenzhen proposed to change “Elegance” into “Beauty”, “Closeness” and “Appropriate” respectively. Among which “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness” not only inherits rational thoughts, but also overcomes limitations of “Elegance”. So this principle is a remarkable symbol presenting that China’s translation theories are becoming mature.(Liu Qijia 2000, 97)

Besides, Lu Xun simplified this three-character standard, turning it into a two-character one--- “faithfulness and smoothness” (Xin Shun Shuo). From “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” to “Faithfulness, Smoothness and Beauty”, from “Similarity in Spirit” to “Sublimation”, we can see that the translation spirit of Yan Fu is carried forward and how profound an impact this theory made. (Chen Fukang 2000, 112)

=====2.2.2 Main Contents of Yan Fu’s Theory=====

Whenever the criteria of translation is discussed in China, the principle of translation proposed by Yan Fu would be mentioned, namely: “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. From the perspective of Yan Fu, “Faithfulness” referred to the meaning of the target text should be close to that of the original one, that was, being faithful to the original meaning, as well as its sentimental color, style and flavor.(Yan Fu, 1987)

There are two aspects of “Faithfulness”: being faithful to the original work and to target readers. “Expressiveness” meant the target text should be coherent and clear, there being no need to follow the exact order of words and sentences structure of the original language but reorganize and elaborate to respect the rules of target language. (Yan Fu, 1987)

And “Elegance” indicated that the target text should be of refinement in language, namely, the use of ancient Chinese before Han dynasty so as to meet the expectation of target readers who were well-educated in China. He claimed that “where language has no refinement, its effects will not extend far”(言之无文，行之不远). (Chen Fukang 2000, 108）

In Yan Fu’s point of view, “Faithfulness” is the core while “Expressiveness” and “Elegance” are two measures, which can be noticed from the order of these three characters. (Chen Fukang 2000, 107) That means “Faithfulness” is the premise and basis of translation and the other two are the aim of translation. So these three standards are integrated.

===3. Similiarities and Differences===

====3.1 The Similarities betweeen these Two Theories====

Although Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory originated in two different countries and cultural environments, and there are hundreds of years between the times when they were put forward, these two theories have many similarities.

=====3.1.1 Fidelity Rule and Faithfulness=====

The Fidelity rule in Skopos theory is similar to “Faithfulness” in Yan Fu’s theory.

Comparing the two theories of translation, we find that both theories have a criterion based on the original text and pursue the principle of fidelity, which is only expressed in different words. Fidelity rule in Skopos theory holds that translator should respect both the original author and readers in the translation process. Translation is to try to reach an agreement with the original work's intention and translator is responsible not only to readers but also to the original author, reconciling the purpose of the translation with the author's intention and mediating between the two. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 256)

In Nord’s opinion , the faithfulness principle gives translator the right to make changes to the original text according to the purpose of translation, showing an open, tolerant and dynamic view of translation; on the other hand, it requires translator to be responsible for all parties involved in the translation, to explain or interpret his or her translation strategy, and to reach an understanding and consensus among all parties. (Christiane Nord, 1997)

This coincides with Yan Fu's "Faithfulness", which emphasizes not to deviate from the original text. And "Faithfulness" is the premise and foundation of translation. (Chen Fukang 2000, 107) In the process of translation, translator is required to correctly understand the original text and then reproduce it in another language. If the ideas, expressions, and emotions in the translation are not consistent with the original work, then it violates the requirement of "Faithfulness", as well as the requirement of the fidelity rule in Skopos theory. Thus, we can find that both theories emphasize the importance of faithfulness to the original text.

=====3.1.2 Coherence Rule and Expressiveness=====

The coherence principle in Skopos theory is similar to the “Expressiveness” in the Yan Fu’s theory.

In short, they both emphasize the fluency and smoothness of the translation from the point of view of readers’ receptivity and comprehension, so that receiver can accept and understand the translation smoothly. The coherence principle refers that translation should be readable and acceptable, so as to achieve interlingual coherence and to be consistent with the communicative situation of the target readers. As elaborated by Nord, a communicative interaction can only be regarded as successful if the receivers interpret it as being sufficiently coherent with their situation. (Christiane Nord 1997, 32)

Under this rule, the receivers of the target text, their cultural background, social circumstances, expectations, values and norms should all be taken into consideration as major factors to produce meaningful translations. In translation, translator should reproduce the content and form of the original text as much as possible, and such translations usually require extensive annotation so that readers can have a better understanding of the translation. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)

This point is consistent with Yan Fu's viewpoint in his translation work, Evolution and Ethics · Yiyanli : “ 顾信矣，不达，虽译，犹不译也(A translation is faithful but not expressive, then it is not a qualified translation)。” (Yan Fu, 1987) According to Yan, “Expressiveness” means to reproduce the meaning of the original text in a way that is consistent with the terminological conventions of the target language, which also emphasizes the understandability of the translation. That is to say, translator should focus on conveying the content of the original text and conveying the meaning and gist of the original text, rather than sticking to the order of the words and sentences in the original text.

At the same time, Yan also points out that the sentence structure in English is very different from that in Chinese. If one mechanically translates long sentences from English, the Chinese translation will certainly be unintelligible. (Yan Fu, 1987) Therefore, a translator must first understand the main idea of the original text clearly before he can translate it without compromising the original meaning. It can be seen that both Skopos theory and Yan Fu's theory emphasize expressing the main idea of the original text in a way that can be understood by the target readers.

=====3.1.3 Skopos Rule and Elegance=====

The Skopos rule in the Skopos theory is similar to “Elegance” in Yan Fu’s theory to some extent.

The Skopos rule states that the purpose of translation determines the entire act of translation at the macro level. In the meantime, translator must decide what methods and strategies to use in translation based on the function of the translation in the target culture. Vermeer regards the recipient of the translation as an important part of the translation requirements and "one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of the translation". Translation is "the text produced in the target language environment for the purpose of translation and for the target readers.”.(Christiane Nord 1997, 12)

While in Yan Fu’s theory, “Elegance” is more specific, as it is based on the specific era and target readers at that time he lived. Because in the 19th century, the books Yan Fu translated were not for the general public, but for old literati and intellectuals who had the right to speak at that time. And most of them respected the old and discriminated against the new, advocating the ancient language while opposing the promotion of the vernacular language. There was no way to introduce Western ideas and knowledge to the scholarly class in China without taking into account their feelings. It is clear that he was thinking from the perspective of target readers, then this theory was put forward. (Chen Fukang 2000, 109) So, in essence, both theories share the same reader-centered viewpoint.

====3.2 The Differences between these Two Theories====

Although there are many similarities between these two translation theories, big differences in the theoretical system, translation standards and translators' status still exist. These differences are not only caused by the different traditions of Chinese and Western theories, but also by the differences in cultural background and personal theoretical knowledge. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)

=====3.2.1 Different Theoretical Systems=====

Skopos theory is closely integrated with other disciplines. This theory was born out of the behavioral theory. Vermeer places Skopos theory in the framework of cross-cultural communication. He denies that translation is a purely linguistic transformation, and pays more attention to communication and culture.It makes the translation theory more logical, scientific and systematic. (Dun Guangang 2011. 242) Thus, it breaks the text-centered translation research tradition, providing a new perspective for translation study. A theoretical system with diversified translation standards was formed.

Skopos theory clearly puts forward some translation concepts, such as the three rules, and there is a clear hierarchy among the three rules, with both Fidelity rule and Coherence rule being subordinate to the Skopos rule. It makes clear to translator the standards and principles that they should follow.In addition, it also made a distinction between intertextual coherence and intratextual coherence, adequate translation and equivalent translation, and translation and translation action.(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)

But Yan Fu’s theory is relatively abstract and vague. Although it concludes the translation requirements, it is not as clear as Skopos theory. Different translators have different interpretations of these three translation criteria. Some think that "Faithfulness" refers to the faithfulness to the original work's ideological content, while others think it is faithful to the content and linguistic style of the original work, which leads to differences in content and form. Zhu Guang Qian and Tang Ren even advocated condensing “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” into “Faithfulness”; people’s understanding of “Elegance” was even more diverse. Besides, Yan Fu's theory is not closely integrated with other disciplines and focuses more on content and aesthetics.(Chen Fukang 2000, 348）

Therefore, Yan Fu's theory is not clearly demonstrated and scientifically summarized, which easily cause ambiguity. It is not as theoretical and systematic as Skopos theory, and tends to be more of an empirical theory.

=====3.2.2 Different Translation Standards=====

Before the emergence of Skopos theory, the mainstream translation standard was functional equivalence. The emergence of the Skopos theory broke through the constraint of equivalence，replacing the "faithfulness principle" as the first principle with the Skopos rule. The success of a translation depends on whether the intended purpose of translation is achieved. "Skopos" usually refers to the communicative purpose of the translation, that is, "the communicative function of the translation in the target socio-cultural context for the target readers". Therefore, the Skopos theory pays more attention to the translation requirements, the target readers, the target language’s environment and culture. It has a broader scope of application, increasing the number of alternative translation strategies, which opened the shackles of translators.（Vermeer, Hans J. 1989, 186)

In contrast, Yan Fu's translation theory, which can also be regarded as a translation standard, puts forward requirements for translations in three directions. Although “Faithfulness” is the first among the three, Yan Fu also emphasized the importance of “Expressiveness” and “Elegance”. In Yan Fu's view, these three standards are integrated. Even he himself didn’t explain it clearly. In this way, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are only three abstract translation criteria, rather than a systematic translation theory. And it has different requirements to different types of text. The requirements are highest for literary works, lower for philosophical and social science works, and even lower for science and technology related works, official documents and the like.(Chen Fukang 2000, 108)

=====3.2.3 Different Translator Status=====

For a long time in the past, the role and subject status of translators have not received enough attention and research. Traditional translation theories holds that translators should be subordinate to the original text in the translation process. However, Skopos theory emphasizes the subjectivity of translator and frees translators from the prison of the faithfulness standard of translation theory. According to Vermeer, the purpose determines translation action. And the intended purpose is determined by many factors: (1) translator's basic purpose (e.g. to earn a living), (2) the communicative purpose of the translation (e.g. to enlighten readers), and (3) the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation method (e.g. adopting literal translation to illustrate the grammatical structure of a language). (He Xiaoling 2012, 46)

So translators has more freedom and rights. They can have their own judgment and understanding in the translation process. They can adopt different translation strategies, like omission or addition, according to different translation purposes. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 257) Therefore, under Skopos theory, translator is the medium of communication between the author and readers, original text and translated text. He plays a creative role in the translation process, instead of just converting two different languages mechanically. At the same time, translator acts as a central role in the translation process who is responsible for the results of the whole translation activity. (He Xiaoling 2012, 46)

However, in Yan Fu's theory, the content of the translation cannot deviate from the original work. The role of translator is more to convey the meaning of the original work to readers after understanding the ideological basis of the original author. He should strive for the consistency or similarity between the translated text and the original, without compromising the readability and acceptability of the translated text. Therefore, under this theory, translator is more of a bridge between the original work and the translated text. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156) This would still be original text-centered, and translator would not be able to exercise much initiative.

As we can see, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Faithfulness” still advocates the primacy of the original text. Compared with the subjective initiative of translator in Skopos theory, translator's act is largely passive .

===4. A Comparative Study of the Contribution and Limitation of these Two Theories===

Skopos theory proposed by Vermeer and the theory proposed by Yan Fu play an important role in Chinese and Western translation theories respectively. Then what are the similarities and differences between the two theories in terms of their contributions and shortcomings? Through the analysis in this chapter, we can glimpse the development trend and characteristics of translation theory in the world of Chinese and Western translation.

====4.1 Contributions of these Two Theories====

When the linguistic dominance in translation studies was questioned before the birth of Skopos theory, translation studies gradually shifted to a cultural orientation, Vermeer placed translation in the framework of cross-cultural communication, which freed translation from the shackles of Nida's equivalence theory, and liberated translation studies from the constraints of source-text-oriented approach .(Tan Zaixi 2004, 242)

In Skopos theory, the status of the source text is not as important as that of the target text. Vermeer regards the original text only as a "source of information", which provides only the information needed for the translation commission, and is no longer the only or the highest criterion for evaluating the translation. ( Hans J. Vermeer 1982, 98.) Taking the purpose of translation as the starting point and foundation of translation has greatly changed our original concept of translation.

More emphasis is placed on the purpose of translation, the function of translated work and translators’ subjectivity. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) The social and communicative effects of translation, as well as that of readers and translation are also of great importance , thus a multifaceted and integrated translation standard was formed. Therefore, the creation of Skopos theory has finally freed translation research from the confinement brought about by “equivalence” and provided a new direction for translation study.

Skopos theory has played a subversive role in the history of Western translation, while Yan Fu's theory is to a greater extent a summary and refinement of the previous theories of Chinese translation schools. But it has played a pivotal role in the history of Chinese translation and has long been valued by translation scholars. The contribution of this theory to translation lies not only in proposing a far-reaching translation standard, but also in its rich vitality. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) This is because this translation standard summarizes the main characteristics of translation work to a great extent and shows the requirements of translation work. Secondly, because of its inclusive nature, after several generations of scholars' discussions, the meaning of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” has already exceeded the definition given by Yan Fu.

In particular, there are various new interpretations of "Elegance" in literary translation, no longer sticking to the use of ancient Chinese before the Han Dynasty, but focusing on the use of literary style, writing style, and rhetoric. Over the past 100 years, Yan Fu's theory has aroused translators’ long-term thinking and exploration of translation theory, then its academic connotation has been unceasingly explored, which, in return, has been continuously developed and perfected, and has become the classic of Chinese translation thought. In the words of Shen Suru, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is “still the most well-known and influential translation principle and standard, and no other principle or standard can replace it”.(Shen Suru 2001,7)

====4.2 Limitations of these Two Theories====

Although Skopos theory has made a great breakthrough to translation theory, it has some shortcomings of its own. Firstly, it overemphasizes the purpose of translation and translator, while neglecting rich meaning and multifunctionality of the original text, which undermines the ontological meaning of translation, and is not suitable for some text types. Skopos theory contains a certain degree of idealism, focusing on analysis and refinement, and sometimes it tends to neglect the integrity. As a result, sometimes the stylistic and semantic features of the original text are lost in order to achieve the translation goal. Many scholars have also criticized Skopos theory. Among them, Pym argues that it is a matter of common sense that translation has a purpose, and there is no need to make a fuss over the theory. (Pym Anthony, 1996)

Besides, Newmark claims that the “purpose-oriented” view is overkill. He strongly resents the approach of Skopos theory which eliminates the authority of texts and is oriented to translator's culture. Secondly, the possibility of realizing the purpose of translation depends on the conditions of the target culture rather than the culture of the source language, so fidelity to the original text is only a possibility. (Dun Guangang 2011, 247) Thus we can see that the coherence rule and fidelity rule are not universally applicable.

Obviously, there are also limitations to Yan Fu’s theory. Compared with Skopos theory, Yan Fu's theory gives sufficient attention to the original text, but, as we mentioned earlier, it is an abstract and general theory, which is more theoretical rather than expository. The lack of analysis and discussion of specific issues keeps the theory at an abstract level, making it difficult for translator to grasp the degree: what degree can be called “Faithfulness”, what degree can be called “Expressiveness”, and what degree can be called “Elegance”?(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) It is this ambiguity that makes this theory less scientific and accurate than Skopos theory. Thus its guiding role in practice is greatly reduced.

In addition, as a product of the times, Yan Fu’s theory is deeply influenced by the background of the time, and cannot be scientifically combined with other disciplines, which once again limits the application of this theory.

===5. Conclusion===

There are many similarities between the theory of purpose and Yan Fu's translation theory, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, in terms of pursuing fidelity and consistency, and observing reader adaptation, while there are also many differences in the theoretical systems, translation standards, and translator status. Although both theories have certain limitations, it is undeniable that they both provide important guidance for translation practice.

Through a comparative study of these two typical Chinese and Western translation theories, we can find that the Western translation theory pays more attention to scientific argumentation method. It attempts to combine with many other disciplines, and takes them as the theoretical support. Thus, the translation theory model is constantly proposed and improved, and the translation research perspective is expanded. Similarly, Yan Fu's theory is constantly being carried forward, and its influence is far-reaching.

Nowadays, as the world is in the period of fast development, dramatic change and great integration, Chinese and Western thoughts and cultures are deeply interwoven. We should adhere to the essence of Chinese translation theory while learning Western theory, so as to better master the essence of both, grasp the development trend of translation theory, and more actively guide our translation practice.

===Reference===

Christiane Nord. (1997). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity''. Kinderhook: St. Jerome Publishing.

Reiss Katharina & Vermeer Hans J. (1984). Groundwork for a general theory of translation. Tubingen: Niemeyer.

Pochhacker Franz. (1995). Simultaneous interrupting: a functionalist perspective. Hermes: Journal of linguistics, (14): 31-53.

Pym, Anthony. (1996). Material Text Transfer as a Key to the Purpose of Translation. Kent, Ohio: Institute of Applied Linguistics.

Vermeer Hans J. (1982a). Translation als informationsangebot. Lebende sprachen, 27(3)97-101.

Vermeer Hans J. (1987a). What does it mean to translate. ''Indian journal of applied linguistic'', 13(2):25-33.

Vermeer Hans J. (1989a). Skopos and Commission in Translational Action. Andrew Chersterman: ''The Translation Studies Reader'', 173-187.

Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2000). ''中国译学理论史稿'' [A History of Translation Theory in China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.

Dun Guangang 顿官刚.（2011). ''西方翻译理论文献宣读'' [Selected Readings in Western Translation Theory]. Hunan: Hunan Normal University Press 湖南师范大学出版社.

He Xiaoling 閤小玲. (2012). 浅析目的论视角下的译者主体性 [An Analysis of Translator Subjectivity in the Perspective of Purpose Theory]. Journal of Liuzhou Teachers College ''柳州师专学报''. (4):45-47.

Liu Qijia 刘期家. (2000). 论信达雅的历史发展轨迹 [On the historical development trajectory of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance]. Journal of Sichuan International Studies University ''四川外语学院学报''. (2):96-101.

Shen Suru 沈苏儒.(2001). 翻译的最高境界——信达雅漫谈 [The Highest Level of Translation - A Compendium of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.

Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2004). ''西方翻译简史'' [ A Short History of Translation in the West]. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.

Yan Fu严复. (1897). ''天演论·译例言'' [Evolution and Ethics· Yiliyan]. News Collection ''国闻汇编''.

Zhou Mengzhen 周锰珍. (2007). “目的论”与“信达雅”——中西方两种译论的比较 ['Skopos Theory' and 'Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance': A Comparison of Two Translation Theories in China and the West]. Academic Forum ''学术论坛''. (8):154-158.

--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 15:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Comparison of Eileen Chang’s Self-Translation and Conventional Translation from the Perspective of Gender 纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian 202020080605==

<center>纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian </center>

===Abstract===

As a representative of Chinese feminist literature, Eileen Chang’s feminist thoughts and gender consciousness have been fully reflected in her creation process. Besides, she is not only a writer, but also a translator. Studying her translation strategies in self-translation and conventional translation and exploring the gender consciousness reflected in her process of translation can help the further development of translation studies of Chang, make up for the lack of translation evaluation of Chinese women and it is also conducive to the further development of gender study in the context of China.

===Key words===

Eileen Chang, gender, self-translation, conventional translation

===题目===
性别视角下张爱玲自译与他译对比研究

===摘要===

张爱玲作为中国女性主义文学的代表人物，在她的创作过程中，女性主义思想、性别意识得到了充分的体现。张爱玲本人除了是一个作家外，也身兼译者的身份，从性别视角研究其自译与他译文本中所采取的翻译策略及其体现出来的性别意识，有助于张爱玲翻译研究的进一步发展，弥补中国翻译史中女性翻译史的欠缺，也有利于性别研究在中国语境下的进一步发展。

===关键词===

张爱玲，性别，自译，他译

===1. Introduction===

Eileen Chang, as a Chinese well-known female writer in the 20th century, her novels and proses have attracted much attention, so that many scholars focus on her literary creation achievement but ignore her translation. Numerous books aiming to introduce the Chinese translation history make no mention of Eileen Chang's identity as a translator. (Ma Ruofei 2007: 1)

In fact, Eileen Chang should be reckoned with in the translation field in that she has also made significant contributions in translation. Mao Dun has pointed out that “ The person who can translate literature books must be someone who has talent in creation”（Luo Xinzhang & Chen Yingnian 2009：413）, and looking back the Chinese history, we can find that there are not so many Chinese writers who can also translate, but Eileen Chang is one of them.

She, with her powerful creative talent and bilingual skills, has translated diverse works, including a variety of novels, proses and poems, at the same time, she has also made her contributions in compiling movie scripts. Here, the translations that will be talked about are her self-translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'' (''The Golden Cangue'') and conventional translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea''. (Ma Ruofei 2007: 1)

Eileen Chang, as a leader of feminist literature in China, the feminism thought is profoundly embodied in her literary creation and translation, however, speaking up for women has not limited her exploration of male identity, in the process of depicting the typical characters with different genders, Eileen Chang, as an author or a translator, represents different gender identities. (Ma Yue & Mu Lei 2010: 67)

===2. Gender and Translation===

Since the rise of feminism in the western continent in the 20th century, the topic of gender has always been placed at the core of its theoretical development. Feminism translation theory thought that between women and translation there was some kind of similarity - both of them were placed in the inferior position. So they combined feminism and translation, advocating from the feminist standpoint, using language to create positive intervention to change women' s weak position in translation, so that it can criticize the traditional translation theories which degrade women and translation to the bottom of the society or literature. (Meng Lingzi 2016: 23)

During this period, the research on the relationship between gender and translation has seen the influence of gender identity on translation, which is a big development. However, the over-emphasis on the opposition between the two sexes has its limitations. (Meng Lingzi 2016: 23)

As Sherry Simon has pointed out, “...Another interesting area of investigation would be the way gender identities have been disguised through translation” (Sherry 2005:159), that is, gender identity can be disguised during translation, or the identity represented by the translator is not a single fixed one.With the development and innovation of various theories, translation studies from the perspective of gender, when it is developed into the 1980s, under the influence of post-structuralism theory, its focus has shifted from the over-emphasis on the opposition between men and women to the exploration of meaning and gender fluidity.

This chapter, facing such a change of gender translation studies, aims to study Eileen Chang' s translations from the perspective of gender liquidity. To some extent, this chapter breaks the status quo that the study on Eileen Chang is onefold about feminism and explores her gender identity transformation in translation to dig out the influences that different gender identities make to the translation. (Ma Ruofei 2007: 46)

===3. The Gender Identities in Eileen Chang' s Self-translation -- ''Jinsuo Ji''===

As one of the most representative works of Eileen Chang, ''Jinsuo Ji'' was once honored as “the greatest novella in the history of Chinese literature”(Hsia 1999: 398) by Hsia, while Fu Lei (whose early pseudonym is Xun Yu) also gave a high evaluation of this work, and he said that it was “one of the most great achievements in our literary world”(Xun Yu 1994: 121).

In order to perfectly present the culture and thought of the original work, Eileen Chang chose to translate it by herself. It takes her nearly 10 years to rewrite or self-translate ''Jinsuo Ji'', including four different versions: ''Pink Tears'', ''The Rouge of The North'', ''Yuan Nv'' and ''The Golden Cangue''. However, due to the cultural differences, the English version is far less successful than the Chinese version especially the first two English versions do not receive much attention. It was not until 1971 that her fourth English version was produced and chosen into ''Twentieth - Century Chinese Stories''(1921).

Finished in 1943，''Jinsuo Ji'' mainly depicts how Ch’ i-ch’ iao, an ordinary girl from a vendor' s family, gradually changes her mental state because of the oppression of the feudal family. Being forced to marry a crippled person, she depresses her love towards Chiang Chi-tse, her brother-in-law, and idles thirty years in Chiang family like insanity. Under such circumstance, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s personality is finally distorted. She destroys her son's marriage and tortures her daughter-in-law to death. Besides, her daughter' s marriage is ended by her. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 134)

Eileen Chang' s works overturns the traditional patriarchal discourse, turning to the female as the center of her literature creation, and in her works, the main objects are those ordinary women who live a tragic life. These works fully show her sympathy to the fate of these women, and reflect her intense gender consciousness which is also reflected in her translation.

====3.1 The Performace of Translator' s Female Identity====

In ''Jinsuo Ji'', Ch’ i-ch’ iao is definitely a beautiful and healthy girl. However, she has to marry a disabled husband with an ugly appearance. In the face of such a marriage, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s sorrow is obvious, and hoping for love, she turns her eyes to Chiang Chi-tse. However, the reality proves to her that Chiang Chi-tse' s so-called emotion is just a use. Eileen Chang, as a female translator, is full of sympathy for Ch'i-ch'iao's situation, and this sympathy is fully reflected in her translation. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 134)

ST：
（七巧的手直打颤，扇柄上的杏黄须子在她额上苏苏摩擦着......）七巧低着头，沐浴在光辉里，细细的音乐，细细的喜悦.....这些年了，她跟他捉迷藏似的，只是近不得身，原来还有今天！(Eileen Chang 1992: 108)

TT：
( Ch'i-ch'iao's hands trembled until the yellow tassel on the fan handle rustled against her forehead...) Ch’ i-ch’ iao bowed her head, basking in glory, in the soft music of his voice and the delicate pleasure of this occasion. So many years now, she had been playing hide-and-seek with him and never could get close, and there had still been a day like this in store for her. (Eileen Chang 1971: 163)

Comparing the source text with the target text, it can be found that Eileen Chang makes three main additions here: “of his voice”, “of this occasion” and “in store” to explicate the implied information in the source text, which more powerfully reveal Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s strong feelings of love and uneasiness for Chiang Chi-tse all the time. From then on, it can be seen that Ch' i-ch' iao once placed her hope in Chiang Chi-tse for love. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 142)

However, from the description in the following text, we can find that for Chiang Chi-tse, the affection with Ch' i-ch' iao is just for regulating his life. Eileen Chang clarifies Ch' i-ch' iao' s emotion in the translation and reveals Chiang Chi-tse' s so-called emotion in the later text, which can show the tragic color of Ch’ i-ch’ iao to express the translator’ s sympathy for the character. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 142)

====3.2 The Performace of Translator' s Male Identity====

In ''Jinsuo Ji'', the author uses a large number of metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival condition. In order to more intuitively present such a state to the readers, Eileen Chang tries her best to translate from the male identity, which to a certain extent derogates the female consciousness of the text, to show the passiveness and helplessness of female characters under a specific era background. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 145)

ST:
娟姑娘扶了正，做了芝寿的替身。(Eileen Chang 1992: 130)

TT：
Miss Chuan was made a wife and became Chih-shou' s substitute. (Eileen Chang 1971: 191)

The source text describes that after the death of Ch' i-ch’ iao' s daughter-in-law Chih-shou, Chuan, as a concubine of Ch' ang - pai, was supported as his wife. The expression “扶了正” is full of metaphorical color, “正” is a metaphor for the official wife, and “扶” indicates that Chuan is a passive object controlled by others. In the translation, Eileen Chang uses the passive voice to translate “扶了正” into “was made a wife” to convey the manipulated situation implied in the source text. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 145)

In addition, here Chang uses the article “a” instead of “the”, just as there will be others to take the place of Chih-shou after her death, the position of the official wife is also low in the feudal family. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 145)

Another typical example in which the translator expresses herself as a male to show the passive position of the female is reflected in the translation of Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai’ s separation scene:

ST：
长安和长白分了家搬出来住。(Eileen Chang 1992: 130)

TT：
Ch’ ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang - pai and moved out of the house. (Eileen Chang 1971: 191)

The original describes the scene in which Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai split up after Ch' i-ch' iao' s death. Here “分家” is a phrase with metaphorical color.

Instead of translating it directly into “divide the property”, Eileen Chang, from the perspective of male identity, conceals the hidden information of the original in the translation. She translates the sentence “长安和长白分了家” into “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai”, which reveals the fact that in the feudal family of China, men had the right to inherit the family while women were subordinated. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 144)

====3.3 The Disappearance of Translator' s Gender Identity====

In the process of translation, Eileen Chang not only uses the identity of male or female to flexibly express the meaning of the original text, but also appropriately conceals her gender identity in some situations to reveal the reality of all characters including both sexes.

