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20211215 homework

2021-12-30T09:13:29Z

Liu Wei: /* 刘薇 Liú Wēi 国别女 202120081507 */

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2021-12-30T09:10:16Z

Liu Wei: /* 刘薇 Liú Wēi 国别女 202120081507 */

20211229 homework

2021-12-30T08:55:23Z

Liu Wei: /* 刘胜楠 Liú Shèngnán 翻译学女 202120081506 */

20211124 homework

2021-12-29T16:26:17Z

Liu Wei: /* 刘薇 Liú Wēi 国别女 202120081507 */

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2021-12-29T16:18:22Z

Liu Wei: /* 刘胜楠 Liú Shèngnán 翻译学女 202120081506 */

20211110 homework

2021-12-29T16:13:37Z

Liu Wei: /* 刘胜楠 Liú Shèngnán 翻译学女 202120081506 */

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PLEASE READ [[Joint_translation_terms|Joint translation terms]]

PLEASE ALSO READ THE PREVIOUS PARTS, AT LEAST THE SENTENCES BEFORE YOUR OWN PART IN CHAPTER 19 [[20210303_culture|1, Mar 3 Chapters 1-4]], [[20210310_culture|2, Mar 10 Chapters 6-7]], [[20210317_culture|3, Mar 17 Chapters 11-13]], [[20210324_culture|4, Mar 24 Chapters 15-17]], [[20210331_culture|5, Mar 31 Chapters 4-7]], [[20210407_culture|6, Apr 7 Chapters 8-10]], [[20210414_culture|7, Apr 14 Chapters 13-15]] , [[20210519_culture|12, May 19 Chapters 17-19]], [[20210929_homework#Hongloumeng|for Sep 29 - rest of HLM Chapter 19]] [[20211110_homework|for Nov 10 - HLM Chapters 20-21]] etc.

==陈静 Chén Jìng 国别女 202020080595==
按语：拙著《红楼梦全解本》出版后，受到了不少专家与读者的好评，甚为欣慰。但也有读者认为，如果能删掉部分注文，既不影响读者阅读，也可节省书的成本，使更多读者买得起。

Note : After the publication of ''The Dream of Red Mansions(The Anotation Version)'', it was highly appreciated by many experts and readers. However, some readers believe that if some notes can be deleted, it will not affect readers ' reading and save the cost of the publication, so that more readers can afford it.--[[User:Chen Jing|Chen Jing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jing|talk]]) 10:02, 9 November 2021 (UTC)

Note: after my book the complete interpretation of Drdam Of Red Chamber was published, it was highly praised by many experts and readers. However, some readers believe that if some annotations can be deleted, it will not affect readers' reading, but also save the cost of the book and make it affordable for more readers.
--[[User:Cai Zhufeng|Cai Zhufeng]] ([[User talk:Cai Zhufeng|talk]]) 11:53, 9 November 2021 (UTC)

==蔡珠凤 Cài Zhūfèng 日语语言文学女 202120081477==
恰好中央编译出版社准备出版四大古典小说套书，为了平衡四部小说的注文，《红楼梦》的注文也嫌太长。因此接受读者的建议，将《红楼梦全解本》的注文删掉了差不多一半，其他一概未动；换言之，此版《红楼梦》校注本，实即《红楼梦全解本》的删节本（仅删注文）。因此《校注前言》仍用《红楼梦全解本》的《校注前言》，不再另写。

It happened that the Central Compilation and Translation Publishing House was preparing to publish four sets of classical novels. In order to balance the annotations of the four novels, the annotations of Dream Of the Red Chamber were too long. Therefore, we accepted the readers' suggestions and deleted almost half of the annotations in the complete interpretation of Dream Of Red Chamber, and the rest remained unchanged; In other words, the revised annotation version of Dream Of Red Chamber is actually an abridged version of the complete interpretation of Dream Of Red Chamber (only the annotation is deleted). Therefore, the preface to proofreading still uses the preface to proofreading of the complete interpretation of Dream Of Red Chamber, and needn’t be written again.
--[[User:Cai Zhufeng|Cai Zhufeng]] ([[User talk:Cai Zhufeng|talk]]) 06:36, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

It happened that the Central Compilation and Translation Publishing House was preparing to publish four sets of classical novels. In order to balance the annotations of the four novels, the annotations of ''The Dream of the Red Chamber'' were too long. Therefore, we accepted the readers' suggestions and deleted almost half of the annotations in the complete interpretation of ''The Dream of Red Chamber'', and the rest remained unchanged; In other words, the revised annotation version of ''The Dream of Red Chamber'' is actually an abridged version of the complete interpretation of ''The Dream of Red Chamber'' (only the annotation is deleted). Therefore, ''The Preface to Proofreading'' still uses ''The Preface to Proofreading'' of the complete interpretation of ''Dream Of Red Chamber'', and needn’t be written again.--[[User:Chen Huini|Chen Huini]] ([[User talk:Chen Huini|talk]]) 14:32, 8 November 2021 (UTC)Chen Huini

==陈惠妮 Chén Huìnī 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081479==
《红楼梦》以其包罗万象的内容，博大精深的思想，精湛完美的艺术，丰富生动的语言，尤其是众多栩栩如生的人物形象，不仅在中国小说史上奇峰独秀，而且在世界文学之林独树一帜。它是我国文化遗产中的珍品，值得每一个中国人所珍视。《红楼梦》在其尚未完稿的时候，已经被人竞相传抄，辗转传阅，不胫而走，蜚声神州。

''A Dream of Red Mansions'' is unique not only in the history of Chinese novels, but also in the world literature with its comprehensive contents, extensive and profound thoughts, exquisite and perfect art, rich and vivid language, and especially its numerous vivid characters. It is a treasure of our country's cultural heritage and is worth cherishing by every Chinese. ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' has been copied, circulated and spread like wildfire even when it's unfinished. It is really well-known in China.--[[User:Chen Huini|Chen Huini]] ([[User talk:Chen Huini|talk]]) 14:23, 8 November 2021 (UTC)Chen Huini

''A Dream of Red Mansions'' is outstanding not only in the history of Chinese novels, but also in the world literature for its comprehensive contents, extensive and profound thoughts, exquisite and perfect art, rich and vivid language, and especially its numerous vivid characters. It is a treasure of our country's cultural heritage and is worth being cherished by every Chinese.Before it is finished， ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' has been copied, circulated and spread like wildfire and it is really well-known in China.--[[User:Chen Xiangqiong|Chen Xiangqiong]] ([[User talk:Chen Xiangqiong|talk]]) 00:25, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

==陈湘琼 Chén Xiāngqióng 外国语言学及应用语言学女 202120081480 ==
不仅“士大夫几乎家有《红楼梦》一书”（清·潘炤《从心录》卷首），而且“家弦户诵，妇孺皆知”（清·缪艮《文章游戏初编》卷六）。上层社会更出现了“开谈不说《红楼梦》，读尽诗书也枉然”（清·得舆《京都竹枝词·时尚门》）的时尚。《红楼梦》的魅力也使其商业价值大增，“好事者每传抄一部，置庙市中，昂其值，得数十金，可谓不胫而走者矣”（清·程伟元《〈红楼梦〉序》）。

''A Dream of Red Mansions'' was so popular that not only scholar officals（people obtain knowledge and wealth in feudal China） read it （the first volum of ''Essay'' by Pan Zhao, Qing），but also families，even women and children ， loved it（the sixth volum of ''Preliminary Article Games'' by Miu Liang, Qing）. Moreover ,there was a climate of ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' that the upper class believed " it is useless to read great books without ''A Dream of Red Mansions''.（''Bamboo Pole Poem in the Capital'' by De Yu, Qing）. The charm of ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' also rose its business value as in record： “Someone who is willing to copy ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' and sell it can raise 10 gold ingots everytime ，and everyone know it.（ the introduction of ''A Dream of Red Mansions'', Qing）.--[[User:Chen Xiangqiong|Chen Xiangqiong]] ([[User talk:Chen Xiangqiong|talk]]) 09:44, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

Not only did "almost every scholar had a copy of ''A Dream of Red Mansions''" (the first volum of Essay by Pan Zhao, Qing Dynasty), but "Every household recited it, and all women and children knew it" (the sixth volum of ''Preliminary Article Games'' by Miu Liang, Qing Dynasty). In the upper class, the fashion of "If you don't talk about ''A Dream of Red Mansions'', you can read all the poems and books in vain" (''Bamboo Pole Poem in the Capital'' by De Yu, Qing Dynasty) emerged. The charm of A Dream of Red Mansions also made its commercial value increased greatly, "Those who are interested in it can get a lot of money by copying one of the books and selling it in the market. The information spread quickly." (the introduction of ''A Dream of Red Mansions'', Qing Dynasty)--[[User:Chen Xinyi|Chen Xinyi]] ([[User talk:Chen Xinyi|talk]]) 07:07, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

==陈心怡 Chén Xīnyí 翻译学女 202120081481==
至高鹗续写后四十回、由程伟元以活字正式出版完整的一百二十回本后，更出现了风行全国的盛况。时至今日，即使读不懂《红楼梦》的人，也都看过《红楼梦》电影或电视剧，对《红楼梦》的故事和人物无不耳熟能详。因此《红楼梦》已经不是普通的小说，而成为全民珍视的国宝了。

After Gao E continued to write the second forty chapters and Cheng Weiyuan officially published the complete one hundred and twenty chapters in movable type, the book became popular nationwide. To this day, even those who do not understand ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' have seen the movie or TV series versions, and are familiar with the story and characters of ''A Dream of Red Mansions''. Therefore, ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' is no longer an ordinary novel, but a national treasure cherished by all.--[[User:Chen Xinyi|Chen Xinyi]] ([[User talk:Chen Xinyi|talk]]) 06:39, 8 November 2021 (UTC)
After Gao E continued to write the following forty chapters and Cheng Weiyuan officially published the complete one hundred and twenty chapters in movable type, the book became popular nationwide increasingly. To this day, even those who do not understand ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' have already seen the movie or TV series versions, and are familiar with the story and characters of it. Therefore, ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' is no longer an ordinary novel, but a national treasure cherished by all.--[[User:Cheng Yang|Cheng Yang]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yang|talk]]) 08:37, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

==程杨 Chéng Yáng 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081482==
中国古代的文人墨客、传统学者、官僚士夫，无不鄙薄小说，最多被视为茶余饭后的谈资。唯独对《红楼梦》情有独钟，爱不释手。不仅百读不厌，而且像拜读经书般寻章摘句，眉批夹评，乐此不疲。
The ancient Chinese literats, traditional scholars, bureaucrats, all despised novels, and regarded them as after-dinner talk at most. But they only showed special preference to ''The Dream of Red Mansions'', and fondled admiringly. They not only tired of reading it, but also liked reading the Confucian classics as seeking remarkable passages and culling model sentences, making notes and commentaries, and always enjoying it.--[[User:Cheng Yang|Cheng Yang]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yang|talk]]) 08:33, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

The ancient Chinese literats, traditional scholars, bureaucrats, all despised novels, and regarded them as after-dinner talks at most. However, they only showed special preference to ''The Dream of Red Mansions'', and fondled admiringly. They not only weren't tired of reading it, but also liked reading the Confucian classics as seeking remarkable passages and culling model sentences, making notes and commentaries, and always enjoying it.--[[User:Ding Xuan|Ding Xuan]] ([[User talk:Ding Xuan|talk]]) 14:07, 12 November 2021 (UTC)

==丁旋 Dīng Xuán 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081483==
久而久之，居然形成了“红学”。“红学”由起初对《红楼梦》的单纯评点，逐步发展成为对《红楼梦》及其作者的全面考证与研究，最后更成立了红学会，出版研究刊物，势头似乎越来越盛。这不仅是中国小说史上绝无仅有的，也是中国文学史上极其罕见的现象。

As time passes, redology is actually formed. Redology was about pure comments to ''A Dream in Red Mansion'' in the beginning and it gradually developed as the comprehensive textual research and study in ''A Dream in Red Mansion'' and its author. Finally, we even established redologist institution and published research periodicals, the momentum of redology more and more flourishing. This phenomenon is not only unique in the history of Chinese novels, but extremely rare in the history of Chinese literature. --[[User:Ding Xuan|Ding Xuan]] ([[User talk:Ding Xuan|talk]]) 05:29, 9 November 2021 (UTC)

As time passes, redology is unexpectedly formed. Redology came into mere comments to ''A Dream in Red Mansion'' in the beginning and it gradually developed as the comprehensive textual research and study of this work and its author. Finally, redologist institution was established to publish research periodicals with more flourishing tendency than ever. This phenomenon is not only unique in the history of Chinese novels, but extremely rare in the history of Chinese literature.--[[User:Du Lina|Du Lina]] ([[User talk:Du Lina|talk]]) 11:49, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

==杜莉娜 Dù Lìnà 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081484==
遗憾的是，“红学家”们对《红楼梦》的作者及其版本似乎偏爱有加，而对《红楼梦》的思想和艺术价值却缺乏足够的兴趣，因此考证作者和版本的文章和著作连篇累牍，而研究《红楼梦》思想和艺术价值的成果却寥若晨星。我认为这是本末倒置。一个作家的价值不在于其生平如何，而在于其作品的思想和艺术水平的高低；是作品决定作家的价值，而不是作家决定作品的价值。

Unfortunately, redologists ( who are specialists in A Dream of the Red Chamber) seemingly are partial to research on the writer and verison of this book, but are short of interest for it's thought and artistic value. And therefore there are a lot of articles and books about the former while very few about the latter. It seems to me that puts the cart before the horse. What a writer is worth lies in thoughts and artistic level in his/her works but not in his/her life story; and the value of a writer depends on his/her production, not vice versa.--[[User:Du Lina|Du Lina]] ([[User talk:Du Lina|talk]]) 13:31, 6 November 2021 (UTC)

Unfortunately, redologists ( who are specialists in A Dream of the Red Chamber) seem to prefer to research on the writer and versions of this book, but are short of interest in the thought and artistic value. And therefore there are a lot of articles and books about the former while very few about the latter. It seems to me that puts the cart before the horse. What a writer is worth lies in thoughts and artistic level in his/her works but not in his/her life story; and the value of a writer depends on his/her production, not vice versa.--[[User:Fu Hongyan|Fu Hongyan]] ([[User talk:Fu Hongyan|talk]]) 14:10, 9 November 2021 (UTC)

==付红岩 Fù Hóngyán 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081485==
读者对于作品的选择与评价，也只着眼于作品本身，而非作家本人。一部伟大的作品，即使作者佚名，也不影响其伟大，照样受到读者的追捧；相反，如果一个伟大作家偶然写了一部低劣的作品，读者也决不买账。因此“红学”的研究重点应该是《红楼梦》本身，而不是《红楼梦》作者。

Readers' choice and evaluation towards works is based on the works themselves, rather than the writers. As anonymous is the writer, the valued of a great work is definitely unlikely to be underestimated, which is still welcomed by the public. Likewise, readers cannot be attracted by the inferior work written by a great writer. Therefore, redology is supposed to focus on the context, instead of the writer Cao Xueqin--[[User:Fu Hongyan|Fu Hongyan]] ([[User talk:Fu Hongyan|talk]]) 14:01, 9 November 2021 (UTC)

Readers' choice and evaluation towards works is based on the works themselves, rather than the writers. As anonymous is the writer, the values of a great work are definitely unlikely to be underestimated, which is still popular with the public. Likewise, readers cannot be attracted by a low-quality work even written by a great writer occasionally. Therefore, redology is supposed to focus on the context, instead of the writer Cao Xueqin.--[[User:Fu Shiyu|Fu Shiyu]] ([[User talk:Fu Shiyu|talk]]) 09:02, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

==付诗雨 Fù Shīyǔ 日语语言文学女 202120081486==
当然也应该了解作者，但目的只是为了有助于深入了解《红楼梦》，仅此而已。我认为要想深入研究《红楼梦》，首先必须完全读懂《红楼梦》。如果对《红楼梦》的文本只是一知半解，那么所谓研究，势必如医生不明病人的病情而乱开药方，不仅治不好病，倒可能致人于死命。

Certainly, we should also know the author, but the purpose is nothing more than to help us understand ''A Dream of Red Chamber'' in depth. I think that in order to make a further research on ''A Dream of the Red Chamber'', we must first have a thorough understanding of it. If we have only a sketchy knowledge of the text of ''A Dream of Red Chamber'', then the so-called research would definitely be like the prescriptions prescribed indiscriminately without knowing the patient's condition. Not only can it not cure the disease, but it may lead to death.--[[User:Fu Shiyu|Fu Shiyu]] ([[User talk:Fu Shiyu|talk]]) 13:53, 6 November 2021 (UTC)

Certainly, we should also know about the author, but only with the purpose of deepening our understanding of the work. I think that further researches on ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' necessitate a thorough understanding of it. If we have only a sketchy knowledge of the text of ''A Dream of Red Mansions'', then the so-called research would definitely be like the prescriptions written indiscriminately by a doctor unaware of the patient's condition. Not only can it not cure the disease, but it may lead to death. --[[User:Gao Mi|Gao Mi]] ([[User talk:Gao Mi|talk]]) 03:04, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

==高蜜 Gāo Mì 翻译学女 202120081487==
《红楼梦》研究中的许多无谓争论，正是研究者没有读懂《红楼梦》或对《红楼梦》文本的不同理解所致。因此对《红楼梦》文本的注释，显然是《红楼梦》研究的基础工作。其次，当今的读者和观众虽然热衷于《红楼梦》，但真正能够全面深入理解《红楼梦》的人恐怕并不很多。

A great many arguments regarding the study of ''A Dream of Red Mansions'', caused either by an incomplete understanding or different understandings of the text, are pointless. Therefore, it's apparent that annotating ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' is a foundation work for its further study. Besides, though today's readers and audience are crazy about the book, I'm afraid that not many of them get to know it thoroughly. --[[User:Gao Mi|Gao Mi]] ([[User talk:Gao Mi|talk]]) 03:09, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

Many unnecessary arguments in the study of ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' are caused by the researchers' failure to understand ''A dream of Red Mansions'' or their different understandings of the text.Therefore, it's apparent that annotating ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' is a foundation work for its further study. Besides, though today's readers and audience are crazy about the book, I'm afraid that not many of them get to know it thoroughly.--[[User:Gong Boya|Gong Boya]] ([[User talk:Gong Boya|talk]]) 11:14, 13 November 2021 (UTC)

==宫博雅 Gōng Bóyǎ 俄语语言文学女 202120081488==
这是因为，《红楼梦》不是普通的白话小说，不是简单地为读者讲故事，不是为读者提供茶馀饭后的谈资，更不是为了赚稿费餬口（那时根本不存在稿费制度）。它不仅是一部反映封建社会的“百科全书”，而且作者还对人类共同关心的一些问题，如人生的目的、人性的善恶、爱情的真谛、宗教的精义等进行了探索。作品涉及的内容几乎无所不包，从至高无上的皇帝，到“芥豆之微”的细民，从国家的政治、军事、经济到百姓的日常生活，举凡天文、地理、动物、植物、建筑、服饰、医卜星相、琴棋书画等等，无不尽收笔底。

This is because ''a Dream of Red Mansions'' is not an ordinary vernacular novel. It is not simply a story for readers to read, not a topic for after-dinner conversation, or a way to earn a living (there was no contribution fee system at that time). It is not only an "encyclopedia" reflecting the feudal society, but also explores some common issues of human concern, such as the purpose of life, the good and evil of human nature, the true meaning of love, the essence of religion and so on. The works cover almost everything, from the supreme emperor to the ordinary people, from national politics, military affairs, economy to the daily life of the people, including astronomy, geography, animals, plants, architecture, clothing, medicine, astrology and practise divination, poetry and painting and so on, they're all in the book.--[[User:Gong Boya|Gong Boya]] ([[User talk:Gong Boya|talk]]) 13:47, 6 November 2021 (UTC)

It is because ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' is neither an ordinary novel in vernacular Chinese, nor a simple narrative or gossip for readers. The author wrote it not for remuneration for the system of remuneration for writters did not exist at that time. It is not only an "encyclopedia" reflecting the feudal society, but also an exploration of some issues of common concern to mankind, such as the purpose of life, the good and evil of human nature, the true meaning of love, and the essence of religion. It covers almost everything, from the supreme emperor to the plebeian as tiny as reed, and from the politics, military and economy of the country to the daily life of the people. It includes astronomy, geography, animals, plants, architecture, costumes, medicine, astrology, zither, chess, calligraphy and painting, and so on. --[[User:He Qin|He Qin]] ([[User talk:He Qin|talk]]) 11:48, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

==何芩 Hé Qín 翻译学女 202120081489==
作者还调动了自己的全部才能和知识，汲取了前人的成果，撰写并引用了大量诗、词、曲、赋、歌、诔、谜语、酒令等，作为描写人物、叙述故事、揭示主题的艺术手段，从而成为作品的重要组成部分。这其中蕴藏着许多成语、典故和各种知识，现在的一般读者是很难读懂的。此外，由于曹雪芹以其家事为《红楼梦》的蓝本，且暴露了不少家丑，如秦可卿的淫荡乱伦等，因而大量采用了《春秋》笔法，即作者所谓将“真事隐去”，以“假语村言”的曲折方式进行暗示或隐寓，致使《红楼梦》扑朔迷离，迷雾重重。

The author also mobilized all his talents and knowledge and drew on the achievements of his predecessors, writing and quoting a large number of poems, lyrics, songs, eulogies, riddles and wine wager as artistic methods to describe characters, narrate stories and reveal themes, thus becoming an important part of the work. This contains many idioms, allusions and various kinds of knowledge that are difficult for the average readers to comprehend nowadays. In addition, Cao Xueqin used his family affairs as the blueprint for Dream of the Red Chamber and exposed many family scandals, such as Frivolity Grain's lewdness and incest. Cao, thus, adopted much of a writing style of ''Spring and Autumn Annals'', that is, the author's so-called "real things concealed", in the twisted way of "false words and village gossips", which has led to the ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' being puzzling and foggy.--[[User:He Qin|He Qin]] ([[User talk:He Qin|talk]]) 12:28, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

The author also mobilized all his talents and knowledge and took results from his predecessors, writing and quoting a large number of poems, lyrics, songs, eulogies, riddles and wine wager as artistic methods to describe characters, narrate stories and reveal themes, thus becoming an important part of the work. The novel contains many idioms, allusions and various kinds of knowledge that are difficult for the average readers to comprehend nowadays. In addition, Cao Xueqin used his family affairs as the blueprint for ''A Dream in Red Mansions'' and exposed many family scandals, such as Qin Keqing's lewdness and incest. Cao, thus, frequently adopted a writing style of Spring and Autumn Annals, that is, the author's so-called "real things concealed", using the twisted way of "false words and village gossips" to hint and make it metaphorical which has led to ''A Dream in Red Mansions'' being puzzling and foggy.--[[User:Hu Shuqing|Hu Shuqing]] ([[User talk:Hu Shuqing|talk]]) 08:35, 14 November 2021 (UTC)

==胡舒情 Hú Shūqíng 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081490==
因此帮助广大读者读懂《红楼梦》，也是《红楼梦》研究者义不容辞的责任。而要使读者读懂《红楼梦》，只作简单的文字注释不解决问题，必须加以详细注释，将隐藏于《红楼梦》字里行间的寓意一一揭示出来，才能完全展示《红楼梦》的本来面貌。我从学生时代起就期待这种《红楼梦》的详注本出现，一直等了半个世纪，可惜望眼欲穿而不见踪影。

Therefore, it is incumbent on researchers of ''A Dream in Red Mansions'' to help numerous readers understand the novel. For this, problem can’t be solved simply by text annotations. What should do is to add detailed explanatory notes to discover the meanings implied in characters, which can fully show the way the book originally is. I have expected the appearance of this version with detailed annotations since I was a student. I’ve waited for half a century, but it never comes out.--[[User:Hu Shuqing|Hu Shuqing]] ([[User talk:Hu Shuqing|talk]]) 02:46, 12 November 2021 (UTC)

Therefore, it is our researchers' duty to heip numerous readers understand A Dream in Red Mansions. To do that, simple text annotations are not enough. And detailed explanatory notes are needed to discover its implied meanings, which can fully show its characteristics. Waiting for half century, I have expected the apppearance of this version with detailed annotations since I was a student.--[[User:Huang Jinyun|Huang Jinyun]] ([[User talk:Huang Jinyun|talk]]) 01:49, 15 November 2021 (UTC)

==黄锦云 Huáng Jǐnyún 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081491==
很显然，“红学家”的队伍虽然不断壮大，看来他们对这种注释工作似乎不屑一顾。于是我这个“红学”的门外汉便斗胆一试，结果试出了这个《红楼梦》校注本。我这是“人弃我取”，希望不至于冒犯任何人。

Obviously, the amount of redologists who are sepcalists in A Dream of Red Mansion was increasing. They seemed to pay no attention to annotate that book, but I, as a layman, took a chance and tried to make the annotation of A Dream of Red Mansion. I thought it was an attitude of doing the things others gave up, which would not offend anyone.--[[User:Huang Jinyun|Huang Jinyun]] ([[User talk:Huang Jinyun|talk]]) 13:52, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

Obviously, the amount of redologists sepcalizing in A Dream of Red Mansion was increasing. They seemed to pay little attention to annotate that book, but I, as a layman, took a chance and tried to make the annotation of A Dream of Red Mansion. I thought it was an attitude of doing things others gave up, which I hope would not offend anyone.--[[User:Huang Yiyan1|Huang Yiyan1]] ([[User talk:Huang Yiyan1|talk]]) 14:20, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

==黄逸妍 Huáng Yìyán 外国语言学及应用语言学女 202120081492==
如果能成为“引玉”之“砖”，即使要做“众矢之的”，招来“万箭攒射”，我也决不后悔，因为这也算是我对《红楼梦》读者的小小奉献了。下面仅就与校注工作有关的几个具体问题略作说明。

一、作者问题

If I can serve as a modest spur to induce someone to come forward with his valuable contributions, I will never regret even if I could be the target of public criticism. It is because that the annotation work is also my dedication to the readers of A Dream in Red Mansions. And I will explain a little about the specific questions in proofreading below. 1. The Question of Author--[[User:Huang Yiyan1|Huang Yiyan1]] ([[User talk:Huang Yiyan1|talk]]) 12:40, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

If I can become a "brick" for "inviting jade", even if I want to be "a target of all targets" and attract "a thousand arrows", I will never regret it, because this is also a small dedication to the readers of "A Dream of Red Mansions". The following is only a brief description of a few specific issues related to the proofreading work.
1. Author's question--[[User:Zeng Junlin|Zeng Junlin]] ([[User talk:Zeng Junlin|talk]]) 11:06, 17 November 2021 (UTC)

==曾俊霖 Zēng Jùnlín 国别男 202120081478==
中国文学史中有两个突出现象：一是在封建时代得意并著名的文人不写小说；二是小说作品多不署名或只署化名。这完全是由封建统治者造成的。封建统治者的文学观是纯粹的政治功利主义，即所谓“文以载道”。

There are two outstanding phenomena in the history of Chinese literature: one is that famous and proud literati in the feudal era do not write novels; the other is that many novels do not sign or only sign pseudonyms. This is entirely caused by the feudal ruler. The feudal ruler’s literary view is pure political utilitarianism, that is, the so-called "writing is used to carry Tao".--[[User:Zeng Junlin|Zeng Junlin]] ([[User talk:Zeng Junlin|talk]]) 11:03, 17 November 2021 (UTC)

There are two prominent phenomena in the history of Chinese Literature: first, the proud and famous literati in the feudal era did not write novels; Second, most novels are not signed or only signed by pseudonyms. This was entirely caused by the feudal rulers. The literary view of feudal rulers was pure political utilitarianism, that is, the so-called "literature carries Tao".--[[User:Huang Zhuliang|Huang Zhuliang]] ([[User talk:Huang Zhuliang|talk]]) 12:42, 22 November 2021 (UTC)

==黄柱梁 Huáng Zhùliáng 国别男 202120081493==
他们认为小说不仅不能“载道”，而且往往“诲淫诲盗”，对封建统治构成威胁。因此不仅将小说排斥在正统文学之外，甚至常常以“禁毁”的方式加以扫荡。在文网森严及小说地位低贱的环境下，多数文人自然不敢或不屑从事小说的创作；而那些痴迷小说的作者也就不敢或不愿在小说作品上亮出自己的真名实姓。They faithfully believe that novels not only can not "educate citizens of Qing Dynasty", but also often be blessed with "obscenity and theft", which poses a threat to feudal rule.Therefore, novels are not only excluded from orthodox literature, but also often cleaned up in the way of "prohibition and destruction". In the social background of highly strict policy of Literary Network and low status of novels, most scholars naturally dare not or disdain to engage in novel creation; Those who are obsessed with novels are afraid or unwilling to show their real names in their novels.--[[User:Huang Zhuliang|Huang Zhuliang]] ([[User talk:Huang Zhuliang|talk]]) 02:46, 10 November 2021 (UTC)Huang Zhuliang

They believed that novels not only can not "educate citizens of Qing Dynasty", but also often be blessed with "obscenity and theft", which poses a threat to feudal rule.Therefore, novels are not only excluded from orthodox literature, but also often cleaned up in the way of "prohibition and destruction". In the social background of highly strict policy of Literary Network and of low status of novels, most scholars naturally dare not or disdain to engage in novel creation; Those who are obsessed with novels are afraid or unwilling to sign their real names in their novels.--[[User:Jin Xiaotong|Jin Xiaotong]] ([[User talk:Jin Xiaotong|talk]]) 13:18, 11 November 2021 (UTC)

==金晓童 Jīn Xiǎotóng 202120081494==
因此研究中国古代小说多了一项工作，即不得不对小说作者加以考证。《红楼梦》也不例外，它的作者连化名都未署一个。“红学家”们为了考证它的作者，不知耗费了多少精力和时间，然而由于史料不足，至今仍然众说纷纭,难以形成共识。

Therefore, there is one more task to study ancient Chinese novels, that is, we have to do textual research on the authors of the novels. ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' is no exception. Its author does not even have a pseudonym. In order to do textual research on its author, the "redologists" spent a lot of energy and time. However, due to the lack of historical data, opinions are still varied and it is difficult to reach a consensus.--[[User:Jin Xiaotong|Jin Xiaotong]] ([[User talk:Jin Xiaotong|talk]]) 01:57, 6 November 2021 (UTC)
Therefore, there is one more task to study ancient Chinese novels, that is, we have to do textual research on the authors of the novels. ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' is no exception, whose author does not even have a pseudonym. In order to do textual research on its author, the "redologists" spent a lot of energy and time. However, due to the lack of historical data, opinions are still varied and it is difficult to reach a consensus.--[[User:Kuang Yanli|Kuang Yanli]] ([[User talk:Kuang Yanli|talk]]) 06:39, 15 November 2021 (UTC)

==邝艳丽 Kuàng Yànl 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081495==
据我个人所知，至少就有七种说法：其一为“曹作高续”说。即认为曹雪芹写到八十回而去世，并可能留下了后四十回的某些提纲以及部分书稿；高鹗根据曹雪芹的这些提纲、书稿以及前八十回中的许多暗示，还可能参考了其他人的续作，完成了后四十回的创作，并对前八十回加以修订，从而使《红楼梦》成为完璧。
As far as I am concerned, there are at least seven sayings: one of which is that ''Dream of Red Mansions'' was written by Cao Xueqin and then finished by Gao. The saying means that Cao passed away and left some outline and manuscripts of the latter fourth chapters when the former eighty chapters was finished. Then, Gao finished the latter forty chapters and reviewed the former eighty chapters, according to some outlines, manuscripts and clues made by Cao, referring to other sequels. Finally, ''Dream of Red Mansion'' was finished. --[[User:Kuang Yanli|Kuang Yanli]] ([[User talk:Kuang Yanli|talk]]) 06:27, 15 November 2021 (UTC)

As far as I am concerned, there are at least seven sayings: one of which is that ''Dream of Red Mansions'' was written by Cao Xueqin and then finished by Gao. The saying means that Cao had passed away and left some outline and manuscripts of the latter fourth chapters while the former eighty chapters was finished. Then, Gao finished the latter forty chapters and reviewed the former eighty chapters, according to some outlines, manuscripts and clues made by Cao, referring to other sequels. Finally, ''Dream of Red Mansion'' was finished.--[[User:Li Aixuan|Li Aixuan]] ([[User talk:Li Aixuan|talk]]) 13:04, 15 November 2021 (UTC)

==李爱璇 Lǐ Àixuán 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081496==
其二为“曹作程续高订”说。即认为前八十回的作者是曹雪芹，后四十回的作者是程伟元，高鹗只是参加了全书的修订工作。其三为“曹作高续程订”说。即认为前八十回的作者是曹雪芹，后四十回的作者是高鹗，程伟元则对曹雪芹的前八十回加以修订。

The second is the theory of "Cao came to write, Cheng continued to write, Gao to revise". That is, the author of the first 80 chapters is Cao Xueqin, the author of the last 40 chapters is Cheng Weiyuan, and Gao E only participated in the revision of the whole book. The third is the theory of "Cao came to write, Gao continued to write, Cheng to revise". That is, the author of the first 80 chapters is Cao Xueqin, the author of the last 40 chapters is Gao E, and Cheng Weiyuan revised Cao Xueqin's first 80 chapters.--[[User:Li Aixuan|Li Aixuan]] ([[User talk:Li Aixuan|talk]]) 12:47, 6 November 2021 (UTC)

The second statement said that "Started by Cao, completed by Chen, and revised by Gao". That’s to say, the first 80 chapters were written by Cao Xueqin, the last 40 chapters were written by Cheng Weiyuan, and Gao E only revised the whole book. The third statement said that "Started by Cao, completed by Gao, and revised by Chen". That’s to say, the first 80 chapters were written by Cao Xueqin, the last 40 chapters were written by Gao E, and Cheng Weiyaun made revisions to the first 80 chapters of Cao Xueqin.--[[User:Li Ruiyang|Li Ruiyang]] ([[User talk:Li Ruiyang|talk]]) 11:56, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

==李瑞洋 Lǐ Ruìyáng 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081497==
其四为“曹作某续高订”说。即认为在程伟元和高鹗之前，已有人为曹雪芹的未完稿续写完全，程伟元将搜集到的抄本交由高鹗修订，然后刊行。其五为“曹作程高修订”说。

The fourth statement said that “Started by Cao, completed by someone, and revised by Gao”. That's to say, before Cheng Weiyuan and Gao E, there was someone who completed Cao Xueqin's unfinished writing. Then, Cheng Weiyuan collected this hand-copied version and provided it for Gao E to revise, and afterwards ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' was published . The fifth statement said that “Started by Cao, and revised by both Cheng and Gao ”.--[[User:Li Ruiyang|Li Ruiyang]] ([[User talk:Li Ruiyang|talk]]) 08:08, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

The fourth statement said that "This masterpiece is started by Cao, completed by someone, and revised by Gao". That's to say, before Cheng Weiyuan and Gao E, there was someone who completed Cao Xueqin's unfinished work. Then, Cheng Weiyuan collected these hand-copied drafts and offered them to Gao E to revise, and afterwards ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' was published. The fifth statement noted that "It was started by Cao, and revised by both Cheng and Gao".--[[User:Li Shan|Li Shan]] ([[User talk:Li Shan|talk]]) 13:52, 14 November 2021 (UTC)

==李姗 Lǐ Shān 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081498==
即认为曹雪芹已经完成了《红楼梦》全书，只是未遑修饰而去世，后由程伟元和高鹗共同修订并刊行。其六为“叔作侄订”说。即认为《红楼梦》的原作者是曹雪芹的叔父曹頫，也就是给《红楼梦》加批的“脂砚斋”；曹雪芹只是对它“披阅十载，增删五次”。

It was commonly believed that Cao Xueqin had finished the draft of ''A Dream in Red Mansions'', while as a result of his death it was not polished by himself, but co-revised and published by Cheng Weiyuan an Gao 'E later on. Sixly, rumar had it that this classic was the common product of the uncle and the nephew. That was to say, the original author of that masterpiece was Cao Fu, Cao Xueqin's uncle, who was at the same time the very one that added notes in that masterpiece, and Cao Xueqin just played the role of repeatedly revising it.--[[User:Li Shan|Li Shan]] ([[User talk:Li Shan|talk]]) 13:55, 14 November 2021 (UTC)

It was commonly believed that Cao Xueqin had finished the draft of ''A Dream in Red Mansions''. As a result of his death it was not published by himself. However, co-revised and published by Cheng Weiyuan an Gao 'E later on. Rumar had it that this classic was the common product of the uncle and the nephew. Which shows, the original author of that masterpiece was Cao Fu, Cao Xueqin's uncle, who was at the same time the only one who added notes in that masterpiece, and Cao Xueqin just repeatedly revised it.--[[User:Li Shan|Li Shan]] ([[User talk:Li Shan|talk]]) 13:35, 6 November 2021 (UTC)
--[[User:Mahzad Heydarian|Mahzad Heydarian]] ([[User talk:Mahzad Heydarian|talk]]) 22:31, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

It was commonly believed that Cao Xueqin had finished the draft of ''A Dream in Red Mansions'', but died before he could polish it. As a result, the draft was co-revised and published by Cheng Weiyuan an Gao 'E later on. The sixth opinion is that this classic is the common product of the uncle and the nephew. That's to say, the original author of that masterpiece was Cao Fu, Cao Xueqin's uncle, who was at the same time the very one that added notes in that masterpiece, and Cao Xueqin just played the role of repeatedly revising it.--[[User:Li Shuang|Li Shuang]] ([[User talk:Li Shuang|talk]]) 15:35, 14 November 2021 (UTC)

==李双 Lǐ Shuāng 翻译学女 202120081499==
其七为“某作曹订”说。即认为《红楼梦》的原作者是个与曹家毫不相干的无名氏，曹雪芹只是个修订者。“红学家”对《红楼梦》作者的意见分歧，使出版者无所适从，因而造成了新版《红楼梦》署名的混乱：或只署曹雪芹，或并署曹雪芹、高鹗，或干脆不署名。

The seventh opinion is that “a certain author, Cao revised”. That is to say, the original author of ''A Dream in Red Mansions'' is an anonymous person who has no relation with Cao’s family, and Cao Xueqin is only the reviser. The different opinions among the “redologists” about the author of ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' caused the publishers not to know what to do. The new versions are therefore in confusion: some signed Cao Xueqin alone, some signed Cao Xueqin and Gao E together, and some signed nothing at all.--[[User:Li Shuang|Li Shuang]] ([[User talk:Li Shuang|talk]]) 09:40, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

The seventh opinion is that “a certain author, Cao revised”. That is to say, the original author of ''The Dream of the Red Chamber'' was an anonymous person who had no relation with the Cao’s, and Cao Xueqin was only a reviser. The different opinions among the “redologists” about the author of ''The Dream of the Red Chamber'' caused the publishers not to know what to do. The new versions are therefore in confusion: some signed Cao Xueqin alone, some signed Cao Xueqin and Gao E together, and some signed nothing at all. --[[User:Li Wenxuan|Li Wenxuan]] ([[User talk:Li Wenxuan|talk]]) 11:33, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

==李文璇 Lǐ Wénxuán 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081500==
由于我对这个问题缺乏专门研究，只能在以上七种说法中加以选择。我认为这七种说法都有一定的根据，均非空穴来风。但相比之下，第一种说法的证据更为充分，也得到了学界的普遍认可，因此仍将曹雪芹和高鹗作为《红楼梦》的共同作者。

Because of a lack of specialized research to this question, I had to select from the seven statements above. I thought that the seven statements were of certain basis. However, with comparison, the evidence of first statement was more sufficient, and was largely approved by the academic circles. So, Cao Xueqin and Gao E were still regarded as the co-author of ''the Dream of the Red Chamber''. --[[User:Li Wenxuan|Li Wenxuan]] ([[User talk:Li Wenxuan|talk]]) 01:47, 6 November 2021 (UTC)
Being lacking in specialized research to this question, I had to select from the above seven versions . I thought that they were of certain basis. However, with comparison, the first statement was more credible, and was largely approved by the academic circles. So, Cao Xueqin and Gao E were still regarded as the co-author of ''the Dream of the Red Chamber''.--[[User:Li Wen|Li Wen]] ([[User talk:Li Wen|talk]]) 06:57, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

==李雯 Lǐ Wén 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081501==
至于这种说法的具体根据，以及两作者的生平，已见于不少专文，这里不再赘述。

二、版本问题

由于《红楼梦》创作过程和流传过程的特殊性，造成了《红楼梦》版本的复杂性。
We will not describe more about the specific reason of this opinion and lives of the two authors because a lot of scholars have discussed it.
二、Version problem
The unique process of creating and circulating A Dream in Red Mansions leads to such complicated versions of it.--[[User:Li Wen|Li Wen]] ([[User talk:Li Wen|talk]]) 06:52, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

As well as the life of the two authors, has been seen in a number of articles, here will not be repeated.
Second, the version of the problem because of the "Dream of Red Mansions" creative process and the special nature of the process of circulation, resulting in the "Dream of Red Mansions" version of the complexity.--[[User:Li Xinxing|Li Xinxing]] ([[User talk:Li Xinxing|talk]]) 04:36, 24 November 2021 (UTC)

==李新星 Lǐ Xīnxīng 亚非语言文学女 202120081503==

而《红楼梦》版本的复杂性，又迫使我们不得不有所选择。《红楼梦》的创作和流传过程可以分为四个阶段：其一是曹雪芹的创作阶段。虽然曹雪芹自称“披阅十载，增删五次”，其实由于他溘然而逝，只留下了一部《红楼梦》的未完稿和未定稿。

The complexity of the version of a Dream of Red Mansions forces us to make choices. The creation and spread of a Dream of Red Mansions can be divided into four stages: one is Cao Xueqin Autor's creation stage. Although Cao Xueqin Autor, claimed that "reading for ten years, adding and deleting five times", in fact, because of his death, leaving only a dream of red Mansions unfinished and unfinished.--[[User:Li Xinxing|Li Xinxing]] ([[User talk:Li Xinxing|talk]]) 08:59, 9 November 2021 (UTC)
--[[User:Li Xinxing|Li Xinxing]] ([[User talk:Li Xinxing|talk]]) 13:16, 29 December 2021 (UTC)
The complexity of the version of a ''dream of Red Mansions'' forces us to choose. The creation and spread of the ''dream of Red Mansions'' can be divided into four stages: one is the creation stage of Cao Xueqin Autor. Although Cao Xueqin Autor claimed to "read for ten years, add and delete five times", in fact, due to his death, only one unfinished and undecided version of a dream of Red Mansions was left.--[[User:Li Yi|Li Yi]] ([[User talk:Li Yi|talk]]) 14:16, 9 November 2021 (UTC)

==李怡 Lǐ Yí 法语语言文学女 202120081504==
他只完成了八十回，约相当于全书的三分之二。他不仅未对这八十回的书稿进行修订润色，而且还有不少待补的缺文。以“红学家”认为最好的版本“庚辰本”为例：第十七、十八两回合用一套回目，第十九回没有回目；第二十二回写荣国府作灯谜游戏，“此回未成而芹逝矣”(脂砚斋批语)，以至不仅缺了主要人物贾宝玉、林黛玉和史湘云的灯谜，而且本回还有不少其他缺文；如此等等。
He completed only eighty times, about two-thirds of the book. Not only did he leave the eighty drafts unrevised, but there was still much to be done. To the researcher of a dream of Red Mansions that the best version of the "gengchen Ben" as an example: the 17th, 18th round with a set of return, the 19th back no return; The twenty-second time to write rongguo Mansion for lantern riddle game, the chapter is unfinished but Cao Xueqin is dead (the ink stone lent comments), so that not only the lack of lantern riddles of the main characters Precious Jade Merchant , Mascara Jade Forest and Fragrant-cloud History, and this time there are many other lack of text; And so on.--[[User:Li Yi|Li Yi]] ([[User talk:Li Yi|talk]]) 05:26, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

He completed only eighty chapters, about two-thirds of the whole book. Not only did he leave the eighty drafts unrevised and unpolished, but there was still much missing pages to be filled. Take the “Gengchen Version” as an example, which was considered the best version by Redology scholars, the 17th, 18th chapters kept the same content and the 19th had no content; The chapter 22, which was about Rongguo Mansion' lantern riddle game, was unfinished before Cao Xueqin passed away. (comments from the Ink Stone Lent), so that there was not only a lack of lantern riddles of the main characters Precious Jade Merchant, Mascara Jade Forest and Fragrant-cloud History, but also many other contents, and so on.--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 06:53, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

==刘沛婷 Liú Pèitíng 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081505==
其二是曹雪芹《红楼梦》八十回本的传抄阶段，其间大约近三十年。由于抄书速度很慢，《红楼梦》的篇幅又很长，要想在短时间内抄完一部，需集多人之手。故多为达官显宦之家雇佣抄手，集体完成。

The second lay in the transmission and copying stage of 80 chapters of Cao Xueqin's ''A Dream of Red Mansions'', which lasted about 30 years. Due to the slow speed of copying and the long length of the novel, it required cooperation in order to scribe it done in a short time. Therefore it was the noble officials anddignitaries who often hired scribes to do the task together.--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 06:39, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

The second stage is the transmission and copying of 80 chapters of ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' written by Cao Xueqin, which lasted about 30 years. Due to the slow speed of copying and the long length of the novel, it required cooperation in order to finish it in a short time. Therefore it was the noble officials and dignitaries who often hired scribes to do the task together.--[[User:Liu Shengnan|Liu Shengnan]] ([[User talk:Liu Shengnan|talk]]) 05:33, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

==刘胜楠 Liú Shèngnán 翻译学女 202120081506==
又因它是一部未完稿和未定稿，抄手便自觉或不自觉地加以增删修改；而抄手大多水平不高，且良莠不齐，鲁鱼亥豕，在所难免。从而导致大量异文乃至讹误的产生。其三是高鹗和程伟元续写后四十回并对全书进行修订和刊行的阶段。

And because it was an unfinished and undecided manuscript, the scribes consciously or unconsciously added, deleted and modified it. Most scribes lacked skills and the level of copying varied in quality. Accordingly, it was inevitable that clerical errors occurred, which led to a large number of variant versions of the book and even misinterpretations in the text. The third was the stage when Gao E and Cheng Weiyuan wrote a continuation of 40 chapters for ''A Dream in Red Mansions'', revised and published the whole book.--[[User:Liu Shengnan|Liu Shengnan]] ([[User talk:Liu Shengnan|talk]]) 13:29, 6 November 2021 (UTC)

And because it was an unfinished and undecided manuscript, the copywriters consciously or unconsciously added, deleted or modified it; Because most copywriters lacked skills and their level of copying varied in quality.so it was inevitable that led to a large number of different texts and even errors in the text. The third was the stage when E Gao and Weiyuan Cheng continued to write the last 40 chapters of ''A Dream in Red Mansions'',revised and published the whole book. --[[User:Liu Wei|Liu Wei]] ([[User talk:Liu Wei|talk]]) 03:47, 7 November 2021 (UTC)Liu Wei

==刘薇 Liú Wēi 国别女 202120081507==
其间又可分为四段：首先由程伟元对各种《红楼梦》抄本加以搜集(其中可能包括无名氏续写的书稿)；其次由高鹗续写后四十回，并对前八十回进行大量修订(程伟元也可能参与了修订工作)；又次由程伟元于乾隆五十六年（公元1791年）用活字排印出版一百二十回本，后来被胡适先生命名为“程甲本”；次年由高鹗和程伟元对“程甲本”加以修订再版，后来又被胡适先生命名为“程乙本”。据说还有“程丙本”，如今已经不知下落，据个别看过的人说，较之“程乙本”改动甚少，因而可以置之不论。

It can be divided into four periods: firstly,Weiyuan Cheng collected various transcripts of ''A Dream of Red Mansions ''(including the manuscripts of a sequel written by anonymous authors); Secondly,E Gao continued to write the last 40 chapters and made a lot of revisions to the first 80 chapters (Weiyuan Cheng may also had participated in the revision work); thirdly, another 120 copies were printed and published by Weiyuan Cheng in movable type in the 56th year of the Emperor of Qianlong (AD 1791), which was later named "Cheng Jia Edition" by Mr.Shi Hu;Lastly, in the following year, E Gao and Weiyuan Cheng revised and republished the "Cheng Jia Edition", which was later named "Cheng Yi Ben" by Mr.Shi Hu. It is said that there is also "Cheng bing Edition", which is unknown now. According to someone who have seen it, there are few changes compared with "Cheng Yi Edition", so it can be set aside. --[[User:Liu Wei|Liu Wei]] ([[User talk:Liu Wei|talk]]) 03:22, 7 November 2021 (UTC)Liu Wei

It can be divided into four stages: in the first stage, Cheng Weiyuan collected all kinds of transcripts of ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' (including the manuscripts of a sequel written by unknown authors); Secondly, Gao E continued the last 40 chapters and made a lot of revisions to the first 80 ones (Cheng Weiyuan may also had participated in the revision work); thirdly, another 120 copies were printed and published by Cheng Weiyuan in movable type in the 56th year under the reign of the emperor Qianlong (AD 1791), which were later named "Cheng Jia (the first) Editions" by Hu Shi; Lastly, in the following year, Gao E and Cheng Weiyuan revised and republished the "Cheng Jia Edition", which was later named "Cheng Yi (the second) Edition" by Hu Shi. It is said that there was also "Cheng Bing (the third) Edition", which now has no whereabouts. According to someone who had once read it, compared with "Cheng Yi Edition", there were so few changes that it could be set aside.--[[User:Liu Xiao|Liu Xiao]] ([[User talk:Liu Xiao|talk]]) 15:11, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

==刘晓 Liú Xiǎo 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081508==
其四是《红楼梦》刊本的流传阶段。此段从程伟元的活字本问世开始，直到现在。在刊本出现后，虽然由于某些人的爱好或习惯，仍有抄本流传，但已是强弩之末，不成气候，而刊本的流传却如燎原之势，席卷全国。

The fourth period is the circulation of the printed versions of ''a Dream of Red Mansions''. This stage has been going on since Cheng Weiyuan's movable printed editions were published. After these versions appeared, though transcripts were still spreading due to some people's hobbies or habits, it was like a spent arrow and no longer had great influence, while the printed versions spread and swept like fire through the country.--[[User:Liu Xiao|Liu Xiao]] ([[User talk:Liu Xiao|talk]]) 14:22, 6 November 2021 (UTC)

The fourth period is the circulation of the printed versions of ''a Dream of Red Mansions''. This stage start from cheng Weiyuan's movable type book came out and until now. After the publication appeared, although due to some people's hobbies or habits, it was like a spent arrow and no longer had great influence, while the printed versions spread and swept like fire through the country.--[[User:Liu Yue|Liu Yue]] ([[User talk:Liu Yue|talk]]) 07:00, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

==刘越 Liú Yuè 亚非语言文学女 202120081509==
《红楼梦》如此特殊的创作和流传过程，导致了《红楼梦》的“三多”现象：版本多，异文多，讹误多。幸运的是，近几十年来，这些版本不仅不断被发现，而且陆续被影印出版，从而使我们得以大饱眼福。仅就我个人视野所及，即有十二种版本，而且五花八门：或名《石头记》(5种)，或名《红楼梦》(7种)；或为抄本(10种)，或为刊本(2种)；或为八十回系统(8种，其中6种为残本)，或为一百二十回系统(4种)。

The special creation and dissemination process of A Dream of Red Mansions leads to the phenomenon of "three many" : many versions, many different texts and many errors. Fortunately, in recent decades, these editions have not only been discovered, but photocopied and published, so that we can feast our eyes on them. As far as I can see, there are twelve versions, and they are diverse，named as "The Story of the Stone" (five versions) or "A Dream of Red Mansions" (seven versions). Some are codex (10 kinds) and some are periodical (2 kinds); Some are 80 chapter system (8 types, 6 of which are incomplete) and some are 120 chapter system (4 types).--[[User:Liu Yue|Liu Yue]] ([[User talk:Liu Yue|talk]]) 06:53, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

The special creation and dissemination process of ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' led to a phenomenon called "three many": many editions, many variants and many errors. Fortunately, in recent decades, these editions have not only been discovered, but successively photocopied and published, which greatly regale us. As far as I know, there are twelve editions in great diversity. Some are titled ''The Story of the Stone'' (five editions), or ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' (seven editions); some are hand-copied (10 editions), while some printed (8 including 6 incomplete editions); some are composed of 80 chapters, while some others 120 chapters.--[[User:Liu Yunxin|Liu Yunxin]] ([[User talk:Liu Yunxin|talk]]) 13:17, 13 November 2021 (UTC)

==刘运心 Liú Yùnxīn 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081510==
《红楼梦》的众多版本，对于研究者是极有价值的，它们可以帮助研究者分析《红楼梦》的创作过程和流传过程，并进行比较研究。但对于普通读者来说，如此眼花缭乱的版本，犹如坠入五里雾中，使他们无从选择。因此《红楼梦》的研究者有义务为他们提供一个最好的版本。

The various versions of ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' have enormous value to researchers. They can be helpful to researchers in analyzing the processes of creation and dissemination, and facilitating comparative studies. However, for common readers, such a dazzling array of versions might leave them with a foggy head and unable to decide. Therefore, researchers are obliged to offer the best version. --[[User:Liu Yunxin|Liu Yunxin]] ([[User talk:Liu Yunxin|talk]]) 06:09, 10 November 2021 (UTC)
The various versions of ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' are valuable to researchers, which can helpful to them in analyzing the processes of creation and dissemination of the book, as well as working on comparative studies. However, it would be confusing and indeterminable for the general readers when facing with such a dazzling array of versions. It’ s therefore incumbent upon researchers to offer the best version.
--[[User:Luo Anyi|Luo Anyi]] ([[User talk:Luo Anyi|talk]]) 14:32, 14 November 2021 (UTC)

==罗安怡 Luó Ānyí 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081511==
况且为了很好地保存这笔珍贵的文化遗产，也必须确立一种《红楼梦》的最好版本。那么哪一种版本是《红楼梦》的最好版本呢？答案就是“程乙本”。鉴于至今仍有“红学家”对高鹗续写的《红楼梦》后四十回既持否定态度，又在出版《红楼梦》时不得不用它与曹雪芹的前八十回相配为完整的一百二十回本，我在这里必须首先对高续后四十回的价值略作说明。

Moreover, in order to preserve this precious cultural heritage, it is also necessary to establish the best version of ''Dream of the Red Chamber''. So which is the best version? The answer is "Cheng Yi Ben". Since, when publishing ''Dream of the Red Chamber'', there are still "Redologists" who have a negative attitude towards Gao E 's subsequent writing of the later forty chapters of ''Dream of the Red Chamber'', and who had to use Gao‘ s creation in conjunction with Cao Xueqin's first eighty chapters as the complete one—hundred and twenty chapters, I must first give a brief explanation of the value of Gao's continuation of the later forty chapters.--[[User:Luo Anyi|Luo Anyi]] ([[User talk:Luo Anyi|talk]]) 07:18, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

Moreover，it is also necessary to establish the best version of ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' to preserve this precious cultural heritage.So which one is the best version of it？The answer is "Cheng Yi Ben".Since there is still opposition against the forty chapters wrote by Gao E，the “master of the Dream of the Red Chamber，while it is a must to combine them and the eighty chapters wrote by Cao Xueqin to form an integral book which has one hundred and twenty chapters，I must briefly introduce the value of the forty chapters wrote by Gao E--[[User:Luo Xi|Luo Xi]] ([[User talk:Luo Xi|talk]]) 08:46, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

==罗曦 Luó Xī 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081512==
率先冲破评点派和索隐派而从中国小说发展史的角度客观评价高鹗续书的是胡适先生。他在1921年11月12日定稿的《〈红楼梦〉考证》（见1923年亚东图书馆版《胡适文存》）中说：我们平心而论，高鹗补的四十回，虽然比不上前八十回，也确然有不可埋没的好处。他写司棋之死，写鸳鸯之死，写妙玉的遭遇，写凤姐的死，写袭人的嫁，都是很有精采的小品文字。
The man who first transcend the groups of criticizing and objectively comment the continuation of Gao E from the perspective of the history of the development of Chinese novels is Hu Shi.He said in his 《Test of the Dream of the red mansions》finalised in 1921，12th November that：“To be honest，Gao E’s supplementary forty chapters，though not comparable to the original eighty chapters，still boast their own outstanding merits.For instance，he wrote the death of Si Qi，of Yuan Yang，of Feng Jie，the encounter of Miao Yu and the marriage of Xi Ren，are all excellent facetious words.--[[User:Luo Xi|Luo Xi]] ([[User talk:Luo Xi|talk]]) 12:08, 9 November 2021 (UTC)

It was Mr. Hu Shi who firstly made a breakthrough between “Pingdian Group” and “Suoying Group” and objectively evaluated Gao E’s continuation from the perspective of Chinese novel’s history. In ''A Textual Research on A Dream of Red Mansions'' finalized on November 12, 1921 (''Hu Shi’s Article Archive'', Yadong Library Edition, 1923), he said, “To be fair, the following forty episodes written by Gao E certainly have undeniable charm although not as good as the previous eighty. He ended Siqi’s life with death, wrote about the death of Yuanyang, the suffering of Miaoyu, Sister Feng’s demise and the marriage of Xiren, all of which are really brilliant sketches. --[[User:Ma Xin|Ma Xin]] ([[User talk:Ma Xin|talk]]) 06:31, 12 November 2021 (UTC)

==马新 Mǎ Xīn 外国语言学及应用语言学女 202120081513==
最可注意的是这些人都写作悲剧的下场。还有那最重要的“木石前盟”一件公案，高鹗居然忍心害理的教黛玉病死，教宝玉出家，作一个大悲剧的结束，打破了中国小说的团圆迷信。这一点悲剧的眼光，不能不令人佩服。

It is noteworthy that all these people wrote about tragic endings, expecially th most important case of " Wood and Stone's Previous Oath". In the novel, Gao E auturally had the heart to leave Daiyu to die of illness and Baoyu to become a monk. He made it ended up as a great tragedy and broke the routine of "reunion superstition" in traditional Chinese novels, which could not be more admirable from the tragic perspective.--[[User:Ma Xin|Ma Xin]] ([[User talk:Ma Xin|talk]]) 05:00, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

It is most noteworthy that all these characters are created with tragic endings. And as regards the most important case --- "The Pledge in front of Wood and Stone", in the novel, the author Gao E actually ended Daiyu's life with death resulting from illness and left Baoyu (Precious Jade Merchant) to become a monk. Gao E finished ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' with a tragical epilogue so as to break the superstition that Chinese novels routinely end in happy reunion. In this sense, Gao E's tragic perspective deserves admiration and praise.--[[User:Mao Yawen|Mao Yawen]] ([[User talk:Mao Yawen|talk]]) 08:09, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

==毛雅文 Máo Yǎwén 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081514==
我们试看高鹗以后，那许多续《红楼梦》和补《红楼梦》的人，那一个不是想把黛玉、晴雯都从棺材里扶出来，重新配给宝玉？那一个不是想做一部“团圆”的《红楼梦》的？我们这里退一步想，就不能不佩服高鹗的补本了。我们不但佩服，还应该感谢他，因为他这部悲剧的补本……居然打倒了后来无数的团圆《红楼梦》，居然替中国保存了一部有悲剧下场的小说！

As we can see, after Gao E finished ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' (which was left unfinished by the previous author Cao Xueqin), many of those who wrote this work continually or supplementarily were all eager to save Lin Daiyu and Qing Wen (or Sunny Cloud Formation), who died and lay in coffin, and then to betroth them to Jia Baoyu (or Precious Jade Merchant). And these writers all had the desire to end the story in a warm reunion. On second thought, we cannot but have a high opinion of Gao E's supplementary version ''A Dream of Red Mansions''. Arguably, not only should we admire but show gratitude for him, on the grounds that, his edition packed with tragic color is unexpectedly more laudatory than those with happy endings, actually preserving a novel with the tragical epilogue in China.--[[User:Mao Yawen|Mao Yawen]] ([[User talk:Mao Yawen|talk]]) 07:35, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

As we can see, after Gao E finished ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' (which was left unfinished by the previous author Cao Xueqin), many of those who wrote this work continually or supplementarily were all eager to save Lin Daiyu and Qing Wen (or Sunny Cloud Formation), who died and lay in coffin, and then to betroth them to Jia Baoyu (or Precious Jade Merchant). Which writer did not want to create "A Dream of the Red mansion" with a reunion ending? On second thought, we cannot but have a high opinion of Gao E's supplementary version ''A Dream of Red Mansions''. Arguably, not only should we admire but show gratitude for him, on the grounds that, his edition packed with tragic color is unexpectedly more laudatory than those with happy endings, actually preserving a novel with the tragical epilogue in China.--[[User:Mao You|Mao You]] ([[User talk:Mao You|talk]]) 12:33, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

==毛优 Máo Yōu 俄语语言文学女 202120081515==
几乎与胡适同时，俞平伯先生也对高鹗的续书予以专章论述。他在1923年亚东图书馆出版的《红楼梦辨·论续书底不可能》中说：从高鹗以下，百馀年来，续《红楼梦》的人如此之多，但都是失败的……我以为凡书都不能续，不但《红楼梦》不能续；凡续书的人都失败，不但高鹗诸人失败而已。
Almost at the same time as Hu Shi, Mr. Yu Pingbo also devoted a chapter to the continuation of Gao E's book. He said in the "A Dream of the Red Mansion - the impossibility of the continuation of the book" published by the Yadong Library in 1923: From Gao E down, more than a hundred years, so many people have renewed the "A Dream of the Red Mansion", but they all failed ...... I think all books can not be renewed, not only the "A Dream of the Red Mansion" can not be renewed; all the people who renewed the book failed, not only Gao E and others failed.--[[User:Mao You|Mao You]] ([[User talk:Mao You|talk]]) 12:27, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

Almost at the same time as Hu Shi, Mr. Yu Pingbo also devoted a comment chapter to the continuation of Gao E. He said in the "A Dream of the Red Mansion - the impossibility of the continuation of the book" published by the Yadong Library in 1923: Since Gao E, more than a hundred years, so many people have renewed the "A Dream of the Red Mansion", but they all failed ... I think all books can not be renewed, not only the "A Dream of the Red Mansion" is in the case; all the people who renewed books failed, not only Gao E and others did.--[[User:Mou Yixin|Mou Yixin]] ([[User talk:Mou Yixin|talk]]) 01:43, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

==牟一心 Móu Yīxīn 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081516==
因此他的结论是：高鹗诸人续写的《红楼梦》都是“狗尾续貂”。俞先生“凡书都不能续”、“凡续书的人都失败”的说法未免武断，至少措辞不够严谨。事实上，成功的续书并非没有，只是不多。

Therefore, his conclusion is: The continuations of "The Dream of Red Mansions" written by the Gao E and others are all "wretched sequels to a masterpiece." Mr. Yu’s statement that “every book cannot be continued” and “everyone who renews a book fails” is a bit too arbitrary, at least the wording is not rigorous enough. In fact, successful continuations do exist, but are not substantial.--[[User:Mou Yixin|Mou Yixin]] ([[User talk:Mou Yixin|talk]]) 01:29, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

He therefore concludes that the sequels to Dream of the Red Chamber written by the Gao Ospreys are all "dog tails on a marten", which means a wretched sequels to a masterpiece. Mr. Yu's statement that "all books cannot be renewed" and "all those who renew books will fail" is arbitrary, or at least not carefully worded. In fact, successful continuations do exist, but are not substantial.--[[User:Peng Ruixue|Peng Ruixue]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruixue|talk]]) 23:35, 9 November 2021 (UTC)

==彭瑞雪 Péng Ruìxuě 法语语言文学女 202120081517==
且不说成功的学术著作不乏范例，就是小说作品的续书也有成功的。譬如清代陈忱的《水浒后传》、近代吴趼人的《新石头记》，就都是别开生面之作。不过俞先生毕竟是严肃的学者，尽管他对高鹗的续书很不满意，却对高鹗的功绩予以肯定。

Not to mention that there is no shortage of examples of successful scholarly works, there are also successful sequels to works of fiction. For example, Chen Chen's ''The Afterlife of Water Margin'' in the Qing dynasty and Wu Jianren's ''The New Story of the Stone'' in the modern era are both original works. But Mr. Yu, after all, was a serious scholar, and although he was dissatisfied with Gao E's sequel, he acknowledged Gao's merits.--[[User:Peng Ruixue|Peng Ruixue]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruixue|talk]]) 23:25, 9 November 2021 (UTC)

Not to mention that there is no shortage of successful examples of scholarly works, there are also successes in sequels to works of fiction. For example, Chen Chen's ''The Afterlife of Water Margin'' in the Qing dynasty and Wu Jianren's ''The New Story of the Stone'' in the modern era are both original works in new forms. But Mr. Yu, after all, was a serious scholar, and although he was dissatisfied with Gao E's sequel, he acknowledged Gao's merits.--[[User:Qing Jianan|Qing Jianan]] ([[User talk:Qing Jianan|talk]]) 09:06, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

==秦建安 Qín Jiànān 外国语言学及应用语言学女 202120081518==
他在《红楼梦辨·后四十回底批评》中说：高鹗以审慎的心思，正当的态度来续《红楼梦》；他宁可失之于拘泥，不敢失之于杜撰。其所以失败：一则因《红楼梦》本非可以续补的书，二则因高鹗与曹雪芹个性相差太远，便不自觉地相违远了。处处去追寻作者，而始终赶他不上，以致迷途；这是他失败时底光景。

He said in the ''Defense of The Dream of Red Mansion: the criticism of the last forty chapters'': “GaoE continued writing The Dream of Red Mansion with his prudent intention and serious attitude; He would rather make it up than adhere to it. There are two reasons for the failure of his version. The first is that the book itself is not a book that can be continued writing. The other is GaoE’ s character is different far from Cao Xueqin’sw which naturally lead to his misconception about this book. He tried his best to catch the main points of Cao Xueqin whereas he even couldn’t see the back of Cao Xueqin resulting in the wrong path. This is his background of failure.--[[User:Qing Jianan|Qing Jianan]] ([[User talk:Qing Jianan|talk]]) 08:11, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

He said in the '' Defense of A Dream of Red Mansions: the criticism of the last forty chapters '': “Gao E continued writing '' A Dream of Red Mansions '' with his prudent intention and serious attitude; He would rather rigidly adhere to the content than fabricate some details. There are two reasons for the failure of his version. The first is that this novel itself is not the one that can be continued writing. The other is that Gao E’ s character is different far from Cao Xueqin’s which naturally lead to very distinct characteristics in this novel. He tried his best to catch the main points of Cao Xueqin whereas he even couldn’t see the back of Cao Xueqin resulting in the wrong path. This is the reason of his failure.--[[User:Qiu Tingting|Qiu Tingting]] ([[User talk:Qiu Tingting|talk]]) 13:28, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

==邱婷婷 Qiū Tíngtíng 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081519==
至于混四十回于八十回中，就事论事，是一种过失；就效用影响而论，是一种功德；混合而论是功多罪少。“失败了，光荣地失败了！”是我对于高鹗底赞扬和指斥。俞先生在晚年对高鹗的续书给予更多的肯定，认为高鹗的续书使残缺的《红楼梦》成为完璧，是一大功劳。

As for adding forty chapters to the original eighty chapters, sticking to the facts, it is actually a demerit. However, it can be a kind of merits and virtues in terms of utility effect. With regarding to several aspects, and his merits can more than wipe out his faults. “Failed, gloriously failed!”It's my praise and rebuke to Gao E. In the later years of Mr. Yu, he gave more recognition to Gao E’sequel, believing that Gao E’ sequel made the fragmentary ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' a complete story which was a great credit.--[[User:Qiu Tingting|Qiu Tingting]] ([[User talk:Qiu Tingting|talk]]) 13:25, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

As for mixing the forty chapters to the original eighty chapters, actually it is a kind of negligence in terms of facts; in terms of effectiveness and influence, it is a kind of merit; in terms of mixing, it is more meritorious and less sinful. "Failed, failed gloriously!" I praised and reprimanded Gao E. In his later years, Mr. Yu gave more affirmation to Gao E’s sequel, and believed that Gao E’ s sequel made the incomplete ''Dream of Red Mansions'' a great achievement.--[[User:Rao Jinying|Rao Jinying]] ([[User talk:Rao Jinying|talk]]) 05:16, 12 November 2021 (UTC)

==饶金盈 Ráo Jīnyíng 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081520==
鲁迅先生也对高鹗的续书予以肯定，只是对书末贾府的“复振”表示遗憾。他在《中国小说史略》（1923、1924年由北京大学新潮社分上下册出版，1925年由北京北新书局合为一册出版）第二十四篇中说：后四十回虽数量止初本之半，而大故迭起，破败死亡相继，与所谓“食尽鸟飞独存白地”者颇符，惟结束又复振。

Lu Xun also gave a approval to the sequel of the book by Gao E, but regretted the “revitalization” part of Merchant’s mansion at the end of the book. He claimed in Chapter 24 of ''Chinese Novel Outline History''(In 1923 and 1924, published in two volumes by the New Trend Union of Peking University, and in 1925, published in one volume by Beixin Publishing House in Beijing) that although the latter forty chapters is only half of the original version in quantity, there are great changes, ups and downs, and dilapidated deaths one after another, which is very consistent with the so-called “eating all birds and flying alone in the white land”, but it ends and vibrates again.
--[[User:Rao Jinying|Rao Jinying]] ([[User talk:Rao Jinying|talk]]) 09:14, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

Lu Xun also affirmed Gao E’s sequel, and just expressed regret for the “revitalization” of Merchant Mansion at the end of the book. He claimed in chapter 24 of Chinese Novel Outline History(In 1923 and 1924, published in two volumes by the New Trend Union of Peking University, and in 1925, published in one volume by Beixin Publishing House in Beijing) that although the last forty chapters are only half of the original version in quantity, events occurred constantly and loss and death were in succession, which was quite consistent with the statement “birds ate and flew, then left the bleak place”. But it was a pity that the sequel ended in revitalization. --[[User:Shi Liqing|Shi Liqing]] ([[User talk:Shi Liqing|talk]]) 00:58, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

==石丽青 Shí Lìqīng 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081521==
以上三位权威学者对高鹗续书的评价不尽相同，但有两点共识：高鹗的后四十回逊于曹雪芹的前八十回，但他完成了曹雪芹的未竟之业，使残缺的《红楼梦》成为完璧；尤其打破了中国传统小说的“团圆迷信”，使《红楼梦》成为中国小说史上首部悲剧小说，这在中国小说发展史上是一个伟大创举。我认为三位先生的这两点共识是客观公正的，是高见卓识。

The above three authoritative scholars hold various comments on Gao E’s sequel, sharing two points of consensus. One the one hand, Gao E’s last forty chapters are inferior to Cao Xueqin’s first eighty counterparts, but he has completed Cao’s unfinished work, rendering A Dream in Red Mansions perfect. On the other hand, in particular, Gao E breaks the routine of “reunion superstition”in traditional Chinese novels and makes A Dream in Red Mansions the first tragic writing in the past records of Chinese novels, which is a great pioneering work in the history of Chinese novel development. As far as I am concerned, these two points proposed by the three respected scholars are objective, fair and insightful. --[[User:Shi Liqing|Shi Liqing]] ([[User talk:Shi Liqing|talk]]) 14:23, 6 November 2021 (UTC)

The above three authoritative scholars hold various comments on Gao E’s sequel, but sharing two points of consensus. One the one hand, Gao E’s last forty chapters are inferior to Cao Xueqin’s first eighty counterparts, but he has completed Cao’s unfinished work, rendering the incomplete ''A Dream in Red Mansions'' complete. On the other hand, in particular, Gao E breaks the routine of “reunion superstition”in traditional Chinese novels and makes ''A Dream in Red Mansions'' become the first tragic writing in the past records of Chinese novels, which is a great pioneering work in the history of Chinese novel development. As far as I am concerned, these two points proposed by the three respected scholars are objective, fair and insightful.--[[User:Sun Yashi|Sun Yashi]] ([[User talk:Sun Yashi|talk]]) 06:49, 9 November 2021 (UTC)

==孙雅诗 Sūn Yǎshī 外国语言学及应用语言学女 202120081522==
晚近的某些“新红学家”尽管对高鹗大加挞伐，却无法推翻三位先生的这两点共识；最多只能进一步证明高鹗的续书比不上曹雪芹的原作，而不能抹煞高鹗续书的这两大功绩。我们可以设想，如果没有高鹗的续书，只能有两种结果：一是我们只能看到一部残缺不全的《红楼梦》，犹如只能欣赏一只断尾巴的孔雀；二是我们只能看到《红楼复梦》、《红楼圆梦》之类下三流续作，使《红楼梦》跳不出“团圆”小说的窠臼。

Although some recent "new Redologists" criticized Gao E drastically, they could not overturn the consensus of the three gentlemen; at most, they could only further prove that Gao E's sequel is not comparable to Cao Xueqin's original, rather than erase the two achievements of Gao E's renewal. We can imagine that if we have no Gao E's sequel, there can only be two results: one is that we can only see an incomplete ''A Dream of Red Mansions'', like only enjoying a peacock with a broken tail, the other is that we can only see ''A Dream of Red Mansions Again'', ''A Dream of Red Mansions Reunion'' and other renewals that are third-classs, which makes ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' cannot jump out of the mold of "reunion" novel.--[[User:Sun Yashi|Sun Yashi]] ([[User talk:Sun Yashi|talk]]) 06:45, 9 November 2021 (UTC)
--[[User:Mahzad Heydarian|Mahzad Heydarian]] ([[User talk:Mahzad Heydarian|talk]]) 16:25, 9 November 2021 (UTC)

Although some recent “new Redologists” criticized Gao E drastically, they could not overturn the two consensuses of the three gentlemen; they could only further prove that Gao E's sequel is not comparable to Cao Xueqin's original, rather than obliterate the two achievements of Gao E's continuation. We can imagine that, without Gao E's sequel, there would be only two results: one is that we could only see an incomplete ''A Dream of Red Mansions'', as if we could only appreciate a peacock with a broken tail, the other is that we can only see such third-rate sequels like ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' Again, ''A Dream of Red Mansions Reunion'', making ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' cannot jump out of the set pattern of "reunion" novel. --[[User:Wang Lifei|Wang Lifei]] ([[User talk:Wang Lifei|talk]]) 06:17, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

==王李菲 Wáng Lǐfēi 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081523==
因此，不仅我们应该感谢高鹗，如果曹雪芹地下有知，也会视高鹗为知己。胡适等三位先生论证了高鹗的两大功绩，就等于完全肯定了完整的一百二十回的《红楼梦》。但完整的《红楼梦》有两种版本，即“程甲本”和“程乙本”，两者的出版时间仅隔一年左右。

Therefore, not only should we be grateful to Gao E, if Cao Xueqin was alive and knew about it, he would also regard Gao E as a confidant. Hu Shi and other three gentlemen demonstrated Gao E’s three achievements, which was equivalent to confirming the complete 120 chapters of a Dream of Red Mansions. However, there are two versions of the complete work, namely the “Cheng A edition” and “Cheng B edition”, whose publishing interval was only about one year. --[[User:Wang Lifei|Wang Lifei]] ([[User talk:Wang Lifei|talk]]) 15:35, 6 November 2021 (UTC)

Hu Shi and other three gentlemen demonstrated gao e's two great achievements, which is equivalent to confirming the complete 120 chapters of a Dream of Red Mansions. However, there are two versions of the complete work, namely the "Cheng Jiabo edition" and "Cheng Yibo edition", which were published only about a year apart.--[[User:Wang Yifan21|Wang Yifan21]] ([[User talk:Wang Yifan21|talk]]) 05:17, 12 November 2021 (UTC)

==王逸凡 Wáng Yìfán 亚非语言文学女 202120081524==
这两种版本究竟哪一种更好呢？当然是“程乙本”，因为它是高鹗对“程甲本”精心修订的定稿本。程伟元和高鹗在“程乙本”《〈红楼梦〉引言》中说：因急欲公诸同好，故初印时不及细校，间有纰缪。今复聚集各原本，详加校阅，改订无讹。

Which of these two versions is better? Of course, it is "Cheng B", because it is gao e to "Cheng A" carefully revised final version. Cheng Weiyuan and Gao E said in "Cheng Yiben" "DREAM of Red Mansions" introduction: Due to the urgent desire for public relations, the initial printing was not corrected in detail, and there were mistakes. This complex gathered the original, detailed review, change without error.--[[User:Wang Yifan21|Wang Yifan21]] ([[User talk:Wang Yifan21|talk]]) 05:12, 12 November 2021 (UTC)

Which version is better? Of course, it is "Cheng Yi", because it is gao e to "Cheng Jia" carefully revised final version. Cheng Weiyuan and Gao E said in "Cheng Yi" "DREAM of Red Mansions" introduction: Due to the urgent desire for public relations, the initial printing was not corrected in detail, and there were mistakes. This complex gathered the original, detailed review, change without error.--[[User:Wang Zhenlong|Wang Zhenlong]] ([[User talk:Wang Zhenlong|talk]]) 12:36, 22 November 2021 (UTC)

==王镇隆 Wáng Zhènlóng 英语语言文学（英美文学）男 202120081525==
惟阅者谅之。这就是说，高鹗续写后四十回并修订曹雪芹的前八十回时，“因急欲公诸同好”，未能像曹雪芹那样“批阅十载，增删五次”，而是匆促而成，在排印过程中又没有仔细校对，以致“纰缪”难免，因而立即加以修订再版，从而产生了“程乙本”。可见“程乙本”是对“程甲本”的“纰缪”加以修订的本子，自然胜于“程甲本”了。

Only those who read it will forgive it. That is to say, when Gao E continued to write the last 40 chapters and revised Cao Xueqin's first 80 chapters, "because he was anxious to be good to the public", he failed to "review for ten years, add and delete five times" as Cao Xueqin did.Hurriedly,he did not proofread carefully in the process of typesetting, so that "mistakes" were inevitable.Therefore, he immediately revised and reprinted it, resulting in "the version of Cheng Yi". It can be seen that "the version of Cheng Yi" is a book to revise the "mistakes" of "the version of Cheng Jia", which is naturally better than "the version of Cheng Jia".--[[User:Wang Zhenlong|Wang Zhenlong]] ([[User talk:Wang Zhenlong|talk]]) 02:57, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

Only readers will forgive it. That is to say, when Gao E continued to write the last 40 chapters and revised Cao Xueqin's first 80 chapters, he was anxious to share it with the public, so he failed to review for ten years, add and delete five times as Cao Xueqin did.He hurried to finish it, not proofreading carefully in the process of typesetting, so mistakes were inevitable. Therefore, \ he immediately revised and reprinted another verison, resulting in appearing "Cheng Yi (the second) Edition". It can be seen that " Cheng Yi" is a book to revise the "mistakes" of "Cheng Jia (the first) Edition", which is naturally better than "Cheng Jia".--[[User:Wei Yiwen|Wei Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Wei Yiwen|talk]]) 07:43, 13 November 2021 (UTC)

==卫怡雯 Wèi Yíwén 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081526==
然而由于出版商不加细较，以为初刊本更为可靠，以致在相当一段时间内，翻印的“程甲本”曾大行其道。直到1927年，胡适先生因亚东图书馆老板汪元放先生点校并出版过“程甲本”，便将自己珍藏的“程乙本”推荐给汪先生。汪先生便将“程乙本”与“程甲本”加以仔细对勘，并加上新式标点，予以出版。

However, the publisher did not go into details, and believed that the first edition was more reliable. So in a fairly long period, the translated and printed “Cheng Jia (the first) Edition” became popular. Until 1927, Mr. Hushi recommended his treasured collection of “Cheng Yi (the second) Edition” to the owner of Yadong Library, Mr. Wang Yuanfang after he heard that Mr. Wang had punctuated, proofead and published“Cheng Jia (the first) Edition”. Then Mr. Wang checked against another between “Cheng Jia” and “Cheng Yi” , added the new punctuation and published it.--[[User:Wei Yiwen|Wei Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Wei Yiwen|talk]]) 03:17, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

However, the publisher did not proofread carefully and believed that the first edition was more reliable. So in a fairly long period, the printed “Chengjia Edition” became popular. Until 1927, Mr. Hushi recommended his treasured collection of “Chengyi Edition” to Mr. Wang Yuanfang who was the owner of Yadong Library because Mr. Wang once proofread and published “Chengjia Edition”. Then Mr. Wang contrasted “Chengjia Edition” with “Chengyi Edition” in detail and decided to add the new-style punctuations to the latter and publish it.--[[User:Wei Chuxuan|Wei Chuxuan]] ([[User talk:Wei Chuxuan|talk]]) 11:00, 12 November 2021 (UTC)

==魏楚璇 Wèi Chǔxuán 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081527==
胡适先生并为该书写了《重印乾隆壬子本〈红楼梦〉序》。他在《序》文中说：现在印出的程乙本，就是那“聚集各原本，详加校阅，改订无讹”的本子，可说是高鹗、程伟元合刻的定本。这个改本有许多改订修正之处，胜于程甲本。

Mr.Hushi wrote "A Preface for the Re-printed Qianlong Renzi Edition of ''A Dream in Red Mansions''" for this book. In the preface, he said that the newly-printed Chengyi edition which was revised carefully by referring to all kinds of original editions to make sure no incorrect information in it, was the final edition made by Gao E and Cheng Weiyuan. This edition had many corrections so it was better than the Chengjia edition. --[[User:Wei Chuxuan|Wei Chuxuan]] ([[User talk:Wei Chuxuan|talk]]) 08:47, 11 November 2021 (UTC)

Mr.Hushi has written ''A Preface for the Re-printed Qianlong Renzi Version of "''A Dream in Red Mansions''"'' for this book. In this preface, he said that the current printed Chengyi edition was the final edition made by Gao E and Cheng Weiyuan which was revised carefully by gathering all kinds of original editions to make sure no incorrect information was in it. This edition had many corrections so it was much better than the Chengjia edition.--[[User:Wei Zhaoyan|Wei Zhaoyan]] ([[User talk:Wei Zhaoyan|talk]]) 06:58, 23 November 2021 (UTC)

==魏兆妍 Wèi Zhàoyán 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081528==
但这个本子发行在后，程甲本已有人翻刻了；初本的一些矛盾错误仍旧留在现行各本里，虽经各家批注里指出，终没有人敢改正。胡适先生并举了三个例子，以证明“程乙本”胜于“程甲本”。由此可知，胡适先生不仅是第一个发现并公开指出“程乙本”胜于“程甲本”的人，而且推荐并贡献出了自己珍藏的“程乙本”初刊本，为“程乙本”后来的广泛流行起了决定性的作用。

But after the release of this edition, Cheng Jia edition has already been reprinted. Some contradictions and errors from the original edition still remained in the current edition. Although many literary masters has pointed out these mistakes in their annotations, no one eventually dared to correct them. And Mr. Hu Shi gave three examples to prove that Cheng Yi edition was better than Cheng Jia edition. So it can be seen that he was not only the first to discover and publicly pointed out this, but also recommended and contributed the original Cheng Yi edition of his own treasure, which played a decisive role in the wide popularity of this edition.--[[User:Wei Zhaoyan|Wei Zhaoyan]] ([[User talk:Wei Zhaoyan|talk]]) 00:55, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

But after the release of this edition, Cheng Jia edition has already been reprinted. Some contradictions and errors of the original edition still remained in the current edition. Although many literary masters had pointed out these mistakes in their annotations, but no one eventually dared to correct them. And Mr. Hu Shi gave three examples to prove that Cheng Yi edition was better than Cheng Jia edition. So it can be seen that he was not only the first to discover and publicly pointed out this, but also recommended and contributed the original Cheng Yi edition of his own treasure, and that played a decisive role in the wide popularity of its edition.--[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 06:19, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

==吴婧悦 Wú Jìngyuè 俄语语言文学女 202120081529==
汪原放先生也没有辜负胡适先生的重托，不仅出版了“程乙本”，而且对两个“程本”加以仔细对勘，并用增删改动文字的统计数字与具体例子（详见下文），进一步证明了“程乙本”优于“程甲本”。由于胡适先生的学术威望和汪原放先生点校的“程乙本”面世，尤其是“程乙本”确实胜于“程甲本”，故此后书商大多舍弃了“程甲本”，竞相刊印“程乙本”，“程乙本”几乎一统天下。这种局面一直持续到上世纪五六十年代。

Mr.Wang Yuanfang also lived up to the great trust of Mr.Hu Shi. He not only published "Cheng Yiben", but also carefully surveyed the two "Cheng Yiben", and changed the statistics and specific examples (see below for details), further proving that "Cheng Yiben" was better than "Cheng Jiaben". Because Mr.Hu Shi's academic prestige and Mr.Wang Yuanfang's "Cheng Yiben" were published, especially "Cheng Yiben" was indeed better than "Cheng Jiaben", so most booksellers abandoned "Cheng Jiaben" and competed to print "Cheng Yiben", " Cheng Yiben " almost unified the whole world. The situation has been continuing until the 1950s and 1960s.--[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 14:48, 6 November 2021 (UTC)
Mr. Wang Yuanfang also lived up to Mr. Hu Shi's great trust. He not only published "Cheng Yi Ben", but also carefully surveyed the two "Cheng Ben", and further proved that "Cheng Yi Ben" was better than "Cheng Jia Ben" with statistics and specific examples of adding, deleting and changing words (see below for details). Due to the academic prestige of Mr. Hu Shi and the appearance of "Cheng Yi Ben" ordered by Mr. Wang Yuanfang, especially "Cheng Yi Ben" is indeed better than "Cheng Jia Ben", most booksellers abandoned "Cheng Jia Ben" and competed to publish "Cheng Yi Ben" and "Cheng Yi Ben" almost dominates the world. This situation lasted until the 1950s and 1960s.--[[User:Wu Yinghong|Wu Yinghong]] ([[User talk:Wu Yinghong|talk]]) 13:31, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

==吴映红 Wú Yìnghóng 日语语言文学女 202120081530==
然而到了八十年代以后，“程乙本”一统天下的局面却被打破了，各种版本的《红楼梦》纷纷涌现，其中多为拼凑本，即前八十回采用抄本，后四十回则多采用高鹗作废了的“程甲本”，从而造成了《红楼梦》版本的混乱现象。这种混乱现象使本来已经解决了的《红楼梦》版本问题又重新出现纷争，也使普通读者陷入了不知如何选择《红楼梦》的境地。
However, after the 1980s, the situation of "Cheng Yi Ben" dominating the world was broken, and various versions of a dream of Red Mansions emerged one after another, most of which were piecemeal copies, that is, the transcripts of the first 80 chapters were used, and the "Cheng Jia Ben" cancelled by Gao e was used in the last 40 chapters, resulting in the confusion of the version of a dream of Red Mansions. This chaotic phenomenon makes the original version of a dream of Red Mansions once again controversial, and makes ordinary readers fall into the situation of not knowing how to choose a dream of Red Mansions.