ST：
（去年她戴了丈夫的孝，今年婆婆又过世了。）现在正式挽了叔公九老太爷出来为他们分家。(Eileen Chang 1992: 104)

TT：
（Last year, she wore mournings for her husband and this year, her mother - in - law had passed away.）Now her husband’ s uncle, Ninth Old Master, was formerly invited to come and divide the property among the survivors. (Eileen Chang 1971: 157)

The source text shows us that after the death of the old woman in power of Chiang Mansion, a group of men and women gathered to separate their families. In the translation of the text, Eileen Chang does not make too many adjustments, but only abstracts the word “他们” which indicates “them” into “survivors”, a word with multiple meanings. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 146)

Firstly, the survivors are indeed “alive” relative to the old woman who died, so the “survivors” can convey the meaning of the original text. Secondly, to some extent, in Eileen Chang' s eyes, both men and women are struggling in the mud in this turbulent era shrouded by feudal ideology, and everyone is a survivor of suffering. Therefore, she uses the word “survivors” to reveal the abuses of the era and sigh over life. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 146)

Due to the work itself has strong female consciousness, therefore, as a translator, Eileen Chang inevitably translates from female perspective most of the time, but this does not mean that female translators do not have the male consciousness, from the second case, we can see that the identity of the translator can be transformed. In addition, the fluidity of the translator's gender identity is not only reflected in Eileen Chang's translation of female texts, but also reflected in her translation of male texts. (Wang Jing 2011: 104)

===4. The Gender Identities in Eileen Chang’ s Conventional Translation -- ''The Old Man and the Sea''===

''The Old Man and the Sea'' is an outstanding masterpiece of the famous American writer Ernest Miller Hemingway. It was published in 1952 and won the Pulitzer Prize in the second year. In 1954, Hemingway also won the Nobel Prize of Literature. Eileen Chang left Shanghai and arrived in Hong Kong in 1952, just after the publication of ''The Old Man and the Sea''. Invited by the press office of the U.S. Consulate General in Hong Kong, Eileen Chang began to participate in a large-scale Chinese-translation project of American literary works, including ''The Old Man and the Sea''. (Mao Pingping 2018: 171)

Once the work was published, it attracted a wide attention. During that period, even priests and preachers began to quote Hemingway’ s philosophical and thought-provoking quotes in ''The Old Man and the Sea''. This book is translated into dozens of languages and published all over the world, with high praise from critics and readers. The first person in China who gets this great work into well translated is Eileen Chang.

''The Old Man and the Sea'' tells the story of a special fishing experience of an old fisherman named Santiago. After eighty-four days without getting a fish, he was lucky enough to catch a huge marlin. However, the marlin dragged the old man and the boat along for two days and nights. In these two days and nights the old man had gone through the most difficult trials he had ever gone through. With strong will, he finally killed the big marlin and tied it to the bow. However, unfortunately, a group of big sharks came after smelling the smell of blood and the old man fought with them to the death. At last, the old man’ s life was saved, but the sharks had eaten up the great marlin, and what the old man dragged back was a bare skeleton.

When it comes to ''The Old Man and the Sea'', in the prologue of its Chinese version, Eileen Chang expresses her affection of this work many times and different from the self-translation in which she has taken a bold rewriting, in the translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang is more faithful to the original, and only presents her subjectivity in the choice of the gender identity. Eileen Chang expresses her understanding of the gender of the source text in the prologue, and then creatively translates the gender-loaded words in the text accordingly.(Eileen Chang 1979: 5)

====4.1 The Performace of Translator' s Female Identity====

It is undeniable that female translators depict emotions more deeply and delicately than male translators. Therefore, in the process of translating The Old Man and the Sea, Eileen Chang, as a female herself, is particularly adept in showing the emotional characteristics of Sandiego. “...In her translations, she uses rephrasing, color words and onomatopoeia words which are full of feminine characteristics. Those words hint about her feminist thoughts and subtly reveal her identity as a female translator.” (Mao Pingping 2018: 171)

ST：
“Come on.” the old man said aloud. “Make another turn. Just smell them. Aren’ t they lovely? Eat them good now and there is the tuna. Hard and cold and lovely.” (Hemingway 1985: 39)

TT：
“再兜一个圈子。你闻闻看。这沙丁鱼可爱不可爱? 好好地吃它们吧，不时还可以吃吃那鳍鱼。硬硬的，冷的，可爱的。”(Eileen Chang 1979: 29)

Here Eileen Chang uses a number of reduplicated words “闻闻”, “可爱不可爱”, “好好地”, “吃吃” and “硬硬的” to translate the dialogue between the old man and the fish, or in other words, the old man’ s self-talk, to soften the whole image of Sandiac and also show his loneliness.

====4.2 The Disappearance of Translator' s Gender Identity====

As a work of men power, the word “man” can be found throughout the whole novel, and translation of this word has mainly two kinds of different ways, one is to follow the novel emotional qualitative, translating it into “男子汉” or some words having the similar meaning, and this way is often taken by many male translators. The second way is to expand the scope of objects, translating it into “人” or “人类” which includes both men and women. (Wang Jing 2011: 103)

To some extent, the latter way blurs gender identity or conceals gender identity to achieve gender balance in the meaning. Eileen Chang mainly adopts the second method in her translation:

ST:
It is what a man must do．(Hemingway 1985: 23)

TT:
男子汉就应该这样。(Hai Guan 1979: 15)

男子汉就该这么干。(Wu Lao 2009: 21)

活总是要干的。(Eileen Chang 1979: 16)

Wu Lao and Hai Guan both translate “man” into the concept of “male”, while Eileen Chang avoids using such words in translation. Here she translates the original text into a sentence pattern without subject, omits the subject with gender description, and in fact blurs the gender boundary of the words, thus breaking the arbitrary power of male discourse.

====4.3 The Performance of Translator' s Male Identity====

For the translation of “man”, Eileen Chang has also adopted another translation method:

ST：
“But man is not made for defeat,” he said. “A man can be destroyed but not defeated.”(Hemingway 1985: 96)

TT：
“但是人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个男子汉可以被消灭，但是不能被打败。”(Eileen Chang 1979: 81）

“可是一个人并不是生来要给打败的，”他说。“你尽可把他消灭掉，可就是打不败他。”（Hai Guan 1979: 79）

“不过人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个人可以被毁灭，但不能给打败。”（Wu Lao 2009: 99）

Here, contrary to the previous example, Hai Guan and Wu Lao translate “man” into “人”, while Eileen Chang translates “man” into “男子汉”which means male, pointing out that “a male can be destroyed”. Compared with Hai' s and Wu' s translation, Chang’ s translation, though excluding the female crowd, emphasizes the limitation of male power.

Eileen Chang's translation is very characteristic. By taking advantage of different gender identities to give play to her translator's subjectivity, Eileen Chang transformed the image of Santiago, a tough man who fought bravely against nature created by Ernest Hemingway in the original text, into the image of a fisherman, a symbol of gender equality and a representative of all mankind. (Mao Pingping 2018: 171)

Through the self-translation and conventional translation of Eileen Chang, we can see that the gender identity of the translator is not unchangeable, either in the feminist text (''Jinsuo Ji'') or in the text expressing the male discourse power (''The Old Man and the Sea''). The translator can adjust his/her gender identity to represent different genders and thus achieve his/her translation purpose.

===5. Reasons for the Transformation of Gender Identity===

====5.1 Cultural Context====

Malinowski, a Polish anthropologist, first put forward the concept of “context” and he divides context into cultural context and situational context. Here I mainly expound the influence of the cultural context on the transformation of the translator’ s gender identity in the two literary works ''Jinsuo Ji'' and ''The Old Man and the Sea''. “The literary creation of any country or region cannot be separated from the rendering of the corresponding cultural context...A good translation cannot be achieved without a profound understanding of the context of the text.” (Xi Peihua 2017, 121)

The creation context of ''Jinsuo ji'' is different from that of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', and the social background of the readers of the target language and the source language is also different, which both affect the choice of the translator’ s gender identity.

For example, Eileen Chang' s work ''Jinsuo Ji'' reflects the difficult survival of Chinese women in the feudal family under the background of the 20th century. The original text uses many metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival, and it’ s not difficult for the source language readers who are in the same social background to understand the indicating meaning of those words. However, when the text is put into a different context while the text content is presented in the same way, it is not easy for the target language readers to understand. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 145)

For example, the expression “分家” in the sentence “长安和长白分了家搬出来住” has not only the surface meaning of “separation” but the implied cultural meaning that “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai” which is the hidden information the target language readers won' t get if the translator did not take appropriate measures to make up for the differences of context. Therefore, in her translation, Chang clarifies the cultural characteristics of the source language through the transformation of gender identity. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 144)

====5.2 The Gender of the Translator and the Purpose of Translation====

As a female translator, Eileen Chang' s female thought is inevitably reflected in her process of translation. And in addition to some unconscious female thinking, it is believed that Eileen Chang' s adoption of different gender identities is more consciously chosen according to her translation purpose. For example, in the translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'', Eileen Chang translates from the perspective either of her own or the gender identity or of the opposite sex, the ultimate purpose is to express the struggle and survival of the female characters in the patriarchal society and expressing her lament for that era.

And in ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang expresses her different understanding of this work in her translation preface that the old fisherman shows astonishing perseverance in his struggle with the sea -- not superhuman, but a kind of grace and spirit due to all human beings. (Eileen Chang 1979: 12)

Therefore, Eileen Chang, based on her understanding of the work, attempts to abstract the image of “old fisherman” into all mankind through her translation, and either from a female identity perspective, from a male perspective or conceal her gender identity in her translation the purpose is to weaken the male discourse in the original text. (Eileen Chang 1979: 12)

===6. Conclusion===

Through this comparative study on Eileen Chang' s self-translation and conventional translation, we can see that Eileen Chang, as a female translator, can not only translate feminine literature from a female perspective, but translate male literature from heterosexual gender perspective.

On the other hand, in the same literary work’s translation, her gender identity is not fixed, for example, in translating the female literary, in order to better achieve the purpose of translation, the translator can translate from a male perspective. In a word, this chapter provides the corresponding empirical evidence for the fluidity of translator' s gender identity, breaking the current situation that the research on Eileen Chang' s translation mainly focuses on her feminism.

===References===

Chang Eileen, trans. (1971). ''The Golden Cangue. Twentieth-century Chinese Stories''[M]. NY: Columbia University Press.

Eileen Chang 张爱玲. (1955). 金锁记[M]. [''The Gold Cangue'']. 上海印书馆. [Shanghai Press].

Ma Ruofei 马若飞. (2007). 张爱玲翻译研究[D]. [Eileen Chang Translation Studies]. 北京语言大学. [Beijing Language and Culture University].

Ernest Hemingway. (1985). ''The Old Man and the Sea''[M]. Printed in Great Britain by St Edmundsbury Press, Bury St Edmunds, Suffolk.

Ernest Hemingway. (1979). 老人与海[M]. [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 张爱玲译, 香港: 香港今日世界出版社. [Hong Kong: Hong Kong Today World Press].

Ernest Hemingway. (1979). 老人与海[M]. [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 海观译, 上海译文出版社. [Shanghai Translation Publishing House].

Ernest Hemingway. (2009). 老人与海[M]. [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 吴劳译, 上海译文出版社. [Shanghai Translation Publishing House].

Luo Xinzhang, Chen Yingnian 罗新璋，陈应年. (2009). 翻译论集[C].[''Translation Theory Collection'']. 北京: 商务印书馆. [Beijing: The Commercial Press].

Ma Yue, Mu Lei 马悦, 穆雷. (2010). 译者性别身份流动性 :女性主义翻译研究的新视角[J]. [Translator’s Gender Identity Mobility: a New Perspective on Feminist Translation Studies]. 解放军外国语学院学报. [Journal of PLA University of Foreign Languages]. 66-70.

Mao Pingping 毛萍萍. (2018). 张爱玲《老人与海》译作中女性主义的东方色彩[J]. [Oriental Feminism in Eileen Chang' s Translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 大众文艺. [Popular Literature]. 171-173.

Meng Lingzi 孟令子. (2016). 从女性主义翻译到性别翻译[J]. [From Feminist Translation to Gender and Translation]. 中国翻译. [Chinese Translators Journal]. 23-31.

Simon, Sherry. (1996). Gender in Translation: Cultural Identity and the Politics of Transmission[M]. London: Routledge.

Wang Jing 王璟. (2011). 性别意识与文学翻译——张爱玲翻译个案研究[J]. [Gender Awareness and Literary Translation: A Case Study of Eileen Chang' s Translation]. 中国外语. [Chinese Foreign Language]. 102-106.

Wang Xiaoying 王晓莺. (2015). 离散译者张爱玲的中英翻译——一个后殖民女性主义的解读[M]. [''Diaspora Translator Eileen Chang’s Chinese-English Translation——A Postcolonial Feminist Interpretation'']. 广州:中山大学出版社. [Guangzhou: Sun Yat-sen University Press].

Xi Peihua 席培华. (2017). 浅谈语境文化对英美文学翻译的影响[J]. [On the Influence of Context Culture on the Translation of English and American Literature]. 黑龙江教育学院学报. [Journal of Heilongjiang Institute of Education]. 121-123.

='''Art of Translation'''=

==A Comparative Study of Two English Versions of Bian Cheng from the Perspective of Translation Ethics Gui Yizhi 桂一枝 202070080587==
<center>Gui Yizhi 桂一枝 202070080587</center>

===Abstract===

Translation is a kind of cultural communication. As long as trans-cultural contacts between different nations and countries occur, problems in ethics would inevitably arise. The nature of translation determines that translation and its researches need the study of ethics as their guidance. The Chinese outstanding contemporary literary works ''Bian Cheng'' has been translated into many different languages, which now enjoys a high reputation among the world. Many researchers have studied its English version from different translation theoretic perspective. This thesis intends to compare two English version of ''Bian Cheng'' translated by Gladys Yang and Ching Ti & Robert Payne respectively within the frame work of Chesterman’s five models of translation ethics, and examine the presentation of translation ethics in these two version.

===Key Words===

Translation ethics, ''Bian Cheng'', Chesterman

===题目===

翻译伦理视域下《边城》两英译本的比较研究

===摘要===

翻译是一项跨文化交流活动。只要不同国家，民族间发生的跨文化行为就不可避免地产生伦理问题。翻译的本质属性决定了翻译活动和翻译研究需要伦理学的指导。《边城》作为我国当代的优秀文学作品曾被翻译成多国文字，在世界文坛上饱享盛誉，很多学者从不同的翻译理论角度对此英译本做过分析研究，本文将从翻译伦理角度，以切斯特曼的五大翻译伦理模式为理论框架，对《边城》的两个英译本——戴乃迭和金堤与白英的译本进行比较评析，探讨翻译伦理在两译本中的体现。

翻译伦理；边城；切斯特曼

===1. Research Background===

Since the late 1970s when the study of translation was proposed to be established as a discipline, it has been developing significantly, going far beyond traditional translation studies. Ideas about translation have sprung up like mushrooms.

From the popularity of functionalism to the emergence of poly-system theory and norm theory in the 1970s and 1980s, scholarship on translation had converted from traditional study focusing mainly on textual matters, more often than not within a linguistic or a literary framework to the study of cultural, commercial, social, historical and political factors related to the texts. Thus, it largely broadened scholars' horizon and enriched the research scope to make translation as a reformulated subject of lively, interdisciplinary debate, paving way to the "cultural turn". (Luo 2009: 61)

With the acceleration of globalization redefining national and cultural boundaries, the "cultural turn" in translation studies in the 1990s further introduced many newer theoretical perspectives. Cultural, national, postcolonial, ideological and gender studies, etc. began hitting the field. Translation was never purely regarded as the process of the transfer between languages but also the transfer between cultures. Regarding translation as an intercultural activity now, the translator as a "cultural mediator" has to handle the relations between Self and the Other to coordinate diversified cultural relationships and resolve cultural conflict to promote understanding and communication among nations. Since ethics as a discipline focuses on moral principles guiding human behavior in social relations, translation as a particular kind of activity involving a series of relations can naturally fall into the field of the study of ethics.

It was under such circumstances that the ethics of translation entered the field of the translation study, and became a hot topic in the late 1990s. Just as Pym claims in his article: "ethics has become a cross-cultural concern as it has in translation studies. Consequently, the study of translation ethics has been appealing to some scholars and should be given much more emphasis by the whole translation circle." It's now widely accepted that translation study has returned to the questions of ethics.(Pym 2001:129-138)

===2. Literature Review===

====2.1 Studies on Translation Ethics aboard====

After the cultural turn in 1970s, a trend of investigating translation studies from the perspective of ethics begins in translation theorists. The development of translation ethics and the major influential scholars’ viewpoints are clarified in the following section.
It was in the 1980s that the ethics-oriented approaches began emerging in translation studies abroad. Antoine Berman, a French translator and philosopher, is considered the initiator of the study of translation ethics. Early in 1984, Berman first put forward the concept of "translation ethics" in an international seminar on philosophy based on the fierce critics of the western translation tradition of only focusing on "transmitting sense" and advocated that translation ethics should be regarded as one branch of translation studies.(Berman 1992: 3)

Influenced and enlightened by Berman, Lawrence Venuti, a translation theorist of American deconstructionist, also expresses his concerns on translation ethics by advocating "an ethics of difference". He invents the two words "domestication" and "resistancy" to define the different ethical attitudes and practice of translators. Venuti pays more attention to the social and political factors in translation by advocating the translation strategy of foreignization to resist the cultural hegemony in contemporary Anglo-American culture. Therefore, his thoughts about translation ethics with a basic character of "resistancy" seem more realistic and profound.(Venuti 2004)

As the initiator of "the return to ethics" in The Translator in 2001, the French translation theorist Anthony Pym has also made great contributions to the study of translation ethics. Unlike Venuti, who is greatly influenced by Berman, he is not totally in favor of Berman's theory of translation ethics, which he regards as too rigid, pedantic and abstract, for he thinks the debate about "how to translate" over the centuries is always confined to the dichotomy of domestication and foreignization, with Berman's no exception. Pym’s basic idea is that translators should be more loyal to their profession than to the source and target organ. The reason lies in that the whole accountability of professional translators is grounded in the profession itself. Translators check each other's work, drawing on past translations for guidance. They derive their norms from the existing professional context. Just as international scientific community, translators are a community that survives via its own system of checks and balances (Pym 2001:129-138).

In 1990s, Chesterman, an influential Finish scholar, makes a great contribution to the completeness of translation ethics. He puts forward a quite different view on translation ethics, focusing on the values instead of rights and obligations of the translators. Chesterman (1997a) considers values to be the primary notion. In his opinion, there are four values — truth, trust, clarity and understanding, all of which form a fairly comprehensive notion of translation ethics. Later in 2001, Chesterman published a paper "Proposal for a Hieronymic Oath" in a special issue of the journal The Translator, entitled "the return to Ethics". In his paper, he firstly put forward four models of translation ethics: the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication and the norm-based ethics. Another model named ethics of commitment was added later so as to essentially regularize the translator's ethical behavior. His proposal of five models of translation ethics has caused a big stir in the academic field, which is considered objective, descriptive and systematic. This classification provides us with a multi-dimensional method of assessing translation practice, for it has assimilated many research results from existing translation theories such as functionalist, norm theory, etc.(Chesterman 2001:139-153)

====2.2 Studies on Translation Ethics at home====

With the development of the studies on translation ethics in the west, some of Chinese translation scholars have also begun to turn their attention to this issue on translation studies. Professor Lu Jun is the first person to propose "translation ethics" based on the theories of Jurgen Harbermas, communicative ethics in his book ''Span Cultural Barriers — Reconstruction of the Tower of Babel'' written in 2001. In this book, He regards translation activity as "a kind of dialogue and communication between different cultures that requires people to conform to some principles and norms for such intercultural communications will involve more complicated issues..., to be more specific, translation activity itself needs the guidance of ethics". (Lu 2001: 272)

Generally speaking, from Professor Lu Jun's view, the theoretical principle of translation ethics is to pursue equality and justice, to oppose linguistic and cultural hegemony and to seek mutual respect and benefits in different cultures. His research on translation ethics has widened the scopes of translation ethics and has contributed a lot to the study of translation ethics.

With more and more foreign theories of translation ethics translated and introduced in China, some of the researchers begin to apply these research achievements into translation practice. Professor Sun Zhili creatively identifies five responsibilities for the translator to take based on Chesterman5s five models of translation ethics in combination with a consideration of Chinese translation context, namely, the responsibility of representing the original, of fulfilling one's client's requirements, of conforming to the socio-cultural norms of the receiving country, of satisfying the demands of the TL reader, and finally of abiding by one's professional ethics and becomes the first person to interprets the translator's responsibilities from the perspective of translation ethics.(Sun 2007: 14-18)

Professor Xu Jun makes a tentative discussion of the ethical problems in translation in his article ''essay on three levels of translation activities'' in 1998. In his opinion, every responsible translator should seriously consider and treat questions presented by "willingness", "reality", and "morality", he proposes that "the establishment of translation standards and the adoption of translation strategies are bound by moral ties...if given careful observation, activities from the choosing of the texts to be translated, the adopting of the translation strategies to the rewriting and editing of the translated texts are all constrained and influenced by various ethical problems... Therefore, translators should consider from both the aesthetic level and the moral level".(Xu 1998: 49-54)

====2.3. the Translation of ''Bian Cheng''====

The thesis adopts the classic modern novel ''Bian Cheng'' owing to its distinguished language and unique style of writing. Set in the border town Chatong and the nearby rural areas in West Human of 30's, Bian Cheng tells a tragic love story between the beautiful young girl Cuicui and the young man Nuosong. It is the representative work of Shen Congwen who has a high reputation in the Chinese literature circle. He is regarded as "one of the half-dozen great authors of modern Chinese literature" (Kinkley, 1987). He has even been nominated for the "Nobel Literature Prize" in 1987. Therefore, this novel is worth appreciating and analyzing.

There are four English version of ''Bian Cheng''. As early as 1936, the English magazine issued in China with the aim of promoting the exchange between the Chinese and western cultures named T'ien Hsia Monthly began to serialize the English version of Bianchen titled ''Green Jade and Green Jade'' translated by Xing Molei (the pen name of Shao Xunmei) and his girlfriend Emily Hahn. It was not until another English version titled ''The Frontier City'' contained in T''he Chinese Earth: Stories By Shen Tsung-wen'' translated by Ching Ti & Robert Payne and published by George Allen & Unwin Ltd. in 1936 came into being that Bian Cheng became very popular in the western countries and also evoked much interest in the author himself. And this version was reprinted by Columbia University Press in 1982. In the 1980's, Yang Xianxi, the top-rank translator and Forerunner, inspired by the success of Penguin Books in the UK, called for the publishing of a series of books called "Panda Books" to introduce Chinese representative literary works to the world. This series of books included ''The Border Town and Other Stories'' translated by Yang Xianyi's wife Gladys Yang, The fourth version was translated by American Sinologist and translator Jeffrey Kinkley, which was published in 2009 by HarperCollins Publishers. These four English translations span 73 years and have witnessed the history of the English translation of modern Chinese literature.

Based on the previous studies, this thesis will choose these two English versions of Biancheng translated by Ching Ti & Robert Payne and Gladys Yang, and make a comparative study of them from the perspective of Chesterman’s Five Models of Translation Ethics.

===3.Chesterman’s Five Models of Translation Ethics===

Chesterman's five models of translation ethics are the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication, the norm-based ethics and ethics of commitment.

Ethics of representation is closely concerned with faithfulness, which has been discussed for years in the translation circle. This model requires that translators should reproduce with full loyalty to the original text, the original author, the original language, and the original culture. In Chesterman's words, “the ethical imperative is to represent the source text, or the source author's intention, accurately, without adding, omitting or changing anything”. Ethics of representation means that the translation can substitute or represent the source text.(Chesterman 2001: 139)

The ethics of service requires the translator to "act ethically if his translation complies with the instructions set by the client and fulfills the purpose of the translation as set by the client and accepted or negotiated by the translator", and the translator should be "loyal above all to the client, but also to the target readers and to the original writer".(Chesterman 2001: 140)

The ethics of communication sees translation as "an interlingual and cross-cultural communication, the emphasis of which is not on representing the Other but on communicating with Others in the cross-cultural communication" and asks the translator to be "a mediator working to achieve cross-cultural understanding".(Chesterman 2001: 141)

Norm-based Ethics is the fourth model of translation ethics Chesterman proposes, which belongs to the branch of "descriptive translation studies". Toury (1995) gives a definition of norm like "the general values of ideas shared by a community as to what is right or wrong, adequate or inadequate into performance instruction appropriate for and applicable to particular situations". That is to say, norms are what the majority expects what translation should be like. Translators should not challenge the current norms in translation circle.(Chesterman 2001: 142)

The ethics of commitment is further raised by Chesterman, which rests on a practical evaluation of translation activity: "I take commitment to be the glue that binds practitioners to the value of the practice. It is thus also a virtue, supporting the striving for excellence, the wanting to be a good translator". He proposes nine points for the comprehension of the professional ethics of translators: commitment, loyalty to the profession, understanding, truth, clarity, trustworthiness, truthfulness, justice, striving for excellence.(Chesterman 2001: 147)

===4. Comparison of the Two English Versions of ''Bian Cheng''===

====4.1 Different Translator Focuses on Different Translation Ethics====

Ching & Payne's translation was published in ''the Chinese Earth: Stories by Shen The Chinese Earth: Stories by Shen Ts'ung-wen'' in 1947 by George Allen & Unwin Ltd in London, England. The author aims to introduce Chinese novels to English readers, making the Border Town known to readers in Western countries. Since then, western readers have gradually know Shen Congwen. The translation was republished by Columbia University Press in 1982. After the founding of New China, Shen Congwen's works were once banned. It was not until the 1980s that his books returned to people's vision. Gladys 's translation is contained in ''Border Town and Other Stories'', published by China Literature Publishing House in 1981, which aims to promote representative Chinese literary works to the world.(Xiang 2019:92)

Different translations deal with the frame structure of the original work differently. The Ching & Payne translation adds an 8-page translation preface to the front of the text. In the translation preface, the translator first explains the reason and importance of adding the preface to the translation. Furthermore, the translator introduced the writing styles of Shen Congwen and Lu Xun; third, the translator introduced Shen Congwen’s life and his position in the Chinese literary world; finally, the translator analyzed the theme and content of ''Border Town''. However, Gladys 's version only has a short preface about brief introduction of Shen Congwen. The Ching & Payne translation was published in 1947. In order to meet the needs of translation service ethics and communication ethics, based on the fact that Western world and western readers did not know much about Chinese culture as well as Shen Congwen, so the translator gave a lot of introduction Shen Congwen and Border Town. Gladys’s version was published in 1981. Before this time, Shen Congwen’s works were once listed as banned books. During this period, overseas research on Shen Congwen has never stopped. In the 1980s, there was even Overseas Shen Congwen Craze. So based on the relationship between the translator, the sponsor and the readers, different translator will focus on different translation ethics during their translation activities.(Xiang 2019:92)

====4.2 Places and Culture-loaded Words Translation====

Table1 comparison of places names in two versions

源语/金白译/戴译

四川/ Szechuan/ Szechuan

辰州/ Chenshow/ Chenshow

桃源/ Taoyuan/ Taoyuan

沅水/ Yua Sui/ River Yuan

白河/ White Stream/ White River

湖南/ Hunan/ Hunan

秀山/ Hsiushan Mountain/ Mount Xiu

茶峒/ Ch’a-t’ung/ Chatong

酉水/ Yu Sui/ The You

洞庭湖/ T-ung-ting Lake/ Lake Dongting

The ethics of communication believes that translation is a cross-cultural and cross-language communication activity. The translator should first be faithful to the translation ethics in the "cultural communication space", not the source or target culture. The ultimate goal of translation is promoting communication and cooperation between the two parties. Therefore, the two translators followed different communicative ethics in different times. In order to effectively achieve the purpose of communication, Ching & Payne adopted Wade-Giles Romanization, which was acceptable to the English world. This way is easy to be taken by readers and promotes effective communication. At that time, Gladys was commissioned by the magazine Chinese Literature at the time, and her translation had to serve as her "patron". For the translation of place names, Gladys 's translation used the phonetic system which was the standard rules for translating names of places and persons at that time. When personal ethics conflict with social ethics, the subjectivity of the translator will be controlled by the "patron". Ching & Payne translated earlier, and their version was published by George Allen & Unwin Ltd. Therefore, compared to Gladys, the "patron" of the Ching & Payne’s version are themselves.(Xiang 2019:93)

Table 2 comparison of culture-loaded words in two versions

源语/ 金白译/ 戴译

油坊/ Oilshops/ Tung oil presses

桐油/ Wood-oil/ Tung oil

唢呐/ Flute/ Trumpet

糍粑/ Cake/ Ciba

纤夫/ Haulers/ Towman

上帝/ God/ Jade Emperor

蓬船/ Junk/ Craft

青盐/ Green salt/ Rock salt

法器/ Musical instrument/ Stock-in-trade

粉条/ Rice noddles/ Bean-vermicelli

喽啰/ bandit/ Whirligig

陀螺/ Delicate silk gowns/ Dark satin jackets over long gowns

From Table2 we can see that Gladys's translation adopts the strategy of foreignization, preserving Chinese culture and following the ethic of representation. It also contains serving factors for the "patron". In a sense, it unifies the ethics of representation and service. While Ching & Payne’s version focuses more on the target language readers’ understanding, and give up to represent the culture-loaded words that are unfamiliar to target language readers by using the translation strategy of domestication. Its aim is to entertain the readers. In order to effectively achieve better communication with target language readers, he mainly follows the communication ethics in translation ethics.(Xiang 2019:93)

====4.3 Representation of the Aesthetic Prospect====

One of the most distinctive features of Bian Cheng lies in its unity of objective scene and subjective emotion to successfully create the beauty of aesthetic prospect. Contemporary literary theorist Tong Qingbing defines the aesthetic prospect as “an image system of a fusion of feelings with the scenery depicted represented in the lyrical works, which can evoke readers’ association and imagination, and surpasses the concrete vision and ascends an extensive artistic space.” So, it's the translators’ responsibility to represent the aesthetic prospect of the source text. Now, let’s take a look at the following examples.(Tong 1998: 194)

[Example 1]

[STI]由四川过湖南去，靠东有一条官路。这条官路将近湘西边境到了一个名为“茶峒”的小山城时，有一小溪，溪边有座白色小塔，塔下住了一户单独的人家。这人家只有一个老人，一个女孩，一只黄狗。(沈从文，1981:1)

[TT-1] The highway running east from Sichuan to Hunan comes, just west of the border, to Chatong, a small town in the hills. Near by a stream flows past a small pagoda, at the foot of which lives a solitary household: an old man, a girl and a dog. (Gladys, 1981:5)

[TT-2] From Szechuan there is a highway running east to Hunan. When the road reaches the small mountain city of Ch'a-t'ung, just inside the border of Hunan, it crosses a river, near the river you will find a white pagoda and a small isolated cottage, where there once lived a family which consisted of an old man, a girl and a yellow dog. (Ching, 1982:190)

This is the beginning paragraph of Bian Cheng. Without any decorative words and ostentatious expressions, the author uses three short and succinct sentences with fewer verbs to depict a static landscape painting through the juxtaposition of eight images -- "官路", "小山城"，"小溪", "白色", "小塔七", "单独的人家", "老人", "女孩子" and "黄狗", making us associated with harmony, peace and tranquility as well as loneliness with the repetition of the Chinese character "一". The character "一" embodies the "blue" aesthetic mentality and literary creation view of Shen Congwen, who once said: I feel so lonely, perhaps from which I hope to be close to the beauty still left in my impression? Here in the beginning of the novel, by using his usual simple and plain writing style, the author successfully fuses his feelings with the natural setting to convey his deep love and concern towards the characters and what will happen next. (Wang 2012: 25)

In Gladys Yang’s version, she pays full attention to the simple writing style and the esthetics connotation embodied in the use of the character "一" in the original. Besides using three simple sentences, almost the same in the length, with no more than three verbs and seven "a (an)" and one "the" to fully represent the eight images to retain the aesthetic prospect of peacefulness and loneliness, She also translates "单独" (的人家)into a "solitary" household, the meaning of which contains the two connotations of "alone" and "lonely"，which further deepens the beauty of solemn, quiet and loneliness embodied in the original.(Wang 2012: 25)

Compared with Gladys Yang's version, Ching Ti's also fully represents the eight images of the original. But with the translation of "单独"(的人家)into an "isolated" cottage which conveys less emotional overtones than "solitary" and the use of complicated and rambling sentences with nearly five verbs, the original aesthetic connotations are involuntarily broken by him. To sum up, Gladys’s translation better represents the aesthetic prospect of the original than Ching Ti's.(Wang 2012: 25)

====4.4 Conflict between the Ethics of Representation and the Norm-based Ethics====

As Chesterman argues: "the representation model is vulnerable to arguments about the impossibility of totally true representation, about the relative status of the original and translations, about the illusion of perfect equivalence". Accordingly, the ethics of representation can easily conflict with other models of translation ethics, especially the norm-based ethics.(Chesterman 2001:39-154)

From the linguistic point of view, the vital difference between Chinese and English lies in parataxis and hypotaxis which are two different devices that help realize the cohesion in language. Chinese prefers parataxis which depend coherence in meaning and sentences are organized in a topic-comment structure without overt logical markers in many cases. While English favors hypotaxis which lays great emphasis on logical relation and sentences are organized in the S-P (subject-predicate) patterns with various explicit logical markers of overt cohesion. Inevitably translators have to notice and deal with such a difference between Chinese and English.(Wang 2012: 34)

Let's look at the following examples:

[Example 1]

[STI] 话虽轻轻的，那男的却听得出，且从声音上听得出翠翠年纪，便带笑道：“怎么，你骂人！你不愿意上去，要呆在这儿，回头水里大鱼来咬了你，可不要叫喊！”
翠翠说：“鱼咬了我也不管你的事。” (沈从文，1981:24)

[TTl-l] Low as the words were, he caught them, and realized that she was no more than a girl. "Such language from a child!" he teased, chuckling, "you stay here, mind a big fish doesn't bite you—don't expect me to rescue you!"
"Whether it bites me or not, that's none of your business!" (Gladys, 1981:26)

[TTl-2] She spoke under her breath, but the man heard her. He guessed her age from her voice, and answered laughingly: "So you like cursing, eh? Wbll if you don't want to go, you can wait here、 but don't be surprised if a fish comes out of the water and bites you."

"Eyen if a fish does bite me, I'll never have anything to do with you!" the girl retorted. (Ching, 1982: 211)

Under such conflict, taking the target readers’ maximum acceptability into consideration, Gladys Yang has adopted relatively flexible translation strategies to try to retain the linguistic feature of Chinese by using as less overt logical markers as possible. While Ching Ti chooses to meet target readers, expectations by fully employing the hypotactic structure of the English language, for he exchanges the original diffusive structure into long and complicated sentences with logical markers.(Wang 2012: 35)

Under such conflict, taking the target readers’ maximum acceptability into consideration, Gladys Yang has adopted relatively flexible translation strategies to try to retain the linguistic feature of Chinese by using as less overt logical markers as possible. While Ching Ti chooses to meet target readers, expectations by fully employing the hypotactic structure of the English language, for he exchanges the original diffusive structure into long and complicated sentences with logical markers.(Wang, 2012 35)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===5. Conclusion===

After a theoretical study of translation ethics and a practical analysis of the two English versions of ''Bian Cheng'' within the framework of Chesterman5s five models of translation ethics, we 'can conclude that the present study of translation ethics, with Chesterman's five models as its representative, does open a new perspective for not only translation studies but also for the translation practice and evaluation. This chapter mainly deals with the major findings as well as some limitations and suggestions for further study.

This thesis focuses on the comparison of the two English versions of ''Bian Cheng'' under Chesterman's five models of ethics namely the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, and the ethics of communication, norm-based ethics and the ethics of professional commitment.

It mainly applies the ethics of representation into evaluation from the aspects of the representation of the aesthetic prospect, the ethnological color, the character images through dialogues, and the cultural-specific of the original, based on which the conflict between the ethics of representation and norm-based ethics at certain linguistic and cultural levels and the mediation by the ethics of service & communication under the guidance of the ethics of professional commitment as a whole are also examined carefully. Generally speaking, both of the translators put the ethics of representation in an important position, though Gladys Yang has done better jobs in representing the original, both in form and spirit, than Ching Ti. It's not only because Gladys Yang is more highly skilled in translating than Ching Tii but also because they put different factors into first consideration in translation with the former being faithful and loyal to the original and the latter meeting the target readers' expectations.

And when the conflict between the ethics of representation and norm-based ethics emerges, the ethics of service & communication will serve as mediators to guide their translation, generally, Gladys Yang chooses to preserve the original to a maximum, that is to say, she prefers to take the ethics of representation into first consideration, based on which she will adopt relatively flexible translation strategies to make her translation acceptable by conforming to norm-based ethics to some extent. While Ching Ti lays primary emphasis on norm-based ethics, always putting target readers' expectations first by violating the ethics of representation. But both of their coordination or mediation is under the guidance of the ethics of professional commitment as a whole from a higher level, instead of abusing their professional power to mediate arbitrarily.

In a word, with different ethics influencing the translators most, the two English versions possess different characteristics. Guided mainly by the norm-based ethics, Ching Ti tends to take the strategy of "domestication" to make his version colloquial, smooth and simple for the target public to get amusement. While Gladys Yang highlights the ethics of representation to adopt the strategy of foreignization mostly to make her version formal, exquisite, serious and academic to some extent, which mainly appeal to those target readers who are interested in Chinese culture.

===References===

Berman, A. (1992). ''The Experience of the Foreign: Cultural and Translation in Romantic Germany''[M], Trans. S. Heyvaert. Albany: State University of New York Press.

Venuti, L. (2004). ''The Translator Invisibility: A History of Translation''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

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Chesterman, A. (2001). ''Proposal for a hieronymic oath''[J]. The Translator: Studies in Intercultural Communication .

Shen Congwen. (1982). ''The Frontier City in the Chinese Earth: Stories by Shen Tsfung wen''[M], trans. Ching Ti & R. Payne. New York: Columbia University Press.

Shen Congwen. (1981). ''The Border Town and Other Stories''[M]. Translated by Gladys Yang. Beijing: Chinese Literature Press.

Luo Xianfeng 骆贤凤. (2009).中西翻译伦理研究述评[A Review of the Research on Chinese and Western Translation Ethics].《中国翻译》''Chinese Translation'' 3，13-17。

Lv Jun 吕俊. (2001).《跨越文化障碍一巴比塔的重建》[''Cross cultural barriers--Reconstruction of Barbita''] Nanjing: Southeast University Press 南京：东南大学出版社

Sun Zhhili 孙致礼.(2007).译者的职责 [Responsibilities of the translator]《中国翻译》''Chinese Tranlation''，4, 14-18。

Shen Congwen 沈从.(1981).《边城》[''The Frontier City''] Nanchang: Jiangxi People Press 南昌：江西人民出版社

Xiang Rendong 向仍东.翻译伦理视角下《边城》英译研究 [Interpretation of Two English Version of BIancheng in Light of Translation ethics][J].语文学刊. Language and literature Learning(2019). 39(04):91-95.

Tong qingbin 童庆炳.(1998).《文学理论教程》[''Literary Theory Course''] Beijing: Higher Education Press 北京：高等教育出版社。

Wang Weiping 王卫萍. 翻译伦理视域下《边城》两英译本的比较研究 [A Comparative Study of Two English Versions of ''Biancheng''—from the Perspective of Translation Ethics] [D]. Nanjing Normal University 南京师范大学,2012.--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 06:58, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==A study of English Translation of Chinese Cultural Classics from the Perspective of Communication==

==Study on the English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation 刘欧 202070080597 MTI英语笔译==
<center>刘欧 Liu Ou 202070080597</center>

==='''Abstract'''===

With the deepening of reform and opening up, China has become increasingly connected with the world. A large number of Chinese people go abroad to witness the world, meanwhile, an increasing number of foreign friends are also visiting China. Hunan, as a province with abundant tourist resources, has many scenic spots. To attract more foreign tourists, the translation of scenic spots names should also be accurate. Bassnet’s View of Cultural Translation holds that the process of translating Chinese into English is not only a conversion between two different languages, but also a cross-cultural communication between the two languages. Adopting the View of Culture Translation as the guiding principle of Hunan scenic spots will help foreign tourists understand the cultural connotation behind the scenic spots while enjoying the beautiful scenery. This is of great benefit to promote Sino-foreign friendship and enhance the world's understanding of China.

==='''Key words'''===
English Translation; Hunan Scenic Spots Names; the View of Culture Translation

==='''摘要'''===
随着改革开放的不断深化，中国与世界的联系日益紧密。大批中国人走出国门开眼看世界的同时，越来越多的外国友人也来中国游览观光。湖南作为旅游资源大省，拥有许多风光迤逦的旅游景点。在欢迎国外游客的同时，旅游景点名翻译也应当准确达意。巴斯奈特的文化翻译观认为，汉语翻译成英语的过程不但是两种不同语言之间的转换，更是两种语言的跨文化交流。采用文化翻译观作为湖南旅游景点的指导思想，有利于增进外国游客在饱览景区美景的同时，了解景区背后的文化内涵。这对于促进中外友谊，增进世界对中国的了解都大有裨益。

==='''关键词'''===
英语翻译;湖南旅游景点;文化翻译观

==='''Introduction'''===

Cross-cultural communication is becoming more and more frequent with the development of globalization. Meanwhile, transnational tourism has become the most popular way of communication. It is a kind of pleasure to experience foreign culture in visiting the cultural heritages and scenic spots. As a country with long history, China attracts a large number of foreign tourists every year(Xin Xin, 2012). Hunan is located in the hinterland of China's southeast, with beautiful and distinctive natural scenery. It has long been known as tourists attraction since ancient times. It is in such an environment that the ancestors of Hunan Province constantly strive for self-improvement, hard work and innovation. All the historical relics and cultural landscapes they left here, such as ancient cities, villages, gardens, temples, memorial archways, academies, dwellings, temples, grottoes, cemeteries, all bear their spiritual quality and cultural connotation.

To understand the history and profundity of the culture of Hunan Province, the best way is to go there to appreciate its natural scenery and historical relics, and experience its local customs. (Hunan Provincial Department of Culture, 2014) These local tourist attractions can not only display beautiful natural scenery, but also spread excellent culture. Standardizing the translation of scenic spots names is an important opportunity to show the beauty of Hunan culture to foreign tourists(Xiao Fuliang, 2016).

The name of tourist attractions refers to the names of natural and cultural landscapes in tourist attractions. Some of these names are engraved on stone tablets, some are engraved on the signboards of scenic spots, and some appear in various publicity materials such as tourist brochures, scenic maps and websites. In order to leave a good impression on tourists and attract them to visit, the names of tourist attractions are usually short, concise, vivid and attractive (Pan Hong, 2016).

This paper attempts to analyze whether the English translations of some scenic spots in Hunan Province have achieved the desired effect of publicity from the perspective of cultural translation. At the same time, if there were some improper translation in the English translation of Hunan scenic spots, the author will give his own translation for reference.

=== The Introduction of the View of Culture Translation ===
Before the emergence of cultural translation school, linguistic school, functional school and structuralism school were the main schools in the field of western translation theory. Jakobson, Catford and Nida, the representatives of the linguistic school, put more emphasis on equivalence in translation. They claim that translation is to replace another language with an equivalent language material; while Les, Nord and Mantari, the representatives of functional school, believe that the focus of translation studies should be on the target text rather than the original text. Their research sources are communication theory, action theory, information theory and reception aesthetics theory. But whether it is linguistic school, functional school or structuralism school, in their research process, all try to achieve language equivalence more or less from all levels of text content and form. Translation researchers hope to find a scientific and effective way to solve the various problems in translation, but the cultural diversity determines the cultural connotation of the text. Therefore, these researchers encounter great difficulties when they encounter the context which is quite different from their own cultural background, and the emergence of cultural translation school is meant to solve such problems.

After the 1970s and 1980s, with the acceleration of globalization, the acceleration of information dissemination and the diversification of communication modes, the relationship between language and culture has become closer. In the process of information dissemination, differences among language become more and more prominent, and the status and role of translation activities have also changed. Therefore, with the acceleration of globalization and the popularization of multicultural views and values, translation theory researchers who conform to the trend of the times pay more and more attention to the diversity of cultural values embodied in the translated text.

In 1990, Translation, History and Culture, co-edited by Andre Lefevere and Bassnett, was published, marking a cultural turn in the field of translation. The concept of cultural translation emphasizes that translation is not only a bilingual communication, but also a kind of cross-cultural communication; the purpose of translation is to break through language barriers and promote cultural exchange; the essence of translation is to transmit cross-cultural information and reproduce the cultural activities of the original with the target language; the main purpose of translation is cultural transplantation and cultural blending, but cultural transplantation is a process; Language is not the operation form of translation, but the cultural information . (Bassnett Susan, 1992: 13) Bassnett emphasizes that “translation is the communication within and between cultures”. (Bassnett Susan, 1990: 10-11) She believes that translators should carry out translation activities in a specific cultural context, and translators should never carry out translation activities in isolation under the influence of their own cultural background. In short, Bassnett's “cultural translation view” is that translation is not a mere language activity. It is rooted in and influenced by the culture in which the language is located.

==== The Purpose of Translation ====
As for the purpose of translation, Bassnett thinks that the primary purpose of translation is to allow readers from two or more different cultural backgrounds to communicate with each other through the medium of text, and the exchange of information should be placed in the second place of translation purpose. Through effective translation, translators can not only introduce the cultural characteristics of different nationalities to other readers, but also promote the communication between different cultures and promote the comparative study between the two cultures(Bassnett Susan, 1990).

====Translation Methods and Strategies====
As for the translation method, Bassnett thinks that the language and text materials in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, so there should be different translation methods. For example, for the original text which is descriptive, contains some cultural beliefs, or is of scientific and technological, the translator should try to use literal translation from the perspective of culture. If the source text does not belong to the above three types of texts, then the translator can play a relatively free role in translation, make more use of translation skills and pay less attention to the restrictions of the original text culture on translation activities.

It can be said that the degree of freedom of such translation activities is relatively high. As for translation strategy, Bassnett considers that the translator's translation activity is a process of information transmission. In this process, the translator should first find out the cultural factors in the original text which are different from those in the target language, and then deeply understand these factors, and try to retain these factors. Such a strategy is conducive to the readers of other countries to better understand the connotation of the original text and make them have a more accurate understanding of the cultural context of the original text(Bassnett Susan, 1990).

====Content and Form of Translation ====
As for the content and form of the translation, Bassnett takes cultural exchange as the focus of translation. She believes that the original flavor of the original language should be retained as much as possible. At the same time, she also proposes that translation of literary must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, poetry translation is not a simple translation of the original text, but a fresh understanding and creation in translation. The translator should use his own translation skills and literary literacy to create new content(Bassnett Susan, 1990).

====“Intelligibility” of Translation ====
Before the rise of cultural translation school, translation researchers sometimes translated literary language into plain language and deleted literary metaphor and association in order to make the translation better understood by readers. In this way, the translation will become very easy to understand, but the literary nature of the work is reduced, and the interest and depth can not reach the effect of the original text. Therefore, Bassnett thinks that the “intelligibility” of the translation should not be based on the abandonment of the style and artistry of the original text, but should try to keep the original flavor of the original text (Bassnett Susan, 1990)
.
====Evaluation Criteria of Translation ====
As for the evaluation standard of translation, Bassnett thinks that the evaluation standard of translation is not unique. The standard of translating academic articles is different from that of practical and literary articles. When examining and evaluating the standards of translation, we should start from the service object of the translation, and judge whether the translation can meet the needs of the service object. In short, translation should be based on meeting the needs of readers in different cultural contexts, and appropriate translation should be used to meet the needs(Bassnett Susan, 1990).

===2.The Existing English Translated Versions of Names of Hunan Scenic Spots===
There are 15 major tourist areas and many tourist spots in Hunan, and there are many historic sites with a long history. Such as Mountain Heng, one of the Five Sacred Mountains in China. Dongting Lake, Shaoshan Mountain, the former residence of Chairman Mao Zedong, Wulingyuan, which shows the characteristics of strangeness, danger, seclusion, beauty and wildness, and Yuelu Academy with a thousand years of history(Chen Jiao, 2013). In order to publicize and spread the culture of Hunan Province all over the world, we should standardize the English translation of Hunan scenic spots names. Meanwhile, we should translate these scenic spot names understandable from the guiding theory of the View of Culture Translation.

====Improper English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names====
When tourists enjoy the beautiful scenery, the name of the scenic spot is the first information that leaps into the their sight. In order to attract the attention of tourists, induce the tourists of English speaking countries to have a strong interest in the culture and landscape of the tourist destination, stimulate their desire to buy tourism products and promote the development of tourism, translators should pay attention to the cross-cultural awareness when translating the names of scenic spots, so as to provide accurate information as well as the cultural connotation to the tourists from English speaking countries and those who understand English.

However, the author finds that there are many improper translations in the English translation of scenic spots nemes in Hunan Province, which brings a lot of inconvenience to tourists from English speaking countries, and also has a negative impact on the publicity of scenic spots. These improper translations mainly exist in the following aspects:

Firstly, the different versions of translation in the same or different scenic spots.
For example, as one of the four wonders of Mountain Heng, scenic spot “水帘洞” has two translated names, which are translated as “water screen cave” in the official website of Mountain Heng tourism website, while it is translated into “waterfall cave” on the route map. The English translation of “雁峰寺” on Hengyang tourism route map is Yan Feng Si, while on Hengyang tourism website it is “The Goose Mountain Temple”. There are also two different versions of the English translation of the name of the scenic spot “烟雨池”. It was translated as “Yanyuchi” on Hengyang tourism route map, but on Hengyang tourism website, the free translation method is adopted, that is, “Misty Rain Pond”(Wang Zaiyu, Jiang Shihong, 2012).

Secondly, the overuse of transliteration.
Huiyan Peak, located on the bank of Xiangjiang River in Yanfeng District, Hengyang City, is the most famous peak among the 72 peaks of Mountain Heng. It is also known as the No.1 peak of Mountain Heng, and ranks the first of Eight Sceneries in Hengyang. There are many famous beautiful and charming scenic spots on Huiyan Peak. These landscape names reflect the geographical, historical and cultural features of Hengyang, and also contain rich cultural information. However, many scenic spots with rich history and culture on Huiyan Peak are translated by transliteration, which makes the cultural and historical information of theses scenic spots completely lost. For example, “望雁台” ( Wangyantai) , “回雁阁”( Huiyange) , “平沙落雁” ( Pingshaluoyan) ,“回雁亭” ( Huiyanting), “归雁亭”( Guiyanting) are all transliterated. Another example is “南天门”, the original translation of which is “Nantianmen”. In fact, Taoists often build gates near the top of famous mountains, implying that they are the gateway to heaven. The “南天门” refers to the south gate leading to the top of Mountain Heng. Therefore, it is better to be translated as “Southern Gate to Heaven”.

Of course, transliteration is one of the common translation methods of scenic spot names translation, but if transliteration is used too much that without considering the cultural connotation of the original language, the name of scenic spot will be obscure and foreign tourists will be confused. Standing in front of these Pinyin, foreign tourists can not understand the cultural connotation of the names of scenic spots. So it is difficult for them to realize the historical and cultural stories of these scenic spot according to the transliterated names. Therefore, excessive transliteration will affect the transmission of scenic spot name information, make it difficult for English speaking tourists to understand the rich cultural connotation of scenic spot names, which will reduce the readability of the translations and thus affect the development of China's tourism industry and the spread of culture abroad. Therefore, the translator should carefully consider and choose the appropriate translation method.

===3. The Strategies of English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation ===
Tourism translation is a cross language, cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication activities. Compared with other types of translation, it is more direct, more prominent, more typical and more comprehensive in cross-cultural and cross psychological communication. (Chen Gang, 2004)

==== Characteristics and Methods of Tourism English Translation ====
According to the view of cultural translation, Bassnett believes that texts in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, so there should be different translation methods. For example, for the original text which is descriptive, contains some cultural beliefs, or is of scientific and technological contents, the translator should try to adopt literal translation from the perspective of culture. In the process of translation, the translator should first find out the cultural factors different from the target language in the original text, and then understand these factors, and try to retain them. Such a strategy is conducive to the readers of other countries to better understand the connotation of the original text and help them have a more accurate understanding of the cultural background of the original text.

==== Characteristics of Tourism English Translation ====
The translation of tourism materials is different from the translation of official documents and written materials. The translation of these materials generally emphasizes that the translation is completely consistent with the original content, while tourism English only attracts foreign tourists by explaining the scenic spots and introducing the local customs. Some English tourist materials are concise and accurate. On the contrary, the tourist materials written in Chinese emphasizes style and the beauty of sentences. Therefore, the translation of scenic spots names in English requires creativity, which should be concise, fascinating and easy to remember(Xin Xin, 2012).

==== Methods of English Translation of Scenic Spot Name ====

In the translation of scenic spot name, in order to let foreign tourists understand Chinese culture and scenic spots, flexible translation methods should be adopted to effectively convey tourism information and Chinese culture(Jia Wenbo, 2004). The translation of the scenic spot name is of great significance although the names are not contain too much vocabularies. How to use translation methods and skills flexibly by following the translation theory becomes very important. This requires the translators to be faithful to the content and style of the original materials in the process of translation.They should try to retain the cultural factors in the original text, and make it easy to understand for the target readers to accept at the same time.

Literal translation, free translation, literal translation+transliteration, transliteration+ explanation and cultural analogy are commonly used in scenic spot name translation. Through the study of the translation methods of translating the names of these scenic spots, we can use the translation skills more accurately and ultimately improve the translation ability(Xin Xin, 2012).

1. Literal Translation

Literal translation is helpful to convey the information of the source language such as place names, characters and events. (Chen Jiao, 2013) For these particular names or general names of scenic spots, it’s better to adopt the literal translation, namely word for word translation. The allusions of the figures in Nanyue Temple such as “苏武牧羊”（Su Wu Shepherding Sheep）”、“达摩东渡”（Dharm Sailing Eastward）；Fairy tale such as“后羿射日”（Houyi Shooting the Suns）、“盘古开天”（Pangu Creating the Universe）、“精卫填海”（Jingwei Filling the Sea）.

2. Free Translation

Free translation refers to the translation method to translate the connotative meaning when the literal meaning and connotative meaning of the original text are inconsistent (Niu Xinsheng, 2013). In addition, translation techniques such as domestication and free translation are also discussed. Due to the differences in language and culture between English and Chinese, there are differences in language form and content between the two languages. Therefore, translators need to grasp the differences between the two languages and cultures to ensure that the information of the original text are properly transmitted to the target readers. If the names of some scenic spots contain rich cultural connotations and cannot be translated by literal translation, then the names of such scenic spots are mostly translated by free translation, that is, words with the same meaning but different forms are translated. For example,“爱晚亭”, the name was originated from a famous poem written by Du Mu (803-853) in Tang dynasty. But the official translation in the scenic spot was “the Lovely Evening Pavilion”. However, the real meaning of “晚” in the name was not evening but late autumn. Hence some scholars translate it as “the Autumn-Admiring Pavilion” and “the Maple-leaves Admiring Pavilion”(Chen Jiao, 2013).

3.Transliteration + Literal Translation

The front contains the proper name for a specific person or place name, and a fixed general name for the name of a scenic spot. Transliteration and literal translation can be used in translation. For example, "南岳庙" (Nanyue Temple), "洞庭湖" (Dongting Lake), "岳麓山"(Yuelu Mountain),"崀山" (Langshan Mountain), "湘江"(Xiangjiang River) etc.

4.Transliteration + Explanation

The advantage of transliteration is that it does not need any explanation, and its disadvantage is that it can not fully arouse people's interest and attention. For foreign tourists, it is difficult to connect the original meaning of the original text with the Chinese pronunciation of the scenic spot. In order to follow the original author's intention and its own pronunciation, we adopt the method of combining the two to make up for the shortcomings. For example,"柳浪闻莺"liu'lang'wen'ying (listening to Orioles Singing in the willows), "鬼见愁"gui'jian'chou (sight that disorders devils)(Xin Xin, 2012). In order to help foreign tourists understand the background knowledge of China's human history, local conditions and customs, some relevant information can be appropriately added to the original text when translating. For example, when introducing "吊脚楼", if we just translate it as Diaojiaolou , it is difficult for tourists to understand the literal translation of it, so it is advisable that supplement the explanation of “suspended wood house built on stilts”. For example, in the introduction of traditional festivals in Zhangjiajie, “六月六” is translated into Liu Yue Liu Festival. In order to help tourists understand the specific connotation of the festival, the translation should be followed by an appropriate explanation: It usually takes place on the sixth day of the lunar six month, when all the members of the family get together to have dinner and hold a rite to pay sacrifice to their ancestors. This supplement can help foreign tourists understand the meaning of these traditional festivals quickly(Chen Jiao, 2013).

Meanwhile, cultural analogy is also an effective skill in explanation. Analogy refers to the transformation of unfamiliar cultural information in the source language into similar information in the cultural context of the target language in order to eliminate the cultural strangeness contained in the source language and arouse the sense of similarity for the English speaking tourists. In other words, borrow the similar places of interest, legends and historical stories in English to translate the scenic spot name in Chinese, which can narrow the distance between the two different language for the readers and they can better understand the meaning of the original text. For example, Mountain Hengshan the scenic spot “祝融峰” is said to be the residence of Zhu Rong, the God of Fire. Its translation is "Zhu Rong peak", Zhu Rong, the Chinese Prometheus(Chen Jiao, 2013). Prometheus, the hero of stealing fire in ancient Roman legend, is a familiar figure for Western tourists. It has great similarity with Zhu Rong, the Chinese God of Fire. When the tourists look at this translated name, they will have a better understanding of the the scenic spot.