However, after the 1980s, the dominating situation of "Cheng Yi version"was broken, and various versions of The Dream of Red Mansions emerged one after another, most of which were cobbled together, where the first eighty editions used the codified version, while the last forty editions mostly used Gao E's cancelled Cheng Jia version, thus causing confusion in the version of a Dream of Red Mansions.This kind of confusion makes the issue of the edition of a Dream of Red Mansions reappear, and also makes ordinary readers have no idea how to choose a Dream of Red Mansions.--[[User:Xiao Yiyao|Xiao Yiyao]] ([[User talk:Xiao Yiyao|talk]]) 06:27, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

==肖毅瑶 Xiāo Yìyáo 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081531==
钱锺书先生虽然不研究《红楼梦》，但对《红楼梦》版本的混乱现象却很不以为然。他在上世纪九十年代说过（大意）：《红楼梦》研究中的许多纠葛与纷争，大多源于版本问题。在同一问题上，张三根据这个版本，李四根据那个版本，公说公有理，婆说婆有理，一万年也说不清，实在无谓得很。

Although Qian zhongshu never study ''The Dream of Red Mansions'', he considers that the phenomenon of mess versions does not really matter.In the 1990s, he said that (roughly meaning)most of the disputes in the study of ''The Dream of Red Mansions'' resulted from the issue of versions. On the same issue, different people refer to different versions for their so-called reasonable purpose.Thus, the disputes can never be settled. And such a phenomenon is really meaningless.--[[User:Xiao Yiyao|Xiao Yiyao]] ([[User talk:Xiao Yiyao|talk]]) 06:23, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

Although Qian zhongshu never study ''The Dream of Red Mansions'', he considered disapprovingly that the phenomenon of chaos versions does not really matter.In the 1990s, he said that (a rough meaning)most of the disputes in the study of ''The Dream of Red Mansions'' resulted from the issue of versions. On the same issue, different people refer to different versions for their so-called reasonable purpose.Thus, the disputes can never be settled. And such a phenomenon is really meaningless.--[[User:Xie Jiafen|Xie Jiafen]] ([[User talk:Xie Jiafen|talk]]) 06:47, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

==谢佳芬 Xiè Jiāfēn 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081532==
这是《红楼梦》的悲剧，也是中国学界的悲剧。为了永久保存《红楼梦》这笔珍贵遗产，也为了给广大读者提供一个《红楼梦》的范本，必须从众多版本中确定一个最好的版本，而这个版本就是胡适先生推荐的“程乙本”。至于其他版本，则只供研究之用。

This is not only the tragedy of The Dream of the Red Chamber , but also the tragedy of Chinese academic circles. In order to permanently preserve the precious heritage of The Dream of the Red Chamber and provide readers with a model of The Dream of the Red Chamber, we must determine the best version from many versions, and this version is the "Cheng Yi version" recommended by Mr. Hu Shi. Other versions are only for research purposes only.--[[User:Xie Jiafen|Xie Jiafen]] ([[User talk:Xie Jiafen|talk]]) 14:00, 6 November 2021 (UTC)

This is not only a tragedy of Dream of the Red Chamber , but also a tragedy of Chinese academic circles. In order to permanently preserve the precious heritage of Dream of the Red Chamber and provide readers with a model of Dream of the Red Chamber, we must determine the best version from many versions, and this version is the "Cheng Yi version" recommended by Mr. Hu Shi. Other versions are only for research purposes only.--[[User:Xie Qinglin|Xie Qinglin]] ([[User talk:Xie Qinglin|talk]]) 11:15, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

==谢庆琳 Xiè Qìnglín 俄语语言文学女 202120081533==
我完全赞成以上诸位先生的看法，毋须我再费笔墨，所以我在这里只是为他们的看法提供一些实例。首先，“程乙本”的前八十回由于经过了高鹗(也许还有程伟元)的大量修订，较之诸抄本大有改观，使之更加完善。具体来说，就是对众多异文加以筛选，去除讹误，择善而从，并加以必要的补阙、修改、删节和增饰。

I totally agree with the views of the above teachers, so I don't need to say more, so I will just provide some examples for their views here. First of all, the first eighty books of "Cheng Yi version" have been revised extensively by Gao Osprey (and perhaps Cheng Wei Yuan), which is a great improvement over the codices and makes it more perfect. Specifically, it is the screening of many different texts, the removal of errors, the selection of good, and the necessary additions, modifications, abridgments and additions.--[[User:Xie Qinglin|Xie Qinglin]] ([[User talk:Xie Qinglin|talk]]) 10:56, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

I totally agree with the opinions of you all, so I don't bother to say more. So I will just provide some examples for their views here. First of all, the first eightith chapters of "Cheng Yi's version" have been revised for many times by Gao Osprey (and perhaps Cheng Wei Yuan), which is an improvement over the codices and makes it more perfect. Specifically, it made a selection from many different texts, corrected errors, selected the good, and offered the necessary additions, modifications, removal and polishment.--[[User:Xiong Min|Xiong Min]] ([[User talk:Xiong Min|talk]]) 07:28, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

==熊敏 Xióng Mǐn 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081534==
试举六例如下：例一：原作第十七、十八两回合用一套回目，第十九回没有回目。高鹗将那套合用的回目归第十七回，而为第十八、十九两回补拟了回目。例二：原作第十八回写元妃省亲回府，“只见园中香烟缭绕，花彩缤纷，处处灯光相映，时时细乐声喧，说不尽太平景象，富贵风流”，下面却接着有这样一段：此时自己回想当初在大荒山中青埂峰下，那等凄凉寂寞。

Here are six examples. Firstly, the chapter 17 and 18 of the original work shared the same title and the 19th one didn't have have any. Gao-E merged the shared one into chapter 17 and rethought a title for chapter 18 and 19. Secondly, chapter 18 in the original one showed that Yuan concubine visited relatives, as "See nothing but scent lingering, flowers blossoming, lights glistening and bustle hustleing.WHat a stable and flourish society!" Here goes another saying: at that time I recalled the time when I in the foot of Dahuangshan Mountain, and I felt so lonely.

Here are six examples. Firstly, the chapter 17 and 18 of the original work shared the same title and the 19th one didn't have any. Gao'E merged the shared one into chapter 17 and rethought a title for chapter 18 and 19. Secondly, chapter 18 in the original one showed that Yuan concubine visited relatives, as "See nothing but scent lingering, flowers blossoming, lights glistening and bustle hustleing.WHat a stable and flourish society!" Here goes another saying: at that time I recalled the time when I in the foot of Dahuangshan Mountain, and I felt so lonely.--[[User:Xu Minyun|Xu Minyun]] ([[User talk:Xu Minyun|talk]]) 09:55, 14 November 2021 (UTC)

==徐敏赟 Xú Mǐnyūn 语言智能与跨文化传播研究男 202120081535==
若不亏癞僧、跛道二人携来到此，又安能得见这般世面？本欲作一篇《灯月赋》、《省亲颂》，以志今日之事，但又恐入了别书的俗套。按此时之景，即作一赋一赞，也不能得尽其妙；即不作赋、赞，其豪华富丽，观者诸公亦可想而知矣。

If the Monk and the Taoist don't bring me here, how could I can see such elephant. I wanted to write an ''Ode to Lantern Moon'' or ''Ode to Visiting Relatives'' to commemorate today's event, but I was afraid to falling into the conventions of other books. The scene of this period, we can't get its wonderful in length even we write a praise. And if we don't write, the viewer also can imagine its luxurious richly.--[[User:Xu Minyun|Xu Minyun]] ([[User talk:Xu Minyun|talk]]) 11:26, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

If not the monk with scappy head and the lame Taoist priest bring me here, how could I can see such the world like this. I wanted to write an ''Ode to Lantern Moon'' or ''Ode to Visiting Relatives'' to commemorate today's event, but I was afraid to falling into the conventions of other books. In the scene of this period, we can't get the wonderfulness in length even we write a praise. And if we don't write, the viewer also can imagine its luxury and richness.--[[User:Yan Jing|Yan Jing]] ([[User talk:Yan Jing|talk]]) 02:18, 12 November 2021 (UTC)

==颜静 Yán Jìng 语言智能与跨文化传播研究女 202120081536==
所以倒是省了这工夫纸墨，且说正经的为是。本书前面已经交代得明明白白，大荒山青埂峰下的那块石头被一僧一道携入红尘后已幻化为口衔通灵宝玉的贾宝玉，而从这段话看，那块石头的化身却是贾元春，难道姐弟二人都是那块石头所化吗？如果说这段话的前大半截是写贾宝玉的心理活动，误安在了贾元春的头上，也还是说不通，因为不可能在描写贾元春省亲观感的文字当中无缘无故插入一段对贾宝玉的心理描写。

Therefore the time to write them is saved, and it is time to talk something serious. It has been clearly explained in the front of this book that the stone under the Loveroot Peak of the Great Wilderness Mountain has been transformed into Precious Jade Merchant with psychic jade in his mouth after being brought into the world by a monk and a Taoist priest. From this paragraph, however, the incarnation of that stone is First Spring Merchant. Are both the sister and brother transformed by that stone? If the first half of this paragraph is about Precious Jade Merchant's psychological activities, and is mistakenly thought as First Spring Merchant's, it still doesn't make sense. Because it is impossible to insert a psychological description of Precious Jade Merchant into the words describing First Spring Merchant's feelings about relatives for no reason.--[[User:Yan Jing|Yan Jing]] ([[User talk:Yan Jing|talk]]) 10:16, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

If the first half of this paragraph is about Precious Jade Merchant's psychological activities, which is mistakenly thought as First Spring Merchant's, it still doesn't make sense.
--[[User:Yan Lili|Yan Lili]] ([[User talk:Yan Lili|talk]]) 10:13, 13 November 2021 (UTC)

==颜莉莉 Yán Lìlì 国别女 202120081537==
尤为荒唐的是，从“观者诸公”以下文字，又突然变为作者的第三人称口气，更令人丈二金刚，摸不着头脑。如此语无伦次的拙劣文字，决非曹雪芹的原文，而是抄书者的误抄或窜文。“程乙本”将其全部删除，犹如割除了一个赘瘤，使行文变得合理而又通畅。

What is particularly absurd is that, from the following words "all the audience", and suddenly into the third person tone of the author,which is even more puzzling. Such incoherent poor text, not Cao Xueqin's original text, but the copy of the wrong copy or channelized text. "Cheng Yi version" deleted all of them, just like cutting out a superfluous tumor, so that the writing becomes reasonable and unobstructed.--[[User:Yan Lili|Yan Lili]] ([[User talk:Yan Lili|talk]]) 12:58, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

Such incoherent poor text, not Cao Xueqin Autor's original text, but the copy of the wrong copy or channelized text. "Cheng Yi version" deleted all of them, just like cutting out a superfluous tumor, so that the writing becomes reasonable and unobstructed.--[[User:Yan Zihan|Yan Zihan]] ([[User talk:Yan Zihan|talk]]) 14:50, 29 December 2021 (UTC)

==颜子涵 Yán Zǐhán 国别女 202120081538==
例三：原作第二十二回写荣国府作灯谜游戏，目的在于通过各人制作的灯谜，以暗示各自的性情、志向及将来结局，是全书的重要段落。大约因曹雪芹当时没有完全想好，故只写了贾母、贾政、元春、迎春、探春、惜春、宝钗的灯谜，而将宝玉、黛玉、湘云的灯谜暂缺，留待以后补写，不料曹雪芹突然去世，未及补写，致使原稿残缺。高鹗大胆地将原作宝钗的灯谜移作黛玉的灯谜，又增写了宝钗和宝玉的灯谜，我以为移得合理，增作也很精彩。

Example 3: the 22nd episode of the original work is that everyone plays lantern riddles in the Jung-guo-Anwesen ，The purpose is to hint their temperament, aspirations and future outcome through the lantern riddles made by each person，It is an important paragraph of the whole book. It may be that Cao Xueqin Autor didn't think well at that time, so he only wrote the riddles of Grandma Merchant, Master Merchant, First Spring Merchant, Spring Pleasure Merchant, Seeking-Spring Merchant, Cherishing Spring Merchant and Precious Hairpin Marshgrass, but didn't write the riddles of Precious Jade Merchant, Mascara Jade Forest and Fragrant-cloud History for the time being，and planned to fill them up later. Unexpectedly, Cao Xueqin Autor died suddenly and didn't have time to make up, resulting in the mutilation of the original. Gao E boldly changed the lantern riddle of Precious Hairpin Marshgrass into that of Mascara Jade Forest, and added the lantern riddles of Precious Hairpin Marshgrass and Precious Jade Merchant. I think this change is very reasonable and the added part is also very wonderful.--[[User:Yan Zihan|Yan Zihan]] ([[User talk:Yan Zihan|talk]]) 01:31, 12 November 2021 (UTC)

Example 3: the 22nd chapter of the original work is that everyone plays lantern riddles in the Rong Mansion, The purpose is to hint their temperament, aspirations and future respectively through the lantern riddles made by each person，It is an important plot of the whole work.
Possibly because Cao Xueqin did not think well at that time, he only wrote the riddles of Grandma Merchant, Master Merchant, First Spring Merchant, Spring Pleasure Merchant, Seeking-Spring Merchant, Cherishing Spring Merchant and Precious Hairpin Marshgrass, but didn’t write the riddles of Precious Jade Merchant, Mascara Jade Forest and Fragrant-cloud History for the time being，and planned to fill them up later. Unexpectedly, Cao Xueqin died suddenly and didn’t have time to make up, resulting in the mutilation of the original. Gao E boldly changed the lantern riddle of Precious Hairpin Marshgrass into that of Mascara Jade Forest, and added the lantern riddles of Precious Hairpin Marshgrass and Precious Jade Merchant. I think this change is very reasonable and the added part is also very wonderful.--[[User:Yang Jiaying|Yang Jiaying]] ([[User talk:Yang Jiaying|talk]]) 07:58, 13 November 2021 (UTC)

==阳佳颖 Yáng Jiāyǐng 国别女 202120081540==
但高鹗也有失误和疏漏：失误在于删掉或漏掉了原作惜春的灯谜，疏漏在于未给湘云补写灯谜。惜春的灯谜我已补入第二十二回（参见该回原文及其注释），以弥补高鹗的失误；而湘云的灯谜却只好仍阙，成为永远的遗憾。例四：原作第二十五回在写王熙凤被魇魔法弄得精神错乱时，插入一段对薛蟠的描写：别人慌张自不必讲，独有薛蟠更比诸人忙到十分：又恐薛姨妈被人挤倒，又恐薛宝钗被人瞧见，又恐香菱被人臊皮──知道贾珍等是在女人身上做功夫的，因此忙的不堪。

However, Gao E also made some mistakes and omissions: the mistake lies in deleting or missing the original lantern riddles made by Cherishing Spring Merchant, and the omission lies in not rewriting the lantern riddles for Fragrant-cloud History. I have added the riddle of Spring-cherish Merchant in Chapter 22 to make up for Gao E’s mistake; But the lantern riddles of Fragrant-cloud History have yet to be unfilled, which becomes a permanent regret. Example 4: In chapter 25 of the original,When writing about Splendid Phoenix King being deranged by magic, a description of Dragon Marshgrass is inserted: The others, it goes without saying,were still more distraught. But of them all Dragon Marshgrass was the most frantic, being afraid that in the crush his mother might be knocked over, Precious Hairpin Marshgrass stared at, or Wiselotus Potterymaker exposed to indignities -- for he knew what libertines Treasure Merchant and the rest were.--[[User:Yang Jiaying|Yang Jiaying]] ([[User talk:Yang Jiaying|talk]]) 07:43, 13 November 2021 (UTC)

However, Gao E also made a mistake and had an oversight: the mistake lies in deleting or missing the original lantern riddles made by Cherishing Spring Merchant, and the omission lies in not rewriting the lantern riddles for Fragrant-cloud History. I already added the riddle of Spring-cherish Merchant in Chapter 22 to make up for Gao E’s mistake; But Fragrant-cloud History’s lantern riddles have yet to be unfilled, which becomes an eternal regret. Example 4: In chapter 25 of the original,When writing about Splendid Phoenix King being deranged by magic, a description of Dragon Marshgrass is inserted: The others, it goes without saying,were still more distraught. But of them all Dragon Marshgrass was the most frantic, being afraid that in the crush his mother might be knocked over, Precious Hairpin Marshgrass stared at, or Wiselotus Potterymaker exposed to indignities -- for he knew what libertines Treasure Merchant and the rest were.--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 14:51, 13 November 2021 (UTC)

==杨爱江 Yáng Àijiāng 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081541==
忽一眼瞥见了林黛玉风流婉转，已酥倒在那里。这段话十分荒谬：其一，贾、薛两家为近亲，贾珍与薛宝钗是表兄妹，贾珍怎么敢对表妹起歹心呢？薛蟠岂非杞人忧天？其二，薛蟠虽然混账，与林黛玉也是表兄妹，况且见面的机会很多，薛蟠怎么会“一眼瞥见了林黛玉”就“酥倒在那里”呢？

Dragon Marshgrass's eye suddenly falling on Mascara Jade Forest, he was so enchanted by her charms that he almost melted on the spot. This paragraph is very absurd: First, Family Merchant and Family Marshgrass are close relatives, and Treasure Merchant and Precious Hairpin Marshgrass are cousins. How dare Treasure Merchant want to have a love affair with his cousin? Isn't Dragon Marshgrass entertained imaginary and groundless fear? Second, although Dragon Marshgrass is a jerk, Mascara Jade Forest is his cousin. Besides, there are many opportunities to meet Mascara Jade. How could Dragon Marshgrass“almost melted on the spot when his eye suddenly fell on Mascara Jade Forest”? --[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 09:44, 12 November 2021 (UTC)

Dragon Marshgrass suddenly caught a glimpse of Mascara Jade Forest, who was pretty and gentle, and collapsed there. This paragraph is very absurd: Firstly, Family Merchant and Family Marshgrass are close relatives, and Treasure Merchant and Precious Hairpin Marshgrass are cousins. How dare Treasure Merchant want to have a love affair with his cousin? Isn't Dragon Marshgrass alarmist? Secondly, although Dragon Marshgrass is a jerk, Mascara Jade Forest is his cousin. Besides, there are many opportunities to meet Mascara Jade. How could Dragon Marshgrass “collapsed there because of a glimpse of Mascara Jade Forest”?--[[User:Yang Kun|Yang Kun]] ([[User talk:Yang Kun|talk]]) 14:15, 14 November 2021 (UTC)

==杨堃 Yáng Kūn 法语语言文学女 202120081542==
而脂批竟称赞道：“忙中写闲，真大手眼、大手笔。”这如果不是偶然失误，便只能说是不识好歹了。“程乙本”将其删除，倒可当得起“大手眼、大手笔”的评语。例五：原作第六十三回中用了一千多字的篇幅，大写贾宝玉、史湘云等人只是为了好玩，如何将芳官、葵官打扮成“小土番儿”，如何改称“犬戎名姓”。

However, the Zhi Yanzhai's critiques unexpectedly praised: "Snatch a little leisure from a busy writing , which is really big eyes and a big deal." If this is not an accidental mistake, it can only be said to be ungrateful. If "Cheng Yi version" deletes it, it can be regarded as a comment of "big eyes and a big deal". Example 5: in the sixty-third chapter of the original work, more than 1,000 words were used to capitalize the name of Precious Jade Merchant, Fragrant-cloud History and others, which is just for fun, and to describe how to dress Fragrant Official and Sunflower as "Xiao Tu Fan er" and how to change "the surname and name of Quan Rong".--[[User:Yang Kun|Yang Kun]] ([[User talk:Yang Kun|talk]]) 14:21, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

However, critiques of Zhi Yanzhai(one of the earliest critics of "A Dream in Red Mansions" ) unexpectedly praised: "Snatch a little leisure from a busy writing , which is really weighty." If it is not an accidental mistake, it can only be said to be ungrateful. "Cheng Yi version" deletes it, thus it can be regarded as the comment of "weighty writings". Example 5: in the sixty-third chapter of the original work, more than 1,000 words were used to describe that how Precious Jade Merchant, Fragrant-cloud History and others dress Fang Guan and Kui Guan as "Xiao Tu Fan er" and how they change "the name of Quan Rong" just for fun.--[[User:Yang Liuqing|Yang Liuqing]] ([[User talk:Yang Liuqing|talk]]) 06:43, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

==杨柳青 Yáng Liǔqīng 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081543==
而且竟然让贾宝玉说出这样的话来：如今四海宾服，八方宁静，千载百载，不用武备。咱们虽一戏一笑，也该称颂，方不负坐享升平了。这种描写既十分无聊，又与贾宝玉的性格背道而驰，尤其侮辱了包括满族在内的少数民族，真可谓拙劣的文字，因此“程乙本”完全予以删除是绝对必要的。

What's more, in Zhi Yangzhai's version, Precious Jade Merchant said that"Nowadays, people within Four Seas were all submitted and social stability was achieved in all directions. Weapons were not needed in nearly thousands of years. Therefore, our laughs and teases also deserved extolling thus we lived up to the prosperity." This kind of descriptions were very boring and ran counter to the characteristics of Jia Baoyu, and they particularly insulted national minorities including Manchu, which were really bad writings. Thus, it's quite necessary for "Cheng Yi's version" to delete these words.--[[User:Yang Liuqing|Yang Liuqing]] ([[User talk:Yang Liuqing|talk]]) 07:05, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

What's more, in Zhi Yangzhai's version, Baoyu even said things like this:"Nowadays, people from all over the world bow to our emperor, and social stability's greatly achieved. No military preparation's needed in the days ahead. Therefore, our laughs and teases also deserved extolling thus we lived up to the prosperity." Such descriptions are boring and against Baoyu's characteristic, and also insulted national minorities including Manchu, which are truly awful writings. Thus, it's quite necessary for Cheng&Gao's second version to delete these words.--[[User:Ye Weijie|Ye Weijie]] ([[User talk:Ye Weijie|talk]]) 06:07, 12 November 2021 (UTC)

==叶维杰 Yè Wéijié 国别男 202120081544==
例六：原作第六十一回开头有一段写柳家的与小厮斗嘴的文字，既毫无意义，又有“几根×毛”、“×声浪嗓”的粗话，故“程乙本”删掉了百馀字也完全正确。像这样的例子不胜枚举，它们足可以证明，高鹗对前八十回的修订是完全必要和合理的，“程乙本”前八十回优于原作的事实是任何人也难以抹煞的。其次，再就两种“程本”而言，由于“程乙本”是“程甲本”的修订本，自然也就更加完善。

Example six: The descriptive words about the argument between Liu's and his servant in the chapter sixty one of the original version are quite meaningless, and vulgarism like "some x hairs","some nasty voices" are also included at the same time，that's why the Cheng&Gao's second version had correctly deleted hundreds of words of the original one. Such examples are numerous and are solid proofs to the necessity and justifiability of Gao E's revision of original former eighty chapters, and it's also undeniable that former eighty chapters in the Cheng&Gao's second version are better than ones in the original. Moreover, in terms of the two versions of Cheng&Gao's, the second version is obviously more perfect for it's revised on the base of the first one.--[[User:Ye Weijie|Ye Weijie]] ([[User talk:Ye Weijie|talk]]) 05:33, 12 November 2021 (UTC)

Example six: the original 61st back at the beginning of a paragraph to write the fighting words by Liu and his following boy, not only meaningless, but also "a few pubic hair", "obscene voice" of foul language, so "Cheng B book "deleted a few hundred words is also completely correct. Such examples are numerous, and they are sufficient to prove that the revision of the first eighty chapters by Gao Hu is completely necessary and reasonable, and the fact that the first eighty chapters of "Cheng B book" is better than the original is hard to be denied by anyone. Secondly, in terms of the two "Cheng books", since the "Cheng B book" is a revised version of the "Cheng A book", it is naturally more perfect.--[[User:Yi Yangfan|Yi Yangfan]] ([[User talk:Yi Yangfan|talk]]) 02:37, 12 November 2021 (UTC)Yi Yangfan

==易扬帆 Yì Yángfān 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081545==
关于这一点，最有力的证据是一组现成的统计数字。前面说过，汪原放先生于1927年曾将“程乙本”与“程甲本”加以对勘，并将两者的异文作了统计，其结果是：“程乙本”较之“程甲本”改动(包括增与改)了总共21506字，其中前八十回改动15537字，后四十回改动5969字。(见汪原放《重印乾隆壬子本〈红楼梦〉校读后记》)这些改动主要有三个方面：其一，是对“程甲本”中的“纰缪”文字加以改正。

About this point, the strongest evidence is a set of readily available statistics. As mentioned earlier, Mr. Wang Yuanfang in 1927 compared the "Cheng B book" with the "Cheng A book" and made statistics on the differences between the two texts, and the result was: "Cheng B book" compared with "Cheng A book" changes (including increase and change) a total of 21506 words, including the first eighty chapters changed 15537 words, the last forty chapters changed 5969 words. (See Wang Yuanfang "reprinted Qianlong nonzi book" after reading "Dream of the Red Chamber") These changes are mainly in three aspects: one, is the "Cheng A book" in the "error" text to correct.--[[User:Yi Yangfan|Yi Yangfan]] ([[User talk:Yi Yangfan|talk]]) 02:38, 12 November 2021 (UTC)Yi Yangfan

The strongest evidence for this is a set of available statistics. As mentioned earlier, Mr. Wang Yuanfang in 1927 compared the "Cheng B book" with the "Cheng A book" and made statistics on the differences between the two texts, and the result was: a total of 21506 words (including complements and modifications) were changed in "Cheng B book" compared with "Cheng A book", including 15537 words changed in the first eighty chapters, and 5969 words changed in the last forty chapters. (Refer to Wang Yuanfang "reprinted Qianlong nonzi book" after reading "Dream of the Red Chamber") These changes are mainly in three aspects: one, is the modification of the "error" text in Cheng A book.--[[User:Yin Huizhen|Yin Huizhen]] ([[User talk:Yin Huizhen|talk]]) 13:03, 12 November 2021 (UTC)

==殷慧珍 Yīn Huìzhēn 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081546==
如第二回“冷子兴演说荣国府”中，“程甲本”对原作的如下一段文字未作改动：这政老爷的夫人王氏……第二胎生了一位小姐，生在大年初一，就奇了。不想次年又生了一位公子，说来更奇：一落胞胎，嘴里便衔下一块五彩晶莹的玉来，还有许多字迹。这位“小姐”就是贾元春(元妃)，这位“公子”就是贾宝玉。

For example, the "Leng Zixing's speech in Rong Mansion" in chapter 2, "Cheng Jia's translation version" did not change the following text of the original work: The wife of Lord Zheng Mrs Wang…… gave birth to a girl on the first day of the lunar year,which was magical enough. It was even more magical that she gave birth to a boy in the next year: he was born with a colorful and crystal jade in his mouth, and the jade was written by some scripts. The "girl" is First Spring Merchant (Yuan Concubine), while the "boy" is Precious Jade Merchant.--[[User:Yin Huizhen|Yin Huizhen]] ([[User talk:Yin Huizhen|talk]]) 09:23, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

For example, in the "Leng Zixing's speech in Rong Mansion" from chapter 2, the following text of the original work remained intact in "Cheng Jia(the first)edition": Mrs Wang, the wife of Lord Zheng …… gave birth to her second child, a girl, on the first day of the lunar year, which was magical enough. It was even more magical that she gave birth to a boy in the following year: when he was born, a colorful and crystal jade with many scripts on it was in his mouth. The "girl" is First Spring Merchant (Yuan Concubine), while the "boy" is Precious Jade Merchant.--[[User:Yin Meida|Yin Meida]] ([[User talk:Yin Meida|talk]]) 10:39, 11 November 2021 (UTC)

==殷美达 Yīn Měidá 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081547==
而这段文字显然与第十八回中的一段文字相矛盾：那宝玉未入学之先，三四岁时，已得元妃口传，教授了几本书，识了数千字在腹中：虽为姊弟，有如母子。
“有如母子”的贾元春和贾宝玉，不可能只差一岁，可见第二回那段文字有明显的“纰缪”。“程乙本”将“次年”改为“隔了十几年”，便合情合理了。

This paragraph obviously contradicts with the description in the eighteenth chapter: before Precious Jade,at the age of three or four, entered the school, he had been taught several books by Yuan Concubine(First Spring Merchant) by word of mouth and thus had known thousands of words in his mind. They are sister and brother in blood relation, but more like mother and son. Precious Jade Merchant and First Spring Merchant, "like mother and son",could not be only one year apart,so there is an obvious "mistake"in the paragraph from the second chapter. Therefore, it is reasonable to change "the following year" into "more than a decade after" in "Cheng Yi(the second) Edition".--[[User:Yin Meida|Yin Meida]] ([[User talk:Yin Meida|talk]]) 09:28, 11 November 2021 (UTC)

While this paragraph obviously contradicts with one in the eighteenth chapter: before Precious Jade, at the age of three or four, entered the school, he had been taught several books by Yuan Concubine(First Spring Merchant) by word of mouth and thus had learned thousands of words in his mind. They are elder sister and younger brother, but more like mother and son. Precious Jade Merchant and First Spring Merchant could not be only one year apart,so there is an obvious "mistake" in the paragraph of the second chapter. Therefore, it is reasonable to change "the following year" into "more than a decade after" in "Cheng Yi(the second) Edition".--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 01:53, 12 November 2021 (UTC)

==尹媛 Yǐn Yuán 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081548==
其二，是将文言词语尽量改为白话或俗语，从而使《红楼梦》的语言更为通俗易懂。譬如：“若”改为“要”，“与”改为“给”，“亦”改为“也”，“此”改为“这”，“口”改为“嘴”，“何”改为“为什么”，“如何”改为“怎么”，“如此”改为“这么着”，“葳蕤”改为“委琐”，等等。其三，是增加了许多“儿”字，将词语加以“儿”化，从而使《红楼梦》语言的京味特点更加突出。

Secondly, classical words were changed into vernacular or colloquial language as far as possible so as to make the language of A Dream of Red Mansions more understandable. For instance: "ruo" was translated into "yao"(if), "yu" into "yao"(to), "yi" into "ye"(also), "ci" into "zhe"(this), "kou" into "zui"(mouth),"he" into "wei shen me"(why), "ru he" into "zen me"(how), "ru ci" into "zhe me zhao"(in this way), "weisui" into "weisuo"(obscene) and so on. Thirdly, lots of "er" were added into A Dream of Red Mansions, so that the Beijing flavor of the language in A Dream of Red Mansions is more distinct.--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 12:08, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

==詹若萱 Zhān Ruòxuān 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081549==
关于这一点，几乎随处可见，因而不再举例。《红楼梦》是一部近百万字的巨著，要想完全揭示“程乙本”的版本优点，只能将它与其他版本一一对勘，并将异文一一列出。单凭以上的简单说明，只能是挂一漏万。

This point can be seen almost everywhere, so I will not give examples. “Dream of the Red Chamber” is a masterpiece of nearly one million words. If we want to fully reveal the merits of "Cheng Yi's translation version", we can only investigate it with other translation versions and list the differences one by one. The above simple explanation is still incomplete and full of omissions.--[[User:Zhan Ruoxuan|Zhan Ruoxuan]] ([[User talk:Zhan Ruoxuan|talk]]) 07:24, 10 November 2021 (UTC)
This point can be seen almost everywhere, so I don't want to give an example.--[[User:Zhang Qiuyi|Zhang Qiuyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Qiuyi|talk]]) 05:25, 12 November 2021 (UTC)

==张秋怡 Zhāng Qiūyí 亚非语言文学女 202120081550==
不过我可以向读者负责地保证：如果你是出于欣赏的目的阅读《红楼梦》，那么选择“程乙本”将是最明智的。三、校勘问题我们说“程乙本”为《红楼梦》的最佳版本，并不是说它完美无缺，也不是说其他版本一概不如“程乙本”，只是说它在总体上更胜一筹而已。
But I can responsibly assure readers that if you are reading a Dream of Red Mansions for enjoyment, cheng Yiben is the wisest choice. To say that Cheng Yiben is the best version of a Dream of Red Mansions does not mean that it is perfect, nor that all other versions are inferior to Cheng Yiben, but that it is superior in general.--[[User:Zhang Qiuyi|Zhang Qiuyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Qiuyi|talk]]) 05:23, 12 November 2021 (UTC)

But I can responsibly assure readers that if you are reading ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' for enjoyment, Cheng Yi version is the wisest choice. Three: Revision. To say that Cheng Yi version is the best version of ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' does not mean that it is perfect, nor that all other versions are inferior to Cheng Yi version, but that it is superior in general.--[[User:Zhang Yang|Zhang Yang]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yang|talk]]) 13:42, 16 November 2021 (UTC)

==张扬 Zhāng Yáng 国别男 202120081551==
事实上，或因高鹗和程伟元的疏忽，或因排字工人的失误，致使“程乙本”仍存在不少“纰缪”。譬如：第八十六回说贾元春生于“甲申年正月丙寅”；至第九十五回则说：“是年甲寅年十二月十八日立春，元妃薨日是十二月十九日，已交卯年寅月，存年四十三岁。”“程甲本”和“程乙本”都是如此。

In fact, due to the negligence of Gao'e and Cheng Weiyuan, or the mistakes made by typesetters, there are still many "mistakes" in "Chengyi version". For example, the eighty-sixth chapter expounds that Jia Yuanchun was born in "Bingyin, the first month of the year Jiashen". To the 95th chapter it expounds that "In that year, the spring began on December 18th of the lunar calendar, Jiayin year, and the day consort Yuan died was on December 19, which was in the month of Yin and year of Mao. Hence consort Yuan died at the age of 43.", which are the same both in "Chengjia version" and "Chengyi version".--[[User:Zhang Yang|Zhang Yang]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yang|talk]]) 14:17, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

In fact, due to the negligence of Gao'e and Cheng Weiyuan, or the mistakes made by typesetters, there are still many "mistakes" in "Chengyi version". For example, the eighty-sixth chapter expounds that First Spring Merchant was born in "Bingyin, the first month of the year Jiashen". To the 95th chapter it expounds that "In that year, the spring began on December 18th of the lunar calendar, Jiayin year, and the day Princess Merchant died was on December 19, which was in the month of Yin and year of Mao. Hence consort Yuan died at the age of 43.", which are the same both in "Chengjia version" and "Chengyi version".

==张怡然 Zhāng Yírán 俄语语言文学女 202120081552==
而实际上前后存在明显矛盾：甲申年至甲寅年是三十年，按照当时以虚岁计算年龄的习惯，元妃享年应是三十一岁；即使因元妃薨于立春次日，算作乙卯年，也只有三十二岁。无论如何也不会是四十三岁。可见“程甲本”已错，而“程乙本”也没有订正。

In fact,there is clear contradiction:the years from JiaShen to JiaYin are thirty years, and according to the custom of calculating age in terms of nominal age at the time, Princess Merchant would have been thirty-one years old; even if the death of Princess Merchant took place on the day after the first day of spring, which is counted as the year yi Mao, she would have been only thirty-two years old. In any case, it would not have been forty-three years old. It is clear that the "Cheng Jia version" is wrong, and the "Cheng Yi version" has not been revised.

In fact,there is an obvious contradiction:the years from JiaShen to JiaYin are thirty years, and according to the custom of calculating age in terms of nominal age at the time, Princess Yuan would have been thirty-one years old; even if the death of Princess Yuan took place on the day after the first day of spring, which is counted as the year YiMao, she would have been only thirty-two years old. In any case, it would not have been forty-three years old. It is clear that the "Cheng Jia version" is wrong, and the "Cheng Yi version" has not been revised either.--[[User:Zhong Yifei|Zhong Yifei]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yifei|talk]]) 06:37, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

==钟义菲 Zhōng Yìfēi 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081553==
这个明显的失误，早在1927年由汪原放校点、亚东图书馆出版的“程乙本”《红楼梦》已经改正，而上世纪八十年代以后出版的诸多号称经过了“精校”的“程甲本”和“程乙本”《红楼梦》，包括那些拼凑本，却依旧保留了这个失误，这不能不说是一种讽刺。其实“程乙本”的其他文字失误还有不少，并非像高鹗、程伟元所说“改订无讹”。“程乙本”既非十全十美，而我们要供献于读者的是一部普及本的《红楼梦》，因此有必要汲取其他版本的长处，使其尽量完美。

This obvious mistake was corrected in “Cheng Yi Version" （a version of "A Dream of Red Mansions"） checked by Wang Yuanfang and published by Yadong library as early as 1927. It is ironic that many "Cheng Jia Version" and "Cheng Yi Version" published after the 1980s, including those patchwork books, still retain this mistake. In fact, there are many other word mistakes in "Cheng Yi Version", which is not “absolutely right after revision” as Gao E and Cheng Weiyuan said. "Cheng Yi Version" is not perfect, and what we want to offer to readers is a popular version of “A Dream of Red Mansions.” Therefore, it is necessary to learn from the advantages of other versions to make it as perfect as possible.--[[User:Zhong Yifei|Zhong Yifei]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yifei|talk]]) 14:22, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

This obvious mistake was corrected in “Cheng Yiben" （a version of "a dream of Red Mansions"） checked by Wang Yuanfang and published by Yadong Library as early as 1927. It is ironic that many "Cheng Jiaben" and "Cheng Yiben", which claimed carefully checked and published after the 1980s , including those patchwork books, still retain this mistake. In fact, there are many other word mistakes in "Cheng Yiben", which is not “absolutely right after revision” as Gao E and Cheng Weiyuan said. "Cheng Yiben" is not perfect, and what we want to offer to readers is a widespread version of “a dream of Red Mansions.” Therefore, it is necessary to learn from the advantages of other versions to make it as perfect as possible.--[[User:Zhong Yulu|Zhong Yulu]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yulu|talk]]) 02:05, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

==钟雨露 Zhōng Yǔlù 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081554==
为此，本书以“程乙本”(北京图书馆出版社影印本)为底本，以“程甲本”(北京图书馆出版社影印本)为主校本，并以下列版本为参校本：汪原放校勘“程乙本”(上海亚东图书馆刊本)、王希廉(雪香)评“程甲本”(清道光十二年刊本)、“梦稿本”“庚辰本”“己卯本”“甲戌本”(后四种均为上海古籍出版社影印本)。在以上八种版本中，前五种均为一百二十回全本，后三种均为前八十回的残存本。

For this purpose, this book uses “Cheng Yiben”(photocopy of Beijing Library Publishing House) as master copy, “Cheng Jiaben” as main collated edition, and the followings as references—Wang Yuanfang’s collation “Cheng Yiben”(Shanghai Yadong Library edition)、Wang Xilian’s “Cheng Jiaben” commentary(edition in the twelfth year of Qing Daoguang)、“Meng Gaoben”、“Geng Chenben”、“Ji Maoben”、and “Jia Xuben”(the last four all are photocopies of Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House). In the above eight editions, the first five are all complete editions of 120 chapters, and the last three are all incomplete editions of 80 chapters.--[[User:Zhong Yulu|Zhong Yulu]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yulu|talk]]) 01:43, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

For this purpose, this book uses “Cheng Yiben”(photocopy of Beijing Library Publishing House) as the master copy, “Cheng Jiaben” as the main collated edition, and the followings as references—Wang Yuanfang’s collation of “Cheng Yiben”(Shanghai Yadong Library edition)、Wang Xilian’s comments on “Cheng Jiaben” (edition in the twelfth year of Qing Daoguang)、“Meng Gaoben”、“Geng Chenben”、“Ji Maoben”、and “Jia Xuben”(the last four all are photocopies of Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House). In the above eight editions, the first five are all complete editions of 120 chapters, and the last three are all incomplete editions of 80 chapters.--[[User:Zhou Jiu|Zhou Jiu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Jiu|talk]]) 05:57, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

==周玖 Zhōu Jiǔ 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081555==
我的校勘总原则是：既要尽量保持底本的原貌，又要保证全书的质量。具体来说则遵循以下几条：（一）底本与校本之间虽有异文，但底本基本可通者，即使校本文字更好，也不作改动。（二）底本中的各种错误(包括内容与文字的错误)、文字倒置、文理不通等，尽量用校本改正，若校本同样错误则径改。

My primary principle of collation is that: maintain the original meaning of master copy, and garantee the quality through the book. Specifically, abiding by the following advice: One, although there are differences between the master copy and the checked copy, the former whose meaning is basically faithful and smooth remains untouched, even though the checked copy is better. Two: various mistakes in master copy（including errors in contents and text），the inversion of words, unsmooth words and contents and so forth should be corrected based on master copy. But if mistakes are also existed in the master copy, then it should be corrected directly.--[[User:Zhou Jiu|Zhou Jiu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Jiu|talk]]) 12:43, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

My primary principle of collation is that: maintain the original meaning of master copy, and guarantee the book’s quality. To be more specific, following these advices: First, although there are differences between the master copy and the checked copy, the former whose meaning is basically faithful and smooth should be untouched, even though the checked copy is better. Second: various mistakes in master copy（including errors in contents and text), like the inversion of words, unsmooth words and contents and so forth should be corrected based on master copy. But if mistakes are also existed in the master copy, it should be corrected directly.--[[User:Zhou Junhui|Zhou Junhui]] ([[User talk:Zhou Junhui|talk]]) 06:46, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

==周俊辉 Zhōu Jùnhuī 法语语言文学女 202120081556==
（三）底本和校本中的僻字、怪字、俗字，本来并无特别意义，毫无保留价值，只能为读者增加阅读障碍，因此径改为通用字。如“揌”和“”改为“塞”，“嘴”改为“努嘴”，“椅子”改为“拿椅子”，等等。（四）古人对别字多不在乎，故底本和校本中屡见不鲜，但在当今的读者看来却十分别扭，甚至可能被误解，因而酌情径改。

Three, the rare words, strange words, common words in the master copy and in the checked copy had no special meaning, and no reservation value, can only increase the reading barrier for readers. So they need to be changed to universal words. Such as "揌" changed to “塞", "嘴" changed to "努嘴", "椅子" changed to "拿椅子", etc. Four, the ancients didn’t care about the wrongly written characters, so it is common in the master copy and the checked copy. They seem very awkward for today's readers and may even be misunderstood. Therefore they should be appropriately modified.--[[User:Zhou Junhui|Zhou Junhui]] ([[User talk:Zhou Junhui|talk]]) 14:12, 6 November 2021 (UTC)

（3）Some characters in a copy for the record or for reproduction and in checked copy, which are not commonly used, or look strange, or are popular but irregular, have no special significance and no reserved value, only increasing the reading barrier for readers. Therefore, these characters are changed to universal characters. For example, "揌" are changed to "塞", "嘴" is changed to "努嘴", "椅子" is changed to "拿椅子" and so on.（4） The ancients didn't care much about the wrongly written characters, so they can be commonly seen in a copy for the record or for reproduction and in checked copy. However, when seeing these characters, today’s readers may feel awkward, and may even misunderstand their meanings. Thus they are supposed to be changed for appropriateness.--[[User:Zhou Qiao1|Zhou Qiao1]] ([[User talk:Zhou Qiao1|talk]]) 12:37, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

==周巧 Zhōu Qiǎo 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081557==
如“必真”改为“逼真”，“奈烦”改为“耐烦”，“悔气”改为“晦气”，“渥”改为“焐”，“握”改为“捂”，等等。（五）有些字在古代汉语中可以通用（借用），在现代汉语中却严加区分。《红楼梦》也存在大量借用字，如果一一加以改动，不一定合适。

For example, "必真" is changed to "逼真", "奈烦" is changed to "耐烦", "悔气" is changed to "晦气", "渥" is changed to "握 ", "焐" is changed to "捂" and so on. Some words can be commonly used (borrowed) in ancient Chinese, While in modern Chinese they are strictly distinguished. There are also a large number of loanwords in the A Dream of Red Mansions, which may not be appropriate if changed one by one.--[[User:Zhou Qiao1|Zhou Qiao1]] ([[User talk:Zhou Qiao1|talk]]) 13:06, 6 November 2021 (UTC)

For instance, "必真" is changed to "逼真", "奈烦" is changed to "耐烦", "悔气" is changed to "晦气","渥" is changed to "握 ", "焐" is changed to "捂", etc. Wait. Some characters can be used (borrowed) in ancient Chinese, but they are strictly distinguished in modern Chinese. There are also a lot of borrowed words in "A Dream of Red Mansions". If you change them one by one, it may not be appropriate.--[[User:Zhou Qing|Zhou Qing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Qing|talk]]) 11:44, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

==周清 Zhōu Qīng 法语语言文学女 202120081558==
因此只有在以下两种情况之下才作改动：一是可能引起误解；二是同一词语而用字不同。如等同于数字“一”的“么”，极易与“什么”、“怎么”的“么”相混，故改为“幺”。又如表示时间的“一会”和“一回”混用，“一会儿”和“一回儿”混用，统一为“一会”和“一会儿”；表示位置的“旁”和“傍”混用，“旁边”和“傍边”混用，统一为“旁”和“旁边”；“赔礼”和“陪礼”混用，“赔罪”和“陪罪”混用，统一为“赔礼”和“赔罪”；等等。

Therefore, changes should only be made in the following two situations: one is that it may cause misunderstanding; the other is the same phrase but different words. For example, the "么" equivalent to the number "一" is easily confused with the "么" of "什么" and "怎么", so it is changed to "幺". Another example is the mixed use of "一会" and "一回" for time, and "一会儿" and "一回儿" are mixed together, unified into "一会" and "一会儿";"旁" and "傍" to indicate position are mixed together, "旁边" and "傍边" are mixed together, unified into "旁" and "旁边"; "赔礼" and "陪礼" are mixed together, and "赔罪" and "陪罪" are mixed together , Unified into "赔礼" and "赔罪"; and so on.

Therefore, changes should only be made in the following two situations: one is that it may cause misunderstanding; the other is the same phrase formed by different words. For example, the "么" equivalent to the number "一" is easily confused with the "么" of "什么" and "怎么", so it is changed to "幺". Another example is the mixed use of "一会" and "一回" for time, and in case that "一会儿" and "一回儿" are mixed together, they are unified into "一会" and "一会儿"respectively ;"旁" and "傍" to indicating position are mixed together,and "旁边" and "傍边" are mixed together, so they are unified into "旁" and "旁边"; "赔礼" and "陪礼" are mixed together, and "赔罪" and "陪罪" are mixed together , so they are unified into "赔礼" and "赔罪"etc.--[[User:Zhou Xiaoxue|Zhou Xiaoxue]] ([[User talk:Zhou Xiaoxue|talk]]) 09:49, 13 November 2021 (UTC)

==周小雪 Zhōu Xiǎoxuě 日语语言文学女 202120081559==
（六）本书采用简化汉字，为异体字的处理提供了方便，故一律按照简化汉字的规定处理。任何语言都在不断发展变化，故古今汉语有很大不同，以至于定字工作成为古籍整理中最为复杂的问题之一，很难做到尽善尽美。仅根据以上几条，只能是有助于减少读者的阅读障碍罢了。

(Six) Simplified Chinese characters are used in this book to provide convenience for the processing of variant characters. Therefore, they are processed in accordance with the provisions of simplified Chinese characters . Any language is constantly changing, so ancient and modern Chinese is very different. Therefore, deciding which word to use has become one of the most complex problems in the collection of ancient books, which is difficult to be perfect. Just according to the above, it can only help reduce the difficulties in their reading.--[[User:Zhou Xiaoxue|Zhou Xiaoxue]] ([[User talk:Zhou Xiaoxue|talk]]) 13:59, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

==朱素珍 Zhū Sùzhēn 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081561==
为了节省篇幅，一律不出校文。四、注释问题 “注释”亦称“注解”，最初是由于经书文字艰涩难懂，故对经书的字句加以解释；如果注文仍旧难懂或未尽其义，再对注文加以解释，则称“疏”。注文和疏文合称则谓之“注疏”。

==邹岳丽 Zōu Yuèlì 日语语言文学女 202120081562==
后来逐步扩大范围，对一切文献中的疑难字句加以解释，均称之为“注释”。由于中国历史悠久，古今汉语及名物变化巨大，致使后人读古籍的困难越来越大，因此对古籍的注释也就显得越来越有必要。《红楼梦》虽是一部旧白话小说，但它汲取了诗、词、曲、赋、歌、诔等各种精华，又涉及谜语、酒令、建筑、服饰、珍禽异兽、奇花异卉、神话传说、名人秀女、琴棋书画、医卜星相、风俗礼仪等多种知识，白话文言间用，成语典故成堆。

==Nadia 202011080004==
对于一般读者来说，所有这些都可能是阅读中的绊脚石。

==Mahzad Heydarian 玛莎 202021080004==
本注释的使命就是为读者清除这些绊脚石，使阅读畅通无阻。

This annotation is meant to remove the barriers in reading and make it easier to read.

==Mariam toure 2020GBJ002301==
因此凡是我认为可能影响读者阅读的地方，便予以注释，决不假装视而不见，决不避难就易。

==Rouabah Soumaya 202121080001==
为了节省篇幅，我仅举一例。第五十六回“敏探春兴利除宿弊，贤宝钗小惠全大体”中，有贾探春与薛宝钗谈论经济的一段话：
In order to save space, I will give just one example. In the fifty-sixth chapter, "Min Tanchun prospering the benefits and eliminating the disadvantages, Xian Baochai and Xiaohui are all in general", there is a passage between Jia Tanchun and Xue Baochai discussing the economy:

==Muhammad Numan 202121080002==
宝钗笑道：“真真膏粱纨袴之谈。你们虽是千金，原不知道这些事。
Baochai smiled and said: "It's really tempting to talk about it. Although you--[[User:Atta Ur Rahman|Atta Ur Rahman]] ([[User talk:Atta Ur Rahman|talk]]) 14:09, 6 November 2021 (UTC) are a daughter, you don't know these things.

==Muhammad Saqib Mehran 202121080004==
但只你们也都念过书，识过字的，竟没看见过朱夫子有一篇《不自弃文》么？”
But if you have all studied and read, haven't you seen Master Zhu's article "Don't Abandon Oneself"?

==Jawad Ahmad 202121080006==
探春笑道：“虽也看过，不过是勉人自励，虚比浮词，那里真是有的？”
Tanchun said and smile, "Although I have seen it, it's just a matter of encouraging others to encourage themselves. It's a meaningless word. Is there really something happen?"

==Nizam Uddin 202121080007==
宝钗道：“朱子都行了虚比浮词了？那句句都是有的。

==Öncü 202121080008==
你才办了两天事，就利欲熏心，把朱子都看虚浮了。
You have been working on it for two days only, and blinded by greed, you have made ZhuZi look vain.--[[User:HIKMET ONCU KADIOGLU|HIKMET ONCU KADIOGLU]] ([[User talk:HIKMET ONCU KADIOGLU|talk]]) 16:52, 6 November 2021 (UTC)

You have only been doing things for two days, then you desire for money and profit fascinated the heart, and you think Zhu Zi is Unrealistic. --[[User:AkiraJantarat|AkiraJantarat]] ([[User talk:AkiraJantarat|talk]]) 09:29, 8 November 2021 (UTC)Akira Jantarat

==Akira Jantarat 202121080009==
你再出去，见了那些利弊大事，越发连孔子也都看虚了呢！”

If you go to a larger world and see greater benefits or disadvantages, I am afraid you will be a little bit down on what Kongzi said.--[[User:AkiraJantarat|AkiraJantarat]] ([[User talk:AkiraJantarat|talk]]) 14:19, 6 November 2021 (UTC)Akira

If you go out again and see the pros and cons of major events, you will be even more deceptive!--[[User:Asep Budiman|Asep Budiman]] ([[User talk:Asep Budiman|talk]]) 07:50, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

==Asep Budiman 202111080020==
探春笑道：“你这样一个通人，竟没看见《姬子》书？

Tan-tschun Smiled and said "you are such a familiar person, but have you read the "Ji Zi" book?--[[User:Asep Budiman|Asep Budiman]] ([[User talk:Asep Budiman|talk]]) 07:41, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

Tan-tschun smiled and said: "You are such a familiar person, but haven't you read the book "Ji Zi"? --[[User:EIMONKYAW|EIMONKYAW]] ([[User talk:EIMONKYAW|talk]]) 10:57, 7 November 2021 (UTC)Ei Mon Kyaw -Ei Mon Kyaw-[[User:EIMONKYAW|EIMONKYAW]] ([[User talk:EIMONKYAW|talk]]) 10:57, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

==Ei Mon Kyaw 202111080021==
当日《姬子》有云：‘登利禄之场，处运筹之界者，穷尧舜之词，背孔孟之道。’”

On that day, "Jizi" said: ‘The field of Deng Lilu, those who are in the realm of management, are poor in the words of Yao and Shun, and recite the way of Confucius and Mencius. ’"
--[[User:EIMONKYAW|EIMONKYAW]] ([[User talk:EIMONKYAW|talk]]) 13:52, 6 November 2021 (UTC)EI MON KYAW
-EI MON KYAW-[[User:EIMONKYAW|EIMONKYAW]] ([[User talk:EIMONKYAW|talk]]) 13:52, 6 November 2021 (UTC)

There was a saying in ''Himeko'' that day: "Deng LiLu, and those who operate in this realm, steal the words of Yao and Shun, and memorize Confucianism."--[[User:Benjamin Wellsand|Benjamin Wellsand]] ([[User talk:Benjamin Wellsand|talk]]) 13:38, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

==Benjamin Wellsand 202111080118==
宝钗笑道：“底下三句呢？”探春笑道：“如今断章取义，念出底下一句，我自己骂我自己不成？”

Bau-tschai smiled: "What about the next three sentences?" Tan-tschun smiled: "Now that I have read the next sentence out of context, can I blame myself for failing?"--[[User:Benjamin Wellsand|Benjamin Wellsand]] ([[User talk:Benjamin Wellsand|talk]]) 13:39, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

Translation: Bau-tschai smiled: "What about the next three sentences?" Tan-tschun smiled: "Now I take the next sentence out of context, and if I read the next sentence out of context, I can't blame myself?"--[[User:Atta Ur Rahman|Atta Ur Rahman]] ([[User talk:Atta Ur Rahman|talk]]) 11:20, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

==Atta Ur Rahman 202121080003==
在这段话中，提到了朱熹的《不自弃文》，还有《姬子》一书。

Translation: In this passage, Zhu Xi's "don't abandoned the text--[[User:Muhammad Numan|Muhammad Numan]] ([[User talk:Muhammad Numan|talk]]) 14:13, 6 November 2021 (UTC)--[[User:Muhammad Numan|Muhammad Numan]] ([[User talk:Muhammad Numan|talk]]) 14:13, 6 November 2021 (UTC)" and the book "Ji Zi" are mentioned.

==Zohaib Chand 202121080005==
我所看到的几个《红楼梦》注本，对《不自弃文》有所注释，而对《姬子》却避而不注。

20211027 homework

2021-12-29T16:10:22Z

Liu Wei: /* 刘胜楠 Liú Shèngnán 翻译学女 202120081506 */

Quicklinks: [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021|Back to course homepage]] [https://bou.de/u/wiki/uvu:Community_Portal#Frequently_asked_questions_FAQ FAQ] [https://bou.de/u/wiki/uvu:Community_Portal Manual] [[20210926_homework|Back to all homework webpages overview]] [[20220112_final_exam|final exam page]]

==陈静 Chén Jìng 国别女 202020080595==

或因祖父昔日微嫌，追念旧恶，必图报复，……诚恐朕之宗室，日流日下，不知前鉴，深用为忧，是以亟筹保全之道。若非立学设教，鼓舞振兴，循循善诱，安能使之改过迁善，望其有成。（鄂尔泰等，1985：310）上谕中，雍正帝明确阐述了设立宗学的前因后果，将其当作鼓舞人心，劝善惩恶的手段。
Or because of grandfather ' s past suspicion, they will recall the bad memory and have the revenge plan …, I am in fear of the fact that the clan will worsen with the unknowing of the past and the concern of use, thus hoping to pose a solution to it for the preservation. If we do not teach by school, encourage revitalization, follow the good temptation, we could not make it better to change the situation. ( Eertai and so on., 1985 : 310 ) In the oracle, Emperor Yongzheng clearly stated the causes and consequences of the establishment of the sect as a means of encouraging people and encouraging good and punishing evil.--[[User:Chen Jing|Chen Jing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jing|talk]]) 02:00, 31 October 2021 (UTC)

Or because my grandfather was a little suspicious in the past, he remembered the old enmity and would try to revenge,... I sincerely fear that my clan will flow day by day. I don't know what to learn from the past and worry about using it deeply. This is the way to save it urgently. If we don't set up learning and teaching, encourage and revitalize, and give good guidance, we can’t make it change its ways and change it to be good, and hope it will succeed. (ertai etc.1985:310) in the Oracle, Emperor YongZheng clearly expounded the causes and consequences of the establishment of patriarchal school as an inspiring means to advise to be good and penalize the vicious.

--[[User:Cai Zhufeng|Cai Zhufeng]] ([[User talk:Cai Zhufeng|talk]]) 02:04, 31 October 2021 (UTC)

==蔡珠凤 Cài Zhūfèng 日语语言文学女 202120081477==

其二，清代的旗学教育名目繁多，机构林立，其中不少仅教习满语、骑射等维护民族特质的科目，但教习满、汉翻译或者满、蒙翻译者也有不少，为国家培养了不少语言人才。创设八旗官学，令八旗弟子学习语言（满文、蒙文和汉文）、翻译和骑射等，既不失满洲特色，又增进民族交流，对呈现满洲特色的统治特征，扩大政权的参与基础等，皆有意义。众所周知，顺治时期，虽然清军已经入关，满清王朝渐趋形成，但有碍统治的许多问题仍未解决，如溃散以后的李自成余党、盘踞各地的地方势力、南明政权的继续存在，以及社会秩序的恢复与重建，种种难题使得满洲统治者不得不与汉人合作，与后者共同参与国家治理与制度重构。

Second, there were many sorts and institutions of Manchu education in the Qing Dynasty, many of which only taught Manchu, riding and shooting and other subjects to maintain national characteristics, but there were also many Manchu, Chinese translation or Manchu and Mongolian translators, which trained a lot of language talents for the country. The establishment of the Eight Banners official school enables the Eight Banners' disciples to learn languages (Manchu, Mongolian and Chinese), translation, riding and shooting, which not only does not lose the characteristics of Manchu,but also enhances national communications.It is of significance to present the ruling characteristics of Manchu and expand the participation foundation of the political power. As we all know, during the Shunzhi period, although the Qing army had entered the Han and the Manchu and Qing Dynasty were gradually formed, many problems hindering the rule remained unresolved, such as the collapse of the remaining Party of Li Zicheng, the local forces entrenched everywhere, the continued existence of the Nanming regime, and the restoration and reconstruction of social order. Various problems forced the Manchu rulers to cooperate with the Han people, and Participate in national governance and institutional reconstruction with them.
--[[User:Cai Zhufeng|Cai Zhufeng]] ([[User talk:Cai Zhufeng|talk]]) 04:13, 24 October 2021 (UTC)

Second, the Qing Dynasty’s banner education had many titles and institutions. Many of them only taught Manchu, riding and shooting and other subjects that maintained national characteristics, but there were also many people who taught Manchu, Chinese translation or Manchu and Mongolian translators. Many language talents have been trained. The establishment of the Eight Banners Official School allows the Eight Banners disciples to learn languages (Manchu, Mongolian and Chinese), translation and riding and shooting, etc., without losing the characteristics of Manchuria, but also enhancing ethnic exchanges, presenting the characteristics of Manchuria’s governance, and expanding the basis for participation in the regime, etc. , It makes sense. As we all know, during the Shunzhi period, although the Qing army entered the Pass and the Manchu and Qing dynasties gradually formed, many problems that hindered the rule of the government remained unresolved, such as the collapse of the Li Zicheng Yu party, the local forces entrenched in various places, the continued existence of the Nanming regime, and The restoration and reconstruction of social order and various problems made the Manchu rulers have to cooperate with the Han people and participate in national governance and system reconstruction with the latter.--[[User:Zeng Junlin|Zeng Junlin]] ([[User talk:Zeng Junlin|talk]]) 14:55, 26 October 2021 (UTC)

==曾俊霖 Zēng Jùnlín 国别男202120081478==

为此，便需要八旗人等具备多语种能力，一则为沟通政事，二则为学习汉制，这一点与官学的功能高度契合。加之康熙中期以前，汉族知识分子中对于异族政权无法释怀者不在少数，这些人具有明确的使命感，虽然表面上对满洲政权采取合作态度，心中却希望在统治者的支持下，维护、发扬汉族文化。而统治者为了巩固统治，虽然不得已在满、汉之间寻找平衡点，考量汉族士子和汉民利益，以免因失去民心危及政权稳定，但为了维护统治集团的特殊地位，又不得不牺牲汉人利益，而旗、民分治，创办官学，倡导国语骑射，正可以保持满洲的民族特质，抵御汉文化冲击。

Therefore, it is necessary for the people of the eight banners to have multilingual ability, one is to communicate political affairs, the other is to learn the Han system, which is highly consistent with the function of the official school. In addition, before the middle of Kangxi, there were many Han intellectuals who could not let go of the alien regime. These people had a clear sense of mission. Although they ostensibly took a cooperative attitude towards the Manchu regime, they hoped to maintain and carry forward the Han culture with the support of the rulers. In order to consolidate their rule, the rulers had to find a balance between Manchu and Han, considering the interests of Han Scholars and Han people, so as not to endanger the stability of political power due to the loss of popular support. However, in order to maintain the special status of the ruling group, they had to sacrifice the interests of Han people. The national characteristics of Manchuria can be maintained by dividing the eight banners and the people, establishing official schools and advocating Manchu language, horse-riding and archery to resist the impact of Chinese culture.--[[User:Zeng Junlin|Zeng Junlin]] ([[User talk:Zeng Junlin|talk]]) 14:44, 26 October 2021 (UTC)

Therefore, it is necessary for the people of the eight banners to have multilingual ability. One is to communicate political affairs, the other is to learn the Han system, which is highly consistent with the function of the official school. In addition, before the middle of Kangxi, there were not a few Han intellectuals who could not let go of the alien regime. These people had a clear sense of mission. Although they ostensibly took a cooperative attitude towards the Manchu regime, they hoped to maintain and carry forward the Han culture with the support of the rulers. In order to consolidate their rule, the rulers had to find a balance between Manchu and Han, considering the interests of Han Scholars and Han people, so as not to endanger the stability of political power due to the loss of popular support. However, in order to maintain the special status of the ruling group, they had to sacrifice the interests of Han people. The national characteristics of Manchuria can be maintained by dividing the eight banners and the people, establishing official schools and advocating Manchu language, horse-riding and archery to resist the impact of Chinese culture.
--[[User:Chen Huini|Chen Huini]] ([[User talk:Chen Huini|talk]]) 15:31, 26 October 2021 (UTC)Chen Huini

==陈惠妮 Chén Huìnī 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081479==

总之，旗学之兴，乃是睦族敦宗，加恩八旗之举，客观上促进了民族交流，为朝廷广育人才。3.顺治以前的翻译人才培养与使用。清太祖、太宗年间，朝中通晓满、蒙、汉语者，不乏其人，如达海、额尔德尼和希福等，这些人多来自归附的海西女真，即扈伦四部（哈达、乌拉、叶赫、辉发）。

In a word, the prosperity of Qi School is actually an act of the thriving of ancestry and the favor of Eight Banners, which objectively promotes the communication among nations so as to cultivate talents for the royal. 3. The cultivation and the employment of talented translators before Emperor Shuizhi. In the years of the Emperor of Qing Taizhu and Qing Taizhong, there were many people who got a good acquittance of the language of Man, Meng and Han in the imperial court, such as Da Hai, Etden, XiFu and so on. Most of them came from the affiliated Nuzhen of the west China sea, namely, the Four Horun tribes. (Hada, Wula, YeHe, and HuiFa).--[[User:Chen Huini|Chen Huini]] ([[User talk:Chen Huini|talk]]) 02:41, 24 October 2021 (UTC)Chen Huini

In a word, the prosperity of Qi School is actually an act of the thriving of ancestry and the favor of Eight Banners, which objectively promotes the communication among nations so as to cultivate talents for the royal. 3. The cultivation and the employment of talented translators before Emperor Shuizhi. In the years of the Emperor of Qing Taizhu and Qing Taizhong, there were many people who got a good acquittance of the language of Man, Meng and Han in the imperial court. For example ,Da Hai, Etden, XiFu and so on, Most of them came from the affiliated Nuzhen of the west China sea, namely, the Four Horun tribes. (Hada, Wula, YeHe, and HuiFa).--[[User:Chen Xiangqiong|Chen Xiangqiong]] ([[User talk:Chen Xiangqiong|talk]]) 00:21, 27 October 2021 (UTC)

==陈湘琼 Chén Xiāngqióng 外国语言学及应用语言学女 202120081480==

由于地理位置特殊，民族互动频密，这些人养成了多语种能力，其中多数在朝廷充任翻译、文书、外交之职。例如，来自扈伦哈达部的硕色和希福兄弟，因兼通满、蒙、汉文字，一个奉命在文馆行走，另一个奉命出使蒙古诸国。硕色的长子索尼也因早承家学，兼通满、蒙、汉文字，在文馆办事。

Because of special geographic location and frequent communication among nations, these people developed multilingual abilities and most of them worked as translator, amanuensis, and diplomatist in the imperial court. For example, Shuo Se and Xi Fu brothers from Hada were able to use Man, Meng and Han languages, so that one of them was recommended to work for the research institute of culture and the other was sent to visit Mongolia. Also, the big son of Shuo Se inherited his fathers job for the same linguistic ability.--[[User:Chen Xiangqiong|Chen Xiangqiong]] ([[User talk:Chen Xiangqiong|talk]]) 02:52, 22 October 2021 (UTC)

Due to the special geographical location and frequent ethnic interaction, these people developed multilingual ability, most of them served as translators, clerks and diplomats in the imperial court. For example, Shuose and Xifu brothers from the Hulunghada tribe, because they were fluent in both Manchu, Mongolian and Chinese, one was ordered to work in the government office of the early Qing dynasty, and the other was ordered to go to the Mongolian countries. Shuose's eldest son Soni worked in the government office because of early family education and fluent in Manchu, Mongolian and Chinese. --[[User:Chen Xinyi|Chen Xinyi]] ([[User talk:Chen Xinyi|talk]]) 07:38, 25 October 2021 (UTC)

==陈心怡 Chén Xīnyí 翻译学女 202120081481==

随着国家政权的逐步扩大，内政外交的日益繁复，翻译与文书工作大幅增加，仅仅依靠归附者群体中的语言人才已然不够，自行培养势在必行。于是，天聪年间，朝廷规定八旗子弟循例读书，并令汉人中的儒生俊秀入文馆肄业。即便如此，因文馆官员政事冗繁，管理不善，八旗笔帖式及文馆臣僚中，通晓翻译者仍不敷任用。

With the gradual expansion of state power and the increasing complexity of domestic and foreign affairs, translation and paperwork increased dramatically, relying only on the language talents of the subordinate groups was no longer enough, and it was imperative to cultivate them on their own. Therefore, during the Tiancong period, the court stipulated that the eight banners' children should study as a rule, and made the Confucian scholars among the Han population to enter the government office of the early Qing dynasty to study. Even so, because of the redundancy of the officials of the government office, the management was not good, and the one who is skilled in translating was still not enough to appoint among the eight banners and the bureaucrats of the government office.--[[User:Chen Xinyi|Chen Xinyi]] ([[User talk:Chen Xinyi|talk]]) 07:25, 25 October 2021 (UTC)
With the gradual expansion of state power and the increasing complexity of domestic and foreign affairs, translation and paperwork increased dramatically. Relying only on the language talents of the subordinate groups was no longer enough, and it was imperative to cultivate them on their own. Therefore, during the Tiancong period, the court stipulated that the Eight Banners’ children should study as a rule, and made the Confucian scholars among the Han population to enter the government office of the early Qing dynasty to study. Even so, because of the redundancy of the affairs of government officials and mismanagement, the one who mastered translation was still not enough to appoint among the Eight Banners and the bureaucrats of the government office.--[[User:Cheng Yang|Cheng Yang]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yang|talk]]) 03:12, 27 October 2021 (UTC)

==程杨 Chéng Yáng 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081482==

如天聪六年九月，书房（即文馆）秀才王文奎奏称：“至若翻译之笔帖式，在书房之通文理者，止恩国太一人。”（罗振玉，1989：329-330）礼部汉官王舜也以翻译人才不济为由，奏请“尽搜国中识汉字者”，“考其识见才调”，并“拣选实学秀才朝夕讲论”，认为只有这样才能使“今日之小榜什（笔帖式）”成为“后日之大榜什（巴克什）矣”。（同上：338）为缓解国家政务对于翻译人才需求的压力，太宗于天聪八年晓谕礼部考取举人十六名，从事满书、汉书、蒙古书的学习。
For example, in the sixth year of Tian Cong, the reign title of Qing Dynasty, a scholar of the study, that is, the government official, Wang Wenkui submitted memorials to the throne: “As for the mention of Bi Tieshi engaged in translation, who were low-level civilian officials of Qing Dynasty, only En Taiguo was the one who thoroughly understood the unity and coherence of writing.” (Luo Zhenyu, 1989: 329-330) The Han officials in the Ministry of Rites, Wang Shun, also took the reason of lack of translation talents submitting to the throne for “did their best to search people who could recognize chinese characters”, “tested their knowledge and experiences” and “selected government officials who owned real quality to discuss day and night”. And he held the view that only in these ways could we made “Small Bang Shi ( Bi Tieshi) today” turned into “Big Bang Shi later (Ba Keshi)”. (Id. :338) In order to alleviate the pressure of national government affairs on the demand for translation talents, in the eighth year of Tian Cong reign title, Taizong, emperor of Qing Dynasty, gave explicit instructions to the Ministry of Rites to examine and select 16 candidates in the empirical examination who would engage in the study of books of Manchu, Han and Mongol.--[[User:Cheng Yang|Cheng Yang]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yang|talk]]) 05:58, 27 October 2021 (UTC)

For example, in December, the sixth year of Tian Cong, the reign title of Qing Dynasty, scholar of the study and government official, Wang Wenkui submitted memorials to the emperor: “As for translation in Bi Tieshi, only En Taiguo was the one who thoroughly understood the unity and coherence of writing.” (Luo Zhenyu, 1989: 329-330) For lack of translation talents, the Han official in the Ministry of Rites, Wang Shun, also appealed to the emperor for “do their best to search people who could recognize chinese characters”, “test their knowledge and experience” and “select government officials who owned real quality to discuss day and night”. He also held the view that only in these ways could we made “Small Bang Shi ( Bi Tieshi) today” turned into “Big Bang Shi later (Ba Keshi)”. (Id. :338) In order to alleviate the pressure of national government affairs on the demand for translation talents, in the eighth year of Tian Cong reign title, Taizong, emperor of Qing Dynasty, gave explicit instructions to the Ministry of Rites to examine and select 16 candidates in the empirical examination to engage in the study of books of Manchu, Han and Mongol.--[[User:Ding Xuan|Ding Xuan]] ([[User talk:Ding Xuan|talk]]) 10:50, 27 October 2021 (UTC)

==丁旋 Dīng Xuán 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081483==

崇德三年、六年，又两次考取举人十七人、生员一百零五人。此两次考试虽系满洲、蒙古、汉军“同为一榜”，但内容上却是“互考汉文、满文”，其取士额数虽少，却是朝廷招募翻译、文书人员的重要来源。以《辽》、《金》、《元》史的翻译为例，三书的满文译本于顺治元年进呈，因此而受赏者达十六人。

In the third and sixth year of Chongde Emperor, 17 Ju Ren (a successful candidate in the imperial examinations at the provincial level) and 105 Xiu Cai (one woh passed the imperial examination at the county level) were enrolled. Though Manchu, Mongolia and soldiers of Han were on the same list in the two examinations, the content of examinations was mutual translation of language of Han ethnic and Manchu. The examination regime is the important means to recruit interpreters and clerical staff in despite of its few enrollment quota. Taking the translation of ''History of Liao Dynasty'', ''History of Jin Dynasty'' and ''History of Yuan Dynasty'' for example, the Manchu version of these three books were submitted in the first year of Shunzhi and the 16 people participating in this translation project granted a reward. --[[User:Ding Xuan|Ding Xuan]] ([[User talk:Ding Xuan|talk]]) 03:36, 23 October 2021 (UTC)

In the third and sixth year of Chongde Emperor, holding two examinations, 17 Ju Ren (a successful candidate in the imperial examinations at the provincial level) and 105 Xiu Cai (one who passed the imperial examination at the county level) were enrolled. Though Manchu, Mongolia and Han all took the two examinations, the content of examinations was mutual translation of language of Han and Manchu.This examination regime is an important means to recruit interpreters and clerical staff in despite of its few enrollment quota. Taking the translation of ''History of Liao Dynasty'', ''History of Jin Dynasty'' and ''History of Yuan Dynasty'' for example, the Manchu version of these three books were submitted in the first year of Shunzhi and 16 people participating in this translation project were granted a reward. --[[User:Du Lina|Du Lina]] ([[User talk:Du Lina|talk]]) 13:56, 24 October 2021 (UTC)

==杜莉娜 Dù Lìnuó 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081484==

《清实录·世祖章皇帝实录》中，对此事的记载如下：赐大学士希福鞍马一匹、银四十兩；学士胡球、查布海、王文奎、员外郎刘弘遇、他赤哈比帖式能图、叶成格（又名宜成格）马各一匹、银三十兩；铿特、卜尔凱、卦尔察銀各四十兩；卞为凤、科尔科代、尼满銀各三十兩，硕尔格、刘朝卿、李允昌銀各二十兩。（鄂尔泰等，1985：49）上述十六人中，出身举人、生员者七人。

In ''Veritable Records of Qing Dynasty ·Veritable Records of Shunzhi Emperor'', this event was reported as follows: Grand Secretary Xi Fu was awarded a side horse and forty taels of silver; secretaries like Hu Qiu, Cha Buhai and Wang Wenkui and vice directors like Liu Hongyu, Ta chi ha bi tie shi neng tu and Ye Chengge (also called Yi Chengge) were respectively awarded a horse and thirty taels of silver; Keng Te, Bo Erkai and Gua Ercha forty taels of silver; Bian Weifeng, Kolkoday and Ni Man thirty taels of silver, Shuo Erge, Liu Chaoqin and Li Yunchang twenty taels of silver.(E‘ertai,et al,1985:49) Sixteen people mentioned above include seven ones who were Juren (one who is a successful candidate in the imperial examinations at the provincial level)or Xiucai(one who passes the imperial examinations at the county level).--[[User:Du Lina|Du Lina]] ([[User talk:Du Lina|talk]]) 03:21, 22 October 2021 (UTC)

In ''Veritable Records of Qing Dynasty ·Veritable Records of Shunzhi Emperor'', this event was reported as following: Grand Secretary Xi Fu was awarded a side horse and forty taels of silver; secretaries like Hu Qiu, Cha Buhai and Wang Wenkui and vice directors like Liu Hongyu, Ta chi ha bi tie shi neng tu and Ye Chengge (also called Yi Chengge) were respectively awarded a horse and thirty taels of silver; Keng Te, Bo Erkai and Gua Ercha forty taels of silver; Bian Weifeng, Kolkoday and Ni Man thirty taels of silver, Shuo Erge, Liu Chaoqin and Li Yunchang twenty taels of silver.(E‘ertai,et al,1985:49) Sixteen people mentioned above include seven ones who were Juren (one who is a successful candidate in the imperial examinations at the provincial level)and Xiucai(one who passes the imperial examinations at the county level).----[[User:Fu Hongyan|Fu Hongyan]] ([[User talk:Fu Hongyan|talk]]) 07:33, 1 November 2021 (UTC)

==付红岩 Fù Hóngyán 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081485==

其中，查布海为天聪八年举人，胡球和王文奎为崇德三年举人，卞为凤为崇德六年举人，铿特为崇德三年生员（列二等），叶成格和科尔科代则为崇德六年生员，分列三等和一等。由于汉书翻译向来任重道远，朝廷格外重视，因而一部书籍译成之后，受赏者往往众多。如《洪武宝训》于顺治三年译成之后，受赏者更是多达一百零九人，受赏对象从大学士、学士、侍读，到笔帖式、他赤哈哈番、中书舍人，再到编修、检讨和誊录官不等，可见翻译职责之重。（中国第一历史档案馆，1989：308）
Among them, Cha Buhai was the successful candidate in the imperial examinations at the provincial level in the eighth year of Tiancong, Hu Qiu and Wang Wenkui being the same candidate in the third year of Chongde, Bian Weifeng being the same as above in the sixth year of Chongde, Clante being scholar in the third years of Chongde (listed in the second class), Ye Chengge and Korkodai being the scholar in the sixth year of Chongde,(ranked in the third and first class). Because the work of translating Chinese classics has always been a great enterprise to run, the imperial court attached extra importance. Therefore, a book , the having been translated, many involed officers would receive the reward. Hongwu Baoxun, a historical book of Ming Dynasty, for instance having been translated in third year of Shunzhi, the people being rewarded was up to one hundred and nine, the rewarded object from the bachelor, scholar, royal tutor, bithesi clerk, the Chinese sherpa, to the editor, review and transcription officer, etc, from which we can see how heavy the translation duties was.(The First Historical Archives of China, 1989: 308)--[[User:Fu Hongyan|Fu Hongyan]] ([[User talk:Fu Hongyan|talk]]) 13:37, 23 October 2021 (UTC)

Among them, Cha Buhai was the successful candidate in the imperial examinations at the provincial level in the eighth year of Tiancong; Hu Qiu and Wang Wenkui , the same candidate in the third year of Chongde; Bian Weifeng, the same as above in the sixth year of Chongde; Kengte, the scholar in the third years of Chongde (listed in the second class); Ye Chengge and Keerkedai, the scholar in the sixth year of Chongde,(ranked in the third and first class). Because the work of translating Chinese classics has always been a great enterprise to run, the imperial court attached extra importance. As a result , the book ,having been translated completely, many involed officers would be rewarded. ''Hongwu Baoxun'', a historical book of Ming Dynasty, for instance having been translated in third year of Shunzhi, the number of people being rewarded was up to one hundred and nine, the rewarded object from the bachelor, scholar, royal tutor, bithesi clerk, the Chinese sherpa, to the editor, review and transcription officer, etc, from which we can see how heavy the translation duties was. (The First Historical Archives of China, 1989: 308)--[[User:Fu Shiyu|Fu Shiyu]] ([[User talk:Fu Shiyu|talk]]) 08:50, 25 October 2021 (UTC)

==付诗雨 Fù Shīyǔ 日语语言文学女 202120081486==

清军入关后，朝廷对翻译人员，或者兼通满、汉文的官吏需求显著增加，旗人教化刻不容缓。为此，政府既允许宗室、大臣子弟在家读书，也鼓励其入国子监八旗官学肄业。然而，旗学教育虽系正途，但国家方举，用人之事如同在弦之箭，透过旗学培养翻译人才，缓不济急。

After the Manchu army entered the Shanhaiguan Pass, the imperial court's needs of translators, or officials familiar with both Manchu and Chinese, increased significantly. The education of Manchu had become an urgent task. To this end, the government not only allowed the imperial clan and grand ministers’ children to study at home, but also encouraged them to enter the Imperial University "Guozijian", the highest educational administration in Qing dynasty. However, although the education of Manchu was the orthodox way to be an official, training translators through the education of Manchu was a slow remedy that could not meet the urgency of selecting officials for the new regime.--[[User:Fu Shiyu|Fu Shiyu]] ([[User talk:Fu Shiyu|talk]]) 07:00, 22 October 2021 (UTC)

After the Manchu army had entered the Shanhaiguan Pass, the imperial court saw a marked increase in the need of translators and officials proficient in both Manchu and Chinese. An education for the Manchus became urgent. Therefore, the government not only allowed homeschooling for the children of the imperial clan and ministers, but also encouraged them to study in the Imperial College. However, the Eight-Banner Official school, though being the official way of receiving education, failed to cultivate in a short term translators who were desperately needed by the new regime.--[[User:Gao Mi|Gao Mi]] ([[User talk:Gao Mi|talk]]) 14:24, 23 October 2021 (UTC)

==高蜜 Gāo Mì 翻译学女 202120081487==

在此情形下，朝廷又允许八旗士子以荫生（类似汉代以来的“任子”制度，分恩荫、难荫，由皇帝特赐）、监生等资格，参加各部院衙门组织的职缺考试，如他赤哈哈番、笔帖式哈番、中书、库使等。顺治朝以后，由于世祖更加重视旗人教育，如顺治元年颁布圣谕，令京城满洲八旗各觅空房，立为书院，翌年又令四品以上京畿官员，以及在外三品以上官员子弟入国子监读书，并于九年设立宗学，教养宗室子弟，旗人读书风气日盛，知识储备渐趋完善，可充任用者随之增多，因而考试选才不可避免。

Under the circumstances, the imperial court then approved that students of the Eight-Banner Official school could attend, as Jiansheng(students of the Imperial College) and Yinsheng(granted by the emperor, similar to the hereditary system by which the children of ministers succeed to the father’s post in Han dynasty), tests for vacancies in Yamen(government offices in ancient China), including such posts as Tachiha, Bitieshi, Zhonshu(different civil afficials) and Kushi. Shunzhi Emperor paid more attention to the education of bannermen during his reign. At the first year, an imperial dree was issued demanding that Eight-Banner Official schools across the nation set a room as the academy. And at the second year, he demanded that children of officials in the Capital and its Environs above the fourth rank and those of provincial officials above the third rank attend the imperial college. What’s more, at the ninth year, he set up education institutions for royal clansmen. As the education for bannermen was thriving and becoming more comprehensive, those who can be employed were on the rise. Hence selective tests became unavoidable. --[[User:Gao Mi|Gao Mi]] ([[User talk:Gao Mi|talk]]) 14:26, 23 October 2021 (UTC)

Under the circumstances, the imperial court then approved that students of the Eight-Banner Official school could attend, as Jiansheng(students of the Imperial College) and Yinsheng(granted by the emperor, similar to the hereditary system by which the children of ministers succeed to the father’s post in Han dynasty), tests for vacancies in Yamen(government offices in ancient China), including such posts as Tachiha, Bitieshi, Zhonshu(different civil afficials) and Kushi. Shunzhi Emperor paid more attention to the education of bannermen during his reign. At the first year, an imperial dree was issued demanding that Eight-Banner Official schools across the nation set a room as the academy. And at the second year, he demanded that children of officials in the Capital and its Environs above the fourth rank and those of provincial officials above the third rank attend the imperial college. What’s more, at the ninth year, he set up education institutions for royal clansmen. Because reading atmosphere of bannermen gradually prosperous, and their knowledge reserve gradually perfect. The number of who can be employed is rising. Thus select talented people is inevitable.--[[User:Gong Boya|Gong Boya]] ([[User talk:Gong Boya|talk]]) 10:34, 27 October 2021 (UTC)

==宫博雅 Gōng Bóyǎ 俄语语言文学女 202120081488==

顺治八年，经礼部议准，规定嗣后凡遇应考之年，均由内院会同礼部办理，分童试、乡试、会试，定生员额数一百八十人（满洲一百二十、蒙古六十），举人额数一百二十人（满洲五十、汉军五十、蒙古二十），进士额数六十人（满洲二十五、汉军二十五、蒙古十），并另由顺天府学政考取汉军生员一百二十人。考试内容上，无论乡试、会试，满洲、蒙古中的识汉字者均以考试翻译为主，即翻译汉字文一篇。（鄂尔泰等，1985：457）

In the eighth year of Shunzhi, after the consultation of the Ministry of Rites, it was stipulated that the inner Court and the Ministry of Rites jointly handled the examination whenever there was an imperial examination year. The tests are divided into Boy trial, provincial examinations, and metropolitan examination. The number of students admitted by the examination is 180 (120 manchurians, the Mongolian people 60), the number of provincial graduate admitted by the examination is 120 (50 manchurians, Han 50 people, the Mongolian people 20), the number of Jinshi admitted by the examination is 60 (25 manchurians, Han 25 people, the Mongolian people 10). In addition, 120 han students were admitted by Shuntianfu. In terms of the content of the test, regardless of Boy trial, provincial examinations, and metropolitan examination, the people who know Hanzi in the Manchu and Mongol nationality mainly take the translation test, which is to translate an article of Hanzi.(Ortai etc., 1985: 457)--[[User:Gong Boya|Gong Boya]] ([[User talk:Gong Boya|talk]]) 03:38, 23 October 2021 (UTC)

In the eighth year of Shunzhi’s reign, it was discussed and approved by the Ministry of Rites that hereafter, whenever there was an Imperial Examination, the inner Court and the Ministry of Rites would jointly hold it. It was divided into Boy Trial, Provincial Examination, and Metropolitan Examination. 180 candidates (120 Manchurians and 60 Mongolians) could pass the Boy Trial; 120 candidates (50 Manchurians, 50 Han people, and 20 Mongolians) could pass the Provincial Examination; 60 candidates (25 Manchurians, 25 Han people, 10 Mongolians) could pass the Metropolitan Examination. In addition, 120 Han students were admitted via Shuntianfu Academy. In terms of the content, whether in Provincial Examination or Metropolitan Examination, those who knew Chinese character as Manchurians and Mogolians would mainly take the translation examination, which means they need to translate a Chinese text.(Ortai etc., 1985: 457)--[[User:He Qin|He Qin]] ([[User talk:He Qin|talk]]) 09:53, 23 October 2021 (UTC)

==何芩 Hé Qín 翻译学女 202120081489==

虽然本次办理的翻译考试并非后来的翻译科考，但其却是清初以来首次通过考试翻译，选拔旗人官员，为旗人提供了另一种进身、入仕之途。鉴于政权的性质和政治的现实，对旗人而言，无论是八旗满洲，还是八旗蒙古，要想留任京畿官职，往往必须兼通满、汉，或者满、蒙，以充翻译、缮写文书之用，这一点正是乡、会二试中考试翻译的缘由所在。顺治九年，礼部议准办理壬辰科会试，通过考试翻译的满洲、蒙古进士共计五十人，这些人比照汉人科举之例，被分别授予修撰、编修等职。

Though it was not the translation examination in the Imperial Examination, yet the first time translation had been used to select Eight Banner officials since the beginning of Qing dynasty, which offered them another channel into authorities. In view of the nature of the regime and political reality, for Eight Banners, whether they were Manchuria or Mongolia, if they wanted to retain their official posts in the Capital and its Environs, they must know both Manchu and Chinese, or Manchu and Mongolian, so as to do translation and paperwork, which account for why translation was a subject in both the Provincial Examination and Metropolitan Examination. In the ninth year of Shunzhi’s reign, a total of 50 Manchurian and Mongolian scholars passed the translation examination in the Renchen Metropolitan Examination approved and held by the Ministry of Rites. These people were designated as compilers, editors and so on, according to the convention of Han Imperial Examination.--[[User:He Qin|He Qin]] ([[User talk:He Qin|talk]]) 08:50, 23 October 2021 (UTC)

Though this translation exam was different from that of the Imperial Examination, it was the first time the Eight Banner officials were elected by examine translation, which offered them another way to authorities. Viewing the nature of the regime and political reality, for the Eight Banners, whether Manchuria or Mongolian, if wanting to retain their official posts in Beijing, they had to know any two languages among three languages to translate and write out paperwork, which was the reason of examine translation in both the Provincial and Metropolitan Examination. In the ninth year of Shunzhi’s reign, a total of 50 Manchurian and Mongolian scholars passed the examination. These scholars were honored with compilers, editors and so on respectively, according to the convention of Han Imperial Examination.--[[User:Hu Shuqing|Hu Shuqing]] ([[User talk:Hu Shuqing|talk]]) 02:22, 28 October 2021 (UTC)

==胡舒情 Hú Shūqíng 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081490==

同年四月，吏科给事中高辛允具折，建议朝廷慎选庶吉士（翻译职官之一），以重名器。此事经内院议覆并奏准，决定从进士及第者中拔取汉人四十名、满洲与蒙古各二名，以及汉军四名，一体入“馆”（内弘文院庶常馆）读书。其中，汉进士中的部分学生被要求学习清文、清书，满洲、蒙古进士则需要学习汉书、汉语，其目的是为了应对“奏对讲读”，以及在兼晓满、蒙、汉文字之后，提升翻译能力。

In April of that year, the officer Gao Xinyun prepared the memorial which suggested that the court should select officers of translation deliberately to emphasize the reputation. It was discussed, answered, and finally approved by the Adytum( the predecessor of the Cabinet), who decided to elect 40 Han scholars, 2 Manchurian scholars and 2 Mongolian scholars from those passing the he imperial examination, with 4 Han soldiers, to study at Guan together. Among these people, a part of Han scholars were asked to study Manchu language and books, and those of Mongolian and Manchurian scholars to study Chinese language and books, which aimed to deal with the emperor’s questions and lectures, and to improve their ability to translate after knowing three languages.--[[User:Hu Shuqing|Hu Shuqing]] ([[User talk:Hu Shuqing|talk]]) 07:30, 26 October 2021 (UTC)

Later in April, the supervising secretary Gao Xinyun presented an amanuensis to the court emphasizing the importance of Shu Jishi(a kind of translator) thus suggesting a strict selection. After discussion, the Adytum ( the predecessor of the Cabinet) decided to elect 40 Han scholars, 2 Manchurian scholars and 2 Mongolian scholars from those passing the he imperial examination, with 4 Han soldiers, to study at Guan together. Bedsides, some Han scholars were required to learn Manchu characters and books, while Mongolian and Manchurian scholars to study Chinese language and books. It was an reaction to the Emperor’s questions and lectures, and aimed at improving translation ability after grasping those characters.--[[User:Huang Jinyun|Huang Jinyun]] ([[User talk:Huang Jinyun|talk]]) 14:49, 26 October 2021 (UTC)

==黄锦云 Huáng Jǐnyún 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081491==

在顺治朝两科翻译考试（八年、十一年乡试，以及九年、十二年会试）中，虽然出身旗学的举人和进士人数已无从详考，但中式者中确有供职于各部院衙门，职掌翻译和处理满、汉文书者，如乙未科满洲进士伊桑阿，初由礼部六品笔帖式授主事，后于康熙年间累迁至文华殿大学士兼吏部尚书。由于顺治年间亦如太祖、太宗时期一样，统治者亟需了解汉族文化，汲取治国理政经验，同时安抚汉族民众，伊桑阿等经考试翻译获得进身者往往被分派至内三院，或其后改制的内阁与翰林院，或经皇帝钦定，或由部院议决，担任翻译汉籍的工作。如顺治十一年十月，大学士宁完我进呈《洪武大诰》，世祖遂命内院诸臣翻译进览。

In two kinds of translation examinations (provincial examination in 1651 and 1654, metropolitan examination in 1652 and 1655)in the reign of Emperor Shunzhi, the number of the selected scholars from Qi culture was hard to verify. But some of them worked for different government offices, taking charge of translating and handling official dispatches. For example, Yi Sanga, Jinshi(a successful candidate in the highest imperial examinations) from Manchu, was firstly an officer appointed by the sixth-grade leader in theMinistry of Rites; then during the reign of Emperor Kangxi he was transferred to Wenhua Palace as a garde secretary and minister of Board of Personnel. Like the early period of Qing Dynasty, Emperor Shunzhi was eager to know Han culture and learn some arrangement strategies, comfort Han’s people at the same time. Therefore all the successful candidates passing translation examinations like Yi Sanga, were sent to translate Han classicals in Three Houses, or later established cabinet and Hanlin Academy by the Emperor or official apartments. In november of 1654, Ning Wanwo, grade scholar, presented the translation “Hong Wu Da Gao”. And the Emperor soon ordered all officials to read it. --[[User:Huang Jinyun|Huang Jinyun]] ([[User talk:Huang Jinyun|talk]]) 08:33, 23 October 2021 (UTC)

In two kinds of translation examinations (Provisional Examination in 1651 and 1654, Metropolitan Examination in 1652 and 1655)in the reign of Emperor Shunzhi, the number of the selected scholars from Qi culture was hard to verify. However, some of them worked for different government offices, taking charge of translating and handling official documents. For example, Yi Sanga, Jinshi(a successful candidate in the highest imperial examinations) from Manchu, was firstly an officer appointed by the sixth-grade leader in the Ministry of Rites; then during the reign of Emperor Kangxi he was transferred to Wenhua Palace as a garde secretary and minister of Board of Personnel. Like the early period of Qing Dynasty, Emperor Shunzhi was eager to learn Han culture and experience in governance, comfort Han’s people at the same time. Therefore all the successful candidates passing translation examinations like Yi Sanga, were sent to translate Han classics in Three Houses, or later established cabinet and Hanlin Academy by the Emperor or official apartments. In November of 1654, Ning Wanwo, grade scholar, presented the translation “Hong Wu Da Gao”. And the Emperor soon ordered all officials to read it.--[[User:Huang Yiyan1|Huang Yiyan1]] ([[User talk:Huang Yiyan1|talk]]) 14:52, 24 October 2021 (UTC)

==黄逸妍 Huáng Yìyán 外国语言学及应用语言学女 202120081492==

又如顺治十五年五月，“九卿”（清代上谕中常用“六部九卿”之称，虽无明确规定，但通常指都察院、大理寺、太常寺、光禄寺、鸿胪寺、太仆寺、通政使司、宗人府，以及銮仪卫等九个机构的行政长官）等会同议决国子监书籍一事，要求将《十三经》、《二十一史》等书各印一部，收藏于国子监内，并要求将其“俱翻译清书，以昭同文之盛”，虽然此二者的翻译在动因上明显不同，但由此可知朝廷对于翻译之重视。（同上：915）4.康熙年间的译才取用与汉书翻译。

For example, in May of the fifteenth year of the reign of Emperor Shunzhi, "nine ministers" (Though there was no explicit rules, "six departments and nine ministers" referred to nine institutions and their chief executives in accordance with practice and the nine institutions included Department of Supervision, Dali Temple（today's Supreme Judicial Court）, Taichang Temple(in charge of rituals passed from ancestors )Guanglu Temple(in charge of sacrifice)Honglu Temple(in charge of foreign affairs and protocols)，Taipu Temple(in charge of carriages and horses), Office of Transmission(in charge of conveying suggestions or appeals from people and officials to the emperor), Zongrenfu (in charge of the register of the emperor's nine generations of relatives) and the Imperial Procession Guard) and et al discussed and decided on matters about books in the Imperial College. The officials required that the Thirteen Confucian Classics and the Twenty-one Books of History be printed and collected in the Imperial College. They also requested that all translators should translate the books of Qing Dynasty, showing the unity of language. It can be seen that the royal court attached great importance to translation in spite of the obviously different motives of the two requirements. (ditto:915) 4. It was not until the reign of Emperor Kangxi that books of Han Dynasty were tranlated.--[[User:Huang Yiyan1|Huang Yiyan1]] ([[User talk:Huang Yiyan1|talk]]) 14:11, 24 October 2021 (UTC)

For another example, in May of the 15th year of Shunzhi, the "Jiuqing" (commonly known as "six Jiuqing" in the imperial edict of the Qing Dynasty, although there is no clear provision, it usually refers to the chief executives of nine institutions, such as the ducha academy, Dali Temple, Taichang Temple, Guanglu Temple, Honglu Temple, Taipu Temple, the general political envoy, the Zongren mansion, and Luan Yiwei), and others jointly decided on the issue of the books of the Imperial College and requested that the thirteen classics Twenty one histories and other books were printed respectively and collected in the Imperial Academy, and it was required to "translate all the Qing books to show the prosperity of the same text". Although the two translations were obviously different in motivation, it can be seen that the imperial court attached great importance to translation. (ibid.: 915) 4. The translation in Kangxi period was similar to that in Chinese.--[[User:Huang Zhuliang|Huang Zhuliang]] ([[User talk:Huang Zhuliang|talk]]) 07:40, 29 October 2021 (UTC)Huang Zhuliang

==黄柱梁 Huáng Zhùliáng 国别男 202120081493==

有清一代，由于“翻译之事，大有关系”，统治者都很重视。（马齐等，1985：275）如康熙帝认为，旗人供职于各部院衙门，如兼通满、汉文义，精通翻译，则料理部院事务时，便无不能。而挑选内阁、翰林院官员，也需“博通汉文，善于翻译之人，方为有用。”（中国第一历史档案馆，2009：1297，1329 ）During the Qing Dynasty, the rulers attached great importance to translation because they think that "if the translation has been well done, the whole country can also be well ruled". (Ma Qi et al., 1985:275) For instance, Emperor Kangxi thought that the Manchu officials worked in various ministries and offices all around the country, if he was proficient in both Manchu and Chinese, and was proficient in translation, he could handle all the affairs of ministries and offices. The selection of Cabinet and Imperial Academy officials also requires "people who are proficient in Chinese and good at translation." (Chinese First Historical Archives, 2009:1297,1329)--[[User:Huang Zhuliang|Huang Zhuliang]] ([[User talk:Huang Zhuliang|talk]]) 07:38, 29 October 2021 (UTC)Huang Zhuliang
Since the Qing Dynasty, the emperors attached great importance to translation because they think that "if the translation has been well done, the whole country can also be well ruled". (Ma Qi et al., 1985:275) For instance, Emperor Kangxi thought that the Manchu officials worked in various ministries and offices all around the country, if they were proficient in both Manchu and Chinese, and excelled in translation, they could handle all the affairs of ministries and offices. The selection of officials of Cabinet and of Hanlin Academy also requires "people who are proficient in Chinese and good at translation."--[[User:Jin Xiaotong|Jin Xiaotong]] ([[User talk:Jin Xiaotong|talk]]) 11:54, 29 October 2021 (UTC)

==金晓童 Jīn Xiǎotóng 202120081494==

既然翻译公文尚且如此，翻译汉籍更毋庸说。如康熙四十五年十月，圣祖对《清太宗实录》纂修过程中朝鲜表文的翻译颇为不满，认为其满、汉文义皆不相符，因而差员苦心寻释，两年后终于“将文义完美”。（马齐等，1985：275）康熙五十一年三月，圣祖再次提及此事：昔太宗皇帝时，朝鲜国进表，原无不恭之语，翻译官意欲啟衅，故将表文翻错，以致问罪往征。
Since the translation of official documents is so important,let alone the translation of Chinese works.For example,in October of the 45th year of the reign of Emperor Kanfxi,the Emperor was very dissatisfied with the translation of the North Korean memorial in the compilation of the Records of Emperor Taizong of the Qing Dynasty.He thought that the translation was not consistent with the meaning of Manchu and Chinese characters,so he sent members to look for the interpretation and finally ‘prefect the meaning of the text’after two years.(Ma Qi and others, 1985:275).In March of the 51st year of Emperor Kangxi’s Reign,the emperor mentioned this matter again:During the reign of Emperor Taizong,there was no disrespectful words when the North Korean submitted a memorial,but the translator deliberately mistranslated the memorial in order to provoke a quarrel.As a result,he was published.--[[User:Jin Xiaotong|Jin Xiaotong]] ([[User talk:Jin Xiaotong|talk]]) 08:10, 23 October 2021 (UTC)

The translation of official documents is so important,let alone the translation of Chinese books.For example,in October of the 45th year of Kangxi,the Emperor was very dissatisfied with the translation of Korean memorial during the process of editing ''Records of Emperor Taizong of the Qing Dynasty'', and he thought that ithe translation was not consistent with the meaning of Manchu and Chinese characters. So he sent people to seek the interpretation and finally ‘prefected the meaning of the translation” after two years.(Ma Qi and others, 1985:275).In March of the 51st year of Kangxi, the emperor mentioned this matter again:During the period of Emperor Taizong,there was no disrespectful words when the North Korean submitted a memorial,but the translator deliberately mistranslated the memorial in order to provoke a quarrel.As a result,he was published.--[[User:Kuang Yanli|Kuang Yanli]] ([[User talk:Kuang Yanli|talk]]) 07:49, 27 October 2021 (UTC)

==邝艳丽 Kuàng Yànl 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081495==

后纂修《实录》，见彼表內汉文，与所翻满文，大不相同，始知当时翻译有弊。（同上：470）康熙时期的汉书翻译主要包括两部分，其中一部分是整理、刊行前朝译本，另一部分则是新译其它汉籍。而康熙帝对于旗人教育，以及翻译人才培养的重视，更是超越前人。

''Authentic Records'' was later edited. At that time people began to find out the errors in the translation, for wether literal or deep meanings of Chinese text are different from what is translated into Manchu language. (Ditto: 470) In Kangxi period, the translation of Chinese books mainly consists of two parts, one of which is to arrange and publish the versions by the former dynasty, the other one of which is to translate other Chinese books. Meanwhile, the Emperor Kangxi did a better job than previous emperors in terms of educating Manchu people and attaching importance on fostering translators.--[[User:Kuang Yanli|Kuang Yanli]] ([[User talk:Kuang Yanli|talk]]) 07:27, 27 October 2021 (UTC)

''Authentic Records'' was later edited. At that time people began to find out the errors in the translation, for either literal or deep meanings of Chinese text are different from what is translated into Manchu language. (Ditto: 470) During the reign of Kangxi, the translation of Chinese books mainly consists of two parts, one of which is to arrange and publish the versions by the former dynasty, the other one of which is to translate other Chinese books. Meanwhile, the Emperor Kangxi did a better job than previous emperors in terms of educating Manchu people and attaching importance on fostering translators.--[[User:Li Aixuan|Li Aixuan]] ([[User talk:Li Aixuan|talk]]) 11:58, 27 October 2021 (UTC)

==李爱璇 Lǐ Àixuán 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081496==

康熙年间，朝廷设立的旗学颇多，不仅有康熙二十五年设立的景山官学，也有分设于不同时期的各地官学与义学。如康熙三十年，圣祖御设八旗义学，其后又将义学的设学地域不断扩大，并出台章程制度，规范义学的生员、教习、教学内容和考核方式等。虽然八旗义学的主要目的只是为朝廷培养初级人才，但翻译教学和翻译人才培养仍是其重要内容，因而义学中常设翻译教习，主要由笔帖式和翻译生员等担任。

During the reign of Kangxi, the imperial court established many flag schools, including not only Jingshan official school established in the 25th year during the period of Kangxi, but also local official schools and free schools in different periods. For example, in the 30th year during the period of Kangxi, the emperor set up the Eight Banners free school, and then expanded the area of free school, and issued the constitution system to standardize the students, teaching, teaching content and assessment methods of free school. Although the main purpose of the Eight Banners free school is only to train primary talents for the imperial court, translation teaching and translation talent training are still its important contents. Therefore, the permanent translation teaching in the free school is mainly held by clerk and translation student.--[[User:Li Aixuan|Li Aixuan]] ([[User talk:Li Aixuan|talk]]) 15:05, 26 October 2021 (UTC)

During the reign of Emperor Kangxi, the imperial court initiated many Banner schools, including not only Jingshan Official School established in the 25th year during the Kangxi period, but also local official schools and free private schools at different times. For example, in the 30th year of reign, Emperor Kangxi set up the free private schools of Eight Banners, gradually expanded the scope of it and issued the constitution system to standardize the students, teachers, course contents and examination methods. The main purpose of these schools was only to train primary talents for the court, but translation teaching and talent training were of great importance. Therefore, the regular translation teachers in free private schools were mainly selected from clerical officials and translation students.--[[User:Li Ruiyang|Li Ruiyang]] ([[User talk:Li Ruiyang|talk]]) 15:49, 26 October 2021 (UTC)

==李瑞洋 Lǐ Ruìyáng 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081497==

至乾隆时期，甚至对义学翻译教习的考选方式予以明确规定，要求考取八旗义学翻译教习，“由该旗将举、贡生员咨送”，并要求“择其年逾三旬，行无匪僻者。”（昆冈等，1963：23；柳海松，2017：24）学生学习的内容上，既有语言课程，也有文化课程，但汉文典籍的满文、蒙文译本也是必学内容，如《四书解义》、《性理精义》等，此外学生有时也需要翻译经义。又如康熙三十四年，应黑龙江将军萨布索奏请，圣祖同意在墨尔根设立旗学，从现任笔帖式中考选翻译明通、品行端方者，充当教习。

During the reign of the Emperor Qianlong, the selection of translation teachers in free private school was explicitly stipulated, requiring earning relevant certifications in the Eight Banners. Candidates would be nominated by the Banner and finally recommended by senior licentiates. They were required to be over 30 and commit no crime.(Kungang, 1963: 23; Liu Haisong, 2017:24) In terms of learning content, there were both language courses and cultural courses, but Mongolian and Manchu translations of Han Classics were also compulsory courses, such as ''Comprehension of the Four Books'', ''Introduction of Neo-Confucianism'', etc. In addition, students sometimes needed to translate argumentation on Confucian classics. Another example was that in the 34th year of reign, at the request of General Sabuso of Heilongjiang, Emperor Kangxi agreed to set up a Banner school in Moergen and select from current clerical officials those who were proficient in translation and behaved with good morals to serve as teachers.--[[User:Li Ruiyang|Li Ruiyang]] ([[User talk:Li Ruiyang|talk]]) 14:59, 26 October 2021 (UTC)

During the reign of the Emperor Qianlong, the selection of translation teachers in free private school was formally stipulated, requiring relevant learning experiences in the Eight Banners. Candidates should be nominated by the Banner and finally recommended by senior licentiates. And priority should be given to those who were over 30 years old and committed no crime.(Kungang, 1963: 23; Liu Haisong, 2017:24) In terms of learning contents, there were both language courses and cultural courses, but Mongolian and Manchu versions of Han Classics were also compulsory courses, such as ''Comprehension of the Four Books'', ''Introduction of Neo-Confucianism'', etc. In addition, students sometimes were required to translate argumentation on Confucian classics. Another example was that in the 34th year of Emperor Kangxi's reign, at the request of General Sabuso of Heilongjiang, the Emperor agreed to set up a Banner school in Moergen and select from current clerical officials those who were proficient in translation and behaved well to serve as teachers.--[[User:Li Shan|Li Shan]] ([[User talk:Li Shan|talk]]) 02:29, 28 October 2021 (UTC)

==李姗 Lǐ Shān 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081498==

由于朝廷对于东北旗学向来格外重视，要求其确保民族特色，因而清语、骑射尤为重要。但即便如此，黑龙江八旗义学仍以翻译笔帖式教习汉书、汉字，由此可见旗学中翻译教育与人才培养的普遍性。虽然康熙中期以前，旗学学生的清语能力普遍较好，但欲使其精通翻译，以堪翻译汉籍资用，不能只是加强汉语能力，而令满语能力废弛。

The teaching of Manchu language and riding and shooting was of great importance as a result of the fact that the central government paid immence attention to the schooling of the northeast flags. Despite that, the eights flags in Heilongjiang area were still committed to the instruction of Chinese books and characters by the way of translating. This showed that the training of translation and the cultivation of related talents prevailed among flags. During the first half of Emperor Kangxi' reign, students in flag schools were commonly equipped with excellent Manchu language. However, as for the translation of Chinese books, it was not enough merely to improve their Chinese, but also should enhance their own language.--[[User:Li Shan|Li Shan]] ([[User talk:Li Shan|talk]]) 13:39, 24 October 2021 (UTC)

The teaching of Manchu language and riding shot was of great importance as a result of the fact that the central government paid immence attention to the schooling of banner system in northeast China. Despite that, the gratuitous schools of banner system in Heilongjiang were still committed to the instruction of Chinese books and characters by the way of translating. This showed that the training of translation and the cultivation of related talents prevailed among banners. During the first half of Emperor Kangxi's reign, students in banner schools were commonly equipped with excellent Manchu language. However, as for the translation of Chinese books, it was not enough merely to improve their Chinese, but also should enhance their own language.--[[User:Li Shuang|Li Shuang]] ([[User talk:Li Shuang|talk]]) 09:56, 27 October 2021 (UTC)

==李双 Lǐ Shuāng 翻译学女 202120081499==

康熙中期以来，随着民族交流显著增多，旗人子弟习汉书的风气日盛，不仅妨碍了其习清书的意愿，而且也因其清语能力的消退影响了翻译。事实上，早在康熙十二年四月，圣祖便常常告诫侍臣，表达对于旗人学习清语的忧虑。圣祖所担心的并非此时的满人不知清语，而是嗣后因为满洲渐习汉语，可能会将满语遗忘。

Since the middle term of Kangxi’s reign, more and more bannermen study Chinese as there has been a marked increase in ethnic exchanges. But this not only hampers the inclination for the study of Manchu language, but also affects the translation because of the decline of their Manchu language level. In fact, in the twelfth April of Kangxi’s reign, the emperor often admonished his courtiers and showed his concern about bannermen’s Manchu learning. What worries him is not that bannermen at this time don’t understand Manchu, but is that their descendants may forget Manchu for usual practice of Chinese in Manchuria.--[[User:Li Shuang|Li Shuang]] ([[User talk:Li Shuang|talk]]) 07:19, 27 October 2021 (UTC)

Since the middle term of Kangxi's reign, more and more bannermen studied Chinese as there had been a marked increase in ethnic exchanges. But this not only hampered the inclination for the study of Manchu language, but also affected the translation because of the decline of their Manchu language level. In fact, in April 1673, Kangxi often admonished his courtiers and showed his concern about bannermen's Manchu learning. What worried him was not that bannermen at this time didn’t understand Manchu, but was that their descendants may forget Manchu for usual practice of Chinese in Manchuria.--[[User:Li Wenxuan|Li Wenxuan]] ([[User talk:Li Wenxuan|talk]]) 10:32, 27 October 2021 (UTC)

==李文璇 Lǐ Wénxuán 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081500==

圣祖认为，满、汉文义不乏相似，即便照字翻译，可通用者仍然很多，因而不致给今天的译者造成困难，但随着世易时移，后世子弟未必知晓，因而“差失大意”或“言语欠当”或许在所难免。（中国第一历史档案馆，2009：93）康熙的担心到了晚期以后得到应验，此时的八旗子弟清语能力普遍下降，不仅后生子弟“竟忘满语”，而且“老成旧耆”者，也有语音不正、字句失落的情况，导致翻译中误译、错译丛生，与“先年老人所翻之语不独恰当，（而且）真有奇处”的局面，已不可比拟。（张玉书、允禄等，1983：7 ；中国第一历史档案馆，2009：2271）

Kangxi thought that the meaning of Manchu language and Chinese has similarities, even translating these words word by word, the universal word had occupied a lot, therefore, it won’t cause any problems to the translators at that time. However, with the time went on, the later generation won’t be fully know these words, so that the lack of meaning or the improper words couldn’t be avoided. ( The First Historical Archive of China, 2009:93) Kangxi’s worry had been confirmed in his later days. At that time, Snuff Pots’ ability of knowing Manchu language had been decreased. Not only did their following generation forget the Manchu language, but also some of the old people had wrong pronunciation and the lack of words and sentences. Both of the two situations had led into the mistranslation, which didn’t suit the translation of the former people, and had an odd situation. The whole translation couldn’t be compared with the former one. ( Zhang Yushu, Yunlu, 1983:7; The First Historical Archive of China, 2009:2271) --[[User:Li Wenxuan|Li Wenxuan]] ([[User talk:Li Wenxuan|talk]]) 07:24, 23 October 2021 (UTC)

Kangxi thought that the meaning of Manchu language and Han language has similarities.Even translating works word by word, the universal words had occupied a lot.Therefore, it won’t cause troubles to translators now. However, as time flied, the later generation won’t be fully know these words, so that the misunderstanding of meaning or the improper translation couldn’t be avoided. ( The First Historical Archive of China, 2009:93) Kangxi’s worry had been confirmed inthe later period. At that time, Snuff Pots’ Manchu language ability had been decreased to a great extent. Not only did their following generation forget the Manchu language, but also some of the old people had wrong pronunciation and lacked words and sentences. Both of the two situations had led into the mistranslation, which didn’t suit the translation of the former people,causing a strange situation. The whole translation couldn’t be compared with the former one. ( Zhang Yushu, Yunlu, 1983:7; The First Historical Archive of China, 2009:2271) --[[User:Li Wen|Li Wen]] ([[User talk:Li Wen|talk]]) 12:36, 25 October 2021 (UTC)

==李雯 Lǐ Wén 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081501==

5.雍、乾二朝关于翻译人才培养的调整与改革。雍正朝初期，礼部遵圣谕拟调整旗学的办学方针，强化学生的满、汉语等多语种能力，即是因应时势之举。如《大清会典（雍正朝）》中说，雍正二年，朝廷对国子监八旗官学的管理进行改革，要求依学生的学习科目，调整其学习重点。

The adjustment and reformation about translation talents in Yong Dynasty and Qian Dynasty :In the early Yong Dynasty ,Li Apartment created some measurements to strengthen students’ multilingual abilities according to Emperor’s command, which are called policies conforming to the historical trend of time.For example,Qing Reign said that government reform management of Eight Banners Academic in the Imperial College in YongZheng 2th year, which change the major points of studying according to student’s subjects.--[[User:Li Wen|Li Wen]] ([[User talk:Li Wen|talk]]) 12:29, 25 October 2021 (UTC)

5. Adjustment and reform of translation talent training in The Yong and Gan dynasties. In the early years of Yongzheng Dynasty, the Ministry of Rites decided to adjust the educational policy of banner learning and strengthen the students' multilingual abilities such as Manchu and Chinese in accordance with the situation. As stated in the Qing Dynasty (Yongzheng Dynasty), in the second year of Yongzheng, the imperial court reformed the management of the eight Banners of the Imperial Academy, requiring students to adjust their learning priorities according to their learning subjects.--[[User:Li Xinxing|Li Xinxing]] ([[User talk:Li Xinxing|talk]]) 05:29, 27 October 2021 (UTC)

==李新星 Lǐ Xīnxīng 亚非语言文学女 202120081503==

具体来说便是，习满文者，以书写本折字画为主；习文章者，以讲论圣贤经传为主；习翻译者，则以熟翻《古文渊鉴》、《大学衍义》等书为主。教育方式的分流发展，既可以令培养目标更趋明确，也可以强化培养的专业性与针对性。然而，鉴于翻译科目自身的特殊性，学习者不宜为“幼稚之人”，而必须是年龄稍长，且资性聪敏者，如此才能保证学习效果。
To be specific, those who are proficient in writing Chinese calligraphy and painting are given priority to writing this calligraphy and painting; Xi article, to talk about the sages mainly; For those who are familiar with translation, they mainly read guwenyuan Jian and Xueyan Yi. The diverging development of educational methods can not only make the goal of training more clear, but also strengthen the professionalism and pertinence of training. However, in view of the particularity of translation, learners should not be "naive", but should be older and intelligent in order to ensure the learning effect.--[[User:Li Xinxing|Li Xinxing]] ([[User talk:Li Xinxing|talk]]) 05:27, 27 October 2021 (UTC)

Specifically, those who study Manchu mainly write calligraphy and paintings; Those who study articles mainly give lectures on the scriptures of sages; As a translator, he is mainly familiar with books such as ''guwenyuanjian'' and ''University Yanyi''. The diversion development of educational methods can not only make the training objectives more clear, but also strengthen the professionalism and pertinence of training. However, in view of the particularity of the translation subject itself, learners should not be "naive", but must be older and intelligent, so as to ensure the learning effect.--[[User:Li Yi|Li Yi]] ([[User talk:Li Yi|talk]]) 05:34, 27 October 2021 (UTC)

==李怡 Lǐ Yí 法语语言文学女 202120081504==

于是，经国子监祭酒孙嘉淦条奏，并经康亲王崇安、果郡王允礼议覆，朝廷决定嗣后选取官学生，需以年龄区隔，令年幼者学满文，年龄稍长者学汉文。随后，又规定官学生中如有愿清书者，可由助教视其年岁稍长，且文义粗通，准其该学翻译，但若要拨入翻译馆，则必须“读过汉书”。（铁保等，1983：16 ）乾隆年间，朝廷进一步调整国子监八旗官学的培养方式，明确将其分为清、汉两途。
Therefore, after sun Jiagan of imperial College made a toast to the wine, and after wang Chongan of Kangqin and Wang Yunli of Guojun, the court decided to select the official students according to their age, so that the younger students learn Manchu, while the older ones learn Chinese. Later, it was stipulated that if any official student was willing to study Chinese calligraphy, he or she could be allowed to study translation by the teaching assistant according to his or her age and rough meaning. However, if he or she wanted to be assigned to the translation library, he or she must have "read Chinese calligraphy". (Tie Bao et al., 1983:16) During the Reign of Emperor Qianlong, the imperial court further adjusted the cultivation mode of the eight Banners of the Imperial Academy, explicitly dividing it into qing and Han dynasties.--[[User:Li Yi|Li Yi]] ([[User talk:Li Yi|talk]]) 02:24, 23 October 2021 (UTC)

Therefore, after the memorial was proposed by sun Jiagan, headmaster of Imperial Academy and approved by prince Kangqin wang Chong'an and prince Guojun inaccordance with the law, the court decided to select the official students according to their age, so that the younger students learn Manchu, while the older ones learn Chinese. Later, it was stipulated that any official student who was willing to study Chinese calligraphy could be allowed to study translation by the teaching assistants when he was getting mature and had a rough understanding of meaning of Chinese passages. However, if student wanted to be assigned to the translation college, he must have "read books written in Chinese". (Tie Bao etc, 1983:16) During the reign of Emperor Qianlong, the imperial court further adjusted the cultivation mode of the Imperial Academy of Eight Banners, explicitly dividing it into two majors of Manchu and Chinese.--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 08:22, 25 October 2021 (UTC)

==刘沛婷 Liú Pèitíng 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081505==

《钦定八旗通志》中说，八旗子弟选入国子监八旗官学后，前三年并不分途，而是一体专习经书，朝夕讲课。三年后，经监臣稽考，“材质聪颖、有志力学者”归入汉文班，分隶教习，而“年齿已长，愿学翻译者”则归入满文班，分隶助教，以专习翻译。（同上：10）国子监八旗官学的清、汉分途教学固然有其影响，但就清代旗学整体的翻译人才培养而言，亦谈不上冲击。

It is said in the ''General Annals for Imperial Eight Banners'' that the descendants of the Eight Banners, after being selected into the imperial Academy of The Eight Banners, did not have separate courses in the first three years, but studied the classics together and gave lectures every day. Three years later, after an examination by the supervisor, "intelligent and ambitious students" were assigned to the Chinese language class and assisted in lecturing, while students who were "mature and willing to learn translation" would be assigned to the Manchu Class and acted as teaching assistants to specialize in translation. (Ibid:10) The separate teaching of Chinese and Manchu in the Imperial Academy of Eighth Banners had its significance but did not construct a shock toward the overall training of translation talents in the Qing Dynasty.--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 06:51, 25 October 2021 (UTC)

It is said in the ''General Annals for Imperial Eight Banners'' that the descendants of the Eight Banners, after being selected into the Eight Banners official school of Directorate of Imperial Academy, had no separate way in the first three years, but studied the classics together and attended classes every day. Three years later, after an assessment by the supervisor, "intelligent and aspiring students" were assigned to the Chinese class and assisted in lecturing, while students who were "mature and willing to learn translation" would be assigned to the Manchu Class and acted as teaching assistants in order to specialize in translation. (Ibid:10) The separate teaching of Chinese and Manchu in the Eight Banners official school of Directorate of Imperial Academy certainly had its significance but constructed no shock toward the overall training of translation talents in Qing Dynasty.--[[User:Liu Shengnan|Liu Shengnan]] ([[User talk:Liu Shengnan|talk]]) 01:21, 26 October 2021 (UTC)

==刘胜楠 Liú Shèngnán 翻译学女 202120081506==

然而，乾隆帝接受孙嘉淦的奏议，同意改变官学之旧例，即官学中研习翻译者往往只是应考笔帖式，允许八旗官学生之归入汉文班者，不必专习《四书》，也可讲求经、史等有用之学，并每三年一次对其进行考试，“取其明通者，授为监生，由官学而升之太学。”（同上：10- 11）这一做法尽管可以拔擢旗学汉文班中的秀异者，获得入国子监深造的机会，却与旗学设立的初衷一定程度上相悖。《大清会典（雍正朝）》中说，八旗官学之设，“原欲清、汉兼优，精通翻译，备部院衙门补用，可任职事”，而孙嘉淦所奏不仅会造成旗学教育资源的浪费，而且会造成国家教育的制度扞格，容易诱使官学学生竞相钻研汉文，从而背离旗人根本。（叶高树，2012：141-142）

However, Emperor Qianlong accepted Sun Jiagan's proposal and agreed to change the old practice of the official schools, that is, students in official schools of the eight banners were allowed to enter the Chinese class because students who studied translation were bithsis often by passing the examination in the official school. They did not have to study the Four Books, but could focus on useful classics about Confucianism and history. They took an examination every three years, and “those who were proficient would be awarded as the Imperial College Students and would be promoted from the official school to the Imperial College." (ibid.: 10 - 11) Although this measure could promote the outstanding students in the Chinese class of the Eight Banners School who could obtain the opportunity to further study in the Directorate of Imperial Academy, it was contrary to the original intention of the establishment of the Eight Banners School to a certain extent. According to Record of Laws and Systems of Qing Dynasty (Yongzheng Dynasty), the establishment of the official school for Eight Banners "originally wanted to cultivate talents excellent in both Manchu, Chinese and translation, who could be the candidates for government employees.”However, Sun Jiagan's proposal would not only cause a waste of educational resources of the Eight Banners School, but also make the system of national education incompatible. What’s more, his proposal easily induced students in the Eight Banners School to delve into Chinese competitively, which was deviating from the foundation of the Eight Banners. (Ye Gaoshu, 2012:141-142)--[[User:Liu Shengnan|Liu Shengnan]] ([[User talk:Liu Shengnan|talk]]) 02:01, 27 October 2021 (UTC)

However,the Emperor Qianlong accepted Jiagan Sun's proposal and agreed to change the precedent of the official school,Which means in the official school, the students who study Manchu-Chinese translation often only take the examination of the bithsis,but when it comes to the students of the Eight banners belong to the Chinese literature class,They did not have to study ''The Four Books '', but can also focus on practical studies such as Confucian classics and history, and take an examination every three years,“those who are proficient will be awarded as the Imperial College Students, and they will be promoted from the official school to the Imperial College.”(ibid.: 10 - 11) Although this practice can promote the outstanding students of the Eight Banners in the Chinese literature class, and they will obtain the opportunity to further study in the Imperial College, it is contrary to the original intention of the establishment of the Eight banners school in a way. According to ''The Qing Code''(the Emperior of Yongzheng period), the establishment of the Eight flag official school “originally in order to cultivate outstanding talents in Manchu and Chinese, and be proficient in translation, so as to be used by the Ministry and the Academy”.Jiagan Sun's proposal will not only cause a waste of educational resource of the Eight Banners School, but also make the system of national education incompatiblely, which is easy to induce official students to study Chinese, thus deviating from the foundation of the Eight Banners. (Gaoshu Ye, 2012:141-142) --[[User:Liu Wei|Liu Wei]] ([[User talk:Liu Wei|talk]]) 02:38, 30 October 2021 (UTC)Liu Wei

==刘薇 Liú Wēi 国别女 202120081507==

与放宽八旗官学生学习汉书不同，乾隆时期对于八旗清文学学习翻译之事，则提高了要求。清文学专以汉军为对象，主要教授清书、骑射和伦理，它的开设是衡量旗学教育普及程度的重要参数。雍正十二年，为了对清文学教习从严管理与考核，以形成教学压力，督促汉军子弟更好地学习清文和翻译，经部议准，出台了满教习考核之规定。

Different from relaxing the rules for students of the eight Banners to study Han literature, the requirements for learning the Qing wen-Chinese translation of Qing literature were raised during the reign of the Emperor Qianlong period. Taking the Han Army as the object, the Qing Literature College mainly taught Qing books, horsemanship and archery and ethics. Its establishment was an important parameter to measure the popularity of banner education. In the twelfth year of the Emperor Yongzheng, in order to manage and assess the teaching of Qing literature strictly, so as to form teaching pressure and to urge the han Army to better learn Qing literature and the Qing wen-Chinese translation, the ministry approved the regulation of on manchu's teaching and learning assessment. --[[User:Liu Wei|Liu Wei]] ([[User talk:Liu Wei|talk]]) 10:02, 25 October 2021 (UTC)Liu Wei

Different from relaxing the rules for students of the Eight Banners to study Chinese literature, the requirements for learning Manchu literature and the Manchu-Chinese translation were raised during the reign of the Emperor Qianlong period. Taking the Chinese soldiers as its object, the Manchu Literature mainly taught Manchu works, horsemanship and archery and ethics. Its establishment was an important parameter to measure the prevalence of Banner education. In the twelfth year under the reign of the Emperor Yongzheng, the ministry introduced regulations on strict teaching and examination assessment of Manchu learning, so as to form teaching pressure, urging Chinese soldiers to better learn Manchu literature and the Manchu-Chinese translation.--[[User:Liu Xiao|Liu Xiao]] ([[User talk:Liu Xiao|talk]]) 00:29, 26 October 2021 (UTC)

==刘晓 Liú Xiǎo 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081508==

满教习的考核以三年为限，有头等、二等、三等之分，考核标准主要与教习子弟的考课有关。乾隆三年，朝廷对现行标准进行修订，出台了更为严格的规定。以“头等”为例，在雍正十二年的考核标准中，但凡子弟能考中翻译外郎、笔帖式者，其清书教习便能位列头等，其奖励方式与内容交部议叙。

The assessment was limited to three years, ranking the first class, the second class and the third class. Its criteria were mainly related to the courses taken by the students. In the third year under the rein of Qianlong, the imperial court revised the current standards and issued more stringent regulations. Taking the "first-class" as an example, in the assessment criteria of the twelfth year under the reign of Yongzheng, students who could obtain the position of interpreter and bithesi in the examination, would be ranked first, the reward method and content discussed by the ministry.--[[User:Liu Xiao|Liu Xiao]] ([[User talk:Liu Xiao|talk]]) 01:47, 22 October 2021 (UTC)

The assessment is limited to three years, including first class, second class and third class. The assessment criteria are mainly related to the examination courses of the students. In the third year under the rein of Qianlong, the imperial court revised the current standards and issued more stringent regulations. Taking the "first-class" as an example, in the assessment criteria of the twelfth year under the reign of Yongzheng, students who could obtain the position of interpreter and bithesi in the examination, their Qing Shu teaching will be ranked first, and the reward method and content will be discussed by the ministry.--[[User:Liu Yue|Liu Yue]] ([[User talk:Liu Yue|talk]]) 00:06, 25 October 2021 (UTC)-

==刘越 Liú Yuè 亚非语言文学女 202120081509==

至乾隆时期，头等的考核标准在先有的基础上增加了“翻译生员”一项，但奖惩规定不变，仍为“交部议叙”。雍正年间关于“二等”清书教习的考核标准明显低于“头等”，其具体规定是“子弟虽未有考试之人，有能写清字楷书，并粗通翻译者”，其奖励则是“再留学三年”。但同样的是，这一标准经乾隆三年的修订之后，变成了“虽无考中之人，尚有能写清字楷书，并粗通翻译，及通晓清话者”。

During the Qianlong period, the "translator" was added to the first-class assessment standard on the basis of the previous one, but the reward and punishment provisions remained unchanged, which were still "submitted to the ministry for discussion". During the reign of Yongzheng, the assessment standard of "second-class" Qing Shu teaching was obviously lower than that of "first-class". The specific provision was that "Although the children did not have an examination, those who could write regular script and are proficient in translation", and the reward was "Study abroad for another three years". But the same is that after the revision of this standard in the third year of Qianlong, it has become "Although no one has passed the exam, there are still people who can write regular script, and are proficient in translation and Qinghua".--[[User:Liu Yue|Liu Yue]] ([[User talk:Liu Yue|talk]]) 23:59, 24 October 2021 (UTC)

During the reign of Qianlong, the “translation student” was added to the first-class assessment standard on the basis of the previous one, but the provision of rewards and punishments remain "upon the decision of the ministry". During the reign of Yongzheng, the assessment standard of "second-class" teachers of Manchu language were significantly lower than that of the "first-class". It is specifically regulated that for those whose “students did not take the examination, but could write regular script of Manchu language and know a bit of translation”, the reward was “studying abroad for another three years”. However, the same assessment standard of the second-class developed into “no students had passed the exam, but could write regular script of Manchu language, know a bit of translation and are proficient in Manchu language” after revision in the third year of Qianlong. --[[User:Liu Yunxin|Liu Yunxin]] ([[User talk:Liu Yunxin|talk]]) 05:09, 26 October 2021 (UTC)

==刘运心 Liú Yùnxīn 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081510==

二者对比，增加了“通晓清话”的内容，明显较之雍正朝更严。如果说雍、乾两朝关于“头等”、“二等”的考核标准只是些微调整的话，那么关于“三等”的考核标准则存在明显不同。其中，雍正朝的说法是“弟子止能写清字，并粗通清语者”，到了乾隆年间则成了“弟子并无粗晓翻译、清话，又不能缮写清字楷书”，后者再次凸显了对于翻译的重视。

Compared with the former one, the mastering of Manchu language was added to the assessment criteria making them stricter than those in the era of Yongzheng Emperor. If the adjustments to Yongzheng's assessment criteria of the first class and the second class made during the reign of Qianlong were minor, then the adjustments to the criteria of the third class significantly differed from the former one. For instance, the third-class was referred as teachers whose students can only write and speak little Manchu language in Yongzheng's era. The criteria developed during the reign of Qianlong that the students of the third class know nothing about translation or Manchu language, and cannot write Manchu regular script. The latter assessment criteria once again highlighted the importance attached to translation.--[[User:Liu Yunxin|Liu Yunxin]] ([[User talk:Liu Yunxin|talk]]) 12:34, 24 October 2021 (UTC)

In contrast, the addition of the 'knowledge of the Qing language' is clearly more stringent than in the Yongzheng period. If the assessment criteria for 'first-class' and 'second-class' were only slightly adjusted in the Yong and Qian periods, then the assessment criteria for 'third-class' were markedly different. For instance the term ’disciples who can write in Manchu and have a rough understanding of the Manchu‘ In the Yongzheng reign was changed to 'disciples who do not have a rough understanding of translation and Manchu, and who cannot write in regular script in Manchu' during the Qianlong reign, the latter again highlighting the importance attached to translation.--[[User:Luo Anyi|Luo Anyi]] ([[User talk:Luo Anyi|talk]]) 04:59, 27 October 2021 (UTC)

==罗安怡 Luó Ānyí 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081511==

而且，关于“三等”清书教习的奖惩规定也有明显不同，其中雍正年间的规定只是轻描淡写的“拨回原处”，而乾隆时期则是“系现任笔帖式、闲散官充当者，即时交部查议，系废员充当者，即时驳回，永不叙用”，后者的惩处力度显然更大。值得注意的是，上述关于清书教习的考核标准及奖惩规定等，在雍、乾两朝的适用性并不一致。其中，雍正朝时期的办法是清文学教习一体适用，乾隆朝时期则特别针对汉军清文教习，其中原因与汉军清语能力普遍低下有关。

Moreover, there is a clear difference in the regulations on the rewards and punishments for the "third-class” of Qing Shu teaching staff, of which the Yongzheng period was lightly "set back to the original place", while the Qianlong period was "idle officials in the bithesi should be instantly investigated by the Ministry. For those who were ousted former staff should instantly be dismissed, and never to be used". The latter punishment was obviously more severe. It is worth noting that the above-mentioned assessment standards and regulations of rewards and punishments to the Qing book teaching were not consistent in applicability for the two reigns. Among them, the approaches of Yongzheng period were applicable to Qing literature teaching as a whole. While Qianlong' s particularly directed at the Qing language teaching to the Han army, for which was related to the generally low ability of the Han army in Qing language.--[[User:Luo Anyi|Luo Anyi]] ([[User talk:Luo Anyi|talk]]) 01:21, 27 October 2021 (UTC)

Moreover，there was a great difference about the rewards and punishments for the "third-class” of Qing Shu teaching staff between the reign of emperor Yong Zheng and the reign of emperor Qian Long，while the regulations of the former was just touch on lightly as“allocate to the original place”，the latter was“ idle officials in the bithesi should be instantly investigated by the Ministry. For those who were ousted former staff should instantly be dismissed, and never to be used"，which was obviously more severe.It is worth mentioned that the test standard of the teachers of Qing books and the punishment and reward regulations were not in consistency about the adaptation between Yong and Qian dynasties.The method in Yong Zheng period was applicable to Qing literature teaching as a whole，while in Qian Long period，the method was aimed to the Qing language teaching to the Han army，the reason for which is related to the generally poor Qing language ability of the Han army --[[User:Luo Xi|Luo Xi]] ([[User talk:Luo Xi|talk]]) 03:02, 27 October 2021 (UTC)

==罗曦 Luó Xī 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081512==

乾隆帝对待八旗官学和清文学的态度明显不同，他鼓励前者学习汉文，却要求后者保持满洲的民族本特质，这种政策的两面性说明统治者在旗学的问题上，尚未真正做到通盘考虑，因而政策缺乏一致性。但作为“夙善国语，于翻译深所讲习”的“十全”皇帝，乾隆帝既能洞悉旗学教育的不足，又能从落实清语与翻译教学的立场出发，对旗学教育的方针进行修改与完善。乾隆七年十二月二十一日，高宗御阅宗学试卷，发现汉文教习宗室子弟虽然已历数年，但“翻译诸卷亦属平常”。（中国第一历史档案馆，1998：827）

Emperor Qian Long showed distinctly different attitudes toward royal official study and the literature in Qing dynasty，he encouraged the former to study Han language，but asked the latter to keep the national instinct of Man Zhou，and the two-sides policy showed that，the ruler didn‘t have a well- rounded consideration on the issue of the royal study，so the policy was lack of consistency.However，emperor Qian Long，as a versatile who is good at national language and is engaging in the translation institutions， he not only can discern the shortcomings of royal education，but also can he revised the policies of royal education at the aim of carrying out the teaching of Qing language and translation study.On December 21rst in the sevemth year of Qian Long‘s throne，when the emperor checked the test paper，he found that though the royal students had studied for years，they still had a “normal translation” when translating the books.（the first Chinese history archive，1998:827）

Emperor Qianlong had showed quite different attitudes toward the official institutions in Eight Banners and the study of Manchu by encouraging the former to study Han language, while commanding the latter to keep ethnic traits of Manchu. The dual character of policy itself had manifested that the ruler did not have a well-rounded consideration on the issue of Manchurian education, hence it was lack of consistency. But as an Emperor who was "always excellent in national language and had high attainments in tranlsation", Qianlong could not only discern the shortcommings in the education for Manchu, but also revise and improve the policy for it at the aim of carrying out the education of Manchurian language and translation. On December 21th, 1742, the 7th year under the reign of Qianlong, Qing emperor Gaozong checked the test papers of royal clan and found that the royal students had been educated in Han language for many years, yet their translation were still mediocre judged on those testing papers. (the First History Archives of China, 1998: 827)--[[User:Ma Xin|Ma Xin]] ([[User talk:Ma Xin|talk]]) 10:16, 27 October 2021 (UTC)

==马新 Mǎ Xīn 外国语言学及应用语言学女 202120081513==

乾隆十七年，上谕敕设世职官学，原因即是八旗世袭官荒怠清语和骑射。为了落实旗学设立之初衷，即以“清、汉兼优，精通翻译”为要，朝廷调整了部分旗学的教学重点，如乾隆二十一年裁减宗学汉教习九人，该设为翻译教习，并从翻译生员中选取适任者，担任圆明园学教习。（铁保等，1983：7；托津等，1994：6417）乾隆三十一年，朝廷在议准八旗官学的修业年限时，一并对官学生的考课做了要求，规定习翻译和清语者如不能在学习期满时，考取中书、库使、笔帖式等，都必须咨回本旗，并另挑差使。（铁保等，1983：12）

In 1752, the 17th year under the reign of Qianlong, the Emperor had commanded to set up hereditary official institutions due to the fact that hereditary officials had neglected the study of Manchurian language, equitation and toxophily. The original intention of the education for Manchu is to train talents “excellent in both Manchurian and Han language, proficient in translation”. In order to achieve this, the court of Qing government had adjusted some academic focuses in Eight Banners. For instance, nine instructors who taught Chinese for royal clan were laid off in 1756, the 21th year under the reign of Qianlong, and replaced them with translation instructors selecting from translation students to teach in the Summer Palace. (Tie Bao et al., 1983:7; Tuo Jin et al., 1994: 6417). In 1765, the 31th year under the reign of Qianlong, the court had stipulated the length of study for imperial institutions in Eight Banners after discussing, and staked a claim to royal students’ tests--stipulating that those who learned translation and Mauchuria and failed to pass examinations for Zhongshu (cabinet minister), Kushi (storehouse commissioner-in-chief), Bithesi, etc. during the study period must be sent back to their own banners and took on other errands. (Tie Bao et al., 1983:12)--[[User:Ma Xin|Ma Xin]] ([[User talk:Ma Xin|talk]]) 02:27, 26 October 2021 (UTC)

Another version: In 1752, the 17th year under the reign of Qianlong, the Emperor had ordered to set up hereditary official institutions because of the fact that hereditary officials in the Eight Banners neglected the study of Manchurian, equitation and toxophily. With the initial intention of implementing the Banner education, that is, to train talents “excellent both in Manchurian and Han languages, proficient in translation”, the court of government in Qing Dynasty had adjusted some academic focuses in the Eight-Banner educational system. For instance, nine instructors who taught Chinese for royal clan were laid of in 1756, the 21st year during the reign of Qianlong, and replaced them with translation instructors who were selected from translation students to teach in the Summer Palace. (The Bao et al., 1983:7; Tuo Jin et al., 1994:6417). In 1756, having discussed the issue of the length of study and staking a claim to royal students’ tests, the court stipulated that those who learned translation and Manchurian and failed to pass examinations for Zhongshu (cabinet minister), Kushi (storehouse commissioner-in-chief), Bithesi (clerical staff), etc. during the study period, must be sent back to their own banners and took on other errands. (Tie Bao et al., 1983:12)--[[User:Mao Yawen|Mao Yawen]] ([[User talk:Mao Yawen|talk]]) 11:59, 27 October 2021 (UTC)

==毛雅文 Máo Yǎwén 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081514==

至于学习的具体年限，则规定十八岁以下者以十年为期，这一规定为嗣后沿用。乾隆朝关于旗学教育的另一项改革便是“进学”。所谓“进学”是指旗学中的汉文班官学生经过一定的稽核或者考试之后，成绩优异者可升入国子监的办法。

As for the specific period of study, it was stipulated that those under the age of 18 would have a 10-year-period study, which was also used in succeeding generations. Another reform of education in the Eight Banners in Qing Dynasty under the reign of Emperor Qianlong was “Jinxue” or “Entering School”, a special selection system. The so-called “Jinxue” referred to the method that the official students, with outstanding academic achievements, in Chinese Language Class in Banner education system, can be promoted to the Imperial Academy ( the highest educational administration in feudal China), after a certain audit or examination.

As for the specific period of study, it was stipulated that those under the age of 18 would have a 10-year-period study, which was also used in succeeding generations. Another reform of the Qianlong dynasty on the education of banner school is "into the school".（a special selection system） The so-called “Jinxue” referred to the method that the official students, with outstanding academic achievements, in Chinese Language Class in Banner education system, can be promoted to the Imperial Academy ( the highest educational administration in feudal China), after a certain audit or examination.--[[User:Mao You|Mao You]] ([[User talk:Mao You|talk]]) 06:38, 25 October 2021 (UTC)

==毛优 Máo Yōu 俄语语言文学女 202120081515==

毫无疑问，“进学”办法的出台与朝廷一贯强调民族特质的政策颇有龃龉，但其所以成行，与统治者放宽八旗大臣子弟参加科试不无关系。如乾隆三十年，上谕内阁，指出八旗三品以上大臣子弟如国语娴熟，练习弓马，则遇考试之期时，可由其父兄自行奏明，一体入闱考试。但上谕同时规定，如果他们不潜心力学，于国语骑射又不专攻娴习，自然不如兼习文艺，兼收并进。（中国第一历史档案馆，1998：568）

There is no doubt that the introduction of "into the school" approach and the court's consistent emphasis on the policy of national traits are quite at odds, but it has become a line, and the ruler relaxed the eight banners minister's children to participate in the examination is not unrelated. For example, the Qianlong 30 years, the bull cabinet, pointed out that the eight banners above the third grade minister's children such as skilled in the language, practice bow and horse, when the examination period, by their fathers and brothers to present themselves, one into the examinations. But the bull at the same time, if they do not concentrate on mechanics, in the national language riding and archery and not specializing in mastery, it is naturally better to learn both arts and culture, both into. (The First Historical Archives of China, 1998: 568)--[[User:Mao You|Mao You]] ([[User talk:Mao You|talk]]) 06:34, 25 October 2021 (UTC)

There is no doubt that the introduction of "into the school" approach and the court's consistent emphasis on the policy of national traits are quite at odds, but it has become a line partly because the ruler relaxed the rules on the eight Banners ministers’ children’s participation in the examination. For example, in the 30th year of Qianlong, the emperor talked to the cabinet, pointing out that ministers' children above the third grade in the eight Banners if skilled in Chinese language and practicing bow and horse, when encountering examination periods, by their fathers and brothers presenting their conditions, can take the examinations as well. But the imperial edict also stipulated, if they do not concentrate on study, and not specialize in the national language and riding and archery, it is naturally better to learn both letters and skills. (The First Historical Archives of China, 1998: 568)--[[User:Mou Yixin|Mou Yixin]] ([[User talk:Mou Yixin|talk]]) 01:47, 26 October 2021 (UTC)

==牟一心 Móu Yīxīn 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081516==

换言之，在旗人学习清语、骑射的意愿低落时，朝廷采取“进学”的办法，希望旗人通过兼习文艺而“犹可为造就之资”。（同上：568）朝中尚且如此，驻防自不待言。如乾隆四十至四十一年间，西安将军傅良条奏，指出满营官员内，熟练稿案且兼通满、汉文义者，已“甚难其人”。

In other words, when the Banner people's willingness to learn Qing language and riding and shooting was low, the imperial court adopted the method of "recruiting scholars", hoping that the Banner people could "be trained to be talents" through concurrent study of letters and skills. (Ibid.: 568) Even so this is true in the court, the situation at the garrison is self-evident. For example, during the 40th to 41st years of Qianlong, Xi'an General Fu Liangtiao pointed out that among the Manchu camp officials, those who were skilled in manuscripts and understood both Manchu and Chinese texts were "very difficult to find."--[[User:Mou Yixin|Mou Yixin]] ([[User talk:Mou Yixin|talk]]) 05:28, 23 October 2021 (UTC)

In other words, when the Banner people's willingness to learn Qing language and riding and shooting was low, the imperial court adopted the method of "recruiting scholars", hoping that the Banner people could "also be trained to be talents" through concurrent study of letters and skills. (Ibid.: 568) The court had already done so, and the garrison understood naturally what to do. For example, during the 40th to 41st years of the Qianlong Reign, Xi'an General Fu Liangtiao proposed to the court, pointing out that among the Manchu camp officials, those who were familiar with official paperwork and could understood texts written in both Manchu and Chinese were "very difficult to find."--[[User:Peng Ruixue|Peng Ruixue]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruixue|talk]]) 07:27, 25 October 2021 (UTC)

==彭瑞雪 Péng Ruìxuě 法语语言文学女 202120081517==

乾隆年间，满洲入关日久，满汉交流频密，旗人使用汉语阅读汉书的机会大增，使用清语的场合自然减少，这一点自会影响其学习清语和翻译的意愿。6.嘉、道以后翻译人才培养的颓废。嘉庆以后，有关旗学教育的许多做法都是沿袭前朝规定。

During the reign of Emperor Qianlong where the Manchus had entered into Shanhaiguan for a long time, the exchanges between Manchus and Han people were frequent. The opportunity of using Chinese and reading Chinese books increased greatly, and the occasions of using Manchu decreased naturally, which will naturally affect the willingness of the Banner people to learn Manchu and translation. 6. After the reign of Jiaqing and Daoguang, the cultivation of translators was decadent. After the Jiaqing reign, many of the practices concerning the education of banner scholars followed the rules of the previous dynasty.--[[User:Peng Ruixue|Peng Ruixue]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruixue|talk]]) 07:00, 25 October 2021 (UTC)

During the reign of Emperor Qianlong when the Manchus had entered into Shanhaiguan for a long time, the exchanges between Manchus and Han people were frequent. And the Manchus’ opportunities of using Chinese and reading Chinese books increased greatly. Meanwhile, the occasions of using Manchurian decreased naturally, which would correspondingly affect the willingness of the Banner people to learn Manchurian and translation. 6. After the reign of Jiaqing and Daoguang, the cultivation of translators was decadent. After the reign of Jiaqing , many of the practices concerning the education of banner scholars followed the rules of the previous dynasty.--[[User:Qing Jianan|Qing Jianan]] ([[User talk:Qing Jianan|talk]]) 01:56, 26 October 2021 (UTC)

==秦建安 Qín Jiànān 外国语言学及应用语言学女 202120081518==

例如，在有关官学生肄业的具体年限上，便接续了乾隆三十一年的要求，规定年龄在十八岁以下者，仍须以十年为限，并将这一规定应用至咸安宫官学和景山官学。《钦定大清会典事例（光绪朝）》中对此事的记载是：咸安宮官学成材者众，体制较优，……嗣后凡由官学生及闲散人等挑选者，定以十五岁以上二十岁以內入学，至十年限满，不能考中生员，即行出学。

For example, the schools accepted the requirement in the 31st year of Qianlong (1736) on the aspect of the specific length of study of official students who failed to meet the graduate standards. The requirement claimed that the delay in graduation for students under the age of 18 was still ten years and it would be applied to Salt palace official Ann and Jingshan official study. According to the record on book called ''Hui Dian Case of the Qing Dynasty'', it was written that there were many talents in Salt palace official Ann which indicated superiority of study system. Hereafter, these candidates selected by official students and common people were required to matriculate at age from 15 to 20 with ten years full. During the ten years, these candidates couldn’t be allowed to join the imperial examination for the position of scholar until leaving school.--[[User:Qing Jianan|Qing Jianan]] ([[User talk:Qing Jianan|talk]]) 02:28, 22 October 2021 (UTC)

For example, the schools accepted the requirement in the 31st year of Qianlong period (1736) on the aspect of the specific length of study of official students. The requirement claimed that the length of study for students under the age of 18 was still ten years and it would be applied to Salt palace official Ann and Jingshan official study. According to the record on book called ''Hui Dian Case of the Qing Dynasty'', it was written that there were many talents in Salt palace official Ann which indicated superiority of study system. Hereafter, those candidates selected from official students and common people were required to be enrolled at age from 15 to 20. At the end of the ten years, if candidates couldn’t be chosen to study in Taixue(the highest seat of learning in ancient times in China), they wil be asked to drop out of school.--[[User:Qiu Tingting|Qiu Tingting]] ([[User talk:Qiu Tingting|talk]]) 09:45, 22 October 2021 (UTC)

==邱婷婷 Qiū Tíngtíng 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081519==

如由举、贡、监生挑选者，亦以十年为率，核计已经正科三屆乡、会试不能取中者，一并出学。其景山官学，……即照八旗官学之例，将十岁以上十八岁以下者入学肄业，至十年限满无成者，拨回本旗，另行挑差。（昆冈等，1963：273）道光年间，官学生的学习仍以十年为限，一方面是为了延长学生学习时间，更重要的是为了体现朝廷对旗学教育质量的重视。

If it is selected from Ju, Gong and Jian students, it will also be based on the rate of ten years. Those who have failed to be elected in the Xiangshi and Huishi for three sessions will be released together. The Jingshan official school, that is, according to the example of the Eight Banners official school, people over the age of ten and under the age of eighteen enrolled in school failing to be elected at the end of ten years shall be pulled back to their own Banners and choose a job. ( Kungang et al., 1963:273) During the Daoguang period, the study of official students was still designated to ten years. On the one hand, it was to extend students’ learning time, and more importantly, it was to reflect the importance the court attached to the quality of Banner’s education.--[[User:Qiu Tingting|Qiu Tingting]] ([[User talk:Qiu Tingting|talk]]) 09:44, 22 October 2021 (UTC)

If being selected from Ju, Gong and Jian students, it will also be based on the rate of ten years. Those who have failed to be elected in the Xiangshi and Huishi for three sessions will be released together. The Jingshan official school, that is, according to the example of the Eight Banners official school, people between ten years old and eighteen years old who were dropouts in school fail to be elected at the end of ten years shall be pulled back to their own Banners and choose a job. ( Kungang et al., 1963:273) During the Daoguang period, the study of official students was still designated to ten years. On the one hand, it was to extend students’ learning time, and more importantly, it was to reflect the importance the court attached to the quality of Banner’s education.--[[User:Rao Jinying|Rao Jinying]] ([[User talk:Rao Jinying|talk]]) 12:41, 23 October 2021 (UTC)

==饶金盈 Ráo Jīnyíng 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081520==

如道光三年，礼部议准：嗣后八旗官学生留学，亦以十年为断。其有考取文生员、翻译生员者，以考中之日为始，留学十年。如再考中副榜、拔贡、优貢等项，复以中式之日为始，扣满十年，俾得底于有成。
For instance, Daoguang three years, after consultation, the Ministry of rites approved that descendants of the “Eight Banners” officials could studied abroad for ten years. Among them, those who have been admitted as government students or translation students could study abroad for ten years from the day they were admitted. If anyone was admitted to the additional notice, Ba Gong, You Gong and so on, ten years would be deducted from the day of they were admitted, so as to achieve great success.--[[User:Rao Jinying|Rao Jinying]] ([[User talk:Rao Jinying|talk]]) 12:32, 23 October 2021 (UTC)

For instance, in the third year of Emperor Daoguang, after consultation, the Ministry of Rites approved that descendants of the “Eight Banners” officials could study abroad for ten years. Among them, those who have been admitted as clerk students or translation students could study abroad for ten years from the date of the admission. If anyone was admitted to Deputy Ranking, Ba Gong, You Gong, etc. , ten-year period would be deducted from the day of their enrollment, so as to achieve great success. --[[User:Shi Liqing|Shi Liqing]] ([[User talk:Shi Liqing|talk]]) 13:04, 23 October 2021 (UTC)

==石丽青 Shí Lìqīng 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081521==

如中式举人，则以有铨选之路，不得再行留学。由上可知，所谓十年的年限适用于所有八旗官学生，不论其是否考取文生员，或翻译生员，皆是如此。即便是考取副榜、拔贡和优贡等，也是从其中式之日起，计满十年。这么做的目的仅在于使学生能学有所成。

For example, if a person was admitted as Juren in the Imperial Examination, he could use his talents to usher in such a path in politics that he was not allowed to study abroad. It could be seen from the above that the so-called ten-year period was applicable to all Eight Banners official students, no matter whether they were enrolled as clerks or translators. The ten-year period was also calculated from the date of admission even if they were admitted to Deputy Ranking, Bagong, Yougong, etc. The purpose simply lied in enabling students to succeed in their studies. --[[User:Shi Liqing|Shi Liqing]] ([[User talk:Shi Liqing|talk]]) 06:03, 22 October 2021 (UTC)

For example, if a person was admitted as Juren in the Imperial Examination, he could be selected to participate in politics that he was not allowed to study abroad. It could be seen from the above that the so-called ten-year period was applicable to all Eight Banners official students, no matter whether they were enrolled as clerks or translators. The ten-year period was also calculated from the date of admission even if they were admitted to Deputy Ranking, Bagong, Yougong, etc. The purpose simply lied in enabling students to succeed in their studies.--[[User:Sun Yashi|Sun Yashi]] ([[User talk:Sun Yashi|talk]]) 07:44, 24 October 2021 (UTC)

==孙雅诗 Sūn Yǎshī 外国语言学及应用语言学女 202120081522==

与此同时，由于乾隆后期推行“讲学”制度，八旗子弟学习清语和翻译的意愿明显减退，对嘉、道年间的旗学教育也产生了影响。如嘉庆十三年闰五月，仁宗曾颇有感慨地对大臣说，开国之初，风气淳朴，朝中满洲大臣教诫八旗，因而“如清语、骑射，尚能勤加练习，远胜今日。”（曹振镛等，1986：601）又说：“从前满洲，尽皆通晓清文，是以尚能将小说、古词翻译成编”，而“今满洲非惟不能翻译，甚至清话生疏，不识清字。

At the same time, due to the implementation of the "lecture" system in the late Qianlong, the willingness of the Eight Frag People to learn Qing language and translation decreased significantly, which also had an impact on the flag learning education during the reign of Jia and Taoism.For example,in the leap May of the thirteenth year in Jiaqing,Renzong once said to the minister with emotion that at the beginning of the founding, the atmosphere was honest, and the minister of Central Manchuria taught the Eight Frag People. Therefore, " Qing language, riding and shooting can be practiced,which is far better than today.”(Cao Zhenyong et al., 1986:601) And he also said: "In the past Manchuria, everyone knew the Qing language, so we could translate novels and ancient words". However," People in Manchuria can not translate now, or even isn't familiar with Qing language and don't know the Qing words.--[[User:Sun Yashi|Sun Yashi]] ([[User talk:Sun Yashi|talk]]) 01:51, 22 October 2021 (UTC)

At the same time, due to the implementation of the "lecturing" system in the late Qianlong period, the children of the Eight Banners showed a significant decline in their willingness to learn Qing language and translation, which also had an impact on the banner learning education during the Jia and Tao period. For example,in the leap May of the thirteenth year in Jiaqing, Renzong once said to the ministers with emotion that at the beginning of the founding, the atmosphere was honest, and the Manchu ministers in the imperial court enlightened and educated the Eight Banner People. Therefore, "such as Qing language, horsemanship and archery can be practiced, which is far better than today.”(Cao Zhenyong et al., 1986:601) Then he added: "In the past Manchuria, everyone was familiar with the Qing language, so they could compile the translation of novels and archaic words". However," People in Manchuria are incompetent to translate now, and even aren’t familiar with Qing language and cannot understand the Qing words. --[[User:Wang Lifei|Wang Lifei]] ([[User talk:Wang Lifei|talk]]) 14:49, 22 October 2021 (UTC)

==王李菲 Wáng Lǐfēi 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081523==

其粗晓汉文者，又以经、史正文，词义深奥，难于诵习，专取各种无稽小说。”（中国第一历史档案馆，2000：370）由是观之，傅良所奏并非虚言，但事实上，即便是在乾、嘉年间，虽然旗人的清语能力普遍衰退，导致翻译能力普遍欠佳，但朝廷中仍不乏精通翻译之才。如笔帖式出身，并累迁至武英殿大学士兼军机大臣的舒赫德，便向来以“善译”出名。

Among them, those who have a little knowledge of Chinese, write a lot about scriptures and historical texts which have profound meanings and are difficult to chant and study, especially in all kinds of nonsense novels.” (The First Historical Archives of China, 2000:370) From this point of view, what Fu Liang prensented is not a dead letter. But in fact, even during the Qian, Jia period, although the general decline in the Banner‘s people’s ability of Qing language results in poor translation quality, the imperial court is still crowded with talented translators. Such as Shu Hede, bitheshi born, then transferred and promoted to the Hall of Martial Valor Bachelor as well as the Military Planning Minister, has always been known for his “skillful translation”. --[[User:Wang Lifei|Wang Lifei]] ([[User talk:Wang Lifei|talk]]) 13:54, 22 October 2021 (UTC)

First:From the point of view What Fu Liang wrote was not empty.
Second:there were still many people in the court who were proficient in translation.--[[User:Wang Yifan21|Wang Yifan21]] ([[User talk:Wang Yifan21|talk]]) 09:03, 26 October 2021 (UTC)

==王逸凡 Wáng Yìfán 亚非语言文学女 202120081524==

《钦定翻译五经四书》的完成，也“皆八旗精翻译者所成”。（铁保等，1983：4 ）且政府制定大规模翻译工程时，包含翻译官、誊录、纂修在内的各种参与人员，也都是从国子监八旗官学，以及八旗各学学生中加以考选。各部院衙门中兼事翻译、文书的笔帖式、中书、库使等，也多由旗人构成。

The completion of the King James Translation of the Five Classics and Four Books was also "the work of the eight banner translators". (Tie Bao et al., 1983:4) In addition, when the government formulated a large-scale translation project, all the participants, including translation officers, transcription and compilation, were also selected from the official schools of the Eight Banners of the Imperial Academy as well as the students of the eight Banners. The ministry courtyard yamen concurrently translation, clerical pen post type, book, library, etc., are also composed of flagmen.--[[User:Wang Yifan21|Wang Yifan21]] ([[User talk:Wang Yifan21|talk]]) 02:24, 22 October 2021 (UTC)

The completion of the Imperial Translation of the Five Classics and Four Books was also made by the eight banner translators. (Tie Bao et al., 1983:4) When the government formulated a large-scale translation project, all the participants, including translators, transcribers and compilers, were also selected from the official schools of the Eight Banners of the Imperial school as well as the students of the eight Banners. The ministry courtyard concurrently translation, clerical pen post type, book, library, etc., are also composed of flagmen. edited by Wang Zhenlong

==王镇隆 Wáng Zhènlóng 英语语言文学（英美文学）男 202120081525==

凡此种种，只能说明满人的清语学习出现了部分问题，而非全部。但问题既已造成，必须加以解决。因而嘉庆六年三月，原礼部主事尹壮图奏请将十五、六岁前的满洲子弟专读经书，待心性成熟，精力完固之后，再学习骑射与翻译。尹壮图的本意是为了提振满人学习骑射与翻译的效率，但由于他本末倒置，将翻译学习建立在汉族经史，而不是满文学习之上，无异于戕害清初以来历代君主倡导的满洲主体性，自然无法获得嘉庆帝的认可。

All this can only show that there are some problems in Manchu's Qing language learning, not all of them. However, since the problem has been caused, it must be solved. Therefore, in March of the sixth year of Jiaqing, Yin zhuangtu, the former head of the Ministry of Rites, asked Manchu children who are younger than 16 to read scriptures. After their hearts and minds are mature and their energy is solid, they can learn riding, shooting and translation. Yin zhuangtu's original intention was to promote the efficiency of Manchu people's learning riding, shooting and translation. However, because he put the cart before the horse and based the translation learning on the classics and history of the Han nationality rather than the Manchu language learning, it was tantamount to harming the Manchu subjectivity advocated by successive monarchs since the early Qing Dynasty, which naturally could not be recognized by Emperor Jiaqing.

All this can only show that there are some problems in Manchu's Qing language learning, but not all of them. However, since the problem has been caused, it must be solved. Therefore, in March of the sixth year of Jiaqing Emperor, Yin zhuangtu, the former head of the Board of Rites, asked Manchu children who were younger than 16 to read scriptures. After their hearts and minds got maturer and more vigorous, they can learn riding, shooting and translation. Yin zhuangtu's original intention was to promote the efficiency of Manchu people's learning riding, shooting and translation. However, because he put the cart before the horse and based the translation learning on the classics and history of the Han nationality rather than the Manchu language learning, it was tantamount to harming the Manchu subjectivity advocated by successive monarchs since the early Qing Dynasty, which naturally could not be recognized by Emperor Jiaqing.--[[User:Wei Yiwen|Wei Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Wei Yiwen|talk]]) 12:43, 25 October 2021 (UTC)

==卫怡雯 Wèi Yíwén 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081526==

尹壮图所奏是否合理暂且不论，但事实是道光以后，旗人清语、翻译荒废的情形日益严重。如道光十五年六月，宣宗敕令满洲五品以上至侍郎以下京堂，分日考试清文。令道光帝所料未及的是，本次考试中翻译通顺，以及尚能翻译但偶有讹错者，也只不过在十分之三、四之间，其中半数甚至不能落笔。

Though whether Yin Zhuangtu’s presenting a memorial to the emperor made sense or not was not being discussed, the fact was that after Daoguang emperor, the situation of eight banners clear their language and translation disuse was becoming serious. For example, in the June of Daoguang fifteenth year, Xuan Zong gave an imperial order to the Manchu ministers from Jing Tang to vice-president of one of the Six Boards to take a test on Manchu for several days. Out of Daoguang emperor’s expectation, only three or four of ten of the ministers do this translation smoothly with some small mistakes, and half of them could not even write. --[[User:Wei Yiwen|Wei Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Wei Yiwen|talk]]) 12:06, 23 October 2021 (UTC)

Whether Yin Zhuangtu’s presentation to the emperor made sense or not, the fact was that after the rule of Daoguang emperor, the situation that eight banners did not master Manchu language and Manchu translation was becoming serious. For example, in the June of Daoguang fifteenth year, Xuanzong emperor gave an order to the ministers in Manchuria from officials of the Six Boards to Shilang to take a test on Manchu knowledge. Out of Daoguang emperor’s expectation, only three or four of ten of the ministers could do the translation smoothly or do it with some small mistakes, but half of the ministers could not even write anything. --[[User:Wei Chuxuan|Wei Chuxuan]] ([[User talk:Wei Chuxuan|talk]]) 03:28, 28 October 2021 (UTC)

==魏楚璇 Wèi Chǔxuán 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081527==

为此，道光帝特降旨训诫，强调清语乃满洲根本，无论出身如何，满人皆应熟习。道光帝尤其针对宗室、觉罗子弟做出训诫，令其务必勤修本业，勉绍家声，断不可因不晓清语、不识清字，而辜负了朝廷“务本成全”的用意。（穆彰阿等，1986：109）至清末年间，旗人清语、翻译能力的衰退一如既往，甚至出现了国子监课士官不知清语的怪异现象。

So, Daoguang emperor gave an order to admonish and emphasized that Manchu language was the root of Manchuria. Therefore, whatever your family background was, if you were a Manchu people you should master Manchu language. Daoguang emperor especially admonished royal children and ordered them to study hard and pass on family reputation. They should not fail to accomplish the willing of the court that aksed them to work hard to get success because of their lack of the knowledge of Manchu language. (Muzhanga and so on, 1986:109) In the late Qing dynasty, Manchu people's mastery of Manchu language and Manchu translation was as declining as before. Even the strange phenomenon that teachers in Guozijian(imperial academy) knew nothing about Manchu language occurred.