=== Conclusion ===
Under the background of globalization, peace and development have become the theme of the times, and the revise of the traditional translation theory is needed. On the other hand, cultural translation, based on the cultural theory of anthropology, advocates that the connotation of other cultures should be properly conveyed in translation, showing respect and understanding of other cultures; translators should highlight the characteristics of different cultures through translation, so that people from different cultural backgrounds can truly realize the communication and exchange in the cultural sense. Therefore, it is in line with the mainstream of the times to deeply study and understand Bassnett's cultural translation theory, which can help us better carry out translation activities under the background of globalization, so as to promote the exchange and dialogue between the Eastern and Western cultures from a macro perspective.

As a part of the translation of tourist materials, the translation of scenic spot names should not only convey the basic tourism information, but also show the Chinese culture to foreign tourists. One of the main purposes of tourists coming to China is to understand the Chinese culture. Therefore, translators need to have a keen cross-cultural awareness, make the translation conform to the target language, enhance the readability to the target language readers, and choose the most suitable translation method to convey the historical and cultural connotation contained in the name of scenic spots to the greatest extent, so as to promote the development of China's tourism industry globally and spread China's tourism culture abroad.

=== Reference ===

*Bassnett Susan.(1992) Translation, History and Culture [M]. London: Routledge 13.

* Bassnett Susan.(1990) Translation, History and Culture[M]. 上海:上海外语教育出版社 10-11．

*Huang Yanjiao 黄艳娇.(2018).浅谈巴斯奈特文化翻译理论 [A Brief Discussion on Basnnet's Cultural Translation Theory].佳木斯职业学院学报(11) 356-357

*Xiao Fuliang 肖付良.(2016).湖南主要旅游景点公示语翻译现状与对策研究. 英语教师 (06)43-45

*Pan Hong 潘虹.(2016)，跨文化意识对旅游景点名称汉英翻译的影响. 艺术文化交流 (1)310

*Chen Jiao 陈娇.(2013).从文化角度看湖南旅游景点的翻译.西南农业大学学报（社会科学版）(11)101-102

*Xin Xin 辛欣.(2012).论旅游英语中景点名称的翻译. 长春教育学院学报 (02)43-44

*Chen Gang 陈刚.(2004)旅游翻译与涉外导游［M] 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司 59

*Wang Zaiyu, Jiang Shihong王再玉，蒋柿红. (2012).从跨文化意识角度看旅游景点名称的英译———以衡阳旅游景点名称的英译为例 [On Translation of Names of Scenic Spots from the Perspective of Cross-culture Consciousness]. 北京城市学院学报 (03)80-82

*Lin Yuhua 林玉华. (2008). 从文化角度看旅游景点名称的翻译［J］．重庆交通大学学报 (02)105

*Xiong Lin 熊玲. (2013). 对张家界景点名称英译的探析.长春教育学院学报 (08)67-68

*Jia Wenbo贾文波．(2004)应用翻译功能论[M]．北京：中国对外翻译出版公司 134－156

*Huan Provincial Department of Culture and Tourism 湖南省文化和旅游厅.湖南文物名胜概览 http://whhlyt.hunan.gov.cn/whhlyt/wlxx/fwms/201407/t20140717_5385818.html

--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 15:50, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==A Contrastive Study on the Translation of Li Qingzhao’s Shengshengman and Zuihuayin from the Perspective of Defamiliarization 祝美梅 student no. 202070080632 Major: MTI 英语笔译==

==='''Abstract'''===

Poetry is what lost in translation. As Robert Frost said, for its concise words, specific forms, unique cultural allusion and images, the translatability of poetry has always been a controversial topic in translation field. However, since all human beings are endowed by nature with the same mind as has similar function so that they can communicate with one another. Thus, as a product of thought, poetry is understandable, enjoyable and translatable from author’s view. This thesis aims to study poetry translation according to the theory of defamiliarization, which was proposed by Russian formalist Shklovsky. (Viktor Shklovsky, 1990, 35-38)

==='''Key Words'''===

Defamiliarization Theory; Shengshengman; Zuihuayin; English Versions

==='''摘要'''===

译诗则诗。诗歌以其凝练的词语，特定的形式，涵盖的独特文化典故和意象，是否可译一直是译界极具争论的话题。本文旨在由俄国形式主义什克洛夫斯基提出的陌生化理论下研究诗歌翻译。陌生化，虽然是文学写作技巧，同样适应于翻译。在文学作品中，作家通过使熟悉的事物陌生化引起读者的兴趣和好奇，延长审美感知长度。勒菲弗尔说，翻译即改写。这一翻译策略尤其适合于诗歌翻译。李清照，作为历史上最有名的女词人之一，其“易安体”本就以其化故为新，以俗为雅的特点与“陌生化”有异曲同工之处。《声声慢》、《醉花阴》是她前后截然不同两个时期的代表作。本文试以俄国形式主义者什克洛夫斯基提出的“陌生化”为理论指导，以李清照词《声声慢》、《醉花阴》的多个译本为研究对象，分析对比不同译者的英译，尝试研究在译文中怎样重现文本陌生化和制造译本的陌生化，以期证明陌生化理论对李清照词英译的指导作用。(什克洛夫斯基, 1990, 35-38)

==='''关键词'''===

陌生化理论；《声声慢》；《醉花阴》；英译版本

===Introduction===

The best way to know a nation is to enjoy her poetry. As an art of language and an invaluable treasury of national language, poetry distinguishes itself by its distinct style, refined language and fresh artistic conception. Poetry is conceived the store of human knowledge and experience. Therefore, to enable people of different languages to have a successful grasp of the meaning of poems, poetry translation is one of the most important sections in the cross-cultural communication in the globalization time. (Gong Guangming, 2004:395)

Defamiliarization is an important feature of poetic language. It is about poets’ consciousness and aesthetics pursuit. To realize defamiliarization of language, poets must use particular words and images or other skills which new to readers to create a sense of surprise and freshness. Defamiarization not only applies to poetry creation but also to poetry translation. The application of defamiliarization to translation can faithfully reproduce the artistic manner of the original poems and give their readers aesthetic enjoyment. It also allows, in some degree, creating treason in translated texts against original. Of course, defamiliarization should never be overdone whether in poetry creation or in poetry translation. (Victor Shklovsky , 1990, 57)

The purpose of artistic translation techniques is to make objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms and image unusual, and to increase the difficulty and length of perception on the part of the target audience because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself so must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar are made to appear unfamiliar and innovative in one way or another. All these creative manipulations of the target text enhance the target audience’s discernment of the artistic merit in the target text. (Zhu Chunshen, 2002, 101-103)

Li Qingzhao was born (1084-1151) in Zhangqiu into a family of officials and scholars, Before she got married, her poetry was already well known among intellectual. In 1101 she married Zhao Mingcheng, with whom she shared interests in art collection and epigraphy. After Zhao started his official career, she often felt lonely and suffered lovesickness. Hence these experiences inspired some of the love poems that she wrote. When Northern Song capital of Kaifeng fell in 1126 to the Jurchens during the Jin–Song wars, fighting took place in Shandong and their house was ruined. The couple fled to Nanjing, where they lived for one year. Zhao died in 1129 when route to an official post. The death of her husband was a cruel stroke for her life. Li described her married life and the turmoil of her flight in an afterword to her husband's posthumously published work, Jin shi lu（金石录). (Zhang Bing, 2000, 98-100)

Her earlier poetry portrays her carefree life as a young lady of high society, and is marked by its elegance. Li subsequently settled in Hangzhou, in which the Song government was established. She insisted in writing poetry and published the Jin shi lu. According to some contemporary records, she had a briefly marriage with a man named Zhang Ruzhou who treated her relentlessly, and she divorced him within months. She overcame the criticism of her marriage. Though only around a hundred of her poems are known to survive, mostly of them in the form of Ci are tracing her winding fortunes in life. Li is credited with the first detailed critique of the metrics of Chinese poetry. She was regarded as a master of WanYue School “the delicate restraint”. (Zhang Bing, 2000, 98-100)

====1.1 Shklovsky’s Definition of Defamiliarization====

Defamiliarization, as a literature writing technique, was first put up by a Russian formalist, Viktor Shklovsky in the early 20th century. He explained the concept in his essay Art as Technique which comprised the first chapter of his seminal Theory of Prose, first published in 1925:"The purpose of art is to impart the sensation of things as they are perceived and not as they are known. The technique of art is to make objects unfamiliar, to make forms difficult, to increase the difficulty and length of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic in itself and must be prolonged”. Therefore, “defamiliarization” stands for the quality of art and literature. In literature, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to the readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity.(Victor Shklovsky, 1991, 78-79)

====1.2 Features of Defamiliarization in Translation====

In Chen Lin and Zhang Chunbai’s Defamiliarization Effect in Literature Translation, they named up two distinctive features of defamiliarization in translation.One is alienization and the other is hybridization.( Chen Lin, Zhang Chunbai, 2006:93)

Alienization, is the similarity among defamiliarization, alienating and foreignizing, means to retain the language and culture differences of the source text, maintain the visibility of the foreign, in order to give the target readers a fresh experience of authenticity.

Hybridization claims to combine foreign and domestic elements to produce a hybrid text, which has both the features of the foreignness and the domestic, thus it gives the receivers a sensation of newness and freshness. The author of this thesis takes domestication as one aspect of hybridization, for no matter how strict foreignization is, it could not avoid domestic element during translating. In Jin Bing’s doctoral dissertation (2007), he propo sed to represent defamiliarization technique of the original text in translated text as much as possible, and foreignization is an effective translation strategy to achieve defamiliarization. However, foreignization is not the only way to achieve defamiliarization, as it’s opposite, there are many ways towards this end. (Zheng Engyue, 2003, 19-21)

=====1.2.1 Advantages of Defamiliarization=====

To create the translated version newness, promote intercultural communication and complementary advantages, the tactics of defamiliarization also embodies translator’s subjectivity, as the appearance of cultural turn proposed by Susan Bassinet against the culture invasion, and this theory is accepted by more and more people. This technique is meant to be especially useful in distinguishing poetry from prose, for, as Aristotle said, “poetic language must appear strange and wonderful” (Shklovsky, 1990).Defamiliarization draws attention to the use of common language in such a way as to alter one’s perception of an easily understandable object or concept. The use of defamiliarization both differs and defers, since apply of the technique alters one’s perception of a concept (to defer), and forces one to think about the concept in different, often more complex, terms (to differ). (Li Ruijie, 2013, 56)

=====1.2.2 Disadvantages of Defamiliarization=====

Defamiliarization increases the difficulty of comprehension, the new expression or form distance itself from target receiver, thus lost many audiences, and prohibit culture spreading. Sometimes, translator would sacrifice faith and fluency in order to create novel effect, so demand reader’s patience and sensibility. Excessive making works with coinage word, unusual format or rebel against the target grammar, only found that works meaningless. (Li Xuexin, 2009, 13-15)

===2. A brief Introduction of Li Qingzhao===

Before analyzing the translation versions of Li Qingzhao’s Ci, a general understanding of the characteristics and aesthetic value of Li’s Ci is very necessary.

====2.1. Li Qingzhao’s life and her Poem====

Li Qingzhao, a talented and prolific poetess, exerted great influences on the classic Chinese lyric poetry. In Song Dynasty, lyric poetry reached its most thriving period. Among numerous poets, Li Qingzhao, as a female, shocked the male-dominated field of lyric poetry and formed her unique style. She is deemed the founder of Wanyue School of Song Poem. (Deng Hongmei, 2000, 34)

Her tortuous life experience and extraordinary fate made the keynotes of her poem various from one period to another. In the early years of her life, they are full of joy and happiness; but in her later life, there are filled with loneliness and sorrow. Her early work---''Zuihuayin'', is the reflection of life without difficulties and worries, this work written during she was apart from her husband. Shengshengman was created at the time when she lost her husband whilst the country was shattered and at stake. Through her poem, readers would see the ups and downs in her life. Her lyrics poetry was called “Yi’an Ti” due to the particularities of her own style.(Deng Hongmei, 2000, 56)

====2.2Research on Li’s Poem in Domestic and Abroad====

A comprehensive knowledge of history and state quo of researches on Li Qingzhao at home and abroad is a significant premise of the comparative study of Li’s poem.

The study of Li Qingzhao’s poems in western word, mainly in America, raised scholars’ interest in the 1950s and 1960s. Wang Honggong’s One Hundred Poems from the Chinese and Hu Pinqing’s Li Qingzhao were published. In 1965, Cyril Birth’s Anthology of Chinese Literature from Early Times to the Fourteenth Century was published in New York. In that book, five poems of Li Qingzhao’s were translated by C.H.Kwock and Vincent Mc Hugh; three were translated by a Chinese American scholar, Xu Jieyi. In 1980s, the study thrived in America. Two all-translated were published. One is the co-translated edition by Wang Honggong and ZhongLing. The other is James Cryer. Those translated poems were chose as textbook materials by American universities. However, because of the abstruse language, culture barrier, and the difficulty in translating poem itself, overseas scholars usually could not make their rendering faithful to the original. (Wang Zhongwen, 2000,79)

At home, Bing Xin(冰心) is the first person set out to translate Li Qingzhao’ poem. Many domestic translators like Xu Yuanchong, from the theory of “Three Beauties”, Lin Yutang published The Importance of Understanding: Translations from the Chinese by LIN YUTANG, the celebrated couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published Song Lyrics in 2001, Xu Zhongjie published 100 Chinese Ci Poems in English Verse in 1986, Chen Zumei, who studied Li’s poem from feminism and other translators include Zhu Chunshen, Gong Jinhao, Mao Yumei and so on. Through different translation criteria and strategies, those perspectives cast new light to the translation study of Li Qingzhao’s poem. (Wang Zhongwen, 2000, 90)

===3. Defamiliarization on Words Level in Shengshengman and Zuihuayin===

Poetry is the most personal and concentrated of the four literature forms (poetry, short story, novel and drama), no redundancy, no phatic language, where, as a unit, words are of greater importance than in any other type of texts. This paper mainly discusses reduplicated words, verbs, colloquialism supported by detailed examples. Poetry presents thing in order to convey a feeling, and therefore concrete the language, each represents something else---a feeling, a behavior, a view of life as well as itself. (Gan Wanni, 2012, 34)

====3.1 Analysis of Translation of Reduplicated Words====

Reduplicated word, as the name suggests, is to repeat the same character twice or more times to form a format which bears the identical meaning of a character repeated. It is a kind of lexical devices to deepen the tone or sentiment in literature. Applied appropriately, reduplicated word could make literary works sound beautiful, fluent and forceful. However, applied inappropriately, it could make works awkward and blunt. It is rationally to say that Li Qingzhao favors reduplicated word, for in one fourth of her poem remain now, she successfully used reduplicated words to express her emotion.(Schulte, R.and John Biguenet, 1992, 34)

Her typical work which applies reduplicated words is Shengshengman.

“寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。乍暖还寒时候，最难将息。

三杯两盏淡酒，怎敌他、晚来风急？雁过也，正伤心，却是旧时相识。

满地黄花堆积。憔悴损，如今有谁堪摘？守着窗儿，独自怎生得黑？

梧桐更兼细雨，到黄昏、点点滴滴。这次第，怎一个、愁字了得！”（陈祖美 2003：108）

This piece of work enjoys the largest number of translation versions from different translators among all her works. The first fourteen characters are: “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚”,they precisely describe the loneliness , melancholy and nostalgia of the homeland of the poetess after losing her husband. Six different translation versions collected are as follows:

1. I seek but seek in vain,

I search but search again.

I feel so sad, so drear,

So lonely, without cheer. (Xu Yuanchong)

2. So dim, so dark.

So dense, so dull,

So damp, so dank, so dead! (Lin Yutang)

3. Seeking,seeking,

Chilly and quite,

Desolate, painful and miserable. (Yang Xianyi）

4. Searching and searching, seeking and seeking,

So chill, so clear,

dreary,

and dismal,

and forlorn. (Stephen Owen)

5. Seeking

seeking

Searching

searching

over and over

lonely and forlorn

Sighing;

grieving

sighing

In the same round (Kwock&McHugh)

6. Seek…seek, search....search;

Lone...lone, cold...cold;

Sad...sad, pain...pain, moan...moan. (Liu Wuji)

Li Qingzhao used fourteen repetitious Chinese characters to vent the heartbroken feeling and her worry about her convulsive country. In order to imitate the acoustic effects created by the fourteen reiterated words, almost all the translators adopted the words with sound symbolism characteristics, for the sake of conveying similar emotions.

Among the six versions,No.1 Xu paraphrased them into the sentence in rhythmic way, using end rhyme throughout the whole poem to create the musical beauty, but he abandons reduplicated words and just illustrate the meaning which slacking down the artistic conception of the original poem to some extent. No.(3,4)use single, non-repeated words. Leave alone whether those versions fully express the spirit of fourteen characters, those using single repeated or non-repeated words sound better than paraphrased sentences for keeping the freshness and novelty of the original.

Kwock&McHugh(N0.5) vividly represents the original both in form and content, the novel arrangement of the words, successfully imitated the scenes in the original poem. The specially designed lines of verse gave the readers the feelings of seeking and searching over and over again. The visual beauty is a means to complement the deficiency in acoustic beauty, thus, in author’s opinion; his version is the best of all versions in realizing defamiliarization effect.

Lin Yutang(No.2) doesn’t repeat the same words, but he carefully picks out words with the same beginning letter “d” to create the feeling of duplication and use exclamation “so” to enhance the theme. His version also is a good example to retain and create defamiliarization effect, giving readers a fresh shock of sadness. From the aspect of form, this version depicted the beauty of balance in English and also corresponded with beauty of antithesis in Chinese. It was a wonderful interpretation and a unique creation in itself.

No.6, the translator adopted literal translation. Although the translated version bears similarity in form with the original one, it lacks true beauty in sound and meaning. The literal translation obviously damaged the sorrowful atmosphere, thus this version lost the melancholy and deep grief reflected in the original version. By piling up words, the translators get nothing but the empty shell of the original poem.

Another example is “点点滴滴”,also from the same verse. Following are translation versions collected:

1.On parasol-trees leaves a fine rain drizzles

As twilight grizzles. (Xu Yuanchong)

2.In a drizzle so light, dripping-dropping into the oncoming night,

In the garden wutong trees stand blurred. (Zhu Chunsheng)

3.On drying leaves of plane trees should there be

A drizzle pattering, pattering towards the eve! (Liu Guoshan)

4.Against the tung and plane trees, the wind rises high.

The drizzle becomes trickles, as eve draws nigh. (Xu Zhongjie)

5.And the drizzle on the kola nut, keeps on droning: Pit-a-pat, pit-a-pat! (Lin Yutang)

6.The drizzles falls on the wutong trees, raindrops drip down at dusk. (Yang Xianyi)

No.1, to pursue the rhythmic beauty, Xu used drizzles to describe the sound of rain, as well as forming rhyme harmony on the last word. This kind of translation blurred the defamiliarization effect since ignorant repeated words.No.2,No.3,No.5,translators uses different repeated words, such as dripping-dropping, pattering-pattering, pit-at-pat, pit-at-pat. From the author’s viewpoint, Lin’s translation is the best, pit-a-pat is onomatopoetic word, and conforms to the English expressive convention. The version of No.4 seems disagree with the poem mood, as poetess can hear clearly raindrops drips on the leaves, the rain should become mild gradually, “the drizzle become trickles” is the situation of a storm, not the rain draws to stop.No.6 picks the word “drip down” also wanting forceful and sound beauty.

====3.2 Translation of Verbs====

Unlike English, Chinese poetry is skillfully using verb to vivify the image, often linked with rhetorical devices. Word transformation is mostly common, such as adjective or noun transformed to verb. There existed many instances; the author would like to choose two verbs from the Zuihuayin which would analyzed in this paper.
Taking “帘卷西风”from Zuihuayin as an example:

“薄雾浓云愁永昼，瑞脑消金兽。佳节又重阳，玉枕纱厨，半夜凉初透。东篱把酒黄昏后，
有暗香盈袖。莫道不消魂，帘卷西风，人比黄花瘦。”

This verse was written to express Li Qingzhao’s yearning for her husband. It’s the Double Ninth Day---the Chinese festival of the senior and family get-together. The west wind blows, makes people feel chilly and distressed, especially when the poetess was alone. Translation versions are assembled as following:

1. What with curtains being folded—
by violent blasts from the west (Xu Zhongjie)

2. The curtain lifted by the western wind (Qiu Xiaolong)

3. When the west wind rolls up my bamboo curtain (Mao Yumei)

4. With the door-curtains flapping in the west wind (Gong Jinghao)

5. Only, when the west wind stir the curtain (Lucy Chow Ho)

In the original, hyperbaton was used to achieve the harmonious beauty of rhymes, actually only could west wind blast curtain actually but the original text is “帘卷西风”,the reasonable sequence is “西风卷帘”.

Among five translation versions above, the verb was translated into different words.No.1, “blast” emphasizes on strength and makes a loud noise. No.2, “lift” presents position changed of curtain roused by wind, but the curtain should whirl in that situation, not just lift seems as holding by something.No.3, “roll up” is an ordinary word, though faithfully to the source text, still not good enough.No.4,the word “flap” sounds like we heard the sound of wind makes curtain toss with power. From the view of author of this essay, No.5 is more preferable. “Stir” vividly describes the situation; furthermore, revealing the mirthless of the character, thus, translator prolonged the perception length, increased the aesthetic sensibility, which defamiliarization is pursuing all the time, translation is a creation instead of the slave of original without soul.

“三杯两盏淡酒，怎敌他、晚来风急?”The verb in this sentence used very vividly, how few cups of liquor withstand the wind at the dusk; Li Qingzhao personifies the natural thing, which is widely applied to express defamiliarization. Follows are various translation versions.

1.By cup on cup of wine so dry oh,
How can I endure at dusk the drift
Of wind so swift? (Xu Yuanchong）

2.Three cups of thin wine would utterly fail.
To cope with the rising evening gale. (Xu Zhongjie)

3.How can a few cups of thin wine,
Bring warmth against the chilly winds of sunset? (Lin Yutang)

4.Three or two cups of light wine,
How can they ward off the strong? (Yang Xianyi)

Among the four versions, No.1 chooses the first person view to express coldness felt at dusk by the poet, which slashed the effect of defamiliarization as change rhetoric to narrative speech.No.2, the verb “cope with” is not as strong as the original, “cope with” means solving something, working out or settling down, but not very positively and actively.No.3 employed the preposition “against” also not so forcefully. From the point of author, Yang translates best, on the one hand faithfully keep the form of resource text, on the other hand reproduce the defamiliarization by using the verb phrase “ward off”, meaning to shun, avoid, or escape the chilly wind. There is no absolute equivalence between the SL and TL, only the most natural closest to the former.

====3.2 Translation of Colloquialism====

Colloquialism refers to the types of speech or to usages not on a formal level, is often mistakenly used with a connotation of disapproval, as if it meant “vulgar” or ”bad” or “incorrect’ usage，whereas it is merely a familiar style used in speaking and writing. Li was adept and noted for refining colloquial words from folk languages, which was full of musical quality and vividness after her polishing. Her colloquial words seemed plain and amiable like daily dialogues with friends or just whisper to herself, but extraordinary beautiful and pleasant to the ear. (Zhan Chongyang, 2013, 79)

Shengshengman, for instance, is typically colloquialised as the whole. Here, the author picks up “守着窗儿，独自怎生得黑”to set as an example. “怎生得黑”is an ancient Chinese vernacular expression of “how to spend the night.” The defamiliarization effect of the original lies in its familiar wording but fresh feeling of lonely depiction. Collected translations are as follows:

1. Sitting alone at the window, how could I but quicken the pace of darkness
Which won’t thicken? (Xu Yuanchong）

2. Standing by the window---watching in anguish stark.
Could I bear alone the sight until it is dark? (Xu Zhongjie)

3. I remain by my window. Why is the day so dark, all alone? (Mao Yumei)

Xu Yuanchong’s version (No.1) and Xu Zhongjie’s(No.2)version sound influent and not easy to read. In order to keep the rhyming, Professor Xu Yuanchong makes a pair of “quicken” and “thicken”. However, his witty rhyming is not appropriate in the aspect of keeping defamiliarized colloquial style. Rhyming seems exquisitely modified that is not as natural and casual as daily language. Xu Zhongjie’s “anguish stark” sounds sophisticated and wordy which disobeys the features of vernacular or colloquial language. Mao Yumei’s translation（No.3)sounds simple and it is oral daily language.” All alone” put at the end prolongs the tone which makes the structure loose. Hers represents the original style best of the three, thus best keeps the defamiliarization effect of the casual style.

Another sentence is“这次第，怎一个、愁字了得?”

1.How, in the word “Miserable,” can one find------
The total effects of all these on the mind! (Xu Zhongjie)

2.Oh, what can I do with a grief
Beyond belief! (Xu Yuanchong)

3.Is this the kind of mood and moment, to be expressed by one word “sad”?
(Lin Yutang)

4.At the time like this, what immense sorrow I must bear! (Yang Xianyi)

The above four versions are all translated by domestic translators. They chose different words to express “愁”,like miserable, grief, sad and sorrow. But the No.3 similar to the original forms thus more loyalty. The poetess was touched by the dismal sight and feeling melancholy of her life and the shattered country, so the Lin Yutang’s translation “the kind of mood and moment” is more proper, and the word “sad” also fit for the colloquial style. Defamiliarization in this sentence means to express complicated sentiment in a flat way, Lin successful retains the flavor in simple words.

====4. Defamiliarization on Image Level====

Image is often the final touch that distills and sharpens the meaning of poetry. In ancient Chinese poetry which boasts the construction of a profound meaning with very succinct language, image is especially central to its artistic value among the various composing elements. Image in itself as an intuitive language that transcends the barriers between different semiotic languages, therefore it can be sensed across those different nations. Just as the Chinese poetic convention suggests, a work of art is best enjoyable when it transmits a sense of beauty in an implicit way. And image is such a way of talking silently. Moreover, as Zhu Guangqian(朱光潜)says, the pleasure of poetry resides in the sound and imagery.(《诗论》): “诗以情趣为主，情趣见于声音，寓于意象。”)This paper divides image into cultural-loaded images and natural images.

=====4.1 Cultural-Loaded images=====

This kind of category is the juxtaposition of allusion and complicated sentiment in certain culture.

1.Translation the image of “雁” in the Shengshengman

The sentence “雁过也，正伤心，却是旧时相识.”The translation versions collected as follow:

1. Myself, into woe, a flight of wild geese has thrown.

But with them, very familiar I have grown. (Xu Zhongjie)

2.I recognize the geese flying overhead:

My old friends,

Bring not the old memories back! (Lin Yutang)

3. It breaks my heart, alas,

To see the wild geese pass,

For they are my acquaintances of old. (Xu Yuanchong)

4. Wild geese fly past, while I’am broken-hearted;

But I recognize they are my old friends. (Yang Xianyi&Gladys Yang)

5. Overhead,a heart-rending line

South-bound wild geese at morn

Yet old acquaintances of mine. (Zhu Chunshen)

After studying some versions, the author find most translators tend to translate “雁” into “geese”(Lin Yutang),or “wild geese(Xu Yuanchong),also “swan geese” translated by some people. But translators must can’t ignore the connotation meaning in target culture, geese in English means idiot, fool, reflecting derogative emotion.The slang “wild geese chase” indicates doing something in vain. Zhu Chunshen translated “雁”into “a heart-rending line--south--bound wild geese”, then he explained in the footnote, “geese in ancient China was message carrier, the poetess see geese passed, but doesn’t receive any letter, creating a melancholy feeling”. “雁” is a migrant bird that migrates from south to north in spring and return in autumn. Sometimes, their migrant movement is a sign of season.

Besides, in Chinese ancient culture, “鸿雁传书”indicates love letter transferring written by lovers. At that time, Li was compelled to move to the south and her nation was invaded by enemy, she had no sense of belonging where her family were and didn’t know when her wandering days would end. Upon hearing the sound of geese, she can’t help being broken-hearted because of nation defeated and family lost. The image make readers resonate with the poetess. Considering of the culture diversity, translators should add footnote accordingly. The complementary information endeavors to convey original’s culture connotation, it’s also the defamiliarization goal, avoiding blunt and obscurity of different culture.