For this purpose, Daoguang emperor has purposely given an order to admonish and emphasized that the Qing language was fundamental to Manchuria. As a result, whatever your origin was, as long as you were a Manchu people you should master this language. Daoguang emperor especially admonished the children of the imperial family and Jueluo in particular, ordering them must to study for their work diligently, carry on and develop their family reputation. They should not fail to live up to the court’s intention of “working in a practical way and getting success” on account of not knowing the Qing language and words. (Mu Zhang’a and so on, 1986:109) During the late Qing dynasty, bannermen's mastery of Manchu language and translation was in decline as usual. There has even emerged a strange phenomenon that teachers in the Directorate of Imperial Academy knew nothing about the Qing language.--[[User:Wei Zhaoyan|Wei Zhaoyan]] ([[User talk:Wei Zhaoyan|talk]]) 09:57, 25 October 2021 (UTC)

==魏兆妍 Wèi Zhàoyán 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081528==

如咸丰四年，苏勒布因新授国子监满洲司业具折谢恩，但皇帝在御览此折时，发现其竟不能用清语缮写自己名字，更不用说讲解折内字句，于是饬令将其降为编修，以示惩戒。为了使八旗人等一体加强清语、翻译的训练，咸丰帝降旨：八旗人员，骑射、清文是其本务，即使于清文义理不能精通，亦岂有不晓清语、不识清字，遂得自命为旗人之理？

For instance, Suleb was given the new title of Manchu Department of Imperial College during the 4th year of Xianfeng, so he has written a memorial to express his gratitude to the emperor for his gift. However, when the emperor inspected this memorial, he unexpectedly found that Suleb couldn't write his own name in Qing Language, let alone explaining the words and sentences in the memorial. So as a punishment, the emperor ordered him to be demoted to compiler. Then in order to enhance the Eight children's training of Qing Language and translation, the emperor Xianfeng issued a decree: riding and archery, Qing Language are the primary tasks for the Eight children. Even if one was not proficient in the argumentation of Qing Language, was there a reason for someone who even didn't know the Qing Language and Qing words, but then called himself a member of the Eight children?--[[User:Wei Zhaoyan|Wei Zhaoyan]] ([[User talk:Wei Zhaoyan|talk]]) 05:42, 22 October 2021 (UTC)

For example, Suleb was given the new title of Manchu Department of Imperial College during the 4th year of Xianfeng, so he has written a memorial to express his gratitude to the emperor for his gift. However, when the emperor inspected this memorial, he unexpectedly found that Suleb couldn't write his own name in the Qing Language, let alone explaining the words and sentences in the memorial. So as a punishment, the emperor ordered him to be demoted to compiler. Then in order to enhance the Eight children's training of Qing Language and translation, the emperor Xianfeng issued a decree: riding and archery, Qing Language are the primary tasks for the Eight personnel. Even if one was not proficient in the argumentation of Qing Language, was there a reason for someone who even didn't know the Qing Language and Qing words, but then called himself a member of the Eight personnel?--[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 07:07, 23 October 2021 (UTC)

==吴婧悦 Wú Jìngyuè 俄语语言文学女 202120081529==

道光年间特奉谕旨，停止驻防文试，专考翻译，原期返朴还淳，俾我八旗子弟咸知本业。乃近日八旗人员，仍有专习汉文，于清语、清字全不讲求，沾染习气，徒骛虛文，实堪痛恨。嗣后无论何项出身人员，均宜练习清文，通晓讲解，即由文乡、会试入仕之员及兵丁子弟，亦应一体练习，不准怠惰偷安，以务根本。（中国第一历史档案馆，1998：89）

During the reign of Daoguang, he stopped the trial of defense literature, specialized in translation, and returned to the original state, so that the children of the “Eight banners” would know his career. But in these days, the eight banners personnel are still specialized in learning Chinese literature, but pay no attention to studying the Qing language. What’s more, they are gradually acquiring the bad habits, and writing with unnecessary words. And that is the biggest problem! No matter what the successor, they should practice the Qing literature and be well speaking, that is, by the township, the official and the soldiers should also practice, don’t be idle and at the same time should do the fundamental. (The First Historical Archives of China, 1998:89)--[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 07:03, 23 October 2021 (UTC)
During the reign of Daoguang, I was ordered to stop the garrison literary examination and specialize in translation. I returned to park and returned to Chun in the original period, so that my children of the Eight Banners could know their own business. Recently, there are still eight banners who specialize in learning Chinese. They don't pay attention to the language and characters of the Qing Dynasty. They are infected with the habit and concentrate on empty words. It's really hateful. Later, no matter what kind of background personnel, they should practice Qingwen and be proficient in explanation, that is, those from Wenxiang, those who will try to become officials and the children of soldiers should also practice as a whole. Laziness and safety are not allowed, so as to be fundamental.--[[User:Wu Yinghong|Wu Yinghong]] ([[User talk:Wu Yinghong|talk]]) 13:01, 24 October 2021 (UTC)

==吴映红 Wú Yìnghóng 日语语言文学女 202120081530==

虽然咸丰帝对于部院衙门僚属，以及八旗官员荒废清文，不能翻译的情形忧心忡忡，或谆谆善诱，或严词斥责，但无论何种，终究未能阻止旗人清语和翻译能力的废弛。逮清末之际，虽然朝廷仍规定各地官员遇有奏事折件时，采用满汉合璧的形式，由此说明满语仍占一定地位，且旗学培养语言人才的功能并未完全消失，但随着时势推移，民族融合日盛，旗人清语荒疏的情形已不可逆，翻译能力随之凋敝。

Although various departments and officials of the Eight Banners could not translate Manchu language, the Manchu language was abandoned. Emperor Xianfeng was very worried about CI. On the one hand, he taught people to learn the characters of the Qing Dynasty, on the other hand, he also scolded people to urge people to learn the characters of the Qing Dynasty. However, no matter which method is used, it can not stop the decline of Manchu people's mastery of Manchu language. At the end of the Qing Dynasty, the court stipulated that local officials should report in Chinese and Manchu. This shows that Manchu still has a certain importance, and Manchu speakers have not completely disappeared. However, with the development of the times, the integration between ethnic groups is becoming stronger and stronger. Manchu people neglect Manchu more and more, and their translation ability is gradually declining. This is the general trend and cannot be avoided.

Although Emperor Xianfeng was very worried about the phenomenon that departments and officials of the Eight Banners neglected the learning of works of Qing Dynasty and people were unable to translate, for which he had gave them advice and also scolded them. However, no matter which method is used, it can not stop the decline of Manchu people's mastery of Manchu language. At the end of the Qing Dynasty, the court stipulated that local officials should report in Chinese and Manchu. This shows that Manchu still has a certain importance, and Manchu speakers have not completely disappeared. However, with the development of the times, the integration between ethnic groups is becoming stronger and stronger. Manchu people neglect Manchu more and more, and their translation ability is gradually declining. This is the general trend and cannot be avoided.--[[User:Xiao Yiyao|Xiao Yiyao]] ([[User talk:Xiao Yiyao|talk]]) 10:53, 27 October 2021 (UTC)

==肖毅瑶 Xiāo Yìyáo 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081531==

5.结语。清代旗学是统治阶级共享政治利益的特殊体制，既面向八旗设学，又面向皇族和宗室设学，虽然客观上振兴了文教，养育了人才，促进了民族融合，主观上却是统治者用以巩固统治的保全之道。为教育旗人，改善治理，政府从初级而进阶，由贵族而惠及弱势，依次推进旗学教育，设想不可谓不周，成效不可谓不甚。

Conclusion. The School of Banners is a special system for the ruling class to share political interests, which is not provided for the eight banners but also for the royal family and other imperial kinsman. Such a system objectively does promote the cultural education , talent cultivation and fusion of ethnic groups, but subjectively, it is a method to consolidate the governer’s rule. To educate the people of banners and improve their governance, the government successively promote banner education from lower level to upper level, from the nobility to the disadvantaged. How comprehensive and effective the proposal is.--[[User:Xiao Yiyao|Xiao Yiyao]] ([[User talk:Xiao Yiyao|talk]]) 07:16, 22 October 2021 (UTC)

Conclusion. The School of Banners in Qing Dynasty is a special system for the ruling class to share political interests together, which is not only provided for the eight banners but also for the royal family and other imperial clansman. Although it objectively revitalized culture and education, nurtured talents and promoted national integration, it was subjectively the way for the rulers to consolidate their rule. To educate the people of banners and improve their governance, the government successively promote banner education from lower level to upper level, from the nobility to the disadvantaged. How comprehensive and effective the proposal it is.--[[User:Xie Jiafen|Xie Jiafen]] ([[User talk:Xie Jiafen|talk]]) 06:33, 23 October 2021 (UTC)

==谢佳芬 Xiè Jiāfēn 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081532==

有清一代，促成旗学兴起、改革、发展与完善的因素颇多，其中既有皇帝个人的支持与投入，也有汉族官员的鼓吹，另有满洲大儒的力倡，使得旗人读书渐成风尚。而旗学对于翻译人才的培养，依其名目主要有两种不同的途径，其一为普通旗学中的翻译教育，其二为翻译官学、翻译义学等专门机构。上述机构在办理翻译教育，培养翻译人才时，往往皆有详细具体的典章制度，其内容涉及教习的延聘、学生的录取、教材的选用、课业的形式、考课的评定，以及奖惩的规定等，使翻译办学合乎规范。

In the Qing Dynasty, there were many factors that contributed to the rise, reform, development and improvement of the school of banners, including the personal support and investment of the emperor, the advocacy of Han officials, and the strong advocacy of Manchu Confucianism scholars, which gradually had a hit among people of banners. According to its name, there are two different ways for the school of banners to cultivate translation talents. One is translation education in ordinary banner school, and the other is specialized institutions such as translation official school and free private translation school. When dealing with translation education and training translation talents, the above institutions often have detailed and specific laws and regulations, which involve the employment of teachers, the admission of students, the selection of teaching materials, the form of schoolwork, the evaluation of examination, as well as the provisions of rewards and punishments, so as to make the translation school run in line with the norms.--[[User:Xie Jiafen|Xie Jiafen]] ([[User talk:Xie Jiafen|talk]]) 06:20, 23 October 2021 (UTC)

In the Qing Dynasty, there were many factors that contributed to the rise, reform, development and improvement of the school of banners, including the personal support and investment of the emperor, the advocacy of Han officials, and the strong advocacy of Manchu Confucianism scholars, which gradually had a hit among people of banners. According to its name, there are two different ways for the school of banners to cultivate translation talents. One is translation education in ordinary banner school, and the other is specialized institutions such as translation official school and free private translation school. When dealing with translation education and training translation talents, the above institutions often have detailed and specific laws and regulations, which involve the employment of teachers, the admission of students, the selection of teaching materials, the form of schoolwork, the evaluation of examination, as well as the provisions of rewards and punishments, so as to make the translation school run in line with the norms.--[[User:Xie Qinglin|Xie Qinglin]] ([[User talk:Xie Qinglin|talk]]) 05:19, 24 October 2021 (UTC)

==谢庆琳 Xiè Qìnglín 俄语语言文学女 202120081533==

翻译教学在旗学教育中并非权宜之计，而是着眼长远的高瞻之举，其目的是培养德行纯正，谙悉汉书，兼通满、汉双语的语言人才，以飨治国理政之需。事实上，旗学中培养的翻译人才也的确成为嗣后处理文书，办理翻译的重要来源与支柱。虽然旗学的初衷是为了教导旗人崇实黜华，专心向学，固守民族根本，但实际操作中亦不乏与民族特质龃龉者，如“进学”政策即属此类，最终导致旗人学习意愿低落，旗学教育废弛，并殃及旗人的翻译能力与翻译人才培养，以致翻译之事难观其成。

Translation teaching in the school of banners is not a stopgap measure, but a long-term forward-looking move, the purpose of which is to cultivate virtuous and pure, know the Chinese book, as well as bilingual Manchu and Chinese language talents, in order to serve the needs of governance and administration. In fact, the school of banners in the training of translators did become an important source and pillar of the subsequent processing of documents, for translation. Although the original purpose of banner school was to teach the banners to be more realistic and less flamboyant, to concentrate on learning, and to hold on to the fundamentals of the nation, there were many cases of disagreement with the national characteristics in actual operation, such as the policy of "entering school", which eventually led to the low willingness of the banners to learn, and the neglect of banner school education, and affected the translation ability of the banners and the cultivation of translation talents, so that the translation matter It was difficult to see the success of translation.--[[User:Xie Qinglin|Xie Qinglin]] ([[User talk:Xie Qinglin|talk]]) 03:08, 22 October 2021 (UTC)

Translation teaching in the school of banners is not a temporary expedient , but a far-sighted move, the purpose of which is to cultivate virtuous talents, who skill in Chinese culture, as well as bilingual talents in Manchu and Chinese, in order to serve the needs of governance and administration. In fact, in the school of banners, the training of translators did become an important source and pillar of the subsequent processing of documents, for translation. Although the original purpose of banner school was to teach the banners to be more realistic and less flamboyant, to concentrate on learning, and to hold on to the fundamentals of the nation. There were many cases of disagreement with the national characteristics in actual operation, such as “admission policy”, which eventually led to the low willingness of the banners to learn, and the neglect of banner school education, and affected the translating ability of the banners and the cultivation of translation talents, so it’s difficult to see the improvements in translation.--[[User:Xiong Min|Xiong Min]] ([[User talk:Xiong Min|talk]]) 06:15, 31 October 2021 (UTC)

==熊敏 Xióng Mǐn 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081534==

译才培养几近废置，与“开国之初，风气淳朴”、“从前满洲，……尚能将小说、古词翻译成编”相比，早已不可同日而语。（中国第一历史档案馆，2000：370）*基金项目：① 教育部人文社科基金项目“清代中前期翻译政策研究”；② 湖南省社会科学基金项目“清代中前期翻译政策的具体形态与变化轨迹研究”，项目批准号：20YBA131；③ 湖南省教育厅重点项目“清代中前期翻译政策研究”，项目批准号：20A222。

The cultivation of translator was almost abandoned. Compared with the atmosphere in the beginning of the foundation of Republic of China and compilation of the translation of novels and poems, it had already been different. (The First Historical Archives of China, 2000: 370) * Fund Project: ① MOE(Ministry of Education in China) Project of Humanities and Social Sciences Project “Research on translation policy in the early and mid Qing Dynasty”; ② Project of Humanities and Social Sciences of the Hunan Province “specific pattern and development of the translation policy in the early and mid Qing Dynasty”, Project batch number:20YBA131; ③Key Project of the Ministry of Education “Research on translation policy in the early and mid Qing Dynasty”, Project batch number: 20A222.

The cultivation of translator was almost abandoned. Compared with “the simple atmosphere in the beginning of the foundation of country” and “Manchuria translators used to be able to translate novels and ancient words into compilations” it had already been different. (The First Historical Archives of China, 2000: 370) * Fund Project: ① MOE(Ministry of Education in China) Project of Humanities and Social Sciences Project “Research on translation policy in the early and mid Qing Dynasty”; ② Project of Humanities and Social Sciences of the Hunan Province “specific pattern and development of the translation policy in the early and mid Qing Dynasty”, Project batch number:20YBA131; ③Key Project of the Ministry of Education “Research on translation policy in the early and mid Qing Dynasty”, Project batch number: 20A222.--[[User:Xu Minyun|Xu Minyun]] ([[User talk:Xu Minyun|talk]]) 06:49, 31 October 2021 (UTC)

==徐敏赟 Xú Mǐnyūn 语言智能与跨文化传播研究男 202120081535==

清代翻译科缘起考——顺治八年还是雍正元年？

摘要：翻译科是清代特设之科目，及八旗科举制度之独特构成，它创设于雍正元年，而非顺治八年。顺治八年，礼部遵圣谕办理首科八旗科举考试，对应试者分别考试清字文章与翻译，为翻译科的创设提供了制度雏形。

The Origin of Translation Studies in Qing Dynasty -- The Eighth Year of Shunzhi or the First Year of Yongzheng?

Abstract: Translation was a special subject in Qing Dynasty and a unique component of the Eight Banners Imperial Examination System. It was established in the first year of Yongzheng, not the eighth year of Shunzhi. In the eighth year of Shunzhi, the Ministry of Rites conducted the first Eight Banners imperial examinations in accordance with the instructions of Emperor, and the corresponding candidates were separately tested for Manchu articles and translations, which provided a prototype for the establishment of the translation subject.--[[User:Xu Minyun|Xu Minyun]] ([[User talk:Xu Minyun|talk]]) 09:32, 27 October 2021 (UTC)

The Origin of Translation Studies in Qing Dynasty -- The Eighth Year of Shunzhi or the First Year of Yongzheng?

Abstract: Translation was a special subject in Qing Dynasty and a unique component of the Eight Banners Imperial Examination System. It was established in the first year of Yongzheng, not the eighth year of Shunzhi. In the eighth year of Shunzhi, the Ministry of Rites conducted the first Eight Banners imperial examinations in accordance with the instructions of Emperor, which separately tested the corresponding candidates' Manchu articles and translations, having provided a prototype for the establishment of the translation subject.--[[User:Yan Jing|Yan Jing]] ([[User talk:Yan Jing|talk]]) 10:27, 27 October 2021 (UTC)

==颜静 Yán Jìng 语言智能与跨文化传播研究女 202120081536==

然而，此时的翻译考试虽在内容上与翻译科相似，性质和意义上却与后者颇为不同，它既未独立成科，又缺乏独立、自主的制度设计。《清史稿》、《雍正会典》及两部《会典事例》（嘉庆、光绪）中，均将顺治八年视作翻译科之缘起，明显属于误记，其说法不仅见岐于《清实录·世祖章皇帝实录》，而且与《八旗通志》、《钦定国子监志》等也有较大出入。翻译科的创设有着丰富的政治文化意涵，其根本目的在于维护“国语骑射”的满洲旧制。

However, although the content of the translation examination at this time was similar to that of the translation subject, it was actually different from the latter in nature and significance. It was not an independent subject and was also lack of an independent system design. In ''The Draft of Qing History'', ''The Yongzheng Congress'' and two ''Examples of the Congress'' (Jiaqing and Guangxu), the eighth year of Shunzhi was regarded as the origin of the translation subject, which is obviously a misrecording. Its statement not only differs from ''The Records of the Qing Dynasty Emperor'', but also from ''The Records of the Eight Banners'' and ''the Records of the Imperial Academy''. The creation of translation section had rich political and cultural implications, and its fundamental purpose was to maintain the old Manchu system of "national language and horsemanship and archery".--[[User:Yan Jing|Yan Jing]] ([[User talk:Yan Jing|talk]]) 10:50, 27 October 2021 (UTC)

''The Records of the Imperial Academy''
The creation of translation subject
--[[User:Yan Lili|Yan Lili]] ([[User talk:Yan Lili|talk]]) 08:41, 30 October 2021 (UTC)

==颜莉莉 Yán Lìlì 国别女 202120081537==

关键词：翻译科八旗科举顺治八年雍正元年政治文化意涵

导论：古代科举取士分“文”、“武”两类，其中文举兴于隋，武举始于唐，二者在公为求人才，在私为求入仕，此后虽经宋、元、明、清等朝，仍相沿不替。清代的科举制度因袭明制，虽在细节上与后者存在不同，但整体上仍以正途为重，而以异途为轻，并与明朝一样，仍以“养士”、“取士”并重，成为国家任贤取士与成就治道的重要途径。

Key words:Translation subjects Imperial Examinations of Eight banners The eighth year of Shunzhi dynasty The first year of Yongzheng dynasty Political and cultural implications

Introduction:In ancient times, imperial examinations were divided into two categories, namely "wen" and "wu". The Chinese examination originated in Sui Dynasty, and the martial examination began in Tang Dynasty. For the imperial court, the two kinds of examinations were to seek talents, and for the imperial examination people were to seek the position of an official. After that, although the Song, Yuan, Ming and Qing dynasties, they were still in succession.The imperial examination system of the Qing Dynasty was based on the Ming system. Although it was different from the Ming system in details, the imperial examination system of the Qing Dynasty still paid more attention to the right path than to the informal path. Like the Ming Dynasty, it still paid equal attention to training and selecting talents, which became an important way for the state to appoint and select talents and achieve political achievements.--[[User:Yan Lili|Yan Lili]] ([[User talk:Yan Lili|talk]]) 14:19, 22 October 2021 (UTC)

The ancient imperial examination was divided into "Wen" and "Wu". The Chinese imperial examination flourished in the Sui Dynasty and the martial arts examination began in the Tang Dynasty. The two sought talents in the public and officials in the private. After that, the imperial examination still existed in Song, Yuan, Ming and Qing Dynasties. The imperial examination system in the Qing Dynasty followed the Ming system. Although it was different from the latter in details, it still focused on the right path than the wrong path as a whole. At the same time,like the Ming Dynasty, it still paid equal attention to "cultivating scholars" and "selecting scholars", which has become an important way for the country to appoint talents and achieve governance.--[[User:Yan Zihan|Yan Zihan]] ([[User talk:Yan Zihan|talk]]) 01:52, 29 October 2021 (UTC)

==颜子涵 Yán Zǐhán 国别女 202120081538==

清代之科举取士不但袭用前朝旧制，使旗人、汉人同场竞技，而且另辟蹊径，创制满洲特色之翻译科，为旗人入仕、进身提供专途。清代的翻译科举制度是清代翻译政策的重要形态，后者则是清代政治、文化事业的重要组成部分。翻译无疑是文化和历史的产物，其对特定社会历史阶段的时空条件有着极其强烈的依附性。

The imperial examination in the Qing Dynasty not only adopted the old system of the previous dynasty to make the banner people and Han people compete together, but also found a new way to create a translation department with Manchu characteristics, so as to provide a special way for the banner people to enter the official . The translation imperial examination system in the Qing Dynasty was an important form of translation policy in the Qing Dynasty, and translation policy was an important part of the political and cultural undertakings in the Qing Dynasty. Translation is undoubtedly the product of culture and history. It has an extremely strong dependence on the space-time conditions of a specific social and historical stage.--[[User:Yan Zihan|Yan Zihan]] ([[User talk:Yan Zihan|talk]]) 02:40, 28 October 2021 (UTC)

In the Qing dynasty, the imperial examination not only followed the old system of the previous dynasties to make the Han people and the banner men compete in the same field, but also found new ways of creating a translation department with Manchurian characteristics to provide a special way for the banner men to engage in politics or promote. The imperial system of translation examination was an important form of translation policy in the Qing Dynasty, and the latter was a significant part of political and cultural undertakings in the Qing Dynasty. It is undoubted that translation is the product of culture and history, and it is highly dependent on the space-time conditions of a specific social and historical stage.--[[User:Yang Jiaying|Yang Jiaying]] ([[User talk:Yang Jiaying|talk]]) 02:37, 29 October 2021 (UTC)

==阳佳颖 Yáng Jiāyǐng 国别女 202120081540==

就其整体而言，翻译主要不是译者的个体行为，而是有条件、有组织、有指向、有作用的集体行为，乃至国家意志行为。固然，翻译是文化更新或演进的重要途径，它可以促进宿语文化的新陈代谢，但文化作用显然不是翻译功能的全部。（袁帅亚，2020：124）以清代翻译科为例，它的创制便具有十分明显的政治动因与意涵。

Translation considered as a whole is not an individual behavior of the translator, but a collective action with conditions, organization, direction and effect, and even the will of state. To be sure,translation is an important way of cultural renewal or evolution, it can promote the metabolism of ancient culture, but obviously the role of culture is not the whole function of translation . (Yuan Shuaiya, 2020:124) Taking translation studies in the Qing Dynasty as an example, its creation had clear political motivations and implications.--[[User:Yang Jiaying|Yang Jiaying]] ([[User talk:Yang Jiaying|talk]]) 12:17, 27 October 2021 (UTC)

As a whole, translation is not the translator's individual behavior, but a conditional, organized, directed and effective collective behavior, and even the will behavior of a state. Of course, translation is an important way of cultural renewal or evolution. It can promote the metabolism of host culture, but the cultural function is obviously not the whole function of translation. (Yuan Shuaiya, 2020:124) Taking the "Translation Subject" of the Qing Dynasty as an example, its creation has very obvious political motivation and implication.--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 09:49, 28 October 2021 (UTC)

==杨爱江 Yáng Àijiāng 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081541==

众所周知，清代翻译科的创制缘起于雍正年间。雍正帝即位伊始，即对传统科举制度进行改革，不仅改革了考官的选派，而且变更了考试的重点与内容，放宽了考生的资格审查。同时，为了表示对于翻译事业的重视，雍正即位之初即在传统八旗科举考试中增设翻译科目，并将其从后者中单列出来，形成自行独立的制度形式，即今之所谓“翻译科”。

As we all know, the creation of Translation Subject in the Qing Dynasty originated in the Yongzheng period. At the beginning of Emperor Yongzheng's accession to the throne, he reformed the traditional imperial examination system, which not only reformed the selection of examiners, but also changed the focus and content of the examination, and relaxed the qualification examination of examinees. At the same time, at the beginning of Yongzheng's accession to the throne, he added translation subjects in the traditional eight banners imperial examination in order to show the importance of translation. Moreover, Yongzheng also listed translation subject separately from the traditional eight banners imperial examination, forming an independent institutional form, which is now the so-called "Translation Subject". --[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 13:32, 25 October 2021 (UTC)

As is known to all, the creation of Translation Department in the Qing Dynasty originated in the Yongzheng period. At the beginning of Emperor Yongzheng's accession to the throne, he reformed the traditional imperial examination system, which not only reformed the selection of examiners, but also changed the focus and content of the examination, and relaxed the qualification examination of examinees. At the same time, at the beginning of Yongzheng's period, he added translation department in the traditional eight banners imperial examination in order to show the importance of translation. Moreover, Yongzheng also listed translation subject separately from the traditional eight banners imperial examination, forming an independent institutional form, which is now the so-called "Translation Department"--[[User:Yang Kun|Yang Kun]] ([[User talk:Yang Kun|talk]]) 12:22, 29 October 2021 (UTC)

==杨堃 Yáng Kūn 法语语言文学女 202120081542==

雍正帝创设的翻译科包括满洲、蒙古二科，分童试、乡试和会试三级，由八旗满洲、蒙古根据相关规定报名应试。翻译科自雍正元年（1723年）始设，至光绪三十一年（1905年）和文科举一并废止，前后历时一百八十二年。作为一种教育制度，以及官员选拔制度，翻译科既为清廷选拔了大量翻译人才，又为八旗满洲、蒙古和汉军提供了进身之阶，它的存在尽管有其自身缺陷，却在相当程度上弥补了门阀制度的不足，为研究清代政治与文化提供了独特视角与价值。

The Translation Department created by the emperor YongZheng includes Manchuria and Mongolia II and divided into Boy trial, provincial examinations, and metropolitan examination. Eight Banners Manchuria and Mongolian should register for the examination according to relevant regulations . The Translation Department , which lasted 182 years, was established in the First Year of YongZheng (1723) and was abolished with Literary Imperial Examination in the 31st of GuangXu(1905). As an educational system, as well as the selection system of officials, the Translation Department not only selected a large number of translation talents for the Qing Dynasty, but also provide a step forward for Eight Banners Manchuria, Mongolia and the Han Army. Despite its own shortcomings, the Translation Department, to a considerable extent, made up for the deficiency of the System of Dominant Family and provides a unique perspective and value for the study of Qing Dynasty politics and culture.--[[User:Yang Kun|Yang Kun]] ([[User talk:Yang Kun|talk]]) 15:50, 23 October 2021 (UTC)

The Translation Department was created by the emperor YongZheng including Manchuria and Mongolia. It was divided into Boy trial, provincial examinations, and metropolitan examination. Manchuria and Mongolian should register for the examination according to relevant regulations. The Translation Department lasting for 182 years was established in the First Year of YongZheng (1723) and was abolished with Literary Imperial Examination in the 31st of GuangXu(1905). As an educational system, as well as the selection system of officials, the Translation Department not only selected a large number of translation talents for the Qing government, but also provided a step forward for Eight Banners Manchuria, Mongolia and the Han Army. Despite its own shortcomings, the Translation Department, to a considerable extent, made up for the deficiency of the System of Dominant Family and provided a unique perspective and value for the study of Qing Dynasty politics and culture. --[[User:Yang Liuqing|Yang Liuqing]] ([[User talk:Yang Liuqing|talk]]) 05:51, 24 October 2021 (UTC)

==杨柳青 Yáng Liǔqīng 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081543==

一、翻译科的制度雏形：清初八旗科考中的翻译考试

翻译科乃清代特设之科目，及八旗科举之独特构成，其渊源可远溯至太宗皇太极时期。天聪三年，太宗诏令更易明例，以考试分别优劣，振兴文治。

Fisrt. The institutional rudiment of Transaltion: The Translation Examination in the Eight Banners Imperial Examination in the early Qing Dynasty
Translation was a special subject set in qing Dynasty and a unique composition of the Eight Banners Imperial Examination. It can be traced back to the period of Emperor Taizong Huang Taiji. In the third year of Tiancong period, Taizong edicted the revision of the Ming's law to distinguish good from bad by examination for revitalization of culture.--[[User:Yang Liuqing|Yang Liuqing]] ([[User talk:Yang Liuqing|talk]]) 06:08, 24 October 2021 (UTC)

Fisrt. The institutional rudiment of Transaltion: The Translation Examination in the Imperial Examination of Eight Banners in the early Qing Dynasty.
Translation was a special subject set in Qing Dynasty and a unique composition of the Imperial Examination of Eight Banners. It can be traced back to the period of Emperor Taizong Huang Taiji. In the third year of Tiancong period, Taizong ordered to the revise the regulations of Ming's law to distinguish good from bad by examination for the great purpose of cultural revitalization.--[[User:Ye Weijie|Ye Weijie]] ([[User talk:Ye Weijie|talk]]) 15:04, 30 October 2021 (UTC)

==叶维杰 Yè Wéijié 国别男 202120081544==

八年，太宗命礼部“考取通过满洲、蒙古、汉书文义者为举人。”（范文程、刚林等，1985：73）崇德三年和六年，朝廷遵太宗圣谕再次办理考试，分举人、生员进行取用，授以官职。上述举措的推出使清初的考试任官得以朝着制度化的方向发展。

In the eighth year of Tiancong period, Taizong gave order to the Ministry of Rites that he who passes the translation examination of Manchurian, Mongolian and Chinese shall be elected a successful candidate.(Fan Wencheng, Gang Lin et al.1985:73). In the third and sixth year of Chongde period, the imperial court organized the great examination again under the order of Taizong emperor, employing and appointing candidates and scholars seperately. The successful implement of above-mentioned actions had made the appointment by examination in the early period of Qing Dynasty develop as a institutionalized system possible.--[[User:Ye Weijie|Ye Weijie]] ([[User talk:Ye Weijie|talk]]) 14:49, 30 October 2021 (UTC)

In the eighth year, Emperor Taizong ordered the Ministry of Rites to "take those who passed the Manchurian, Mongolian, and Chinese literary examinations as jurists." (Fan Wencheng, Ganglin, et al., 1985: 73) In the third and sixth years of Chongde, the court followed the imperial edict of Emperor Taizong to conduct the examination again, divided into jurists and students for appointment and granted official positions. The introduction of the above initiatives enabled the early Qing Dynasty to institutionalize the development of the examination and appointment of officials.--[[User:Yi Yangfan|Yi Yangfan]] ([[User talk:Yi Yangfan|talk]]) 07:15, 1 November 2021 (UTC)Yi Yangfan

==易扬帆 Yì Yángfān 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081545==

崇德八年，太宗猝崩，世祖继位，由睿亲王多尔衮摄政。为吸纳汉族士子，多尔衮于顺治元年十月颁布诏谕，循明制开科考。至顺治八年，世祖亲政，谕礼部研议八旗科举则例，并首开八旗科举，分乡试与会试两种，满洲、蒙古和汉军皆可参加，一时间令旗人崇文之风盛行。

In the 8th year of Chongde, emperor Taizong died suddenly, Shizu succeeded to the throne, by Prince Dorgon acted as regent. In order to recruit the Han scholar, Dorgon in the first year of Shunzhi promulgate a law in October, according to the Ming dynasty to open the imperial examination.To the 8th year of Shunzhi, Shizu took over the reins of government upon coming of age, ordained the Ministry of Rites to study and discuss the Eight Banners of of rules and regulations. And opened the first Eight Banners of imperial examination, divided into two kinds of examinations, provincial examination and metropolitan examination, Manchurian, Mongolian and Han military could participate, a wind of learning culture and literature between banners people prevailed at that time.--[[User:Yi Yangfan|Yi Yangfan]] ([[User talk:Yi Yangfan|talk]]) 02:13, 23 October 2021 (UTC)Yi Yangfan

In the eighth year of Chongde, Emperor Taizong died suddenly, and Emperor Shizu succeeded to the throne, Prince Dorgon acting as regent. In order to recruit the Han scholars, Dorgon promulgated a law that imperial examination followed the tradition of the Ming dynasty in October, the first year of Shunzhi. Till the eighth year of Shunzhi, Emperor Shizu took over the reigns of government, ordaining the Ministry of Rites to study and discuss the Eight Banners of of rules and regulations. It was the first time that opened the first Eight Banners of imperial examination, including two kinds of examinations, provincial examination and metropolitan examination. Manchurian, Mongolian and Han military could participate, a wind of learning culture and literature between banners people prevailed at that time.--[[User:Yin Huizhen|Yin Huizhen]] ([[User talk:Yin Huizhen|talk]]) 08:08, 25 October 2021 (UTC)

==殷慧珍 Yīn Huìzhēn 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081546==

然而，由于清廷担心旗人汉语能力不及汉族，故在考试中对应试者进行区分，要求识汉字者翻译汉文，不识汉字者则作清字文。（鄂尔泰等，1985：457）在考试中加入翻译内容，并将取中情况分榜公布，此举乃太宗时期所未见，实为八旗科目之肇始。（福格，1997：187）本次始设的翻译考试继承了金朝女直进士科的传统，并在后者基础上对考试的程序和体制进行改革，旨在选取通晓满、蒙、汉语的八旗翻译人才。

However, due to the officials of Qing Government worried about that Manchu Bannerman were inferior to the Han people in terms of the proficiency of Chinese, they differentiated the examination candidates. Those who spoke Chinese were required to translate the Chinese, while those who were unable to read Chinese were required to translate Manchu. (Ortai, etc. , 1985：457)Translation became a part of the examination, and the result would be published. This was something that did not happen during the Reign of Hong Taiji, and it was actually the beginning of the Eight Banners Subject. (Forge, 1997: 187)This first translation examination inherited the tradition of Jurchen the highest imperial examination in the Jin Dynasty, and reformed the examination procedures and system on the basis of the later generations, aiming at selecting the eight banners translation talents who were familiar with Manchu, Mongolian and Chinese.--[[User:Yin Huizhen|Yin Huizhen]] ([[User talk:Yin Huizhen|talk]]) 07:38, 25 October 2021 (UTC)

However, officials of Qing Government worried that Manchu Bannerman were not as good as Han people in terms of the proficiency of Chinese,so they differentiated the examination candidates. Those who could speak Chinese were required to translate the Chinese scripts, and those who couldn't were required to translate Manchu language. (Ortai, etc. , 1985：457)Translation became a part of the examination, the result of which would be published. This was something that did not happen during the Reign of emperor Taizong, and it was actually the beginning of the Eight Banners Subject. (Forge, 1997: 187)This first translation examination inherited the tradition of Jurchen the highest imperial examination in the Jin Dynasty, on which the reform of the examination procedures and system was based, with the aim of selecting the Eight Banners translation talents who were proficient in Manchu, Mongolian and Chinese languages.--[[User:Yin Meida|Yin Meida]] ([[User talk:Yin Meida|talk]]) 14:52, 26 October 2021 (UTC)

==殷美达 Yīn Měidá 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081547==

然而，旗人崇尚文学，并经考试“即得陞用”，此举又容易导致其怠于武事。因而顺治十四年，世祖敕谕礼部、吏部和兵部，宣布停止八旗科举。（鄂尔泰等，1985：832）可是，停止旗人考试，使汉人独占科举仕途，又会造成八旗士子失去进身之阶。
However, Banner People's act of advocating literature and the move of "getting promoted" through examination resulted in idleness in military affairs. Therefore, in the fourteenth year of the reign of emperor Shunzhi, the emperor ordered the Ministry of Rites,the Ministry of Civil Affairs and the Ministry of Military Affairs to terminate the Eight Banners imperial examination. Nevertheless, the termination of the exam would lead to the Han people's monopolization in official careers and the Eight Banner people's loss of opportunities for promotion.--[[User:Yin Meida|Yin Meida]] ([[User talk:Yin Meida|talk]]) 14:37, 26 October 2021 (UTC)

However, Banner People's act of advocating literature and "getting promoted" through examination resulted in idleness in military affairs easily. Therefore, in the fourteenth year of the reign of Emperor Shunzhi, the Emperor ordered the Ministry of Rites,the Ministry of Civil Affairs and the Ministry of Military Affairs to terminate the Eight Banners imperial examination. Nevertheless, the termination of the exam would lead to Han people's monopolization in official careers but the Eight Banner people's loss of opportunities for promotion.--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 11:17, 27 October 2021 (UTC)

==尹媛 Yǐn Yuán 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081548==

于是康熙二年，圣祖上谕，令八旗乡试复行，并应御史徐诰武奏请，拟定于康熙六年起令满洲、蒙古、汉军与汉人一体参加会试。（马齐等，1985：328）康熙十二年，三藩之乱起，为避免旗人专心习文，致使武备松懈，朝廷遵圣谕决定效法世祖旧例，自康熙十五年起停办科举，此举维系至康熙二十六年，虽停办时间不长，影响却较为深远。世宗即位后，对康熙后期以来的八旗弊政进行反思，其中即包括旗人的清语学习。

Therefore, in the second year of Kangxi, Emperor issued the order to resume the provincial examinations of the Eight banners. At the request of censor, Xu Gaowu,it was planned that the armies of Manchuria, Mongolia, and Han and Han people would participate in the examinations in the sixth year of Kangxi. (Ma Qi et al., 1985:328) In the twelfth year of Kangxi, the chaos of the three feudatories broke out. To avoid that the people of Eight Banners would concentrate on the study literature, leading to the lax military preparations, the court decided to follow the old principles of Emperor of Shizu and stopped holding the imperial examinations from the 15th year of Kangxi and lasted the stopping to the twenty-sixth years of Kangxi. Although the suspense time was not long, this measure produces far-reaching influence. After Emperor Shizong ascended the throne, he reflected the drawbacks of the Eight Banners politics since the late Kangxi period, including the learning of Qing language.

Therefore, in the second year of Kangxi, Emperor issued the order to resume the provincial examinations of the Eight banners. At the request of imperial censor, Xu Gaowu,it was planned that the armies of Manchuria, Mongolia, and Han and Han people would participate in the examinations in the sixth year of Kangxi. (Ma Qi et al., 1985:328) In the twelfth year of Kangxi, the chaos of the three feudatories broke out. To avoid that the people of Eight Banners would concentrate on learning, leading to the slackening of military, the court decided to follow the old practices of the Emperor Shizu ,stopping holding the imperial examinations since the 15th year of Kangxi and lasting the stopping to the twenty-sixth years of Kangxi. Although the suspense time was not long, this measure has produced far-reaching influence. After the Emperor Shizong ascended the throne, he reflected the drawbacks of the Eight Banners politics since the late Kangxi period, including the learning of Qing language.--[[User:Zhan Ruoxuan|Zhan Ruoxuan]] ([[User talk:Zhan Ruoxuan|talk]]) 06:52, 27 October 2021 (UTC)

==詹若萱 Zhān Ruòxuān 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081549==

由于当时的旗人普遍不谙清语，每遇翻译、说写之时，“字句偶有失落，语音或有不正”的情况比比皆是，世宗为此多次晓谕八旗，令八旗兵丁务必以学习清语为要。（张玉书、允禄等，1983：8）雍正初年，世宗降旨总理王大臣，命其会同礼部、兵部研议翻译科之事，目的正在于激励旗人勤习国语，专精骑射。
毫无疑问，顺治年间增设的翻译考试系清初以来科举取士的接续与发展，它既是统治者因应时势的积极创举，也是长期以来铨选翻译考试传统的自然产物。

As the banners were generally unfamiliar with the Qing language, whenever they translated、talked or wrote, there were many cases of "occasional loss of words and incorrect speech", and for this reason, the Emperor Shizong repeatedly instructed the eight banners to make sure that the soldiers had to learn the Qing language in the first place. (Zhang Yushu, Yunlu et al., 1983: 8) In the early years of Yongzheng, the Emperor Shizong decreed the Prime Minister, ordering him to work with the Ministry of Rites and the Ministry of War to discuss the matter of translation, and the purpose was to encourage the banners to study the national language and specialize in archery. There is no doubt that the Shunzhi years of the additional translation examination is the continuation and development of the imperial examinations since the early Qing Dynasty, it is not only a positive initiative of the ruler in response to the current situation, but also a natural product of the long tradition of the civil service translation examination.--[[User:Zhan Ruoxuan|Zhan Ruoxuan]] ([[User talk:Zhan Ruoxuan|talk]]) 06:40, 27 October 2021 (UTC)
At that time, the people of the eight banners were generally unfamiliar with the Qing language. When translating, speaking and writing, the situation of "occasional loss of words and sentences, or incorrect pronunciation" was everywhere. --[[User:Zhang Qiuyi|Zhang Qiuyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Qiuyi|talk]]) 16:27, 30 October 2021 (UTC)

==张秋怡 Zhāng Qiūyí 亚非语言文学女 202120081550==

事实上，通过铨选翻译考试选拔官吏，此法并非始于满清。如蒙元时期，朝廷便已有蒙古学考试，其中的一项重要内容即是翻译。《元典章》卷 31《礼部卷之四·学校一》中说，元世祖至元八月之际，朝廷在京师开设蒙古国子学，要求包括诸王在内的相关官员参与学习，并以《通鉴节要》的蒙语译本为教本，从习学生员中“选择俊秀，出策题试问，观其所对，精通者为中选，约量授以官职。”（陈高华等，2011：1081—1082）
In fact, the selection of officials through the civil service translation examination did not begin in the Manchu and Qing Dynasties. For example, in the Mongolian Yuan Dynasty, the imperial court had Mongolian examinations, one of which was translation. According to the book of rites IV. school I, Volume 31 of the laws and regulations of the Yuan Dynasty, from the emperor Shizu of the Yuan Dynasty to August of the Yuan Dynasty, the Imperial Court opened a Mongolian sub school in the capital, requiring relevant officials, including kings, to participate in the study. Taking the Mongolian translation of Tongjian jieyao as the teaching material, the students "choose Junxiu, make policy questions, judge what they are right, those who are proficient in it will be the winner, and they will be awarded official positions." (Chen Gaohua et al., 2011:1081-1082)--[[User:Zhang Qiuyi|Zhang Qiuyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Qiuyi|talk]]) 08:47, 26 October 2021 (UTC)

In fact, the selection of officials through the civil service translation examination did not begin in Manchu Qing Dynasty. For example, in the Mongolian Yuan Dynasty, the imperial court already had Mongolian examinations, one important of which was translation. According to the book of rites IV. school I, Volume 31 of the laws and regulations of the Yuan Dynasty, from the emperor Shizu of the Yuan Dynasty to the eighth month of the Yuan Dynasty, the Imperial Court opened a Mongolian sub school in the capital, requiring relevant officials, including every lord, to participate in the study. Taking the Mongolian translation of ''Tongjian Abstract'' as the teaching material, the students "choose Junxiu, make policy questions, judge what they are right, those who are proficient in it will be the winner, and they will be awarded official positions." (Chen Gaohua et al., 2011:1081-1082)--[[User:Zhang Yang|Zhang Yang]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yang|talk]]) 06:09, 27 October 2021 (UTC)

==张扬 Zhāng Yáng 国别男 202120081551==

顺治年间的翻译考试继承了隋唐以来科举取士的基本特点，以及铨选翻译考试的任官传统，正所谓“兼备金元之制而加盛焉”。（汪师韩，1996：473）
作为多民族融合的统一国家，满清政权的政治特点之一便是语种林立，文化与习俗各不相同。出于统治需要，清初以来便在各级政府衙门设置专司文书的翻译和撰拟。

The translation examination in the reign of Shunzhi inherited the basic characteristics of selecting scholars in the imperial examination since Sui and Tang Dynasties and the official tradition of the civil service translation examination. It is the so-called " more prosperity with both Jing and Yuan ruling system". (Wang Shihan, 1996:473)
As a unified country with multi-ethnic integration, one of the political characteristics of the Manchu Qing Dynasty was that there were many languages and different cultures and customs. In order to meet the needs of reigning, since the early Qing Dynasty, special departments have been set up in government offices at all levels to translate and write documents.--[[User:Zhang Yang|Zhang Yang]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yang|talk]]) 06:03, 27 October 2021 (UTC)

The translation examination in the reign of Shunzhi emperor inherited the basic characteristics of selecting scholars in the imperial examination since Sui and Tang Dynasties and the official tradition of the civil service translation examination. It is the so-called " more prosperity with both Jing and Yuan ruling system". (Wang Shihan, 1996:473)
As a unified multi-ethnic state, one of the political characteristics of the Manchu Qing Dynasty was that there were many languages and different cultures and customs. In order to meet the needs of reigning, since the early Qing Dynasty, special departments have been set up in government offices at all levels to translate and write documents.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 07:09, 27 October 2021 (UTC)

==张怡然 Zhāng Yírán 俄语语言文学女 202120081552==

其中，除最具代表性的笔帖式之外，内阁侍读、中书以及各部院主事等职官中，也有相当一部分人员担当翻译之责。同时，汉文典籍的翻译，以及满、蒙文字史籍的撰述等也需要大量翻译人才。所有这些人员的铨选、考核和派充等，都必须经过严格的翻译考试，择优录用。

Among them, in addition to the most representative of the bithesi, the Cabinet, the Central Secretariat and the various ministries and other officials, there is also a significant part of the staff to play the responsibility of translation. At the same time, the translation of the Chinese canon, as well as the Manchu and Mongolian texts of history, such as the compilation of a large number of translators are also needed. All of these personnel are selected, assessed and sent to fill, must go through a rigorous translation examination, the merit of the recruitment.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 02:36, 23 October 2021 (UTC)

Among them, in addition to the most representative of the bithesi, the Cabinet, the Central Secretariat and the various ministries and other officials, there is also a significant number of staff to take the responsibility of translation. At the same time, the translation of the Chinese canon and the compilation of Manchu and Mongolian history books also need a large number of translators. All of these personnel who are selected, assessed and sent to fill must go through a strict translation examination, recruiting the better.--[[User:Zhong Yifei|Zhong Yifei]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yifei|talk]]) 08:42, 23 October 2021 (UTC)

==钟义菲 Zhōng Yìfēi 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081553==

虽然这样的铨选翻译考试并不具备翻译科的性质，取中者往往不能获得科名，但翻译考试的结果仍是官员晋升、罢黜的重要依据，同时也为嗣后创制翻译科提供了制度雏形。

二、《雍正会典》等关于顺治八年翻译科的误记

关于清代翻译科的创设时间，主要有两种观点：一种认为是雍正元年，另一种则认为是顺治八年。

Although such a translation examination used for selecting officials does not have the nature of translation department and the winner often cannot obtain the title . But the results of the translation examination are still an important basis for the promotion and dismissal of officials, and also provide an institutional prototype for the subsequent creation of the translation department.
Misinterpretation of the translation department in the eighth year of Shunzhi, such as the Yongzheng Canon
There are mainly two views on the establishment time of the translation department in the Qing Dynasty: one is the first year of Yongzheng, the other is the eighth year of Shunzhi.--[[User:Zhong Yifei|Zhong Yifei]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yifei|talk]]) 01:22, 22 October 2021 (UTC)

Although such a translation examination used for selecting officials does not have the nature of translation department and the winner often cannot obtain the scholarly honor, the results of the translation examination are still an important basis for the promotion and dismissal of officials, and also provide an institutional prototype for the subsequent creation of the translation department.
Misinterpretation of the translation department in the eighth year of Shunzhi, such as Yongzheng Canon
There are mainly two views on the time of the establishment of the translation department in Qing Dynasty: one is the first year of Yongzheng, the other is the eighth year of Shunzhi.--[[User:Zhong Yulu|Zhong Yulu]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yulu|talk]]) 15:18, 22 October 2021 (UTC)

==钟雨露 Zhōng Yǔlù 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081554==

雍正元年世宗诏谕举办满洲翻译乡试，而顺治八年出现了翻译进士麻勒吉与麻祐，两种说法各自有文献依据，互不能说服对方。如《清史稿》卷273《麻勒吉传》中，明确提及麻勒吉曾经参加翻译乡试，并于会试中取中第一。（赵尔巽，1976：10038）《清史稿》关于此事的记注源于《国朝耆献类征初编》，后者在卷十五中也指出麻勒吉“以翻译取中举人”。（周俊富，1986：767）

In the first year of Yongzheng, the Emperor Shizong issued imperial edicts to hold Manchu translation examination, whereas in the 8th year of Shunzhi, it appeared two translation Chin-Shihs, Ma Leji and Ma You. Both claims were based on documentation and couldn’t convince each other. For instance, in the 273 volume of Qing History Draft—Biography of Ma Leji, it explicitly mentioned that Ma Leji had taken the translation examination and got the first in metropolitan examination of translation. (Zhao Erxun, 1976:10038) The notation of this matter in Qing History Draft originated in A Collection of Biographies of Qing Dynasty Figures, which also mentioned that Ma Leji won the translation provincial graduate in Volume 15. (Zhou Junfu, 1986:767)--[[User:Zhong Yulu|Zhong Yulu]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yulu|talk]]) 15:07, 22 October 2021 (UTC)

In the first year of Yongzheng, the Emperor Shizong issued imperial edicts to hold Manchu translation examination, whereas in the 8th year of Shunzhi, there appeared two translation Chin-Shihs, Ma Leji and Ma You. Both claims were based on documentation and couldn’t convince each other. For instance, in the 273 volume of Qing History Draft—Biography of Ma Leji, it explicitly mentioned that Ma Leji had taken the translation examination and got the first in metropolitan examination. (Zhao Erxun, 1976:10038) The notation of this matter in Qing History Draft originated in A Collection of Biographies of Qing Dynasty Figures which also mentioned that Ma Leji won the translation provincial graduate in Volume 15.--[[User:Zhou Jiu|Zhou Jiu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Jiu|talk]]) 09:24, 24 October 2021 (UTC)

==周玖 Zhōu Jiǔ 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081555==

虽然上述两处记载中，均没有出现“翻译会试”字样，而只是说“以翻译举人举会试第一”，以及“明年会试第一名”，但支持者仍以顺治年间为翻译科的起始时间。将顺治八年的翻译考试视作清代翻译科的缘起，这种观点主要见诸于商衍鎏（2014：231）、王庆云（2001：34）和张杰（2007：193-194）等。在这些研究中，商衍鎏的观点尤其值得注意。

Though in two above-mentioned recordations, there were no “Metropolitan Examinations of Translation”, but appeared “the First-degree Scholar of translation is the champion of Metropolitan Examination” and “the champion of the Metropolitan Examination of the second year”. Supporters still regarded the translation section of Shun Zhi Period as the starting point. They believed that the translation examination during the eight years of Shun Zhi Perid is the origin of Qing’s translation, which was primarily held by Shang Yanliu (2014: 231), Wang Qinyun (2001: 34), Zhang Jie (2007: 193-194) and so forth. Among these researches, the opinions of Shang Yanliu in particular were worth paying close attention to.--[[User:Zhou Jiu|Zhou Jiu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Jiu|talk]]) 04:54, 22 October 2021 (UTC)

There were no “Metropolitan Examinations of Translation”, but rather “the First-degree Scholar of translation is the champion of Metropolitan Examination” and “the champion of the Metropolitan Examination of the second year” in two above-mentioned recordation. Supporters still regarded the translation section in Shun Zhi Period as the starting point. The viewpoint that the translation examination during the eighth years of Shun Zhi Period is the origin of Qing’s translation was primarily held by Shang Yanliu (2014: 231), Wang Qinyun (2001: 34), Zhang Jie (2007: 193-194) and so forth. Among these researches, the opinions of Shang Yanliu in particular were worth paying close attention to.--[[User:Zhou Junhui|Zhou Junhui]] ([[User talk:Zhou Junhui|talk]]) 07:04, 25 October 2021 (UTC)

==周俊辉 Zhōu Jùnhuī 法语语言文学女 202120081556==

商衍鎏乃清代末科八旗会试探花，先后授翰林院侍讲、国史馆协修，以及实录馆总校官等，他的看法具有代表性。《清代科举考试述录》中，商衍鎏对清代翻译科的阐述并不详实，仅论及翻译科的三个层次，即翻译童试、乡试与会试，但明确提及翻译科创设于顺治八年，指出这一年“定考试满洲、蒙古翻译”，而雍正时只是“复行考试”。（商衍鎏，2014：231）与商衍鎏等人不同，更多的人则是将翻译科之缘起归于雍正年间，如石桥崇雄（1988：5）、村上信明（2002：307）、屈六生（1993：229）、叶高树（2013：51）和邹长清（2013：145）等。

Shang Yanliu won the third place in the eight banners examination at the end of qing Dynasty，and he successively served as a lecturer in the Academician Academy, an official in charge of typesetting and printing in the Imperial Scholar Hall, and a general verification officer in the Record Hall, etc. So His views are representative. In ''Reference Recorded about Imperial Examination in the Qing Dynasty''，Shang Yanliu's explanation of translation in Qing Dynasty is not detailed and true. He only talks about three levels, namely, the children's test, the village test and the imperial examination. However, He explicitly mentions that the department of Translation was established in the eighth year of Shunzhi, pointing out that in that year, "Manchurian and Mongolian translation examinations were set up", while in Yongzheng's reign, only "repeated examination" was conducted. （Shang Yanliu, 2014: 231) Different from Shang Yanliu et al., more people, such as Taxio Ishibashi (1988:5), Nobuaki Murakami (2002: 307), Qu Liusheng (1993: 229), Ye Gaoshu (2013: 51) and Zou Changqing (2013: 145), attributed the establishment of the Department of Translation to the reign of Yongzheng.--[[User:Zhou Junhui|Zhou Junhui]] ([[User talk:Zhou Junhui|talk]]) 15:37, 22 October 2021
Shang Yanliu won the number three in the eight banners’metropolitan examination at the end of Qing Dynasty，and he successively served as a lecturer in the Imperial Academy, an official in charge of typesetting and printing in the National History Institution, and a general verification officer in the Record Hall, etc. So His views are representative. In ''Reference Recorded about Imperial Examination in the Qing Dynasty'', Shang Yanliu's elaboration of translation in Qing Dynasty is not detailed and definite. He only discussed three levels, namely, the county examination, the provincial examination and the metropolitan examination. However, He explicitly mentioned that the department of Translation was established in the eighth year of Shunzhi, pointing out that "Manchurian and Mongolian translation examinations were set up", while in Yongzheng's reign, only "office-hunter examination" was conducted. （Shang Yanliu, 2014: 231) Different from Shang Yanliu and others, more people, such as Taxio Ishibashi (1988:5), Nobuaki Murakami (2002: 307), Qu Liusheng (1993: 229), Ye Gaoshu (2013: 51) and Zou Changqing (2013: 145), attributed the establishment of the Department of Translation to the reign of Yongzheng.--[[User:Zhou Qiao1|Zhou Qiao1]] ([[User talk:Zhou Qiao1|talk]]) 13:40, 26 October 2021 (UTC)

==周巧 Zhōu Qiǎo 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081557==

另外，也有少数将翻译铨选考试视作翻译科缘起者。如康熙二十四年，清廷曾组织翰林院侍讲的考选，由圣祖仁皇帝钦试。此次考试的对象以各部院衙门中的无品笔帖式，以及旗人中的革职、闲散人员为主，含八旗满洲、蒙古及汉军，应试者必须通汉文，善翻译。
Besides , there are a few who regard the selecting officials test as the origin of the translation department. For example, in the 24th year of Kangxi's reign, the Qing government organized an examination of the imperial tutor of the Imperial Academy, which was conducted by Emperor shengzuren. The participant of this examination are mainly the non-rank officials of various ministries and institutes who are proficient in translating, as well as the dismissed and idle personnel among the people, including the Manchuria, Mongolia and Han army of the eight banners. The candidates must be familiar with Chinese and specialize in translation.--[[User:Zhou Qiao1|Zhou Qiao1]] ([[User talk:Zhou Qiao1|talk]]) 12:37, 26 October 2021 (UTC)

In addition, there are a small number of people who regard the translation qualification examination as the origin of the translation department. For example, in the twenty-fourth year of Kangxi, the Qing court organized an examination for the attendants of the Hanlin Academy, and the emperor Shengzuren tested it. The subjects of this examination are mainly the unskilled pen-post styles in various ministries and institutions, as well as the dismissed and idle personnel from the banner people, including the Eight Banners Manchuria, Mongolia and Han forces. The candidates must be proficient in Chinese and good at translating.--[[User:Zhou Qing|Zhou Qing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Qing|talk]]) 12:49, 27 October 2021 (UTC)

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==周清 Zhōu Qīng 法语语言文学女 202120081558==

由于清代政书中对于此类考试并无统一命名，故多称之为“铨选”，即“选才授官”之意。简单来说，所谓“铨选”即是指各部院衙门通过考试翻译，从应试考生中选取成绩优异者，授官或派充至各部衙门，负责行政文书的翻译和撰拟，其主要的形式包括笔帖式、内阁侍读与侍讲、中书、通事、监贡等。正是由于铨选翻译考试的自身特点，有人便将其与翻译科考等而视之，不加区分。

Since there was no uniform name for this type of examination in the political books of the Qing Dynasty, it was often called "Quan Xuan", which meant "selecting talents and conferring officials". To put it simply, the so-called "selection" refers to the translation and translation of various ministries, colleges, and offices, and select candidates with excellent grades from the candidates, appoint officials or assign them to various ministries and offices, and be responsible for the translation and writing of administrative documents. Its main form is Including pen-and-post style, cabinet reading and lectures, Zhongshu, Tongshi, Jian Gong, etc. It is precisely because of the characteristics of the translation test that some people regard it as the translation test and so on, without distinguishing it.

Since there was no uniform name for this type of examination in the political books of the Qing Dynasty, it was often called "Quan Xuan", which meant "selecting talents and conferring officials".In short, the so-called "Quan Xuan" refered to various ministries and institutes selected outstanding students from the examinees through the examination translation，then awarded them with a title and office or assigned them to various ministries and offices, and be responsible for the translation and writing of administrative documents. It mainly involved pen-and-post style, cabinet reading and lectures, Zhongshu, Tongshi, Jian Gong, etc. It is precisely because of the characteristics of "Quan Xuan", that some people regarded it as translation test.--[[User:Zhou Xiaoxue|Zhou Xiaoxue]] ([[User talk:Zhou Xiaoxue|talk]]) 03:09, 28 October 2021 (UTC)

==周小雪 Zhōu Xiǎoxuě 日语语言文学女 202120081559==

那么，清代翻译科是否滥觞于顺治八年？或者说，顺治八年出现的翻译考试是否具备翻译科的正式形态？欲回答此问题，务必先对《清实录·世祖章皇帝实录》中的一段记载进行摘引与分析，其中写道：顺治八年六月壬申，礼部议：八旗科举例，凡遇应考年分，内院同礼部考取满洲生员一百二十名、蒙古生员六十名，顺天学政考取汉军生员一百二十名。

So, did translation department in the Qing Dynastystarted in the eighth year of Shunzhi? or did the translation examination in the eighth year of Shunzhi had the formal form of the translation department? To answer this question, we need to analyze the passage from the book named In Veritable Records of Qing Dynasty ·Veritable Records of Shunzhi Emperor. In this book, it said in June of the eighth year of emperor Shunzhi, The Ministry of Rites made the examination regulations of the Eight Banners. In the year of examination,The Cabinet and The Ministry of Rites would admit 120 students from Manchuria, 60 students from Mongolia, and120 Chinese Banners would be admitted by Shuntianfu Academy.--[[User:Zhou Xiaoxue|Zhou Xiaoxue]] ([[User talk:Zhou Xiaoxue|talk]]) 10:50, 23 October 2021 (UTC)

So,did Translation Department of Qing Dynasty started in the eighth year of Shunzhi? Or in other words, did the translation examination in the eighth year of Shunzhi have the formal form of the Translation Department? To answer these questions, we must first cite and analyze a record of the book named Factual Record of Qing Dynasty ·Factual Record of Shunzhi Emperor. In this book, it said in June of the eighth year of emperor Shunzhi, The Ministry of Rites made the examination regulations of the Eight Banners. As long as in the year of examination,The Cabinet and The Ministry of Rites would admit 120 students from Manchuria, 60 students from Mongolia, and 120 students of Han military army would be admitted by Shuntian school administration.

annotation:
Renshen壬申）：One of the main branches in Heavenly Stems and Earthly Branches, the ninth in order.
学政：1. education; 2. abbreviation of supervising school administraton. --[[User:Zhu Suzhen|Zhu Suzhen]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suzhen|talk]]) 05:34, 27 October 2021 (UTC)

==朱素珍 Zhū Sùzhēn 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081561==

乡试取中满洲五十名、蒙古二十名、汉军五十名。各衙门无顶带笔帖式亦准应试，满洲、蒙古识汉字者，翻汉字文一篇；不识汉字者，作清字文一篇，汉军文章篇数如汉人例。会试取中满洲二十五名、蒙古十名、汉军二十五名。

The country-level examination took 50 from Central Manchuria, 20 from Mongolia and 50 from the Han military army. Each yamen which doesn't set up Dingdai Bithesi is also allowed to take the examination.Those who knew Chinese characters in Manchuria and Mongolia have to translate a Chinese character eaasay; Those who did not know Chinese characters had to write one article in Qing characters, and the number of articles in Han military army was as same as that of Han people. The metropolitan examination will take 25 from Central Manchuria, 10 from Mongolia and 25 from the Han military army.

annotation：
*Dingdai（顶带）: the official cap button in the Qing Dynasty with the meaning of being thankful and saluting.It shows various ranks by button of precious stone on top.
*Bithesi（笔帖式）：official name. Translated from Manchu.During the Kangxi period, the Yamen of each department set up Bithesi,including translation,coping writing and other titles.
*Han military army（汉军）: Han soldiers who defected to the Manchu invaders
*The metropolitan examinatiion(会试）: In the imperial examination era, it gathered the examiners from all provinces in the capital.

The country-level examination took 50 from Central Manchuria, 20 from Mongolia and 50 from the Han military army. Each yamen which didn't set up Dingdai Bithesi was also allowed to take the examination.Those who knew Chinese characters in Manchuria and Mongolia had to translate a Chinese character eaasay; Those who did not know Chinese characters had to write one article in Qing characters, and the number of articles in Han military army was as many as that of Han people. The metropolitan examination will take 25 from Central Manchuria, 10 from Mongolia and 25 from the Han military army.

annotation：
*Dingdai（顶带）: the official cap button in the Qing Dynasty with the meaning of being thankful and saluting.It shows various ranks by button of precious stone on top.
*Bithesi（笔帖式）：official name. Translated from Manchu.During the Kangxi period, the Yamen of each department set up Bithesi,including translation,coping writing and other titles.
*Han military army（汉军）: Han soldiers who defected to the Manchu invaders
*The metropolitan examinatiion(会试）: In the imperial examination era, it gathered the examiners from all provinces in the capital.--[[User:Zou Yueli|Zou Yueli]] ([[User talk:Zou Yueli|talk]]) 12:05, 27 October 2021 (UTC)

==邹岳丽 Zōu Yuèlí 日语语言文学女 202120081562==

各衙门他赤哈哈番笔帖式、哈番俱准应试，满洲、蒙古识汉字者，翻汉字文一篇，作文章一篇；不识汉字者，作清字文二篇，汉军文章篇数如汉人例。报可。（鄂尔泰等，1985：457）
上文中，礼部所奏涉及八旗乡、会试的额数与形式等。
Each yamen held a written examination, and Hafan asked them to take the exam. People who know Chinese characters in Manchuria and Mongolia translate a Chinese character article and write a composition; Those who do not know Chinese characters write two Qing characters, and the number of articles written by the Han army is as many as that of the Han people. Yes. (ertai et al., 1985:457)
In the above, the Ministry of rites involves eight flag Township and the amount and
form of examination.--[[User:Zou Yueli|Zou Yueli]] ([[User talk:Zou Yueli|talk]]) 11:31, 27 October 2021 (UTC)

Each government office holds two kinds of tests. Those who understand the characters in Manchuria and Mongolia translate one passage in Chinese characters and write an article; those who do not are required to finish two passage in Qing language; the number of articles for the Han army are as many as those of the Han people. Just as it is reported. ( Ertai et al., 1985 : 457 ) In the above, the Ministry of Rites are in charge of the region of the Eight Banners and the number and form of examination.--[[User:Chen Jing|Chen Jing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jing|talk]]) 02:12, 31 October 2021 (UTC)

20211110 homework

2021-12-29T16:05:34Z

Liu Wei: /* 刘薇 Liú Wēi 国别女 202120081507 */

Quicklinks: [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021|Back to course homepage]] [https://bou.de/u/wiki/uvu:Community_Portal#Frequently_asked_questions_FAQ FAQ] [https://bou.de/u/wiki/uvu:Community_Portal Manual] [[20210926_homework|Back to all homework webpages overview]] [[20220112_final_exam|final exam page]]

PLEASE READ [[Joint_translation_terms|Joint translation terms]]

PLEASE ALSO READ THE PREVIOUS PARTS, AT LEAST THE SENTENCES BEFORE YOUR OWN PART IN CHAPTER 19 [[20210303_culture|1, Mar 3 Chapters 1-4]], [[20210310_culture|2, Mar 10 Chapters 6-7]], [[20210317_culture|3, Mar 17 Chapters 11-13]], [[20210324_culture|4, Mar 24 Chapters 15-17]], [[20210331_culture|5, Mar 31 Chapters 4-7]], [[20210407_culture|6, Apr 7 Chapters 8-10]], [[20210414_culture|7, Apr 14 Chapters 13-15]] , [[20210519_culture|12, May 19 Chapters 17-19]], [[20210929_homework#Hongloumeng|for Sep 29 - rest of HLM Chapter 19]] [[20211110_homework|for Nov 10 - HLM Chapters 20-21]] etc.

==陈静 Chén Jìng 国别女 202020080595==
按语：拙著《红楼梦全解本》出版后，受到了不少专家与读者的好评，甚为欣慰。但也有读者认为，如果能删掉部分注文，既不影响读者阅读，也可节省书的成本，使更多读者买得起。

Note : After the publication of ''The Dream of Red Mansions(The Anotation Version)'', it was highly appreciated by many experts and readers. However, some readers believe that if some notes can be deleted, it will not affect readers ' reading and save the cost of the publication, so that more readers can afford it.--[[User:Chen Jing|Chen Jing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jing|talk]]) 10:02, 9 November 2021 (UTC)

Note: after my book the complete interpretation of Drdam Of Red Chamber was published, it was highly praised by many experts and readers. However, some readers believe that if some annotations can be deleted, it will not affect readers' reading, but also save the cost of the book and make it affordable for more readers.
--[[User:Cai Zhufeng|Cai Zhufeng]] ([[User talk:Cai Zhufeng|talk]]) 11:53, 9 November 2021 (UTC)

==蔡珠凤 Cài Zhūfèng 日语语言文学女 202120081477==
恰好中央编译出版社准备出版四大古典小说套书，为了平衡四部小说的注文，《红楼梦》的注文也嫌太长。因此接受读者的建议，将《红楼梦全解本》的注文删掉了差不多一半，其他一概未动；换言之，此版《红楼梦》校注本，实即《红楼梦全解本》的删节本（仅删注文）。因此《校注前言》仍用《红楼梦全解本》的《校注前言》，不再另写。

It happened that the Central Compilation and Translation Publishing House was preparing to publish four sets of classical novels. In order to balance the annotations of the four novels, the annotations of Dream Of the Red Chamber were too long. Therefore, we accepted the readers' suggestions and deleted almost half of the annotations in the complete interpretation of Dream Of Red Chamber, and the rest remained unchanged; In other words, the revised annotation version of Dream Of Red Chamber is actually an abridged version of the complete interpretation of Dream Of Red Chamber (only the annotation is deleted). Therefore, the preface to proofreading still uses the preface to proofreading of the complete interpretation of Dream Of Red Chamber, and needn’t be written again.
--[[User:Cai Zhufeng|Cai Zhufeng]] ([[User talk:Cai Zhufeng|talk]]) 06:36, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

It happened that the Central Compilation and Translation Publishing House was preparing to publish four sets of classical novels. In order to balance the annotations of the four novels, the annotations of ''The Dream of the Red Chamber'' were too long. Therefore, we accepted the readers' suggestions and deleted almost half of the annotations in the complete interpretation of ''The Dream of Red Chamber'', and the rest remained unchanged; In other words, the revised annotation version of ''The Dream of Red Chamber'' is actually an abridged version of the complete interpretation of ''The Dream of Red Chamber'' (only the annotation is deleted). Therefore, ''The Preface to Proofreading'' still uses ''The Preface to Proofreading'' of the complete interpretation of ''Dream Of Red Chamber'', and needn’t be written again.--[[User:Chen Huini|Chen Huini]] ([[User talk:Chen Huini|talk]]) 14:32, 8 November 2021 (UTC)Chen Huini

==陈惠妮 Chén Huìnī 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081479==
《红楼梦》以其包罗万象的内容，博大精深的思想，精湛完美的艺术，丰富生动的语言，尤其是众多栩栩如生的人物形象，不仅在中国小说史上奇峰独秀，而且在世界文学之林独树一帜。它是我国文化遗产中的珍品，值得每一个中国人所珍视。《红楼梦》在其尚未完稿的时候，已经被人竞相传抄，辗转传阅，不胫而走，蜚声神州。

''A Dream of Red Mansions'' is unique not only in the history of Chinese novels, but also in the world literature with its comprehensive contents, extensive and profound thoughts, exquisite and perfect art, rich and vivid language, and especially its numerous vivid characters. It is a treasure of our country's cultural heritage and is worth cherishing by every Chinese. ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' has been copied, circulated and spread like wildfire even when it's unfinished. It is really well-known in China.--[[User:Chen Huini|Chen Huini]] ([[User talk:Chen Huini|talk]]) 14:23, 8 November 2021 (UTC)Chen Huini

''A Dream of Red Mansions'' is outstanding not only in the history of Chinese novels, but also in the world literature for its comprehensive contents, extensive and profound thoughts, exquisite and perfect art, rich and vivid language, and especially its numerous vivid characters. It is a treasure of our country's cultural heritage and is worth being cherished by every Chinese.Before it is finished， ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' has been copied, circulated and spread like wildfire and it is really well-known in China.--[[User:Chen Xiangqiong|Chen Xiangqiong]] ([[User talk:Chen Xiangqiong|talk]]) 00:25, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

==陈湘琼 Chén Xiāngqióng 外国语言学及应用语言学女 202120081480 ==
不仅“士大夫几乎家有《红楼梦》一书”（清·潘炤《从心录》卷首），而且“家弦户诵，妇孺皆知”（清·缪艮《文章游戏初编》卷六）。上层社会更出现了“开谈不说《红楼梦》，读尽诗书也枉然”（清·得舆《京都竹枝词·时尚门》）的时尚。《红楼梦》的魅力也使其商业价值大增，“好事者每传抄一部，置庙市中，昂其值，得数十金，可谓不胫而走者矣”（清·程伟元《〈红楼梦〉序》）。

''A Dream of Red Mansions'' was so popular that not only scholar officals（people obtain knowledge and wealth in feudal China） read it （the first volum of ''Essay'' by Pan Zhao, Qing），but also families，even women and children ， loved it（the sixth volum of ''Preliminary Article Games'' by Miu Liang, Qing）. Moreover ,there was a climate of ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' that the upper class believed " it is useless to read great books without ''A Dream of Red Mansions''.（''Bamboo Pole Poem in the Capital'' by De Yu, Qing）. The charm of ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' also rose its business value as in record： “Someone who is willing to copy ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' and sell it can raise 10 gold ingots everytime ，and everyone know it.（ the introduction of ''A Dream of Red Mansions'', Qing）.--[[User:Chen Xiangqiong|Chen Xiangqiong]] ([[User talk:Chen Xiangqiong|talk]]) 09:44, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

Not only did "almost every scholar had a copy of ''A Dream of Red Mansions''" (the first volum of Essay by Pan Zhao, Qing Dynasty), but "Every household recited it, and all women and children knew it" (the sixth volum of ''Preliminary Article Games'' by Miu Liang, Qing Dynasty). In the upper class, the fashion of "If you don't talk about ''A Dream of Red Mansions'', you can read all the poems and books in vain" (''Bamboo Pole Poem in the Capital'' by De Yu, Qing Dynasty) emerged. The charm of A Dream of Red Mansions also made its commercial value increased greatly, "Those who are interested in it can get a lot of money by copying one of the books and selling it in the market. The information spread quickly." (the introduction of ''A Dream of Red Mansions'', Qing Dynasty)--[[User:Chen Xinyi|Chen Xinyi]] ([[User talk:Chen Xinyi|talk]]) 07:07, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

==陈心怡 Chén Xīnyí 翻译学女 202120081481==
至高鹗续写后四十回、由程伟元以活字正式出版完整的一百二十回本后，更出现了风行全国的盛况。时至今日，即使读不懂《红楼梦》的人，也都看过《红楼梦》电影或电视剧，对《红楼梦》的故事和人物无不耳熟能详。因此《红楼梦》已经不是普通的小说，而成为全民珍视的国宝了。

After Gao E continued to write the second forty chapters and Cheng Weiyuan officially published the complete one hundred and twenty chapters in movable type, the book became popular nationwide. To this day, even those who do not understand ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' have seen the movie or TV series versions, and are familiar with the story and characters of ''A Dream of Red Mansions''. Therefore, ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' is no longer an ordinary novel, but a national treasure cherished by all.--[[User:Chen Xinyi|Chen Xinyi]] ([[User talk:Chen Xinyi|talk]]) 06:39, 8 November 2021 (UTC)
After Gao E continued to write the following forty chapters and Cheng Weiyuan officially published the complete one hundred and twenty chapters in movable type, the book became popular nationwide increasingly. To this day, even those who do not understand ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' have already seen the movie or TV series versions, and are familiar with the story and characters of it. Therefore, ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' is no longer an ordinary novel, but a national treasure cherished by all.--[[User:Cheng Yang|Cheng Yang]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yang|talk]]) 08:37, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

==程杨 Chéng Yáng 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081482==
中国古代的文人墨客、传统学者、官僚士夫，无不鄙薄小说，最多被视为茶余饭后的谈资。唯独对《红楼梦》情有独钟，爱不释手。不仅百读不厌，而且像拜读经书般寻章摘句，眉批夹评，乐此不疲。
The ancient Chinese literats, traditional scholars, bureaucrats, all despised novels, and regarded them as after-dinner talk at most. But they only showed special preference to ''The Dream of Red Mansions'', and fondled admiringly. They not only tired of reading it, but also liked reading the Confucian classics as seeking remarkable passages and culling model sentences, making notes and commentaries, and always enjoying it.--[[User:Cheng Yang|Cheng Yang]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yang|talk]]) 08:33, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

The ancient Chinese literats, traditional scholars, bureaucrats, all despised novels, and regarded them as after-dinner talks at most. However, they only showed special preference to ''The Dream of Red Mansions'', and fondled admiringly. They not only weren't tired of reading it, but also liked reading the Confucian classics as seeking remarkable passages and culling model sentences, making notes and commentaries, and always enjoying it.--[[User:Ding Xuan|Ding Xuan]] ([[User talk:Ding Xuan|talk]]) 14:07, 12 November 2021 (UTC)

==丁旋 Dīng Xuán 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081483==
久而久之，居然形成了“红学”。“红学”由起初对《红楼梦》的单纯评点，逐步发展成为对《红楼梦》及其作者的全面考证与研究，最后更成立了红学会，出版研究刊物，势头似乎越来越盛。这不仅是中国小说史上绝无仅有的，也是中国文学史上极其罕见的现象。

As time passes, redology is actually formed. Redology was about pure comments to ''A Dream in Red Mansion'' in the beginning and it gradually developed as the comprehensive textual research and study in ''A Dream in Red Mansion'' and its author. Finally, we even established redologist institution and published research periodicals, the momentum of redology more and more flourishing. This phenomenon is not only unique in the history of Chinese novels, but extremely rare in the history of Chinese literature. --[[User:Ding Xuan|Ding Xuan]] ([[User talk:Ding Xuan|talk]]) 05:29, 9 November 2021 (UTC)

As time passes, redology is unexpectedly formed. Redology came into mere comments to ''A Dream in Red Mansion'' in the beginning and it gradually developed as the comprehensive textual research and study of this work and its author. Finally, redologist institution was established to publish research periodicals with more flourishing tendency than ever. This phenomenon is not only unique in the history of Chinese novels, but extremely rare in the history of Chinese literature.--[[User:Du Lina|Du Lina]] ([[User talk:Du Lina|talk]]) 11:49, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

==杜莉娜 Dù Lìnà 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081484==
遗憾的是，“红学家”们对《红楼梦》的作者及其版本似乎偏爱有加，而对《红楼梦》的思想和艺术价值却缺乏足够的兴趣，因此考证作者和版本的文章和著作连篇累牍，而研究《红楼梦》思想和艺术价值的成果却寥若晨星。我认为这是本末倒置。一个作家的价值不在于其生平如何，而在于其作品的思想和艺术水平的高低；是作品决定作家的价值，而不是作家决定作品的价值。

Unfortunately, redologists ( who are specialists in A Dream of the Red Chamber) seemingly are partial to research on the writer and verison of this book, but are short of interest for it's thought and artistic value. And therefore there are a lot of articles and books about the former while very few about the latter. It seems to me that puts the cart before the horse. What a writer is worth lies in thoughts and artistic level in his/her works but not in his/her life story; and the value of a writer depends on his/her production, not vice versa.--[[User:Du Lina|Du Lina]] ([[User talk:Du Lina|talk]]) 13:31, 6 November 2021 (UTC)

Unfortunately, redologists ( who are specialists in A Dream of the Red Chamber) seem to prefer to research on the writer and versions of this book, but are short of interest in the thought and artistic value. And therefore there are a lot of articles and books about the former while very few about the latter. It seems to me that puts the cart before the horse. What a writer is worth lies in thoughts and artistic level in his/her works but not in his/her life story; and the value of a writer depends on his/her production, not vice versa.--[[User:Fu Hongyan|Fu Hongyan]] ([[User talk:Fu Hongyan|talk]]) 14:10, 9 November 2021 (UTC)

==付红岩 Fù Hóngyán 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081485==
读者对于作品的选择与评价，也只着眼于作品本身，而非作家本人。一部伟大的作品，即使作者佚名，也不影响其伟大，照样受到读者的追捧；相反，如果一个伟大作家偶然写了一部低劣的作品，读者也决不买账。因此“红学”的研究重点应该是《红楼梦》本身，而不是《红楼梦》作者。

Readers' choice and evaluation towards works is based on the works themselves, rather than the writers. As anonymous is the writer, the valued of a great work is definitely unlikely to be underestimated, which is still welcomed by the public. Likewise, readers cannot be attracted by the inferior work written by a great writer. Therefore, redology is supposed to focus on the context, instead of the writer Cao Xueqin--[[User:Fu Hongyan|Fu Hongyan]] ([[User talk:Fu Hongyan|talk]]) 14:01, 9 November 2021 (UTC)

Readers' choice and evaluation towards works is based on the works themselves, rather than the writers. As anonymous is the writer, the values of a great work are definitely unlikely to be underestimated, which is still popular with the public. Likewise, readers cannot be attracted by a low-quality work even written by a great writer occasionally. Therefore, redology is supposed to focus on the context, instead of the writer Cao Xueqin.--[[User:Fu Shiyu|Fu Shiyu]] ([[User talk:Fu Shiyu|talk]]) 09:02, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

==付诗雨 Fù Shīyǔ 日语语言文学女 202120081486==
当然也应该了解作者，但目的只是为了有助于深入了解《红楼梦》，仅此而已。我认为要想深入研究《红楼梦》，首先必须完全读懂《红楼梦》。如果对《红楼梦》的文本只是一知半解，那么所谓研究，势必如医生不明病人的病情而乱开药方，不仅治不好病，倒可能致人于死命。

Certainly, we should also know the author, but the purpose is nothing more than to help us understand ''A Dream of Red Chamber'' in depth. I think that in order to make a further research on ''A Dream of the Red Chamber'', we must first have a thorough understanding of it. If we have only a sketchy knowledge of the text of ''A Dream of Red Chamber'', then the so-called research would definitely be like the prescriptions prescribed indiscriminately without knowing the patient's condition. Not only can it not cure the disease, but it may lead to death.--[[User:Fu Shiyu|Fu Shiyu]] ([[User talk:Fu Shiyu|talk]]) 13:53, 6 November 2021 (UTC)

Certainly, we should also know about the author, but only with the purpose of deepening our understanding of the work. I think that further researches on ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' necessitate a thorough understanding of it. If we have only a sketchy knowledge of the text of ''A Dream of Red Mansions'', then the so-called research would definitely be like the prescriptions written indiscriminately by a doctor unaware of the patient's condition. Not only can it not cure the disease, but it may lead to death. --[[User:Gao Mi|Gao Mi]] ([[User talk:Gao Mi|talk]]) 03:04, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

==高蜜 Gāo Mì 翻译学女 202120081487==
《红楼梦》研究中的许多无谓争论，正是研究者没有读懂《红楼梦》或对《红楼梦》文本的不同理解所致。因此对《红楼梦》文本的注释，显然是《红楼梦》研究的基础工作。其次，当今的读者和观众虽然热衷于《红楼梦》，但真正能够全面深入理解《红楼梦》的人恐怕并不很多。

A great many arguments regarding the study of ''A Dream of Red Mansions'', caused either by an incomplete understanding or different understandings of the text, are pointless. Therefore, it's apparent that annotating ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' is a foundation work for its further study. Besides, though today's readers and audience are crazy about the book, I'm afraid that not many of them get to know it thoroughly. --[[User:Gao Mi|Gao Mi]] ([[User talk:Gao Mi|talk]]) 03:09, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

Many unnecessary arguments in the study of ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' are caused by the researchers' failure to understand ''A dream of Red Mansions'' or their different understandings of the text.Therefore, it's apparent that annotating ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' is a foundation work for its further study. Besides, though today's readers and audience are crazy about the book, I'm afraid that not many of them get to know it thoroughly.--[[User:Gong Boya|Gong Boya]] ([[User talk:Gong Boya|talk]]) 11:14, 13 November 2021 (UTC)

==宫博雅 Gōng Bóyǎ 俄语语言文学女 202120081488==
这是因为，《红楼梦》不是普通的白话小说，不是简单地为读者讲故事，不是为读者提供茶馀饭后的谈资，更不是为了赚稿费餬口（那时根本不存在稿费制度）。它不仅是一部反映封建社会的“百科全书”，而且作者还对人类共同关心的一些问题，如人生的目的、人性的善恶、爱情的真谛、宗教的精义等进行了探索。作品涉及的内容几乎无所不包，从至高无上的皇帝，到“芥豆之微”的细民，从国家的政治、军事、经济到百姓的日常生活，举凡天文、地理、动物、植物、建筑、服饰、医卜星相、琴棋书画等等，无不尽收笔底。

This is because ''a Dream of Red Mansions'' is not an ordinary vernacular novel. It is not simply a story for readers to read, not a topic for after-dinner conversation, or a way to earn a living (there was no contribution fee system at that time). It is not only an "encyclopedia" reflecting the feudal society, but also explores some common issues of human concern, such as the purpose of life, the good and evil of human nature, the true meaning of love, the essence of religion and so on. The works cover almost everything, from the supreme emperor to the ordinary people, from national politics, military affairs, economy to the daily life of the people, including astronomy, geography, animals, plants, architecture, clothing, medicine, astrology and practise divination, poetry and painting and so on, they're all in the book.--[[User:Gong Boya|Gong Boya]] ([[User talk:Gong Boya|talk]]) 13:47, 6 November 2021 (UTC)

It is because ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' is neither an ordinary novel in vernacular Chinese, nor a simple narrative or gossip for readers. The author wrote it not for remuneration for the system of remuneration for writters did not exist at that time. It is not only an "encyclopedia" reflecting the feudal society, but also an exploration of some issues of common concern to mankind, such as the purpose of life, the good and evil of human nature, the true meaning of love, and the essence of religion. It covers almost everything, from the supreme emperor to the plebeian as tiny as reed, and from the politics, military and economy of the country to the daily life of the people. It includes astronomy, geography, animals, plants, architecture, costumes, medicine, astrology, zither, chess, calligraphy and painting, and so on. --[[User:He Qin|He Qin]] ([[User talk:He Qin|talk]]) 11:48, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

==何芩 Hé Qín 翻译学女 202120081489==
作者还调动了自己的全部才能和知识，汲取了前人的成果，撰写并引用了大量诗、词、曲、赋、歌、诔、谜语、酒令等，作为描写人物、叙述故事、揭示主题的艺术手段，从而成为作品的重要组成部分。这其中蕴藏着许多成语、典故和各种知识，现在的一般读者是很难读懂的。此外，由于曹雪芹以其家事为《红楼梦》的蓝本，且暴露了不少家丑，如秦可卿的淫荡乱伦等，因而大量采用了《春秋》笔法，即作者所谓将“真事隐去”，以“假语村言”的曲折方式进行暗示或隐寓，致使《红楼梦》扑朔迷离，迷雾重重。

The author also mobilized all his talents and knowledge and drew on the achievements of his predecessors, writing and quoting a large number of poems, lyrics, songs, eulogies, riddles and wine wager as artistic methods to describe characters, narrate stories and reveal themes, thus becoming an important part of the work. This contains many idioms, allusions and various kinds of knowledge that are difficult for the average readers to comprehend nowadays. In addition, Cao Xueqin used his family affairs as the blueprint for Dream of the Red Chamber and exposed many family scandals, such as Frivolity Grain's lewdness and incest. Cao, thus, adopted much of a writing style of ''Spring and Autumn Annals'', that is, the author's so-called "real things concealed", in the twisted way of "false words and village gossips", which has led to the ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' being puzzling and foggy.--[[User:He Qin|He Qin]] ([[User talk:He Qin|talk]]) 12:28, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

The author also mobilized all his talents and knowledge and took results from his predecessors, writing and quoting a large number of poems, lyrics, songs, eulogies, riddles and wine wager as artistic methods to describe characters, narrate stories and reveal themes, thus becoming an important part of the work. The novel contains many idioms, allusions and various kinds of knowledge that are difficult for the average readers to comprehend nowadays. In addition, Cao Xueqin used his family affairs as the blueprint for ''A Dream in Red Mansions'' and exposed many family scandals, such as Qin Keqing's lewdness and incest. Cao, thus, frequently adopted a writing style of Spring and Autumn Annals, that is, the author's so-called "real things concealed", using the twisted way of "false words and village gossips" to hint and make it metaphorical which has led to ''A Dream in Red Mansions'' being puzzling and foggy.--[[User:Hu Shuqing|Hu Shuqing]] ([[User talk:Hu Shuqing|talk]]) 08:35, 14 November 2021 (UTC)

==胡舒情 Hú Shūqíng 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081490==
因此帮助广大读者读懂《红楼梦》，也是《红楼梦》研究者义不容辞的责任。而要使读者读懂《红楼梦》，只作简单的文字注释不解决问题，必须加以详细注释，将隐藏于《红楼梦》字里行间的寓意一一揭示出来，才能完全展示《红楼梦》的本来面貌。我从学生时代起就期待这种《红楼梦》的详注本出现，一直等了半个世纪，可惜望眼欲穿而不见踪影。

Therefore, it is incumbent on researchers of ''A Dream in Red Mansions'' to help numerous readers understand the novel. For this, problem can’t be solved simply by text annotations. What should do is to add detailed explanatory notes to discover the meanings implied in characters, which can fully show the way the book originally is. I have expected the appearance of this version with detailed annotations since I was a student. I’ve waited for half a century, but it never comes out.--[[User:Hu Shuqing|Hu Shuqing]] ([[User talk:Hu Shuqing|talk]]) 02:46, 12 November 2021 (UTC)

Therefore, it is our researchers' duty to heip numerous readers understand A Dream in Red Mansions. To do that, simple text annotations are not enough. And detailed explanatory notes are needed to discover its implied meanings, which can fully show its characteristics. Waiting for half century, I have expected the apppearance of this version with detailed annotations since I was a student.--[[User:Huang Jinyun|Huang Jinyun]] ([[User talk:Huang Jinyun|talk]]) 01:49, 15 November 2021 (UTC)

==黄锦云 Huáng Jǐnyún 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081491==
很显然，“红学家”的队伍虽然不断壮大，看来他们对这种注释工作似乎不屑一顾。于是我这个“红学”的门外汉便斗胆一试，结果试出了这个《红楼梦》校注本。我这是“人弃我取”，希望不至于冒犯任何人。

Obviously, the amount of redologists who are sepcalists in A Dream of Red Mansion was increasing. They seemed to pay no attention to annotate that book, but I, as a layman, took a chance and tried to make the annotation of A Dream of Red Mansion. I thought it was an attitude of doing the things others gave up, which would not offend anyone.--[[User:Huang Jinyun|Huang Jinyun]] ([[User talk:Huang Jinyun|talk]]) 13:52, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

Obviously, the amount of redologists sepcalizing in A Dream of Red Mansion was increasing. They seemed to pay little attention to annotate that book, but I, as a layman, took a chance and tried to make the annotation of A Dream of Red Mansion. I thought it was an attitude of doing things others gave up, which I hope would not offend anyone.--[[User:Huang Yiyan1|Huang Yiyan1]] ([[User talk:Huang Yiyan1|talk]]) 14:20, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

==黄逸妍 Huáng Yìyán 外国语言学及应用语言学女 202120081492==
如果能成为“引玉”之“砖”，即使要做“众矢之的”，招来“万箭攒射”，我也决不后悔，因为这也算是我对《红楼梦》读者的小小奉献了。下面仅就与校注工作有关的几个具体问题略作说明。

一、作者问题

If I can serve as a modest spur to induce someone to come forward with his valuable contributions, I will never regret even if I could be the target of public criticism. It is because that the annotation work is also my dedication to the readers of A Dream in Red Mansions. And I will explain a little about the specific questions in proofreading below. 1. The Question of Author--[[User:Huang Yiyan1|Huang Yiyan1]] ([[User talk:Huang Yiyan1|talk]]) 12:40, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

If I can become a "brick" for "inviting jade", even if I want to be "a target of all targets" and attract "a thousand arrows", I will never regret it, because this is also a small dedication to the readers of "A Dream of Red Mansions". The following is only a brief description of a few specific issues related to the proofreading work.
1. Author's question--[[User:Zeng Junlin|Zeng Junlin]] ([[User talk:Zeng Junlin|talk]]) 11:06, 17 November 2021 (UTC)

==曾俊霖 Zēng Jùnlín 国别男 202120081478==
中国文学史中有两个突出现象：一是在封建时代得意并著名的文人不写小说；二是小说作品多不署名或只署化名。这完全是由封建统治者造成的。封建统治者的文学观是纯粹的政治功利主义，即所谓“文以载道”。

There are two outstanding phenomena in the history of Chinese literature: one is that famous and proud literati in the feudal era do not write novels; the other is that many novels do not sign or only sign pseudonyms. This is entirely caused by the feudal ruler. The feudal ruler’s literary view is pure political utilitarianism, that is, the so-called "writing is used to carry Tao".--[[User:Zeng Junlin|Zeng Junlin]] ([[User talk:Zeng Junlin|talk]]) 11:03, 17 November 2021 (UTC)

There are two prominent phenomena in the history of Chinese Literature: first, the proud and famous literati in the feudal era did not write novels; Second, most novels are not signed or only signed by pseudonyms. This was entirely caused by the feudal rulers. The literary view of feudal rulers was pure political utilitarianism, that is, the so-called "literature carries Tao".--[[User:Huang Zhuliang|Huang Zhuliang]] ([[User talk:Huang Zhuliang|talk]]) 12:42, 22 November 2021 (UTC)

==黄柱梁 Huáng Zhùliáng 国别男 202120081493==
他们认为小说不仅不能“载道”，而且往往“诲淫诲盗”，对封建统治构成威胁。因此不仅将小说排斥在正统文学之外，甚至常常以“禁毁”的方式加以扫荡。在文网森严及小说地位低贱的环境下，多数文人自然不敢或不屑从事小说的创作；而那些痴迷小说的作者也就不敢或不愿在小说作品上亮出自己的真名实姓。They faithfully believe that novels not only can not "educate citizens of Qing Dynasty", but also often be blessed with "obscenity and theft", which poses a threat to feudal rule.Therefore, novels are not only excluded from orthodox literature, but also often cleaned up in the way of "prohibition and destruction". In the social background of highly strict policy of Literary Network and low status of novels, most scholars naturally dare not or disdain to engage in novel creation; Those who are obsessed with novels are afraid or unwilling to show their real names in their novels.--[[User:Huang Zhuliang|Huang Zhuliang]] ([[User talk:Huang Zhuliang|talk]]) 02:46, 10 November 2021 (UTC)Huang Zhuliang

They believed that novels not only can not "educate citizens of Qing Dynasty", but also often be blessed with "obscenity and theft", which poses a threat to feudal rule.Therefore, novels are not only excluded from orthodox literature, but also often cleaned up in the way of "prohibition and destruction". In the social background of highly strict policy of Literary Network and of low status of novels, most scholars naturally dare not or disdain to engage in novel creation; Those who are obsessed with novels are afraid or unwilling to sign their real names in their novels.--[[User:Jin Xiaotong|Jin Xiaotong]] ([[User talk:Jin Xiaotong|talk]]) 13:18, 11 November 2021 (UTC)

==金晓童 Jīn Xiǎotóng 202120081494==
因此研究中国古代小说多了一项工作，即不得不对小说作者加以考证。《红楼梦》也不例外，它的作者连化名都未署一个。“红学家”们为了考证它的作者，不知耗费了多少精力和时间，然而由于史料不足，至今仍然众说纷纭,难以形成共识。

Therefore, there is one more task to study ancient Chinese novels, that is, we have to do textual research on the authors of the novels. ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' is no exception. Its author does not even have a pseudonym. In order to do textual research on its author, the "redologists" spent a lot of energy and time. However, due to the lack of historical data, opinions are still varied and it is difficult to reach a consensus.--[[User:Jin Xiaotong|Jin Xiaotong]] ([[User talk:Jin Xiaotong|talk]]) 01:57, 6 November 2021 (UTC)
Therefore, there is one more task to study ancient Chinese novels, that is, we have to do textual research on the authors of the novels. ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' is no exception, whose author does not even have a pseudonym. In order to do textual research on its author, the "redologists" spent a lot of energy and time. However, due to the lack of historical data, opinions are still varied and it is difficult to reach a consensus.--[[User:Kuang Yanli|Kuang Yanli]] ([[User talk:Kuang Yanli|talk]]) 06:39, 15 November 2021 (UTC)

==邝艳丽 Kuàng Yànl 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081495==
据我个人所知，至少就有七种说法：其一为“曹作高续”说。即认为曹雪芹写到八十回而去世，并可能留下了后四十回的某些提纲以及部分书稿；高鹗根据曹雪芹的这些提纲、书稿以及前八十回中的许多暗示，还可能参考了其他人的续作，完成了后四十回的创作，并对前八十回加以修订，从而使《红楼梦》成为完璧。
As far as I am concerned, there are at least seven sayings: one of which is that ''Dream of Red Mansions'' was written by Cao Xueqin and then finished by Gao. The saying means that Cao passed away and left some outline and manuscripts of the latter fourth chapters when the former eighty chapters was finished. Then, Gao finished the latter forty chapters and reviewed the former eighty chapters, according to some outlines, manuscripts and clues made by Cao, referring to other sequels. Finally, ''Dream of Red Mansion'' was finished. --[[User:Kuang Yanli|Kuang Yanli]] ([[User talk:Kuang Yanli|talk]]) 06:27, 15 November 2021 (UTC)

As far as I am concerned, there are at least seven sayings: one of which is that ''Dream of Red Mansions'' was written by Cao Xueqin and then finished by Gao. The saying means that Cao had passed away and left some outline and manuscripts of the latter fourth chapters while the former eighty chapters was finished. Then, Gao finished the latter forty chapters and reviewed the former eighty chapters, according to some outlines, manuscripts and clues made by Cao, referring to other sequels. Finally, ''Dream of Red Mansion'' was finished.--[[User:Li Aixuan|Li Aixuan]] ([[User talk:Li Aixuan|talk]]) 13:04, 15 November 2021 (UTC)

==李爱璇 Lǐ Àixuán 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081496==
其二为“曹作程续高订”说。即认为前八十回的作者是曹雪芹，后四十回的作者是程伟元，高鹗只是参加了全书的修订工作。其三为“曹作高续程订”说。即认为前八十回的作者是曹雪芹，后四十回的作者是高鹗，程伟元则对曹雪芹的前八十回加以修订。

The second is the theory of "Cao came to write, Cheng continued to write, Gao to revise". That is, the author of the first 80 chapters is Cao Xueqin, the author of the last 40 chapters is Cheng Weiyuan, and Gao E only participated in the revision of the whole book. The third is the theory of "Cao came to write, Gao continued to write, Cheng to revise". That is, the author of the first 80 chapters is Cao Xueqin, the author of the last 40 chapters is Gao E, and Cheng Weiyuan revised Cao Xueqin's first 80 chapters.--[[User:Li Aixuan|Li Aixuan]] ([[User talk:Li Aixuan|talk]]) 12:47, 6 November 2021 (UTC)

The second statement said that "Started by Cao, completed by Chen, and revised by Gao". That’s to say, the first 80 chapters were written by Cao Xueqin, the last 40 chapters were written by Cheng Weiyuan, and Gao E only revised the whole book. The third statement said that "Started by Cao, completed by Gao, and revised by Chen". That’s to say, the first 80 chapters were written by Cao Xueqin, the last 40 chapters were written by Gao E, and Cheng Weiyaun made revisions to the first 80 chapters of Cao Xueqin.--[[User:Li Ruiyang|Li Ruiyang]] ([[User talk:Li Ruiyang|talk]]) 11:56, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

==李瑞洋 Lǐ Ruìyáng 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081497==
其四为“曹作某续高订”说。即认为在程伟元和高鹗之前，已有人为曹雪芹的未完稿续写完全，程伟元将搜集到的抄本交由高鹗修订，然后刊行。其五为“曹作程高修订”说。

The fourth statement said that “Started by Cao, completed by someone, and revised by Gao”. That's to say, before Cheng Weiyuan and Gao E, there was someone who completed Cao Xueqin's unfinished writing. Then, Cheng Weiyuan collected this hand-copied version and provided it for Gao E to revise, and afterwards ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' was published . The fifth statement said that “Started by Cao, and revised by both Cheng and Gao ”.--[[User:Li Ruiyang|Li Ruiyang]] ([[User talk:Li Ruiyang|talk]]) 08:08, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

The fourth statement said that "This masterpiece is started by Cao, completed by someone, and revised by Gao". That's to say, before Cheng Weiyuan and Gao E, there was someone who completed Cao Xueqin's unfinished work. Then, Cheng Weiyuan collected these hand-copied drafts and offered them to Gao E to revise, and afterwards ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' was published. The fifth statement noted that "It was started by Cao, and revised by both Cheng and Gao".--[[User:Li Shan|Li Shan]] ([[User talk:Li Shan|talk]]) 13:52, 14 November 2021 (UTC)

==李姗 Lǐ Shān 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081498==
即认为曹雪芹已经完成了《红楼梦》全书，只是未遑修饰而去世，后由程伟元和高鹗共同修订并刊行。其六为“叔作侄订”说。即认为《红楼梦》的原作者是曹雪芹的叔父曹頫，也就是给《红楼梦》加批的“脂砚斋”；曹雪芹只是对它“披阅十载，增删五次”。

It was commonly believed that Cao Xueqin had finished the draft of ''A Dream in Red Mansions'', while as a result of his death it was not polished by himself, but co-revised and published by Cheng Weiyuan an Gao 'E later on. Sixly, rumar had it that this classic was the common product of the uncle and the nephew. That was to say, the original author of that masterpiece was Cao Fu, Cao Xueqin's uncle, who was at the same time the very one that added notes in that masterpiece, and Cao Xueqin just played the role of repeatedly revising it.--[[User:Li Shan|Li Shan]] ([[User talk:Li Shan|talk]]) 13:55, 14 November 2021 (UTC)

It was commonly believed that Cao Xueqin had finished the draft of ''A Dream in Red Mansions''. As a result of his death it was not published by himself. However, co-revised and published by Cheng Weiyuan an Gao 'E later on. Rumar had it that this classic was the common product of the uncle and the nephew. Which shows, the original author of that masterpiece was Cao Fu, Cao Xueqin's uncle, who was at the same time the only one who added notes in that masterpiece, and Cao Xueqin just repeatedly revised it.--[[User:Li Shan|Li Shan]] ([[User talk:Li Shan|talk]]) 13:35, 6 November 2021 (UTC)
--[[User:Mahzad Heydarian|Mahzad Heydarian]] ([[User talk:Mahzad Heydarian|talk]]) 22:31, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

It was commonly believed that Cao Xueqin had finished the draft of ''A Dream in Red Mansions'', but died before he could polish it. As a result, the draft was co-revised and published by Cheng Weiyuan an Gao 'E later on. The sixth opinion is that this classic is the common product of the uncle and the nephew. That's to say, the original author of that masterpiece was Cao Fu, Cao Xueqin's uncle, who was at the same time the very one that added notes in that masterpiece, and Cao Xueqin just played the role of repeatedly revising it.--[[User:Li Shuang|Li Shuang]] ([[User talk:Li Shuang|talk]]) 15:35, 14 November 2021 (UTC)

==李双 Lǐ Shuāng 翻译学女 202120081499==
其七为“某作曹订”说。即认为《红楼梦》的原作者是个与曹家毫不相干的无名氏，曹雪芹只是个修订者。“红学家”对《红楼梦》作者的意见分歧，使出版者无所适从，因而造成了新版《红楼梦》署名的混乱：或只署曹雪芹，或并署曹雪芹、高鹗，或干脆不署名。

The seventh opinion is that “a certain author, Cao revised”. That is to say, the original author of ''A Dream in Red Mansions'' is an anonymous person who has no relation with Cao’s family, and Cao Xueqin is only the reviser. The different opinions among the “redologists” about the author of ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' caused the publishers not to know what to do. The new versions are therefore in confusion: some signed Cao Xueqin alone, some signed Cao Xueqin and Gao E together, and some signed nothing at all.--[[User:Li Shuang|Li Shuang]] ([[User talk:Li Shuang|talk]]) 09:40, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

The seventh opinion is that “a certain author, Cao revised”. That is to say, the original author of ''The Dream of the Red Chamber'' was an anonymous person who had no relation with the Cao’s, and Cao Xueqin was only a reviser. The different opinions among the “redologists” about the author of ''The Dream of the Red Chamber'' caused the publishers not to know what to do. The new versions are therefore in confusion: some signed Cao Xueqin alone, some signed Cao Xueqin and Gao E together, and some signed nothing at all. --[[User:Li Wenxuan|Li Wenxuan]] ([[User talk:Li Wenxuan|talk]]) 11:33, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

==李文璇 Lǐ Wénxuán 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081500==
由于我对这个问题缺乏专门研究，只能在以上七种说法中加以选择。我认为这七种说法都有一定的根据，均非空穴来风。但相比之下，第一种说法的证据更为充分，也得到了学界的普遍认可，因此仍将曹雪芹和高鹗作为《红楼梦》的共同作者。

Because of a lack of specialized research to this question, I had to select from the seven statements above. I thought that the seven statements were of certain basis. However, with comparison, the evidence of first statement was more sufficient, and was largely approved by the academic circles. So, Cao Xueqin and Gao E were still regarded as the co-author of ''the Dream of the Red Chamber''. --[[User:Li Wenxuan|Li Wenxuan]] ([[User talk:Li Wenxuan|talk]]) 01:47, 6 November 2021 (UTC)
Being lacking in specialized research to this question, I had to select from the above seven versions . I thought that they were of certain basis. However, with comparison, the first statement was more credible, and was largely approved by the academic circles. So, Cao Xueqin and Gao E were still regarded as the co-author of ''the Dream of the Red Chamber''.--[[User:Li Wen|Li Wen]] ([[User talk:Li Wen|talk]]) 06:57, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

==李雯 Lǐ Wén 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081501==
至于这种说法的具体根据，以及两作者的生平，已见于不少专文，这里不再赘述。

二、版本问题

由于《红楼梦》创作过程和流传过程的特殊性，造成了《红楼梦》版本的复杂性。
We will not describe more about the specific reason of this opinion and lives of the two authors because a lot of scholars have discussed it.
二、Version problem
The unique process of creating and circulating A Dream in Red Mansions leads to such complicated versions of it.--[[User:Li Wen|Li Wen]] ([[User talk:Li Wen|talk]]) 06:52, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

As well as the life of the two authors, has been seen in a number of articles, here will not be repeated.
Second, the version of the problem because of the "Dream of Red Mansions" creative process and the special nature of the process of circulation, resulting in the "Dream of Red Mansions" version of the complexity.--[[User:Li Xinxing|Li Xinxing]] ([[User talk:Li Xinxing|talk]]) 04:36, 24 November 2021 (UTC)

==李新星 Lǐ Xīnxīng 亚非语言文学女 202120081503==

而《红楼梦》版本的复杂性，又迫使我们不得不有所选择。《红楼梦》的创作和流传过程可以分为四个阶段：其一是曹雪芹的创作阶段。虽然曹雪芹自称“披阅十载，增删五次”，其实由于他溘然而逝，只留下了一部《红楼梦》的未完稿和未定稿。

The complexity of the version of a Dream of Red Mansions forces us to make choices. The creation and spread of a Dream of Red Mansions can be divided into four stages: one is Cao Xueqin Autor's creation stage. Although Cao Xueqin Autor, claimed that "reading for ten years, adding and deleting five times", in fact, because of his death, leaving only a dream of red Mansions unfinished and unfinished.--[[User:Li Xinxing|Li Xinxing]] ([[User talk:Li Xinxing|talk]]) 08:59, 9 November 2021 (UTC)
--[[User:Li Xinxing|Li Xinxing]] ([[User talk:Li Xinxing|talk]]) 13:16, 29 December 2021 (UTC)
The complexity of the version of a ''dream of Red Mansions'' forces us to choose. The creation and spread of the ''dream of Red Mansions'' can be divided into four stages: one is the creation stage of Cao Xueqin Autor. Although Cao Xueqin Autor claimed to "read for ten years, add and delete five times", in fact, due to his death, only one unfinished and undecided version of a dream of Red Mansions was left.--[[User:Li Yi|Li Yi]] ([[User talk:Li Yi|talk]]) 14:16, 9 November 2021 (UTC)

==李怡 Lǐ Yí 法语语言文学女 202120081504==
他只完成了八十回，约相当于全书的三分之二。他不仅未对这八十回的书稿进行修订润色，而且还有不少待补的缺文。以“红学家”认为最好的版本“庚辰本”为例：第十七、十八两回合用一套回目，第十九回没有回目；第二十二回写荣国府作灯谜游戏，“此回未成而芹逝矣”(脂砚斋批语)，以至不仅缺了主要人物贾宝玉、林黛玉和史湘云的灯谜，而且本回还有不少其他缺文；如此等等。
He completed only eighty times, about two-thirds of the book. Not only did he leave the eighty drafts unrevised, but there was still much to be done. To the researcher of a dream of Red Mansions that the best version of the "gengchen Ben" as an example: the 17th, 18th round with a set of return, the 19th back no return; The twenty-second time to write rongguo Mansion for lantern riddle game, the chapter is unfinished but Cao Xueqin is dead (the ink stone lent comments), so that not only the lack of lantern riddles of the main characters Precious Jade Merchant , Mascara Jade Forest and Fragrant-cloud History, and this time there are many other lack of text; And so on.--[[User:Li Yi|Li Yi]] ([[User talk:Li Yi|talk]]) 05:26, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

He completed only eighty chapters, about two-thirds of the whole book. Not only did he leave the eighty drafts unrevised and unpolished, but there was still much missing pages to be filled. Take the “Gengchen Version” as an example, which was considered the best version by Redology scholars, the 17th, 18th chapters kept the same content and the 19th had no content; The chapter 22, which was about Rongguo Mansion' lantern riddle game, was unfinished before Cao Xueqin passed away. (comments from the Ink Stone Lent), so that there was not only a lack of lantern riddles of the main characters Precious Jade Merchant, Mascara Jade Forest and Fragrant-cloud History, but also many other contents, and so on.--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 06:53, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

==刘沛婷 Liú Pèitíng 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081505==
其二是曹雪芹《红楼梦》八十回本的传抄阶段，其间大约近三十年。由于抄书速度很慢，《红楼梦》的篇幅又很长，要想在短时间内抄完一部，需集多人之手。故多为达官显宦之家雇佣抄手，集体完成。

The second lay in the transmission and copying stage of 80 chapters of Cao Xueqin's ''A Dream of Red Mansions'', which lasted about 30 years. Due to the slow speed of copying and the long length of the novel, it required cooperation in order to scribe it done in a short time. Therefore it was the noble officials anddignitaries who often hired scribes to do the task together.--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 06:39, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

The second stage is the transmission and copying of 80 chapters of ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' written by Cao Xueqin, which lasted about 30 years. Due to the slow speed of copying and the long length of the novel, it required cooperation in order to finish it in a short time. Therefore it was the noble officials and dignitaries who often hired scribes to do the task together.--[[User:Liu Shengnan|Liu Shengnan]] ([[User talk:Liu Shengnan|talk]]) 05:33, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

==刘胜楠 Liú Shèngnán 翻译学女 202120081506==
又因它是一部未完稿和未定稿，抄手便自觉或不自觉地加以增删修改；而抄手大多水平不高，且良莠不齐，鲁鱼亥豕，在所难免。从而导致大量异文乃至讹误的产生。其三是高鹗和程伟元续写后四十回并对全书进行修订和刊行的阶段。

And because it was an unfinished and undecided manuscript, the scribes consciously or unconsciously added, deleted and modified it. Most scribes lacked skills and the level of copying varied in quality. Accordingly, it was inevitable that clerical errors occurred, which led to a large number of variant versions of the book and even misinterpretations in the text. The third was the stage when Gao E and Cheng Weiyuan wrote a continuation of 40 chapters for ''A Dream in Red Mansions'', revised and published the whole book.--[[User:Liu Shengnan|Liu Shengnan]] ([[User talk:Liu Shengnan|talk]]) 13:29, 6 November 2021 (UTC)

And because it was an unfinished and undecided manuscript, the copywriters consciously or unconsciously added, deleted or modified it; Because most copywriters lacked skills and their level of copying varied in quality.so it was inevitable that led to a large number of different texts and even errors in the text. The third was the stage when Gao E and Cheng Weiyuan continued to write the last 40 chapters of ''A Dream in Red Mansions'',revised and published the whole book. --[[User:Liu Wei|Liu Wei]] ([[User talk:Liu Wei|talk]]) 03:47, 7 November 2021 (UTC)Liu Wei

==刘薇 Liú Wēi 国别女 202120081507==
其间又可分为四段：首先由程伟元对各种《红楼梦》抄本加以搜集(其中可能包括无名氏续写的书稿)；其次由高鹗续写后四十回，并对前八十回进行大量修订(程伟元也可能参与了修订工作)；又次由程伟元于乾隆五十六年（公元1791年）用活字排印出版一百二十回本，后来被胡适先生命名为“程甲本”；次年由高鹗和程伟元对“程甲本”加以修订再版，后来又被胡适先生命名为“程乙本”。据说还有“程丙本”，如今已经不知下落，据个别看过的人说，较之“程乙本”改动甚少，因而可以置之不论。

It can be divided into four periods: firstly,Weiyuan Cheng collected various transcripts of ''A Dream of Red Mansions ''(including the manuscripts of a sequel written by anonymous authors); Secondly,E Gao continued to write the last 40 chapters and made a lot of revisions to the first 80 chapters (Weiyuan Cheng may also had participated in the revision work); thirdly, another 120 copies were printed and published by Weiyuan Cheng in movable type in the 56th year of the Emperor of Qianlong (AD 1791), which was later named "Cheng Jia Edition" by Mr.Shi Hu;Lastly, in the following year, E Gao and Weiyuan Cheng revised and republished the "Cheng Jia Edition", which was later named "Cheng Yi Ben" by Mr.Shi Hu. It is said that there is also "Cheng bing Edition", which is unknown now. According to someone who have seen it, there are few changes compared with "Cheng Yi Edition", so it can be set aside. --[[User:Liu Wei|Liu Wei]] ([[User talk:Liu Wei|talk]]) 03:22, 7 November 2021 (UTC)Liu Wei

It can be divided into four stages: in the first stage, Cheng Weiyuan collected all kinds of transcripts of ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' (including the manuscripts of a sequel written by unknown authors); Secondly, Gao E continued the last 40 chapters and made a lot of revisions to the first 80 ones (Cheng Weiyuan may also had participated in the revision work); thirdly, another 120 copies were printed and published by Cheng Weiyuan in movable type in the 56th year under the reign of the emperor Qianlong (AD 1791), which were later named "Cheng Jia (the first) Editions" by Hu Shi; Lastly, in the following year, Gao E and Cheng Weiyuan revised and republished the "Cheng Jia Edition", which was later named "Cheng Yi (the second) Edition" by Hu Shi. It is said that there was also "Cheng Bing (the third) Edition", which now has no whereabouts. According to someone who had once read it, compared with "Cheng Yi Edition", there were so few changes that it could be set aside.--[[User:Liu Xiao|Liu Xiao]] ([[User talk:Liu Xiao|talk]]) 15:11, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

==刘晓 Liú Xiǎo 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081508==
其四是《红楼梦》刊本的流传阶段。此段从程伟元的活字本问世开始，直到现在。在刊本出现后，虽然由于某些人的爱好或习惯，仍有抄本流传，但已是强弩之末，不成气候，而刊本的流传却如燎原之势，席卷全国。

The fourth period is the circulation of the printed versions of ''a Dream of Red Mansions''. This stage has been going on since Cheng Weiyuan's movable printed editions were published. After these versions appeared, though transcripts were still spreading due to some people's hobbies or habits, it was like a spent arrow and no longer had great influence, while the printed versions spread and swept like fire through the country.--[[User:Liu Xiao|Liu Xiao]] ([[User talk:Liu Xiao|talk]]) 14:22, 6 November 2021 (UTC)

The fourth period is the circulation of the printed versions of ''a Dream of Red Mansions''. This stage start from cheng Weiyuan's movable type book came out and until now. After the publication appeared, although due to some people's hobbies or habits, it was like a spent arrow and no longer had great influence, while the printed versions spread and swept like fire through the country.--[[User:Liu Yue|Liu Yue]] ([[User talk:Liu Yue|talk]]) 07:00, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

==刘越 Liú Yuè 亚非语言文学女 202120081509==
《红楼梦》如此特殊的创作和流传过程，导致了《红楼梦》的“三多”现象：版本多，异文多，讹误多。幸运的是，近几十年来，这些版本不仅不断被发现，而且陆续被影印出版，从而使我们得以大饱眼福。仅就我个人视野所及，即有十二种版本，而且五花八门：或名《石头记》(5种)，或名《红楼梦》(7种)；或为抄本(10种)，或为刊本(2种)；或为八十回系统(8种，其中6种为残本)，或为一百二十回系统(4种)。

The special creation and dissemination process of A Dream of Red Mansions leads to the phenomenon of "three many" : many versions, many different texts and many errors. Fortunately, in recent decades, these editions have not only been discovered, but photocopied and published, so that we can feast our eyes on them. As far as I can see, there are twelve versions, and they are diverse，named as "The Story of the Stone" (five versions) or "A Dream of Red Mansions" (seven versions). Some are codex (10 kinds) and some are periodical (2 kinds); Some are 80 chapter system (8 types, 6 of which are incomplete) and some are 120 chapter system (4 types).--[[User:Liu Yue|Liu Yue]] ([[User talk:Liu Yue|talk]]) 06:53, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

The special creation and dissemination process of ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' led to a phenomenon called "three many": many editions, many variants and many errors. Fortunately, in recent decades, these editions have not only been discovered, but successively photocopied and published, which greatly regale us. As far as I know, there are twelve editions in great diversity. Some are titled ''The Story of the Stone'' (five editions), or ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' (seven editions); some are hand-copied (10 editions), while some printed (8 including 6 incomplete editions); some are composed of 80 chapters, while some others 120 chapters.--[[User:Liu Yunxin|Liu Yunxin]] ([[User talk:Liu Yunxin|talk]]) 13:17, 13 November 2021 (UTC)

==刘运心 Liú Yùnxīn 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081510==
《红楼梦》的众多版本，对于研究者是极有价值的，它们可以帮助研究者分析《红楼梦》的创作过程和流传过程，并进行比较研究。但对于普通读者来说，如此眼花缭乱的版本，犹如坠入五里雾中，使他们无从选择。因此《红楼梦》的研究者有义务为他们提供一个最好的版本。

The various versions of ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' have enormous value to researchers. They can be helpful to researchers in analyzing the processes of creation and dissemination, and facilitating comparative studies. However, for common readers, such a dazzling array of versions might leave them with a foggy head and unable to decide. Therefore, researchers are obliged to offer the best version. --[[User:Liu Yunxin|Liu Yunxin]] ([[User talk:Liu Yunxin|talk]]) 06:09, 10 November 2021 (UTC)
The various versions of ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' are valuable to researchers, which can helpful to them in analyzing the processes of creation and dissemination of the book, as well as working on comparative studies. However, it would be confusing and indeterminable for the general readers when facing with such a dazzling array of versions. It’ s therefore incumbent upon researchers to offer the best version.
--[[User:Luo Anyi|Luo Anyi]] ([[User talk:Luo Anyi|talk]]) 14:32, 14 November 2021 (UTC)

==罗安怡 Luó Ānyí 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081511==
况且为了很好地保存这笔珍贵的文化遗产，也必须确立一种《红楼梦》的最好版本。那么哪一种版本是《红楼梦》的最好版本呢？答案就是“程乙本”。鉴于至今仍有“红学家”对高鹗续写的《红楼梦》后四十回既持否定态度，又在出版《红楼梦》时不得不用它与曹雪芹的前八十回相配为完整的一百二十回本，我在这里必须首先对高续后四十回的价值略作说明。

Moreover, in order to preserve this precious cultural heritage, it is also necessary to establish the best version of ''Dream of the Red Chamber''. So which is the best version? The answer is "Cheng Yi Ben". Since, when publishing ''Dream of the Red Chamber'', there are still "Redologists" who have a negative attitude towards Gao E 's subsequent writing of the later forty chapters of ''Dream of the Red Chamber'', and who had to use Gao‘ s creation in conjunction with Cao Xueqin's first eighty chapters as the complete one—hundred and twenty chapters, I must first give a brief explanation of the value of Gao's continuation of the later forty chapters.--[[User:Luo Anyi|Luo Anyi]] ([[User talk:Luo Anyi|talk]]) 07:18, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

Moreover，it is also necessary to establish the best version of ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' to preserve this precious cultural heritage.So which one is the best version of it？The answer is "Cheng Yi Ben".Since there is still opposition against the forty chapters wrote by Gao E，the “master of the Dream of the Red Chamber，while it is a must to combine them and the eighty chapters wrote by Cao Xueqin to form an integral book which has one hundred and twenty chapters，I must briefly introduce the value of the forty chapters wrote by Gao E--[[User:Luo Xi|Luo Xi]] ([[User talk:Luo Xi|talk]]) 08:46, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

==罗曦 Luó Xī 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081512==
率先冲破评点派和索隐派而从中国小说发展史的角度客观评价高鹗续书的是胡适先生。他在1921年11月12日定稿的《〈红楼梦〉考证》（见1923年亚东图书馆版《胡适文存》）中说：我们平心而论，高鹗补的四十回，虽然比不上前八十回，也确然有不可埋没的好处。他写司棋之死，写鸳鸯之死，写妙玉的遭遇，写凤姐的死，写袭人的嫁，都是很有精采的小品文字。
The man who first transcend the groups of criticizing and objectively comment the continuation of Gao E from the perspective of the history of the development of Chinese novels is Hu Shi.He said in his 《Test of the Dream of the red mansions》finalised in 1921，12th November that：“To be honest，Gao E’s supplementary forty chapters，though not comparable to the original eighty chapters，still boast their own outstanding merits.For instance，he wrote the death of Si Qi，of Yuan Yang，of Feng Jie，the encounter of Miao Yu and the marriage of Xi Ren，are all excellent facetious words.--[[User:Luo Xi|Luo Xi]] ([[User talk:Luo Xi|talk]]) 12:08, 9 November 2021 (UTC)

It was Mr. Hu Shi who firstly made a breakthrough between “Pingdian Group” and “Suoying Group” and objectively evaluated Gao E’s continuation from the perspective of Chinese novel’s history. In ''A Textual Research on A Dream of Red Mansions'' finalized on November 12, 1921 (''Hu Shi’s Article Archive'', Yadong Library Edition, 1923), he said, “To be fair, the following forty episodes written by Gao E certainly have undeniable charm although not as good as the previous eighty. He ended Siqi’s life with death, wrote about the death of Yuanyang, the suffering of Miaoyu, Sister Feng’s demise and the marriage of Xiren, all of which are really brilliant sketches. --[[User:Ma Xin|Ma Xin]] ([[User talk:Ma Xin|talk]]) 06:31, 12 November 2021 (UTC)

==马新 Mǎ Xīn 外国语言学及应用语言学女 202120081513==
最可注意的是这些人都写作悲剧的下场。还有那最重要的“木石前盟”一件公案，高鹗居然忍心害理的教黛玉病死，教宝玉出家，作一个大悲剧的结束，打破了中国小说的团圆迷信。这一点悲剧的眼光，不能不令人佩服。

It is noteworthy that all these people wrote about tragic endings, expecially th most important case of " Wood and Stone's Previous Oath". In the novel, Gao E auturally had the heart to leave Daiyu to die of illness and Baoyu to become a monk. He made it ended up as a great tragedy and broke the routine of "reunion superstition" in traditional Chinese novels, which could not be more admirable from the tragic perspective.--[[User:Ma Xin|Ma Xin]] ([[User talk:Ma Xin|talk]]) 05:00, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

It is most noteworthy that all these characters are created with tragic endings. And as regards the most important case --- "The Pledge in front of Wood and Stone", in the novel, the author Gao E actually ended Daiyu's life with death resulting from illness and left Baoyu (Precious Jade Merchant) to become a monk. Gao E finished ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' with a tragical epilogue so as to break the superstition that Chinese novels routinely end in happy reunion. In this sense, Gao E's tragic perspective deserves admiration and praise.--[[User:Mao Yawen|Mao Yawen]] ([[User talk:Mao Yawen|talk]]) 08:09, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

==毛雅文 Máo Yǎwén 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081514==
我们试看高鹗以后，那许多续《红楼梦》和补《红楼梦》的人，那一个不是想把黛玉、晴雯都从棺材里扶出来，重新配给宝玉？那一个不是想做一部“团圆”的《红楼梦》的？我们这里退一步想，就不能不佩服高鹗的补本了。我们不但佩服，还应该感谢他，因为他这部悲剧的补本……居然打倒了后来无数的团圆《红楼梦》，居然替中国保存了一部有悲剧下场的小说！

As we can see, after Gao E finished ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' (which was left unfinished by the previous author Cao Xueqin), many of those who wrote this work continually or supplementarily were all eager to save Lin Daiyu and Qing Wen (or Sunny Cloud Formation), who died and lay in coffin, and then to betroth them to Jia Baoyu (or Precious Jade Merchant). And these writers all had the desire to end the story in a warm reunion. On second thought, we cannot but have a high opinion of Gao E's supplementary version ''A Dream of Red Mansions''. Arguably, not only should we admire but show gratitude for him, on the grounds that, his edition packed with tragic color is unexpectedly more laudatory than those with happy endings, actually preserving a novel with the tragical epilogue in China.--[[User:Mao Yawen|Mao Yawen]] ([[User talk:Mao Yawen|talk]]) 07:35, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

As we can see, after Gao E finished ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' (which was left unfinished by the previous author Cao Xueqin), many of those who wrote this work continually or supplementarily were all eager to save Lin Daiyu and Qing Wen (or Sunny Cloud Formation), who died and lay in coffin, and then to betroth them to Jia Baoyu (or Precious Jade Merchant). Which writer did not want to create "A Dream of the Red mansion" with a reunion ending? On second thought, we cannot but have a high opinion of Gao E's supplementary version ''A Dream of Red Mansions''. Arguably, not only should we admire but show gratitude for him, on the grounds that, his edition packed with tragic color is unexpectedly more laudatory than those with happy endings, actually preserving a novel with the tragical epilogue in China.--[[User:Mao You|Mao You]] ([[User talk:Mao You|talk]]) 12:33, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

==毛优 Máo Yōu 俄语语言文学女 202120081515==
几乎与胡适同时，俞平伯先生也对高鹗的续书予以专章论述。他在1923年亚东图书馆出版的《红楼梦辨·论续书底不可能》中说：从高鹗以下，百馀年来，续《红楼梦》的人如此之多，但都是失败的……我以为凡书都不能续，不但《红楼梦》不能续；凡续书的人都失败，不但高鹗诸人失败而已。
Almost at the same time as Hu Shi, Mr. Yu Pingbo also devoted a chapter to the continuation of Gao E's book. He said in the "A Dream of the Red Mansion - the impossibility of the continuation of the book" published by the Yadong Library in 1923: From Gao E down, more than a hundred years, so many people have renewed the "A Dream of the Red Mansion", but they all failed ...... I think all books can not be renewed, not only the "A Dream of the Red Mansion" can not be renewed; all the people who renewed the book failed, not only Gao E and others failed.--[[User:Mao You|Mao You]] ([[User talk:Mao You|talk]]) 12:27, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

Almost at the same time as Hu Shi, Mr. Yu Pingbo also devoted a comment chapter to the continuation of Gao E. He said in the "A Dream of the Red Mansion - the impossibility of the continuation of the book" published by the Yadong Library in 1923: Since Gao E, more than a hundred years, so many people have renewed the "A Dream of the Red Mansion", but they all failed ... I think all books can not be renewed, not only the "A Dream of the Red Mansion" is in the case; all the people who renewed books failed, not only Gao E and others did.--[[User:Mou Yixin|Mou Yixin]] ([[User talk:Mou Yixin|talk]]) 01:43, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

==牟一心 Móu Yīxīn 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081516==
因此他的结论是：高鹗诸人续写的《红楼梦》都是“狗尾续貂”。俞先生“凡书都不能续”、“凡续书的人都失败”的说法未免武断，至少措辞不够严谨。事实上，成功的续书并非没有，只是不多。

Therefore, his conclusion is: The continuations of "The Dream of Red Mansions" written by the Gao E and others are all "wretched sequels to a masterpiece." Mr. Yu’s statement that “every book cannot be continued” and “everyone who renews a book fails” is a bit too arbitrary, at least the wording is not rigorous enough. In fact, successful continuations do exist, but are not substantial.--[[User:Mou Yixin|Mou Yixin]] ([[User talk:Mou Yixin|talk]]) 01:29, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

He therefore concludes that the sequels to Dream of the Red Chamber written by the Gao Ospreys are all "dog tails on a marten", which means a wretched sequels to a masterpiece. Mr. Yu's statement that "all books cannot be renewed" and "all those who renew books will fail" is arbitrary, or at least not carefully worded. In fact, successful continuations do exist, but are not substantial.--[[User:Peng Ruixue|Peng Ruixue]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruixue|talk]]) 23:35, 9 November 2021 (UTC)

==彭瑞雪 Péng Ruìxuě 法语语言文学女 202120081517==
且不说成功的学术著作不乏范例，就是小说作品的续书也有成功的。譬如清代陈忱的《水浒后传》、近代吴趼人的《新石头记》，就都是别开生面之作。不过俞先生毕竟是严肃的学者，尽管他对高鹗的续书很不满意，却对高鹗的功绩予以肯定。

Not to mention that there is no shortage of examples of successful scholarly works, there are also successful sequels to works of fiction. For example, Chen Chen's ''The Afterlife of Water Margin'' in the Qing dynasty and Wu Jianren's ''The New Story of the Stone'' in the modern era are both original works. But Mr. Yu, after all, was a serious scholar, and although he was dissatisfied with Gao E's sequel, he acknowledged Gao's merits.--[[User:Peng Ruixue|Peng Ruixue]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruixue|talk]]) 23:25, 9 November 2021 (UTC)

Not to mention that there is no shortage of successful examples of scholarly works, there are also successes in sequels to works of fiction. For example, Chen Chen's ''The Afterlife of Water Margin'' in the Qing dynasty and Wu Jianren's ''The New Story of the Stone'' in the modern era are both original works in new forms. But Mr. Yu, after all, was a serious scholar, and although he was dissatisfied with Gao E's sequel, he acknowledged Gao's merits.--[[User:Qing Jianan|Qing Jianan]] ([[User talk:Qing Jianan|talk]]) 09:06, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

==秦建安 Qín Jiànān 外国语言学及应用语言学女 202120081518==
他在《红楼梦辨·后四十回底批评》中说：高鹗以审慎的心思，正当的态度来续《红楼梦》；他宁可失之于拘泥，不敢失之于杜撰。其所以失败：一则因《红楼梦》本非可以续补的书，二则因高鹗与曹雪芹个性相差太远，便不自觉地相违远了。处处去追寻作者，而始终赶他不上，以致迷途；这是他失败时底光景。

He said in the ''Defense of The Dream of Red Mansion: the criticism of the last forty chapters'': “GaoE continued writing The Dream of Red Mansion with his prudent intention and serious attitude; He would rather make it up than adhere to it. There are two reasons for the failure of his version. The first is that the book itself is not a book that can be continued writing. The other is GaoE’ s character is different far from Cao Xueqin’sw which naturally lead to his misconception about this book. He tried his best to catch the main points of Cao Xueqin whereas he even couldn’t see the back of Cao Xueqin resulting in the wrong path. This is his background of failure.--[[User:Qing Jianan|Qing Jianan]] ([[User talk:Qing Jianan|talk]]) 08:11, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

He said in the '' Defense of A Dream of Red Mansions: the criticism of the last forty chapters '': “Gao E continued writing '' A Dream of Red Mansions '' with his prudent intention and serious attitude; He would rather rigidly adhere to the content than fabricate some details. There are two reasons for the failure of his version. The first is that this novel itself is not the one that can be continued writing. The other is that Gao E’ s character is different far from Cao Xueqin’s which naturally lead to very distinct characteristics in this novel. He tried his best to catch the main points of Cao Xueqin whereas he even couldn’t see the back of Cao Xueqin resulting in the wrong path. This is the reason of his failure.--[[User:Qiu Tingting|Qiu Tingting]] ([[User talk:Qiu Tingting|talk]]) 13:28, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

==邱婷婷 Qiū Tíngtíng 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081519==
至于混四十回于八十回中，就事论事，是一种过失；就效用影响而论，是一种功德；混合而论是功多罪少。“失败了，光荣地失败了！”是我对于高鹗底赞扬和指斥。俞先生在晚年对高鹗的续书给予更多的肯定，认为高鹗的续书使残缺的《红楼梦》成为完璧，是一大功劳。

As for adding forty chapters to the original eighty chapters, sticking to the facts, it is actually a demerit. However, it can be a kind of merits and virtues in terms of utility effect. With regarding to several aspects, and his merits can more than wipe out his faults. “Failed, gloriously failed!”It's my praise and rebuke to Gao E. In the later years of Mr. Yu, he gave more recognition to Gao E’sequel, believing that Gao E’ sequel made the fragmentary ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' a complete story which was a great credit.--[[User:Qiu Tingting|Qiu Tingting]] ([[User talk:Qiu Tingting|talk]]) 13:25, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

As for mixing the forty chapters to the original eighty chapters, actually it is a kind of negligence in terms of facts; in terms of effectiveness and influence, it is a kind of merit; in terms of mixing, it is more meritorious and less sinful. "Failed, failed gloriously!" I praised and reprimanded Gao E. In his later years, Mr. Yu gave more affirmation to Gao E’s sequel, and believed that Gao E’ s sequel made the incomplete ''Dream of Red Mansions'' a great achievement.--[[User:Rao Jinying|Rao Jinying]] ([[User talk:Rao Jinying|talk]]) 05:16, 12 November 2021 (UTC)

==饶金盈 Ráo Jīnyíng 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081520==
鲁迅先生也对高鹗的续书予以肯定，只是对书末贾府的“复振”表示遗憾。他在《中国小说史略》（1923、1924年由北京大学新潮社分上下册出版，1925年由北京北新书局合为一册出版）第二十四篇中说：后四十回虽数量止初本之半，而大故迭起，破败死亡相继，与所谓“食尽鸟飞独存白地”者颇符，惟结束又复振。

Lu Xun also gave a approval to the sequel of the book by Gao E, but regretted the “revitalization” part of Merchant’s mansion at the end of the book. He claimed in Chapter 24 of ''Chinese Novel Outline History''(In 1923 and 1924, published in two volumes by the New Trend Union of Peking University, and in 1925, published in one volume by Beixin Publishing House in Beijing) that although the latter forty chapters is only half of the original version in quantity, there are great changes, ups and downs, and dilapidated deaths one after another, which is very consistent with the so-called “eating all birds and flying alone in the white land”, but it ends and vibrates again.
--[[User:Rao Jinying|Rao Jinying]] ([[User talk:Rao Jinying|talk]]) 09:14, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

Lu Xun also affirmed Gao E’s sequel, and just expressed regret for the “revitalization” of Merchant Mansion at the end of the book. He claimed in chapter 24 of Chinese Novel Outline History(In 1923 and 1924, published in two volumes by the New Trend Union of Peking University, and in 1925, published in one volume by Beixin Publishing House in Beijing) that although the last forty chapters are only half of the original version in quantity, events occurred constantly and loss and death were in succession, which was quite consistent with the statement “birds ate and flew, then left the bleak place”. But it was a pity that the sequel ended in revitalization. --[[User:Shi Liqing|Shi Liqing]] ([[User talk:Shi Liqing|talk]]) 00:58, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

==石丽青 Shí Lìqīng 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081521==
以上三位权威学者对高鹗续书的评价不尽相同，但有两点共识：高鹗的后四十回逊于曹雪芹的前八十回，但他完成了曹雪芹的未竟之业，使残缺的《红楼梦》成为完璧；尤其打破了中国传统小说的“团圆迷信”，使《红楼梦》成为中国小说史上首部悲剧小说，这在中国小说发展史上是一个伟大创举。我认为三位先生的这两点共识是客观公正的，是高见卓识。

The above three authoritative scholars hold various comments on Gao E’s sequel, sharing two points of consensus. One the one hand, Gao E’s last forty chapters are inferior to Cao Xueqin’s first eighty counterparts, but he has completed Cao’s unfinished work, rendering A Dream in Red Mansions perfect. On the other hand, in particular, Gao E breaks the routine of “reunion superstition”in traditional Chinese novels and makes A Dream in Red Mansions the first tragic writing in the past records of Chinese novels, which is a great pioneering work in the history of Chinese novel development. As far as I am concerned, these two points proposed by the three respected scholars are objective, fair and insightful. --[[User:Shi Liqing|Shi Liqing]] ([[User talk:Shi Liqing|talk]]) 14:23, 6 November 2021 (UTC)

The above three authoritative scholars hold various comments on Gao E’s sequel, but sharing two points of consensus. One the one hand, Gao E’s last forty chapters are inferior to Cao Xueqin’s first eighty counterparts, but he has completed Cao’s unfinished work, rendering the incomplete ''A Dream in Red Mansions'' complete. On the other hand, in particular, Gao E breaks the routine of “reunion superstition”in traditional Chinese novels and makes ''A Dream in Red Mansions'' become the first tragic writing in the past records of Chinese novels, which is a great pioneering work in the history of Chinese novel development. As far as I am concerned, these two points proposed by the three respected scholars are objective, fair and insightful.--[[User:Sun Yashi|Sun Yashi]] ([[User talk:Sun Yashi|talk]]) 06:49, 9 November 2021 (UTC)

==孙雅诗 Sūn Yǎshī 外国语言学及应用语言学女 202120081522==
晚近的某些“新红学家”尽管对高鹗大加挞伐，却无法推翻三位先生的这两点共识；最多只能进一步证明高鹗的续书比不上曹雪芹的原作，而不能抹煞高鹗续书的这两大功绩。我们可以设想，如果没有高鹗的续书，只能有两种结果：一是我们只能看到一部残缺不全的《红楼梦》，犹如只能欣赏一只断尾巴的孔雀；二是我们只能看到《红楼复梦》、《红楼圆梦》之类下三流续作，使《红楼梦》跳不出“团圆”小说的窠臼。

Although some recent "new Redologists" criticized Gao E drastically, they could not overturn the consensus of the three gentlemen; at most, they could only further prove that Gao E's sequel is not comparable to Cao Xueqin's original, rather than erase the two achievements of Gao E's renewal. We can imagine that if we have no Gao E's sequel, there can only be two results: one is that we can only see an incomplete ''A Dream of Red Mansions'', like only enjoying a peacock with a broken tail, the other is that we can only see ''A Dream of Red Mansions Again'', ''A Dream of Red Mansions Reunion'' and other renewals that are third-classs, which makes ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' cannot jump out of the mold of "reunion" novel.--[[User:Sun Yashi|Sun Yashi]] ([[User talk:Sun Yashi|talk]]) 06:45, 9 November 2021 (UTC)
--[[User:Mahzad Heydarian|Mahzad Heydarian]] ([[User talk:Mahzad Heydarian|talk]]) 16:25, 9 November 2021 (UTC)

Although some recent “new Redologists” criticized Gao E drastically, they could not overturn the two consensuses of the three gentlemen; they could only further prove that Gao E's sequel is not comparable to Cao Xueqin's original, rather than obliterate the two achievements of Gao E's continuation. We can imagine that, without Gao E's sequel, there would be only two results: one is that we could only see an incomplete ''A Dream of Red Mansions'', as if we could only appreciate a peacock with a broken tail, the other is that we can only see such third-rate sequels like ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' Again, ''A Dream of Red Mansions Reunion'', making ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' cannot jump out of the set pattern of "reunion" novel. --[[User:Wang Lifei|Wang Lifei]] ([[User talk:Wang Lifei|talk]]) 06:17, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

==王李菲 Wáng Lǐfēi 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081523==
因此，不仅我们应该感谢高鹗，如果曹雪芹地下有知，也会视高鹗为知己。胡适等三位先生论证了高鹗的两大功绩，就等于完全肯定了完整的一百二十回的《红楼梦》。但完整的《红楼梦》有两种版本，即“程甲本”和“程乙本”，两者的出版时间仅隔一年左右。

Therefore, not only should we be grateful to Gao E, if Cao Xueqin was alive and knew about it, he would also regard Gao E as a confidant. Hu Shi and other three gentlemen demonstrated Gao E’s three achievements, which was equivalent to confirming the complete 120 chapters of a Dream of Red Mansions. However, there are two versions of the complete work, namely the “Cheng A edition” and “Cheng B edition”, whose publishing interval was only about one year. --[[User:Wang Lifei|Wang Lifei]] ([[User talk:Wang Lifei|talk]]) 15:35, 6 November 2021 (UTC)

Hu Shi and other three gentlemen demonstrated gao e's two great achievements, which is equivalent to confirming the complete 120 chapters of a Dream of Red Mansions. However, there are two versions of the complete work, namely the "Cheng Jiabo edition" and "Cheng Yibo edition", which were published only about a year apart.--[[User:Wang Yifan21|Wang Yifan21]] ([[User talk:Wang Yifan21|talk]]) 05:17, 12 November 2021 (UTC)

==王逸凡 Wáng Yìfán 亚非语言文学女 202120081524==
这两种版本究竟哪一种更好呢？当然是“程乙本”，因为它是高鹗对“程甲本”精心修订的定稿本。程伟元和高鹗在“程乙本”《〈红楼梦〉引言》中说：因急欲公诸同好，故初印时不及细校，间有纰缪。今复聚集各原本，详加校阅，改订无讹。

Which of these two versions is better? Of course, it is "Cheng B", because it is gao e to "Cheng A" carefully revised final version. Cheng Weiyuan and Gao E said in "Cheng Yiben" "DREAM of Red Mansions" introduction: Due to the urgent desire for public relations, the initial printing was not corrected in detail, and there were mistakes. This complex gathered the original, detailed review, change without error.--[[User:Wang Yifan21|Wang Yifan21]] ([[User talk:Wang Yifan21|talk]]) 05:12, 12 November 2021 (UTC)

Which version is better? Of course, it is "Cheng Yi", because it is gao e to "Cheng Jia" carefully revised final version. Cheng Weiyuan and Gao E said in "Cheng Yi" "DREAM of Red Mansions" introduction: Due to the urgent desire for public relations, the initial printing was not corrected in detail, and there were mistakes. This complex gathered the original, detailed review, change without error.--[[User:Wang Zhenlong|Wang Zhenlong]] ([[User talk:Wang Zhenlong|talk]]) 12:36, 22 November 2021 (UTC)

==王镇隆 Wáng Zhènlóng 英语语言文学（英美文学）男 202120081525==
惟阅者谅之。这就是说，高鹗续写后四十回并修订曹雪芹的前八十回时，“因急欲公诸同好”，未能像曹雪芹那样“批阅十载，增删五次”，而是匆促而成，在排印过程中又没有仔细校对，以致“纰缪”难免，因而立即加以修订再版，从而产生了“程乙本”。可见“程乙本”是对“程甲本”的“纰缪”加以修订的本子，自然胜于“程甲本”了。

Only those who read it will forgive it. That is to say, when Gao E continued to write the last 40 chapters and revised Cao Xueqin's first 80 chapters, "because he was anxious to be good to the public", he failed to "review for ten years, add and delete five times" as Cao Xueqin did.Hurriedly,he did not proofread carefully in the process of typesetting, so that "mistakes" were inevitable.Therefore, he immediately revised and reprinted it, resulting in "the version of Cheng Yi". It can be seen that "the version of Cheng Yi" is a book to revise the "mistakes" of "the version of Cheng Jia", which is naturally better than "the version of Cheng Jia".--[[User:Wang Zhenlong|Wang Zhenlong]] ([[User talk:Wang Zhenlong|talk]]) 02:57, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

Only readers will forgive it. That is to say, when Gao E continued to write the last 40 chapters and revised Cao Xueqin's first 80 chapters, he was anxious to share it with the public, so he failed to review for ten years, add and delete five times as Cao Xueqin did.He hurried to finish it, not proofreading carefully in the process of typesetting, so mistakes were inevitable. Therefore, \ he immediately revised and reprinted another verison, resulting in appearing "Cheng Yi (the second) Edition". It can be seen that " Cheng Yi" is a book to revise the "mistakes" of "Cheng Jia (the first) Edition", which is naturally better than "Cheng Jia".--[[User:Wei Yiwen|Wei Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Wei Yiwen|talk]]) 07:43, 13 November 2021 (UTC)

==卫怡雯 Wèi Yíwén 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081526==
然而由于出版商不加细较，以为初刊本更为可靠，以致在相当一段时间内，翻印的“程甲本”曾大行其道。直到1927年，胡适先生因亚东图书馆老板汪元放先生点校并出版过“程甲本”，便将自己珍藏的“程乙本”推荐给汪先生。汪先生便将“程乙本”与“程甲本”加以仔细对勘，并加上新式标点，予以出版。

However, the publisher did not go into details, and believed that the first edition was more reliable. So in a fairly long period, the translated and printed “Cheng Jia (the first) Edition” became popular. Until 1927, Mr. Hushi recommended his treasured collection of “Cheng Yi (the second) Edition” to the owner of Yadong Library, Mr. Wang Yuanfang after he heard that Mr. Wang had punctuated, proofead and published“Cheng Jia (the first) Edition”. Then Mr. Wang checked against another between “Cheng Jia” and “Cheng Yi” , added the new punctuation and published it.--[[User:Wei Yiwen|Wei Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Wei Yiwen|talk]]) 03:17, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

However, the publisher did not proofread carefully and believed that the first edition was more reliable. So in a fairly long period, the printed “Chengjia Edition” became popular. Until 1927, Mr. Hushi recommended his treasured collection of “Chengyi Edition” to Mr. Wang Yuanfang who was the owner of Yadong Library because Mr. Wang once proofread and published “Chengjia Edition”. Then Mr. Wang contrasted “Chengjia Edition” with “Chengyi Edition” in detail and decided to add the new-style punctuations to the latter and publish it.--[[User:Wei Chuxuan|Wei Chuxuan]] ([[User talk:Wei Chuxuan|talk]]) 11:00, 12 November 2021 (UTC)

==魏楚璇 Wèi Chǔxuán 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081527==
胡适先生并为该书写了《重印乾隆壬子本〈红楼梦〉序》。他在《序》文中说：现在印出的程乙本，就是那“聚集各原本，详加校阅，改订无讹”的本子，可说是高鹗、程伟元合刻的定本。这个改本有许多改订修正之处，胜于程甲本。

Mr.Hushi wrote "A Preface for the Re-printed Qianlong Renzi Edition of ''A Dream in Red Mansions''" for this book. In the preface, he said that the newly-printed Chengyi edition which was revised carefully by referring to all kinds of original editions to make sure no incorrect information in it, was the final edition made by Gao E and Cheng Weiyuan. This edition had many corrections so it was better than the Chengjia edition. --[[User:Wei Chuxuan|Wei Chuxuan]] ([[User talk:Wei Chuxuan|talk]]) 08:47, 11 November 2021 (UTC)

Mr.Hushi has written ''A Preface for the Re-printed Qianlong Renzi Version of "''A Dream in Red Mansions''"'' for this book. In this preface, he said that the current printed Chengyi edition was the final edition made by Gao E and Cheng Weiyuan which was revised carefully by gathering all kinds of original editions to make sure no incorrect information was in it. This edition had many corrections so it was much better than the Chengjia edition.--[[User:Wei Zhaoyan|Wei Zhaoyan]] ([[User talk:Wei Zhaoyan|talk]]) 06:58, 23 November 2021 (UTC)

==魏兆妍 Wèi Zhàoyán 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081528==
但这个本子发行在后，程甲本已有人翻刻了；初本的一些矛盾错误仍旧留在现行各本里，虽经各家批注里指出，终没有人敢改正。胡适先生并举了三个例子，以证明“程乙本”胜于“程甲本”。由此可知，胡适先生不仅是第一个发现并公开指出“程乙本”胜于“程甲本”的人，而且推荐并贡献出了自己珍藏的“程乙本”初刊本，为“程乙本”后来的广泛流行起了决定性的作用。

But after the release of this edition, Cheng Jia edition has already been reprinted. Some contradictions and errors from the original edition still remained in the current edition. Although many literary masters has pointed out these mistakes in their annotations, no one eventually dared to correct them. And Mr. Hu Shi gave three examples to prove that Cheng Yi edition was better than Cheng Jia edition. So it can be seen that he was not only the first to discover and publicly pointed out this, but also recommended and contributed the original Cheng Yi edition of his own treasure, which played a decisive role in the wide popularity of this edition.--[[User:Wei Zhaoyan|Wei Zhaoyan]] ([[User talk:Wei Zhaoyan|talk]]) 00:55, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

But after the release of this edition, Cheng Jia edition has already been reprinted. Some contradictions and errors of the original edition still remained in the current edition. Although many literary masters had pointed out these mistakes in their annotations, but no one eventually dared to correct them. And Mr. Hu Shi gave three examples to prove that Cheng Yi edition was better than Cheng Jia edition. So it can be seen that he was not only the first to discover and publicly pointed out this, but also recommended and contributed the original Cheng Yi edition of his own treasure, and that played a decisive role in the wide popularity of its edition.--[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 06:19, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

==吴婧悦 Wú Jìngyuè 俄语语言文学女 202120081529==
汪原放先生也没有辜负胡适先生的重托，不仅出版了“程乙本”，而且对两个“程本”加以仔细对勘，并用增删改动文字的统计数字与具体例子（详见下文），进一步证明了“程乙本”优于“程甲本”。由于胡适先生的学术威望和汪原放先生点校的“程乙本”面世，尤其是“程乙本”确实胜于“程甲本”，故此后书商大多舍弃了“程甲本”，竞相刊印“程乙本”，“程乙本”几乎一统天下。这种局面一直持续到上世纪五六十年代。

Mr.Wang Yuanfang also lived up to the great trust of Mr.Hu Shi. He not only published "Cheng Yiben", but also carefully surveyed the two "Cheng Yiben", and changed the statistics and specific examples (see below for details), further proving that "Cheng Yiben" was better than "Cheng Jiaben". Because Mr.Hu Shi's academic prestige and Mr.Wang Yuanfang's "Cheng Yiben" were published, especially "Cheng Yiben" was indeed better than "Cheng Jiaben", so most booksellers abandoned "Cheng Jiaben" and competed to print "Cheng Yiben", " Cheng Yiben " almost unified the whole world. The situation has been continuing until the 1950s and 1960s.--[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 14:48, 6 November 2021 (UTC)
Mr. Wang Yuanfang also lived up to Mr. Hu Shi's great trust. He not only published "Cheng Yi Ben", but also carefully surveyed the two "Cheng Ben", and further proved that "Cheng Yi Ben" was better than "Cheng Jia Ben" with statistics and specific examples of adding, deleting and changing words (see below for details). Due to the academic prestige of Mr. Hu Shi and the appearance of "Cheng Yi Ben" ordered by Mr. Wang Yuanfang, especially "Cheng Yi Ben" is indeed better than "Cheng Jia Ben", most booksellers abandoned "Cheng Jia Ben" and competed to publish "Cheng Yi Ben" and "Cheng Yi Ben" almost dominates the world. This situation lasted until the 1950s and 1960s.--[[User:Wu Yinghong|Wu Yinghong]] ([[User talk:Wu Yinghong|talk]]) 13:31, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

==吴映红 Wú Yìnghóng 日语语言文学女 202120081530==
然而到了八十年代以后，“程乙本”一统天下的局面却被打破了，各种版本的《红楼梦》纷纷涌现，其中多为拼凑本，即前八十回采用抄本，后四十回则多采用高鹗作废了的“程甲本”，从而造成了《红楼梦》版本的混乱现象。这种混乱现象使本来已经解决了的《红楼梦》版本问题又重新出现纷争，也使普通读者陷入了不知如何选择《红楼梦》的境地。
However, after the 1980s, the situation of "Cheng Yi Ben" dominating the world was broken, and various versions of a dream of Red Mansions emerged one after another, most of which were piecemeal copies, that is, the transcripts of the first 80 chapters were used, and the "Cheng Jia Ben" cancelled by Gao e was used in the last 40 chapters, resulting in the confusion of the version of a dream of Red Mansions. This chaotic phenomenon makes the original version of a dream of Red Mansions once again controversial, and makes ordinary readers fall into the situation of not knowing how to choose a dream of Red Mansions.

However, after the 1980s, the dominating situation of "Cheng Yi version"was broken, and various versions of The Dream of Red Mansions emerged one after another, most of which were cobbled together, where the first eighty editions used the codified version, while the last forty editions mostly used Gao E's cancelled Cheng Jia version, thus causing confusion in the version of a Dream of Red Mansions.This kind of confusion makes the issue of the edition of a Dream of Red Mansions reappear, and also makes ordinary readers have no idea how to choose a Dream of Red Mansions.--[[User:Xiao Yiyao|Xiao Yiyao]] ([[User talk:Xiao Yiyao|talk]]) 06:27, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

==肖毅瑶 Xiāo Yìyáo 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081531==
钱锺书先生虽然不研究《红楼梦》，但对《红楼梦》版本的混乱现象却很不以为然。他在上世纪九十年代说过（大意）：《红楼梦》研究中的许多纠葛与纷争，大多源于版本问题。在同一问题上，张三根据这个版本，李四根据那个版本，公说公有理，婆说婆有理，一万年也说不清，实在无谓得很。

Although Qian zhongshu never study ''The Dream of Red Mansions'', he considers that the phenomenon of mess versions does not really matter.In the 1990s, he said that (roughly meaning)most of the disputes in the study of ''The Dream of Red Mansions'' resulted from the issue of versions. On the same issue, different people refer to different versions for their so-called reasonable purpose.Thus, the disputes can never be settled. And such a phenomenon is really meaningless.--[[User:Xiao Yiyao|Xiao Yiyao]] ([[User talk:Xiao Yiyao|talk]]) 06:23, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

Although Qian zhongshu never study ''The Dream of Red Mansions'', he considered disapprovingly that the phenomenon of chaos versions does not really matter.In the 1990s, he said that (a rough meaning)most of the disputes in the study of ''The Dream of Red Mansions'' resulted from the issue of versions. On the same issue, different people refer to different versions for their so-called reasonable purpose.Thus, the disputes can never be settled. And such a phenomenon is really meaningless.--[[User:Xie Jiafen|Xie Jiafen]] ([[User talk:Xie Jiafen|talk]]) 06:47, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

==谢佳芬 Xiè Jiāfēn 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081532==
这是《红楼梦》的悲剧，也是中国学界的悲剧。为了永久保存《红楼梦》这笔珍贵遗产，也为了给广大读者提供一个《红楼梦》的范本，必须从众多版本中确定一个最好的版本，而这个版本就是胡适先生推荐的“程乙本”。至于其他版本，则只供研究之用。

This is not only the tragedy of The Dream of the Red Chamber , but also the tragedy of Chinese academic circles. In order to permanently preserve the precious heritage of The Dream of the Red Chamber and provide readers with a model of The Dream of the Red Chamber, we must determine the best version from many versions, and this version is the "Cheng Yi version" recommended by Mr. Hu Shi. Other versions are only for research purposes only.--[[User:Xie Jiafen|Xie Jiafen]] ([[User talk:Xie Jiafen|talk]]) 14:00, 6 November 2021 (UTC)

This is not only a tragedy of Dream of the Red Chamber , but also a tragedy of Chinese academic circles. In order to permanently preserve the precious heritage of Dream of the Red Chamber and provide readers with a model of Dream of the Red Chamber, we must determine the best version from many versions, and this version is the "Cheng Yi version" recommended by Mr. Hu Shi. Other versions are only for research purposes only.--[[User:Xie Qinglin|Xie Qinglin]] ([[User talk:Xie Qinglin|talk]]) 11:15, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

==谢庆琳 Xiè Qìnglín 俄语语言文学女 202120081533==
我完全赞成以上诸位先生的看法，毋须我再费笔墨，所以我在这里只是为他们的看法提供一些实例。首先，“程乙本”的前八十回由于经过了高鹗(也许还有程伟元)的大量修订，较之诸抄本大有改观，使之更加完善。具体来说，就是对众多异文加以筛选，去除讹误，择善而从，并加以必要的补阙、修改、删节和增饰。

I totally agree with the views of the above teachers, so I don't need to say more, so I will just provide some examples for their views here. First of all, the first eighty books of "Cheng Yi version" have been revised extensively by Gao Osprey (and perhaps Cheng Wei Yuan), which is a great improvement over the codices and makes it more perfect. Specifically, it is the screening of many different texts, the removal of errors, the selection of good, and the necessary additions, modifications, abridgments and additions.--[[User:Xie Qinglin|Xie Qinglin]] ([[User talk:Xie Qinglin|talk]]) 10:56, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

I totally agree with the opinions of you all, so I don't bother to say more. So I will just provide some examples for their views here. First of all, the first eightith chapters of "Cheng Yi's version" have been revised for many times by Gao Osprey (and perhaps Cheng Wei Yuan), which is an improvement over the codices and makes it more perfect. Specifically, it made a selection from many different texts, corrected errors, selected the good, and offered the necessary additions, modifications, removal and polishment.--[[User:Xiong Min|Xiong Min]] ([[User talk:Xiong Min|talk]]) 07:28, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

==熊敏 Xióng Mǐn 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081534==
试举六例如下：例一：原作第十七、十八两回合用一套回目，第十九回没有回目。高鹗将那套合用的回目归第十七回，而为第十八、十九两回补拟了回目。例二：原作第十八回写元妃省亲回府，“只见园中香烟缭绕，花彩缤纷，处处灯光相映，时时细乐声喧，说不尽太平景象，富贵风流”，下面却接着有这样一段：此时自己回想当初在大荒山中青埂峰下，那等凄凉寂寞。

Here are six examples. Firstly, the chapter 17 and 18 of the original work shared the same title and the 19th one didn't have have any. Gao-E merged the shared one into chapter 17 and rethought a title for chapter 18 and 19. Secondly, chapter 18 in the original one showed that Yuan concubine visited relatives, as "See nothing but scent lingering, flowers blossoming, lights glistening and bustle hustleing.WHat a stable and flourish society!" Here goes another saying: at that time I recalled the time when I in the foot of Dahuangshan Mountain, and I felt so lonely.