Another important image is “梧桐”,is an image rich in cultural meanings. It is straight, huge and tall. As early as two thousand years ago, it was closely related to the mysterious legendary bird---phoenix. It was said wutong was the only tree where a phoenix would choose to inhabit and land on. According to the ancient tale, “ 梧”was the male and “桐” was the female. They were noted for the marital bliss and harmony. Therefore, it is often used to symbolize loyalty in love in Chinese literature. The sorrow triggered by autumn is often found in old poetry. In poem, this image stands for “sorrow, bitterness, distressed” when the tree was linked with rain, giving people the feeling of coldness.

From the mainly English versions collected, “梧桐”was translated into “kola nut”(Lin Yutang), “platan (Xu YuanChong), “the tung and platan tree”(Xu Zhongjie), lola nut is a tree in tropical Africa, this kind of translation was mistaken, platan refers to French platan, tung is a specie of tree, producing oil, those translation definitely lost its cultural connotation. The author of this paper prefers Zhu Chunsheng’s translation version: Wutong tree. Wutong carries exotic charming to the fullest, evoking readers imagination, at the same time promote culture communication. Readers can understand this kind of tree after read the poem. Borrowed words always enlarge another language in this way.

====4.2 Natural Images====

Pure scenery depiction means the scene is universe, such as some flower, tree, mountain, stream but usually combined with emotional revelation.

The image “黄花” usually translated into “yellow flower”, “chrysanthemum”, “yellow chrysanthemum”. Different versions are collected as follow:

1. As compared with chrysanthemums,

I look slimmer e’en at my best. (Xu Zhongjie)

2. I would show a thinner face than yellow flowers. (Xu Yuanchong)

3. I look thinner than the chrysanthemum. (Mao Yumei)

4. I find myself thinner than the yellow flowers. (Chu Dagao)

Chrysanthemum is a formal word while yellow flower is a more blurred one, “yellow” in Chinese always tinged with sickness or fading, for this reason, readers may arouse curiosity of what this flower looks like and associate with figure of poetess, who is languid and haggard in plight. This image appears in both lyrics, carefully compare, it expresses different mood, in Zhuhuayin, Li is lonely missing her far-away husband, the flower stands for her noble,unsullied and aloof character, while in Shengshengman, the flower is withered, fallen, inanimate. From that point, translators may adopt two translation versions to same noun, the first fit chrysanthemum, easily be related with certain shape, fragrance and color, the second translated into yellow flower, would be more imaginary about the unfamiliar word, thus prolong the aesthetic reception. (Zhan Chongyang, 2013, 46-47)

====Conclusion====

Poetry is the superior form of literature with the characteristics of its terseness in language, indeterminism in words, abstruseness and ambiguity in meaning, sharpness in emotion, felicity in rhetorical strategy and distinctiveness in rhythm. To reproduce the style and reveal the beauty of the original text will absolutely confronted with resistance form restricted factors both in linguistic and cultural aspects. After weighing various methods, the author of this paper think defamiliarization could best retain the spirit whilst making freshness in the translated one. (Xu Yuanchong, 2013, 67)

The concept of defamiliarization translation can facilitate understanding and appreciation of Li Qingzhao’s poem from a new perspective. The artistic techniques of translation are employed to render objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms alienized, and to increase the difficulty and duration of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar is made to appear unfamiliar and fresh in one way or another. All of these creative manipulations enhance the recipient’s discernment of the artistic material in the target text. (Victor Shklovsky, 1979, 106)

And that stimulates the translator, one who is adept at subjective manipulation, and who treasures freedom and artistry, to devote him to the pursuit of the alienizing translation effect for art’s sake. The defamiliarization translation theory provides some fascinating insights into Li’s verse translation practice. Breaking the initial norm of sticking to the source culture, translation version is closer to the target-culture end in the continuum between the source culture and target culture. Translation Chinese poetry, translator must bear in mind that Chinese flavor and poetry spirit should make ends meet, thus, readers could understand Chinese culture while they appreciate translation. (Gan Wanni, 2012, 95-98)

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==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 谭媛媛 Tan Yuanyuan 202070080642 MTI==

===Abstract===

Because of the cultural differences between China and western countries, interpreters are required to do both the surface interpretation of the language itself and the deep interpretation of the meaning conveyed in that culture. During the process of interpretation, dealing with cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences inappropriately can cause misunderstanding, resulting in communicative suspension. This paper, while analyzing the cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences, expounds on the specific coping translation strategies that an interpreter should take in dealing with cultural differences in the process of interpretation.

===Key Words===
interpretation, cultural differences, coping stratcgics

===摘要===
由于中西文化存在很大的差异,对于口译员来说，除了掌握译出语语言表层次的信息外，更要掌握译出语语言深层次的文化内涵。在口译过程中，若不恰当处理由文化差异引起的文化障碍问题，就会产生误解，导致交际中止。本文分析了口译中因文化差异而引起的文化障碍问题，并着重指出了口译中应对文化差异现象的翻译策略。

===关键词===
口译，文化差异，应对策略

===Introduction===

The wave of globalization sweeping the world has provided vehicles, tools and channels for cultural exchange and dissemination among countries. At the same time, globalization has brought out the holistic quality of cultural spirit, prompting people to pay attention to the overall examination of problems, recognize certain commonalities of human cultures, and generate new cultural concepts such as "global consciousness" and "global values". However, due to the different geographical locations, social environments, religious beliefs, ways of thinking and living habits of different ethnic groups, different regions have a variety of cultural characteristics, and therefore there are huge cultural differences, and cultural conflicts will become more complex.（Jian Fang，Zhang Jian,2012）

No matter from which perspective, interpreters play the role of bridge and link. Therefore, when interpreting, interpreters should fully consider the cultural differences between China and the West, seek the common ground of cross-cultural communication, and establish a harmonious language communication atmosphere on the basis of improving mutual understanding in order to avoid the phenomenon of cultural conflict in interpreting communication. (Lu Naisheng,1993)

===The Problem of Cultural Barriers Caused by Cultural Differences in Interpretation===

Mr. Wang Zuoliang points out that "the greatest difficulty in translation is the difference between two cultures." He believes that "the interpreter must be a cultural person in the true sense of the word." The differences between Chinese and Western peoples in terms of thinking, values, historical culture and cultural imagery, as well as traditional customs and religious beliefs, have led to cultural differences between the peoples. Therefore, in the process of interpretation activities, the interpreter needs not only to translate the literal meaning of the original language, but more importantly, to grasp its unique cultural connotation and be able to convey it to the other party through language.（Lian Shuneng,1993）

According to American translation theorist Eugene Naida, translation is an exchange between two cultures, "For a truly successful translation, it is even more important to be familiar with two cultures than to master two languages. For words have meaning only in the cultural context in which they . function in the cultural context in which they are used." Therefore, a translator cannot reach a true sense of communication if he or she does not have the support of culture in the process of translation. (Jia Dejiang,1998)

====Cultural barriers caused by the way of thinking====

Generally speaking, Western culture belongs to linear rational way of thinking, which emphasizes logic, hierarchy and abstraction; while Chinese culture belongs to spiral thinking, which emphasizes discernment, enlightenment and emotional meaning. Westerners tend to think that Chinese people are too subtle and even logically confused. Chinese people may also think that Westerners are too cumbersome and sometimes feel uncomfortable because of their overly direct expressions. (Lu Naisheng,1993)

Therefore, interpreters should not only correctly understand the difference between Chinese and Western cultures during the interpretation process, but also take appropriate measures to compensate for the understanding barrier caused by this difference. This difference is manifested in the language: Chinese sentences are clear and concise, while English sentences are compact and tightly structured, emphasizing the subordination and modification between components, and mostly using conjunctions, prepositions and relational words to link sentences together.(Edward Spir,2006)

For example, the Chinese have the traditional virtue of respecting the elderly. To show courtesy, the host will say to the visitor, “您比我年长，您请上坐”. If the translator translates it literally as, “You are older than me. You take the upper seat.” Westerners will definitely feel uncomfortable when they hear it and think to themselves: Am I that old? At this time, the original meaning of the Chinese expression has been distorted, so the contradiction arises.(Jia Dejiang,1998)

====Cultural barriers caused from values====

Values are a deep element of cultural composition, which is both a part of social culture and the result of long-term penetration and accumulation of social and cultural factors in people's minds. Chinese people talk about collectivism, while Westerners advocate individualism. The Chinese focus on the group, highlighting the role of the collective is the mainstream of their values, highlighting their own will be suspected of arrogance and arrogance. The British and Americans advocate the primacy of the individual, fully expressing their own values and highlighting individual contributions. Humility is deeply rooted in Chinese values and is a Chinese virtue, yet sometimes it is not as welcome in the eyes of Westerners. This obvious difference in values inevitably leads to a culture clash. （Deng Yanchang,2006）

A classic example: at a party, a foreign guest complimented a Chinese lady, praising her for being very beautiful, when the Chinese lady replied, “哪里，哪里”. The accompanying translator on the side, however, translated word-for-word into, “where, where ”. This was difficult for the visitor to understand. So he had no choice but to answer, “from up to toe”.And at this time the Chinese lady was also very dissatisfied, thinking that the foreigner was disrespectful to her.

====Cultural barriers from historical culture and cultural imagery====

Cultural imagery is a cognitive pattern agreed upon in different national or community cultures. Cultural imagery coalesces the wisdom of each nation, and is the crystallization of history and culture. Throughout the long history of each nation, they have appeared in people's language, forming a cultural symbol with a relatively fixed and unique cultural meaning. (Bai Jingyu,2000)

For example, in a business event, the Chinese side said something like this, “建立‘一条龙’服务中心”.The interpreter translated it as “set up the ,one-dragon service center to provide a coordinated process service for foreign investors in obtaining approval".“一条龙” was translated into“one dragon”.The word "龙" means something evil in the West, but "auspicious" in China, so it is easy to misunderstand if you don't understand the situation. Another example is that the phrase "望子成龙" should never be translated as “to hope one"'s child can become a dragon"，but to“to hope one’s child can be somebody”. （Deng Yanchang,2006）

====Cultural barriers caused by traditional customs and religious beliefs====

Different countries have different traditional customs. Chinese people give "New Year's Lucky money" to the younger generation during the Chinese New Year, but "Chinese New Year" does not exist in Western countries, so they do not understand why they have to give money. On the contrary, Christmas, Halloween and other holidays in Western countries do not exist in Chinese traditional culture, and we do not fully understand the importance of these holidays, even though they are very popular in China nowadays.

Cultural barriers due to differences in religious beliefs often occur in the interpretation process. “Sleep with father" is a biblical euphemism, which means the same as "go the heaven" and "kick the bucket". It means the same as "go the heaven" and "kick the bucket", but for those who do not understand Western religions, it is likely to be mistranslated as "与父亲睡觉", which would be ridiculous.（Lu Naisheng,1993）

Look at the following example:
If this sentence is understood as
"约翰是可靠的，他不吃鱼，还玩游戏", it is because the translator failed to understand " eats no fish " and "play the game". After the Protestants overthrew the old government, the Protestants refused to eat fish on Ramadan to show their loyalty to Protestantism. So "" means "loyalty" and " to eat no fish " means "loyalty" and " to play the game "means "race",The correct meaning of the word is Therefore, the correct meaning is "John is reliable, he is both loyal and upright".

====Cultural barriers caused by non-verbal language behaviors====

The means of communication between people is not limited to verbal language. Non-verbal language, such as:eyes, facial expressions, gestures, distance between speakers, and physical contact, etc. are all conveying information to people around them. Ethnic cultures differ in their expressions of non-verbal language communication. This cultural aspect of difference should be taken into account when communicating across languages.（Zhang Wen,2002）

In one example, an American teacher, who was new to China, noticed that several students were looking at the student grade book she happened to have open during recess without permission. This teacher seriously told the students that this was rude behavior and that they should be careful to respect the privacy of others. Personal things are not to be looked at without the person's permission. Several students felt embarrassed and didn't know what to say, so they gave an apologetic smile. This smile upset the American teacher even more, and she thought that the students not only disrespected her, but also mocked her. The reason for her misunderstanding was that she did not understand that the Han Chinese often use laughter to express embarrassment and apology.

Another example is that when Chinese people see a cute child, they can't help but go up and touch or pat it to show their affection for it. A Chinese mother would feel proud and smug when she encounters such a situation, while a Western mother is not used to this practice and considers it rude to pet her child, or even offensive.

===Strategies for Handling the Phenomenon of Cultural Differences in Interpretation===

Eugene Naida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward a. The whole set of theories and methods on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation has caused strong repercussions in the translation theoretical circles and is considered one of the most representative theories on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation, the core of which is his principle of "functional equivalence". This principle emphasizes that what translators pursue is not literal correspondence, but the reflection of cultural factors in the translated text to achieve functional equivalence. (叶子南，2001:38) This view of Naida, although presented mainly for translation, is also useful for dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation.

Given that interpretation is very different from translation, it should not, and cannot, exactly replicate the strategies for dealing with cultural phenomena in translation. The focus of interpreting is not to transmit cultural connotations, but to serve the communication on the spot, so the treatment of cultural phenomena in interpreting should be in line with the characteristics of interpreting. According to the criteria of "accuracy, smoothness and speed" and the specific characteristics of interpretation such as "on-site, present and limited time", the first step in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation should be to find the "nearest natural equivalence" between English and Chinese, and to try to find the "nearest natural equivalence" from the target language. (Bai Jingyu,2000)

In dealing with cultural phenomena, interpreters should first try to find the "nearest natural equivalents" between English and Chinese, and try to find authentic expressions or interpretation methods from the target language for the understanding of listeners. According to the above principles and requirements, the following strategies can be used in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation:

====Flexible use of naturalization and dissimilation====

Naturalization in interpretation is to express the linguistic and cultural factors in the source language in the closest equivalent form in the target language as far as possible, and transform them into a form familiar to and understood by the audience of the target language. This undoubtedly avoids the cultural conflicts and understanding barriers caused by the differences between the source language culture and the target language culture, and enables listeners to better understand the original language for interactive communication between the two sides of the conversation. Many scholars advocate that cultural phenomena in interpretation should be dealt with mainly by naturalization. This view has its own validity. In many occasions, the focus of interpretation is not to perform cultural output, but to provide services for both parties in the live communication. (Bai Jingyu,2000)

The first step in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation is to find the "nearest natural equivalent" to the source language culture in the target language, and try to find authentic expressions or explanatory methods from the target language for the audience's understanding. For example, the use of naturalization means to put Chinese allusions "三个和尚没水吃" into " Everyone‘s business is no one"s business." is very easy to be understood by native English speakers in Western countries.(Deng Yanchang, Liu Runqing,2006)

However, when using naturalization to deal with cultural factors, we should also see that while naturalization reduces the difficulty of audience acceptance and comprehension, it also sacrifices many cultural features of the source language, which may result in the loss of a large amount of accompanying information and prevent the audience from fully appreciating the original connotation of the source language and the foreign culture. For example, for foreigners who want to learn Chinese, in order to explain the cultural implications contained therein, he will translate“她有沉鱼落雁之容，闭月羞花之貌" by naturalization to “Her beauty would make the fish sink, the wild geese fall down and the moon hide herself, and put the flowers to shame.”（Deng Yanchang,2006）

Therefore, while emphasizing that interpretation should be mainly naturalized, it is important not to overlook the value of the means of dissimilation. This is because besides providing services to both parties of live communication, interpretation also has the function of cultural transmission, which is conducive to enhancing mutual understanding among peoples. For the specific forms and expressions containing strong cultural color and ethnicity, the dissimilation means can best reflect the ethnic color of the source language and make the audience feel novel and vivid, thus opening their eyes and gaining knowledge and enlightenment, especially on occasions such as tourism interpretation and banquet interpretation. (Bai Jingyu,2000)

In order to meet the needs of cultural exchange, interpreters should undoubtedly adopt the strategy of heterogeneity as much as possible in the process of interpretation, so as to retain the heterogeneous components in the source language to the greatest extent possible and transmit the information in the source language to the audience as originally as possible. In addition, the use of dissimilation can enrich the linguistic expressions of the target language and inject fresh blood into the culture of the target language, so that the language and culture of the target language can continue to develop and maintain vitality.（Edward Spir,2006）

====Rational Use of Direct Translation, Substitution, Paraphrase, Interpretation and Other Translation Methods====

The German functionalist translation theory, which emerged in the 1970s, advocates a "purpose-oriented" approach, which frees the translator and the translator from the bondage of the original language and regards translation as a purposive act. Functionalist scholars especially pointed out that their theory is also suitable for interpretation. The theory requires the translator to determine the strategies to be used in the translation process based on the specific requirements of the client and the translation purpose and the actual situation of the potential readers (or listeners) on the basis of a full understanding of the original language. (Bai Jingyu,2000)

The functionalist translation theory emphasizes flexibility and practicality in the translation process, which is a great inspiration for translators to flexibly use various translation methods to deal with cultural factors in interpretation. Combined with the specific characteristics and requirements of interpretation and the actual situation of the interpretation site, translation methods such as direct translation, substitution, meaning translation and interpretation should be flexibly used in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation according to the needs. (Bai Jingyu,2000)

=====Direct translation method=====

Language is the carrier of culture, which reflects the cultural traditions and psychological habits of a nation. Direct translation not only preserves these cultural features and avoids ambiguities, but also facilitates cultural exchange and enriches the vocabulary of the target language. Without affecting the understanding of the audience, direct translation is preferable if the source and target languages can be unified or largely unified in content and form. The direct translation method is the fullest manifestation of dissimilation at the linguistic level. It is the fullest expression of alienation at the linguistic level. For example, " Let sleeping dogs lie" is directly translated as “勿惹睡狗”. “火上加油” is directly translated “Pour oil on the flame”.

=====Substitution Method=====
The substitution method is also called the "reciprocity method". It is a method of translation by applying words and expressions in the target language that have different expressions but are similar in meaning to the cultural concepts of the source language. The substitution method is the most typical manifestation of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena. For example, the Chinese idiom "冰冻三尺非一日之寒" is translated into " Rome cannot be built in one day”. English idiom "to spend money like water " translated into "挥金如土" is a good example.(Wang Kefei,1997)

====Intentional translation method=====

When the source language and the target language cannot be unified in terms of content and form or cannot be harmonized, translation is a method of expressing the meaning of the source language in the language of the target language from the meaning of the source language, free from the superficial form of the source language. The meaning translation method is also a common method of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena in interpretation. It is mainly applied to occasions where cultural communication is not the purpose. (Bai Jingyu,2000)

For example, during the second session of the Ninth National People's Congress, Premier Zhu Rongji held a press conference. In response to a reporter's question about the "U.S. accusation of China's theft of U.S. nuclear technology," Premier Zhu stated a series of reasons and then concluded that "The U.S. has been accused of stealing nuclear technology from China. After stating a series of reasons, he concluded that,“我们为什么还要冒政治.上的风险和道德上的风险去盗窃什么人的军事机密呢?所以，所谓中国盗窃美国军事机密的问题可以认为是一种天方夜谭”.The last sentence of the translator's translation reads“So, the alleged Chinese theft of U.S. military technology is only a fiction.” Here, "天方夜谭" is not translated directly as"TheArabianNights"，but is instead translated as " fiction ".

This shows that the interpreter is fully aware of the cultural differences between Chinese and Western cultures and adopts the method of paraphrasing and flexibly and accurately conveys the speaker's meaning to the audience in the target language. As we all know, in Chinese culture, when people refer to an absurd, unsubstantiated phenomenon or statement, they often say: 这简直是天方夜谭。But in English-speaking cultures, The Arabian Nights is not synonymous with ridiculous or absurd. Therefore, the word "天方夜谭" has a much richer connotation in Chinese than the same word has in English.（Bao Huinan,2001）

=====Interpretation=====

Chinese and English belong to different language families, and they are very different in terms of cultural and historical background, cultural psychological structure, thinking styles and methods, and language expression. Although there are some cultural concepts in the two languages that are equivalent, corresponding or basically corresponding, most of them are not corresponding or completely corresponding, and some concepts are completely vacant in the target language.(Bao Huinan,2001) When trying to preserve the cultural characteristics of the source language and the literal translation cannot make the audience understand its meaning, the cultural phenomenon of the source language can be properly explained to facilitate the audience's understanding. This method is called interpretation. Interpretation is actually a means of alienation-a disguised form of expression, similar to literal translation and annotation. The interpretation method is not only easy for the audience to understand, but also can retain the cultural flavor of the source language. It is a good way to deal with cultural gaps in interpreting. The interpretation method is mainly applicable to the following scope (Bai Jingyu,2000)

1) Proper nouns formed in the accumulation of source language culture
诸葛亮—-Zhuge Liang，a master mind in Chinese history.
Mickey Mouse—-指一个小人物或一件微不足道的小事

2) Abbreviations, special phrases or collocations formed in a specific cultural atmosphere
三资企业—-refers to“外资”，namely, foreign- funded enterprise; “合资”， joint adventure
and“独资”，wholly foreign-owned or funded enterprise.
An LDC—-指 “a life and death commodity”始用于英国报刊，一般指成本低廉，但却是人类赖以生存的商品，如水。

3) Lingo, idiom, allusion, slang or colloquialism
解铃还需系铃人—-“Let him who tied the bell on the tiger take it off”, meaning, whoever started that trouble ends it himself.”

4)Special cultural words

敬老日—- Generally speaking, this phrase refers to the Double Ninth Festival in China，a day of giving and advocating more concern for the senior citizens.
the Beatles—-指英国的披头士乐队，20世纪六七十年代曾风靡全球。

=====Simple translation and no translation=====

Chinese people use more adjectives when narrating and describing people and things, especially when introducing landscapes and historical sites, adjectives and four-character patterns are quite frequent. For example, when introducing a lake, we often hear commentary similar to the following: “ 湖水澄澈如镜，水光天接，湖中有十多个高矮不等的小岛被水相望，似断似续，烟水迷茫，错落有致....”. If during the interpreting process, the interpreter translates the described words one by one according to the original language, it is likely to be thankless and make people feel that the language is extremely exaggerated and ridiculous. In this case, omitting some adjectives will not affect the overall situation. It is undeniable that some of the special expressions in different nationalities and different languages cannot be translated or equivalently translated. Especially in time-stressed interpretation situations, it is inevitable to encounter difficult problems, such as humor in English. No matter how you translate them, the meanings of, puns, allegorical words with puns in Chinese, and word-breaking games in Chinese, etc., cannot fully reflect their meanings. In this case, you can use "no translation" or incomplete translation. For example, Chinese people are used to introducing themselves by saying: "我姓张，弓长张。"Directly translating it as “My family name is Zhang”is enough.(Lu Naisheng,1993)

===Conclusion===

Interpretation is a cross-language communication activity as well as a cross-cultural communication activity. Due to the commonality and individuality of culture, the cultural characteristics carried by different language systems in cross-cultural communication appear the same, partly the same, gaps and conflicts. Therefore, the interpreter must not only be proficient in both the source language and the target language, but also understand the two cultures and understand the differences between the two cultures reflected in the differences in language expression. In addition, due to the characteristics of interpreting: timeliness, directness, diversity of occasions and forms, as well as the looseness of oral expression, resulting in the cultural sensitivity of the interpreter, the broad aspect of knowledge and the ability to deal with cultural differences There are higher requirements.

Therefore, interpreters should focus on cultivating cross-cultural awareness, increasing their sensitivity to the differences between the two cultures, and mastering the principles and methods to fill the gaps in understanding between different cultures. For interpreters, cross-cultural awareness refers to a cognitive standard and adjustment method formed by the translator consciously or unconsciously in cross-cultural communication. It is the interpreter’s unique way of thinking, judgment, and The sensitivity of cultural factors. The interpreter is the carrier of cross-cultural awareness, and the broad cultural information foundation is the fundamental guarantee for the completion of cross-cultural communication. Only by following the principles of culture can the translator better control the language and make the target language truly accurate, decent and fluent.(Bai Jingyu,2000)

===Reference===

简芳，张健.口译活动中的文化障碍问题[J]. 湖北广播电视大学学报，2012年1月第1期

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刘微微.浅谈口译中文化差异的应对策略[J].哈尔滨职业技术学院学报，2008 年第1期[4].沙保华.文化差异与口译[J].四川外语学院学报(重庆)，1995年第1期

熊薇.文化差异对口译的影响[J].语言文字，2009.8

杨震，黄斗.口译中中西文化冲突的沟通和处理[J].广西师范学院学报(哲学社会科学版)，2008年10月第4期

张文.论口译面对的文化差异问题[J]. 北京第二外国语学院学报，1998年第3期 [8]. 张燕.文化差异对口译的影响[J]. 外语教学，2002年5月第3期

Edward Spir, Language: An Introduction of the Study of Speech, Echo Library, 2006.

Bai Jingyu, Culture and Translation, China Social Science Press, 2000.

Lu Naisheng, Differences between Chinese and English and Translation, East China Chemical Engineering Institute Press, 1993.

Wang Kefei, Understanding the Nature of Translation, Foreign Languages and Foreign Language Teaching, 1997.

Jia Dejiang, A Tentative Discussion on Cultural Perspective and English-Chinese Translation, Hunan People' 's Publishing House, 1998.

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--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 13:59, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

==On Translation Strategies of Different Style, Taking English Journalistic Style and English Literary Style as an Example 张银柳 Zhang Yinliu 202070080649==

===Abstract===

With the consistent development of the cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, translation plays a more and more pivotal role in the world stage. It can not only help Chinese to have a better understanding of foreign cultures and promote the cooperation, but also spread the Chinese cultures to the international world. Translation strategies are the focus of translation works, especially during the process of translating Chinese to English. It’s very necessary to have a thorough study about the translation strategies. While towards different styles of text, different translation strategies should be applied relatively. This thesis focuses on translation strategies of two styles - journalistic style and literary style.
The thesis firstly introduces main functons and types of texts. Then it depicts the characteristics and translation principles of journalistic style text and literary style text. In the main part, the thesis explores the translation strategies that suits for the two types based on different characteristics, including domestication, foreignization, omission,restructure and etc. This thesis is expected to make some contributions to the study of translation strategies and the practice of translation.

===Key Words===

Translation strategies; text-types; journalistic style; literary style.

===中文摘要===

随着中外文化交流的不断发展，翻译在世界舞台上扮演着越来越重要的角色。它不仅可以帮助中国人更好地了解外国文化，促进合作，而且可以将中国文化传播到世界。翻译策略是翻译工作的重点，特别是在汉译英过程中。对翻译策略进行深入研究是有必要的。在针对不同样式的文本时，应相对地采用不同的翻译策略。本文主要研究两种体裁的翻译策略：新闻体裁和文学体裁。
本文首先介绍主要的文本功能以及文本类型，然后探讨新闻风格文本和文学风格文本的语言特点及翻译原则。论文的主体部分结合了两种文本的特点，探讨了归化，异化，省译，重构等翻译策略。本文有望为翻译策略的研究和翻译的实践做出贡献。

===关键词===

翻译策略; 文本类型; 新闻体裁; 文学体裁.

===Introduction===

Translation strategies are critical in translation process. Towards texts in different styles that have different models of texts’ structure and communicative functions, translation strategies are quite variable. There are a great number of scholars both from China and the international world who have devoted themselves to dive into and research the most effective and practical strategies.

However, there are still lack of thorough researches about translation strategies for different text styles. In this thesis, the first part is about the introduction and analysis of former scholars’ researches and the whole picture of this thesis. Then, the thesis will discuss the development, characteristics and functions of different-style texts from the perspective of linguistics.From the perspective of language characteristics,literary style texts are vivid,full of feelings and connotation-contained, while journalistic style texts are new, objective,true and political-related. From the perspective of translation principles, literary style texts are based on equivalence priciple and accuracy,while journalistic style texts are based on accuracy,purpose and readability. The main part is about the translation strategies of source texts in journalistic style and literary style respectively and the analysis of examples, such as the domestication, foreignization in literary-style texts and the omission , restructure, amplification and imitation in journalistic-style text. In concluding part, the thesis will generalize the main idea and make an objective appreciation about the thesis.

===Theoretical Framework===
====Background and development of Texts’ styles====

According to the research, there is still no specific definition of distinguishing differences of texts styles. Some scholars claim texts’ styles to be registers, even some equal them to speech events. Qin Xiubai, a famous Chinese language and teaching professor, introduced that there were two main schools of the study of Texts styles’- the Swalesian School represented by John M.S wales and V.K.Bhatia and the Australian School represented by J.R.Martin. John Martin believes that styles of texts mean a bunch of social events in which the members have the same communicative goal. While V.K.Bhatia believes that styles of texts are identifiable communicative events that have obvious inner structural features, conventionally happening in specific careers or academic communities.

We can tell from the two schools’ views that styles of texts are a kind of communicative events with its special communicative purpose and clear structures. From this point, translators or interpreters can exert theory to analyze texts’ styles and recognize the intentions of writers as well as keep the functional and sense equivalence between the source texts and target texts. J.R.Martin take texts’ styles as a communication-orientated process of social communication with steps. Eggins view texts of styles as a type of activity with steps that orientated on communicative purposes. So that the difference of texts styles is on the level of values in use rather than the contents of discourse, characteristics of forms or other rules.