Here are six examples. Firstly, the chapter 17 and 18 of the original work shared the same title and the 19th one didn't have any. Gao'E merged the shared one into chapter 17 and rethought a title for chapter 18 and 19. Secondly, chapter 18 in the original one showed that Yuan concubine visited relatives, as "See nothing but scent lingering, flowers blossoming, lights glistening and bustle hustleing.WHat a stable and flourish society!" Here goes another saying: at that time I recalled the time when I in the foot of Dahuangshan Mountain, and I felt so lonely.--[[User:Xu Minyun|Xu Minyun]] ([[User talk:Xu Minyun|talk]]) 09:55, 14 November 2021 (UTC)

==徐敏赟 Xú Mǐnyūn 语言智能与跨文化传播研究男 202120081535==
若不亏癞僧、跛道二人携来到此，又安能得见这般世面？本欲作一篇《灯月赋》、《省亲颂》，以志今日之事，但又恐入了别书的俗套。按此时之景，即作一赋一赞，也不能得尽其妙；即不作赋、赞，其豪华富丽，观者诸公亦可想而知矣。

If the Monk and the Taoist don't bring me here, how could I can see such elephant. I wanted to write an ''Ode to Lantern Moon'' or ''Ode to Visiting Relatives'' to commemorate today's event, but I was afraid to falling into the conventions of other books. The scene of this period, we can't get its wonderful in length even we write a praise. And if we don't write, the viewer also can imagine its luxurious richly.--[[User:Xu Minyun|Xu Minyun]] ([[User talk:Xu Minyun|talk]]) 11:26, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

If not the monk with scappy head and the lame Taoist priest bring me here, how could I can see such the world like this. I wanted to write an ''Ode to Lantern Moon'' or ''Ode to Visiting Relatives'' to commemorate today's event, but I was afraid to falling into the conventions of other books. In the scene of this period, we can't get the wonderfulness in length even we write a praise. And if we don't write, the viewer also can imagine its luxury and richness.--[[User:Yan Jing|Yan Jing]] ([[User talk:Yan Jing|talk]]) 02:18, 12 November 2021 (UTC)

==颜静 Yán Jìng 语言智能与跨文化传播研究女 202120081536==
所以倒是省了这工夫纸墨，且说正经的为是。本书前面已经交代得明明白白，大荒山青埂峰下的那块石头被一僧一道携入红尘后已幻化为口衔通灵宝玉的贾宝玉，而从这段话看，那块石头的化身却是贾元春，难道姐弟二人都是那块石头所化吗？如果说这段话的前大半截是写贾宝玉的心理活动，误安在了贾元春的头上，也还是说不通，因为不可能在描写贾元春省亲观感的文字当中无缘无故插入一段对贾宝玉的心理描写。

Therefore the time to write them is saved, and it is time to talk something serious. It has been clearly explained in the front of this book that the stone under the Loveroot Peak of the Great Wilderness Mountain has been transformed into Precious Jade Merchant with psychic jade in his mouth after being brought into the world by a monk and a Taoist priest. From this paragraph, however, the incarnation of that stone is First Spring Merchant. Are both the sister and brother transformed by that stone? If the first half of this paragraph is about Precious Jade Merchant's psychological activities, and is mistakenly thought as First Spring Merchant's, it still doesn't make sense. Because it is impossible to insert a psychological description of Precious Jade Merchant into the words describing First Spring Merchant's feelings about relatives for no reason.--[[User:Yan Jing|Yan Jing]] ([[User talk:Yan Jing|talk]]) 10:16, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

If the first half of this paragraph is about Precious Jade Merchant's psychological activities, which is mistakenly thought as First Spring Merchant's, it still doesn't make sense.
--[[User:Yan Lili|Yan Lili]] ([[User talk:Yan Lili|talk]]) 10:13, 13 November 2021 (UTC)

==颜莉莉 Yán Lìlì 国别女 202120081537==
尤为荒唐的是，从“观者诸公”以下文字，又突然变为作者的第三人称口气，更令人丈二金刚，摸不着头脑。如此语无伦次的拙劣文字，决非曹雪芹的原文，而是抄书者的误抄或窜文。“程乙本”将其全部删除，犹如割除了一个赘瘤，使行文变得合理而又通畅。

What is particularly absurd is that, from the following words "all the audience", and suddenly into the third person tone of the author,which is even more puzzling. Such incoherent poor text, not Cao Xueqin's original text, but the copy of the wrong copy or channelized text. "Cheng Yi version" deleted all of them, just like cutting out a superfluous tumor, so that the writing becomes reasonable and unobstructed.--[[User:Yan Lili|Yan Lili]] ([[User talk:Yan Lili|talk]]) 12:58, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

Such incoherent poor text, not Cao Xueqin Autor's original text, but the copy of the wrong copy or channelized text. "Cheng Yi version" deleted all of them, just like cutting out a superfluous tumor, so that the writing becomes reasonable and unobstructed.--[[User:Yan Zihan|Yan Zihan]] ([[User talk:Yan Zihan|talk]]) 14:50, 29 December 2021 (UTC)

==颜子涵 Yán Zǐhán 国别女 202120081538==
例三：原作第二十二回写荣国府作灯谜游戏，目的在于通过各人制作的灯谜，以暗示各自的性情、志向及将来结局，是全书的重要段落。大约因曹雪芹当时没有完全想好，故只写了贾母、贾政、元春、迎春、探春、惜春、宝钗的灯谜，而将宝玉、黛玉、湘云的灯谜暂缺，留待以后补写，不料曹雪芹突然去世，未及补写，致使原稿残缺。高鹗大胆地将原作宝钗的灯谜移作黛玉的灯谜，又增写了宝钗和宝玉的灯谜，我以为移得合理，增作也很精彩。

Example 3: the 22nd episode of the original work is that everyone plays lantern riddles in the Jung-guo-Anwesen ，The purpose is to hint their temperament, aspirations and future outcome through the lantern riddles made by each person，It is an important paragraph of the whole book. It may be that Cao Xueqin Autor didn't think well at that time, so he only wrote the riddles of Grandma Merchant, Master Merchant, First Spring Merchant, Spring Pleasure Merchant, Seeking-Spring Merchant, Cherishing Spring Merchant and Precious Hairpin Marshgrass, but didn't write the riddles of Precious Jade Merchant, Mascara Jade Forest and Fragrant-cloud History for the time being，and planned to fill them up later. Unexpectedly, Cao Xueqin Autor died suddenly and didn't have time to make up, resulting in the mutilation of the original. Gao E boldly changed the lantern riddle of Precious Hairpin Marshgrass into that of Mascara Jade Forest, and added the lantern riddles of Precious Hairpin Marshgrass and Precious Jade Merchant. I think this change is very reasonable and the added part is also very wonderful.--[[User:Yan Zihan|Yan Zihan]] ([[User talk:Yan Zihan|talk]]) 01:31, 12 November 2021 (UTC)

Example 3: the 22nd chapter of the original work is that everyone plays lantern riddles in the Rong Mansion, The purpose is to hint their temperament, aspirations and future respectively through the lantern riddles made by each person，It is an important plot of the whole work.
Possibly because Cao Xueqin did not think well at that time, he only wrote the riddles of Grandma Merchant, Master Merchant, First Spring Merchant, Spring Pleasure Merchant, Seeking-Spring Merchant, Cherishing Spring Merchant and Precious Hairpin Marshgrass, but didn’t write the riddles of Precious Jade Merchant, Mascara Jade Forest and Fragrant-cloud History for the time being，and planned to fill them up later. Unexpectedly, Cao Xueqin died suddenly and didn’t have time to make up, resulting in the mutilation of the original. Gao E boldly changed the lantern riddle of Precious Hairpin Marshgrass into that of Mascara Jade Forest, and added the lantern riddles of Precious Hairpin Marshgrass and Precious Jade Merchant. I think this change is very reasonable and the added part is also very wonderful.--[[User:Yang Jiaying|Yang Jiaying]] ([[User talk:Yang Jiaying|talk]]) 07:58, 13 November 2021 (UTC)

==阳佳颖 Yáng Jiāyǐng 国别女 202120081540==
但高鹗也有失误和疏漏：失误在于删掉或漏掉了原作惜春的灯谜，疏漏在于未给湘云补写灯谜。惜春的灯谜我已补入第二十二回（参见该回原文及其注释），以弥补高鹗的失误；而湘云的灯谜却只好仍阙，成为永远的遗憾。例四：原作第二十五回在写王熙凤被魇魔法弄得精神错乱时，插入一段对薛蟠的描写：别人慌张自不必讲，独有薛蟠更比诸人忙到十分：又恐薛姨妈被人挤倒，又恐薛宝钗被人瞧见，又恐香菱被人臊皮──知道贾珍等是在女人身上做功夫的，因此忙的不堪。

However, Gao E also made some mistakes and omissions: the mistake lies in deleting or missing the original lantern riddles made by Cherishing Spring Merchant, and the omission lies in not rewriting the lantern riddles for Fragrant-cloud History. I have added the riddle of Spring-cherish Merchant in Chapter 22 to make up for Gao E’s mistake; But the lantern riddles of Fragrant-cloud History have yet to be unfilled, which becomes a permanent regret. Example 4: In chapter 25 of the original,When writing about Splendid Phoenix King being deranged by magic, a description of Dragon Marshgrass is inserted: The others, it goes without saying,were still more distraught. But of them all Dragon Marshgrass was the most frantic, being afraid that in the crush his mother might be knocked over, Precious Hairpin Marshgrass stared at, or Wiselotus Potterymaker exposed to indignities -- for he knew what libertines Treasure Merchant and the rest were.--[[User:Yang Jiaying|Yang Jiaying]] ([[User talk:Yang Jiaying|talk]]) 07:43, 13 November 2021 (UTC)

However, Gao E also made a mistake and had an oversight: the mistake lies in deleting or missing the original lantern riddles made by Cherishing Spring Merchant, and the omission lies in not rewriting the lantern riddles for Fragrant-cloud History. I already added the riddle of Spring-cherish Merchant in Chapter 22 to make up for Gao E’s mistake; But Fragrant-cloud History’s lantern riddles have yet to be unfilled, which becomes an eternal regret. Example 4: In chapter 25 of the original,When writing about Splendid Phoenix King being deranged by magic, a description of Dragon Marshgrass is inserted: The others, it goes without saying,were still more distraught. But of them all Dragon Marshgrass was the most frantic, being afraid that in the crush his mother might be knocked over, Precious Hairpin Marshgrass stared at, or Wiselotus Potterymaker exposed to indignities -- for he knew what libertines Treasure Merchant and the rest were.--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 14:51, 13 November 2021 (UTC)

==杨爱江 Yáng Àijiāng 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081541==
忽一眼瞥见了林黛玉风流婉转，已酥倒在那里。这段话十分荒谬：其一，贾、薛两家为近亲，贾珍与薛宝钗是表兄妹，贾珍怎么敢对表妹起歹心呢？薛蟠岂非杞人忧天？其二，薛蟠虽然混账，与林黛玉也是表兄妹，况且见面的机会很多，薛蟠怎么会“一眼瞥见了林黛玉”就“酥倒在那里”呢？

Dragon Marshgrass's eye suddenly falling on Mascara Jade Forest, he was so enchanted by her charms that he almost melted on the spot. This paragraph is very absurd: First, Family Merchant and Family Marshgrass are close relatives, and Treasure Merchant and Precious Hairpin Marshgrass are cousins. How dare Treasure Merchant want to have a love affair with his cousin? Isn't Dragon Marshgrass entertained imaginary and groundless fear? Second, although Dragon Marshgrass is a jerk, Mascara Jade Forest is his cousin. Besides, there are many opportunities to meet Mascara Jade. How could Dragon Marshgrass“almost melted on the spot when his eye suddenly fell on Mascara Jade Forest”? --[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 09:44, 12 November 2021 (UTC)

Dragon Marshgrass suddenly caught a glimpse of Mascara Jade Forest, who was pretty and gentle, and collapsed there. This paragraph is very absurd: Firstly, Family Merchant and Family Marshgrass are close relatives, and Treasure Merchant and Precious Hairpin Marshgrass are cousins. How dare Treasure Merchant want to have a love affair with his cousin? Isn't Dragon Marshgrass alarmist? Secondly, although Dragon Marshgrass is a jerk, Mascara Jade Forest is his cousin. Besides, there are many opportunities to meet Mascara Jade. How could Dragon Marshgrass “collapsed there because of a glimpse of Mascara Jade Forest”?--[[User:Yang Kun|Yang Kun]] ([[User talk:Yang Kun|talk]]) 14:15, 14 November 2021 (UTC)

==杨堃 Yáng Kūn 法语语言文学女 202120081542==
而脂批竟称赞道：“忙中写闲，真大手眼、大手笔。”这如果不是偶然失误，便只能说是不识好歹了。“程乙本”将其删除，倒可当得起“大手眼、大手笔”的评语。例五：原作第六十三回中用了一千多字的篇幅，大写贾宝玉、史湘云等人只是为了好玩，如何将芳官、葵官打扮成“小土番儿”，如何改称“犬戎名姓”。

However, the Zhi Yanzhai's critiques unexpectedly praised: "Snatch a little leisure from a busy writing , which is really big eyes and a big deal." If this is not an accidental mistake, it can only be said to be ungrateful. If "Cheng Yi version" deletes it, it can be regarded as a comment of "big eyes and a big deal". Example 5: in the sixty-third chapter of the original work, more than 1,000 words were used to capitalize the name of Precious Jade Merchant, Fragrant-cloud History and others, which is just for fun, and to describe how to dress Fragrant Official and Sunflower as "Xiao Tu Fan er" and how to change "the surname and name of Quan Rong".--[[User:Yang Kun|Yang Kun]] ([[User talk:Yang Kun|talk]]) 14:21, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

However, critiques of Zhi Yanzhai(one of the earliest critics of "A Dream in Red Mansions" ) unexpectedly praised: "Snatch a little leisure from a busy writing , which is really weighty." If it is not an accidental mistake, it can only be said to be ungrateful. "Cheng Yi version" deletes it, thus it can be regarded as the comment of "weighty writings". Example 5: in the sixty-third chapter of the original work, more than 1,000 words were used to describe that how Precious Jade Merchant, Fragrant-cloud History and others dress Fang Guan and Kui Guan as "Xiao Tu Fan er" and how they change "the name of Quan Rong" just for fun.--[[User:Yang Liuqing|Yang Liuqing]] ([[User talk:Yang Liuqing|talk]]) 06:43, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

==杨柳青 Yáng Liǔqīng 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081543==
而且竟然让贾宝玉说出这样的话来：如今四海宾服，八方宁静，千载百载，不用武备。咱们虽一戏一笑，也该称颂，方不负坐享升平了。这种描写既十分无聊，又与贾宝玉的性格背道而驰，尤其侮辱了包括满族在内的少数民族，真可谓拙劣的文字，因此“程乙本”完全予以删除是绝对必要的。

What's more, in Zhi Yangzhai's version, Precious Jade Merchant said that"Nowadays, people within Four Seas were all submitted and social stability was achieved in all directions. Weapons were not needed in nearly thousands of years. Therefore, our laughs and teases also deserved extolling thus we lived up to the prosperity." This kind of descriptions were very boring and ran counter to the characteristics of Jia Baoyu, and they particularly insulted national minorities including Manchu, which were really bad writings. Thus, it's quite necessary for "Cheng Yi's version" to delete these words.--[[User:Yang Liuqing|Yang Liuqing]] ([[User talk:Yang Liuqing|talk]]) 07:05, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

What's more, in Zhi Yangzhai's version, Baoyu even said things like this:"Nowadays, people from all over the world bow to our emperor, and social stability's greatly achieved. No military preparation's needed in the days ahead. Therefore, our laughs and teases also deserved extolling thus we lived up to the prosperity." Such descriptions are boring and against Baoyu's characteristic, and also insulted national minorities including Manchu, which are truly awful writings. Thus, it's quite necessary for Cheng&Gao's second version to delete these words.--[[User:Ye Weijie|Ye Weijie]] ([[User talk:Ye Weijie|talk]]) 06:07, 12 November 2021 (UTC)

==叶维杰 Yè Wéijié 国别男 202120081544==
例六：原作第六十一回开头有一段写柳家的与小厮斗嘴的文字，既毫无意义，又有“几根×毛”、“×声浪嗓”的粗话，故“程乙本”删掉了百馀字也完全正确。像这样的例子不胜枚举，它们足可以证明，高鹗对前八十回的修订是完全必要和合理的，“程乙本”前八十回优于原作的事实是任何人也难以抹煞的。其次，再就两种“程本”而言，由于“程乙本”是“程甲本”的修订本，自然也就更加完善。

Example six: The descriptive words about the argument between Liu's and his servant in the chapter sixty one of the original version are quite meaningless, and vulgarism like "some x hairs","some nasty voices" are also included at the same time，that's why the Cheng&Gao's second version had correctly deleted hundreds of words of the original one. Such examples are numerous and are solid proofs to the necessity and justifiability of Gao E's revision of original former eighty chapters, and it's also undeniable that former eighty chapters in the Cheng&Gao's second version are better than ones in the original. Moreover, in terms of the two versions of Cheng&Gao's, the second version is obviously more perfect for it's revised on the base of the first one.--[[User:Ye Weijie|Ye Weijie]] ([[User talk:Ye Weijie|talk]]) 05:33, 12 November 2021 (UTC)

Example six: the original 61st back at the beginning of a paragraph to write the fighting words by Liu and his following boy, not only meaningless, but also "a few pubic hair", "obscene voice" of foul language, so "Cheng B book "deleted a few hundred words is also completely correct. Such examples are numerous, and they are sufficient to prove that the revision of the first eighty chapters by Gao Hu is completely necessary and reasonable, and the fact that the first eighty chapters of "Cheng B book" is better than the original is hard to be denied by anyone. Secondly, in terms of the two "Cheng books", since the "Cheng B book" is a revised version of the "Cheng A book", it is naturally more perfect.--[[User:Yi Yangfan|Yi Yangfan]] ([[User talk:Yi Yangfan|talk]]) 02:37, 12 November 2021 (UTC)Yi Yangfan

==易扬帆 Yì Yángfān 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081545==
关于这一点，最有力的证据是一组现成的统计数字。前面说过，汪原放先生于1927年曾将“程乙本”与“程甲本”加以对勘，并将两者的异文作了统计，其结果是：“程乙本”较之“程甲本”改动(包括增与改)了总共21506字，其中前八十回改动15537字，后四十回改动5969字。(见汪原放《重印乾隆壬子本〈红楼梦〉校读后记》)这些改动主要有三个方面：其一，是对“程甲本”中的“纰缪”文字加以改正。

About this point, the strongest evidence is a set of readily available statistics. As mentioned earlier, Mr. Wang Yuanfang in 1927 compared the "Cheng B book" with the "Cheng A book" and made statistics on the differences between the two texts, and the result was: "Cheng B book" compared with "Cheng A book" changes (including increase and change) a total of 21506 words, including the first eighty chapters changed 15537 words, the last forty chapters changed 5969 words. (See Wang Yuanfang "reprinted Qianlong nonzi book" after reading "Dream of the Red Chamber") These changes are mainly in three aspects: one, is the "Cheng A book" in the "error" text to correct.--[[User:Yi Yangfan|Yi Yangfan]] ([[User talk:Yi Yangfan|talk]]) 02:38, 12 November 2021 (UTC)Yi Yangfan

The strongest evidence for this is a set of available statistics. As mentioned earlier, Mr. Wang Yuanfang in 1927 compared the "Cheng B book" with the "Cheng A book" and made statistics on the differences between the two texts, and the result was: a total of 21506 words (including complements and modifications) were changed in "Cheng B book" compared with "Cheng A book", including 15537 words changed in the first eighty chapters, and 5969 words changed in the last forty chapters. (Refer to Wang Yuanfang "reprinted Qianlong nonzi book" after reading "Dream of the Red Chamber") These changes are mainly in three aspects: one, is the modification of the "error" text in Cheng A book.--[[User:Yin Huizhen|Yin Huizhen]] ([[User talk:Yin Huizhen|talk]]) 13:03, 12 November 2021 (UTC)

==殷慧珍 Yīn Huìzhēn 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081546==
如第二回“冷子兴演说荣国府”中，“程甲本”对原作的如下一段文字未作改动：这政老爷的夫人王氏……第二胎生了一位小姐，生在大年初一，就奇了。不想次年又生了一位公子，说来更奇：一落胞胎，嘴里便衔下一块五彩晶莹的玉来，还有许多字迹。这位“小姐”就是贾元春(元妃)，这位“公子”就是贾宝玉。

For example, the "Leng Zixing's speech in Rong Mansion" in chapter 2, "Cheng Jia's translation version" did not change the following text of the original work: The wife of Lord Zheng Mrs Wang…… gave birth to a girl on the first day of the lunar year,which was magical enough. It was even more magical that she gave birth to a boy in the next year: he was born with a colorful and crystal jade in his mouth, and the jade was written by some scripts. The "girl" is First Spring Merchant (Yuan Concubine), while the "boy" is Precious Jade Merchant.--[[User:Yin Huizhen|Yin Huizhen]] ([[User talk:Yin Huizhen|talk]]) 09:23, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

For example, in the "Leng Zixing's speech in Rong Mansion" from chapter 2, the following text of the original work remained intact in "Cheng Jia(the first)edition": Mrs Wang, the wife of Lord Zheng …… gave birth to her second child, a girl, on the first day of the lunar year, which was magical enough. It was even more magical that she gave birth to a boy in the following year: when he was born, a colorful and crystal jade with many scripts on it was in his mouth. The "girl" is First Spring Merchant (Yuan Concubine), while the "boy" is Precious Jade Merchant.--[[User:Yin Meida|Yin Meida]] ([[User talk:Yin Meida|talk]]) 10:39, 11 November 2021 (UTC)

==殷美达 Yīn Měidá 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081547==
而这段文字显然与第十八回中的一段文字相矛盾：那宝玉未入学之先，三四岁时，已得元妃口传，教授了几本书，识了数千字在腹中：虽为姊弟，有如母子。
“有如母子”的贾元春和贾宝玉，不可能只差一岁，可见第二回那段文字有明显的“纰缪”。“程乙本”将“次年”改为“隔了十几年”，便合情合理了。

This paragraph obviously contradicts with the description in the eighteenth chapter: before Precious Jade,at the age of three or four, entered the school, he had been taught several books by Yuan Concubine(First Spring Merchant) by word of mouth and thus had known thousands of words in his mind. They are sister and brother in blood relation, but more like mother and son. Precious Jade Merchant and First Spring Merchant, "like mother and son",could not be only one year apart,so there is an obvious "mistake"in the paragraph from the second chapter. Therefore, it is reasonable to change "the following year" into "more than a decade after" in "Cheng Yi(the second) Edition".--[[User:Yin Meida|Yin Meida]] ([[User talk:Yin Meida|talk]]) 09:28, 11 November 2021 (UTC)

While this paragraph obviously contradicts with one in the eighteenth chapter: before Precious Jade, at the age of three or four, entered the school, he had been taught several books by Yuan Concubine(First Spring Merchant) by word of mouth and thus had learned thousands of words in his mind. They are elder sister and younger brother, but more like mother and son. Precious Jade Merchant and First Spring Merchant could not be only one year apart,so there is an obvious "mistake" in the paragraph of the second chapter. Therefore, it is reasonable to change "the following year" into "more than a decade after" in "Cheng Yi(the second) Edition".--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 01:53, 12 November 2021 (UTC)

==尹媛 Yǐn Yuán 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081548==
其二，是将文言词语尽量改为白话或俗语，从而使《红楼梦》的语言更为通俗易懂。譬如：“若”改为“要”，“与”改为“给”，“亦”改为“也”，“此”改为“这”，“口”改为“嘴”，“何”改为“为什么”，“如何”改为“怎么”，“如此”改为“这么着”，“葳蕤”改为“委琐”，等等。其三，是增加了许多“儿”字，将词语加以“儿”化，从而使《红楼梦》语言的京味特点更加突出。

Secondly, classical words were changed into vernacular or colloquial language as far as possible so as to make the language of A Dream of Red Mansions more understandable. For instance: "ruo" was translated into "yao"(if), "yu" into "yao"(to), "yi" into "ye"(also), "ci" into "zhe"(this), "kou" into "zui"(mouth),"he" into "wei shen me"(why), "ru he" into "zen me"(how), "ru ci" into "zhe me zhao"(in this way), "weisui" into "weisuo"(obscene) and so on. Thirdly, lots of "er" were added into A Dream of Red Mansions, so that the Beijing flavor of the language in A Dream of Red Mansions is more distinct.--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 12:08, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

==詹若萱 Zhān Ruòxuān 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081549==
关于这一点，几乎随处可见，因而不再举例。《红楼梦》是一部近百万字的巨著，要想完全揭示“程乙本”的版本优点，只能将它与其他版本一一对勘，并将异文一一列出。单凭以上的简单说明，只能是挂一漏万。

This point can be seen almost everywhere, so I will not give examples. “Dream of the Red Chamber” is a masterpiece of nearly one million words. If we want to fully reveal the merits of "Cheng Yi's translation version", we can only investigate it with other translation versions and list the differences one by one. The above simple explanation is still incomplete and full of omissions.--[[User:Zhan Ruoxuan|Zhan Ruoxuan]] ([[User talk:Zhan Ruoxuan|talk]]) 07:24, 10 November 2021 (UTC)
This point can be seen almost everywhere, so I don't want to give an example.--[[User:Zhang Qiuyi|Zhang Qiuyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Qiuyi|talk]]) 05:25, 12 November 2021 (UTC)

==张秋怡 Zhāng Qiūyí 亚非语言文学女 202120081550==
不过我可以向读者负责地保证：如果你是出于欣赏的目的阅读《红楼梦》，那么选择“程乙本”将是最明智的。三、校勘问题我们说“程乙本”为《红楼梦》的最佳版本，并不是说它完美无缺，也不是说其他版本一概不如“程乙本”，只是说它在总体上更胜一筹而已。
But I can responsibly assure readers that if you are reading a Dream of Red Mansions for enjoyment, cheng Yiben is the wisest choice. To say that Cheng Yiben is the best version of a Dream of Red Mansions does not mean that it is perfect, nor that all other versions are inferior to Cheng Yiben, but that it is superior in general.--[[User:Zhang Qiuyi|Zhang Qiuyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Qiuyi|talk]]) 05:23, 12 November 2021 (UTC)

But I can responsibly assure readers that if you are reading ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' for enjoyment, Cheng Yi version is the wisest choice. Three: Revision. To say that Cheng Yi version is the best version of ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' does not mean that it is perfect, nor that all other versions are inferior to Cheng Yi version, but that it is superior in general.--[[User:Zhang Yang|Zhang Yang]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yang|talk]]) 13:42, 16 November 2021 (UTC)

==张扬 Zhāng Yáng 国别男 202120081551==
事实上，或因高鹗和程伟元的疏忽，或因排字工人的失误，致使“程乙本”仍存在不少“纰缪”。譬如：第八十六回说贾元春生于“甲申年正月丙寅”；至第九十五回则说：“是年甲寅年十二月十八日立春，元妃薨日是十二月十九日，已交卯年寅月，存年四十三岁。”“程甲本”和“程乙本”都是如此。

In fact, due to the negligence of Gao'e and Cheng Weiyuan, or the mistakes made by typesetters, there are still many "mistakes" in "Chengyi version". For example, the eighty-sixth chapter expounds that Jia Yuanchun was born in "Bingyin, the first month of the year Jiashen". To the 95th chapter it expounds that "In that year, the spring began on December 18th of the lunar calendar, Jiayin year, and the day consort Yuan died was on December 19, which was in the month of Yin and year of Mao. Hence consort Yuan died at the age of 43.", which are the same both in "Chengjia version" and "Chengyi version".--[[User:Zhang Yang|Zhang Yang]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yang|talk]]) 14:17, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

In fact, due to the negligence of Gao'e and Cheng Weiyuan, or the mistakes made by typesetters, there are still many "mistakes" in "Chengyi version". For example, the eighty-sixth chapter expounds that First Spring Merchant was born in "Bingyin, the first month of the year Jiashen". To the 95th chapter it expounds that "In that year, the spring began on December 18th of the lunar calendar, Jiayin year, and the day Princess Merchant died was on December 19, which was in the month of Yin and year of Mao. Hence consort Yuan died at the age of 43.", which are the same both in "Chengjia version" and "Chengyi version".

==张怡然 Zhāng Yírán 俄语语言文学女 202120081552==
而实际上前后存在明显矛盾：甲申年至甲寅年是三十年，按照当时以虚岁计算年龄的习惯，元妃享年应是三十一岁；即使因元妃薨于立春次日，算作乙卯年，也只有三十二岁。无论如何也不会是四十三岁。可见“程甲本”已错，而“程乙本”也没有订正。

In fact,there is clear contradiction:the years from JiaShen to JiaYin are thirty years, and according to the custom of calculating age in terms of nominal age at the time, Princess Merchant would have been thirty-one years old; even if the death of Princess Merchant took place on the day after the first day of spring, which is counted as the year yi Mao, she would have been only thirty-two years old. In any case, it would not have been forty-three years old. It is clear that the "Cheng Jia version" is wrong, and the "Cheng Yi version" has not been revised.

In fact,there is an obvious contradiction:the years from JiaShen to JiaYin are thirty years, and according to the custom of calculating age in terms of nominal age at the time, Princess Yuan would have been thirty-one years old; even if the death of Princess Yuan took place on the day after the first day of spring, which is counted as the year YiMao, she would have been only thirty-two years old. In any case, it would not have been forty-three years old. It is clear that the "Cheng Jia version" is wrong, and the "Cheng Yi version" has not been revised either.--[[User:Zhong Yifei|Zhong Yifei]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yifei|talk]]) 06:37, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

==钟义菲 Zhōng Yìfēi 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081553==
这个明显的失误，早在1927年由汪原放校点、亚东图书馆出版的“程乙本”《红楼梦》已经改正，而上世纪八十年代以后出版的诸多号称经过了“精校”的“程甲本”和“程乙本”《红楼梦》，包括那些拼凑本，却依旧保留了这个失误，这不能不说是一种讽刺。其实“程乙本”的其他文字失误还有不少，并非像高鹗、程伟元所说“改订无讹”。“程乙本”既非十全十美，而我们要供献于读者的是一部普及本的《红楼梦》，因此有必要汲取其他版本的长处，使其尽量完美。

This obvious mistake was corrected in “Cheng Yi Version" （a version of "A Dream of Red Mansions"） checked by Wang Yuanfang and published by Yadong library as early as 1927. It is ironic that many "Cheng Jia Version" and "Cheng Yi Version" published after the 1980s, including those patchwork books, still retain this mistake. In fact, there are many other word mistakes in "Cheng Yi Version", which is not “absolutely right after revision” as Gao E and Cheng Weiyuan said. "Cheng Yi Version" is not perfect, and what we want to offer to readers is a popular version of “A Dream of Red Mansions.” Therefore, it is necessary to learn from the advantages of other versions to make it as perfect as possible.--[[User:Zhong Yifei|Zhong Yifei]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yifei|talk]]) 14:22, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

This obvious mistake was corrected in “Cheng Yiben" （a version of "a dream of Red Mansions"） checked by Wang Yuanfang and published by Yadong Library as early as 1927. It is ironic that many "Cheng Jiaben" and "Cheng Yiben", which claimed carefully checked and published after the 1980s , including those patchwork books, still retain this mistake. In fact, there are many other word mistakes in "Cheng Yiben", which is not “absolutely right after revision” as Gao E and Cheng Weiyuan said. "Cheng Yiben" is not perfect, and what we want to offer to readers is a widespread version of “a dream of Red Mansions.” Therefore, it is necessary to learn from the advantages of other versions to make it as perfect as possible.--[[User:Zhong Yulu|Zhong Yulu]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yulu|talk]]) 02:05, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

==钟雨露 Zhōng Yǔlù 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081554==
为此，本书以“程乙本”(北京图书馆出版社影印本)为底本，以“程甲本”(北京图书馆出版社影印本)为主校本，并以下列版本为参校本：汪原放校勘“程乙本”(上海亚东图书馆刊本)、王希廉(雪香)评“程甲本”(清道光十二年刊本)、“梦稿本”“庚辰本”“己卯本”“甲戌本”(后四种均为上海古籍出版社影印本)。在以上八种版本中，前五种均为一百二十回全本，后三种均为前八十回的残存本。

For this purpose, this book uses “Cheng Yiben”(photocopy of Beijing Library Publishing House) as master copy, “Cheng Jiaben” as main collated edition, and the followings as references—Wang Yuanfang’s collation “Cheng Yiben”(Shanghai Yadong Library edition)、Wang Xilian’s “Cheng Jiaben” commentary(edition in the twelfth year of Qing Daoguang)、“Meng Gaoben”、“Geng Chenben”、“Ji Maoben”、and “Jia Xuben”(the last four all are photocopies of Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House). In the above eight editions, the first five are all complete editions of 120 chapters, and the last three are all incomplete editions of 80 chapters.--[[User:Zhong Yulu|Zhong Yulu]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yulu|talk]]) 01:43, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

For this purpose, this book uses “Cheng Yiben”(photocopy of Beijing Library Publishing House) as the master copy, “Cheng Jiaben” as the main collated edition, and the followings as references—Wang Yuanfang’s collation of “Cheng Yiben”(Shanghai Yadong Library edition)、Wang Xilian’s comments on “Cheng Jiaben” (edition in the twelfth year of Qing Daoguang)、“Meng Gaoben”、“Geng Chenben”、“Ji Maoben”、and “Jia Xuben”(the last four all are photocopies of Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House). In the above eight editions, the first five are all complete editions of 120 chapters, and the last three are all incomplete editions of 80 chapters.--[[User:Zhou Jiu|Zhou Jiu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Jiu|talk]]) 05:57, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

==周玖 Zhōu Jiǔ 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081555==
我的校勘总原则是：既要尽量保持底本的原貌，又要保证全书的质量。具体来说则遵循以下几条：（一）底本与校本之间虽有异文，但底本基本可通者，即使校本文字更好，也不作改动。（二）底本中的各种错误(包括内容与文字的错误)、文字倒置、文理不通等，尽量用校本改正，若校本同样错误则径改。

My primary principle of collation is that: maintain the original meaning of master copy, and garantee the quality through the book. Specifically, abiding by the following advice: One, although there are differences between the master copy and the checked copy, the former whose meaning is basically faithful and smooth remains untouched, even though the checked copy is better. Two: various mistakes in master copy（including errors in contents and text），the inversion of words, unsmooth words and contents and so forth should be corrected based on master copy. But if mistakes are also existed in the master copy, then it should be corrected directly.--[[User:Zhou Jiu|Zhou Jiu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Jiu|talk]]) 12:43, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

My primary principle of collation is that: maintain the original meaning of master copy, and guarantee the book’s quality. To be more specific, following these advices: First, although there are differences between the master copy and the checked copy, the former whose meaning is basically faithful and smooth should be untouched, even though the checked copy is better. Second: various mistakes in master copy（including errors in contents and text), like the inversion of words, unsmooth words and contents and so forth should be corrected based on master copy. But if mistakes are also existed in the master copy, it should be corrected directly.--[[User:Zhou Junhui|Zhou Junhui]] ([[User talk:Zhou Junhui|talk]]) 06:46, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

==周俊辉 Zhōu Jùnhuī 法语语言文学女 202120081556==
（三）底本和校本中的僻字、怪字、俗字，本来并无特别意义，毫无保留价值，只能为读者增加阅读障碍，因此径改为通用字。如“揌”和“”改为“塞”，“嘴”改为“努嘴”，“椅子”改为“拿椅子”，等等。（四）古人对别字多不在乎，故底本和校本中屡见不鲜，但在当今的读者看来却十分别扭，甚至可能被误解，因而酌情径改。

Three, the rare words, strange words, common words in the master copy and in the checked copy had no special meaning, and no reservation value, can only increase the reading barrier for readers. So they need to be changed to universal words. Such as "揌" changed to “塞", "嘴" changed to "努嘴", "椅子" changed to "拿椅子", etc. Four, the ancients didn’t care about the wrongly written characters, so it is common in the master copy and the checked copy. They seem very awkward for today's readers and may even be misunderstood. Therefore they should be appropriately modified.--[[User:Zhou Junhui|Zhou Junhui]] ([[User talk:Zhou Junhui|talk]]) 14:12, 6 November 2021 (UTC)

（3）Some characters in a copy for the record or for reproduction and in checked copy, which are not commonly used, or look strange, or are popular but irregular, have no special significance and no reserved value, only increasing the reading barrier for readers. Therefore, these characters are changed to universal characters. For example, "揌" are changed to "塞", "嘴" is changed to "努嘴", "椅子" is changed to "拿椅子" and so on.（4） The ancients didn't care much about the wrongly written characters, so they can be commonly seen in a copy for the record or for reproduction and in checked copy. However, when seeing these characters, today’s readers may feel awkward, and may even misunderstand their meanings. Thus they are supposed to be changed for appropriateness.--[[User:Zhou Qiao1|Zhou Qiao1]] ([[User talk:Zhou Qiao1|talk]]) 12:37, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

==周巧 Zhōu Qiǎo 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081557==
如“必真”改为“逼真”，“奈烦”改为“耐烦”，“悔气”改为“晦气”，“渥”改为“焐”，“握”改为“捂”，等等。（五）有些字在古代汉语中可以通用（借用），在现代汉语中却严加区分。《红楼梦》也存在大量借用字，如果一一加以改动，不一定合适。

For example, "必真" is changed to "逼真", "奈烦" is changed to "耐烦", "悔气" is changed to "晦气", "渥" is changed to "握 ", "焐" is changed to "捂" and so on. Some words can be commonly used (borrowed) in ancient Chinese, While in modern Chinese they are strictly distinguished. There are also a large number of loanwords in the A Dream of Red Mansions, which may not be appropriate if changed one by one.--[[User:Zhou Qiao1|Zhou Qiao1]] ([[User talk:Zhou Qiao1|talk]]) 13:06, 6 November 2021 (UTC)

For instance, "必真" is changed to "逼真", "奈烦" is changed to "耐烦", "悔气" is changed to "晦气","渥" is changed to "握 ", "焐" is changed to "捂", etc. Wait. Some characters can be used (borrowed) in ancient Chinese, but they are strictly distinguished in modern Chinese. There are also a lot of borrowed words in "A Dream of Red Mansions". If you change them one by one, it may not be appropriate.--[[User:Zhou Qing|Zhou Qing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Qing|talk]]) 11:44, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

==周清 Zhōu Qīng 法语语言文学女 202120081558==
因此只有在以下两种情况之下才作改动：一是可能引起误解；二是同一词语而用字不同。如等同于数字“一”的“么”，极易与“什么”、“怎么”的“么”相混，故改为“幺”。又如表示时间的“一会”和“一回”混用，“一会儿”和“一回儿”混用，统一为“一会”和“一会儿”；表示位置的“旁”和“傍”混用，“旁边”和“傍边”混用，统一为“旁”和“旁边”；“赔礼”和“陪礼”混用，“赔罪”和“陪罪”混用，统一为“赔礼”和“赔罪”；等等。

Therefore, changes should only be made in the following two situations: one is that it may cause misunderstanding; the other is the same phrase but different words. For example, the "么" equivalent to the number "一" is easily confused with the "么" of "什么" and "怎么", so it is changed to "幺". Another example is the mixed use of "一会" and "一回" for time, and "一会儿" and "一回儿" are mixed together, unified into "一会" and "一会儿";"旁" and "傍" to indicate position are mixed together, "旁边" and "傍边" are mixed together, unified into "旁" and "旁边"; "赔礼" and "陪礼" are mixed together, and "赔罪" and "陪罪" are mixed together , Unified into "赔礼" and "赔罪"; and so on.

Therefore, changes should only be made in the following two situations: one is that it may cause misunderstanding; the other is the same phrase formed by different words. For example, the "么" equivalent to the number "一" is easily confused with the "么" of "什么" and "怎么", so it is changed to "幺". Another example is the mixed use of "一会" and "一回" for time, and in case that "一会儿" and "一回儿" are mixed together, they are unified into "一会" and "一会儿"respectively ;"旁" and "傍" to indicating position are mixed together,and "旁边" and "傍边" are mixed together, so they are unified into "旁" and "旁边"; "赔礼" and "陪礼" are mixed together, and "赔罪" and "陪罪" are mixed together , so they are unified into "赔礼" and "赔罪"etc.--[[User:Zhou Xiaoxue|Zhou Xiaoxue]] ([[User talk:Zhou Xiaoxue|talk]]) 09:49, 13 November 2021 (UTC)

==周小雪 Zhōu Xiǎoxuě 日语语言文学女 202120081559==
（六）本书采用简化汉字，为异体字的处理提供了方便，故一律按照简化汉字的规定处理。任何语言都在不断发展变化，故古今汉语有很大不同，以至于定字工作成为古籍整理中最为复杂的问题之一，很难做到尽善尽美。仅根据以上几条，只能是有助于减少读者的阅读障碍罢了。

(Six) Simplified Chinese characters are used in this book to provide convenience for the processing of variant characters. Therefore, they are processed in accordance with the provisions of simplified Chinese characters . Any language is constantly changing, so ancient and modern Chinese is very different. Therefore, deciding which word to use has become one of the most complex problems in the collection of ancient books, which is difficult to be perfect. Just according to the above, it can only help reduce the difficulties in their reading.--[[User:Zhou Xiaoxue|Zhou Xiaoxue]] ([[User talk:Zhou Xiaoxue|talk]]) 13:59, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

==朱素珍 Zhū Sùzhēn 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081561==
为了节省篇幅，一律不出校文。四、注释问题 “注释”亦称“注解”，最初是由于经书文字艰涩难懂，故对经书的字句加以解释；如果注文仍旧难懂或未尽其义，再对注文加以解释，则称“疏”。注文和疏文合称则谓之“注疏”。

==邹岳丽 Zōu Yuèlì 日语语言文学女 202120081562==
后来逐步扩大范围，对一切文献中的疑难字句加以解释，均称之为“注释”。由于中国历史悠久，古今汉语及名物变化巨大，致使后人读古籍的困难越来越大，因此对古籍的注释也就显得越来越有必要。《红楼梦》虽是一部旧白话小说，但它汲取了诗、词、曲、赋、歌、诔等各种精华，又涉及谜语、酒令、建筑、服饰、珍禽异兽、奇花异卉、神话传说、名人秀女、琴棋书画、医卜星相、风俗礼仪等多种知识，白话文言间用，成语典故成堆。

==Nadia 202011080004==
对于一般读者来说，所有这些都可能是阅读中的绊脚石。

==Mahzad Heydarian 玛莎 202021080004==
本注释的使命就是为读者清除这些绊脚石，使阅读畅通无阻。

This annotation is meant to remove the barriers in reading and make it easier to read.

==Mariam toure 2020GBJ002301==
因此凡是我认为可能影响读者阅读的地方，便予以注释，决不假装视而不见，决不避难就易。

==Rouabah Soumaya 202121080001==
为了节省篇幅，我仅举一例。第五十六回“敏探春兴利除宿弊，贤宝钗小惠全大体”中，有贾探春与薛宝钗谈论经济的一段话：
In order to save space, I will give just one example. In the fifty-sixth chapter, "Min Tanchun prospering the benefits and eliminating the disadvantages, Xian Baochai and Xiaohui are all in general", there is a passage between Jia Tanchun and Xue Baochai discussing the economy:

==Muhammad Numan 202121080002==
宝钗笑道：“真真膏粱纨袴之谈。你们虽是千金，原不知道这些事。
Baochai smiled and said: "It's really tempting to talk about it. Although you--[[User:Atta Ur Rahman|Atta Ur Rahman]] ([[User talk:Atta Ur Rahman|talk]]) 14:09, 6 November 2021 (UTC) are a daughter, you don't know these things.

==Muhammad Saqib Mehran 202121080004==
但只你们也都念过书，识过字的，竟没看见过朱夫子有一篇《不自弃文》么？”
But if you have all studied and read, haven't you seen Master Zhu's article "Don't Abandon Oneself"?

==Jawad Ahmad 202121080006==
探春笑道：“虽也看过，不过是勉人自励，虚比浮词，那里真是有的？”
Tanchun said and smile, "Although I have seen it, it's just a matter of encouraging others to encourage themselves. It's a meaningless word. Is there really something happen?"

==Nizam Uddin 202121080007==
宝钗道：“朱子都行了虚比浮词了？那句句都是有的。

==Öncü 202121080008==
你才办了两天事，就利欲熏心，把朱子都看虚浮了。
You have been working on it for two days only, and blinded by greed, you have made ZhuZi look vain.--[[User:HIKMET ONCU KADIOGLU|HIKMET ONCU KADIOGLU]] ([[User talk:HIKMET ONCU KADIOGLU|talk]]) 16:52, 6 November 2021 (UTC)

You have only been doing things for two days, then you desire for money and profit fascinated the heart, and you think Zhu Zi is Unrealistic. --[[User:AkiraJantarat|AkiraJantarat]] ([[User talk:AkiraJantarat|talk]]) 09:29, 8 November 2021 (UTC)Akira Jantarat

==Akira Jantarat 202121080009==
你再出去，见了那些利弊大事，越发连孔子也都看虚了呢！”

If you go to a larger world and see greater benefits or disadvantages, I am afraid you will be a little bit down on what Kongzi said.--[[User:AkiraJantarat|AkiraJantarat]] ([[User talk:AkiraJantarat|talk]]) 14:19, 6 November 2021 (UTC)Akira

If you go out again and see the pros and cons of major events, you will be even more deceptive!--[[User:Asep Budiman|Asep Budiman]] ([[User talk:Asep Budiman|talk]]) 07:50, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

==Asep Budiman 202111080020==
探春笑道：“你这样一个通人，竟没看见《姬子》书？

Tan-tschun Smiled and said "you are such a familiar person, but have you read the "Ji Zi" book?--[[User:Asep Budiman|Asep Budiman]] ([[User talk:Asep Budiman|talk]]) 07:41, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

Tan-tschun smiled and said: "You are such a familiar person, but haven't you read the book "Ji Zi"? --[[User:EIMONKYAW|EIMONKYAW]] ([[User talk:EIMONKYAW|talk]]) 10:57, 7 November 2021 (UTC)Ei Mon Kyaw -Ei Mon Kyaw-[[User:EIMONKYAW|EIMONKYAW]] ([[User talk:EIMONKYAW|talk]]) 10:57, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

==Ei Mon Kyaw 202111080021==
当日《姬子》有云：‘登利禄之场，处运筹之界者，穷尧舜之词，背孔孟之道。’”

On that day, "Jizi" said: ‘The field of Deng Lilu, those who are in the realm of management, are poor in the words of Yao and Shun, and recite the way of Confucius and Mencius. ’"
--[[User:EIMONKYAW|EIMONKYAW]] ([[User talk:EIMONKYAW|talk]]) 13:52, 6 November 2021 (UTC)EI MON KYAW
-EI MON KYAW-[[User:EIMONKYAW|EIMONKYAW]] ([[User talk:EIMONKYAW|talk]]) 13:52, 6 November 2021 (UTC)

There was a saying in ''Himeko'' that day: "Deng LiLu, and those who operate in this realm, steal the words of Yao and Shun, and memorize Confucianism."--[[User:Benjamin Wellsand|Benjamin Wellsand]] ([[User talk:Benjamin Wellsand|talk]]) 13:38, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

==Benjamin Wellsand 202111080118==
宝钗笑道：“底下三句呢？”探春笑道：“如今断章取义，念出底下一句，我自己骂我自己不成？”

Bau-tschai smiled: "What about the next three sentences?" Tan-tschun smiled: "Now that I have read the next sentence out of context, can I blame myself for failing?"--[[User:Benjamin Wellsand|Benjamin Wellsand]] ([[User talk:Benjamin Wellsand|talk]]) 13:39, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

Translation: Bau-tschai smiled: "What about the next three sentences?" Tan-tschun smiled: "Now I take the next sentence out of context, and if I read the next sentence out of context, I can't blame myself?"--[[User:Atta Ur Rahman|Atta Ur Rahman]] ([[User talk:Atta Ur Rahman|talk]]) 11:20, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

==Atta Ur Rahman 202121080003==
在这段话中，提到了朱熹的《不自弃文》，还有《姬子》一书。

Translation: In this passage, Zhu Xi's "don't abandoned the text--[[User:Muhammad Numan|Muhammad Numan]] ([[User talk:Muhammad Numan|talk]]) 14:13, 6 November 2021 (UTC)--[[User:Muhammad Numan|Muhammad Numan]] ([[User talk:Muhammad Numan|talk]]) 14:13, 6 November 2021 (UTC)" and the book "Ji Zi" are mentioned.

==Zohaib Chand 202121080005==
我所看到的几个《红楼梦》注本，对《不自弃文》有所注释，而对《姬子》却避而不注。

File:East-West Comparison of Hypotaxis and Parataxis(ppt).pptx

2021-12-28T12:23:39Z

Liu Wei: Liu Wei uploaded a new version of "File:East-West Comparison of Hypotaxis and Parataxis(ppt).pptx"

File:East-West Comparison of Hypotaxis and Parataxis(ppt).pptx

2021-12-28T12:20:57Z

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Liu Wei:

Introduction to Translation Studies 2021

2021-12-28T11:59:29Z

Liu Wei: /* Presentations Dec 29 on East-West Comparison */

Quicklinks: [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021|This course homepage]] [https://bou.de/u/wiki/uvu:Community_Portal#Frequently_asked_questions_FAQ FAQ] [https://bou.de/u/wiki/uvu:Community_Portal Manual] [[20210926_homework|all homework webpages]] | [[20220112_final_exam|final exam page]]

Welcome to our course website '''Introduction to Translation Studies 2021'''. Whenever you visit this site, please see if there is anything in English not yet translated into Chinese and make a Chinese translation beneath (one paragraph English, one paragraph Chinese). Any correction or improvement of earlier translations is mostly welcome!

欢迎访问我们“翻译导论课”的网页。…………

=Session 1 Sep 26, 2021=
Today is international day of languages!

Introduction to the course. Organizational things. Working with the Wiki.
==Organizational Things==
*Please register for the Course Wiki http://bit.ly/WIKIREG. Username is your Pinyin Name (“Wang Jianguo” – no Chinese characters) and email, for your real name also write your Pinyin Name (Wang Jianguo), no Chinese characters. If the name is taken, write "Wang Jianguo1". Write a sentence about yourself in the bio info. Please check the box that you abide to the Terms of Service and type in the password “wikicaptcha”. You will receive an email with a link. Please confirm the link. After confirmation, please allow a few days that I can approve your username. After that, you can access the course wiki http://bit.ly/TransStud and edit the contents. You need to edit the course website every week to prepare the upcoming session.
*Please prepare each session during the week before, so that you come prepared to class.
*In the WeChat group, please write your name as "Wang Jianguo 王建国 21级英语口译". If possible, please use a profile photo of yourself where you can be recognized. 麻烦各位同学修改一下自己的备注，改成自己的姓名（拼音、汉字、21级、方向）就好。
*We meet Wednesdays 7 pm - 8:40 pm online on http://bit.ly/ZOOMCOURSE (573 941 6744, course). Please leave your camera ON, so that we actually see each other. In the classroom, we also see each other.
*Please note that you can only participate with a good internet connection, with a smart device which is able to run Zoom and with a running camera. Therefore, please make sure that you have a working device. If your phone’s camera is broken, please borrow a different phone or contact us that we can help you to get a second hand phone for free.
* Please take the weekly survey http://bit.ly/EU-SURVEY
* Please store the pdf material you get from the teacher. Please prepare the material for each session in advance.

==Edits==
Every student is required to edit something every week. This can be:
* Translate any English paragraph on this website from English to Chinese.
* Correct an earlier translation of your fellow student beneath.
* Prepare an article (please link to from this page) and/or a powerpoint (please upload here) on a topic you will present during the semester.
* Prepare the final exam paper as early as possible by writing a chapter for a book on "History of Translations", "History of Translation Theories", "Machine translation - A challenge or a chance for human translators?", "Culture loaded words", "The cultural turn in Translation History", "Appropriateness Theory" ... For this, please organize yourself, find groups who want to write the same book together, and think together about the necessary chapters and the structure etc. of the book. The paper needs to be delivered until November 1. Then we jointly work on copy editing, grading etc.
* The Teaching Assistants should write the grades every week in a table, so that you can see the results of your quizzes/surveys etc., your performance in class and final exam paper grades.

==Topics, Sessions and Material==

'''Which paper or book should I read to prepare my presentation?'''

Please also mention in this list beneath, '''who''' is presenting the topic with '''ppt''' and '''handout'''.

1 Sep 26 Introduction

2 Sep 29 Emergence I
*Teacher presentation

3 Oct 13 Emergence II
*3a Xu, Jun 许钧, Mu Lei 穆雷. "翻译学概论 [Introduction to Translation Studies]." 南京: 译林出版社2009:195 pp., here 180-192.
*3b=7c Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜. Translation Studies 翻译学. 复旦大学出版社, 2017, here the beginning about the emergence

4 Oct 20 History of Translation
*4a History of Western Translation 谭载喜.西方翻译简史[M]. 北京:商务印书馆, 1991年.
*4b History of Translation in China – before May Fourth 马祖毅. 中国翻译简史——“五四”以前部分（修订本）[M]. 中国对外翻译出版公司，1998年.

5 Oct 27 Early understanding

The early understanding next session refers to the very early theoretical understanding of the Translation process from ancient times until Maybe up to the middle of the 20th century. There are no elaborated theories yet, but at least some discussions About principles, strategies etc.

*5a Holmes, James. 1972. The Name and Nature of Translation Studies. Papers on Literary Translation and Translation Studies[M]. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1988: 67-80.
*5b Sourcebook Lefevere, Andre. Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook[M]. London and New York：Routledge, 1990.
*5c Textbook Newmark, Peter. A Text Book of Translation[M]. UK: Prentice Hall International Ltd, 1988.
*5d Translation Basics 刘宓庆. 翻译基础[M]. 上海：华东师范大学出版社，2008年.

6 Nov 3 Linguistics and Equivalence (Nida)
*6a Early linguistic theory Catford, J. A Linguistic Theory of Translation[M]. London: Oxford University Press, 1965.
*6b Early important understanding Nida, E. A. Toward a Science of Translating[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.

7 Nov 10 Translation Studies
*7a Bassnett, Susan. Translation Studies[M]. London and New York: Methuen, 1980.
*7b Translation Studies 许钧，穆雷. 翻译学概论[M]. 南京：译林出版社，2009年.
*7c=3b Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. Translation Studies 翻译学[M]. 武汉：湖北教育出版社，2000年. (the 2nd part contains a lot of English papers)
*7d Categories of Contemporary Western Translation Studies 2002_Pan_Wenguo_潘文国_当代西方的翻译学研究_2002

8 Nov 17 Translation Theories
*8a Western theory 刘军平. 西方翻译理论通史[M]. 武汉：武汉大学出版社，2009年.
*8b Theories Gentzler, E. Contemporary Translation Theories[M]. London and New York: Routledge, 1993.
*8c Contemp. West. theories 廖七一. 当代西方翻译理论探索[M]. 南京：译林出版社, 2000年.
*8d Xu, Jun 许钧. Translation Theories 翻译论. 湖北教育出版社, 2003
*8e Pan_Wenguo_Cont_West_Trans_Stud_当代西方的翻译学研究_兼谈_翻译学的学科性问题_潘文国

9 Nov 24 History of Chinese Translation Theories
*9a 陈福康.中国译学理论史稿（修订本）[M]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社，2000年.
*9b 许钧. 翻译论[M]. 武汉：湖北教育出版社，2003年.

10 Dec 1 Appropriateness Theory
*10a Moratto, Woesler: Current Dynamics, Springer 2021

11 Dec 8 Methods and Style
*11a Methods Wilss, Wolfram. The Science of Translation: Problems and Methods[M]. Gunter Narr Verlag Tubinger, 1982.
*11b Style 刘宓庆. 文体与翻译[M]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司：北京，1998年.
*11c Trans_Stud_Problems_and_Methods_翻译学问题与方法

12 Dec 15 Theory and Practice
*12a Bell, Roger T. Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice[M]. London and New York: Longman, 1991.
*12b Theory and Practice Munday, Jermy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications[M]. London and NewYork: Routledge, 2001.
*12c Theory and Practice Nida, Eugene A. and Charles R. Taber. The Theory and Practice of Translation[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1969.

13 Dec 22 Decriptive Studies, Culture, Invisibility, Constructivism
*13a “descriptive” Toury, Gideon. Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond[M]. Amsterdam/ Philadelphia: John BenjaminB Publishing company, 1995.
*13b Culture Toury, Gideon. Translation Across Cultures[M]. NewDelhi: Bahri Publications, 1987.
*13c Invisibility Venuti, L. The Translator 's Invisibility[M]. London and NewYork: Routledge, 1995.
*13d Constructivism Research 易经. 翻译学体系构建研究[M]. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社，2012年.
*13e Art or Science? Different papers by Huang Zhending Trans_Stud_Art_and_Scient_Theory_翻译学艺术论与科学论的统一

14 Dec 29 East-West Comparison
*14a East-West comparison 刘宓庆. 中西翻译思想比较研究[M]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司, 2005年.
*14b English-Chinese TS 蒋坚松. 英汉对比与汉译英研究[M]. 长沙：湖南人民出版社，2002年.

Please download several pdfs with monographs and articles about translation studies history and theories from our WeChat group.

*Bassnett, Susan. Translation studies. Routledge, 2013
*Bell, Roger T., and Christopher Candlin. Translation and translating: Theory and practice. Vol. 298. London: Longman, 1991
*Catford, John Cunnison. A linguistic theory of translation. Oxford University Press, 1978.
*Chen, Fukang. "Zhongguo yixue lilun shi gao (A History of Chinese Translation Theory)." (1992).
*Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary translation theories. Vol. 21. Multilingual Matters, 2001.
*Holmes, James S. The name and nature of translation studies. Translation Studies Section, Department of General Literary Studies, University of Amsterdam, 1975.
*Huang, Chending黄振定. "文学翻译评价的科学性及其科学论." 外国语 4 (1999): 49-56.
*Huang, Chending 黄振定. "翻译学是一门人文科学." 外语与外语教学 2 (1999): 33-35.
*Huang, Chending 黄振定.翻译学: 艺术论与科学论的统一. 上海外语教育出版社, 2008
*Lefevere, André, ed. Translation/history/culture: A sourcebook. Routledge, 2002.
*Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications, Routledge 2013
*Nida, Eugene Albert, and Charles Russell Taber, eds. The theory and practice of translation. Vol. 8. Brill Archive, 1982.
*Nida, Eugene Albert. Toward a science of translating: with special reference to principles and procedures involved in Bible translating. Brill Archive, 1964.
*Pan Wenguo 潘文国. "当代西方的翻译学研究——兼谈 “翻译学” 的学科性问题." 中国翻译 23.1 (2002): 31-34.
*Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜. Translation Studies 翻译学. 复旦大学出版社, 2017
*Toury, Gideon. "Descriptive Translation Studies–and beyond John Benjamins Publishing Company." Amsterdam/Philadelphia (1995).
*Venuti, Lawrence. The translator's invisibility: A history of translation. Routledge, 2017.
*Wilss, Wolfram. The science of translation: problems and methods. Vol. 180. John Benjamins Pub Co, 1982. 翻译学问题与方法 Shanghai: SFLEP (2001).
*Xu, Jun 许钧, Mu Lei 穆雷. "翻译学概论 [Introduction to Translation Studies]." 南京: 译林出版社 10 (2009): 180-192.
*Xu, Jun 许钧. Translation Theories 翻译论. 湖北教育出版社, 2003
*Zhao, Wei 赵巍. "翻译学学科性质与研究方法反思." 解放军外国语学院学报 28.6 (2005): 69-72.

(We use Chicago Social Sciences Citation Style [https://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/tools_citationguide/citation-guide-2.html Chicago Style].)

==Final exam class projects==

Please help to edit one of the following book publications (please write your name behind the topics and organize the book with a proposal for the press and a chapter in the form of a journal paper by each participant):
*[[History of Translation Studies]] (Sample from last year.)
*[[History of Translations]]
Rouabah Soumaya( History of translation in the Middle Ages) 李习长 (History of Modern and Contemporary Chinese Translation) 黄柱梁（The Translation of Buddihist Sutra in China）王镇隆叶维杰李雯( The Translation theory after the establishment of the People's Republic of China)李怡(Modern Western Translation History) 李新星刘沛婷(Western Translation history in Renaissance) 刘薇(Contemporary American Translation History) 周俊辉周玖钟雨露钟义菲魏楚璇(western translation history in the modern and contemporary Age)
*[[History of Translation Theories]] 李瑞洋（Development of Translation Theories in Modern China）、陈心怡张扬、曾俊霖张怡然(History of Translation Theories from early Russia to the Soviet Union) 尹媛（The Brief Introduction of American structural school of translation theory) 李双杨堃刘运心魏兆妍(The Development of Humanism Trend in Western Translation Theory) 吴婧悦(History of Translation Theories in the Soviet Union) 杨爱江
*[[Machine translation]] - A challenge or a chance for human translators? 卫怡雯肖毅瑶王李菲徐敏赟颜莉莉颜静谢佳芬熊敏陈惠妮蔡珠凤陈湘琼 Nadia
*[[Culture loaded words]] 羊叶（中文电影英译字幕中文化负载词的翻译——以《霸王别姬》为例）、谢庆琳、罗曦（The translation methods of culture loaded words）何芩、孙雅诗、杜莉娜（跨文化交际视角下旅游文本中文化负载词的英汉翻译研究）、宫博雅（俄语成语中文化负载词的中文翻译分析）、周小雪(《药》英日译本中文化负载词的翻译对比研究）、付诗雨（博物馆文物解说词中文化负载词的日译研究）、丁旋(Translation of Culture-Loaded Words in ''The Concubine Market of Yangchow '' of Lin Yutang's Version from the Perspective of Newmark’s Translation Theory)、高蜜、殷慧珍、程杨、胡舒情
*[[The cultural turn]] in Translation History 金晓童李爱璇李文璇黄锦云李姗黄逸妍
*[[Appropriateness Theory]] - Ei Mon Kyaw (Creating Appropriateness Theory). I need more students here. You can write papers criticizing existing theories here and suggest what needs to be improved to develop a new theory! This is cutting edge research here! I expect the best students to participate and we may try to submit the papers to real academic journals!Ei Mon Kyaw (Creating Appropriateness Theory). 殷美达易扬帆（Appropriateness in Lyrics Translation -- A Case Study of Lana Del Rey's Lyrics Translation in QQ Music）
*[[Translation types, strategies, styles, methods]] 刘晓（纽马克翻译理论指导下旅游文本中翻译策略与翻译技巧的使用——以''Everglades National Park, Florida (Excerpt)''为例）刘越毛雅文毛优（俄语政论语体翻译策略及翻译技巧的使用——以“2019年俄罗斯政府工作报告”为例彭瑞雪秦建安（功能对等翻译视角下的鲁迅短篇小说翻译研究——以杨、戴夫妇的《孔乙己》英译本为例）颜子涵邝艳丽阳佳颖杨柳青（卞之琳的文学翻译理论和实践 ——以其浪漫主义诗歌译作为例）Atta Ur Rahman、Zohaib Chand、Muhammad Numan、Muhammad Saqib Mehran 刘胜楠（浅析目的论视角下《哪吒之魔童降世》字幕翻译策略）
*[[Aesthetic Appreciation of Literary Translations]] 朱素珍邹岳丽邱婷婷(Three beauties embodied in Xu Yuanchong's English translation of ''Tang Poetry'') 吴映红(A comparative study of aesthetic reproduction in Chinese versions of snow country from the perspective of translation aesthetics)
*[[Translation Theories Apllied to Literary Translations]] 周巧付红岩詹若萱（Chinese Translation of Subtitles of "Jane Eyre" from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory）
*[[Comparative Studies in Translation]] 石丽青牟一心饶金盈罗安怡马新王逸凡张秋怡朱壬铎

(We use Chicago Social Sciences Citation Style [https://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/tools_citationguide/citation-guide-2.html Chicago Style].)

==Schedule==
Please add your name, presentation form (ppt, handout) and subtopic here.

'''All sessions''':
*1 Sep 26 Introduction
*2 Sep 29 Emergence I
*3 Oct 13 Emergence II
(中国翻译的起源 The Emergence of Translation Studies in China) ppt by Chen Xiangqiong 陈湘琼 and handout by Xie Qinglin 谢庆琳.

(机器翻译的起源与发展 The Origin of Machine Translation) ppt by Yan Jing 颜静 and handout by Xu Minyun 徐敏赟.

*4 Oct 20 History of Translation
(中国翻译简史 The Brief History of Chinese Translation) ppt by Hu Shuqing 胡舒情 and handout by Gong Boya 宫博雅.

(西方翻译简史 The Brief History of Western Translation) ppt by Ding Xuan 丁旋 and handout by Fu Shiyu 付诗雨.

(中国译场中佛经翻译的历史 The History of Buddhist Scripture Translation in Chinese Translation Center) PPT by Ye Weijie 叶维杰 and handout by Wang Zhenlong 王镇隆.

(中国诗歌翻译简史 A Brief History of Chinese Poetry Translation) ppt by Rao Jinying 饶金盈 202120081520 and handout by Mou Yixin 牟一心.

(2000年以来的大中华文库翻译历史 The Translation History of Library of Chinese Classics Since 2000) ppt by Zhang Yang 张扬 and handout by Zeng Junlin曾俊霖.

*5 Oct 27 Early understanding
The early understanding next session refers to the very early theoretical understanding of the Translation process from ancient times until Maybe up to the middle of the 20th century. There are no elaborated theories yet, but at least some discussions About principles, strategies etc.

(佛经翻译的文质之争 The Debates Between Wen and Zhi on Buddhist Scriptures Translation) ppt by He Qin 何芩 202120081489 and handout by Gao Mi高蜜.

(林语堂的翻译 Translation by Lin Yutang) ppt by Xie Jiafen 谢佳芬 and handout by Yan Lili 颜莉莉.

*6 Nov 3 Linguistics and Equivalence (Nida) 

(J.C.Catford's Translation Equivalence Theory) ppt by Huang Yiyan 黄逸妍 and handout by Huang Jinyun 黄锦云.

(Two Types of Equivalence by Eugene A. Nida) ppt by Du Lina 杜莉娜 and handout by Ma Xin 马新.

(The Three Essences of Functional Equivalence and Its Application) ppt by Yi Yangfan 易扬帆 and handout by Yin Yuan 尹媛.

(Eugene Nida's Principles of Correspondence Theory) ppt by Chen Huini 陈慧妮 and handout by Cai Zhufeng 蔡珠凤.

*6 Nov 10 Translation Studies
(The Name and Nature of Translation Studies)ppt by Liu Shengnan刘胜楠; handout by Li Yi李怡

(Five Approaches to Translation)ppt by Li Wenxuan李文璇; handout by Li Shan 李姗

(Principles of Translation)ppt by Xiao Yiyao肖毅瑶; handout by Wu Yinghong吴映红

(Cultural and Ideological Approaches in Translation)ppt by Mahzad Heydarian; handout by Mahzad Heydarian

(Roman Jacobson's Categories of Translation)ppt by Xiong Min熊敏; handout by Sun Yashi孙雅诗

(Lin Yutang' s Translation Aesthetics )ppt by Luo Anyi罗安怡; handout by Shi Liqing石丽青

*8 Nov 17 Translation Theories
(Translation Theories of George Steiner)ppt by Yang Liuqing 杨柳青; handout by Yin Huizhen 殷慧珍

(The Functional Translation Theory of Reiss, Vermeer and Nord)ppt by Peng Ruixue 彭瑞雪;handout by Qin Jianan 秦建安.

(Translation Theories of Peter Newmark) ppt by Liu Xiao 刘晓; handout by Liu Yue 刘越.

(Yan Fu's Translation Thoughts)ppt by Wang Lifei 王李菲; handout by Wei Chuxuan 魏楚璇

(Translation theorie of Xu Yuanchong) ppt by Zhouqing周清; handout by Zou Yueli邹岳丽.

*9 Nov 24 History of Chinese Translation Theories
(The History of Chinese Translation Theories in Qing Dynasty)ppt by Cheng Yang 程杨 and handout by Li Shuang 李双.

(The History of Chinese Buddhist Translation Theories)ppt by Qiu Tingting邱婷婷; handout by Wei Yiwen 卫怡雯

(The Chinese Translation Theories During the Period of the May Forth Movement)ppt by Li Wen 李雯; handout by Zhou Xiaoxue 周小雪

(The History of Chinese Translation Theories from 1949 to Present)ppt by Yang Aijiang 杨爱江; handout by Yang Kun 杨堃

*10 Dec 1 Appropriateness Theory - this is a new theory suggested by M. Woesler in 2020. Everybody is invited to help to develop this theory or to criticize other theories and suggesting what a new theory (like the appropriateness theory) needs to do better.

(Appropriateness Theory) ppt by Yin Meida殷美达 and handout by Ei Mon Kyaw 艾梦觉

*11 Dec 8 Methods and Style
(The Literal Translation and Free Translation)ppt by Zhong Yifei钟义菲; handout by Zhong Yulu钟雨露.

(The Amplification and Omission in Translation)ppt by Zhou Jiu周玖; handout by Zhou Junhui周俊辉.

(Zhu Shenghao's Translation Style Take the Translation of Shakespeare's Plays for Example)ppt by Li Aixuan李爱璇；handout by Jing Xiaotong金晓童.

(Translation Methods of Idioms)ppt by Liu Yunxin 刘运心; handout by Li Ruiyang 李瑞洋

(Domestication and Foreignization)pptx by Chen Jing 陈静; handout by Chen Xinyi 陈心怡

*12 Dec 15 Theory and Practice.
(The value and limits of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory in its Application of Literature) ppt by 詹若萱 and handout by 罗曦
(Catford's Translation Shift Theory and its practice)ppt by 周巧and handout by 朱素珍
(An Analysis of Different Versions on the Basis of the Three Beauties of Xu Yuanchong) ppt by 邝艳丽 and handout by 付红岩
(庞德的翻译理论及其在《华夏集》中的应用 Ezra Pound's translation theory and its application in Cathay) handout by 张秋怡 and ppt by 王逸凡
() Skopos Theory and its Application ppt by 刘沛婷 and handout by 李新星

*13 Dec 22 Decriptive Studies, Culture, Invisibility, Constructivism
() ppt by 殷美达 and handout by 张怡然

*14 Dec 29 East-West Comparison
()ppt by刘薇 and handout by黄柱梁
()ppt by魏兆妍 and handout by 吴婧悦
()ppt by阳佳颖 and handout by 颜子涵
(韦努蒂与鲁迅异化翻译策略之比较 A Comparison of Venuti's and Lu Xun's Foreignization Translation Strategy) ppt by毛优 and handout by 毛雅文

== Homework from Session 1 Sep 26 due on Sep 29, 2021 ==

1. Take the survey after session 1: http://bit.ly/EU-SURVEY

2. Please fill in the 2nd quiz (to show that you have read the texts for session 2) before session 2. (Will be added later.)

3. Every student should translate 1 sentence. Here is the [[20210929_homework|homework page]]. - IN PREPARATION...

*[[20210929_homework|homework of session 1 for session 2 Sep 29]]

4. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation is once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20210929_homework|here]].

*[[20210929_homework|homework of session 1 for session 2 Sep 29]]

5. Please pick a topic from the pdf material, the general session topics or your own thoughts to do a presentation on. For the first topics, you need to do the presentation already in 1 week!

===Homework for later===
4. Write a final exam paper as a chapter of the book "Translation Studies", ... It has to be a topic, not yet chosen by any other student in the book. I will upload the book here later. You can participate in writing this book.

5. Get familiar with the pdfs I send you on WeChat group as learning material.

=Session 2, Sep 29: Emergence I=
*Teacher presentation
*Survey http://bit.ly/Eval-01
*Please select a topic to do a ppt or handout on
*Review homework
*Prepare final exam

===Homework for this session Sep 29===
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 2 (Emergence I)

2. Translate your passage on the homework page.

*[[20210929_homework|homework of session 1 for session 2 Sep 29]]

3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.

==Session 2, Sep 29, Topic 1: Emergence I - Emergence in China==
*Teacher presentation: [[Media:Emergence_I.pptx|Teacher presentation on the Emergence of Translation]] by Martin Woesler --[[User:Root|Root]] ([[User talk:Root|talk]]) 11:44, 13 October 2021 (UTC)

==Homework for next session Oct 13==

1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 3 (Emergence II)

2. Translate your passage on the homework page.

*[[20211013_homework|homework of session 2 for session 3 Oct 13]]

3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.

*[[20211013_homework|homework of session 2 for session 3 Oct 13]]

4. Please write your name behind one of the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Final_exam_class_projects|book projects]] where you want to write a chapter as your final exam paper. Also indicate the topic of your chapter in this book project.

5. (Only for students who do presentation on Oct 13: Emergence II (中国新时期翻译研究发展的起源 The origin of translation studies in China in the new Era) ppt by Chen Xiangqiong 陈湘琼 and handout by Xie Qinglin 谢庆琳. (Emergence of Oral Interpretation) ppt by Shan Gongfei:) Prepare ppt or handout.(机器翻译的起源 The Origin of Machine Translation) handout by Xu Minyun 徐敏赟 202120081535 and powerpoint by Yan Jing 颜静 202120081536.

=Session 3, Oct 13, Topic 2: Emergence II - Emergence in China=
==Homework for this session Oct 13==

1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 3 (Emergence II)

2. Translate your passage on the homework page.

*[[20211013_homework|homework of session 2 for session 3 Oct 13]]

3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.

*[[20211013_homework|homework of session 2 for session 3 Oct 13]]

4. (Only for students who do presentation on Oct 13:) Prepare ppt or handout.

==Presentations in Session 3, Emergence of Translation II==

*ppt: [[Media:03 Emergence of translations in China by Xie Qinglin.pptx|Presentation on Emergence of translation study in China 中国翻译的起源]] by Chen Xiangqiong 陈湘琼; handout [[Media:03_Xie_Qinglin_Emergence_of_translations_in_China.docx|Emergence of translation studies in China]] by Xie Qinglin 谢庆琳

Tip: Since the topics are sorted roughly chronologically, this topic should be the emergence of translation rather than emergence of translation studies.

*ppt: [[Media:The_Origin_of_Machine_Translation_by_Yan_Jing.pptx|Presentation on Origin of Machine Translation 机器翻译的起源与发展]] by Yan Jing 颜静; handout [[Media:The_Origin_of_Machine_Translation_by_Xu_Minyun.docx|Origin of Machine Translation handout]] by Xu Minyun 徐敏赟

Tip: This topic is also very modern, it should be presented at the end of the semester.

==Homework for next session Oct 20==
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 3 (Emergence II)

2. Translate your passage on the homework page.

*[[20211020_homework|homework of session 3 for session 4 Oct 20]]

3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.

4. (Only for students who do presentation on Oct 13:) Prepare ppt or handout.

=Session 4, Oct 20, Topic 3=
==Homework for this session Oct 20==

1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 4

2. Translate your passage on the homework page.

*[[20211020_homework|homework of session 3 for session 4 Oct 20]]

3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.

4. (Only for students who do presentation on Oct 20:) Prepare ppt or handout.

==Presentations on History of Translation, session 4==
* ppt: [[Media: The brief history of western translation_by_Ding_Xuan.pptx|Presentation on The brief history of western translation]] by Ding Xuan; handout [[Media:The brief history of Western translation.doc| The brief history of western translation]] by Fu Shiyu
*ppt: [[Media: The brief history of Chinese translation.pptx|Presentation on The brief history of Chinese translation]] by Hu Shuqing; handout [[Media:The brief history of Chinese translation_by_Gong_Boya.doc| The brief history of Chinese translation]] by Gong Boya
* ppt:[[Media: A brief history of Chinese poetry translation.pptx|Presentation on A brief history of Chinese poetry translation]] by Rao Jinying; handout: [[Media: A brief history of Chinese poetry translation.doc| A brief history of Chinese poetry translation]] by Mou Yixin
* ppt:[[Media: The Translation history of Library of Chinese Classics Since 2000.pptx|Presentation on The Translation history of Library of Chinese Classics Since 2000]] by Zhang Yang; handout: [[Media: The Translation history of Library of Chinese Classics Since 2000_by_Zeng_Junlin.doc| The Translation history of Library of Chinese Classics]] by Zeng Junlin
* ppt:[[Media: The History of Buddhist Scripture Translation in Chinese Translation Center.pptx|Presentation on The History of Buddhist Scripture Translation in Chinese Translation Center]] by Ye Weijie; handout: [[Media: The History of Buddhist Scripture Translation in Chinese Translation Center.docx| The History of Buddhist Scripture Translation in Chinese Translation Center]] by Wang Zhenlong

==Homework for next session Oct 27==
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 5

2. Translate your passage on the homework page.

*[[20211027_homework|homework of session 4 for session 5 Oct 27]]

3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.

4. (Only for students who do presentation on Oct 27:) Prepare ppt or handout.

=Session 5, Oct 27, Topic 4 Early Understanding of Translation (no elaborated theories yet)=
==Homework for this session Oct 27==

1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 5

2. Translate your passage on the homework page.

*[[20211027_homework|homework of session 4 for session 5 Oct 27]]

3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.

4. (Only for students who do presentation on Oct 27:) Prepare ppt or handout.

==Presentations Oct 27 on Early Understanding==

* Teacher presentation: [[Media:05_Transl_Studies_Emergence2_History.pptx|Powerpoint for the Sessions 3-5 by Martin Woesler, please download from this link]]

The early understanding next session refers to the very early theoretical understanding of the Translation process from ancient times until maybe up to the middle of the 20th century. There are no elaborated theories yet, but at least some discussions about principles, strategies etc.

* ppt: [[Media: Tranlation by Lin Yutang.pptx|Translation by Lin Yutang]] by Xie Jiafen; handout [[Media: Tranlation by Lin Yutang(handout).docx| Translation by Lin Yutang(handout)]] by Yan Lili
* ppt: [[Media: The Debates Between Wen and Zhi on Buddhist Scriptures Translation.pptx|The Debates Between Wen and Zhi on Buddhist Scriptures Translation]] by He Qin; handout [[Media: The Wen-Zhi Debate in the history of sutra translation (handout).docx| The Wen-Zhi Debate in the History of Sutra Translation (handout)]] by Gao Mi

==Homework for next session 6, Nov 3==
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 6

2. Translate your passage on the homework page.

*[[20211103_homework|homework of session 5 for session 6, Nov 3]]

3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.

4. (Only for students who do presentation on Nov 3:) Prepare ppt or handout.

=Session 6, Nov 3, Topic 5 Translation Equivalence, Nida and Linguistics=
==Homework for this session Nov 3==
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 6

2. Translate your passage on the homework page.

*[[20211103_homework|homework of session 5 for session 6 Nov 3]]

3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.

4. (Only for students who do presentation on Nov 3:) Prepare ppt or handout.

==Presentations Nov 3 on Linguistics and Equivalence(Nida)==

* ppt: [[Media:J.C.Catford's Translation Equivalence Theory(ppt).pptx|J.C.Catford's Translation Equivalence Theory(ppt)]] by Huang Yiyan; handout [[Media:Translation Equivalence Theory.docx|J.C.Catford's Translation Equivalence Theory]] by Huang Jinyun
* ppt: [[Media:Two Types of Equivalence by Eugene A. Nida(ppt).pptx|Two Types of Equivalence by Eugene A. Nida(ppt)]] by Du Lina; handout [[Media: Two Types of Equivalence by Eugene A. Nida.docx|Two Types of Equivalence by Eugene A. Nida]] by Ma Xin
* ppt: [[Media:The Three Essences of Functional Equivalence and Its Application.pptx|The Three Essences of Functional Equivalence and Its Application]] by Yi Yangfan; handout [[Media: The Three Essences of Functional Equivalence and Its Application.docx|The Three Essences of Functional Equivalence and Its Application]] by Yin Yuan
* ppt: [[Media:Eugene Nida ‘s Principles of Correspondence Theory(ppt).pptx|Eugene Nida ‘s Principles of Correspondence Theory(ppt)]] by Chen Huini; handout [[Media:Eugene Nida ‘s Principles of Correspondence Theory.docx|Eugene Nida ‘s Principles of Correspondence Theory]] by Cai Zhufeng

==Homework for next session 7, Nov 10==
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 7

2. Translate your passage on the homework page.

*[[20211110_homework|homework of session 6 for session 7, Nov 10]]

3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.

4. (Only for students who do presentation on Nov 10:) Prepare ppt or handout.

5. WRITE A DRAFT OF YOUR FINAL EXAM PAPER!
*[[20220112_final_exam|Final Exam paper page]]

=Session 7, Nov 10, Topic 6 Translation Studies=
==Homework for this session Nov 10==
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 7

2. Translate your passage on the homework page.

*[[20211110_homework|homework of session 6 for session 7 Nov 10]]

3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.

4. (Only for students who do presentation on Nov 3:) Prepare ppt or handout.

==Presentations Nov 10 on Translation Studies==

* ppt 1: [[Media:The Name and Nature of Translation Studies(ppt).pptx|The Name and Nature of Translation Studies(ppt)]] by Liu Shengnan; handout [[Media: The Name and Nature of Translation Studies.docx| The Name and Nature of Translation Studies]] by Li Yi

* ppt 2: [[Media:Five Approaches to Translation.pptx|Five Approaches to Translation]] by Li Wenxuan; handout [[Media:Five Approaches to Translation(handout).docx|Five Approaches to Translation()]] by Li Shan

* ppt 3: [[Media:Principles of Translation(ppt).pptx|Principles of Translation(ppt)]] by Xiao Yiyao; handout [[Media:Principles of Translation.docx|Principles of Translation]] by Wu Yinghong

* ppt 4: [[Media:Cultural and Ideological Approaches in Translation(ppt).pptx|Cultural and Ideological Approaches in Translation]] by Mahzad Heydarian; handout [[Media:Cultural and Ideological Approaches in Translation.docx| Cultural and Ideological Approaches in Translation ]] by Mahzad Heydarian

* ppt 5: [[Media:Roman Jacobson's Categories of Translation(ppt).pptx|Roman Jacobson's Categories of Translation(ppt)]] by Xiong Min; handout [[Media: Roman Jacobson's Categories of Translation.docx| Roman Jacobson's Categories of Translation]] by Sun Yashi

* ppt 6: [[Media:Lin Yutang' s Translation Aesthetics(ppt).pptx|Lin Yutang' s Translation Aesthetics]] by Luo Anyi; handout [[Media:Lin Yutang' s Translation Aesthetics.docx| Lin Yutang' s Translation Aesthetics]] by Shi Liqing

==Homework for next session 8, Nov 17==
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 8

2. Translate your passage on the homework page.

*[[20211117_homework|homework of session 6 for session 8, Nov 17]]

3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.

4. (Only for students who do presentation on Nov 17:) Prepare ppt or handout.

=Session 8, Nov 17, Translation Theories =
==Homework for this session Nov 17==
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 8

2. Translate your passage on the homework page.

*[[20211117_homework|homework of session 7 for session 8, Nov 17]]

3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.

4. (Only for students who do presentation on Nov 17:) Prepare ppt or handout.

==Presentations Nov 17 on Translation Theories==
* ppt 1: [[Media:Translation Theories of George Steiner(ppt).pptx|Translation Theories of George Steiner(ppt)]] by Yang Liuqing 杨柳青; handout [[Media: Translation Theories of George Steiner.docx| Translation Theories of George Steiner]] by Yin Huizhen 殷慧珍
* ppt 2: [[Media:The Functional Translation Theory of Reiss, Vermeer and Nord(ppt).pptx|The Functional Translation Theory of Reiss, Vermeer and Nord(ppt)]] by Peng Ruixue 彭瑞雪; [[Media:The Functional Translation Theory of Reiss, Vermeer and Nord (handout).docx|The Functional Translation Theory of Reiss, Vermeer and Nord (handout).docx]] by Qin Jianan 秦建安.
* ppt 3: [[Media:Translation Theories of Peter Newmark.pptx|Translation Theories of Peter Newmark]] ppt by Liu Xiao 刘晓; [[Media:Translation Theories of Peter Newmark.docx|Translation Theories of Peter Newmark .docx]] handout by Liu Yue 刘越.

* ppt 4:[[Media:Yan Fu's Translation Thoughts(ppt).pptx|Yan Fu's Translation Thoughts(ppt)]] by Wang Lifei 王李菲; handout [[Media: Yan Fu's Translation Thoughts.docx| Yan Fu's Translation Thoughts]] by Wei Chuxuan 魏楚璇
* ppt 5: [[Media:Translation of Xu Yuanchong.pptx|Translation theorie of Xu Yuanchong]] ppt by Zhouqing周清; [[Media:Translation of Xu Yuanchong.docx|Translation theorie of Xu Yuanchong]]handout by Zou Yueli邹岳丽.

==Homework for next session 9, Nov 24==
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 9

2. Translate your passage on the homework page.

*[[20211124_homework|homework of session 8 for session 9, Nov 24]]

3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.

4. (Only for students who do presentation on Nov 24:) Prepare ppt or handout.

=Session 9, Nov 24, History of Chinese Translation Theories =

==Homework for this session Nov 24==
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 9

2. Translate your passage on the homework page.

*[[20211124_homework|homework of session 8 for session 9, Nov 24]]

3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.

4. (Only for students who do presentation on Nov 24:) Prepare ppt or handout.

==Presentations Nov 24 on Chinese Translation Theories ==
* ppt 1: [[Media:The History of Chinese Translation Theories in Qing Dynasty(ppt).pptx|The History of Chinese Translation Theories in Qing Dynasty(ppt)]]ppt by Cheng Yang 程杨 and [[Media: The History of Chinese Translation Theories in Qing Dynasty.docx| The History of Chinese Translation Theories in Qing Dynasty]]handout by Li Shuang 李双.
* ppt 2: [[Media:The History of Chinese Buddhist Translation Theories(ppt).pptx|The History of Chinese Buddhist Translation Theories(ppt)]] by Qiu Tingting邱婷婷; handout [[Media: The History of Chinese Buddhist Translation Theories.docx| The History of Chinese Buddhist Translation Theories]] by Wei Yiwen 卫怡雯
* ppt 3: [[Media:The Chinese Translation Theories During the Period of the May Forth Movement(ppt).pptx|The Chinese Translation Theories During the Period of the May Forth Movement(ppt)]]by Li Wen 李雯; [[Media: The Chinese Translation Theories During the Period of the May Forth Movement.docx|The Chinese Translation Theories During the Period of the May Forth Movement]] handout by Zhou Xiaoxue 周小雪
* ppt 4: [[Media: The History of Chinese Translation Theories from 1949 to Present(ppt).pptx|The History of Chinese Translation Theories from 1949 to Present(ppt)]]by Yang Aijiang 杨爱江 [[Media: The History of Chinese Translation Theories from 1949 to Present.docx|The History of Chinese Translation Theories from 1949 to Present]] handout by Yang Kun 杨堃

==Homework for next session 10, Dec 1==
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 10

2. Translate your passage on the homework page.

*[[20211201_homework|homework of session 9 for session 10, Dec 1]]

3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.

4. (Only for students who do presentation on Dec 1:) Prepare ppt or handout.

=Session 10, Dec 1, Appropriateness Theory=
This is a new theory suggested by M. Woesler in 2020. Everybody is invited to help to develop this theory or to criticize other theories and suggesting what a new theory (like the appropriateness theory) needs to do better.

==Homework for this session Dec 1==
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 10

2. Translate your passage on the homework page.

*[[20211201_homework|homework of session 9 for session 10, Dec 1]]

3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.

4. (Only for students who do presentation on Dec 1:) Prepare ppt or handout.

==Presentations Dec 1==
* handout 1: [[Media: Appropriateness Theory.docx| Appropriateness Theory]] by Ei Mon Kyaw 艾梦觉;ppt 1: [[Media:Appropriateness Theory(ppt).pptx|Appropriateness Theory(ppt)]] by Yin Meida殷美达;

*Teacher presentation [[Media:10_Translation_Studies_Discipline.pptx|10_Translation_Studies_Discipline.pptx]]
*Teacher presentation [[Media:Appropriateness_Theory_Teacher_Presentation.pptx|Appropriateness_Theory_Teacher_Presentation.pptx]]

==Homework for next session 11, Dec 8==
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 11

2. Translate your passage on the homework page.

*[[20211208_homework|homework of session 10 for session 11, Dec 8]]

3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.

4. (Only for students who do presentation on Dec 8:) Prepare ppt or handout.

=Session 11, Dec 8, Methods and Style=
==Homework for this session Dec 8==
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 11

2. Translate your passage on the homework page.

*[[20211208_homework|homework of session 10 for session 11, Dec 8]]

3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.

4. (Only for students who do presentation on Dec 8:) Prepare ppt or handout.

==Presentations Dec 8 on Methods and Style==
* ppt 1: [[Media:The Literal Translation and Free Translation(ppt).pptx|The Literal Translation and Free Translation(ppt)]] by Zhong Yifei钟义菲; handout [[Media: The Literal Translation and Free Translation.docx| The Literal Translation and Free Translation]] by Zhong Yulu钟雨露.
* ppt 1: [[Media:The Amplification and Omission in Translation(ppt).pptx|The Amplification and Omission in Translation(ppt)]] by Zhou Jiu周玖; handout [[Media: The Amplification and Omission in Translation.docx| The Amplification and Omission in Translation]] by Zhou Junhui周俊辉.
* ppt 3: [[Media:Zhu Shenghao's Translation Style Take the Translation of Shakespeare's Plays for Example(ppt).pptx|Zhu Shenghao's Translation Style Take the Translation of Shakespeare's Plays for Example(ppt)]] by Li Aixuan李爱璇；handout [[Media:Zhu Shenghao's Translation Style Take the Translation of Shakespeare's Plays for Example.docx|Zhu Shenghao's Translation Style Take the Translation of Shakespeare's Plays for Example]] by Jing Xiaotong金晓童.
* ppt 4: [[File:Translation Methods of Idioms.pptx|Translation Methods of Idioms(ppt)]] by Liu Yunxin 刘运心; handout [[File:Translation Methods of Idioms.docx|Translation Methods of Idioms(handout)]] by Li Ruiyang 李瑞洋
* ppt 5: [[Media:11_Chen_Jing_Domestication_and_Foreignization.pptx|Domestication and Foreignization(pptx)]] by Chen Jing 陈静; handout [[File:Domestication and Foreignization.docx|Domestication and Foreignization(handout)]] by Chen Xinyi 陈心怡
*Teacher presentation [[Media:11_Translation_Studies_Discipline.pptx|11_Translation_Studies_Discipline.pptx]]

[[File:Translation Methods of Idioms.pptx]]

==Homework for next session 12, Dec 15==
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 12

2. Translate your passage on the homework page.

*[[20211215_homework|homework of session 11 for session 12, Dec 15]]

3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.

4. (Only for students who do presentation on Dec 15:) Prepare ppt or handout.

=Session 12, Dec 15, Theory and Practice.=

==Homework for this session Dec 15==
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 12

2. Translate your passage on the homework page.

*[[20211215_homework|homework of session 11 for session 12, Dec 15]]

3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.

4. (Only for students who do presentation on Dec 15:) Prepare ppt or handout.

==Presentations Dec 15 on Theory and Practice==
* ppt 1: [[Media:Catford Translation Shift Theory and Tts Practice(ppt).pptx|Catford Translation Shift Theory and Its Practice(ppt)]] by Zhou Qiao 周巧; handout [[Media:Catford Translation Shift Theory and Its Practice.docx|Catford Translation Shift Theory and Its Practice]] by Zhu Suzhen 朱素珍.

* ppt 2: [[Media: The value and limits of Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory in its Application of Literature(ppt).pptx| The value and limits of Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory in its Application of Literature（ppt）]] by Zhan Ruoxuan 詹若萱;handout [[Media:The value and limits of Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory in its Application of Literature.docx|The value and limits of Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory in its Application of Literature]] by Luo Xi 罗曦.

* ppt 3：[[Media:Ezra Pound's translation theory and its application in Cathay(ppt).pptx|Ezra Pound's translation theory and its application in Cathay(ppt)]] by Wang Yifan 王逸凡; handout [[Media:Ezra Pound's translation theory and its application in Cathay.docx|Ezra Pound's translation theory and its application in Cathay]] by Zhang Qiuyi 张秋怡.

* ppt 4：[[Media:Skopos Theory and its application by Jawad and Liu Peiting.pptx|Skopos Theory and its application by Jawad and Liu Peiting]] by Jawad Ahmad; handout [[Media:Skopos Theory and Its Application.docx|Skopos Theory and Its Application]] by Liu Peiting 刘沛婷.

==Homework for next session 13, Dec 22==
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 13

2. Translate your passage on the homework page.

*[[20211222_homework|homework of session 12 for session 13, Dec 22]]

3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.

4. (Only for students who do presentation on Dec 22:) Prepare ppt or handout.

=Session 13, Dec 22, Descriptive Studies, Culture, Invisibility, Constructivism=

==Homework for this session Dec 22==
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 13

2. Translate your passage on the homework page.

*[[20211222_homework|homework of session 12 for session 13, Dec 22]]

3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.

4. (Only for students who do presentation on Dec 22:) Prepare ppt or handout.

==Presentations Dec 22 on Decriptive Studies, Culture, Invisibility, Constructivism==

* ppt 1: [[Media:Gideon Toury's Descriptive Translation Studies(ppt).pptx|Gideon Toury's Descriptive Translation Studies(ppt)]]ppt by Benjamin Wellsand; handout [[Media:Gideon Toury's Descriptive Translation Studies.docx|Gideon Toury's Descriptive Translation Studies]] by Bi bi Nadia.

* ppt 2: [[Media:Gideon Toury's Descriptive Study of Norms in Translation Presentation(ppt).pptx|Gideon Toury's Descriptive Study of Norms in Translation Presentation(ppt)]]ppt by Rouabah Soumaya; handout [[Media:.docx|.docx]] by Bi bi Nadia.

* ppt 3: [[Media:Presentation on Cultural Aspects of Translation Studies(ppt).pptx|Presentation on Cultural Aspects of Translation Studies(ppt)]]ppt by Zhang Yiran 张怡然; handout [[Media:Presentation on Cultural Aspects of Translation Studies.docx|Presentation on Cultural Aspects of Translation Studies]] by Atta Ur Rahman.

* ppt 4: [[Media:Revisiting Newmark’s Theory of Translation(ppt).pptx|Revisiting Newmark’s Theory of Translation(ppt)]] by Asep Budiman; [[Media: The Appropriateness Theory.docx| The Appropriateness Theory]] by Asep Budiman

==Homework for next session 14, Dec 29==
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 14

2. Translate your passage on the homework page.

*[[20211229_homework|homework of session 13 for session 14, Dec 29]]

3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.

4. (Only for students who do presentation on Dec 29:) Prepare ppt or handout.

=Session 14, Dec 29, East-West Comparison=

==Homework for this session Dec 29==
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 14

2. Translate your passage on the homework page.

*[[20211229_homework|homework of session 13 for session 14, Dec 29]]

3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.

4. (Only for students who do presentation on Dec 29:) Prepare ppt or handout.

==Presentations Dec 29 on East-West Comparison==
*ppt 1: [[Media: A Comparison of Venuti's and Lu Xun's Foreignization Translation Strategy(PPT).mp4|A Comparison of Venuti's and Lu Xun's Foreignization Translation Strategy(PPT).mp4]] ppt by Mao You 毛优; [[Media: A Comparison of Venuti's and Lu Xun's Foreignization Translation Strategy(Handout).docx|A Comparison of Venuti's and Lu Xun's Foreignization Translation Strategy(Handout).docx]] handout by Mao Yawen 毛雅文.

*ppt 2: A Comparative Study on the Differences between Chinese and Western Contemporary Cultural Translation——Taking the Translation Concepts of Liu Miqing(刘宓庆) and Susan Bassnett as an Example. [[File:A Comparative Study on the Differences between Chinese and Western Contemporary Cultural Translation.pptx]] by Wei Zhaoyan魏兆妍；[[File:A Comparative Study on the Differences between Chinese and Western Contemporary Cultural Translation(handout).docx]] by Wu Jingyue吴婧悦

*ppt 3: [[Media:East-West Comparison of Hypotaxis and Parataxis(ppt).pptx|East-West Comparison of Hypotaxis and Parataxis(ppt)]]ppt by Liu Wei 刘薇; [[Media:Hypotactic and Paratactic.docx|Hypotactic and Paratactic]]handout by Huang Zhuliang黄柱梁.

*ppt 4: [[Media:Comparison of Wstern and Estern Translation Standard(ppt).pptx|Comparison of Wstern and Estern Translation Standard(ppt)]]ppt by Kuang Yanli 邝艳丽; [[Media:Comparison of Translation Standards Between East and West.docx|Comparison of Translation Standards Between East and West]]handout by Akira Jantarat.

*ppt 4: [A comparison of Chinese and English.[(ppt).pptx|A comparison of Chinese and English(ppt)]]ppt by Fu Hongyan 付红岩; [[Media:A comparison of Chinese and English.docx|A comparison of Chinese and English]]handout by Li Xinxing 李心星.

=Samples from last year: 人类起源 The emergence of translation and interpretation=
Please note: All the sessions (2-16) here are copies of the 2020 course.

You can have a look how the fellow students did it last year,

but you have to write everything new here for 2021.

*Teacher presentation

*Student presentations

OLD (2020):

*Handout for download [[Media:The_emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation.docx|Global Emergence of Interpretation and Translation]] by 彭锐宏
*Classroom presentation for download [[Media:The_emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation_by_Peng_Ruihong.pptx|Presentation on Emergence of translation]] by 彭锐宏--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 07:05, 28 September 2020 (UTC)

===Session 2, Topic 2: 西方起源 The emergence of translation and interpretation in the West===
*Handout for download:[[Media:The_Emergence_of_Translation_and_Interpretation_in_Western_Countries.docx|Handout on The Emergence of Translation and Interpretation in Western Countries]]--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 05:43, 28 September 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou by 聂晓楼
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The_Emergence_of_Translation_and_Interpretation_in_Western_Countries.pptx|Powerpoint on The Emergence of Translation and Interpretation in Western Countries]]--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 05:43, 28 September 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou by 聂晓楼

===Session 2, Topic 3: 中国起源 The emergence of translation and interpretation in China===
*Handout for download:[[Media:Emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation_in_China.docx| Handout on Emergence of translation and interpretation in China]]--Mashuya by 马淑雅
*Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation_in_China.pptx|PowerPoint on Emergence of translation and interpretation in China]]--Mashuya by 马淑雅

===Session 2, Topic 4: 日本起源 The emergence of translation and interpretation in Japan===
*Handout for download: [[Media:The_Emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation_in_Japan.docx|The Emergence of translation and interpretation in Japan]] by 孟莹 --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 16:10, 27 September 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying
*Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:The_Emergence_of_Translation_and_Interpretation_in_Japan.ppt|Powerpoint on the Emergence of Translation and Interpretation in Japan]] by 孟莹--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 16:10, 27 September 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying

===Homework from Session 2 (Sep 28, 2020), due on (Oct 5, 2020)===
1. Every student should translate 1 paragraph of an English book on Contemporary Chinese Literature INTO CHINESE. Link: [[20200928_trans|here]].

2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20200928_trans|here]].

==3rd Session: History==

===Session 3, Topic 1:中国古代翻译史History of Translation in Ancient China===
*Handout for download：[[Media:Handout for History of Translation in Ancient China.doc]]--[[User:Li Yu|Li Yu]] ([[User talk:Li Yu|talk]]) 09:14, 5 October 2020 (UTC)
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media: History of Translation in Ancient China.pptx]]--[[User:Li Yu|Li Yu]] ([[User talk:Li Yu|talk]]) 09:14, 5 October 2020 (UTC)

===Session 3, Topic 2: 中国翻译史代表人物The Representatives in Chinese Translation History===
*Handout for download: [[Media:Chin_Trans_Hist_Rep.docx|The Representatives in Chinese Translation History]] --[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 11:35, 4 October 2020 (UTC)
*Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:....pptx|The Representatives in Chinese Translation History]] --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:36, 4 October 2020 (UTC)

===Session 3, Topic 3: 中国翻译史的四个阶段 The Four Stages of Chinese Translation History===
*Handout for download: [[Media:The four stages of Chinese translation history.docx|Description of the file]] PLEASE UPLOAD by --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:08, 5 October 2020 (UTC)XX
*Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:The_four_stages_of_Chinese_translation_history.pptx|The Four Stages of Chinese Translation History]] by --[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 16:16, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

===Session 3, Topic 4: 当代中国之翻译 Translation in Contemporary China===
*Handout for download: [[Media:Handout for Translation in Contemporary China.docx|Translation in today's China]] by --[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 02:08, 5 October 2020 (UTC)
*Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Translation in Contemporary China(1).pptx|Presentation on translation in China today]] --[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 01:05, 5 October 2020 (UTC) Zhang Yuxing by 张宇星

==='''Homework from Session 3 (Oct 5, 2020), for Session 4 due on (Oct 12, 2020)'''===

1. Every student should translate 1 sentence of the Introduction of the Book "Translation Studies". Here is the '''[[20201005_trans|homework page]]'''.

2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201005_trans|here]].

==Session 4: Development==

===Session 4, Topic 1: 西方翻译史 Western translation history===
*Handout for download: [[Media:....docx|Western translation history]] by Zhou Siqing--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:57, 5 October 2020 (UTC)
*Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Western translation history.pptx|Western translation history]] by Zhang Qi [[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 07:46, 12 October 2020 (UTC)

===Session 4, Topic 2: 中国佛经翻译的发展 The Develpment of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures===
*Handout for download:[[Media:The Develpment of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures.docx]] by Jiang Qiwei--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 15:26, 10 October 2020 (UTC)
*Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:The Develpment of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures.ppt|The Develpment of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures]] by Hu Jin--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 15:26, 10 October 2020 (UTC)

===Session 4, Topic 3:西方翻译理论史History of Western Translation Theory===
*Handout for download: [[Media:...docx|History of Western Translation Theory]] by --[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 13:19, 4 October 2020 (UTC)XX
* Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:...pptx| Brief History of Western Translation Theory]] by --[[User:Zhou Shiqing|Zhou Shiqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shiqing|talk]]) 13:19, 4 October 2020 (UTC)XX

===Session 4, Topic 4:口译未来的发展 Prospect of Interpreting===
*Handout for download:[[Media:The Prospect of Interpreting.docx]]-by Zhang Yinliu--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 08:30, 12 October 2020 (UTC)
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Prospect of Interpreting.pptx]]--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 08:23, 12 October 2020 (UTC)

===Session 4, Topic 5:新中国成立后翻译的发展 Translation Development of New China===
*Handout for download:[[Media:Translation Development of New China.pdf]] by Li Luyi --[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:47, 10 October 2020 (UTC)
*Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Translation Development .pptx]] by Zheng Huajun--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:47, 10 October 2020 (UTC)

===Session 4, Topic 6:圣经翻译的发展 The Development of Bible Translation===
*Handout for download:[[Media:The Development of Bible Translation.docx]]--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 03:05, 11 October 2020 (UTC)
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Development of Bible Translation.pptx]] by Han Haiyang--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 02:01, 11 October 2020 (UTC)

===Session 4, Topic 7:机器翻译的发展 The Development of Machine Translation===
*Handout for download:[[Media:Handout-The Development of Machine Translation.docx]] by Deng Jinxia----[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 12:42, 19 October 2020 (UTC)
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:PPT The Development of Machine Translation.pptx]] by Han Wanzhen--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 06:31, 11 October 2020 (UTC)

===Session 4, Topic 8:视听翻译的发展 The Development of Audiovisual Translation===
*Handout for download:[[Media:The Development of Audiovisual Translation-Handout.docx]]--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 16:01, 11 October 2020 (UTC)
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Development of Audiovisual Translation-PPT.pptx]] by Cheng Yusi--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 16:04, 11 October 2020 (UTC)

==='''Homework from Session 4 (Oct 12, 2020), for Session 5 due on (Oct 19, 2020)'''===

1. Every student should translate a short passage of a paper on the Chinese essay. Here is the '''[[20201012_trans|homework page]]'''.

2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. [[20201012_trans|here]].

3. Take part in an online survey. The survey is currently prepared by the fellow students.

==Session 5: ==

===Session 5, Topic 1:林纾的翻译 Lin Shu's translation===
*Handout for download:[[Media:Translation by Lin Shu.docx]]--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 08:50, 29 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Translation by Lin Shu(After correcting).pptx]]--Xu Pengfei

===Session 5, Topic 2:茅盾的翻译 Mao Dun's Translation===
*Handout for download:[[Media:Mao Dun's Translation.docx]]--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 02:44, 18 October 2020 (UTC)

[[Media:translations by Mao Dun.pptx]]--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 13:14, 1 November 2020 (UTC)

===Session 5, Topic 3:严复和天演论 Yan Fu and Tianyan Lun===
*Handout for download:[[Media:YAN Fu and Tianyan Lun.docx]]--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 09:53, 18 October 2020 (UTC)Yuan Yuchen
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:YAN Fu and Tianyan Lun.pptx]]--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 10:28, 18 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

Please stick to your 5 minutes with your presentation. We are 3 presentations behind. Thank you for your cooperation.

===Session 5, Topic 4:《红楼梦》的英译 The Translation of ''The Red Chamber Dreams''===
*Handout for download:[[Media:The Translation of ''The Red Chamber Dreams''.docx]]--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 13:38, 18 October 2020 (UTC)
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Translation of ''The Red Chamber Dreams''.pptx]]----[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 03:59, 24 October 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

===Session 5, Topic 5:《圣经》的早期汉译 The Early Translation of the Bible into Chinese===
*Handout for download:[[Media:The Early Translation of the Bible into Chinese.docx]]--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 15:22, 18 October 2020 (UTC)
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Early Translation of the Bible into Chinese.ppt]]--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 14:55, 18 October 2020 (UTC)

===Session 5, Topic 6:梁实秋的翻译 The Translation of Liang Shiqiu===
*Handout for download:[[Media:The Liang Shiqiu's Translation.pdf]]--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]]([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 00:32, 19 October 2020 (UTC)
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media: Liang Shiqiu.pdf]]--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]]([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 00:32, 19 October 2020 (UTC)

==Session 6: Early Theories==

==='''Homework from Session 5 (Oct 19, 2020), for Session 6 due on (Oct 26, 2020)'''===

1. Every student should translate 1 sentence of the Introduction of the Book "Translation Studies". Here is the '''[[20201019_trans|homework page]]'''.

2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201019_trans|here]].

===Session 6, Topic 1: 巴斯奈特文化翻译观 The Cultural Translation Theory of Bassnett===

Handout for download: [[Media:The Cultural Translatioin Theory of Susan Bassnett.pdf]]--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]]([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 16:36, 24 October 2020 (UTC)

Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Cultural Translatioin Theory of Bassnett.ppt]]--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 05:07, 24 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie

===Session 6, Topic 2: 中国早期代表性佛经翻译理论 Early Representative Theories of Buddhist Scriptures Translation in China===

Handout for download:[[Media:Early Representative Theories of Buddhist Scriptures Translation in China.docx]]--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:23, 25 October 2020 (UTC)

Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Early Representative Theories of Buddhist Scriptures Translation in China.pptx]]--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 00:43, 26 October 2020 (UTC)

===Session 6, Topic 3: 两种西方早期翻译模式的比较分析:贺拉斯模式和杰罗姆模式 The Comparative Analysis of Two Early Western Translation Models: Horace Model and Jerome Model===

Handout for download:[[Media:The Comparative Analysis of Two Translation Models.docx]]--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 09:41, 25 October 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing

Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The_Comparative_Analysis_of_Two_Translation_Models.pptx]]--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 09:24, 25 October 2020 (UTC)Gao Mingzhu

===Session 6, Topic 4: 卡特福德的《翻译的语言学理论》 A Linguistic Theory of Translation of J.C.Catford===

Handout for download:[[Media:A Linguistic Theory of Translation of Catford.docx]]--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 12:30, 25 October 2020 (UTC)

Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:A Linguistic Theory of Translation.pptx]]--[[User:Wen Xiaoyi|Wen Xiaoyi]] ([[User talk:Wen Xiaoyi|talk]]) 12:38, 25 October 2020 (UTC)

===Session 6, Topic 5: 中西早期译论对比 The Comparison between Chinese and Western Early Translation Theories===
Handout for download:[[Media:Comparison of Early Translation Theories between China and the West.docx]]--[[User:QiKai|Qi Kai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 14:04, 25 October 2020 (UTC)

Classroom Presentation for download:[[Media:Chinese and Western Early Theories Comparison.pptx]]--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 13:26, 25 October 2020 (UTC)

===Session 6, Topic 6: 系统翻译理论的早期尝试 Early Attempts at Systematic Translation Theory===

Handout for download: [[Media:Early Attempts at Systematic Translation Theory.docx]]--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 12:40, 25 October 2020 (UTC)

Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Early Attempts at Systematic Translation Theory.ppt]]--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]])03:52, 25 October 2020 (UTC)

==Session 7: Western theories==. 周巧 presentation PowerPoint 朱素珍 handout Cat ford Translation Shift Theory

===Homework from Session 6 (Oct 26, 2020), for Session 6 due on (Nov 2, 2020)===

1. Every student should translate 1 sentence of the Introduction of the Book "Translation Studies". Here is the '''[[20201026_trans|homework page]]'''.

2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201026_trans|here]].

===Session 7, Topic 1: 奈达功能对等理论 Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory===

Handout for download:[[Media:Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory.docx]]

Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory ppt.pptx]]--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 02:59, 2 November 2020 (UTC)

===Session 7, Topic 2: 多元系统理论 Polysystem Theory===

Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Polysystem Theory ppt.pptx]]--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 11:35, 1 November 2020 (UTC)

Handout for download:[[Media:Polysystem Theory.docx]]--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 11:21, 1 November 2020 (UTC)

===Session 7, Topic 3：后殖民主义翻译理论 Post-colonial Translation Theory===

Handout for download:[[Media:Post-colonial Translation Theory.doc]]--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 12:27, 1 November 2020 (UTC)

Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Post-colonial Translation Theory.pptx]]--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 01:29, 2 November 2020 (UTC)

===Session 7, Topic 4：布拉格学派 Prague School===

Handout for download: [[Media:Prague_School-Handout.doc]]--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 14:48, 1 November 2020 (UTC)

Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Prague School.pptx]]--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:08, 1 November 2020 (UTC)

===Session 7, Topic 5：目的论 Skopos Theory===

Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Skopos Theory.pptx]]--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 07:26, 2 November 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan

Handout for download:[[Media:Skopos Theory.docx]]--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 08:21, 2 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

===Session 7, Topic 6：语言学派 Linguistic School===

Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Linguistic School.pptx]]----[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:26, 2 November 2020 (UTC)

Handout for download: [[Media:Linguistic School-Handout.doc]]----[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:48, 2 November 2020 (UTC)

==Session 8: Methods==

===Homework from Session 7 (Nov 2, 2020), for Session 8 due on (Nov 9, 2020)===

1. Every student should translate 1 sentence of the Introduction of the Book "Translation Studies". Here is the '''[[20201102_trans|homework page]]'''.

2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201102_trans|here]].

===Session 8, Topic 1：正说反译与反说正译 Negation===
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Negation-Gan Fengyu.pptx]][[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 13:01, 6 November 2020 (UTC)

Handout for download:[[Media:Negation.docx]]--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 12:56, 6 November 2020 (UTC)

===Session 8, Topic 2：异化策略下的翻译方法 Translation Methods of Foreignization Strategy ===
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Translation Methods of Foreignization Strategy-Zhao Xiaoyan.pptx]]--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 15:35, 7 November 2020 (UTC)

Handout for download:[[Media:Translation Methods of Foreignization Strategy-Zhang Hui.docx]]--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 15:33, 7 November 2020 (UTC)

===Session 8, Topic 3：交际翻译与语义翻译 Communicative Translation and Semantic Translation===
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Communicative Translation and Semantic Translation.pptx]]by Zhang Yu--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 13:01, 6 November 2020 (UTC)

Handout for download:[[Media:Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation-handout.docx]]--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 13:49, 6 November 2020 (UTC)

===Session 8, Topic 4：直译与意译 Literal Translation and Free translation===
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Literal Translation and Free translation.pptx]]--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 15:45, 8 November 2020 (UTC)
Handout for download:[[Media:Literal Translation and Free translation Handout.docx]]--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 01:22, 9 November 2020 (UTC)

===Session 8, Topic 5：增译与减译 Amplification and Omission===
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Amplification and Omission.pptx]]--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 03:06, 9 November 2020 (UTC)

Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Amplification And Omission.docx]]--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 05:05, 9 November 2020 (UTC)Wensixing

===Session 8, Topic 6：影视字幕的翻译方法-以《肖申克的救赎》为例 The Translation Method of Film and Television Subtitles——Taking Shawshank’s Redemption as an Example===
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Translation Method of Film and Television Subtitles—Taking Shawshank’s Redemption as an Example.pptx]]--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 01:21, 9 November 2020 (UTC)
Handout for download:[[Media:The Translation Method of Film and Television Subtitles—Taking Shawshank’s Redemption as an Example Handout.docx]]--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 01:16, 9 November 2020 (UTC)

==Session 9: Style==

===Homework from Session 8 (Nov 9, 2020), for Session 9 due on (Nov 16, 2020)===

1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. Here is the '''[[20201116_trans|homework page]]'''.

2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201116_trans|here]].

===Session 9, Topic 1: 源语风格和翻译 Style of Source Text and Translation===

Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Style of Source Text and Translation.docx]]--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 06:48, 9 November 2020 (UTC)

Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Style of Source Text and Translation1.pptx]]--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 07:03, 9 November 2020 (UTC)

===Session 9, Topic2 : 科技翻译 Scientific Style===

Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Scientific Style.docx]]--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 01:42, 16 November 2020 (UTC)

Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Scientific Style.pptx]]--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:17, 16 November 2020 (UTC)

===Session 9,Topic 3:不同翻译风格对比 Comparison among Different Translation Styles===

Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Handout Session 9 Comparison among Different Translation Styles.docx]]--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 14:40, 14 November 2020 (UTC)

Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Session 9 Comparison among Different Translation Styles.pptx]]--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 14:40, 14 November 2020 (UTC)

===Session 9,Topic 4: 文学风格可译与不可译 On Literary Style from a Translatable View and Untranslatable View===
Classroom handout for download:[[Media:On Literary Style from a Translatable View and Untranslatable View.docx]]--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:49, 16 November 2020 (UTC)

Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:On Literary Style from a Translatable View and Untranslatable View.pptx]] by Li Yongshan --[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:49, 16 November 2020 (UTC)

===Session 9,Topic 5: 翻译与风格 Translation and Style= ==
Classroom handout for download: [[Media:Translation_and_Style.docx]]--Hu Huifang

Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Translation_and_Style.pptx]]--Zeng Yanhu

[[Media:Example.ogg]]

==Session 10: Translation Studies==

===Homework from Session 9 (Nov 16, 2020), for Session 10 due on (Nov 23, 2020)===

1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. Here is the '''[[20201123_trans|homework page]]'''.

2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201123_trans|here]].

===Session 10,Topic 1: 翻译转换 Translation Shifts===
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Translation_Shifts.pptx]]--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 14:51, 22 November 2020 (UTC)

Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Translation_Shifts_handout.docx]]--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 15:05, 22 November 2020 (UTC)

===Session 10,Topic 2: 解码和重新编码 Decoding and Recoding===
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Decoding and Recoding.pptx]]--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 08:33, 23 November 2020 (UTC)

Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Decoding and Recoding.docx]]--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 04:32, 23 November 2020 (UTC)

===Session 10,Topic 3: 视听翻译 Audiovisual Translation===
Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Audiovisual Translation.docx]]--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 13:19, 22 November 2020 (UTC) - READ BY NIE XIAOLOU

Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Audiovisual Translation.pptx]]--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 00:26, 23 November 2020 (UTC)

===Session 10,Topic 4: 对钱钟书“化境说”的理论研究 The Translation Studies of Qian Zhongshu’s Theory of Huajing===
[[Media:Handout-The Translation Studies of Qian Zhongshu’s theory of Huajing.docx]]--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 05:38, 23 November 2020 (UTC)

[[Media:The Translation Studies of Qian Zhongshu’s theory of Huajing.pptx]]--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 05:40, 23 November 2020 (UTC)

===Session 10, Topic 5: 英汉被动语态对比研究及其翻译策略 Contrastive Studies of Passive Voice(C&E) and its Translation Strategies===
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Contrastive Studies of Passive Voice(C&E) and its Translation Strategies.pptx]] --[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 09:20, 23 November 2020 (UTC)

Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Contrastive Studies of Passive Voice(C&E) and its Translation Strategies.docx]]--[[User:Blank|Zhang Hu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hu|talk]]) 10:23, 23 November 2020 (UTC)

===Session 10,Topic 6: 不可译性及其转化策略 Untranslatability and Translation Strategies====

Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Untranslatability and Translation Strategies.docx]]--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 12:03, 22 November 2020 (UTC)

Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Untranslatability & Translation Strategies.pptx]]--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 12:45, 22 November 2020 (UTC)

==Session 11: Theory and Practice==

===Homework from Session 10 (Nov 23, 2020), for Session 11 due on (Nov 30, 2020)===

1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. Here is the '''[[20201130_trans|homework page]]'''.

2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201130_trans|here]].

===Session 11,Topic 1: 功能对等理论对商标翻译的影响 The Effect of the Equivalence Theory on Trademark Translation===

Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Handout.The Theory and Practice.docx]]--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 07:38, 30 November 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan

Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Effect of the Equivalence Theory on Trademark Translation.pptx]]--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 08:08, 30 November 2020 (UTC)

===Session 11,Topic 2: 归化和异化在翻译中的实践 Translation practice in domestication and foreignization===

Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Handout.The Practice of Foreignization and Domestication.docx]]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 01:21, 30 November 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia

Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Translation practice in domestication and foreignization.pptx]]--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 09:00, 29 November 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi

===Session 11,Topic 3: 目的论及其应用 Skopos Theory and its Applications===

Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Skopos Theory and its Applications.docx]]--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 05:08, 30 November 2020 (UTC)

Classroom presentation for download：[[Media:Skopos Theory and its Applications.pptx]]--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 05:16, 30 November 2020 (UTC)

===Session 11,Topic 4:语义翻译与交际翻译 The Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation===

Classroom handout for download:[[Media:The Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation.docx]]--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 16:30, 29 November 2020 (UTC)

Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation.ppt]]--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 06:56, 30 November 2020 (UTC)

===Session 11,Topic 5: 奈达的功能对等理论及其在科技文英译汉中的应用 Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory and its Application in E-C Translation of EST===

Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Nida’s_Functional_Equivalence_Theory_and_its_Application_in E-C_Translation_of_EST.docx]]--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 02:03, 30 November 2020 (UTC)

Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory and its Application in E-C Translation of EST.pptx]]--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]]--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 03:25, 30 November 2020 (UTC)

===Session 11,Topic 6:女性主义翻译 The Feminist Translation===

Handout for download：[[Media:Feminist Translation.doc]]--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:07, 30 November 2020 (UTC)

Classroom presentation：[[Media:Feminist Translation.pptx]]

==Session 12: Different Aspects==

===Homework from Session 11 (Nov 30, 2020), for Session 12 due on (Dec 7, 2020)===

1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. Here is the '''[[20201207_trans|homework page]]'''.

2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201207_trans|here]].

===Session 12, Topic 1: 政论文翻译 Translation of Political Text===

Classroom handout for download: [[Media:Translation of Political Text.docx]]--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 12:21, 4 December 2020 (UTC)

Classroom handout for download: [[Media:Translation of Political Text.pptx]] By Chen Jiaxin --[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 12:30, 4 December 2020 (UTC)

===Session 12, Topic 2: 诗歌翻译 Poem Translation===
Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Poem Translation.pptx]]--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 14:59, 6 December 2020 (UTC)

[[Media:Poem_Translation_handout.docx]] by Zhang Yujie& Yang Hairong--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 03:14, 7 December 2020 (UTC)

===Session 12, Topic 3: 旅游翻译 Tourism Translation===
Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Tourism Translation.pptx]] by Tan Xinjie & Wei Yafei --[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 09:53, 5 December 2020 (UTC)Weiyafei

[[Media:Tourism_Translation_handout.docx]] by Tan Xinjie & Wei Yafei--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 10:06, 5 December 2020 (UTC)Wei Yafei

==Session 13: East West comparison==

===Homework from Session 12 (Nov 30, 2020), for Session 13 due on (Dec 14, 2020)===

1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. Here is the '''[[20201214_trans|homework page]]'''.

2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201214_trans|here]].

===Topic 1:严复和泰特勒翻译标准之对比 A Comparison between Yan Fu's and Tytler's Translation Criteria===
[[Media:A Comparison Between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s Translation Criteria.pptx]]--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 07:15, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming
[[Media:A Comparison Between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s Translation Criteria.docx]]--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 06:52, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong

===Topic 2:中西翻译发展比较Comparison of the Development of Chinese and Western Translation===

[[Media:Comparison of the Development of Chinese and Western Translation.pptx]] by Liu Yi.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 15:38, 6 December 2020 (UTC)

[[Media:Comparison of the Development of Chinese and Western Translation.doc]] by Tan Yuanyuan.--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 15:47, 6 December 2020 (UTC)

===Topic 3:中西文化差异对翻译的影响The Influence of Chinese and Western Cultural Differences on Translation===
[[Media:Handout-The Influence of Chinese and Western Cultural Differences on Translation.doc]] by Yang Yue--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 05:10, 10 December 2020 (UTC)
[[Media:The Influence of Chinese and Western Cultural Differences on Translation.pptx]] by Yi Zichu--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 05:01, 10 December 2020 (UTC)

===Topic 4:中国佛经翻译与圣经翻译的比较Comparison Between the translation of Buddhist scriptures of China and Bible translation===
[[Media:The Comparison of the Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures and Bible translation.pptx]]by Xiao Ting--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 00:54, 13 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

[[Media:The Comparison of the Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures and Bible Translation.docx]]--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 02:07, 13 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia

===Topic 5:20世纪中叶以来中西翻译理论对比 Comparison of Chinese and Western translation theories since the mid-term of the 20th century===

[[Media:Comparison of Chinese and Western translation theories since the mid-term of the 20th century by Mo Ling.pptx]]--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 09:38, 11 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling

[[Media:Handout of comparison of Chinese and Western translation theories since the mid-term of the 20th century by Yuan Tianyi.doc]]

===Topic 6；中西思维方式差异在翻译中的体现——以习语为例 The Embodiment of the Differences between Chinese and Western Thinking Modes in Translation -- Taking Idioms as an Example===

Classroom handout for download: [[Media:The Embodiment of the Differences between Chinese and Western Thinking Modes in Translation -- Taking Idioms as an Example.docx]]--[[User:Chen Sha|Chen Sha]] --[[User:Chen Sha|Chen Sha]] ([[User talk:Chen Sha|talk]]) 14:43, 5 December 2020 (UTC)

Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:The Embodiment of the Differences between Chinese and Western Thinking Modes in Translation -- Taking Idioms as an Example.pptx]] By Chen Jiangning --[[User:Chen Sha|Chen Jiangning]]--[[User:Chen Sha|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 14:43, 5 December 2020 (UTC)

==Session 14: Strategies==
===Homework from Session 13 (Dec 14, 2020), for Session 14 due on (Dec 21, 2020)===

1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. Here is the '''[[20201221_trans|homework page]]'''.

2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201221_trans|here]].

===Topic 1；阿拉伯大征服时代与翻译学 The Era of Arab Conquest and Translatology===

Classroom handout for download: [[Media:The Era of Arab Conquest and Translatology.docx]] Ma Zhixing＆Wu kai --[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 10:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:The Era of Arab Conquest and Translatology.ppt]] Ma Zhixing＆Wu kai --[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 10:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===Topic 2；韦努蒂的抵抗式翻译策略 Resistancy Translation Strategy—Lawrence Venuti===

Classroom handout for download: [[Media:Resistancy Translation Strategy—Lawrence Venuti.docx]] Tang Yiran&Yang Ziling --[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 23:34, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Resistancy Translation Strategy—Lawrence Venuti.ppt]] Tang Yiran&Yang Ziling --[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 23:34, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

===Topic 3；英日译本对照--以《雪国》为例The Contrast of Japanese-English Translation--Taking "Snow Country" as an Example===

Classroom handout for download: [[Media:The Contrast of Differences in Japanese-English Xie Ziyi& Peng Yongliang.docx]]
--[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 05:48, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:The Contrast of Differences in Japanese-English Xie Ziyi& Peng Yongliang.pptx]]
--[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 05:48, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Session 15: Contemporary Translation Theories==

===Homework from Session 14 (Dec 21, 2020), for Session 15 due on (Dec 28, 2020)===

1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. Here is the '''[[20201228_trans|homework page]]'''.

2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201228_trans|here]].

===Topic 1 Contemporary Translation Theories ===

Classroom handout for download: [[Media:Contemporary Translation Theories.docx]]

Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Contemporary Translation Theories.pptx]]
--[[User:Sagara Seydou 3|Sagara Seydou 3]] ([[User talk:Sagara Seydou 3|talk]]) 08:07, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Session 16: Final Discussion==

==List of topics for presentations and handouts in class==
1 Emergence:
孟莹: 日本起源, 聂晓楼: 西方起源, 马淑雅: 中国起源, 彭锐宏: 人类起源

2 History:
周思庆张琪: 西方翻译史; 马娟刘智伟: 历史上中国著名的翻译家; 解帆张宇星: 现当代中国翻译演变; 凌子瑾李玉: 中国古代翻译史; 杨晨婷余妮: 中国近代翻译史; 周诗卿纪甜甜: 西方翻译理论简史

3 Development:
韩宛真邓锦霞: 机器翻译的发展; 蒋淇玮胡瑾：中国佛经翻译的发展; 吴琼张银柳: 口译未来的发展; 成于思龚钰冕: 翻译实践的发展; 郑华君李璐伊: 新中国成立后翻译的发展; 韩海洋彭育志：圣经翻译的发展

4 Early Literary Examples:
许鹏飞肖伊宁: 林纾的翻译; 许晶李凌月; 袁诗琦姚佳; 邹鑫雨曹润鑫:《红楼梦》的英译; 袁雨晨肖茜: 严复和《天演论》; 苏琳周玉娟

5 Early Theories:
徐梦蝶杨逸; 陈涵曾心媛; 陈静静高明珠; 文晓艺韦洪朗: 严复与林纾的翻译理论; 康浩宇漆凯: 玄奘翻译理论; 刘洋诺邬香: 系统翻译理论的早期尝试

6 (Western) Theories:
康灵凤莫南: 功能对等理论; 吴琪常慧月：多元系统理论; 纪甜甜姜好: 后殖民翻译理论; 许静游雨婷; 布拉格学派; 肖双玲王轩: 目的论; 李丽丽王源: 语言学派

7 Methods:
甘奉玉丁代凤; 赵晓燕张慧: 异化策略下的翻译方法; 张瑜谭星越: 语义翻译和交际翻译; 吴一露司妤: 直译和意译; 文偲荇李梦: 增译和减译; 林敏刘金惺琦

8 Style:
孔祥慧孔亚楠; 罗雨晴娄灿灿; 管钦清：不同翻译风格对比；林鑫李泳珊：文学风格可译与不可译; 曾雁湖胡慧芳

9 Translation Studies:
罗维嘉桂一枝; 彭小玲彭丹; 全美欣宋建茹:视听翻译;石迪文易欢; 姚诚张虎：中英语态对比及其翻译策略; 刘欧陈永相：不可译性及其转化策略

10 Theory and Practice:
彭娟陶冶; 吴子佳雷旷溪: 归化异化在翻译中的实践; 汤蓓王美玲; 蒋凤仪顾东方; 周园曲祝美梅; 阳慧张佩闻;

11 Different Aspects:
周艺文陈佳欣; 谭鑫洁魏亚菲; 张毓婕杨海容;

12 East West Comparison:
唐铭欧蓉; 谭媛媛刘艺: 中西翻译发展史及比较; 杨悦义子楚: 中西文化差异对翻译的影响; 肖婷徐佳：中国佛经翻译和圣经翻译的比较; 莫玲袁天翼; 陈莎陈江宁：中西方思维方式差异在翻译中的体现--以习语为例。

13 Strategies:
吴恺马智星: 阿拉伯大征服时代与翻译学; 汤伊然杨子泠(劳伦斯·韦努蒂的异化翻译策略); 彭永亮谢子熠

14 Contemporary translation Theories:
Sagara Seydo Nguyen, Thuy Hien (Helen)

==List of Topics for final exam papers in Translation Studies==

学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。

Ideas
*literal vs. free
*Faithful/loyal/foreignization/alienation/exotization vs. domestication/localization
*unit of translation
*contrastive analysis
*the equivalence problem (functional, dynamic)
*translatability vs untranslatability
*SLT vs TLT relation
*translation types, strategies, styles, methods
*communication factors, translator role in social setting
*cognitive factors
*machine translation
*translation quality assessment
*translation ethics / manipulation etc.

Suggested topics for final exam papers (chapters of book on translation studies)

Each student needs to prepare one small topic for a 5-min. classroom presentation (with a fellow student, who writes a handout about it) and needs to find a topic for a chapter of a book on Translation Studies. Alternatively to the classroom presentation, the student can also assist the teacher by preparing class, sorting the wiki page etc.

Here is the link to the list: [[Topics in Translation Studies]]

=Final Exam Papers=
The deadline has been extended to '''Dec 21, 2020'''. Please find a paper you want to proof read, contact the author, proof read (by copying each paragraph and make corrections/suggestions in the copy) and sign until Dec 19. The author then finalizes (works in the suggestions) until the final deadline Dec 21!
==Structure==
需要有topic、学生姓名、学号、专业、Abstract、Key words、题目、摘要、关键词、不同的章回（比如1. Introduction、2. Nida’s Theory、3. ……、4.……、5. Conclusion、References)、然后还需要每个阶段以后有来源。一个阶段不要超过100英文词。每个章回会有几个阶段没问题。每个阶段以后需要一个同学的这个阶段的修改。

==Tips for writing your final exam paper: How to indicate your references==
*You can use the existing book chapters here as an example.
*Please write the text and indicate ALL SOURCES with bibliographical references. That means: At least for every paragraph, sometimes for single sentences, you have to indicate at the end, where you have found this information. E.g. (Liu Miqing 2010, 17). This means you have found it in the book or paper written by Ms Liu on page 17. And then, you need to add a section at the end called "References". There you write the full version of the reference: Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: East China Normal University 华东师范大学. Similarly, you do it for papers: Jin Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.
*Do '''not''' write any references like in one of the sample chapters:

[1] dsalkfkdsa

[2] adsfadsfag

But only the following way:

(Liu Miqing 2010, 17) in the text

and then

'''References'''
*Jin Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.
*Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: East China Normal University 华东师范大学.

Also, please avoid using the three apostrophes like ' ' ' (without spaces). Use the equal signs to mark headers and subheaders instead. If your paper topic has two equal signs at the beginning and end of your topic, then use three equal signs for your sub headers. Example (without spaces):
= = Topic = =
< c e n t e r > Student Name, Student no. < / c e n t e r >
= = = Abstract = = =
This chapter is on ....
= = = Key Words = = =
Egg, Hen
= = = 题目 = = =
= = = 摘要 = = =
= = = 关键词 = = =
= = = Introduction = = =
Here starts the normal text of the chapter. Please remember to indicate the source of EACH PARAGRAPH, sometimes even of single sentences. You can indicate it like this. (Woesler 2020, 345) And don't forget to mention the full bibliographical entry beneath under ''References''.
= = = The Egg = = =
Bla, bla, bla
= = = The Hen = = =
Bla, bla, bla
= = = Conclusion = = =
Bla, bla, bla
= = = References = = =
Woesler, Martin. (2020). Responsibility and Ethics in Times of Corona. Woesler, Martin and Hans-Martin Sass eds. ''Medicine and Ethics in Times of Corona'' Muenster: LIT

==Sample papers==
You can find the full papers also on the Webpage [[History of Translation Studies]]). They are marked with "Sample paper".
* A Comparative Study between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory and My thoughts on the Two Theories
* An Analysis of the Book of Contemporary Translation Theories and Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications
* Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theroy
* Comparison of Derrida’s and Benjamin’s Translation View
* Impacts of Western Translation Theories on The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish
* On the Comparison between "Sublimation" an "Functonal Equivalence" Theories
* Study on Gladys’ Translation of The Border Town from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics
* The Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Chinese-English Communication
* Translators' Views on Translation Influence Their Translation Behavior

==Website to write your final exam paper on==
[[20220112_final_exam|final exam page]]

As a reference, here is the information about last year's final exam papers:

The website where everybody wrote their final exam paper on became too big and produced a database error. Therefore we split the website into 10 small websites. They are sorted like the chapters in the book. Please look for your name and find the right of the 10 small websites to edit your book chapter. Everybody also needs to help to improve other book chapters (copy a paragraph, paste it beneath, make your corrections in the paragraph and sign it).

Here you can write your Final Exam Papers:

*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1, (samples)]
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2, (samples)]
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3, students: 蒋凤仪 Jiang Fengyi，雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi, 郑华君 Zheng Huajun, 文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi, 陶冶 Tao Ye, 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan, 陈江宁 Chen Jiangning]
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4, students: 杨海容 Yang Hairong，游雨婷 You Yuting，王源 Wang Yuan，徐佳 Xu Jia，凌子瑾 Ling Zijin，石迪文 Shi Diwen，张玲 Zhang Ling，曾心媛 Zeng Xinyuan，姚诚 Yao Cheng，朱旭 Zhu Xu，许鹏飞 Xu Pengfei，赵晓燕 Zhao Xiaoyan，张琪 Zhang Qi，周园曲 Zhou Yuanqu]
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5, students: 李玉 Li Yu，林敏 Lin Min，文偲荇 Wen Sixing，周诗卿 Zhou Shiqing，朱素瑶 Zhu Suyao，胡百辉 Hu Baihui，马智星 Ma Zhixing, 胡瑾 Hu Jin，张毓婕 Zhang Yujie，顾东方 Gu Dongfang，高明珠 Gao Mingzhu，张虎 Zhang Hu，李璐伊 Li Luyi，袁诗琦 Yuan Shiqi，王美玲 Wang Meiling，康浩宇 Kang Haoyu，王轩 Wang Xuan，陈永相 Chen Yongxiang，莫玲 Mo Ling，袁天翼 Yuan Tianyi]
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6, students:汤蓓 Tang Bei欧蓉 Ou Rong，谭星越 Tan Xingyue，周罗平 Zhou Luoping，龚钰冕 Gong Yumian，邹鑫雨 Zou Xinyu，陈惠 Chen Hui，罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing，谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie]
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7, students:曾雁湖 Zeng Yanhu，邓锦霞 Deng Jinxia，姜好 Jiang Hao，管钦清 Guan Qinqing，唐铭 Tang Ming，娄灿灿 Lou Cancan，丁代凤 Ding Daifeng，苏琳 Su Lin，徐佳 Xu Jia，刘艺 Liu Yi，李凌月 Li Lingyue，马娟 Ma Juan，吴琪 Wu Qi，姚佳 Yao Jia，李海泉 Li Haiquan，吴琼 Wu Qiong，杨子泠 Yang Ziling，林敏 Lin Min，彭锐宏 Peng Ruihong ，汤伊然 Tang Yiran，阳慧 Yang Hui，刘智伟 Liu Zhiwei]
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8, students: 王煜 Wang Yu，方洁玲 Fang Jieling，许静 Xu Jing，周书尧 Zhou Shuyao，彭永亮 Peng Yongliang，宋建茹 Song Jianru，韦洪朗 Wei Honglang，魏亚菲 Wei Yafei，张雪仪 Zhang Xueyi，甘奉玉 Gan Fengyu，赵茜 Zhao Xi，吴恺 Wu Kai，周艺文 Zhou Yiwen，张维虹 Zhang Weihong，司妤 Si Yu]
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9, students: 易欢 Yi Huan，曾良 Zeng Liang，义子楚 Yi Zichu，欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling，石海瑶 Shi Haiyao，胡慧芳 Hu Huifang，吴一露 Wu Yilu，纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian, 桂一枝 Gui Yizhi，刘欧 Liu Ou，祝美梅 Zhu Meimei，谭媛媛 Tan Yuanyuan，张银柳 Zhang Yinliu，李泳珊 Li Yongshan，聂晓楼 Nie Xiaolou]
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10, students:陈静静 Chen Jingjing， Thuy Hien Nguyen Thuy Hien，肖茜 Xiao Xi，余妮 Yu Ni，韩宛真 Han Wanzhen，陈佳欣 Chen Jiaxin，成于思 Cheng Yusi，方洁玲 Fang Jieling，张慧 Zhang Hui，吴子佳 Wu Zijia，孔祥慧 Kong Xianghui，许晶 Xu Jing，周玉娟 Zhou Yujuan，曹润鑫 Cao Runxin，肖伊宁 Xiao Yining, Sagara Seydou，欧阳静兰 Ouyang Jinglan]
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_11 Part 11, students:李丽琴 Li Liqin, 张瑜 Zhang Yu, 刘怡瑜 Liu Yiyu, 李梦 Li Meng, 林鑫 Lin Xin, 罗维嘉 Luo Weijia, 漆凯 Qi Kai, 郭露 Guo Lu，张宇星 Zhang Yuxing, 陈涵 Chen Han, 李丽丽 Li Lili, 刘柳 Liu Liu, 陈莎 Chen Sha, 徐梦蝶 Xu Mengdie,彭丹 Peng Dan，谢子熠 Xie Ziyi，莫南 Mo Nan]
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_12 Part 12, students: 全美欣 Quan Meixin，何长琦 He Changqi，刘博 Liu Bo，刘金惺琦 liu Jinxingqi，谌孙福 Chen Sunfu，曾芳缘 Zeng Fangyuan，肖婷 Xiao Ting，常慧月 Chang Huiyue，彭娟 Peng Juan，彭小玲 Peng Xiaoling，杨悦 Yang Yue，肖双玲 Xiao Shuangling，彭育志 Peng Yuzhi，孟莹 Meng Ying]
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_13 Part 13, students: 杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng，杨逸 Yang Yi, 马淑雅 Ma Shuya, 雷方圆 Lei Fangyuan, 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen]
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_14 Part 14, students:周思庆 Zhou Siqing，蒋淇玮 Jiang Qiwei，瞿淼 Qu Miao，韩海洋 Han Haiyang，刘金惺琦 liu jinxingqi，解帆 Xie Fan，刘洋诺 Liu Yangnuo，袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen，邬香 Wu Xiang]

=Benefits=
This course is registered as a "EU Expert" diploma supplement course. Collect 10 such courses during your study and you receive a certificate by the Jean Monnet Chair.

=Misplaced things=
Handout 4 of Ren Xin --
贺骥.“世界文学”概念:维兰德首创：
Summary：主要讲述了人们发现维兰德首次提出“世界文学”的过程，维兰德对“世界文学”的概念以及与歌德的比较。

一、为何说维兰德首创“世界文学”？
1987 年，德国学者魏茨( Hans-Joachim Weitz，1904—2001) 在《阿卡迪亚》杂志上发表了一篇题为《维兰德是“世界文学”一词的首创者》的短文。魏茨声称他发现了德国作家维兰德( Christoph Martin Wieland，1733—1813) 在1790 至1813 年间亲笔书写的一则手记中首次提到“世界文学”。但维兰德于1813 年1 月20 日去世，他的同时代人并不知道他写有这则手记，歌德在不知情的情况下从1827 年1 月15 日起多次使用了“世界文学”这个词。维兰德与歌德对于“世界文学”的概念相近，但他没有详细论证。所以说，“世界文学”一次是维兰德首创，歌德第一次明确提出的
二、维兰德“世界文学”的概念与歌德的比较
1. 维兰德在创作早期作品时：世界文学就是世界各民族的文学名作的总集。该观点体现在《民族文学》文学是世界各民族的共同精神财富，世界文学就是所有时代所有民族的典范作品总集。
2. 和歌德一样，维兰德的世界文学概念带有言必称希腊的欧洲中心主义色彩，他的世界文学乃是以古希腊罗马文学为正典、以欧洲文学为核心的世界各民族文学经典的总集。“阅读最优秀的作家的杰作”乃是维兰德“世界文学”概念的核心: 杰作即古往今来世界各民族的文学经典。
3. 维兰德认为优秀作品的形成过程: 首先作家必须以阅世高人的文化修养和娴熟的艺术技巧创造有审美价值的“文学杰作”；其次是后世“最优秀的人们”对这些杰作的“宣扬”和“奉为样板”。

三、“世界文学”概念有三种定义:
( 1) 广义的“世界文学”指的是所有民族和所有时代文学作品的总和( Gesamtliteratur) ;
( 2) 狭义的“世界文学”指的是超时代的、具有普遍审美价值的世界各民族文学的典范作品总集( Kanon) ，换言之，“世界文学”就是具有世界声誉的文学杰作的荟萃，这种精英主义意义上的“世界文学”概念在当今学界占据了主导地位;
( 3) 歌德于1827 年提出的文学发展蓝图，它指的是国际性的文学交往( Kommunikation der Literatur) 和文化接触，交往的结果就是具有特性的各民族文学的融合。

Reference:
贺骥.“世界文学”概念:维兰德首创[J].社会科学,2014(07):176-182. --[[User:ImRx|ImRx]] ([[User talk:ImRx|talk]]) 13:24, 13 April 2018 (UTC)

[1]文飙.阿拉伯民间文学的珍品《一千零一夜》.
1.流传情况：
《一千零一夜》早在公元六世纪左右已在波斯、伊拉克和埃及产生并流传着。公元十世纪阿拨斯王朝统治时代汇集成书,后又经过数百年不断搜集、整理、加工和修改；大约到十六世纪才形成比较完整的总集。
2.故事发生的地点：多在当时阿拉伯世界两大中心城市— 巴格达及开罗。
3.《一千零一夜》，中文另一译名为《天方夜谭( 谈) 》的原因：
这个译名的来源说明中世纪时期阿拉伯帝国与中国的关系。阿拉伯半岛的麦加城在帝国中称为“ 圣城”, 城内有古庙名“ 天房”, 中国古嫂都译为“ 天方”, 实即“ 天房”之误。我国明朝以前称阿拉伯为黑衣大食国，明朝以后则称为“ 天方国”, 这就是旧译本称为《天方夜谭》的原因。
4.故事内容：《一千零一夜》是一部包罗万象的民间故事集, 有格言、谚语、童话, 王子公主的恋爱故事, 及市民冒险故事。这些故事的主角从底层的劳苦大众到最高的统治者哈里发。能够比较全面而深刻地反映中世纪东方的社会生活。
5.《一千零一夜》的起源：
在古代印度和中国为海岛中,有一个萨桑国。残暴的国王山鲁亚尔每夜娶一王后,翌晨即杀掉再娶。老百姓受此威胁,十分恐怖,纷纷携儿带女逃走,致使城中十室九空。然而国王仍照例命令宰相寻找女子供他虐杀。一天，宰相找遍民间，没找到一个,便满怀恐惧、忧郁地转回府邸来。宰相的大女儿山鲁佐德见父亲情状,问明情由,执意让父亲把她嫁给国王,宰相不得已才把女儿送进宫去。山鲁佐德一见国王,就悲伤地哭泣起来，她希望国王允许她在死之前能和妹妹再见一面,国王同意了,派人到宰相家召敦亚佐德进宫。姐妹俩高高兴兴地坐在床脚下谈笑。其时,敦亚佐德请求姐姐讲个故事消磨时间。山鲁佐德便征得国王许可,开始讲起故事来,借以引动国王的好奇心和兴趣,从而免遭杀戮。这样,日复一日,山鲁佐德一直讲了一千零一个夜晚,最后，终于使国王悔悟。
6.影响：
《一千零一夜》在世界各国广为传播。
它最早介绍到欧洲,对西方文化起过一定的积极作用,许多欧美文学艺术家,如但丁、乔叟、薄伽丘、莎士比亚、塞万提斯、莱辛等都或多或少地受到它的直接或间接的影响。
在我国，早在六十多年以前就有了《一千零一夜》的译本。

[2]冯辉.略论《一千零一夜》对世界文学的借鉴与影响.
摘要：《一千零一夜》对世界文学的借鉴与影响。荷马史诗中的巨人故事对《一千零一夜》的启发 ,《一千零一夜》对法国、英国、德国、中国作家的影响。
一、流传情况：
1.流传时间：多数学者认为:它的故事和手抄本在中近东地区开始流传的年代约在8 世纪中叶—9 世纪中叶。一些世界文学史家则认为:大约在十字军东征时期(1095— 1291), 《一千零一夜》的故事已通过民间传到欧洲。
2.流传情况：
a. 18 世纪初, 法国人加朗根据叙利亚抄本, 首次把《一千零一夜》译成法文出版, 以后在欧洲出现了各种文字的译本。
b. 中国1900 年有过译本, 以后不断的出现多种白话文本。新中国成立后, 纳训选译的3 卷本以及80 年代出版的全译本1 —6 卷, 收集了275 个故事。
二、《一千零一夜》对古希腊荷马史诗巨人故事的借鉴
《一千零一夜》第4 卷第172 个故事《辛伯达航海的故事》写三次航海的故事, 可以看出受到古希腊荷马史诗《奥德修纪》中独眼巨人故事的影响, 又带有阿拉伯民族的特色。
三、《一千零一夜》对世界文学的影响：
1.文艺复兴人文主义作家对《一千零一夜》中故事的扬弃与创新
a)法国：《一千零一夜》第2 卷第75 个故事《阿里·艾尔哲明的故事》与法国文艺复兴时期拉伯雷《巨人传》中第三代国王庞大固埃出生时的行囊装载十分相似。
b)英国：在《一千零一夜》第3 卷第152 个故事的《亚历山大大帝和弱小民族的故事》与英国文艺复兴时期的作家莎士比亚的《哈姆雷特》中有类似的情节，两个故事有历史延续性与巧妙的联系。
《一千零一夜》：
东征西讨的希腊国王亚历山大,一次路过一个弱小国家, 其民众各自门前准备好了坟墓, 家家一贫如洗, 安贫乐道, 所以并不怕亚历山大来争夺地盘。亚历山大十分好奇, 亲自见他们的国王。国王拿了两个头骨, 告诉他这是两个国王的头骨, 一个生前暴虐, 死后安拉让他下地狱;一个生前公正廉明, 爱护百姓, 死后安拉让他升入天堂。国王又问亚历山大:“ 到底你是这两个帝王中的哪一个呢?”年青的亚历山大受了感动, 要这个国王做他的宰相。国王拒绝了他, 说他虽拥有一个大帝国, 却有许多仇敌。国王虽穷, 他所有的一切“ 仅仅是知足” 。亚历山大感慨万千,告辞归去, 不再侵犯他们。
《哈姆雷特》：第五幕第一场墓地对话中
哈姆雷特面对死人头骨说道:“ 要是我们用想像推测下去, 谁知道亚历山大的高贵的尸体, 不就是塞在酒桶口上的泥土?”“ 凯撒死了, 你尊严的尸体, 也许变了泥把破墙填砌, 啊! 他从前是何等的英雄, 现在只好替人挡风遮雨。”
c)意大利：意大利文艺复兴时期的小说家卜伽丘的《十日谈》中的贵妇宴请国王吃鸡宴, 以打退国王邪念的故事, 在《一千零一夜》第4 卷第175 个故事《宰相夫人的故事》中有类似情节。
2.对18 世纪英国现实主义小说家笛福《鲁宾逊飘流记》的影响
把《辛伯达航海的故事》与《鲁宾逊飘流记》相比较, 辛伯达可以说是鲁宾逊典型的雏型与前身, 鲁宾逊则更加丰富, 更带时代特点。
1)不同点：
辛伯达是中世纪阿拉伯人中积极进取, 发展海外贸易,不断向外开拓勇于冒险的新兴商人, 他开初坐享父亲遗产,挥霍一空, 最后决定变卖家产七次到海上做冒险生意。
鲁宾逊是18 世纪英国资本主义原始积累时期的新资产阶级商人的代表, 父亲没有给他丰厚的资产, 他本人是不满现状的小商人, 三次海外冒险；
辛伯达是在第7次航海时在一个岛国居住了27 年才返回故乡, 鲁宾逊是在第三次航海时在一个荒岛上度过了28 年, 才返回故乡。
2)相似点：
两人都曾遭到过毁灭性的打击, 死里逃生,但每次都以顽强的毅力, 惊人的应变能力, 沉着应付, 化险为夷；发财致富的欲望, 对海外世界的好奇与向往, 每次都促使他们不安现状, 敢于做一次又一次的冒险。
3.对中国作家的影响
《一千零一夜》第1 卷第12 个故事《脚夫和巴格达三个女人的故事》中，脚夫诵的表达自己忠信的诗同中国现代作家钱钟书的长篇小说《围城》中的苏小姐自己写的诗相似。这里已改造成一首爱情诗, 方鸿渐当时并不知道是苏小姐自己写的诗, 说这首诗是借的外债,
四、小结
因为国别不同, 语言不通, 翻译技术有限，后来的作家们不一定能亲自看到这些《一千零一夜》中的故事原文。但阿拉伯文化与文学对欧洲文艺复兴运动及后来的世界文学的发展起到的推动作用和所作的贡献是世界发展史上所公认的事实。

[3]陆英英.《一千零一夜》在欧洲.
摘要：介绍了欧洲许多国家早期对《一千零一夜》的译本。《一千零一夜》译成欧洲各种文字后, 引起了欧洲人收集和研究东方文学的热望, 激起了他们了解东方的兴趣。《一千零一夜》对欧洲文学包括戏剧、小说、诗歌、诗剧都产生了巨大影响。
1.法国译本：
A.1704-1717年出现的法国安东尼·加仑的译本是《一千零一夜》——最著名的译本。为了迎合读者掺杂了许多自己想象的情节
B.1828年法国出版特雷布梯的译本 —— 增加情节，接近原版
C.1969年出版了勒内赫瓦姆的《一千零一夜》译本 —— 忠于原作
2.英国译本（几乎都是从法国译本转译而来）：
A.1811年乔纳森·斯科特出版的译本 —— 最突出
B.1838年，亨利·托伦斯打算给译文加注释, 但他只译了五十夜就死了
C.1839-1841年，爱德华·威廉·莱恩的《一千零一夜》三卷本（从阿文直译），删去了当时英国的道德传统所不能接受的故事, 并写了许多注释 —— 极具参考价值
D.1885年，理查德·伯顿的译本出版 —— 最完备的译本
E.英国军官伯顿（会讲阿拉伯语）—— 强烈殖民主义色彩
3.德国译本：
A.第一个把《一千零一夜》译成德文的是东方学家冯哈曼尔。
B.1837-1841年之间出现了凡勒的德译本 ——忠实原文，生涩
C.东方学家莱塔马教授 —— 德国最著名的译本
4.罗马尼亚译本：
A.1771年，出版的《哈伦·拉希德的故事》——罗马尼亚最早
B.1783年，修道院主教罗法伊勒出版了根据希腊文译出的全译本
C.1835-1838年格拉西姆·哥嘉出版《哈利曼或者阿拉伯神话故事》四卷本译本
D.1966-1976，罗马尼亚最大出版社——梅纳法出版社出版了十四卷本的《一千零一夜》
5.俄文译本：
A.萨利尔译的，东方学家卡利姆斯基出版的。
B.高尔基于1904年也译过。
C.列夫·托尔斯泰也译过几篇，如《皇帝和衬衣的故事》等。
6.捷克译本：
1958-1963年捷克斯洛伐克科学院出版的塔瓦外孜授译的《一千零一夜》全集。
7.波兰译本：
1774年出版了第一本——《阿拉伯传奇或一千零一夜》
8.威尼斯译本：
1757-1762年，出版了四卷本的《一千零一夜》和《一千零一日》故事集, 书名为《阿拉伯故事》。
9.希腊译本：
译者为布利兹威斯，译本分三卷。
10.此外还有葡萄牙语、荷兰语、丹麦语、瑞典语、匈牙利语等译本。
东方学家朝温在《阿拉伯著作一览》一书中用了一百二十页专门介绍《一千零一夜》的各种版本和文本。

参考文献：
[1]文飙. 阿拉伯民间文学的珍品《一千零一夜》[J].徐州师范学院学报,1978(02):59-64.
[2]冯辉. 略论《一千零一夜》对世界文学的借鉴与影响[J].河南教育学院学报(哲学社会科学版),2001(01):110-112.
[3]陆英英.《一千零一夜》在欧洲[J].阿拉伯世界,1983(02):84-90. --[[User:ImRx|ImRx]] ([[User talk:ImRx|talk]]) 13:34, 16 April 2018 (UTC)

[1]杨晓雨.佛经翻译与圣经翻译比较[J].考试周刊,2017(74):192.

摘要：中国翻译史的源头是佛经翻译，而西方翻译史则始于另一部宗教巨著———圣经翻译。中国的佛经翻译和西方的圣经翻译虽然在具体内容、翻译分期、信徒和对应的时代背景等方面有所差异，但两者都经历了直译、意译、直意译相结合的发展历程。本文对比了佛经翻译和圣经翻译，探求宗教类文献翻译中的共同特点。
1.佛经翻译
A.四个时期：
a. 创立时期（东汉末年到西晋），代表人物有安世高和支谦；
b.初步发展阶段是（晋代到隋朝），代表人物有道安和鸠摩罗什；
c.鼎盛时期（唐朝），代表人物为玄奘、不空；
d.逐渐结束于北宋。
B.翻译形式
最初由西域僧人的梵语口授，再找汉人加以润饰。音译。
后来出现精通汉语的印度高僧和熟练掌握梵语的中国高僧。直译为主。
C.翻译大家
三藏法师，从数量和翻译成就都无人能比。直译&意译结合。
2.圣经翻译
A.概况
圣经翻译是西方翻译史的起源。经历了希伯来文－希腊文－拉丁文的过程。
B.流传形式：手写本。
C.最早的圣经译本：公元前3-2世纪《圣经·旧约》（据《西方翻译简史》记载。后世也叫《七十子希腊文本》。
缺点：用词晦涩难懂，不易理解，跟当时的希腊语有较大的出入。
优点：此译本特别完整准确地还原了圣经原籍的内容。
D.翻译大家：a. 西塞罗—西方翻译史上最早的翻译理论家，主张活译。
b. 圣哲罗姆—翻译了第一部标准拉丁语圣经。直译和意译相结合。
3.佛经翻译和圣经翻译的相似性：
经历了直译—意译—直意译结合的过程。
A.最初翻译时，中西译者都是逐字逐句的直译。
原因：宗教经典神圣不可侵犯，译经僧侣对宗教经典抱有虔诚态度；
由于译者身份的局限性，缺乏专业的语言翻译基础。
B.随着经验的累积，译者们开始倡导意译。
代表人物：马丁路德
原因：受众人群都是普通老百姓，需要简单流畅、明晓易懂的语言才能让教义被大众所通晓。
C.主张直译&意译相结合。
代表人物：玄奘大师—《钦定本圣经》

[2]顾颍.从佛经与《圣经》翻译看中西方翻译思想——《中西方翻译思想比较》评析[J].常熟理工学院学报,2008(03):122-124.

摘要：作者认为比利时学者安德烈勒菲弗尔（当代文学翻译学术带头人，较有影响力）由于对中国翻译史缺乏深入研究，对中国的佛经翻译了解不透彻，在《中西方翻译思想比较》中提出“西方译者更为忠实原文, 而中国译者则倾向于归化原文”的观点较为片面。并提出佛经翻译和圣经翻译的共有规律：直译、意译两原则交替主导翻译活动并趋于成熟，直至最终实现两者的有机融合。

[3]姜晏.译介学视角下的中西方《圣经》翻译[J].青岛大学师范学院学报,2011,28(02):125-128.
摘要：《圣经》翻译的主要功能是服务于宗教的传播。但译者们对其“创造性叛逆”的翻译，使得《圣经》对世界各民族语言，包括对中国语言文学都产生了深远影响，同时推动各国文化交流、促进不同思想的包容。

1.翻译不只是语言文字的转换，而是应关注原文在外语和本族语转换过程中的信息的失落、变形、增添、扩散等问题。
2.《圣经》翻译对西方各国（民族）语言的影响 —— 不分析译本翻译的好坏，而是分析译本对译入语国家或民族的文化和语言所产生的影响。
A.4世纪，乌裴拉主教翻译成东日耳曼语。
8、9世纪，阿尔弗雷得等翻译成古英语。
这些标志着民族语言翻译的开始。
B.《圣经》翻译在13世纪达到了新的高潮。
C.马丁路德：把《圣经》新约和旧约翻译成德语，并且翻译成能被大众所接受的语言。他认为翻译就是让外语成为译者的本土化语言。
作用：消除了普通人对《圣经》的语言障碍，对统一德语和发展德语做出贡献。
D.威廉廷代尔的译本成为英国翻译史上最著名的英王钦定本的主要参照本。
作用：完全符合英语的用法习惯，增加了英语的表现力；
对英国散文、语言和文化发展起到了不可估量的作用。
3.《圣经》在汉译中的创造性叛逆
A.创造的叛逆性翻译是为了使《圣经》在新的环境中易于被受众接受。
B.特征：
a.显著的归化特征：吴经熊采用骚体，把外国的体裁中国化。
吴经熊翻译的《新约全集》:“天主聖子耶穌基督福音之濫觴，正如《意灑雅先知書》之所記云:吾遣使者，以先啟行; 為爾前驅，備爾行程。”
b.误译：严复的译本以中国士大夫为主要读者，因此他的译本符合士大夫的价值观，同时也降低阅读难度。
c.改编或删节：严复考虑到中国读者几千年来的儒家文化熏陶，迎合中国道德伦理和文化。
4.《圣经》汉译对中国语言文学的影响
a.丰富了汉语词汇，为现代汉语带来许多新意象和表达方式。如，天堂、伊甸园等。
b.影响中国现代文学的创作主体，许多意象来源于《圣经》中的典故。
c.影响许多中国著名的作家和文学理论家。如，鲁迅、冰心、徐志摩等。

[4] 曾志琼.浅析“圣经故事”包含的男权思想及其危害[J].西昌学院学报(自然科学版),2004(04):21-23.

《圣经》中包含的男权思想：
1.创世纪故事中包含的男权思想。
a.在上帝创世的神话中，男性亚当是用象征承载人类生命的泥土按上帝的形象创造出来的，而女性夏娃是作为男性的附属品用亚当的肋骨而创造出来的，目的是为亚当消除孤独寂寞。
b.创世纪故事中，包含“女人是祸水”思想。作为女性象征的夏娃经不住蛇的诱惑，偷吃了禁果，使人类受到上帝的惩罚，开始了苦难。
2.“圣经故事”中的先知先觉、基督英雄们都是男性。
人类历史的英雄史都是谱写男性的。整个圣经故事都是以男性英雄为主线而描绘基督教历史的。从最早制造方舟振救人类的挪亚，到带领以色列人出埃及，使以色列人摆脱埃及法老贵族奴役的摩西，到带领以色列人力战外族，为以色列人开缰拓土的约书亚，再到带领以色列人雪耻，赶走外族，使以色列人建国的大卫以及拯救人类的耶稣等等。
3.婚姻家庭中的男权思想、夫权思想
a.嫡长子制，忽视女性后代的存在。
b.多妻制。基督英雄们都是妻妾成群，可以主人的身份任意拥有女人。
c.休妻制。女性不论犯不犯错都可能被休。甚至可以被男性当财产、畜生一样送人。

[5]菲利斯·特丽波,周辉.女性主义诠释学与圣经研究[J].圣经文学研究, 2009(00):35-44.
摘要：作者认为出现在父权制社会的圣经充满了男性形象和语言，对《圣经》进行重新的诠释，以挑战圣经中的父权制。焦点是希伯来圣经，重点不仅仅落在不利于女性的事例上。考量了圣经中女性研究的三条女性主义进路。
1.阐释了一些不利于女性的故事。希伯来女子从生到死都属于男人，遭受到男性权威的虐待、凌辱。
2.重申被忽视的女性作为上帝的篇章和反抗父权制文化的女性形象。
3.利用前两种方式，同情地重新讲述关于妇女的故事
（作者菲利斯·特丽波被认为是在圣经文本基础上探索妇女与性别问题的领袖人物）

[6]林燕.女性主义圣经诠释概述[J].宗教学研究,2013(04):213-219.
女性经验是重新阐释圣经的基点。
女性主义圣经诠释随着女性神学的繁荣而发展。女性圣经诠释是不同于女性主义神学的独立学科，它具有独立的研究前提和范畴。
核心内容：对传统的圣经诠释和基督神学所建构的两性关系提出质疑和批判；寻找、重建圣经中被忽视、被遗忘的女性形象，恢复重建女性的地位和尊严；为争取女性在教会中担任圣职而斗争。

参考文献：
[1]杨晓雨.佛经翻译与圣经翻译比较[J].考试周刊,2017(74):192.
[2]顾颍.从佛经与《圣经》翻译看中西方翻译思想——《中西方翻译思想比较》评析[J].常熟理工学院学报,2008(03):122-124.
[3]姜晏.译介学视角下的中西方《圣经》翻译[J].青岛大学师范学院学报,2011,28(02):125-128.
[4]曾志琼.浅析“圣经故事”包含的男权思想及其危害[J].西昌学院学报(自然科学版),2004(04):21-23.
[5]菲利斯·特丽波,周辉.女性主义诠释学与圣经研究[J].圣经文学研究,2009(00):35-44.
[6]林燕.女性主义圣经诠释概述[J].宗教学研究,2013(04):213-219.--[[User:ImRx|ImRx]] ([[User talk:ImRx|talk]]) 02:42, 4 June 2018 (UTC)

《霍乱时期的爱情》
加夫列尔·加西亚·马尔克斯——拉美魔幻现实主义的领军人物
1967年，《百年孤独》；1982年，获诺贝尔奖；1985年，《霍乱时期的爱情》
故事是以费尔明娜和阿里萨、乌尔比诺医生爱恨悲欢的三角恋为主线，以阿里萨与其余622名女性形形色色的性欲与真情为副线。小说采用了顺时叙述。以乌尔比诺的棋友之死为故事的开始，先后讲述了：医生的婚后生活；阿里萨和费尔明娜如诗如梦的初恋，乌尔比诺追求费尔明娜并与之结婚；阿里萨的失望心情和纵欲寻欢；费尔明娜婚后生活的不快和孀居的孤独；阿里萨耐心点燃费尔明娜心中的爱火。
一.主要人物：
1.阿里萨：喜欢阅读、喜欢写诗。多愁善感，阴郁。一生中有过623个女人，但费尔明娜是他一生的挚爱。最后在他并不怎么上心的航运公司里获得了董事长的职位。
“费尔明娜，我等待这个机会，已经有51年9个月零4天了，在这段时间里，我一直爱着你，从我第一眼见到你，直到现在，我第一次向你表达我的誓言，我永远爱你，忠贞不渝。”这句话是在等待了半个世纪终于等到费尔明娜的丈夫死去后，阿里萨在葬礼之后再一次对费尔明娜隔了51年的第二次表白。
2.费尔明娜：她是骡子商人的女儿，美丽、智慧并且高傲。被阿里萨追求却遭到父亲的强烈反对，后来嫁给医生乌尔比诺。
3.乌尔比诺医生：擅长治疗霍乱的医生，黄金单身汉，知识渊博，外表帅气（虽然电影里图片很猥琐），热爱城市并致力于为他的城市他的家乡奉献，但实际上骨子里较懦弱，在和费尔明娜的婚姻里婆媳关系不合，他不敢冲撞他的母亲。“只有上帝知道我有多爱你。”

二.爱情&霍乱的隐喻关系
1.在追求费尔明娜的过程中，阿里萨生理和心理都经受了如霍乱症状一般的痛苦。在阿里萨对费尔明娜一见钟情后，“他开始寡言少语，茶饭不思，辗转反侧，彻夜难眠”。
等待费尔明娜回第一封信的时候“他腹泻，吐绿水，晕头转向，常常突然昏厥，脉搏微弱，呼吸沉重，像垂死之人一样冒着虚汗…”这些症状和霍乱的症状很相似。但事实上阿里萨并没有患上霍乱，后边医生的检查也可以证实。
所以，我们可以这样认为：爱情，在阿里萨身上的表现就如同霍乱对人的侵袭一样。在这本书中，霍乱也就代表爱情，所有的症状都是变相的爱。
但不同的是：疾病带来的恐惧是自私的，是从自我角度出发的，是害怕失去自己；而爱情带来的恐惧常常源自于所爱之人，是害怕失去对方。

2.在中国古代文学里也有关于爱情对疾病的意象。
在中国，因爱情引起的疾病叫做“相思病”，一般是因对某人的思念而生病。表现为焦虑、食欲不振、失眠、幻想、晕厥等类似生病的身体状态。
很著名的例子就是《红楼梦》中的林黛玉人物形象。还有《西厢记》张生为崔莺莺“为伊消得人憔悴”也是“相思病”的例子。这样的例证还有很多。
问题：如果爱情是一种病，能致病，那么医生能不能诊断并治愈因爱情引起的疾病呢？
大家都知道，林黛玉的身体一向比较弱，但是住在大观园中可以让黛玉有很好的物质条件治疗或者从中医角度来讲“调养”她的身体。看当时最好的医生, 吃的是最难得到的药材做成的药。可是在听到宝玉和宝钗成亲的消息后还是郁郁而终。说明在中国的古典文学中，医生并不可以治愈爱情引起的相思病。
我们再看西方文学里《变形记》——“所有人都知道, 真正的疾病和爱情疾病是很相似的: 意识变得虚弱, 眼神变得憔悴,膝盖变得无力… 上帝啊! 医生们真是无知啊! ”
还有《霍乱》里，母亲担心阿里萨得了霍乱,去看了医生。做了很多必要的医疗检查, 最后通过对阿里萨的性格了解以及与阿里萨的谈话确定了病因。医生最后能确诊阿里萨的爱情疾病并不是因为他高超的医术或者他的各种医学常识, 而是因为他本人的年纪来带的阅历以及对爱情和对阿里萨的了解得出的结论。
以及小说里医术高超的乌比尔诺医生, 虽然有广博深人的医学知识储量, 他研究霍乱是为了在医学层面上彻彻底底的治疗它。他一点也不懂爱, 不懂爱情。所以，乌比尔诺医生也不具有诊断爱情疾病的能力。
所以，中西方古典的文学作品中, 医生是并不赋有能力来诊断和治疗爱情所引起的疾病的。

三.主人公的青年、中年、老年三个阶段他们的爱情。
a.青年阶段——浪漫疯狂，以阿里萨和费尔明娜的初恋为主。因费尔明娜的醒悟接着拒绝阿里萨而结束——“不，请别这样，忘了吧”、“今天见到您，我发现我们之间不过是一场幻觉”。这个时期，阿里萨是以等待、信还有音乐追求费尔明娜的，我认为这三项几乎是在所有的爱情中都会或多或少起到作用的。
等待。自从阿里萨对费尔明娜一见倾心之后，他就每天在费尔明娜上学必经的道路上，捧着一本诗集在一棵杏树下假装看书，只为了一天能匆匆忙忙地看上她四次，风雨无阻。
信。最初阿里萨缺乏勇气向费尔明娜说出自己的爱意，于是开始给费尔明娜写信，从一张便条最后变成了70页的情书。也是在频繁通信中，打动了费尔明娜。
音乐。在因费尔明娜失眠的夜晚，他在费尔明娜的窗外演奏自创的爱的华尔兹。费尔明娜也是在他的音乐中更深刻的了解他。
总的来说，青年时期：他们的相爱过程短，不成熟，更多的是幻想。

b.中年阶段，主要是费尔明娜与乌尔比诺医生的婚姻以及阿里萨漫长的等待中的孤独狩猎生涯。
费&阿：隐秘顽强。阿里萨单相思，对抗时间和死亡。
阿里萨在被拒绝：先是自虐，后转移对费尔明娜及她丈夫的怨恨与诅咒，随后又对费尔明娜宽恕，决定和费尔明娜留在同一个城市，并且开始新一轮漫长的等待，他的单相思——对抗时间和死亡，等乌比尔诺医生死去。
爱情的失败也让阿里萨意识到自己的身份和社会地位配不上费尔明娜，逼迫着自己去经营生活，改变自己的社会地位。
阿里萨猎艳：通过性寻找爱，消除内心孤独感
同时他和众多女人发生肉体关系。但其实正是通过和其他女人的相处，来消除内心的孤独感，弥补得不到费尔明娜爱情的缺失。他也更加确认费尔明娜对他的不可替代，是他一生唯一的挚爱。
费&乌：世俗婚姻。陪伴，稳定、平淡。
在费尔明娜与乌尔比诺医生的婚姻中，他们互相陪伴，平淡也稳定。只有一次例外，就是乌尔比诺出轨芭芭拉林奇小姐，被费尔明娜发现后，医生经过长时间的内心矛盾并最终坦白。

c.老年阶段——理性智慧，以费尔明娜和阿里萨的黄昏恋为主。
阿里萨一直坚持到了医生去世。他以他的坚持和耐心打动了费尔明娜，让费尔明娜愿意接受他。他们开始了一段旅行，旅行结束的时候因为他们不愿面对现实所以不愿回去，最后乘着以霍乱为帆的船继续航行。

四.小说里讲述的各种各样的爱情可能。
开篇摄影师赫雷米亚与黑白混血女人之间隐蔽的恋情；
阿里萨和费尔明娜持续了半个世纪的柏拉图式的精神恋爱（包括他们青涩纯粹的初恋与年老时的黄昏恋）；
阿里萨对费尔明娜忠贞不渝的单相思；
费尔明娜与乌尔比诺医生的世俗婚姻爱情；
乌尔比诺与林奇小姐战战兢兢的婚外恋；
阿里萨和众多女人们纯粹的肉欲追逐的露水爱情；
阿里萨与14岁少女的洛丽塔式的忘年恋…
忠贞的爱、雀跃的爱、逃离的爱、私通的爱、狂热的爱、转瞬即逝的爱、生死相依的爱…
不同层次不同角色不同性质的爱情，这篇小说也堪称是“爱情的教科书”“陈列爱情的博物馆”

五.除了爱情之外的其他主题。
1.衰老。儿童摄影师赫雷米亚德圣阿莫尔的自杀；
岁月加于人的痕迹——表现在岁月加于主人公身上的痕迹（蹒跚的步态、上楼梯的速度、意外的跌倒、满是皱纹的皮肤、稀疏的头发）；
乌尔比诺医生、阿里萨想尽办法延缓衰老
2.死亡。小说中提到最多的是霍乱，也是整个故事发生的宏大背景。
借以描写这种难以治愈、神秘莫测的疾病来写死亡。因为霍乱预示着死亡，而且在当时几乎就等于死亡，当时地的生产力水平和医学发展不足以让人们去抗衡。
当人们被生理上的痛楚折磨时，往往无力也无心开出精神上的花朵。然而小说中描写的就是这样一种稀有的生命之花，因为爱情有勇气与苦难和死亡的疾病抗争。

阿里萨一生都在追求费尔米纳的爱情，即使面临死亡的抉择也义无反顾: 冷酷无情的费尔米纳的父亲最初阻挠女儿与他的爱情时，甚至用死亡来威胁阿里萨，但是阿里萨毫无畏惧，“‘朝我开枪吧!’他说，把一只手放在胸口上，‘没有比为爱情而死更光荣的事情了’”。因为有了爱情，所以阿里萨充满了无畏的勇气。他为了爱情不怕死，并且崇尚为爱而死。
同时阿里萨的爱情之路实质上是一直与死亡作斗争，他到年老时害怕衰老和死亡，因为他明白，只有乌尔比诺医生死去，他才有机会再接近费尔米纳，因此，他努力与时间、衰老、死亡作斗争，他要为爱好好活着，战胜时间，战胜衰老，跨越死亡，他要活过乌尔比诺，才能重获费尔明娜。
所以说这两个主题实际上也是与爱情密切相关的，因爱情而起的，可以归结到爱情主题上。

参考文献：
1.於珍珍.《霍乱时期的爱情》中的医生形象分析[J].才智,2014(32):318-319.
2.荣利. “滥情”的痴情者[D].浙江师范大学,2015.
3.谈清妍.爱情的乌托邦——解读《霍乱时期的爱情》中的爱情与死亡[J].襄樊学院学报,2009,30(06):51-54.
4.高小斐,孙世友.悲欢离合五十年——浅论《霍乱时期的爱情》中的爱情[J].才智, 2014(16):288.
5.李贞琤.疾病缠绕下的爱情——马尔克斯小说爱情主题与疾病主题关系探究[J].开封教育学院学报,2017,37(12):38-39+42.
6.姚婧.情感的疾病化书写——解读《霍乱时期的爱情》[J].名作欣赏,2015(17):125-128.--[[User:ImRx|ImRx]] ([[User talk:ImRx|talk]]) 03:00, 4 June 2018 (UTC)

handout of张传伟
世界主义与世界文学
一、世界主义

1、世界文学的定义：
(1) 各民族优秀文学的经典之总汇；
(2) 一种用于从总体上研究、评价和批评文学的全球的、跨文化的和比较的视角；(3)不同语言中的文学生产、流通、翻译和批评性选择的发展演变过程。

2、形成和发展
（1）词源探究
作为一个跨学科的理论概念和批评话语，世界主义可以追踪到古希腊的哲学思想那里，甚至这个术语本身就出自希腊语。我们今天在英文中所描述的世界主义( cosmopolitanism) 是由两个词组成的:cosmos在希腊语中，意为宇宙或世界，polis意为城市或城邦。这样我们就有了“世界”这个词。那些信仰其伦理道德的人便被人称为“世界主义者”( cosmopolites)，而他们的主张和理论教义便被称为“世界主义”。这就是世界主义概念就其字面意义而言的形成。
（2）后世发展
世界主义通常在三个层面得到讨论:哲学的、政治学和社会学的以及文化和文学的层面。哲学维度的世界主义可以追溯到柏拉图和亚里士多德的著作，这两位希腊先哲本质上并不赞成世界主义，在他们看来，人们通常生活在自己的城邦，并且依恋特定的政治教义，所以很容易与之相认同。当他们的城邦遭受外敌入侵时，公民们便会奋起抗击，保卫自己的城邦。对这些古希腊人来说，好的公民不应当与外邦人分享过多的利益。这一观点后来逐步发展为爱国主义和民族主义。在中国，爱国主义和民族主义对那些试图形成独特的中华民族和文化认同的知识分子一直有着极大的吸引力，一个特例就是五四时期，当时虽曾有人鼓吹过世界主义，但很快就销声匿迹，淹没在民族主义的汪洋大海中了，其原因恰在于当时的中国文化土壤和时代精神并不适合世界主义驻足。
但并不是所有古希腊先哲们都反对世界主义，另一些思想较为开放且见多识广的古希腊知识分子，尤其是犬儒派哲人迪奥格尼斯(Diogenes)则鼓吹一种较为普世的伦理道德，因为他并不把自己局限于特定的城邦，甚至公开宣称:“我是一个世界公民。”从此，“世界公民”(citizen of the world)便成了所有信奉世界主义的人所致力于追求的理想。当然，他们所追求的并非是特定的民族—国家的利益，而更是一种普世价值和全人类的共同利益。他们的这种理想和追求并不满足于局限在哲学和社会政治层面，他们还试图将其推而广之。
当代学者在讨论世界主义时很少引证这些远古时期的观点，但其中的某些观点却依然在现代哲学家的著作中得到响应和发展。启蒙时期的哲学家如康德则表示了对其的莫大兴趣，提出一种世界主义的法律或权利。19 世纪以前的不同形式的世界主义仅仅停留在哲学家的假想和论辩层面上的话，那么自19 世纪以来，那些有远大抱负的人便逐渐开始将世界主义付诸实践了，从哥伦布发现“新大陆”到世界贸易航线形成等都为全球化的进程奠定了基础。

二、世界文学

1、源起
歌德是德语“世界文学”( Weltliteratur) 一词的创制者，也是第一个明确提出世界文学观念的人。歌德关于世界文学的论述集中在1827-1830年间，归纳起来有三个要点: 其一，世界文学是一个对话和流通的平台，各民族文学可以通过进入这个平台相互交流、取长补短、相得益彰。其二，世界文学是一个合乎世界主义的理想，能够推动各民族文学逐渐打破孤立割裂状态，影响融合而形成一个有机的统一体。其三，世界文学是彰显民族文学价值的场所。歌德就站在德国的角度谈论世界文学，他渴望本民族文学在推动世界文学形成过程中扮演“光荣的”、“美好的”角色，对其他民族文学(例如法国文学) 所处的优势地位则十分敏感。

2、“世界文学”内涵
在《什么是世界文学？》一书中，丹穆若什以世界、文本和读者为中心，进一步阐释“世界文学”的三重定义：“世界文学是民族文学间的椭圆折射”“世界文学是从翻译中获益的文学”“世界文学不是指一套经典文本，而是指一种阅读模式——一种以超然的态度进入与我们自身时空不同的世界的形式”。首先，“椭圆折射”利用椭圆具备两个焦点的特性，指代世界文学的双重性质。世界文学具有两个核心要点——源文化和主体文化。一部文学作品如果想成为世界文学的一部分，需要从源文化出发，被他国文化空间接受。“接受”过程与接受主体的民族文化传统和价值需求相关。因此，世界文学既与源文化相关，又与主体文化相关，是一种双重折射。仔细分析，世界文学双重折射特性表明世界文学作品并非静止、孤立，而是在不同国家、不同文化间互相流通、交流、传播、碰撞。世界文学作品，不仅受到源文化熏陶，也经过主体文化的接受和改造。其次，由于语言障碍，世界文学作品的传播和流通必须依赖文学翻译。但是，文学语言在翻译过程中会有得失。丹穆若什认为翻译中对于得失的衡量是区分民族文学与世界文学的标志。具体来看，在翻译中受损的文学，“通常局限于本民族或本地区的传统内”；从翻译中获益的文学，“进入世界文学的范畴”。他进一步指出，民族文学进入世界文学，当范围扩大后，“风格上的损失会被深度上的扩张所抵消”。由此看出，世界文学作品源于民族文学而高于民族文学，价值取向超越民族特性，拥有“世界性”。最后，丹穆若什认为世界文学并非经典文本的简单集合，而是通过一种阅读，使读者超越自身时空，进入更加广阔的世界。作为阅读模式，一部作品能否成为世界文学，取决于其他国家、民族读者的阅读效果。一旦外国作品开始在读者脑中发生共鸣，世界文学就开始活动。这种“共鸣”，实际是不同民族文学作品的相同价值取向的融汇。作品自身价值取向被本国以外读者认可，超越民族性，成为世界性价值。由此看来，世界文学不代表文学作品数量的多少，而是作为一种阅读模式，“可以通过少量作品来深入体验，也可以通过大量作品来广泛探寻”，在世界范围内寻找共鸣。

3、“世界文学”与“世界的文学”
一般而言，“世界文学”和“世界的文学”这两个概念多半是在明确的不同语境中被运用：若说“世界文学”依然意味着作品之无可非议的重要性，那么，“世界的文学”则更多地指向世界上那些不怎么有名、却能展示新方向的文学；它们不同凡响、颇有魅力，却还未在读者意识中占有重要位置。也就是说，“世界的文学”未必就是审美和经典意义的上乘之作，或得到广泛接受的作品。谈论“世界的文学”，人们面对的是浩繁的书卷，无数作品和文化传统，难以把握的界线，并在挑选时怀有开放态度。
20 世纪70 年代，世界体系理论( World System Theory) 兴起于美国，对世界文学观念产生重大影响。以美国著名社会学家伊曼纽尔·沃勒斯坦( Immanuel Wallerstein) 为代表的世界体系理论的核心，是把人类社会看成一个由结构性经济联系及各种内在制度制约的一体化的体系，以此作为考察社会发展变迁的分析单位。这是对20 世纪五六十年代兴盛的以民族国家为分析单位、研究人类社会发展变迁的经典现代化理论的反拨。

4、世界文学与比较文学
世界文学与比较文学的关系引起西方学者的重视。一种声音认为，世界文学相比于比较文学，只是在原有学科体系基础上扩大比较范围。如大卫·费里斯指出：“比较文学应成为世界文学，只是扩大比较范围，比较方法不变。”另一种声音认为，比较文学与世界文学并行不悖，相互作用。“国别文学、比较文学和世界文学彼此间保持动态相互作用关系，都无法完全取代对方。”②对于读者来讲，世界文学仅存于国家空间。比如中国读者阅读海明威《老人与海》，即使该作品在世界范围内得到广泛认可，作为世界文学作品享誉中外，但对于中国读者而言，阅读的只是一部美国小说而已。比较研究作为方法，通用于国别文学、比较文学和世界文学研究。但是，如库班指出，“世界文学接受文本，即使代表特别的国家精神……也能穿过甚至超越他们的国家，语言和历史起源，有效解域本身”，世界文学关注世界性，超越民族性。今天西方学者老话重提，有一些新的阐释，但是，作为克服比较文学危机、面向未来的比较文学学科理论，尚缺乏指导性意义。全世界比较文学学者必须寻求比较文学理论的新突破。

三、中国文学的世界化与世界文学的中国化

1、中国文学的世界化
中国文学世界化并不只是中国作家获得国际大奖或是中国作家作品被翻译介绍到外国。世界化是中国文学作为全球化时代世界文学的主体之一，在世界文学中体现出中国主体性。
马克思《路易·波拿巴的雾月十八日》中说：“就像一个刚学会一种新语言的人总是要把它翻译成本国语言一样；只有当他能够不必在心里把新语言翻译成本国语言，当他能够忘掉本国语言来运用新语言的时候，他才算领会了新语言的精神，才算是运用自如。”后现代批评家们奉为圭臬的这篇名著中，马克思的话说出了中国的世界文学认证的真正价值。全球化时代中，世界文学是对自我认证，也是对他人的认证，中国文学从世界文学得到认证，同样，世界文学从中国文学得到认证。

2、世界文学的“中国化”
世界文学的“中国化”指很多学者表示怀疑，以为是将世界文学作品按中国的观念进行改造，甚至变成“红色经典”。我们必须解释清楚：世界文学的中国化并不是用中国文学标准来“化”世界文学，而是建构中国的世界文学阐释理论体系。这是完全正当的无可非议的，中国文学从不追求“文化权力中心”。但是中国文学必须建立中国的世界文学视域，中国如何看待世界文学史理论、世界文学经典的选编与世界文学翻译，这三大要素，缺一不可。

参考文献
[1]方维规.何谓世界文学?[J].文艺研究,2017(01):5-18.
[2]曹顺庆,李斌.比较文学未来发展之路——世界文学与比较文学变异学[J].中国高校社会科学,2016(06):39-47+154.
[3]方汉文.中国文学的世界化与世界文学的中国化[J].江南大学学报(人文社会科学版),2016,15(01):93-98.
[4]王宁.世界文学语境中的中国当代文学[J].当代作家评论,2014(06):4-16+2.
[5]王宁.世界主义、世界文学以及中国文学的世界性[J].中国比较文学,2014(01):11-26.
[6]刘洪涛.世界文学观念的嬗变及其在中国的意义[J].中国比较文学,2012(04):9-21.