Huang Guowen once said that every text plays a communicative role in a specific social and cultural environment, and people belonging to a specific social and cultural background can usually see its communicative purpose. (Huang Guowen,2001) The text is a combination of communicative symbols for the exchange of information between the sender and the recipient. In order to achieve a certain communicative purpose, the sender must choose an appropriate genre and corresponding manifestation to convey the information, and the recipient is expected to respond accordingly. Thus, the function of texts can be realized. Christiane Nord summarized four functions of texts from the perspective of translation. They are referential function, expressive function, appellative function and phatic function. (Nord, 1997)

====Main functions of texts====

=====The Referential Function=====
The referential function of a text means the reference to or description of objects or phenomena of the world. It is mainly expressed through the denotative value of the lexical items presented in the text and can be analyzed through the nature of the objects. It is orientated toward objects in real or fictitious worlds. There are several functions of referential function: informative function, directive function and didactic function. If the referent is a fact or state of things unknown to the receiver, such as an accident, the text function may consist in informing the readers. If the referent is the description of an object, such as the illustration of using a washing machine, the text function may be directive. If it is a whole field that the receivers are to learn, such as physics, the function may be didactic.

=====The Expressive Function=====

The expressive function refers to the sender’s attitude to toward the objects or phenomena. This function is sender-orientated. The expressive function of the text may be subdivided according to what it is expressed. If the sender expresses individual feelings or emotions, such as a public speech, it will be an emotive sub-function. If what is expressed is an evaluation, like comments, the sub-function will be evaluative.

=====The Appellative Function=====

The appellative function refers to use of language to make the receiver feel or do something. The appellative function “receiver-orientated. It aims at the receivers’ sensitivity or disposition to act and tries to induce receivers to respond in a particular way. It can be broken into several sub-functions: illustrative function, persuasive function, advertising function and pedagogical function. If we want to illustrate a hypothesis by an example, we appeal to the reader’s previous experience to knowledge, That’s what called illustrative function. If we want to persuade someone to do something or to share a particular viewpoint, we appeal to their sensitivity and their secret desires. That’s what called persuasive function. If we want to let someone by a particular product, we tend to describe those qualities of the product that are presumed to have positive values in receivers’ value system. That’s advertising function. If we wan to educate a person, we may appeal to their susceptibility to ethical and moral principles. That’s pedagogical function.

====Main Text - types====

Katharina Reiss, founder of German translation functionalism, put forward text-typology theory in Possibilities and Limitations in Translation Criticism. She believes that there are four texts, including the context-focused text, the form-focused text, the appeal-focused text and the audio-media text.
Peter Newmark, representative of the British linguistic school of translation theory, based on the study of former linguisticians, he put forward the following six functions of texts - expressive function, informative function, the vocative function, the aesthetic function, the phatic function and the meta-lingual function. A text may has several functions at the same time, but only has one major function. Taking a whole consideration of the two theories, the main texts are the following three, expressive texts, informative texts and vocative texts. Journalistic-style texts and literary-style texts are mainly connected with the informative and expressive function respectively.

=====The Expressive Texts=====

Language is a tool for people to communicate with each other. Through language, people can express their thoughts, affection, wills, desires, opinions, attitude, etc. This is the expressive function of language. The core of expressive function is the speaker's thoughts. The speaker uses words to express feelings, regardless of the reaction of others.Typical expressive-function texts include the following three types. The first ones are serious and imaginative literature which contain lyrics, short stories, long novels and plays. The second type is authoritative texts, including a variety of genres, whose authority comes from the status of the author or language skills, such as senior government officials and political party leaders’ speeches, such as declarations, legal regulations, documents as well as literary and academic works written by authority figures etc. The third type is texts that express writers’ ideas directly, without direct readers, like autobiography, private letters, etc.

===== The Informative Texts=====

In interactions, people often have to describe, narrate or explain the situation of relevant things. This involves the information function of language. The core is the external environment, which is the reported insights and theories. The informative text usually has a fixed format, such as textbook, technical reports, newspaper articles, scientific papers, meeting minutes, etc.

===== The Vocative Texts=====

People often use words to evoke others' sympathy or prompt them to take some actions. That shows the imperative function of language. The core of this function is the readers or audiences. The speaker wants readers or audiences to feel and follow the intent of the text and act as expected. Typical vocative texts are notices, advertisements, instructions, requests, appeals, etc.

===Literary Stylistics and Journalistic Stylistics===

With the appearance of societal pragmatics, pragmatics and functional grammar, scholars recognized the importance of language functions. They tried to classify the texts in the light of language functions and divided them into two main types. One is literary style, the other is non-literary style. Snell-Hornby classified literary texts as Bible, drama, film, lyric poetry, modern literature, classic works, children literature, literature in 1990 and pastime novel.

====Language Characteristics====

=====For literary style=====
======Vividness======
In literary works, writers use words or language to vividly describe or portray people, objects, things to reflect the world’s various situations or expose social reality, they will use appropriate techniques to render the atmosphere and create an immersive feeling for readers. For Example, “The bullfrogs trump to usher in the night, and the note of the whip-poor-will is borne on the rippling wind from over the water.” Through the use of verbs such as "trump", "usher" and "is borne", the images of frogs, hawks and wind blowing on the water surface in the evening are vividly depicted. That happens a lot in literary works.

======Emotional expression======
As we all know, all things and objects are embodiment of writers’ feelings and emotions. In literary creation, whether it is to portray characters or to describe scenery, often inadvertently or intentionally contains or carries the writer’s own emotions. In other words, expressing emotion includes direct expression and indirect expression. The lyricism of this kind of literature can effectively arouse the emotional resonance of readers.

======Connotation======
Connotation means that writers do not always describe people or things in all-round aspects with every details, but can depict in limited number of words to show or imply infinite meaning or artistic conception, leaving readers with imagination. That will be unforgettable for a long time. For example, “ From my mother’s sleep I fell into the State. And I hunched in its belly till my wet fur froze.” In this two sentences, “Sleep” metaphorically means in the mother’s womb, can also refer to the poet’s lofty ideals and ambitions. The capitalized "State" can refer to both the world and the poet’s motherland - The United States.

===== For journalistic style=====
Journalistic-style texts vary a lot from the the literary-style texts. As an unique texts which are shown to billions of audience, the characteristics of news are mainly in following four aspects: Truth, objective, new and political-related.

======Truthfulness======
First, as the definition indicates news is about facts，which first should be true. “News lays claim to the qualities of truthfulness and accuracy-properties often implied by the term objectivity, a concept used to legitimize the journalistic text while at the same time recognizing the multidimensional and elusive nature of truth. News asks to be accepted as, at the very least, an approximation to truth, and certainly close enough to the truth to be worthy of our trust in its integrity”(McNair, 1998:2)

======Newness======
If the news isn’t new, it should have been called “olds”. This is more than a joke. News is reported to make a contrast to the convention, strike people by surprise and keep them in suspense. “News is not about somebody bitten by a dog, but about a dog bitten by a man”, “News is just something that can move women to scream: My Gosh!” The two old sayings have been taken as most vivid descriptions of news, featuring its distinctive characteristics of newness.

======Objectivity======
The objectivity is one of the most important professional concepts of news and has caught great attention in news circle. “The basic content of this principle is the content must be completely true, fair and neutral, not fictitious, and not biased or subjective” (Yang Xiyou 2009, 6)When writing news or reports, media workers shouldn’t put their subjective feelings into the reports. And the use of vocabulary should also be fair and neutral. When international news media, such as BBC and VOA, report about China Diaoyu Islands issue, they generally use Sankaku Islands and Diaoyu Island. When translating these words, the translator should be faithful to the original text and translate these two names. However, due to ideological, political or historical reasons, the use of vocabulary may deviate from the principle of objectivity, such as: in the report of Russia and Japan’s dispute on islands, only the Russian address- “ Kuril Islands” was used, but the Japanese address- “Four Northern Islands” was not used. When translating, the translator should add “Thousand Southern Islands” and “Four Northern”.

======Political Relevance======
Although news is objective, absolutely objective and fair reports do not exist. The media has never been able to completely get rid of the shackles of political and economic power or ideology. The content of the report tends to obey the interests of the country. The use of political vocabulary in English current affairs news must also faithfully reflect the country’s political standpoint. Regarding to the English translation of the Diaoyu Islands, the Chinese news media translate into “Diaoyu Islands”, while the Japanese news media and some Western news media call it “Senkaku Islands”. From the usage of these words, it is obvious to see the political stance. When translating these political words, translators must be very cautious. In addition to be faithful to the original text, translators or interpreters should also consider our country’s interests.

====Translation principles====
Translation is the process of transforming signs or representations into another signs or representations.(Nord, 2001:6) Generally speaking, according to the object of translation, translation can be divided into two kinds: literary translation and non-literary translation. In literary translation the object is only the literary work, such as pot, novel and so on, and it focuses on the expression of contents, emotions and rhetoric of the original.

===== For literary style=====
Although literary translation and non-literary translation share basic principles, literary translation which has its unique ways, is rather different from non-literary translation. Translating literary works is not only a process of transforming languages but also a process of recreating because literature belongs to a part of art. This is the most important feature of literary translation and also the basic translation principles.

======Equivalence-based principle======
Equivalence-based principle equals to “Dynamic equivalence” proposed by Eugene A. Nida, a famous American translation theorist. This principle points that translators should work hard in different languages and different cultures to find translation equivalents between them, and use appropriate methods to reorganize the form and semantic structure of the original text. Dynamic equivalence includes four aspects: one is lexical equivalence, the other is syntactic equivalence, the third is textual equivalence, the fourth is sense equivalence. In literary translation, sense equivalence is the core. For example, the Chinese sentence “青年小伙子们，有事没事，总想和小芹说句话” can be translated in to “Young men sought every excuse to talk with Xiao Qin”.This shows sense equivalence.

======Accuracy-based principle======
No matter how beautiful the texts are, the accuracy is always the most important, rather than the forms. Be Faithful to the content of the original text, the translator must fully express the content of the original text without any tampering, distortion, omission or arbitrary deletion. The more accurate the words be chosen, the better the translation texts will be. For example, when translating “ 微风”, we’d better translate it into “breeze” or “gentle breeze” rather than “gentle wind” since the breeze is more accurate.

=====For Journalistic style=====
Journalistic-style texts belong to the informative texts according to the above analysis. Translation principles of Journalistic are mainly mainly purposiveness, accuracy and readability.

======Purpose-based principle======
Purpose" is the basic principle of journalistic-style texts translation, and other principles are based on this principle. For information-based texts, “ translation skopos ”, the German functionalist translation theory, was put forward by Rice, Vermeer, and Nord. Skopos has great significance in guiding of translation. This is because the purpose of information-based translation is very strong, that is, the translation has a clear goal - to provide information. Snell Hornby believes: “More practical the texts is, more clear its function is. The more the translation tends to focus on the target language.”

As far as the journalistic text is concerned, the purpose of its translation is conveying the information and communication, allowing readers to easily understand the intention of the speaker. The translation should conform to the audience’s needs, cultural expectations, beliefs and cognitive status as much as possible, and it is meaningful in the communication environment of the target language culture. For example, in news, sometimes vocabulary vacancies are caused by the absence of equivalence in the translation, and it is impossible to use completely equivalent and accurate words to express its connotation during translation. In this case, domestication can be applied. Considering the specific translation purpose, context and characteristics of the target language, if the purpose of translation is to spread foreign cultures, foreignization strategies can be adopted. That’s the purpose-based translation principle.

======Accuracy-based principle======
The purpose of informative text is to convey information. Therefore, the translation work of the information text should be accurate, clear and precise. The translator can’t deliberately or unintentionally miss any original author’s information. In journalistic style, the accuracy is critical. A slight difference of words can make huge results. Especially, for those news related with politics and business. A word with different emotional sense can make a complete opposite statement. A small movement of a point can cause millions capital loss. For example, 1.33 million and 13.3 million has the huge difference. This principle is similar to the “faith” proposed by Yan Fu. “Faith” means “faithfulness”. The translation of linguistic-style texts should confirm to accuracy.

======Readability-based principle======
Generally speaking, the terminology of information-based texts is neutral and has no obvious personal characteristics or regional colors. In news, even though there are more facts that personal emotions and feeling, translators or interpreters can make small adjustment of the speakers to make the report readable. In short, when translating, based on the readers’ language level, various translation methods should be mobilized on the premise of not changing the original intent of the article and report. It may make the content and layout of the article easier to understand, fluent and concise. But be sure to keep the source language texts’ characteristics.

===Translation strategies===
Translation strategies refer to the thoughts, process, methods and procedure during the process of translation. Towards original texts with different texts styles, translation strategies also vary in a large degree. The thesis will discuss from two typical stylistic texts - literary style and journalistic style. According to The Modern Chinese Dictionary, strategies indicate guidelines and means which are deigned on the basis of the situations concerned. While methods are the ways and procedures in solving real problems. However, the two are relative to each other. In simple words strategies are the guidelines of the concrete methods. The concrete methods should be adopted in the direction of their strategies. Based on the above, a conclusion in drawn that translation strategies are the guidelines for realizing a particular translation aim, yet translation methods the concrete ways employed by translators to make the particular translation aim come true.

====Translation strategies in literary style====
In the book Translation Criticism the Potentials & Limitations, Reiss pointed out that “Translation of literary works would better be called free rendering than translations, especially when the personality of the translator and the force of his artistic temperament result in a TL version standing on its own, indebted to the original as a model and a source of inspiration. (Reiss, 2004:91) This description indicates the characteristics of literary translation.

===== Domestication=====
Domestication is firstly coined by L.Venuti in his book ''The Translator’s Invisibility'' called “guihua” in Chinese. Domestication is a strategy by which the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the original text is erased in the translation in order to meet its readers’ aesthetic and reception psychology. As Venuti argues the adoption of domesticating strategy is the cultural disparity and imperialism. In the 1980s translation studies underwent “cultural turn”, and since then translation has being studied in the cultural and social contexts. The dominance of transparent discourse in English-language translation was decisively challenged at the turn of the twentieth century.Eugene Nida is the representative of domestication by his assertion on dynamic equivalence that “A translation of dynamic equivalence aims at complete naturalness of expression and tries to relate the receptor to modes of behavior relevant within the context of his own culture.” (Nida, 2004:159) He maintains that the function of translation is to communicate and it is important for the reader to understand what is conveyed by the translation, which takes the reader’s response into consideration. He claims that the reader of the target text should have the similar comprehension and appreciation as does the reader of the source text. Domestication tries to avoid cultural dispute and eliminate cultural barriers to achieve successful cross-cultural communication. The domesticating translation is one of naturalness and smoothness,
which is the advantage of domestication. Here are three main methods that can achieve domestication strategy. They are paraphrasing, adaptation and replacement.

======paraphrasing======

Domestication by the method of paraphrasing is effective in dealing with a simple expression behind which there is a heavy cultural load. We should adapt paraphrasing strategy.

Example1

ST: 如囊萤如映雪家虽贫学不辍 (Wang Yinglin, 1986)

TT1: Then we have one who put fireflies in a bag, and again another who used the white glare from snow. Although their families were poor, these men studied
unceasingly.

TT2: One enclosed some glow-worms in a transparent bag, another read by the light reflected by the snow. Although their families were poor, they never ceased learning.
Annotation: in order to read by their light.

TT3: Che-yin, when a boy, being poor, read his book by the light of a glow-worm which he confined. And Sun-kang, in winter, read his book by the light reflected from snow. Though their families were poor they studied incessantly.

The original text is from a classical book in china named Three-Character Classic.“囊萤”and “映雪” are Chinese allusions urging children to work hard at their study. Each of the contracted expressions has a story behind it. By reading T1 and T2, readers cannot understand the allusion to the full and the logic between the expressions of “put fireflies in a bag/enclosed some glow-worms in a transparent bag”and“used the white glare from snow”and the expressions about the persons’ industry at their studies. T3 paraphrases the sentence and makes logic explicit by introducing the heroes in the allusions and explaining what they used the fireflies/glow-worms for. This is effective in translation.

======Adaptation======

In order to achieve naturalness of expression, grammar, lexicon and culture. Adaptations are necessary. For terms which identify culturally different objects but with somewhat similar functions, adaptation shows its advantage in translation.

Example2

ST: 老少爷们，从麻木的状态中苏醒过来吧。(Moyan，2003:85)

TT: Come out of your stupor, my friends. ( Goldblatt, 2004:293)

Address terms, as an indispensable part of conversations and communications, can reflect the tradition and culture of a nation. In all languages, address terms play an important role in social intercourse. Set in Northeast countryside of China, “ 老少爷们”is a typical address term of China’s northern dialect. And it is usually used by a man, showing some masculinity. It’s an oral expression often addressed to males. Goldblatt translate it as “my friends”, often used in an English speech to strike a chord in listeners and get them united or in favor of the speaker, conspicuously in an adaptation way.

Example3

ST: 凡训蒙须讲究详训诂明句读（Wang Yinglin,1986）

TT1: In the education of the young, there should be explanation and elucidation, careful teaching of the interpretations of commentators, and due attention to paragraphs and sentences.

TT2: Whoever teaches boys, ought to discuss and examine deeply (the meaning of the characters); Explain their derivation, mark distinctly the periods and the punctuation.

TT3: Every one that instructs youth should explain fully what he teaches; should illustrate the present and the past, and distinguish clearly the comma and the period.
There are two kinds of adaptation in the translation of this Chinese line. First, it is the domestication of the Chinese term “句读”. Actually, ancient Chinese classics do not have any punctuation marks and the “句读” refers to the longer or shorter pause in the classics according to the meaning of the text. All three translators domesticate the Chinese term by the concept of punctuation in the English language and render it respectively as “paragraphs and sentences”, “the periods and the punctuation” and “the comma and the period”. Although the three kinds of rendering differ from each other on the level of punctuation, they have much the same function—the target text reader can easily understand in what way “句读” functions in a Chinese text. Thus dynamic equivalence is achieved. The second adaptation is the change of parts of speech—the change from verb to noun. Giles changes the verbs “训”, “讲究” and “训诂” in the Chinese text into nouns “education”, “explanation and elucidation”, “interpretations” and “attention”.

======Replacement======

Example 4

ST:勤有功戏无益戒之哉宜勉力 (Wang Yinglin, 1986)

TT: Diligence has its reward; play has no advantages. Oh, be on your guard, and put forth your strength.

This is an example of domestication on the lexical level. “哉” in Chinese is a particle of exclamatory or of interrogative value. In this line, it functions as an exclamatory particle. It helps to make up the syllable in the Chinese version and express the author’s emotion of instructing the young. Giles translates it into the correspondent English exclamatory particle “Oh” which retains the tone of a similar function as is in the source text. It achieves dynamic equivalence in terms of reader’s response to the rhetoric.

=====Foreignization=====

Foreignization designates the type of translation in which a target text is produced which deliberately breaks the target conventions by retaining the foreignness of the original. It functions to preserve the foreignness and value of the foreign language culture in the source text. It takes the readers of the target language culture to a foreign culture, making the readers of the translated text feel the differences and enjoy the alien atmosphere. It is more faithful to the language features of the source text than domestication does, and it keeps the flavor of the original language. Venuti and other scholars who advocate foreignization hold that foreignization enable readers of the translated text to learn about the alien culture of the source language text, which is often the reading aim of the readers who are capable of understanding the alien culture. (Venuti, 1995)

======phonetic compensation======

Among the three translators, Giles is said to be an excellent English language master who was able to compose English poems. His translation of poems is generally in accordance with the composing and rhyming schemes of English poems, often with good rhythm. (Mu Shixiong, 2004:166) Though Giles is good at translating poems, he does not translate this text into a completely rhythmical one. Instead, he adds pronunciation to every Chinese character in the text to make a phonetic compensation so that the readers can still appreciate the ending rhyme of the original Chinese text. Giles does make an effort to create rhythmical effect whenever it is possible. In literary texts, phonetic compensation is always applied in translation of poem and prose.

Example5

ST:养不教父之过教不严师之惰

TT: To feed without teaching is the father’s fault. To teach without severity is the teacher’s laziness.

Each line of the translation has a rhythmic focus. Respectively they are:“feed”,“without”and“teaching”in the first line; “father” and “fault” in the second line;“teach”,“without”and“severity” in the third line; and “teacher” and “laziness” in the fourth line. In this way, and together with the phonetic compensation, formal equivalence is achieved and by reading the phonetic compensation, target readers can feel the same rhythm of the original text and response the same as the readers of the source text.

======Transliteration======

Transliteration is a method that an item is translated according to its pronunciation rather than its meaning. This technique is often applied to translate ecological culture-loaded terms, like names of places, person, rivers, mountains or countries. There are two systems in use for transliteration Chinese characters: the Wade-Giles system of Romanization and the pinyin system of Romanization. For better transference of Chinese culture, the latter system is suggested. For some material culture-loaded terms, such as “仁”, “义”, “君子” and so on, transliteration might be preferable to any other methods. These terms represent the key concept of Confucianism, and any other English equivalent expressions may lead to misunderstanding. Thus, it is the most convenient and effective way to expose target readers in Chinese culture. For some time, the pinyin translation of these terms may be as acceptable and comprehensible as “kongfu” or “mahjong”. Certainly, for the sake of target readers’ understanding, an annotation is always needed to provide the further explanation of the cultural meanings of these terms.

Example6

ST: 南容三复“白圭”，孔子以其兄之子妻之。(Liu Dianjue, 46)

TT1: Nan Jung in reciting the I Song repeated the verse about the sceptre of white jade three times. (In consequence of which) Master Kung gave him his elder brother’s daughter to marry. (Waley, 131)

TT2: Nan Rong repeated over and over again the lines about the white jade sceptre. Confucius gave him his elder brother’s daughter in marriage. (D.C. Lau, 181)

======Amplification======

Amplification refers to add information behind some terms that is familiar to source language readers but unfamiliar to target language readers. By amplification, the connotation can be better conveyed to foreign readers.

Example 7

ST:论语者二十篇群弟子记善言

TT: The Lunyu (the book of discourses and dialogues) contains twenty chapters. The disciples (of Confucius) have therein related his excellent sayings.

In this example, the Chinese text does not mention the ancient Chinese sage Confucius, and the information on whose sayings had been recorded in the book “Lun-yu” is implicit, which can be inferred from the context by native Chinese, once they combine the notion of “论语”with their background knowledge. However, western readers do not have enough knowledge to appreciate the value of the “Lun-yu”if the title was translated without the mention of Confucius.

==== Translation strategies in journalistic style====

===== Amplification=====

Sometimes, the translator needs to add proper words to complete the structure of the target texts, because mews sometimes needs more information to explain the inner meaning. The following examples are offered to illustrate the point.

Example 8

ST: The real James Bond? (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 250)

TT:谁是真正的邦德?

There are no subject and predicate in the target text if the translator renders the headline by literal translation. Therefore,“谁是” is added in order to clarify the text.

Example 9

ST: Kings rout rockets, 101-74 (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 225)

TT: 国王队击败火箭队，比分为 101 比 74

“比分为”is added in the target text to make the translation complete in sentence structure and meaning.

Example 10
ST:Reuters bests and worsts of the world cup (Huang Ruihong, 2004-06-15)

TT:路透社评出世界最佳和最差球队

“评出” is added in the target text. Otherwise, there will be no predicate in the target text. Consequently, the translation will make no sense to the target reader. Translator should transfer new messages accurately and clearly to the target reader. To achieve this goal, amplification is often adopted to supplement necessary words or background information, which effectively avoids misunderstanding on the part of the target reader.

=====Omission=====

Omission refers to the strategy to delete unnecessary words or phrases from the target text. News headlines are featured by its brevity. Redundant words can be omitted either to conform to the norms of the target language or to achieve the effect of succinctness.

Example11
ST: You need to sleep less than you think (Zou Shuang, 2005)
TT: 适当少睡有益健康
As we know, English is a hypotactic language, which pays great attention to overt cohesion. Without the pronoun‘you’, the source text will be ungrammatical. By contrast, Chinese belongs to paratactic language, which attaches importance to covert coherence. When the translator does not render the word‘you’ into“你”, it won’t affect comprehension at all. In addition, the target text is succinct by leaving out the pronoun‘you’. Therefore, omission is adopted in this example.

Example12

ST: Vogue says Queen Elizabeth II among world’s most glamorous (China Daily, 2007-11-07)

TT:英女王跻身“全球最具魅力女性”排行榜

As it is well known to most Chinese readers that the Queen of UK is Elizabeth II (伊莉莎白二世), there is no need to keep it in the target text. Otherwise, the translation will be too long as a headline. The recommended version, thus, becomes 英女王跻身“全球最具魅力女性”排行榜.

=====Imitation=====
English news are featured by its vivid language, such as play on word, figures of speech, etc. They add special flavor to the text with the aim to attract readers’ eye. Obviously, to reproduce these aesthetic effect enjoys the privilege among the available methods. Throughout the history of translation theory, the idea of imitation has been manifested clearly by Alexander Fraser Tytler when he wrote: the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original in his famous essay on the Principles of Translation. (Munaday, 2001: 26) The following examples may illustrate the above idea.

Example 13

ST:A tale of two hearts (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 199).

TT:双心记

This headline tells a story that a patient has an artificial heart planted in his body. The headline is a parody of the novel A Tale of Two Cities written by Charles Dickens. The target text (双心记) is also a parody of “双城记”.

Example14

ST: Soccer kicks off with violence (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 200)

TT:足球开踢，拳打脚踢

This is a humorous news headline because of the use of pun. The phrase ‘kick off’ refers to the start of a football match, and it also implies that there is a fight in the football field. The meanings of the pun are successfully transferred by the target text with the recommended translation. The translator does a good job in reproducing the humorous sense.

=====Restructure=====
The target text should be acceptable and meaningful in a sense that it is coherent with the situation in which it is received. Once translated, the translator revises the order and rearranges all words into a perfect sentence. In doing so, the news is more logical and tuned with the habit of native readers' think and reading. It can be treated as an important technique used in translating news headline from Chinese into English or English to Chinese.

Example 15

ST: A third of Londoners must work from home during Olympics to avoid tube

TT: 奥运交通压力大 1/3伦敦人须在家上班 (2011-09-27 08:33)

“A third” occurred in the beginning of the source text, but “奥运会” comes first in the target text. The source text can be translate into “1/3的伦敦人必须在家上班,在奥运会期间避免交通混乱”if there is not any translation strategies used. The translator rearranges the words order to emphasize the special time---Olympics.

Example16

ST: Mahfud proposes ‘Special Zoo’ for corrupt officials

TT: 印尼高官提议建“贪官动物园” (2011-11-30 16:02)

In order to satirize the corrupt officials, the translator exchanges the order of “special” and “贪官” during the translation process. It can be achieve some good effect to expose the corrupt officials in language sense.

Example 17

ST:‘Ready for winter’ campaign launches

TT: 苏格兰打响“迎冬战役”(2011-10-24 12:06)

The translator reorders the expression “Ready for winter” and “launches” during the translation process. Besides, the translator adds a subject to this sentence so that it can appeal to the readers’ thinking patterns. In order to make the readers or audiences understand the translated version smoothly and easily, the words or phrases are adjusted to accord with their thinking pattern. Restructuring refers to rearranging the words in logic order to make the translation more potential readers or audiences into the first consideration, making them understand the translated version easily.

===== Adaptation=====
Adaptation is a translation method, which refers to use an especially free translation, it relates to selecting, adding, deleting, and constructing cautiously instead of simply translating one word to another word. In order to make the translated version more proper to a certain readers or audiences, adaptation always make some essential changes for a special aim So adaptation is an activity which the news translators absorb the most important content from the source text on the basis of the particular requirement of the readers or audiences, then make some suitable adjustments. When the translators are doing some adaptation, though the form and style of the source text are altered in a way, the main idea of the source text must be kept.Though adaptation is not acted as a main translation method by some traditional translation theorists, adaptation is getting more and more popular and arousing more and more
attention these days. You can see the term adaptation frequently showed in some authoritative journals and newspapers, etc.

Example 18

ST: Poor People May Be Quicker to Be Kind

TT:穷人更有同情心 (2011-12-29 08:56)

“Quicker”means“更快”, but here it is translated into “更有”, “快” is an adjective, “有”is a verb, they have different characters.“Kind”means“友善的”, it is an adjective, but it is translated into“同情心”, which is a noun. If the translator does not use some translation strategies like adaptation, the target text is unreadable.

Example 19

ST: Americans say Asia more important than EU: survey

TT：多数美国人看好亚洲 (2011-09-16 08:43)

“Important” is an adjective, and a comparative degree used in the source text. But the source text is translated in a totally different way, for it is translated into a verb “看好”. Adaptation should be used here to make sure the translation aim is achieved.

Example 20

ST: Lend your voices to ‘talking bins’

TT:“能说会唱垃圾桶”将亮相伦敦。

If“talking bins” is translated into “会说话的垃圾桶”, it is so ordinary. But the translator adopt the adaptation strategy to translated it into“能说会唱垃圾桶”, it becomes very vivid, and it may leave a deep impression on the readers.

===Conclusion===
The research conducted in this thesis is a fairly thorough study on the translation strategies of literary-style texts and journalistic-style texts. Through detailed discussion, several translation strategies have been analyzed and summarized. This thesis also studies the texts’ functions and main types of texts. The texts functions are referential function, expressive function and appellative function. The texts can be divided into three types- informative, expressive and vocative texts. On the basis of characteristics of different texts, detailed methods are applied. For literary-style texts, there are domestication and foreignization strategies. For journalistic-style texts, there are strategies like omission, restructure,adaption, imitation and amplification. Journalistic texts and literary texts are quite different, so the translation strategies are different. This thesis has a clear analysis about the translation strategies. However, it still owns a lot of drawbacks, such as the structure is too complicated, lack some of the former people’s study fruit. Hoping this thesis can make some contributions to the translation study and exercise process.

===References===

[1] McNair, Brain. ''The sociology of Journalism'' [M]. A Hodder Arnold Publication,1998.

[2] Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' [M]. London and New York: Routledge,2001.

[3] Newmark, P. ''Approaches to Translation'' ［M］. New York: Prentice Hall, 1981: 39.

[4] Nord, Christiane. ''Translating as A Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Approaches Explained'' [M]. Shanghai : Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001:6.

[5] Reiss, Katharina. ''Translation Criticism the Potentials & Limitations'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004:91.

[6] Venuti, L. ''The Translator’s Invisibility—A History of Translation''[M]. London & New York: Routledge,1995.

[7] 黄瑞红.新闻英语的词汇特色和语法特征[J],《陕西广播电视大学学报》,2004 年第 6 卷第 2 期.

[8] 刘殿爵. 论语[M]. 北京:中华书局,2011.

[9] 穆诗雄.《跨文化传播——中国古典诗歌英译论》[M],合肥:中国科学技术大学出版社,2004.

[10]王应麟.《三字经》[M],长沙:岳麓书社,1986.

[11]许明武.新闻英语与翻译 [M],北京:中国对外翻译出版公司,2003.

[12]邹爽.浅谈英语新闻标题的翻译 [J],《湖北财经高等专科学校学报》,2005 年第 17 卷第 2 期.

[13]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-09/27/content_13797729.htm

[14]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-11/30/content_14191000.htm

[15]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-10/24/content_13962189.htm

[16]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-12/29/content_14347771.htm

[17]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-09/16/content_13712704.htm
--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 02:20, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Study on the Ideology of 2020 Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis 李泳珊 Li Yongshan 202020080614==

<center>李泳珊 Li Yongshan 202020080614</center>

===Abstract===

Ideology and translation studies always attract the attention of scholars in the field of translation studies. Nowadays, the empirical research method combining corpora and critical discourse analysis has provided more intuitive and convincing argument support for researches in this area. In this paper, critical discourse analysis is combined with translation studies so as to substantially discuss the controlling role of ideology in the translation of Government Work Report. Due to limited time and energy, the author has not set up his/her own corpora and failed in applying SPSS, CiteSpace, NoteExpress, EmEditor and other statistical software to collect and analyze corpus. However, this research is carried out from the perspective of critical discourse analysis and solid evidence will be provided as much as possible.

Ideology and translation studies has attracted the attention of scholars in the field of translation studies for a long time. Nowadays, the empirical research method combining corpora and critical discourse analysis has provided more intuitive and convincing argument support for researches in this area. In this paper, critical discourse analysis is combined with translation studies so as to substantially discuss the controlling role of ideology in the translation of Government Work Report. Due to limited time and energy, the author has not set up his/her own corpora and failed in applying SPSS, CiteSpace, NoteExpress, EmEditor and other statistical software to collect and analyze corpus. However, this research is carried out from the perspective of critical discourse analysis and solid evidence will be provided as much as possible. --[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui

===Key words===

Critical Discourse Analysis; Government Work Report,;Ideology

===摘要===

意识形态与翻译研究一直在翻译研究领域受到学者关注。今天，以语料库和批评话语分析结合的实证研究方法更是为此方面的研究提供了更直观、更有考证依据的论据支撑。本文将批评性话语分析与翻译研究结合起来，重点探讨了意识形态对《政府工作报告》翻译的操控作用。但受限于时间和能力，笔者未能建立起自己的语料库，利用科学的统计软件如SPSS、CiteSpace、NoteExpress、EmEditor等进行语料收集和分析。本文将仅从批评话语分析视角进行研究，并尽可能地提供足够的实证。

===关键词===

批评话语分析；政府工作报告；意识形态

===1. Introduction===

====1.1 The Interpretation of Ideology====

The meaning of ideology is multiple.A lot of people have tried to explain it.As mentioned by L.Althusser in Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses, "Ideology equals Illusion/Hint, (L.Althusser, Lenin and Philosophy, London: Monthly Review Press, 1971, p.162) meaning that the essence of the reality could be cracked by following the hint of illusion."

"Kress and Hodge define ideology by depicting the ideological properties of language. They argue that ideology is a systematic body of thought organized in a particular point of view" (Kress & Hodge, 1979: 6). While they lay stress on the relation between language and ideology, Fowler defines ideology as "something neutral"which refers to the general view and ideas of how people understand the world and their experiences and how they organize their lives. He adds that "these implicit beliefs constitute 'common sense' and provide the normative basis for discourse" (Fowler, 1996: 10-11).

However, according to Fairclough, "ideology is the result of power relations and power struggles " that are "implicit in the conventions with which people interact linguistically and of which they are often unaware" (Fairclough , 1989: 2).

"Furthermore, VanDijk (1993) expands the definition of "ideology", which includes three main elements, which are society, cognition and discourse. Among them, society refers to powerful relations and the interests of certain groups, cognition is in relation to beliefs and values in life, and discourse deals with the relationship between language use and ideology, involving concealment and manipulation. It is clear from the above description that critical discourse analysts disagree on the scope of ideology,but they still share a common rationale in the relationship between language and ideology. Ideology uses language as a vehicle to express itself, and language as a return reflects hides or constructs ideology."(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22)

"Rhetorically, ideology achieves its natural status through the mutual interference between denotation and connotation. If denotation equals the first meaning, connotation is the second implication. However, the signifier of connotation (the second implication) is denotation. Hence, a complete sentence can embody the ideology." (Tu Youxiang, Rhetoric and Ideology, Page 15)

"In S/Z, Roland Barthes divided articles into Articles Inspiring People to Write and Articles, Attracting People to Read, and then made corresponding assessment. "Yet, the fundamental evaluation on articles could neither be carried out from the perspective of sciences because sciences were not applied for measurement, nor derive from ideology because an article's ideological value (involving morality, aesthetics, politics and truth) is a kind of value of representation rather than value of production (ideology is “Reflection” rather than Creation)." (Tu Youxiang, Rhetoric and Ideology, Page 16)

"Barthes and Nietzsche held that the subject is a kind of fiction. Through this kind of fiction, ideology can naturally come and hide. Language structure and ideological structure penetrate each other and establish a seamlessly intimate relationship. 'The role of a complete sentence is to push the story forward while explanatory codes act in contravention, cut off, interrupt and suspend the sentence and delay the disclosure of truth. Seemingly, explanatory codes curb the natural extension of sentence, but the sentence's effective composition is enhanced to play a stronger part. Nevertheless, the truth (predicate and object) is the completer and terminator and appears to terminate the narration (sentence).' From the perspective of sentence patterns, diverse and complicated narrations are exactly the embodiment of ideology. Also, continuous innovation of narration modes can be regarded as a breakthrough from the conventionalized ideology (pushing the limit and recognizing the generation)." (Tu Youxiang, Rhetoric and Ideology, Page 17)

====1.2 Ideology and Translation Studies====

=====1.2.1 Brief Introduction of Development Process of Ideology and Translation Studies=====

"In 1980s and 1990s, as the emergence of Manipulation School and the "Cultural Turn" of translation studies, scholars began to pay attention to the role played by ideology and other factors beyond the text in manipulating translation. From the publishing of The Manipulation of Literature (Hermans,1985), a work making the Manipulation School known to the world (Lefevere et. al. first pointed out that translation as a kind of rewriting would be restricted by the target language ideology and poetics rules),contemporary ideology and translation studies have developed a history of about 40 years. In two decades (from 1985 to 2005), many western and Chinese scholars published their works on this research subject, including Lefevere,1992, Hermans, 1999, Benjamin, 2004, Wang Xiaoyuan (1999), Yang Liu (2001), Sun Yifeng (2003), Zha Jianming (2004) and Fang Kaiduan (2005) etc..." (Wang Dongfeng,Ideology and the Study of Translation,p.71)

"In the aspect of theoretical innovation, Lefevere, a representative figure of western manipulation school, first put forward the idea of 'Translation is a rewriting' (Hermans, 1985) and then elaborated 'Two Key Elements' influencing translations: Ideology (External Mechanism) and Poetics (Internal Mechanism). He further held that as the sponsor controlled ideology, professionals manipulated poetics (Lefevere, 1992a:14-15)." (Wang Dongfeng,Ideology and the Study of Translation,p.72

"Venuti, a structuralist, defined translation as the initiative restructuring of foreign text so as to reflect the difference between the target language and the original language in ideology, culture, language and politics. In the meantime, he appealed that translators should adopt the resistant translation strategy and translate by means of foreignization." (Venuti, 1992: 10-14)''(Wang Dongfeng,Ideology and the Study of Translation,p.72)

"Bassnett, another supporter of Manipulation School, indicated that restrained by ideology and certain cultural factors, original text sometimes was presented to readers in the form of translated version. Such translation could be pseudo-translation, and “collusion” existed between the author/translator and readers (Lefevere&Bassnett, 1998: 25-40)."(Wang Dongfeng,Ideology and the Study of Translation,p.72)

=====1.2.2 Government Work Report Translation’s Requirements and Limitations on Ideological Expression=====

Government Work Report is the most representative literary form in the international publicity translation. In essence, it possesses distinctive political characteristics and sets extremely high requirements on translation language proficiency. Government Work Report (hereinafter refer to as GWR), as a typical political text, is mainly applied to summarize works completed last year and emphasize the next year's tasks, which can intensively reflect the government's priority of work during a certain period. As the institutional discourse, GWR largely reflects the then ideology and social development track. Since English Version of GWR serves as an important approach for the world to know China's situation, the translation of GWR plays a vital role. In this paper, critical discourse analysis is combined with translation studies to emphatically discuss the role of ideology in manipulating the GWR translation.

==== 1.3 The Definition of Critical Discourse Analysis and Its Current Research and Application====

"Originating from critical linguistics, Critical Discourse Analysis (hereinafter referred to as CDA) has absorbed many disciplines'research results including linguistics, sociology and psychology and achieved a development at the end of 1970s, aiming at revealing the hidden ideology by analyzing the linguistic form and exploring the relationship between language/ideology and rights." (Fowler R., E. Hodge., E． Kress., Trew T. Language and control［M]., London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1979.)

CDA has been widely applied to study the meaning of ideology in mass media discourse such as advertising, news report, political oration, official documents and laws and regulations, which has laid a foundation for this research. Besides, the impact of ideology is a main issue in GWRs translation and involves two different languages and ideologies, which proves the availability of CDA in GWR translation. In this paper, the author has compared and at the same time analyzed the English Version and Chinese Version of GWR from the perspective of CDA, and further discussed the relationship between ideology and translation.

In recent two decades, more and more foreign scholars have applied the corpora technology to CDA and corresponding research content mainly involves the following four aspects:
First is News Media Discourse Studies: For example, Baker and McEnery adopted the corpora method to analyze the British media's role in the refugee discourse construction and further investigated characteristics of British newspapers in reporting Muslim and Islam. Through making a comparison between English newspapers and French newspapers in Canada, Vessey analyzed and elaborated the ideology and national identity in different languages.-

The Second is Political Discourse and War Discourse Studies. For example, Partington surveyed President Clinton’s assistants and wolf pack press corps in the white house during his early ruling. Jeffries & Walker revealed the ideological characteristics during the new labour period through analyzing key words of newspapers during Blair’s period. Similarly, through analyzing CNN, News Week and New York Times, Kim researched American Media’s discourse practice on the North Korea’s image. Bevitori conducted a diachronic study on presidential speeches and analyzed the discourse construction of presidential speeches. Salama researched the phenomena of American media’s context restructuring of Wahabee Religion before and after “9·11”, reflecting the changes in attitude.

The Third is Legal Discourse Studies. Potts and Kjur (2016) established their own corpora and analyzed the legal discourse construction made by the International Criminal Court of Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.

The Fourth is Climatic Discourse Studies. Nerlichet al. (2012) conducted a contrastive analysis of climatic discourse in The Times and Time and further probed into similarities and differences between British climate reports and American climate reports.'' (Kang Jiaping, Jiang Zhanhao, Study on the Ideology of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Corpora and Critical Discourse Analysis, Journal of Heilongjiang College of Education, March 2020, P123)

This paper has chosen the English Version and Chinese Version of 2020 Government Work Report issued by Premier Li Keqiang as the research object and made a comparative analysis of GWRs and corresponding translated versions in the aspect of Classification, Mode and Conversion so as to conclude answers for the following questions:
1. Compared with the original text, which are changes in Classification, Mode and Conversion in the translated text?
2. From the perspective of CDA, what has triggered these changes? How can translators explain GWR from the perspective of CDA? As the relationship between ideology and translation is the research priority, answers to the following questions will be self-evident:
1) How does ideology control the translation process of GWRS?
2) Why are some parts of the original text altered and translated in another way?

===2.Critical Discourse Analysis===

==== 2.1 Classification====

"According to the CDA, for the variations of 'categories' in GWRs translation, the addressers intentionally or unintentionally incorporate their ideology into discourse at all levels of linguistic form, including lexical choice. A comparative analysis of the 'categories' in GWRs and their translations reveals the variations of 'categories', and the author will explain them from an ideological point of view.'(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22)

Example (1): The same one Chinese character "发展" in the Chinese version of GWR is translated differently in English. Different words denote different ideological meanings. A basic reason for this is that "发展" can be used as both a noun and a verb in Chinese. Therefore, there are different words used in English for a Chinese character with different parts of speech.

For example, when used as a noun: a). 优化民营经济发展环境——We will foster an enabling environment for the development of the private sector.
b).推动制造业升级和新兴产业发展。——We will encourage the upgrading of manufacturing and the growth of emerging industries.

When used as a verb: a).发展工业互联网——We will promote the industrial internet
b).发展社会研发机构——develop private R&D institutions
c).发展创业投资——We will support the growth of venture capital investment

For example, when used as a noun:
a). 优化民营经济发展环境——We will foster an enabling environment for the development of the private sector.
b).推动制造业升级和新兴产业发展。——We will encourage the upgrading of manufacturing and the growth of emerging industries.When used as a verb: 1)发展工业互联网——We will promote the industrial internet.2) 发展社会研发机构——develop private R&D institutions. 3) 发展创业投资——We will support the growth of venture capital investment--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui

In the three examples of the verb, "promote" means "to advance", while "support" means "to back up and give aid to". In these two examples, both "promote" and "support the growth" signify assisting, weakening the role and status of the government in economic development, in a bid to express the idea that "support the free development of the market, and the government will also take the initiative "to provide assistance". In the second example, in "develop private R&D institutions", the word "develop" is used to express a strong subjective initiative, which indicates that the state or the government will play a dominant role in the establishment and development of private R&D institutions, implying the national conditions and ideology of China.

(2) "In the GWR translation, different lexical choices reveal different ideological meanings of the source, which is achieved due to the translators' accurate understanding of the source ideology."(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p.22) Such translation makes it easier for foreign readers to understand the context and policies of China.

For example, "四风" in the source is translated as "formalities for formalities'sake, bureaucratism, hedonism, and extravagance"."四风" is a policy related to rectifying the discipline of Party members and cadres, but foreign readers do not know if it is translated literally. Therefore, a specific description is required so as to take care of foreign readers in a better way. It is obvious that a general character in Chinese is translated into a specific illustration in English.

However, the translation technique for "四风" is not an one-off. For other expressions, such as the translation for “放管服”改革——reforms to streamline administration and delegate power, improve regulation, and upgrade services.

The translators changes the choice of words out of consideration for the ideology of the readers, in a bid to take into account the ideological differences between the source readers and the target readers of the paper.

(3) The English version of 促进祖国和平统一: The word "统一" in 促进统一（2020年） is translated as "reunification" in English. As we all know, the Chinese character "统一" means unification in English, but in this case, the prefix "re-" is added to it. According to Longman's Dictionary of Contemporary English, "re-" means "again" and the word “unification” with a prefix "re-" means "back to the previous country". Thus, the Chinese character "统一" here refers to reunite to the previous country. The purposeful addition of "re-" implies a different ideological meaning.

For the Chinese people, there is no doubt that Taiwan has always been a part of China, even though it has been separated from the motherland for historical reasons and has not yet returned. However, since foreign readers may not know the history of China, and some Western countries even consider Taiwan as an "independent country," a word-for-word translation may lead to misunderstandings, so "reunification" is employed to emphasize the fact that Taiwan and the motherland belong to one China. In this case, the variation of lexical choice is explained in different socio-historical contexts of the source and the translated text.

(4)“提高城乡居民基础养老金最低标准 ” is translated as We will increase the minimum basic old-age pension for rural and non-working urban residents.”
The Chinese phrase “城乡居民” in this context is translated as "rural and non-working urban residents "
And “将参保不足 1 年的农民工等失业人员都纳入常住地保障” is translated as “We will see that rural migrant workers and others out of work who are in the scheme less than a year are covered in the locality where they are living. ”
“农民工” is translated as “rural migrant workers”.

Through the change in lexical choice, the target reader can acquire the information more easily than through word-by-word translation. This case demonstrates that the variation of lexical choice in translated texts is vital for illustrating their meaning.

Above all are critical analysis of the variations in lexical choice which reveals the ideological impact on lexical choice in GWRS translation, despite the fact that some variations may occur due to Chinese-English language diversity. For example, some different lexical choices disclose different ideological meanings of the source text, some variations indicate ideological considerations for the target readers, while other variations may expose the influence of different historical contexts between China and Western countries.

==== 2.2 Mode====

=====2.2.1 Modal verbs=====

"Modal verbs and personal pronouns are bound up with an addressor's or writer's attitude and ideological implication in the discourse and will be used to analyze the potential ideological implications in the GWRS and their translation. As a direct grammatical means of representing "mood", modal verbs often denote a specific and important interpersonal meaning in discourse.In English modal verbs, such as "can, could, may, might, must, will, shall, should, need to, ought to", imply different meanings and degrees of ability, probability, willingness and obligation. Modal verbs also exist in Chinese to convey the attitude of the addressor or writer.

Zhang Guanming counted 25 modal auxiliary verbs in Chinese, including “能，可以，会，可能，得，敢，肯，愿意，情愿，乐意，想，要，应，应该，应当，该，值得，配，别，甭，好，一定，得，必须".

Different modal verbs express different degrees of attitude and implication to the addressor or writer. Therefore, an analysis of the use of modal verbs helps us perceive the meaning of the addressor or writer.''(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22)

A).我们要更加紧密地团结在以习近平同志为核心的党中央周围，——We must rally more closely around the Party Central Committee with Comrade Xi Jinping at its core.

B)各国应携手共进。——all countries should work together

C)中国坚定不移走和平发展道路——China will continue to pursue peaceful development,

D)各级政府必须真正过紧日子——Governments at all levels must truly tighten their belt.

E)出台的政策既保持力度又考虑可持续性，根据形势变化还可完善——the policies we adopt should be both forceful and sustainable, and they may be adjusted as called for.

F)我们一定能开创民族复兴的美好未来。——With these efforts, we can surely create a beautiful future for the rejuvenation of the Chinese nation.

G)创新直达实体经济的货币政策工具——As we work to develop new monetary policy instruments that can directly stimulate the real economy.

H)要用改革开放办法，稳就业、保民生、促消费，拉动市场、稳定增长,——We need to pursue reform and opening up as a means to stabilize employment, ensure people's well-being, stimulate consumption, energize the market, and achieve stable growth.

I）走出一条有效应对冲击、实现良性循环的新路子。——We need to blaze a new path that enables us to respond effectively to shocks and sustain a positive growth cycle.

As can be seen in Example A, the translation uses the modal verb "must" to show the central government's resolute attitude toward adhering to Xi Jinping's leadership, as well as a strong call and implication to the people. It reflects the ideology and collectivist spirit of showing loyalty to the paramount leader of the CPC Central Committee that is unique to China.
The use of "must" in Example D also demonstrates the Chinese government is demanding in implementing initiatives for combating corruption and building a clean government.

As can be seen in Example B, the translation uses the modal verb "should". It shows a tone of hope and appeal, which is a weaker tone of suggestion rather than a demanding tone of command as that in Example A. It expresses the wish of the Chinese government represented by the addressor.
The translation of Example C uses the modal verb "will", which expresses a firm determination and the action to be taken, indicating the Chinese government's impregnable belief in the peaceful rise of China.

Example E employs the modal verbs "should" and "may" in a slightly weaker tone, because the context of economic and social development under the epidemic prevention and control is mentioned in the preceding sentence. Alongside that, since specific local policies for epidemic prevention and control and economic recovery are set by local governments individually, the central government uses a suggestive tone here.

Examples F and G both use “can”, indicating a possible situation and a capability of achieving the goal.
Example H uses the modal verb “need to”, conveying an urgent need, a call for urgency.

Modal verb variations can also be manifested in being added to the source text. For example, in "I", the source text does not use the modal verb, but the subject "we" and the modal verb "need to" are added to the question, and the modal verb here also expresses the urgent desire to achieve the goal mentioned in the source sentence.

The different use of modal verbs may also imply different attitudes toward these policies. The social contexts in which they are produced and interpreted may provide some clues to the variation and change of modal verbs. Both the author and the translators are close to the Chinese, so that the modal meaning expressed in the Chinese version can be agreed with the readers.

However, due to the distance from the foreign readers and their receptivity, the translators chose different expressions with less initiative and more objectivity. But in general, in the choice of modal verbs, the translators mainly chose auxiliary verbs that can convey the attitude of the source text, from which the ideology of their own side can be better interpreted, and taking care of the ideology of foreign readers is a secondary consideration.

=====2.2.2 Personal pronouns=====

"The use of personal pronouns is another way to show modal meaning. According to systematic functional grammar, personal pronouns have interpersonal and attitudinal functions in addition to their cohesion functions. Generally speaking, the choice of personal pronouns is influenced by concerns including power relations, social status, and the degree of intimacy between the participants involved in the communication. Different choices of personal pronouns reveal different attitudes of the speaker or writer toward the target audience or reader."

"From the perspective of critical discourse analysis, personal pronouns are not used in a random way, but are linked to certain ideological meanings. For example, the use of certain personal pronouns may have a certain political effect and produce a specific relationship between the addressor and the listener. This paper focuses on the analysis of the personal pronouns GWR and their translation from the viewpoint of critical discourse analysis, as a way to perceive the attitude and interpersonal meanings that the addressors or writers are trying to convey." (Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p.22)

（1）Translated Personal Pronouns ：

A).我们要坚持对台工作大政方针——We will adhere to the major principles and policies on work related to Taiwan

B).我们要全面准确贯彻“一国两制”、“港人治港”、“澳人治澳”、高度自治的方针——We will fully and faithfully implement the policy of One Country, Two Systems, under which the people of Hong Kong govern Hong Kong and the people of Macao govern Macao, with a high degree of autonomy for both regions.

（2）Added Personal Pronouns：

A).支持港澳发展经济——We will support Hong Kong and Macao in growing their economies,

B).完善促进两岸交流合作、深化两岸融合发展、保障台湾同胞福祉的制度安排和政策措施——We will improve institutional arrangements, policies, and measures to encourage exchanges and cooperation between the two sides of the Taiwan Strait, further cross-Strait integrated development, and protect the wellbeing of our fellow compatriots in Taiwan.

C).需要说明的是，我们没有提出全年经济增速具体目标——I would like to point out that we have not set a specific target for economic growth this year.

D).加强监管，防止资金“空转”套利。——We should tighten regulation and prevent funds from simply circulating in the financial sector for the sake of arbitrage.

E）为把我国建设成为富强民主文明和谐美丽的社会主义现代化强国、实现中华民族伟大复兴的中国梦不懈奋斗！——Let all of us work together with perseverance to build China into a great modern socialist country that is prosperous, strong, democratic, culturally advanced, harmonious, and beautiful, and realize the Chinese Dream of national rejuvenation.

According to statistics, there are 308 "we" in the English translation. From the above examples, we can see that most of the personal pronouns "we" are used by the technique of amplification, including other personal pronouns "I", "all of us", etc. This is because in the Chinese version which is the source, there are mostly impersonal subjects, noun subjects, or imperative sentences that denote calls or orders. However, in English, except for the imperative sentences where the personal pronoun subject can be missing, generally it can not be omitted in any other cases.

"Under most circumstances, 'we' is the top priority in translation, because in political reports, the use of 'we' is more authoritative than 'I'. This usage is called 'loyal we'."(A Study of the Ideology of the <Government Work Report> under the Visual Threshold of Corpus and Critical Discourse Analysis, Kang Jiaping and Jiang Zhanyao, Journal of Heilongjiang Teachers' Development Institute, March 2020, p. 126) The Reports represents the Central People's Government, which is itself "authoritative". The "we" in the translation also naturally reflects "authority" correspondingly.

Secondly, most of the actions in the government work report are issued by the Chinese government, and the use of "we" also reflects the collectivist spirit of unified action of the government from top to bottom. Thirdly, although the Chinese government is the originator of most of the actions in the report, sometimes different departments are responsible for the implementation of specific measures; therefore, the use of "we" instead of "Chinese government" or "so-and-so department" is also slightly more colloquial and approachable, which makes it easier for domestic readers to immerse themselves in devoting into the construction of economic and social development. For foreign readers, "we" is also more easily accepted. Therefore, the translators also took into account the social and ideological significance of the language forms used when translating the Reports.

==== 2.3 Conversion====

"Traditionally, 'transformation' refers to the change of different grammatical structures, but in CDA, the meaning of 'transformation' should be interpreted in terms of discourse, context and purpose." (Fowler, 1991: 90-91). This suggests that critical discourse analysis values the change of ideological meaning and the influence of context and purpose on "transformation". Therefore, "transformation" can be applied to translation studies to investigate the ideological impact of translation by analyzing the changes of "transformation" between the source language and the translated one.

In the analysis of "transformation" in GWR and its translation process, nominalization and inactivation are used to disclose the ideological changes in translation. Nominalization refers to the process of converting verb structures into nouns or noun phrases. According to Fairclough (1995), this lack of mood, time, and participants caused by nominalization is considered ideologically significant because it obscures the reader's causality and responsibility, so that the addressor's or writer's attitude and perception of certain events is not yet clear.

Inactivation is the transformation of active voice into passive one in which the relevant participants are removed for most of the time, making causality unclear. Thus, by using inactivation, discourse can become more objective and less subjective, leaving a different impression on the reader and thus expressing different ideological meanings. More importantly, inactivation also has functions as thematization, in which the object is placed at the beginning of the sentence as a subject. In this way, by emphasizing the object and hiding the agent, the ideological purpose of shifting the reader's focus and hiding the cause-and-effect relationship is achieved.

For example:

=====2.3.1 Nominalization=====

A)传统产业加快升级。——upgrading in traditional industries accelerated.

B)受全球疫情冲击，世界经济严重衰退，——The shock of the Covid-19 pandemic has sent the world economy into severe recession,

C)金融等领域风险有所积聚——There are increasing risks in the financial sector and other areas.

D)政府工作存在不足——There is still room for improvement in the work of government.

It can be seen from the above examples that in the original Chinese text, the subject and predicate in the four examples are very prominent. However, in the translation, nominalization is done, which emphasizes the emphasis of the original text.
For example, in A), "upgrade" is a verb and serves as a predicate; but in the translation, upgrading is nominalized and used as the subject, and its status is more prominent than in the original.

In B), "Affected by the global epidemic" was originally used as an adverbial of cause, but it was nominalized as the subject in the question, highlighting the direct impact of the epidemic on the world economic recession, and its status is higher than that of the adverbial in the original text.