西方文学的翻译

一、翻译内容、技法叙事
清末颇为兴盛的外国小说翻译一方面介绍了西方的文化思想,另一方面明显的汉民族文化特征仍不容忽视。因为近代译者多具有根深蒂固的中国文化观念,因此他们在翻译过程中对原著进行特殊的、比较主观的处理是特定历史阶段的产物。
在西方小说文化思想内容的翻译方面,“西方宗教观、伦理观与中国具体国情不同,其文学作品必然与中国文化发生抵悟,翻译者趋于沟通的心理,尽可能地使译作。与中国文化相通。”
在叙事技法的传递方面,“早期小说译者的文学修养主要源于中国传统文化,其译作的小说文体形式必然采用中国原有的通俗小说文体——章回体。在原著风格的翻译方面,“早期小说译者在翻译小说时非常注重小说的读者群,这些读者多属具有一定文化修养的文人阶层,其思维方式、审美习惯皆己定型。翻译者如果想拥有庞大的读者群,其译作就应该考虑到中国读者的阅读习惯与审美情趣,突出小说消闲、怡情的文学特征。因此,外国小说译作的汉化便成了翻译者有意追求的一种语言风格。

二、翻译方法和翻译文体
由于文学意识的不自觉、白话语体表达的幼稚性以及受众对象的特殊性等原因,在近代的文学翻译中,归化的手法、文言的文体和意译的方法颇受青睐。因此,“这种译述、意译的风气使得早期文学翻译的体例很不完备。”文学革命爆发后,文学翻译的目标读者出现“平民化”倾向,文学翻译文体走向通俗化、大众化,同时由于文学翻译中文学意识的不断增强,直译方法逐渐为越来越多的译者所使用,文学翻译开始走向异化。

三、近代翻译与意识形态的相互关系
译入语文化中的主流意识形态对中国近代翻译选材有着不容忽视的影响和操控作用。1840年—1919年的中国翻译史印证了勒菲弗尔的翻译理论。通过研究这个时期的翻译史,我们可以清楚看到,翻译作品的兴盛是随着各个历史阶段的主流意识形态的变化而变化的。例如“甲午战争的失败把中华民族的生死存亡摆在每个人的面前，……此时的意识形态可以归纳为‘开民智、求变革’,其目的是为了唤醒全体国民,进行思想和现代意识启蒙。小说因为其易普及
性被选作变革工具,成为资产阶级改良派医治`社会病'的良方。”

四、近代翻译在文化和语言方面的属性
中国近代翻译有层次区别,早期的科技翻译不同于后来的社科、文学翻译,前者主要是技术问题,后者主要是文化和语言问题。众所周知，文化翻译往往涉及到深层的语言体系问题。近代社会译者所深谙的古代汉语体系决定了近代翻译文学从根本上具有中国“古代性”。这样,“翻译者总是用旧思想、旧思维来理解和表达西方新思想、新思维,总是在旧有的语言体系中寻找相对应或相似的术语、概念、范畴和话语方式,因此,西方思想文化在翻译的过程就不知不觉地变了形,变得本土化、民族化了。
五、近代翻译的动机及其所带来的影响
近代译者为了让时人了解西方民主思想和先进的科技知识,大多有目的地选择政治小说、科学小说、侦探小说加以引进,其翻译动机就是要救国启民,因此他们的翻译观明显具有功利主义的性质。这一点对于我们理解近代的小说翻译理论和翻译策略大有裨益,对于译文中普遍存在的删改现象也就能够给予合理的解释。他明确地谈到“他们企图用中国传统文化和文学的规范去干预原文本,以此来调整读者对译文的反应,避免可能造成的文化障碍。运用这种策略和方法的目的,无非是趋利避害,把原文本中有利于译文读者的信息翻译出来,对那些不利于一译文读者或不实用的信息避而不译。”
参考文献
【1】吴莎,屠国元.论中国近代翻译选材与意识形态的关系(1840-1919)[J].外语与外语教学,2007(11):38-40.
【2】顾建新.清末民初文学翻译方法与文学翻译文体的发展[J].外语教学,2004(06):50-54.
【3】韩永芝.从文化排斥与文化认同看清末外国小说翻译[J].解放军外国语学院学报,2001(05):66-69.
【4】高玉.论中国近代翻译文学的“古代性”[J].华中师范大学学报(人文社会科学版),2000(04):66-72.
【5】陆国飞.近代外国小说译介中的功利主义思想[J].学术界,2007(04):236-239.

外国诗歌翻译
[1]郭建辉.外国诗歌的审美特征与外国诗歌的鉴赏[J].重庆工业高等专科学校学报,2001(03):93-95.
由于各民族的文化传统的不同影响，外国诗歌也呈现出不同的特点，详细分析了从《荷马史诗》与《圣经》到现代主义艾略特的《荒原》特点，以把握外国诗歌的审美特征。

[2]河洛易.中国现代诗歌翻译概述[J].解放军外国语学院学报,2000(05):105-108.
作为中国20世纪的诗歌翻译来说, 大致可分为七个阶段：1、诗歌翻译的前奏曲——近代诗歌翻译 (1840 年鸦片战争到 1919年“五四”运动)；2、现代诗歌翻译的开创期 (从1919 年新青年社到 1930年“左联”成立)；3、现代诗歌翻译的中期 (从 1930 年“左联”成立到 1937 年抗战开始)；4、现代诗歌翻译的后期 (从 1937年抗战开始到1949年中华人民共和国成立)；5、当代“十七年”的诗歌翻译 (从 1949 年新中国成立到“文化大革命”前夕)；6、当代“文革十年”的诗歌翻译 (文革十年)；7、当代新时期的诗歌翻译 (1976 年至今)。
外国诗歌的翻译不是一个自我封闭的静态系统，而是一个不断自我调整和适应的开放系统。

[3]熊辉.翻译诗歌对诗人创作的影响[J].文艺争鸣,2017(09):7-12.
翻译诗歌为百年新诗发展注入了生机和活力，学界目前多从创作技巧、形式艺术或思想情感的角度去论述前者对后者的影响，较少从创作实践的层面去思考二者的关联。实际上，新诗创作者由于接受了不同的文化而具有各自特殊的写作背景，翻译诗歌对新诗创作的影响也因为创作主体的多元化而呈现出复杂的格局：部分诗人直接阅读并翻译了外国诗歌，译诗对他们创作的影响主要停留在翻译过程或思维转换上；也有部分诗人通过阅读其他人翻译的作品而受到了译诗文本的影响，这部分人也包括那些参与翻译的诗人，因为他们自己在翻译诗歌的同时也可能会阅读别人的译作。

[4]熊辉.外国诗歌的翻译与中国现代新诗的文体创新[J].上海师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2013,42(03):70-76.
外国诗歌的翻译有助于中国新诗的文体创新,作者从语言层面的创造新字、改进语言句法和表达方式,形式层面的创造新形式、引入新形式等方面展开论述。在此基础上分析了这种在翻译的过程中创新的文体所具有的文体特征和文化属性,进而表明外国诗歌的翻译对中国新诗文体创新具有带动作用。

[5]李特夫,李国林.诗歌翻译研究:传统思路与现代视野[J].天津外国语学院学报,2004(01):31-36+47.
随着译学研究范式的转向、开拓与创新 ,各种译学思想得以不断重诂和修订，为我国诗歌翻译研究带来了新的启示。在对传统译诗观念进行简要回顾和思考的基础上，针对当前一些争议和疑难性问题提出了个人看法，并借鉴西方译论，就未来诗歌翻译研究有关问题进行了探讨。

[[Media:Earliest_translations_from_the_West_to_Chinese_presentation_by_Lin_Li.pdf]]

[[Media:The Arabian Nights_by_Wang_Xinyi.pdf]]

[[Media:Lecture_The Arabian Nights_by_Wang_Xinyi.pdf]]

File:Hypotactic and Paratactic(ppt).pptx

2021-12-27T15:51:53Z

Liu Wei: Liu Wei uploaded a new version of "File:Hypotactic and Paratactic(ppt).pptx"

File:Hypotactic and Paratactic(ppt).pptx

2021-12-27T15:46:08Z

Liu Wei:

Introduction to Translation Studies 2021

2021-12-27T15:43:27Z

Liu Wei: /* Presentations Dec 29 on East-West Comparison */

Quicklinks: [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021|This course homepage]] [https://bou.de/u/wiki/uvu:Community_Portal#Frequently_asked_questions_FAQ FAQ] [https://bou.de/u/wiki/uvu:Community_Portal Manual] [[20210926_homework|all homework webpages]] | [[20220112_final_exam|final exam page]]

Welcome to our course website '''Introduction to Translation Studies 2021'''. Whenever you visit this site, please see if there is anything in English not yet translated into Chinese and make a Chinese translation beneath (one paragraph English, one paragraph Chinese). Any correction or improvement of earlier translations is mostly welcome!

欢迎访问我们“翻译导论课”的网页。…………

=Session 1 Sep 26, 2021=
Today is international day of languages!

Introduction to the course. Organizational things. Working with the Wiki.
==Organizational Things==
*Please register for the Course Wiki http://bit.ly/WIKIREG. Username is your Pinyin Name (“Wang Jianguo” – no Chinese characters) and email, for your real name also write your Pinyin Name (Wang Jianguo), no Chinese characters. If the name is taken, write "Wang Jianguo1". Write a sentence about yourself in the bio info. Please check the box that you abide to the Terms of Service and type in the password “wikicaptcha”. You will receive an email with a link. Please confirm the link. After confirmation, please allow a few days that I can approve your username. After that, you can access the course wiki http://bit.ly/TransStud and edit the contents. You need to edit the course website every week to prepare the upcoming session.
*Please prepare each session during the week before, so that you come prepared to class.
*In the WeChat group, please write your name as "Wang Jianguo 王建国 21级英语口译". If possible, please use a profile photo of yourself where you can be recognized. 麻烦各位同学修改一下自己的备注，改成自己的姓名（拼音、汉字、21级、方向）就好。
*We meet Wednesdays 7 pm - 8:40 pm online on http://bit.ly/ZOOMCOURSE (573 941 6744, course). Please leave your camera ON, so that we actually see each other. In the classroom, we also see each other.
*Please note that you can only participate with a good internet connection, with a smart device which is able to run Zoom and with a running camera. Therefore, please make sure that you have a working device. If your phone’s camera is broken, please borrow a different phone or contact us that we can help you to get a second hand phone for free.
* Please take the weekly survey http://bit.ly/EU-SURVEY
* Please store the pdf material you get from the teacher. Please prepare the material for each session in advance.

==Edits==
Every student is required to edit something every week. This can be:
* Translate any English paragraph on this website from English to Chinese.
* Correct an earlier translation of your fellow student beneath.
* Prepare an article (please link to from this page) and/or a powerpoint (please upload here) on a topic you will present during the semester.
* Prepare the final exam paper as early as possible by writing a chapter for a book on "History of Translations", "History of Translation Theories", "Machine translation - A challenge or a chance for human translators?", "Culture loaded words", "The cultural turn in Translation History", "Appropriateness Theory" ... For this, please organize yourself, find groups who want to write the same book together, and think together about the necessary chapters and the structure etc. of the book. The paper needs to be delivered until November 1. Then we jointly work on copy editing, grading etc.
* The Teaching Assistants should write the grades every week in a table, so that you can see the results of your quizzes/surveys etc., your performance in class and final exam paper grades.

==Topics, Sessions and Material==

'''Which paper or book should I read to prepare my presentation?'''

Please also mention in this list beneath, '''who''' is presenting the topic with '''ppt''' and '''handout'''.

1 Sep 26 Introduction

2 Sep 29 Emergence I
*Teacher presentation

3 Oct 13 Emergence II
*3a Xu, Jun 许钧, Mu Lei 穆雷. "翻译学概论 [Introduction to Translation Studies]." 南京: 译林出版社2009:195 pp., here 180-192.
*3b=7c Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜. Translation Studies 翻译学. 复旦大学出版社, 2017, here the beginning about the emergence

4 Oct 20 History of Translation
*4a History of Western Translation 谭载喜.西方翻译简史[M]. 北京:商务印书馆, 1991年.
*4b History of Translation in China – before May Fourth 马祖毅. 中国翻译简史——“五四”以前部分（修订本）[M]. 中国对外翻译出版公司，1998年.

5 Oct 27 Early understanding

The early understanding next session refers to the very early theoretical understanding of the Translation process from ancient times until Maybe up to the middle of the 20th century. There are no elaborated theories yet, but at least some discussions About principles, strategies etc.

*5a Holmes, James. 1972. The Name and Nature of Translation Studies. Papers on Literary Translation and Translation Studies[M]. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1988: 67-80.
*5b Sourcebook Lefevere, Andre. Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook[M]. London and New York：Routledge, 1990.
*5c Textbook Newmark, Peter. A Text Book of Translation[M]. UK: Prentice Hall International Ltd, 1988.
*5d Translation Basics 刘宓庆. 翻译基础[M]. 上海：华东师范大学出版社，2008年.

6 Nov 3 Linguistics and Equivalence (Nida)
*6a Early linguistic theory Catford, J. A Linguistic Theory of Translation[M]. London: Oxford University Press, 1965.
*6b Early important understanding Nida, E. A. Toward a Science of Translating[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.

7 Nov 10 Translation Studies
*7a Bassnett, Susan. Translation Studies[M]. London and New York: Methuen, 1980.
*7b Translation Studies 许钧，穆雷. 翻译学概论[M]. 南京：译林出版社，2009年.
*7c=3b Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. Translation Studies 翻译学[M]. 武汉：湖北教育出版社，2000年. (the 2nd part contains a lot of English papers)
*7d Categories of Contemporary Western Translation Studies 2002_Pan_Wenguo_潘文国_当代西方的翻译学研究_2002

8 Nov 17 Translation Theories
*8a Western theory 刘军平. 西方翻译理论通史[M]. 武汉：武汉大学出版社，2009年.
*8b Theories Gentzler, E. Contemporary Translation Theories[M]. London and New York: Routledge, 1993.
*8c Contemp. West. theories 廖七一. 当代西方翻译理论探索[M]. 南京：译林出版社, 2000年.
*8d Xu, Jun 许钧. Translation Theories 翻译论. 湖北教育出版社, 2003
*8e Pan_Wenguo_Cont_West_Trans_Stud_当代西方的翻译学研究_兼谈_翻译学的学科性问题_潘文国

9 Nov 24 History of Chinese Translation Theories
*9a 陈福康.中国译学理论史稿（修订本）[M]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社，2000年.
*9b 许钧. 翻译论[M]. 武汉：湖北教育出版社，2003年.

10 Dec 1 Appropriateness Theory
*10a Moratto, Woesler: Current Dynamics, Springer 2021

11 Dec 8 Methods and Style
*11a Methods Wilss, Wolfram. The Science of Translation: Problems and Methods[M]. Gunter Narr Verlag Tubinger, 1982.
*11b Style 刘宓庆. 文体与翻译[M]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司：北京，1998年.
*11c Trans_Stud_Problems_and_Methods_翻译学问题与方法

12 Dec 15 Theory and Practice
*12a Bell, Roger T. Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice[M]. London and New York: Longman, 1991.
*12b Theory and Practice Munday, Jermy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications[M]. London and NewYork: Routledge, 2001.
*12c Theory and Practice Nida, Eugene A. and Charles R. Taber. The Theory and Practice of Translation[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1969.

13 Dec 22 Decriptive Studies, Culture, Invisibility, Constructivism
*13a “descriptive” Toury, Gideon. Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond[M]. Amsterdam/ Philadelphia: John BenjaminB Publishing company, 1995.
*13b Culture Toury, Gideon. Translation Across Cultures[M]. NewDelhi: Bahri Publications, 1987.
*13c Invisibility Venuti, L. The Translator 's Invisibility[M]. London and NewYork: Routledge, 1995.
*13d Constructivism Research 易经. 翻译学体系构建研究[M]. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社，2012年.
*13e Art or Science? Different papers by Huang Zhending Trans_Stud_Art_and_Scient_Theory_翻译学艺术论与科学论的统一

14 Dec 29 East-West Comparison
*14a East-West comparison 刘宓庆. 中西翻译思想比较研究[M]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司, 2005年.
*14b English-Chinese TS 蒋坚松. 英汉对比与汉译英研究[M]. 长沙：湖南人民出版社，2002年.

Please download several pdfs with monographs and articles about translation studies history and theories from our WeChat group.

*Bassnett, Susan. Translation studies. Routledge, 2013
*Bell, Roger T., and Christopher Candlin. Translation and translating: Theory and practice. Vol. 298. London: Longman, 1991
*Catford, John Cunnison. A linguistic theory of translation. Oxford University Press, 1978.
*Chen, Fukang. "Zhongguo yixue lilun shi gao (A History of Chinese Translation Theory)." (1992).
*Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary translation theories. Vol. 21. Multilingual Matters, 2001.
*Holmes, James S. The name and nature of translation studies. Translation Studies Section, Department of General Literary Studies, University of Amsterdam, 1975.
*Huang, Chending黄振定. "文学翻译评价的科学性及其科学论." 外国语 4 (1999): 49-56.
*Huang, Chending 黄振定. "翻译学是一门人文科学." 外语与外语教学 2 (1999): 33-35.
*Huang, Chending 黄振定.翻译学: 艺术论与科学论的统一. 上海外语教育出版社, 2008
*Lefevere, André, ed. Translation/history/culture: A sourcebook. Routledge, 2002.
*Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications, Routledge 2013
*Nida, Eugene Albert, and Charles Russell Taber, eds. The theory and practice of translation. Vol. 8. Brill Archive, 1982.
*Nida, Eugene Albert. Toward a science of translating: with special reference to principles and procedures involved in Bible translating. Brill Archive, 1964.
*Pan Wenguo 潘文国. "当代西方的翻译学研究——兼谈 “翻译学” 的学科性问题." 中国翻译 23.1 (2002): 31-34.
*Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜. Translation Studies 翻译学. 复旦大学出版社, 2017
*Toury, Gideon. "Descriptive Translation Studies–and beyond John Benjamins Publishing Company." Amsterdam/Philadelphia (1995).
*Venuti, Lawrence. The translator's invisibility: A history of translation. Routledge, 2017.
*Wilss, Wolfram. The science of translation: problems and methods. Vol. 180. John Benjamins Pub Co, 1982. 翻译学问题与方法 Shanghai: SFLEP (2001).
*Xu, Jun 许钧, Mu Lei 穆雷. "翻译学概论 [Introduction to Translation Studies]." 南京: 译林出版社 10 (2009): 180-192.
*Xu, Jun 许钧. Translation Theories 翻译论. 湖北教育出版社, 2003
*Zhao, Wei 赵巍. "翻译学学科性质与研究方法反思." 解放军外国语学院学报 28.6 (2005): 69-72.

(We use Chicago Social Sciences Citation Style [https://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/tools_citationguide/citation-guide-2.html Chicago Style].)

==Final exam class projects==

Please help to edit one of the following book publications (please write your name behind the topics and organize the book with a proposal for the press and a chapter in the form of a journal paper by each participant):
*[[History of Translation Studies]] (Sample from last year.)
*[[History of Translations]]
Rouabah Soumaya( History of translation in the Middle Ages) 李习长 (History of Modern and Contemporary Chinese Translation) 黄柱梁（The Translation of Buddihist Sutra in China）王镇隆叶维杰李雯( The Translation theory after the establishment of the People's Republic of China)李怡(Modern Western Translation History) 李新星刘沛婷(Western Translation history in Renaissance) 刘薇(Contemporary American Translation History) 周俊辉周玖钟雨露钟义菲魏楚璇(western translation history in the modern and contemporary Age)
*[[History of Translation Theories]] 李瑞洋（Development of Translation Theories in Modern China）、陈心怡张扬、曾俊霖张怡然(History of Translation Theories from early Russia to the Soviet Union) 尹媛（The Brief Introduction of American structural school of translation theory) 李双杨堃刘运心魏兆妍(The Development of Humanism Trend in Western Translation Theory) 吴婧悦(History of Translation Theories in the Soviet Union) 杨爱江
*[[Machine translation]] - A challenge or a chance for human translators? 卫怡雯肖毅瑶王李菲徐敏赟颜莉莉颜静谢佳芬熊敏陈惠妮蔡珠凤陈湘琼 Nadia
*[[Culture loaded words]] 羊叶（中文电影英译字幕中文化负载词的翻译——以《霸王别姬》为例）、谢庆琳、罗曦（The translation methods of culture loaded words）何芩、孙雅诗、杜莉娜（跨文化交际视角下旅游文本中文化负载词的英汉翻译研究）、宫博雅（俄语成语中文化负载词的中文翻译分析）、周小雪(《药》英日译本中文化负载词的翻译对比研究）、付诗雨（博物馆文物解说词中文化负载词的日译研究）、丁旋(Translation of Culture-Loaded Words in ''The Concubine Market of Yangchow '' of Lin Yutang's Version from the Perspective of Newmark’s Translation Theory)、高蜜、殷慧珍、程杨、胡舒情
*[[The cultural turn]] in Translation History 金晓童李爱璇李文璇黄锦云李姗黄逸妍
*[[Appropriateness Theory]] - Ei Mon Kyaw (Creating Appropriateness Theory). I need more students here. You can write papers criticizing existing theories here and suggest what needs to be improved to develop a new theory! This is cutting edge research here! I expect the best students to participate and we may try to submit the papers to real academic journals!Ei Mon Kyaw (Creating Appropriateness Theory). 殷美达易扬帆（Appropriateness in Lyrics Translation -- A Case Study of Lana Del Rey's Lyrics Translation in QQ Music）
*[[Translation types, strategies, styles, methods]] 刘晓（纽马克翻译理论指导下旅游文本中翻译策略与翻译技巧的使用——以''Everglades National Park, Florida (Excerpt)''为例）刘越毛雅文毛优（俄语政论语体翻译策略及翻译技巧的使用——以“2019年俄罗斯政府工作报告”为例彭瑞雪秦建安（功能对等翻译视角下的鲁迅短篇小说翻译研究——以杨、戴夫妇的《孔乙己》英译本为例）颜子涵邝艳丽阳佳颖杨柳青（卞之琳的文学翻译理论和实践 ——以其浪漫主义诗歌译作为例）Atta Ur Rahman、Zohaib Chand、Muhammad Numan、Muhammad Saqib Mehran 刘胜楠（浅析目的论视角下《哪吒之魔童降世》字幕翻译策略）
*[[Aesthetic Appreciation of Literary Translations]] 朱素珍邹岳丽邱婷婷(Three beauties embodied in Xu Yuanchong's English translation of ''Tang Poetry'') 吴映红(A comparative study of aesthetic reproduction in Chinese versions of snow country from the perspective of translation aesthetics)
*[[Translation Theories Apllied to Literary Translations]] 周巧付红岩詹若萱（Chinese Translation of Subtitles of "Jane Eyre" from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory）
*[[Comparative Studies in Translation]] 石丽青牟一心饶金盈罗安怡马新王逸凡张秋怡朱壬铎

(We use Chicago Social Sciences Citation Style [https://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/tools_citationguide/citation-guide-2.html Chicago Style].)

==Schedule==
Please add your name, presentation form (ppt, handout) and subtopic here.

'''All sessions''':
*1 Sep 26 Introduction
*2 Sep 29 Emergence I
*3 Oct 13 Emergence II
(中国翻译的起源 The Emergence of Translation Studies in China) ppt by Chen Xiangqiong 陈湘琼 and handout by Xie Qinglin 谢庆琳.

(机器翻译的起源与发展 The Origin of Machine Translation) ppt by Yan Jing 颜静 and handout by Xu Minyun 徐敏赟.

*4 Oct 20 History of Translation
(中国翻译简史 The Brief History of Chinese Translation) ppt by Hu Shuqing 胡舒情 and handout by Gong Boya 宫博雅.

(西方翻译简史 The Brief History of Western Translation) ppt by Ding Xuan 丁旋 and handout by Fu Shiyu 付诗雨.

(中国译场中佛经翻译的历史 The History of Buddhist Scripture Translation in Chinese Translation Center) PPT by Ye Weijie 叶维杰 and handout by Wang Zhenlong 王镇隆.

(中国诗歌翻译简史 A Brief History of Chinese Poetry Translation) ppt by Rao Jinying 饶金盈 202120081520 and handout by Mou Yixin 牟一心.

(2000年以来的大中华文库翻译历史 The Translation History of Library of Chinese Classics Since 2000) ppt by Zhang Yang 张扬 and handout by Zeng Junlin曾俊霖.

*5 Oct 27 Early understanding
The early understanding next session refers to the very early theoretical understanding of the Translation process from ancient times until Maybe up to the middle of the 20th century. There are no elaborated theories yet, but at least some discussions About principles, strategies etc.

(佛经翻译的文质之争 The Debates Between Wen and Zhi on Buddhist Scriptures Translation) ppt by He Qin 何芩 202120081489 and handout by Gao Mi高蜜.

(林语堂的翻译 Translation by Lin Yutang) ppt by Xie Jiafen 谢佳芬 and handout by Yan Lili 颜莉莉.

*6 Nov 3 Linguistics and Equivalence (Nida) 

(J.C.Catford's Translation Equivalence Theory) ppt by Huang Yiyan 黄逸妍 and handout by Huang Jinyun 黄锦云.

(Two Types of Equivalence by Eugene A. Nida) ppt by Du Lina 杜莉娜 and handout by Ma Xin 马新.

(The Three Essences of Functional Equivalence and Its Application) ppt by Yi Yangfan 易扬帆 and handout by Yin Yuan 尹媛.

(Eugene Nida's Principles of Correspondence Theory) ppt by Chen Huini 陈慧妮 and handout by Cai Zhufeng 蔡珠凤.

*6 Nov 10 Translation Studies
(The Name and Nature of Translation Studies)ppt by Liu Shengnan刘胜楠; handout by Li Yi李怡

(Five Approaches to Translation)ppt by Li Wenxuan李文璇; handout by Li Shan 李姗

(Principles of Translation)ppt by Xiao Yiyao肖毅瑶; handout by Wu Yinghong吴映红

(Cultural and Ideological Approaches in Translation)ppt by Mahzad Heydarian; handout by Mahzad Heydarian

(Roman Jacobson's Categories of Translation)ppt by Xiong Min熊敏; handout by Sun Yashi孙雅诗

(Lin Yutang' s Translation Aesthetics )ppt by Luo Anyi罗安怡; handout by Shi Liqing石丽青

*8 Nov 17 Translation Theories
(Translation Theories of George Steiner)ppt by Yang Liuqing 杨柳青; handout by Yin Huizhen 殷慧珍

(The Functional Translation Theory of Reiss, Vermeer and Nord)ppt by Peng Ruixue 彭瑞雪;handout by Qin Jianan 秦建安.

(Translation Theories of Peter Newmark) ppt by Liu Xiao 刘晓; handout by Liu Yue 刘越.

(Yan Fu's Translation Thoughts)ppt by Wang Lifei 王李菲; handout by Wei Chuxuan 魏楚璇

(Translation theorie of Xu Yuanchong) ppt by Zhouqing周清; handout by Zou Yueli邹岳丽.

*9 Nov 24 History of Chinese Translation Theories
(The History of Chinese Translation Theories in Qing Dynasty)ppt by Cheng Yang 程杨 and handout by Li Shuang 李双.

(The History of Chinese Buddhist Translation Theories)ppt by Qiu Tingting邱婷婷; handout by Wei Yiwen 卫怡雯

(The Chinese Translation Theories During the Period of the May Forth Movement)ppt by Li Wen 李雯; handout by Zhou Xiaoxue 周小雪

(The History of Chinese Translation Theories from 1949 to Present)ppt by Yang Aijiang 杨爱江; handout by Yang Kun 杨堃

*10 Dec 1 Appropriateness Theory - this is a new theory suggested by M. Woesler in 2020. Everybody is invited to help to develop this theory or to criticize other theories and suggesting what a new theory (like the appropriateness theory) needs to do better.

(Appropriateness Theory) ppt by Yin Meida殷美达 and handout by Ei Mon Kyaw 艾梦觉

*11 Dec 8 Methods and Style
(The Literal Translation and Free Translation)ppt by Zhong Yifei钟义菲; handout by Zhong Yulu钟雨露.

(The Amplification and Omission in Translation)ppt by Zhou Jiu周玖; handout by Zhou Junhui周俊辉.

(Zhu Shenghao's Translation Style Take the Translation of Shakespeare's Plays for Example)ppt by Li Aixuan李爱璇；handout by Jing Xiaotong金晓童.

(Translation Methods of Idioms)ppt by Liu Yunxin 刘运心; handout by Li Ruiyang 李瑞洋

(Domestication and Foreignization)pptx by Chen Jing 陈静; handout by Chen Xinyi 陈心怡

*12 Dec 15 Theory and Practice.
(The value and limits of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory in its Application of Literature) ppt by 詹若萱 and handout by 罗曦
(Catford's Translation Shift Theory and its practice)ppt by 周巧and handout by 朱素珍
(An Analysis of Different Versions on the Basis of the Three Beauties of Xu Yuanchong) ppt by 邝艳丽 and handout by 付红岩
(庞德的翻译理论及其在《华夏集》中的应用 Ezra Pound's translation theory and its application in Cathay) handout by 张秋怡 and ppt by 王逸凡
() Skopos Theory and its Application ppt by 刘沛婷 and handout by 李新星

*13 Dec 22 Decriptive Studies, Culture, Invisibility, Constructivism
() ppt by 殷美达 and handout by 张怡然

*14 Dec 29 East-West Comparison
()ppt by刘薇 and handout by黄柱梁
()ppt by魏兆妍 and handout by 吴婧悦
()ppt by阳佳颖 and handout by 颜子涵
(韦努蒂与鲁迅异化翻译策略之比较 A Comparison of Venuti's and Lu Xun's Foreignization Translation Strategy) ppt by毛优 and handout by 毛雅文

== Homework from Session 1 Sep 26 due on Sep 29, 2021 ==

1. Take the survey after session 1: http://bit.ly/EU-SURVEY

2. Please fill in the 2nd quiz (to show that you have read the texts for session 2) before session 2. (Will be added later.)

3. Every student should translate 1 sentence. Here is the [[20210929_homework|homework page]]. - IN PREPARATION...

*[[20210929_homework|homework of session 1 for session 2 Sep 29]]

4. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation is once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20210929_homework|here]].

*[[20210929_homework|homework of session 1 for session 2 Sep 29]]

5. Please pick a topic from the pdf material, the general session topics or your own thoughts to do a presentation on. For the first topics, you need to do the presentation already in 1 week!

===Homework for later===
4. Write a final exam paper as a chapter of the book "Translation Studies", ... It has to be a topic, not yet chosen by any other student in the book. I will upload the book here later. You can participate in writing this book.

5. Get familiar with the pdfs I send you on WeChat group as learning material.

=Session 2, Sep 29: Emergence I=
*Teacher presentation
*Survey http://bit.ly/Eval-01
*Please select a topic to do a ppt or handout on
*Review homework
*Prepare final exam

===Homework for this session Sep 29===
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 2 (Emergence I)

2. Translate your passage on the homework page.

*[[20210929_homework|homework of session 1 for session 2 Sep 29]]

3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.

==Session 2, Sep 29, Topic 1: Emergence I - Emergence in China==
*Teacher presentation: [[Media:Emergence_I.pptx|Teacher presentation on the Emergence of Translation]] by Martin Woesler --[[User:Root|Root]] ([[User talk:Root|talk]]) 11:44, 13 October 2021 (UTC)

==Homework for next session Oct 13==

1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 3 (Emergence II)

2. Translate your passage on the homework page.

*[[20211013_homework|homework of session 2 for session 3 Oct 13]]

3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.

*[[20211013_homework|homework of session 2 for session 3 Oct 13]]

4. Please write your name behind one of the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Final_exam_class_projects|book projects]] where you want to write a chapter as your final exam paper. Also indicate the topic of your chapter in this book project.

5. (Only for students who do presentation on Oct 13: Emergence II (中国新时期翻译研究发展的起源 The origin of translation studies in China in the new Era) ppt by Chen Xiangqiong 陈湘琼 and handout by Xie Qinglin 谢庆琳. (Emergence of Oral Interpretation) ppt by Shan Gongfei:) Prepare ppt or handout.(机器翻译的起源 The Origin of Machine Translation) handout by Xu Minyun 徐敏赟 202120081535 and powerpoint by Yan Jing 颜静 202120081536.

=Session 3, Oct 13, Topic 2: Emergence II - Emergence in China=
==Homework for this session Oct 13==

1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 3 (Emergence II)

2. Translate your passage on the homework page.

*[[20211013_homework|homework of session 2 for session 3 Oct 13]]

3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.

*[[20211013_homework|homework of session 2 for session 3 Oct 13]]

4. (Only for students who do presentation on Oct 13:) Prepare ppt or handout.

==Presentations in Session 3, Emergence of Translation II==

*ppt: [[Media:03 Emergence of translations in China by Xie Qinglin.pptx|Presentation on Emergence of translation study in China 中国翻译的起源]] by Chen Xiangqiong 陈湘琼; handout [[Media:03_Xie_Qinglin_Emergence_of_translations_in_China.docx|Emergence of translation studies in China]] by Xie Qinglin 谢庆琳

Tip: Since the topics are sorted roughly chronologically, this topic should be the emergence of translation rather than emergence of translation studies.

*ppt: [[Media:The_Origin_of_Machine_Translation_by_Yan_Jing.pptx|Presentation on Origin of Machine Translation 机器翻译的起源与发展]] by Yan Jing 颜静; handout [[Media:The_Origin_of_Machine_Translation_by_Xu_Minyun.docx|Origin of Machine Translation handout]] by Xu Minyun 徐敏赟

Tip: This topic is also very modern, it should be presented at the end of the semester.

==Homework for next session Oct 20==
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 3 (Emergence II)

2. Translate your passage on the homework page.

*[[20211020_homework|homework of session 3 for session 4 Oct 20]]

3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.

4. (Only for students who do presentation on Oct 13:) Prepare ppt or handout.

=Session 4, Oct 20, Topic 3=
==Homework for this session Oct 20==

1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 4

2. Translate your passage on the homework page.

*[[20211020_homework|homework of session 3 for session 4 Oct 20]]

3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.

4. (Only for students who do presentation on Oct 20:) Prepare ppt or handout.

==Presentations on History of Translation, session 4==
* ppt: [[Media: The brief history of western translation_by_Ding_Xuan.pptx|Presentation on The brief history of western translation]] by Ding Xuan; handout [[Media:The brief history of Western translation.doc| The brief history of western translation]] by Fu Shiyu
*ppt: [[Media: The brief history of Chinese translation.pptx|Presentation on The brief history of Chinese translation]] by Hu Shuqing; handout [[Media:The brief history of Chinese translation_by_Gong_Boya.doc| The brief history of Chinese translation]] by Gong Boya
* ppt:[[Media: A brief history of Chinese poetry translation.pptx|Presentation on A brief history of Chinese poetry translation]] by Rao Jinying; handout: [[Media: A brief history of Chinese poetry translation.doc| A brief history of Chinese poetry translation]] by Mou Yixin
* ppt:[[Media: The Translation history of Library of Chinese Classics Since 2000.pptx|Presentation on The Translation history of Library of Chinese Classics Since 2000]] by Zhang Yang; handout: [[Media: The Translation history of Library of Chinese Classics Since 2000_by_Zeng_Junlin.doc| The Translation history of Library of Chinese Classics]] by Zeng Junlin
* ppt:[[Media: The History of Buddhist Scripture Translation in Chinese Translation Center.pptx|Presentation on The History of Buddhist Scripture Translation in Chinese Translation Center]] by Ye Weijie; handout: [[Media: The History of Buddhist Scripture Translation in Chinese Translation Center.docx| The History of Buddhist Scripture Translation in Chinese Translation Center]] by Wang Zhenlong

==Homework for next session Oct 27==
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 5

2. Translate your passage on the homework page.

*[[20211027_homework|homework of session 4 for session 5 Oct 27]]

3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.

4. (Only for students who do presentation on Oct 27:) Prepare ppt or handout.

=Session 5, Oct 27, Topic 4 Early Understanding of Translation (no elaborated theories yet)=
==Homework for this session Oct 27==

1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 5

2. Translate your passage on the homework page.

*[[20211027_homework|homework of session 4 for session 5 Oct 27]]

3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.

4. (Only for students who do presentation on Oct 27:) Prepare ppt or handout.

==Presentations Oct 27 on Early Understanding==

* Teacher presentation: [[Media:05_Transl_Studies_Emergence2_History.pptx|Powerpoint for the Sessions 3-5 by Martin Woesler, please download from this link]]

The early understanding next session refers to the very early theoretical understanding of the Translation process from ancient times until maybe up to the middle of the 20th century. There are no elaborated theories yet, but at least some discussions about principles, strategies etc.

* ppt: [[Media: Tranlation by Lin Yutang.pptx|Translation by Lin Yutang]] by Xie Jiafen; handout [[Media: Tranlation by Lin Yutang(handout).docx| Translation by Lin Yutang(handout)]] by Yan Lili
* ppt: [[Media: The Debates Between Wen and Zhi on Buddhist Scriptures Translation.pptx|The Debates Between Wen and Zhi on Buddhist Scriptures Translation]] by He Qin; handout [[Media: The Wen-Zhi Debate in the history of sutra translation (handout).docx| The Wen-Zhi Debate in the History of Sutra Translation (handout)]] by Gao Mi

==Homework for next session 6, Nov 3==
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 6

2. Translate your passage on the homework page.

*[[20211103_homework|homework of session 5 for session 6, Nov 3]]

3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.

4. (Only for students who do presentation on Nov 3:) Prepare ppt or handout.

=Session 6, Nov 3, Topic 5 Translation Equivalence, Nida and Linguistics=
==Homework for this session Nov 3==
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 6

2. Translate your passage on the homework page.

*[[20211103_homework|homework of session 5 for session 6 Nov 3]]

3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.

4. (Only for students who do presentation on Nov 3:) Prepare ppt or handout.

==Presentations Nov 3 on Linguistics and Equivalence(Nida)==

* ppt: [[Media:J.C.Catford's Translation Equivalence Theory(ppt).pptx|J.C.Catford's Translation Equivalence Theory(ppt)]] by Huang Yiyan; handout [[Media:Translation Equivalence Theory.docx|J.C.Catford's Translation Equivalence Theory]] by Huang Jinyun
* ppt: [[Media:Two Types of Equivalence by Eugene A. Nida(ppt).pptx|Two Types of Equivalence by Eugene A. Nida(ppt)]] by Du Lina; handout [[Media: Two Types of Equivalence by Eugene A. Nida.docx|Two Types of Equivalence by Eugene A. Nida]] by Ma Xin
* ppt: [[Media:The Three Essences of Functional Equivalence and Its Application.pptx|The Three Essences of Functional Equivalence and Its Application]] by Yi Yangfan; handout [[Media: The Three Essences of Functional Equivalence and Its Application.docx|The Three Essences of Functional Equivalence and Its Application]] by Yin Yuan
* ppt: [[Media:Eugene Nida ‘s Principles of Correspondence Theory(ppt).pptx|Eugene Nida ‘s Principles of Correspondence Theory(ppt)]] by Chen Huini; handout [[Media:Eugene Nida ‘s Principles of Correspondence Theory.docx|Eugene Nida ‘s Principles of Correspondence Theory]] by Cai Zhufeng

==Homework for next session 7, Nov 10==
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 7

2. Translate your passage on the homework page.

*[[20211110_homework|homework of session 6 for session 7, Nov 10]]

3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.

4. (Only for students who do presentation on Nov 10:) Prepare ppt or handout.

5. WRITE A DRAFT OF YOUR FINAL EXAM PAPER!
*[[20220112_final_exam|Final Exam paper page]]

=Session 7, Nov 10, Topic 6 Translation Studies=
==Homework for this session Nov 10==
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 7

2. Translate your passage on the homework page.

*[[20211110_homework|homework of session 6 for session 7 Nov 10]]

3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.

4. (Only for students who do presentation on Nov 3:) Prepare ppt or handout.

==Presentations Nov 10 on Translation Studies==

* ppt 1: [[Media:The Name and Nature of Translation Studies(ppt).pptx|The Name and Nature of Translation Studies(ppt)]] by Liu Shengnan; handout [[Media: The Name and Nature of Translation Studies.docx| The Name and Nature of Translation Studies]] by Li Yi

* ppt 2: [[Media:Five Approaches to Translation.pptx|Five Approaches to Translation]] by Li Wenxuan; handout [[Media:Five Approaches to Translation(handout).docx|Five Approaches to Translation()]] by Li Shan

* ppt 3: [[Media:Principles of Translation(ppt).pptx|Principles of Translation(ppt)]] by Xiao Yiyao; handout [[Media:Principles of Translation.docx|Principles of Translation]] by Wu Yinghong

* ppt 4: [[Media:Cultural and Ideological Approaches in Translation(ppt).pptx|Cultural and Ideological Approaches in Translation]] by Mahzad Heydarian; handout [[Media:Cultural and Ideological Approaches in Translation.docx| Cultural and Ideological Approaches in Translation ]] by Mahzad Heydarian

* ppt 5: [[Media:Roman Jacobson's Categories of Translation(ppt).pptx|Roman Jacobson's Categories of Translation(ppt)]] by Xiong Min; handout [[Media: Roman Jacobson's Categories of Translation.docx| Roman Jacobson's Categories of Translation]] by Sun Yashi

* ppt 6: [[Media:Lin Yutang' s Translation Aesthetics(ppt).pptx|Lin Yutang' s Translation Aesthetics]] by Luo Anyi; handout [[Media:Lin Yutang' s Translation Aesthetics.docx| Lin Yutang' s Translation Aesthetics]] by Shi Liqing

==Homework for next session 8, Nov 17==
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 8

2. Translate your passage on the homework page.

*[[20211117_homework|homework of session 6 for session 8, Nov 17]]

3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.

4. (Only for students who do presentation on Nov 17:) Prepare ppt or handout.

=Session 8, Nov 17, Translation Theories =
==Homework for this session Nov 17==
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 8

2. Translate your passage on the homework page.

*[[20211117_homework|homework of session 7 for session 8, Nov 17]]

3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.

4. (Only for students who do presentation on Nov 17:) Prepare ppt or handout.

==Presentations Nov 17 on Translation Theories==
* ppt 1: [[Media:Translation Theories of George Steiner(ppt).pptx|Translation Theories of George Steiner(ppt)]] by Yang Liuqing 杨柳青; handout [[Media: Translation Theories of George Steiner.docx| Translation Theories of George Steiner]] by Yin Huizhen 殷慧珍
* ppt 2: [[Media:The Functional Translation Theory of Reiss, Vermeer and Nord(ppt).pptx|The Functional Translation Theory of Reiss, Vermeer and Nord(ppt)]] by Peng Ruixue 彭瑞雪; [[Media:The Functional Translation Theory of Reiss, Vermeer and Nord (handout).docx|The Functional Translation Theory of Reiss, Vermeer and Nord (handout).docx]] by Qin Jianan 秦建安.
* ppt 3: [[Media:Translation Theories of Peter Newmark.pptx|Translation Theories of Peter Newmark]] ppt by Liu Xiao 刘晓; [[Media:Translation Theories of Peter Newmark.docx|Translation Theories of Peter Newmark .docx]] handout by Liu Yue 刘越.

* ppt 4:[[Media:Yan Fu's Translation Thoughts(ppt).pptx|Yan Fu's Translation Thoughts(ppt)]] by Wang Lifei 王李菲; handout [[Media: Yan Fu's Translation Thoughts.docx| Yan Fu's Translation Thoughts]] by Wei Chuxuan 魏楚璇
* ppt 5: [[Media:Translation of Xu Yuanchong.pptx|Translation theorie of Xu Yuanchong]] ppt by Zhouqing周清; [[Media:Translation of Xu Yuanchong.docx|Translation theorie of Xu Yuanchong]]handout by Zou Yueli邹岳丽.

==Homework for next session 9, Nov 24==
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 9

2. Translate your passage on the homework page.

*[[20211124_homework|homework of session 8 for session 9, Nov 24]]

3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.

4. (Only for students who do presentation on Nov 24:) Prepare ppt or handout.

=Session 9, Nov 24, History of Chinese Translation Theories =

==Homework for this session Nov 24==
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 9

2. Translate your passage on the homework page.

*[[20211124_homework|homework of session 8 for session 9, Nov 24]]

3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.

4. (Only for students who do presentation on Nov 24:) Prepare ppt or handout.

==Presentations Nov 24 on Chinese Translation Theories ==
* ppt 1: [[Media:The History of Chinese Translation Theories in Qing Dynasty(ppt).pptx|The History of Chinese Translation Theories in Qing Dynasty(ppt)]]ppt by Cheng Yang 程杨 and [[Media: The History of Chinese Translation Theories in Qing Dynasty.docx| The History of Chinese Translation Theories in Qing Dynasty]]handout by Li Shuang 李双.
* ppt 2: [[Media:The History of Chinese Buddhist Translation Theories(ppt).pptx|The History of Chinese Buddhist Translation Theories(ppt)]] by Qiu Tingting邱婷婷; handout [[Media: The History of Chinese Buddhist Translation Theories.docx| The History of Chinese Buddhist Translation Theories]] by Wei Yiwen 卫怡雯
* ppt 3: [[Media:The Chinese Translation Theories During the Period of the May Forth Movement(ppt).pptx|The Chinese Translation Theories During the Period of the May Forth Movement(ppt)]]by Li Wen 李雯; [[Media: The Chinese Translation Theories During the Period of the May Forth Movement.docx|The Chinese Translation Theories During the Period of the May Forth Movement]] handout by Zhou Xiaoxue 周小雪
* ppt 4: [[Media: The History of Chinese Translation Theories from 1949 to Present(ppt).pptx|The History of Chinese Translation Theories from 1949 to Present(ppt)]]by Yang Aijiang 杨爱江 [[Media: The History of Chinese Translation Theories from 1949 to Present.docx|The History of Chinese Translation Theories from 1949 to Present]] handout by Yang Kun 杨堃

==Homework for next session 10, Dec 1==
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 10

2. Translate your passage on the homework page.

*[[20211201_homework|homework of session 9 for session 10, Dec 1]]

3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.

4. (Only for students who do presentation on Dec 1:) Prepare ppt or handout.

=Session 10, Dec 1, Appropriateness Theory=
This is a new theory suggested by M. Woesler in 2020. Everybody is invited to help to develop this theory or to criticize other theories and suggesting what a new theory (like the appropriateness theory) needs to do better.

==Homework for this session Dec 1==
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 10

2. Translate your passage on the homework page.

*[[20211201_homework|homework of session 9 for session 10, Dec 1]]

3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.

4. (Only for students who do presentation on Dec 1:) Prepare ppt or handout.

==Presentations Dec 1==
* handout 1: [[Media: Appropriateness Theory.docx| Appropriateness Theory]] by Ei Mon Kyaw 艾梦觉;ppt 1: [[Media:Appropriateness Theory(ppt).pptx|Appropriateness Theory(ppt)]] by Yin Meida殷美达;

*Teacher presentation [[Media:10_Translation_Studies_Discipline.pptx|10_Translation_Studies_Discipline.pptx]]
*Teacher presentation [[Media:Appropriateness_Theory_Teacher_Presentation.pptx|Appropriateness_Theory_Teacher_Presentation.pptx]]

==Homework for next session 11, Dec 8==
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 11

2. Translate your passage on the homework page.

*[[20211208_homework|homework of session 10 for session 11, Dec 8]]

3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.

4. (Only for students who do presentation on Dec 8:) Prepare ppt or handout.

=Session 11, Dec 8, Methods and Style=
==Homework for this session Dec 8==
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 11

2. Translate your passage on the homework page.

*[[20211208_homework|homework of session 10 for session 11, Dec 8]]

3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.

4. (Only for students who do presentation on Dec 8:) Prepare ppt or handout.

==Presentations Dec 8 on Methods and Style==
* ppt 1: [[Media:The Literal Translation and Free Translation(ppt).pptx|The Literal Translation and Free Translation(ppt)]] by Zhong Yifei钟义菲; handout [[Media: The Literal Translation and Free Translation.docx| The Literal Translation and Free Translation]] by Zhong Yulu钟雨露.
* ppt 1: [[Media:The Amplification and Omission in Translation(ppt).pptx|The Amplification and Omission in Translation(ppt)]] by Zhou Jiu周玖; handout [[Media: The Amplification and Omission in Translation.docx| The Amplification and Omission in Translation]] by Zhou Junhui周俊辉.
* ppt 3: [[Media:Zhu Shenghao's Translation Style Take the Translation of Shakespeare's Plays for Example(ppt).pptx|Zhu Shenghao's Translation Style Take the Translation of Shakespeare's Plays for Example(ppt)]] by Li Aixuan李爱璇；handout [[Media:Zhu Shenghao's Translation Style Take the Translation of Shakespeare's Plays for Example.docx|Zhu Shenghao's Translation Style Take the Translation of Shakespeare's Plays for Example]] by Jing Xiaotong金晓童.
* ppt 4: [[File:Translation Methods of Idioms.pptx|Translation Methods of Idioms(ppt)]] by Liu Yunxin 刘运心; handout [[File:Translation Methods of Idioms.docx|Translation Methods of Idioms(handout)]] by Li Ruiyang 李瑞洋
* ppt 5: [[Media:11_Chen_Jing_Domestication_and_Foreignization.pptx|Domestication and Foreignization(pptx)]] by Chen Jing 陈静; handout [[File:Domestication and Foreignization.docx|Domestication and Foreignization(handout)]] by Chen Xinyi 陈心怡
*Teacher presentation [[Media:11_Translation_Studies_Discipline.pptx|11_Translation_Studies_Discipline.pptx]]

[[File:Translation Methods of Idioms.pptx]]

==Homework for next session 12, Dec 15==
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 12

2. Translate your passage on the homework page.

*[[20211215_homework|homework of session 11 for session 12, Dec 15]]

3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.

4. (Only for students who do presentation on Dec 15:) Prepare ppt or handout.

=Session 12, Dec 15, Theory and Practice.=

==Homework for this session Dec 15==
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 12

2. Translate your passage on the homework page.

*[[20211215_homework|homework of session 11 for session 12, Dec 15]]

3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.

4. (Only for students who do presentation on Dec 15:) Prepare ppt or handout.

==Presentations Dec 15 on Theory and Practice==
* ppt 1: [[Media:Catford Translation Shift Theory and Tts Practice(ppt).pptx|Catford Translation Shift Theory and Its Practice(ppt)]] by Zhou Qiao 周巧; handout [[Media:Catford Translation Shift Theory and Its Practice.docx|Catford Translation Shift Theory and Its Practice]] by Zhu Suzhen 朱素珍.

* ppt 2: [[Media: The value and limits of Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory in its Application of Literature(ppt).pptx| The value and limits of Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory in its Application of Literature（ppt）]] by Zhan Ruoxuan 詹若萱;handout [[Media:The value and limits of Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory in its Application of Literature.docx|The value and limits of Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory in its Application of Literature]] by Luo Xi 罗曦.

* ppt 3：[[Media:Ezra Pound's translation theory and its application in Cathay(ppt).pptx|Ezra Pound's translation theory and its application in Cathay(ppt)]] by Wang Yifan 王逸凡; handout [[Media:Ezra Pound's translation theory and its application in Cathay.docx|Ezra Pound's translation theory and its application in Cathay]] by Zhang Qiuyi 张秋怡.

* ppt 4：[[Media:Skopos Theory and its application by Jawad and Liu Peiting.pptx|Skopos Theory and its application by Jawad and Liu Peiting]] by Jawad Ahmad; handout [[Media:Skopos Theory and Its Application.docx|Skopos Theory and Its Application]] by Liu Peiting 刘沛婷.

==Homework for next session 13, Dec 22==
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 13

2. Translate your passage on the homework page.

*[[20211222_homework|homework of session 12 for session 13, Dec 22]]

3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.

4. (Only for students who do presentation on Dec 22:) Prepare ppt or handout.

=Session 13, Dec 22, Descriptive Studies, Culture, Invisibility, Constructivism=

==Homework for this session Dec 22==
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 13

2. Translate your passage on the homework page.

*[[20211222_homework|homework of session 12 for session 13, Dec 22]]

3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.

4. (Only for students who do presentation on Dec 22:) Prepare ppt or handout.

==Presentations Dec 22 on Decriptive Studies, Culture, Invisibility, Constructivism==

* ppt 1: [[Media:Gideon Toury's Descriptive Translation Studies(ppt).pptx|Gideon Toury's Descriptive Translation Studies(ppt)]]ppt by Benjamin Wellsand; handout [[Media:Gideon Toury's Descriptive Translation Studies.docx|Gideon Toury's Descriptive Translation Studies]] by Bi bi Nadia.

* ppt 2: [[Media:Gideon Toury's Descriptive Study of Norms in Translation Presentation(ppt).pptx|Gideon Toury's Descriptive Study of Norms in Translation Presentation(ppt)]]ppt by Rouabah Soumaya; handout [[Media:.docx|.docx]] by Bi bi Nadia.

* ppt 3: [[Media:Presentation on Cultural Aspects of Translation Studies(ppt).pptx|Presentation on Cultural Aspects of Translation Studies(ppt)]]ppt by Zhang Yiran 张怡然; handout [[Media:Presentation on Cultural Aspects of Translation Studies.docx|Presentation on Cultural Aspects of Translation Studies]] by Atta Ur Rahman.

* ppt 4: [[Media:Revisiting Newmark’s Theory of Translation(ppt).pptx|Revisiting Newmark’s Theory of Translation(ppt)]] by Asep Budiman; [[Media: The Appropriateness Theory.docx| The Appropriateness Theory]] by Asep Budiman

==Homework for next session 14, Dec 29==
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 14

2. Translate your passage on the homework page.

*[[20211229_homework|homework of session 13 for session 14, Dec 29]]

3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.

4. (Only for students who do presentation on Dec 29:) Prepare ppt or handout.

=Session 14, Dec 29, East-West Comparison=

==Homework for this session Dec 29==
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 14

2. Translate your passage on the homework page.

*[[20211229_homework|homework of session 13 for session 14, Dec 29]]

3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.

4. (Only for students who do presentation on Dec 29:) Prepare ppt or handout.

==Presentations Dec 29 on East-West Comparison==
*ppt 1: [[Media: A Comparison of Venuti's and Lu Xun's Foreignization Translation Strategy(PPT).mp4|A Comparison of Venuti's and Lu Xun's Foreignization Translation Strategy(PPT).mp4]] ppt by Mao You 毛优; [[Media: A Comparison of Venuti's and Lu Xun's Foreignization Translation Strategy(Handout).docx|A Comparison of Venuti's and Lu Xun's Foreignization Translation Strategy(Handout).docx]] handout by Mao Yawen 毛雅文.

*ppt 2: A Comparative Study on the Differences between Chinese and Western Contemporary Cultural Translation——Taking the Translation Concepts of Liu Miqing(刘宓庆) and Susan Bassnett as an Example. [[File:A Comparative Study on the Differences between Chinese and Western Contemporary Cultural Translation.pptx]] by Wei Zhaoyan魏兆妍；[[File:A Comparative Study on the Differences between Chinese and Western Contemporary Cultural Translation(handout).docx]] by Wu Jingyue吴婧悦

*ppt 3: [[Media:Hypotactic and Paratactic(ppt).pptx|Hypotactic and Paratactic(ppt)]]ppt by Liu Wei 刘薇; [[Media:Hypotactic and Paratactic.docx|Hypotactic and Paratactic]]handout by Huang Zhuliang黄柱梁.

*ppt 4: [[Media:Comparison of Wstern and Estern Translation Standard(ppt).pptx|Comparison of Wstern and Estern Translation Standard(ppt)]]ppt by Kuang Yanli 邝艳丽; [[Media:Comparison of Translation Standards Between East and West.docx|Comparison of Translation Standards Between East and West]]handout by Akira Jantarat.

=Samples from last year: 人类起源 The emergence of translation and interpretation=
Please note: All the sessions (2-16) here are copies of the 2020 course.

You can have a look how the fellow students did it last year,

but you have to write everything new here for 2021.

*Teacher presentation

*Student presentations

OLD (2020):

*Handout for download [[Media:The_emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation.docx|Global Emergence of Interpretation and Translation]] by 彭锐宏
*Classroom presentation for download [[Media:The_emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation_by_Peng_Ruihong.pptx|Presentation on Emergence of translation]] by 彭锐宏--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 07:05, 28 September 2020 (UTC)

===Session 2, Topic 2: 西方起源 The emergence of translation and interpretation in the West===
*Handout for download:[[Media:The_Emergence_of_Translation_and_Interpretation_in_Western_Countries.docx|Handout on The Emergence of Translation and Interpretation in Western Countries]]--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 05:43, 28 September 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou by 聂晓楼
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The_Emergence_of_Translation_and_Interpretation_in_Western_Countries.pptx|Powerpoint on The Emergence of Translation and Interpretation in Western Countries]]--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 05:43, 28 September 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou by 聂晓楼

===Session 2, Topic 3: 中国起源 The emergence of translation and interpretation in China===
*Handout for download:[[Media:Emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation_in_China.docx| Handout on Emergence of translation and interpretation in China]]--Mashuya by 马淑雅
*Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation_in_China.pptx|PowerPoint on Emergence of translation and interpretation in China]]--Mashuya by 马淑雅

===Session 2, Topic 4: 日本起源 The emergence of translation and interpretation in Japan===
*Handout for download: [[Media:The_Emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation_in_Japan.docx|The Emergence of translation and interpretation in Japan]] by 孟莹 --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 16:10, 27 September 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying
*Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:The_Emergence_of_Translation_and_Interpretation_in_Japan.ppt|Powerpoint on the Emergence of Translation and Interpretation in Japan]] by 孟莹--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 16:10, 27 September 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying

===Homework from Session 2 (Sep 28, 2020), due on (Oct 5, 2020)===
1. Every student should translate 1 paragraph of an English book on Contemporary Chinese Literature INTO CHINESE. Link: [[20200928_trans|here]].

2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20200928_trans|here]].

==3rd Session: History==

===Session 3, Topic 1:中国古代翻译史History of Translation in Ancient China===
*Handout for download：[[Media:Handout for History of Translation in Ancient China.doc]]--[[User:Li Yu|Li Yu]] ([[User talk:Li Yu|talk]]) 09:14, 5 October 2020 (UTC)
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media: History of Translation in Ancient China.pptx]]--[[User:Li Yu|Li Yu]] ([[User talk:Li Yu|talk]]) 09:14, 5 October 2020 (UTC)

===Session 3, Topic 2: 中国翻译史代表人物The Representatives in Chinese Translation History===
*Handout for download: [[Media:Chin_Trans_Hist_Rep.docx|The Representatives in Chinese Translation History]] --[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 11:35, 4 October 2020 (UTC)
*Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:....pptx|The Representatives in Chinese Translation History]] --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:36, 4 October 2020 (UTC)

===Session 3, Topic 3: 中国翻译史的四个阶段 The Four Stages of Chinese Translation History===
*Handout for download: [[Media:The four stages of Chinese translation history.docx|Description of the file]] PLEASE UPLOAD by --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:08, 5 October 2020 (UTC)XX
*Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:The_four_stages_of_Chinese_translation_history.pptx|The Four Stages of Chinese Translation History]] by --[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 16:16, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

===Session 3, Topic 4: 当代中国之翻译 Translation in Contemporary China===
*Handout for download: [[Media:Handout for Translation in Contemporary China.docx|Translation in today's China]] by --[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 02:08, 5 October 2020 (UTC)
*Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Translation in Contemporary China(1).pptx|Presentation on translation in China today]] --[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 01:05, 5 October 2020 (UTC) Zhang Yuxing by 张宇星

==='''Homework from Session 3 (Oct 5, 2020), for Session 4 due on (Oct 12, 2020)'''===

1. Every student should translate 1 sentence of the Introduction of the Book "Translation Studies". Here is the '''[[20201005_trans|homework page]]'''.

2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201005_trans|here]].

==Session 4: Development==

===Session 4, Topic 1: 西方翻译史 Western translation history===
*Handout for download: [[Media:....docx|Western translation history]] by Zhou Siqing--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:57, 5 October 2020 (UTC)
*Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Western translation history.pptx|Western translation history]] by Zhang Qi [[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 07:46, 12 October 2020 (UTC)

===Session 4, Topic 2: 中国佛经翻译的发展 The Develpment of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures===
*Handout for download:[[Media:The Develpment of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures.docx]] by Jiang Qiwei--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 15:26, 10 October 2020 (UTC)
*Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:The Develpment of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures.ppt|The Develpment of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures]] by Hu Jin--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 15:26, 10 October 2020 (UTC)

===Session 4, Topic 3:西方翻译理论史History of Western Translation Theory===
*Handout for download: [[Media:...docx|History of Western Translation Theory]] by --[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 13:19, 4 October 2020 (UTC)XX
* Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:...pptx| Brief History of Western Translation Theory]] by --[[User:Zhou Shiqing|Zhou Shiqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shiqing|talk]]) 13:19, 4 October 2020 (UTC)XX

===Session 4, Topic 4:口译未来的发展 Prospect of Interpreting===
*Handout for download:[[Media:The Prospect of Interpreting.docx]]-by Zhang Yinliu--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 08:30, 12 October 2020 (UTC)
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Prospect of Interpreting.pptx]]--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 08:23, 12 October 2020 (UTC)

===Session 4, Topic 5:新中国成立后翻译的发展 Translation Development of New China===
*Handout for download:[[Media:Translation Development of New China.pdf]] by Li Luyi --[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:47, 10 October 2020 (UTC)
*Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Translation Development .pptx]] by Zheng Huajun--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:47, 10 October 2020 (UTC)

===Session 4, Topic 6:圣经翻译的发展 The Development of Bible Translation===
*Handout for download:[[Media:The Development of Bible Translation.docx]]--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 03:05, 11 October 2020 (UTC)
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Development of Bible Translation.pptx]] by Han Haiyang--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 02:01, 11 October 2020 (UTC)

===Session 4, Topic 7:机器翻译的发展 The Development of Machine Translation===
*Handout for download:[[Media:Handout-The Development of Machine Translation.docx]] by Deng Jinxia----[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 12:42, 19 October 2020 (UTC)
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:PPT The Development of Machine Translation.pptx]] by Han Wanzhen--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 06:31, 11 October 2020 (UTC)

===Session 4, Topic 8:视听翻译的发展 The Development of Audiovisual Translation===
*Handout for download:[[Media:The Development of Audiovisual Translation-Handout.docx]]--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 16:01, 11 October 2020 (UTC)
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Development of Audiovisual Translation-PPT.pptx]] by Cheng Yusi--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 16:04, 11 October 2020 (UTC)

==='''Homework from Session 4 (Oct 12, 2020), for Session 5 due on (Oct 19, 2020)'''===

1. Every student should translate a short passage of a paper on the Chinese essay. Here is the '''[[20201012_trans|homework page]]'''.

2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. [[20201012_trans|here]].

3. Take part in an online survey. The survey is currently prepared by the fellow students.

==Session 5: ==

===Session 5, Topic 1:林纾的翻译 Lin Shu's translation===
*Handout for download:[[Media:Translation by Lin Shu.docx]]--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 08:50, 29 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Translation by Lin Shu(After correcting).pptx]]--Xu Pengfei

===Session 5, Topic 2:茅盾的翻译 Mao Dun's Translation===
*Handout for download:[[Media:Mao Dun's Translation.docx]]--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 02:44, 18 October 2020 (UTC)

[[Media:translations by Mao Dun.pptx]]--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 13:14, 1 November 2020 (UTC)

===Session 5, Topic 3:严复和天演论 Yan Fu and Tianyan Lun===
*Handout for download:[[Media:YAN Fu and Tianyan Lun.docx]]--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 09:53, 18 October 2020 (UTC)Yuan Yuchen
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:YAN Fu and Tianyan Lun.pptx]]--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 10:28, 18 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

Please stick to your 5 minutes with your presentation. We are 3 presentations behind. Thank you for your cooperation.

===Session 5, Topic 4:《红楼梦》的英译 The Translation of ''The Red Chamber Dreams''===
*Handout for download:[[Media:The Translation of ''The Red Chamber Dreams''.docx]]--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 13:38, 18 October 2020 (UTC)
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Translation of ''The Red Chamber Dreams''.pptx]]----[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 03:59, 24 October 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

===Session 5, Topic 5:《圣经》的早期汉译 The Early Translation of the Bible into Chinese===
*Handout for download:[[Media:The Early Translation of the Bible into Chinese.docx]]--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 15:22, 18 October 2020 (UTC)
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Early Translation of the Bible into Chinese.ppt]]--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 14:55, 18 October 2020 (UTC)

===Session 5, Topic 6:梁实秋的翻译 The Translation of Liang Shiqiu===
*Handout for download:[[Media:The Liang Shiqiu's Translation.pdf]]--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]]([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 00:32, 19 October 2020 (UTC)
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media: Liang Shiqiu.pdf]]--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]]([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 00:32, 19 October 2020 (UTC)

==Session 6: Early Theories==

==='''Homework from Session 5 (Oct 19, 2020), for Session 6 due on (Oct 26, 2020)'''===

1. Every student should translate 1 sentence of the Introduction of the Book "Translation Studies". Here is the '''[[20201019_trans|homework page]]'''.

2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201019_trans|here]].

===Session 6, Topic 1: 巴斯奈特文化翻译观 The Cultural Translation Theory of Bassnett===

Handout for download: [[Media:The Cultural Translatioin Theory of Susan Bassnett.pdf]]--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]]([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 16:36, 24 October 2020 (UTC)

Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Cultural Translatioin Theory of Bassnett.ppt]]--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 05:07, 24 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie

===Session 6, Topic 2: 中国早期代表性佛经翻译理论 Early Representative Theories of Buddhist Scriptures Translation in China===

Handout for download:[[Media:Early Representative Theories of Buddhist Scriptures Translation in China.docx]]--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:23, 25 October 2020 (UTC)

Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Early Representative Theories of Buddhist Scriptures Translation in China.pptx]]--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 00:43, 26 October 2020 (UTC)

===Session 6, Topic 3: 两种西方早期翻译模式的比较分析:贺拉斯模式和杰罗姆模式 The Comparative Analysis of Two Early Western Translation Models: Horace Model and Jerome Model===

Handout for download:[[Media:The Comparative Analysis of Two Translation Models.docx]]--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 09:41, 25 October 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing

Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The_Comparative_Analysis_of_Two_Translation_Models.pptx]]--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 09:24, 25 October 2020 (UTC)Gao Mingzhu

===Session 6, Topic 4: 卡特福德的《翻译的语言学理论》 A Linguistic Theory of Translation of J.C.Catford===

Handout for download:[[Media:A Linguistic Theory of Translation of Catford.docx]]--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 12:30, 25 October 2020 (UTC)

Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:A Linguistic Theory of Translation.pptx]]--[[User:Wen Xiaoyi|Wen Xiaoyi]] ([[User talk:Wen Xiaoyi|talk]]) 12:38, 25 October 2020 (UTC)

===Session 6, Topic 5: 中西早期译论对比 The Comparison between Chinese and Western Early Translation Theories===
Handout for download:[[Media:Comparison of Early Translation Theories between China and the West.docx]]--[[User:QiKai|Qi Kai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 14:04, 25 October 2020 (UTC)

Classroom Presentation for download:[[Media:Chinese and Western Early Theories Comparison.pptx]]--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 13:26, 25 October 2020 (UTC)

===Session 6, Topic 6: 系统翻译理论的早期尝试 Early Attempts at Systematic Translation Theory===

Handout for download: [[Media:Early Attempts at Systematic Translation Theory.docx]]--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 12:40, 25 October 2020 (UTC)

Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Early Attempts at Systematic Translation Theory.ppt]]--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]])03:52, 25 October 2020 (UTC)

==Session 7: Western theories==. 周巧 presentation PowerPoint 朱素珍 handout Cat ford Translation Shift Theory

===Homework from Session 6 (Oct 26, 2020), for Session 6 due on (Nov 2, 2020)===

1. Every student should translate 1 sentence of the Introduction of the Book "Translation Studies". Here is the '''[[20201026_trans|homework page]]'''.

2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201026_trans|here]].

===Session 7, Topic 1: 奈达功能对等理论 Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory===

Handout for download:[[Media:Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory.docx]]

Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory ppt.pptx]]--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 02:59, 2 November 2020 (UTC)

===Session 7, Topic 2: 多元系统理论 Polysystem Theory===

Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Polysystem Theory ppt.pptx]]--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 11:35, 1 November 2020 (UTC)

Handout for download:[[Media:Polysystem Theory.docx]]--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 11:21, 1 November 2020 (UTC)

===Session 7, Topic 3：后殖民主义翻译理论 Post-colonial Translation Theory===

Handout for download:[[Media:Post-colonial Translation Theory.doc]]--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 12:27, 1 November 2020 (UTC)

Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Post-colonial Translation Theory.pptx]]--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 01:29, 2 November 2020 (UTC)

===Session 7, Topic 4：布拉格学派 Prague School===

Handout for download: [[Media:Prague_School-Handout.doc]]--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 14:48, 1 November 2020 (UTC)

Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Prague School.pptx]]--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:08, 1 November 2020 (UTC)

===Session 7, Topic 5：目的论 Skopos Theory===

Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Skopos Theory.pptx]]--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 07:26, 2 November 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan

Handout for download:[[Media:Skopos Theory.docx]]--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 08:21, 2 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

===Session 7, Topic 6：语言学派 Linguistic School===

Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Linguistic School.pptx]]----[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:26, 2 November 2020 (UTC)

Handout for download: [[Media:Linguistic School-Handout.doc]]----[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:48, 2 November 2020 (UTC)

==Session 8: Methods==

===Homework from Session 7 (Nov 2, 2020), for Session 8 due on (Nov 9, 2020)===

1. Every student should translate 1 sentence of the Introduction of the Book "Translation Studies". Here is the '''[[20201102_trans|homework page]]'''.

2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201102_trans|here]].

===Session 8, Topic 1：正说反译与反说正译 Negation===
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Negation-Gan Fengyu.pptx]][[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 13:01, 6 November 2020 (UTC)

Handout for download:[[Media:Negation.docx]]--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 12:56, 6 November 2020 (UTC)

===Session 8, Topic 2：异化策略下的翻译方法 Translation Methods of Foreignization Strategy ===
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Translation Methods of Foreignization Strategy-Zhao Xiaoyan.pptx]]--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 15:35, 7 November 2020 (UTC)

Handout for download:[[Media:Translation Methods of Foreignization Strategy-Zhang Hui.docx]]--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 15:33, 7 November 2020 (UTC)

===Session 8, Topic 3：交际翻译与语义翻译 Communicative Translation and Semantic Translation===
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Communicative Translation and Semantic Translation.pptx]]by Zhang Yu--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 13:01, 6 November 2020 (UTC)

Handout for download:[[Media:Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation-handout.docx]]--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 13:49, 6 November 2020 (UTC)

===Session 8, Topic 4：直译与意译 Literal Translation and Free translation===
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Literal Translation and Free translation.pptx]]--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 15:45, 8 November 2020 (UTC)
Handout for download:[[Media:Literal Translation and Free translation Handout.docx]]--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 01:22, 9 November 2020 (UTC)

===Session 8, Topic 5：增译与减译 Amplification and Omission===
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Amplification and Omission.pptx]]--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 03:06, 9 November 2020 (UTC)

Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Amplification And Omission.docx]]--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 05:05, 9 November 2020 (UTC)Wensixing

===Session 8, Topic 6：影视字幕的翻译方法-以《肖申克的救赎》为例 The Translation Method of Film and Television Subtitles——Taking Shawshank’s Redemption as an Example===
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Translation Method of Film and Television Subtitles—Taking Shawshank’s Redemption as an Example.pptx]]--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 01:21, 9 November 2020 (UTC)
Handout for download:[[Media:The Translation Method of Film and Television Subtitles—Taking Shawshank’s Redemption as an Example Handout.docx]]--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 01:16, 9 November 2020 (UTC)

==Session 9: Style==

===Homework from Session 8 (Nov 9, 2020), for Session 9 due on (Nov 16, 2020)===

1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. Here is the '''[[20201116_trans|homework page]]'''.

2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201116_trans|here]].

===Session 9, Topic 1: 源语风格和翻译 Style of Source Text and Translation===

Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Style of Source Text and Translation.docx]]--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 06:48, 9 November 2020 (UTC)

Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Style of Source Text and Translation1.pptx]]--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 07:03, 9 November 2020 (UTC)

===Session 9, Topic2 : 科技翻译 Scientific Style===

Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Scientific Style.docx]]--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 01:42, 16 November 2020 (UTC)

Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Scientific Style.pptx]]--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:17, 16 November 2020 (UTC)

===Session 9,Topic 3:不同翻译风格对比 Comparison among Different Translation Styles===

Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Handout Session 9 Comparison among Different Translation Styles.docx]]--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 14:40, 14 November 2020 (UTC)

Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Session 9 Comparison among Different Translation Styles.pptx]]--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 14:40, 14 November 2020 (UTC)

===Session 9,Topic 4: 文学风格可译与不可译 On Literary Style from a Translatable View and Untranslatable View===
Classroom handout for download:[[Media:On Literary Style from a Translatable View and Untranslatable View.docx]]--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:49, 16 November 2020 (UTC)

Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:On Literary Style from a Translatable View and Untranslatable View.pptx]] by Li Yongshan --[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:49, 16 November 2020 (UTC)

===Session 9,Topic 5: 翻译与风格 Translation and Style= ==
Classroom handout for download: [[Media:Translation_and_Style.docx]]--Hu Huifang

Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Translation_and_Style.pptx]]--Zeng Yanhu

[[Media:Example.ogg]]

==Session 10: Translation Studies==

===Homework from Session 9 (Nov 16, 2020), for Session 10 due on (Nov 23, 2020)===

1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. Here is the '''[[20201123_trans|homework page]]'''.

2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201123_trans|here]].

===Session 10,Topic 1: 翻译转换 Translation Shifts===
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Translation_Shifts.pptx]]--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 14:51, 22 November 2020 (UTC)

Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Translation_Shifts_handout.docx]]--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 15:05, 22 November 2020 (UTC)

===Session 10,Topic 2: 解码和重新编码 Decoding and Recoding===
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Decoding and Recoding.pptx]]--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 08:33, 23 November 2020 (UTC)

Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Decoding and Recoding.docx]]--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 04:32, 23 November 2020 (UTC)

===Session 10,Topic 3: 视听翻译 Audiovisual Translation===
Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Audiovisual Translation.docx]]--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 13:19, 22 November 2020 (UTC) - READ BY NIE XIAOLOU

Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Audiovisual Translation.pptx]]--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 00:26, 23 November 2020 (UTC)

===Session 10,Topic 4: 对钱钟书“化境说”的理论研究 The Translation Studies of Qian Zhongshu’s Theory of Huajing===
[[Media:Handout-The Translation Studies of Qian Zhongshu’s theory of Huajing.docx]]--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 05:38, 23 November 2020 (UTC)

[[Media:The Translation Studies of Qian Zhongshu’s theory of Huajing.pptx]]--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 05:40, 23 November 2020 (UTC)

===Session 10, Topic 5: 英汉被动语态对比研究及其翻译策略 Contrastive Studies of Passive Voice(C&E) and its Translation Strategies===
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Contrastive Studies of Passive Voice(C&E) and its Translation Strategies.pptx]] --[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 09:20, 23 November 2020 (UTC)

Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Contrastive Studies of Passive Voice(C&E) and its Translation Strategies.docx]]--[[User:Blank|Zhang Hu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hu|talk]]) 10:23, 23 November 2020 (UTC)

===Session 10,Topic 6: 不可译性及其转化策略 Untranslatability and Translation Strategies====

Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Untranslatability and Translation Strategies.docx]]--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 12:03, 22 November 2020 (UTC)

Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Untranslatability & Translation Strategies.pptx]]--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 12:45, 22 November 2020 (UTC)

==Session 11: Theory and Practice==

===Homework from Session 10 (Nov 23, 2020), for Session 11 due on (Nov 30, 2020)===

1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. Here is the '''[[20201130_trans|homework page]]'''.

2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201130_trans|here]].

===Session 11,Topic 1: 功能对等理论对商标翻译的影响 The Effect of the Equivalence Theory on Trademark Translation===

Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Handout.The Theory and Practice.docx]]--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 07:38, 30 November 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan

Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Effect of the Equivalence Theory on Trademark Translation.pptx]]--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 08:08, 30 November 2020 (UTC)

===Session 11,Topic 2: 归化和异化在翻译中的实践 Translation practice in domestication and foreignization===

Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Handout.The Practice of Foreignization and Domestication.docx]]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 01:21, 30 November 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia

Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Translation practice in domestication and foreignization.pptx]]--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 09:00, 29 November 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi

===Session 11,Topic 3: 目的论及其应用 Skopos Theory and its Applications===

Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Skopos Theory and its Applications.docx]]--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 05:08, 30 November 2020 (UTC)

Classroom presentation for download：[[Media:Skopos Theory and its Applications.pptx]]--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 05:16, 30 November 2020 (UTC)

===Session 11,Topic 4:语义翻译与交际翻译 The Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation===

Classroom handout for download:[[Media:The Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation.docx]]--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 16:30, 29 November 2020 (UTC)

Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation.ppt]]--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 06:56, 30 November 2020 (UTC)

===Session 11,Topic 5: 奈达的功能对等理