C) The key word in the original text can be "risk accumulation", but because the adverbial term "finance and other fields" is in front, its position is weakened; and the sentence pattern "There be" is used in the translation, and the subject is nominalized as " The whole sentence of "increasing risks" is highlighted.

D) The full expression of the original text should be "In the government work, there are deficiencies." The implied meaning is "I should improve and upgrade the government work." The translation directly points out the implied meaning, straightforward and straightforward, and the subject is treated as " "room for improvement" is also used in the sentence pattern "There be", and the points that the original text wants to emphasize are highlighted.

It can be seen that the processing of English translation is more flexible, and it also takes into account the ideology of foreign readers, that is, they prefer concise and direct expression, while the expression of domestic readers is more subtle and prefer verbs.

=====2.3.2 Active to passive=====

A).城镇新增就业 1352 万人——Around 13.52 million new urban jobs were added.

B).国际收支基本平衡。——A basic equilibrium was maintained in the balance of payments.

C)..重大区域战略深入实施。——progress was made in implementing major development strategies for regions.

D).改革开放迈出重要步伐。——Major headway was made in reform and opening up.

E).供给侧结构性改革继续深化，—— Supply-side structural reform was further advanced.

F).重要领域改革取得新突破。——and breakthroughs in reform were made in key areas.

In the first part of the report, in the review of the work and achievements in 2019, a large number of passive voice translation methods are used to highlight the achievements since 2019 and weaken the reporter and the government as these achievements The presence of the promoter of In fact, in the Chinese context, the above example is also a kind of "active expression passive" sentence structure, which is more concise and more focused.

===3.Conclusion===

From the perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis, this article conducts a superficial and tentative analysis of the ideological influence reflected in the Chinese-English translation of the 2020 government work report.The analysis found that,

(1) in terms of classification,
a) the translation will choose different corresponding words in English depending on the situation for the same word in the original text. And this is because in English I like to use different words to show the richness and diversity of the words of the article, while in Chinese I like to use the same word to rhyme and compare to show momentum.
b) In the process of translation, the translation will be selectively interpreted, that is, supplementary translation of some conventional abbreviations in the original text, so that foreign readers can better understand.
c) Some specific words will be translated asymmetrically in the translation to reflect their own ideology. For example, the "reunification of the motherland" on the Taiwan issue is translated as "reunification" because China wants to convey to the world the principle that "the Taiwan issue is China's internal affair."

(2) In terms of modal
a) The translation will choose different modal verbs according to the content and attitude of the original text. The choice of these different modal verbs expresses the different requirements and soft and hard attitudes of the Chinese government in various fields such as domestic economic development, epidemic prevention and control, motherland reunification, social problem resolution, diplomacy, and international issues, thus reflecting the Chinese government's ideology.
b) There are a large number of additional translations of personal pronouns in the translation, and most of them have chosen the plural of the first personal pronoun "we". It shows the collectivism that the Chinese government is accustomed to, and God is also caring for foreign ideologies.

(3) In terms of conversion, there are many nominalizations and active-to-passive translations in the translation. These two kinds of translation processes make the key points to be emphasized in the original text more directly highlighted in the translation, and at the same time respect the expression habits of English, which are also caring for foreign ideologies.

In general, the translation of the 2020 government work report more reflects China's own ideology. The reason is also obvious.
First, this is China's government work report, which also determines that the translation must reflect China's ideology.
Second, the government work report is made at the two sessions each year. It is mainly a summary of the work of the past year and planning for the work of the next year. It is mainly for the domestic people, so it naturally has a strong Chinese ideology;
but The translation is of course aimed at foreign readers, so translation processing will also show reasonable concern about foreign ideology and expression habits. As a political report, he must have a more obvious political ideology than other styles, which is inevitable in every country. Finally, the richness and variability of vocabulary in the translation of the 2020 government work report is still not as good as the report of the native English-speaking countries, which can be improved.

===4.Limitations===

====4.1 Insufficient data support====

In this paper, a comparative analysis is conducted solely on the two versions of the government work report in English and Chinese in 2020. Firstly, the evidence is insufficient in the part of applied critical discourse analysis, which should be done to the best of its ability.

The author envisage to use data analysis software such as SPSS and CiteSpace to conduct a translation comparative analysis for the Chinese and English versions of the government work report for a total of 8 years since President Xi Jinping took office in 2013, and an analysis of ideological diachrony. By analyzing the change of top 10 high-frequency keywords in the reports over the past 8 years, we can take a glimpse of the socio-economic development of China and the shift of the government's focus during this period. By analyzing the changes in the choice and frequency of personal pronouns and modal verbs used in the reports over the years, and by analyzing the frequency of nominalization and inactivation in the translation of sentences, we can see the changes in the ideology of the translators and the Chinese government they represent when translating the reports.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui

However, since it is a need to use corpus construction software, such as EmEditor, to collect the corpus and classify and denoise the data before doing data analysis, it is not a task that can be accomplished at a stroke; only then is the analysis done with analysis software such as SPSS and CiteSpace. However, the author has a strong interest in this research method, and will make further efforts.

====4.2 Insufficient theoretical support====

The author does not have a deep understanding of critical discourse analysis, nor does he/she expound the Introduction clearly. Her understanding of the specific analysis methods is also shallow, so she cannot do a comprehensive and accurate analysis in the Analysis section of the paper.
Second, the author’s understanding of ideology is fuzzy. Therefore, in the latter part of the analysis, when it is necessary to return to the study of ideology at the end, she is unable to conduct the analysis in a precise way.

===5.Bibliography===

[1].《意识形态与翻译研究》，王东风，中山大学出版社，2006年12月

[2].《修辞学与意识形态》，屠有祥，人民出版社，2013年3月

[3].《外宣翻译导论》，张健，国防工业出版社，2013年12月

[4].《语料库和批评话语分析视阈下的<政府工作报告>意识形态研究》,康佳萍、姜占好，黑龙江教师发展学院学报，2020年3月

[5].《基于CiteSpace的外交翻译暨外交话语研究的可视化分析(2000—2018)》，牛文惠、刘磊，黑河学院学报，2020年第二期

[6].《国内翻译意识形态研究（1998-2018）——基于NoteExpress的可视化分析》，李志阳，2020年第二期

[7].《翻译对意识形态的创构———以宇文所安《文心雕龙》英译本为例》，胡作友、张丁慧，外语学刊，2020年第四期

[8].《批评性话语分析视角下的政府工作报告英译研究》，高媛，2016年

[9].《从翻译操纵理论看2015年政府工作报告英译》，王海云、李慧慧，现代交际，2016年第五期

[10].《论译者对政治文本的操控——以2009年政府工作报告为例》，徐静怡、陈思，2009年12月

--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 18:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Translation Strategies from Contrastive English-Chinese Studies and Chinese-English Translation and Interpretation Based on the Principle of “Faithfulness, Comprehensibility and Elegance” 聂晓楼 Nie Xiaolou 202020080628==

<center>聂晓楼 Nie Xiaolou 202020080628</center>

===Abstract===

English and Chinese belongs to two different language families. While the former belongs to Indo-European language family, the latter belongs to Sino-Tibetan language family. Therefore, they differ in many aspects--type, psychology, aesthetic, culture, rhetorical devices, syntactic pattern, lexical meaning, discourse organization, semantic structure, pragmatic structure, textual structure, textual cohesive devices and so on. Taking the English translations of Chinese essays by Zhang Peiji for example, this paper, based on the principle of “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”, studies the differences between English and Chinese in terms of psychology, aesthetics, textual structure, textual cohesive devices etc, and further provides appropriate translation strategies for Chinese-English translation. Readers can improve their translating ability after the acquisition of the knowledge of the differences between the two languages and corresponding translation strategies.

===Key words===

English; Chinese; “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”

===摘要===

英语属于印欧语系（Indo-European），汉语属于汉藏语系（Sino-Tibetan）。英汉两种语言在语言类型、语言心理、语言审美、文化、修辞、句法结构、词汇语义、话语组织、语义、语用、语篇结构以及语篇衔接手段等方面都存在差异。本文以张培基英译散文为例，以“信、达、雅”原则为指导，从英汉语言心理、英汉语言审美、英汉语篇结构、英汉语篇衔接手段等方面对比英语同汉语的不同之处，并提供相应的翻译策略。读者通过了解英汉两种语言在各方面的差异，并学习相应翻译策略，能够提高汉英翻译水平。

===关键词===

英语;汉语;“信、达、雅”

===1. Introduction===

Essay is a flexible and casual literary form, free from the restrictions of rhythm of poetry, plot of novel, and act and scene of drama. This paper focuses on English and Chinese essays. Based on Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”, the paper makes an analysis of the original and translated texts selected from Zhang Peij’s English translations of Chinese essays and the original texts, and studies the differences between English and Chinese in terms of psychology, aesthetics, textual structure, textual cohesive devices etc, and therefore sums up a variety of translation strategies and methods for Chinese-English translation.

===2. “Faithfulness, Comprehensibility and Elegance”===

“Faithfulness, comprehensibility and Elegance” is a translation principle put forward by YanFu in his work ''Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays''. He stated that “Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness (xin), comprehensibility (da) and elegance (ya). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not comprehensible is no translation at all. Comprehensibility is therefore of prime importance” (Chan 2004: 69). “In addition to faithfulness and comprehensibility, we should strive for elegance in translation.” (ibid: 70)

This paper, based on the translation principle “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”, compares English and Chinese through the analysis of some texts selected from Zhang Peiji’s English translations of Chinese essays and the original texts.

===3. Comparison of English and Chinese===

A major difference between English and Chinese is that English is a hypotactic language while Chinese an paratactic language, which from the perspective of philosophy means that English people’s way of thinking is of rationality while Chinese people’s way of thinking is of wuxing (Pan 1997: 361). Rationality in English language means that English sentences emphasize overt morphology and the integrity of form, so we call English a morphological language. Instead, Chinese sentences do not have many hypotactic markers. Therefore, the meaning of Chinese sentences can only be understood through wuxing, in other words, intuition, thus we often call Chinese people’s way of thinking intuitive thinking (Liu 1992: 326).

The inflected forms in modern English mainly include conjugation, declension, and affixation. However, there is no inflected forms in Chinese language and the grammatical meaning of Chinese sentences is expressed through the use of words, the arrangement of word order, the implied meaning etc.(连淑能, 1993: 4) Therefore, when translating Chinese into English, we are supposed to exhibit the implicit grammatical relation in the original texts through hypotactic markers. For example:

Example 1:其中有些人是因为年事已高，力不从心。这不是艺术的死亡，而是艺术的离体，他自己无可自责，社会也会尊重他在艺术上曾经作出的贡献(Zhang 2007: 289)。
Some writers lay down their pens because they are too old to be equal to the task. We call it retirement from art rather than death of art. They have nothing to blame themselves for. And society at large will pay tribute to the contributions they have already made to art (Zhang 2007: 291).

The expression “有些人” in the first sentence is plural, which includes both men and women. While the word “他” in the second sentence is single, only including men. Actually, “有些人” and “他” in the original text refer to the same concept but they differ in number and gender. When translating the original sentences into English, we have to take the harmony of form into consideration.

Due to the difference in inflection between English and Chinese, Mr. Zhang translated “他” into “They” to be in agreement with the subject “they” in the first sentence, which characterizes hypotaxis in English language. Though it seems that the translation is not faithful to the original text, the former actually expresses what the latter means. That is to say, the translation is comprehensible to the target reader.

There is no inflected forms in Chinese while English is rich in inflected form. Therefore, when translating Chinese into English, translators are supposed to keep the consistency of gender, number, case, tense, style, voice, mood, comparatives, and person, etc. within the context, and to use the inflected forms in English to express the conceptual and grammatical meaning in the original Chinese text.

Chinese pays attention to subjective narration, while English gives consideration to both subjective and objective description and tends to objective description. Taking root in the psychology of Chinese people, the long standing thematic thinking always subtly reflects Chinese people’s consciousness of “everything exists for me”.

Take the Chinese sentence “作业不写了” as an example. It is a human being rather than “作业”（"homework" in English） who performs the action “写”("writing" in English). That is to say, the subject should be a human being, which reflects Chinese people’s subject consciousness--Chinese speakers always discuss a topic which they make comments on. Since the agent in sentences with a “topic-comment” structure is self-explanatory, it is always deleted in a Chinese sentence. This well characterizes Chinese sentences as loose.

English language, where the subject is given priority to, has a strict “subject-predicate” structure which is highly grammaticalized. However, the topic rather than the subject is given priority to in a Chinese sentence. It may not be in agreement with the subject since it is more grammaticalized than the latter. Therefore, the “topic-comment” structures in Chinese sentences should be translated into “subject-predicate” structures in English when we do Chinese-English translation.

Example 2:页数不多的往往立刻通读，篇幅大的，只把正文任择一二章节略加翻阅，就插在书架上。(Zhang 2007: 26)
If it happens to be a thin one, I often finish reading it at one sitting. Otherwise, I often browse through one or two chapters or sections before putting it onto my bookshelf. (Zhang 2007: 28)

There are two “topic-comment” structures with the form of a clause in this example. In a “topic-comment” structure with the form of a clause, the meaning of the topic and that of the comment show a logical relation between two clauses. A “topic-comment” structure with the form of a clause has a close relationship with conditional clauses, and in this example conditional clauses serve as topics. The logical relation in this example is: If..., ... Otherwise..., ... The conditional relation should be translated in the corresponding English sentence with the addition of conjunctions between the original clauses in the process of Chinese-English translation.

Example 3:线装书大概用笔加圈，洋装书竟用红铅笔划粗粗的线。(Zhang 2007: 27)
If it is a threadbound Chinese book, I use a writing brush to draw small circles as markings. Otherwise, I use a red pencil to draw heavy underlines. (Zhang 2007: 29)

There are also two “topic-comment” structures with the form of a clause in this example. Therefore, Mr. Zhang added the two conjunctions “if” and “Otherwise” to show the logical relation in the original sentences.

Impersonal subjects always appear in English sentences, while personal subjects are used more frequently in Chinese sentences.

Example 4:买到了几册新书，一册一册地加盖藏书印记，我最感到快悦的是这时候。(Zhang 2007: 26)
Whenever I have some new acquisitions, it always gives me great pleasure and satisfaction to stamp my ex-libris on them one by one. (Zhang 2007: 28)

It is obvious that the subject of the original sentence “我最感到快悦的是这时候”（"it always gives me great pleasure and satisfaction to..."） is “I” ("我" in Chinese), which refers to the author. However, Mr. Zhang translates this sentence as “it always gives me great pleasure and satisfaction to...”, where the personal subject “I” is transformed into the impersonal subject “it”, according with English natural expressions.

Example 5:这种死亡他自己感到很痛苦，别人看了心里也很难受。(Zhang 2007: 289)
This kind of death causes not only much pain to the writer himself, but much sadness to other people as well. (Zhang 2007: 291)
much sadness to other people
In this example, “这种死亡”（"This kind of death" in English） serves as the topic and “他自己感到很痛苦”（"causes... much pain to the writer himself" in English) as well as “别人看了心里也很难受”（"much sadness to other people" in English） serve as comments. Since the two comments take sentence as its form, they have separately “他” and “别人” as the subject. However, in the English translation by Mr. Zhang, “This kind of death” ("这种死亡" in Chinese) serves as the subject with “他” and “别人” transforming into objects, which shows the tendency to use impersonal subjects in English sentences. The translation is not only faithful to the source text but also comprehensible.

Chinese people’s subject consciousness brings about the tendency to use personal subjects. Instead, English people’s object consciousness explains why impersonal subjects are used frequently in English sentences. Therefore, when doing Chinese-English translation, we can transform personal subject into impersonal subject. That is to say, the subject can be abstract nouns, inanimate things or the impersonal subject “it” (Lian 2010: 106, 113).

Chinese sentences always have a “topic-comment” structure, while English sentences always have a “subject-predicate” structure. Therefore, in a Chinese-English translation, the semantic relation between the topic and the comment in the original sentence should be presented through the use of conjunctions to accord with the syntactic features of English sentences.

English sentences have a basic “subject-predicate” structure. English words are under the restraint of morphological changes; words and clauses are connected through cohesive devices; pronouns accord with the words mentioned above (Lian 2010: 90-91) .

As a result, English sentences are closely related to each other. However, since Chinese sentences are free from the restraint of morphological changes, it is not necessary that the object should accord with the subject in a Chinese sentence. Chinese sentences are loose because of the diversity, complexity and flexibility of the “subject-object” structure.

Example 6:借来的书，在我好像过不来瘾似的，必要是自己买的才满足。(Zhang 2007: 26)
It seems that books bought can better satisfy my bibliomania than books borrowed. (Zhang 2007: 28)

The original sentence is composed of three parts without conjunctions between them. But there exists the semantic relation in it--the comparative relation between “books borrowed” ("借来的书" in Chinese) and “books bought” ("自己买的" in Chinese). Therefore, the comparative relation should be expressed in English translation. Mr. Zhang employed the expression “rather than” to combine the original three parts into one sentence, expressing the beauty of the translation’s syntactic structure.

Example 7:据说，任何爱吃糖果的人，只要叫他到糖果铺中去做事，见了糖果就会生厌。(Zhang 2007: 27)
It is said that those who have a great liking for candies will sicken to see them when later they happen to work in a candy store. (Zhang 2007: 29)

Mr. Zhang combined the four parts in the original texts into one sentence through the use of “who” and “when” to make the English transaltion compact and coherent, expressing the beauty of the translation’s syntactic structure.

Example 8:像针尖上一滴水滴在大海里，我的日子滴在时间的流里，没有声音，也没有影子。(Zhang 2007: 55)
Like a drop of water falling off a needle point into the ocean, my days are quietly dripping into the stream of time without leaving a trace. (Zhang 2007: 57)

There are four loose sentences in the original text. However, the two short sentences “没有声音” and “也没有影子” have been transformed separately into the adverb “quietly” and the propositional phrase “without leaving a trace” as an complement of the action “日子滴在时间的流里”, making the English sentences compact. Simile is employed in the translation as well as in the source text, which shows faithfulness in the translation.

Example 9:作家不能当隐士，适当的社会活动和文学活动可以开阔眼界，活跃思想，对创作也是有帮助的。(Zhang 2007: 290)
Being no hermit, a writer stands to benefit in writing as long as he gets properly involved with social and literary activities to widen his field of vision and stimulate his thinking. (Zhang 2007: 292)

The original text consists of four short sentences without overt conjunctions connecting them, and it includes two subjects “作家” ("a writer" in English) and “适当的社会活动和文学活动” ("gets properly involved with social and literary activities" in English). Mr. Zhang combined the four parts into one sentence, “作家” ("a writer" in English) being the subject, “不能当隐士” being transformed into the absolute nominative construction “Being no hermit”. The addition of “as long as” in the translation indicates the semantic relationship between the second part and the fourth part. Besides, Mr. Zhang added “to” to transform “可以开阔眼界，活跃思想” into the adverbial of purpose. All the transformations made express what the author wanted to express.

Sentences like loose sentences, compressed sentences, run-on sentences, short sentences, etc., are frequently used in Chinese. On the contrary, the grammatical relationship is expressed through the arrangement of word order and flexible use of various cohesive devices in English sentences, thus English sentences are compact with a clear logical relationship between the matrix clauses and the subordinate clauses.

Therefore, in Chinese-English translation, the translator is supposed to add conjunctions appropriately to connect the short sentences in the original text, indicating the implicit grammatical and logical relationship. Consequently, readers are able to understand the sentence meaning without even relying on the context.

Category words are used to express the category which behaviour, phenomenon, property and other factors belong to; they are often used to refer to other things in Chinese. For example, “情绪” in the Chinese sentence “那你的恹恹欲睡的情绪又将如何” and “情味” in “常不禁会感觉到难以名言的寂寞的情味” are category words.

There are many category words in Chinese language for a better form of expression. Instead, category words are much less frequently used in English language. The sameness in number, property and other aspects are avoided in English language.

Example 10:我一向没有对于任何问题作高深研究的野心，因之所买的书范围较广，宗教、艺术、文学、社会、哲学、历史、生物，各方面差不多都有一点。(Zhang 2007: 26)
Since I have never entertained ambition for making a profound study of any subject, the books I have acquired cover almost everything--religion, art, literature, sociology, philosophy, history, biology, etc. (Zhang 2007: 28)

“范围” in the original text belongs to category words. Thus, it is unnecessary to translate it in English. Therefore, the English translation should avoid the use of the corresponding English expression “the range of”. Compare the following sentence with Mr. Zhang’s translation:
... the range of the books I have acquired covers almost everything...
It is obvious that Mr. Zhang’s translation is more natural. Moreover, Mr. Zhang omitted the translation of “各方面差不多都有一点” because what the expression means has already been contained in “the books I have acquired cover almost everything”.

Category words in Chinese always express objects’ categories. Though they are indispensable to the correctness of grammar and the expression of mood, they are of little practical significance in that they just repeat the semantic meaning of a precedent expression. When doing Chinese-English translation, we are supposed to omit the translation of category words and rather translate the content nouns before them.

English language has the tendency to the use of nouns and thus is stative. On the contrary, verbs rather than nouns are more frequently used in Chinese sentences, thus Chinese language is dynamic (Lian 2010: 133). In Chinese-English translation, the dynamic Chinese sentences should be translated into stative English sentences.

In Example 7, “爱吃糖果” is translated as “have a great liking for candies” rather than “like candies”. The verb “爱” is transformed into the noun “liking” and posited t after the verb “have” as its object（连淑能，P148）, which characterizes English language as stative.

Example 11:自我入书店以后，对于书的贪念也已消除了不少......(Zhang 2007: 27)
Likewise, ever since I began to work in a bookstore, my obsession with books has been very much on the decline. (Zhang 2007: 29)

Prepositions are always posited before nouns or noun phrases. Therefore, English language uses prepositions as frequently as nouns. The priority to the use of both nouns and prepositions makes it more clear that English is a stative language (Lian 2010:145). The verb “消除” has been translated as the prepositional phrase “on the decline”, thus the dynamic Chinese sentence has been transformed into stative English sentence.

Example 12:我自己就是浪费了很多时间的一个人。(Zhang 2007: 216)
Personally, I am also a fritterer. (Zhang 2007: 218)

Mr. Zhang translated the expression “浪费很多时间的一个人” as the noun phrase “a fritterer”, the noun derived from the verb “fritter”, rather than “a person who fritter a lot of time” in which the verb “fritter” is directly used, making the translation stative.

Example 13:青翠的叶上已经凝集着细密的露珠，这显然是昨夜被人遗弃了的。(Zhang 2007: 119)
The numerous fine dewdrops on the fresh green leaves clearly showed that the roses had just been cast away the previous night. (Zhang 2007: 120)

The expression “凝集着” in the original sentence can be either translated or omitted. Generally, it is unnecessary to translate verbs of this kind. Mr. Zhang translated the first half part as “The numerous fine dewdrops on the fresh green leaves”, directly omitting the translation of “凝集着” since the prepositional phrase “on the fresh green leaves” has already expressed its meaning.

Chinese language is dynamic while English language is stative. In Chinese-English translation, firstly, abstract nouns can be used to express actions, behaviors, changes, states and so on in the original texts; secondly, verbs in the original texts can be replaced by common nouns which express behaviors or actions (Lian 2010: 138); thirdly, translators can use prepositions more frequently; fourthly, grammaticalized verbs or weak verbs can be used instead. (Lian 2010: 147)

Generally, English language avoids repetition; it repeats words or phrases only for emphasis or for the use of rhetorical devices. English natives are not interested in the repetition in syllables, words or sentence patterns (Lian 2010: 221). Translators are supposed to replace the repeated expression with a new one or omit the repeated part or explain it in a different way as long as the meaning of the original text is explicitly expressed. In this way, the translation will be concise and powerful, and it will fit more into English people’s language habits (Lian 2010: 223).

Example 14:我虽爱买书，而对于书却不甚爱惜。(Zhang 2007: 27)
Much as I love books, I take little care of them. (Zhang 2007: 29)

The second part of the original sentence repeats the noun “书”. However, Mr. Zhang replaced “books” ("书" in Chinese) with the pronoun “them”, avoiding the repetition of “books” and connecting the two sentences.

Example 15:书籍到了我的手里，我的习惯是先看序文，次看目录。(Zhang 2007: 26)
As soon as a new book comes to hand, I always read the preface first and then the table of contents. (Zhang 2007: 28)

The repeated verb “read” ("看" in Chinese) has been omitted in the translation.

In the fourth example, Mr. Zhang added the subject “I” (“我” in Chinese) before the sentence “买到了几册新书”, making the English sentence complete in terms of syntactic structure.

English language often uses pronouns to avoid repetition, while Chinese language uses less pronouns and tends to repeat words and phrases. In terms of coordination, repeated words or phrases are usually deleted in English but repeated in Chinese. Moreover, English sentences avoids repetition of words through the use of synonyms or hyponyms. Instead, Chinese sentences repeat the words to express the beauty of the balance in form. Therefore, when doing Chinese-English translation, translators are supposed to avoid the repetition in meaning through replacing, deleting, or transforming the repeated parts.

Nevertheless, it is necessary to add the subject when translating Chinese sentences into English because the subject is often omitted in Chinese while English is a language with a strict “subject-predicate” structure.

Because English is a hypotactic language but Chinese an paratactic language, cohesion in English and Chinese differs a lot. In terms of textual cohesion, there are mainly two differences between English and Chinese: one is that the cohesion in English is implicit while that in Chinese is explicit; the other is that the two languages differ in sentence division. There is no clear division between a phrase and a clause (which was previously called a simple sentence), between a clause and a sentence (which was previously called a compound sentence), between a sentence and sentence groups. (Shao 2013: 390)Because of this difference, the addition of conjunctions is needed in Chinese-English translation.

Example 16:经我看过的书，统体干净的很少。(Zhang 2007: 27)
Consequently, the books I have read are rarely clean. (Zhang 2007: 29)

Mr. Zhang added the adverb “consequently” in the translation. According to the context, the reason for “经我看过的书，统体干净的很少” is explained in the preceding sentence “线装书大概用笔加圈，洋装书竟用红铅笔划粗粗的线”. Therefore, when translating these sentences, we should express the causality between the two sentences. The adverb “consequently” well expresses it.

Example 17:我不禁头涔涔而泪潸潸了。(Zhang 2007: 55)
At the thought of this, sweat oozes from my forehead and tears trickle down my cheeks. (Zhang 2007: 57)

Mr. Zhang added the expression “At the thought of this” in the translation, which links the preceding sentence and the following sentence and expresses the implicit meaning in the original text.

Example 18:我觉察他去的匆匆了，伸出手遮挽时，他又从遮挽着的手边过去......(Zhang 2007: 55)
Aware of its fleeting presence, I reach out for it only to find it brushing past my outstretched hands. (Zhang 2007: 57)

The translation adds the expression “only to find” to connect the second and third parts of the original text, making overt the implicit meaning that the author was regretful for his failing to grasp his time.

Example 19:怕只怕三杯下肚，豪情大发，嘟嘟嘟，来个瓶底朝天......(Zhang 2007: 290)
The trouble is after three cups of alcohol he will get wild and unrestrained and end in gulping down a whole bottle. (Zhang 2007: 289)

Mr. Zhang combined the four parts in the original text into one English sentence, showing the logical relationship between these parts. In the original text, “来个瓶底朝天” is the result of “三杯下肚，豪情大发”; the semantic relationship between the two parts has been shown through the addition of the verb phrase “end in” in the English translation. Actually, Mr. Zhang deleted the translation of “嘟嘟嘟”, which seems not to be faithful to the original text. However, it is unnecessary to translate this expression since it means nothing here.

Words, phrases and clauses are often connected through various cohesive devices in English, which shows that English emphasizes overt cohesion. On the contrary, much less or even no cohesive devices are used in Chinese, which shows the tendency toward implicit cohesion in Chinese. In Chinese-English translation, it is necessary to add relational words, conjunctions, prepositions and so on, or change the form of words in the translation to express the grammatical and logical relationship in the original text.

===4.Conclusion===

This paper first makes a brief introduction of essay, and then provides the definition of Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”. Then, it compares the differences between English and Chinese in terms of psychology, aesthetics, textual structure, textual cohesive devices etc., and makes an analysis of the original and translated texts selected from Zhang Peij’s English translations of Chinese essays and the original texts to see whether the translation is faithful, comprehensive and elegant. Finally, the paper provides some strategies for Chinese-English Translation. However, the paper only compares English and Chinese from limited aspects and it only covers several texts. There remains some problems to be solved.

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Lian Shuneng 连淑能. (2010). 英汉对比研究 [Contrastive Studies of English and Chinese]. Beijing: 高等教育出版社.

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Zhang Peiji 张培基. (2007) 英译中国现代散文选（一） [Selected Modern Chinese Essays 1]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 14:06, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou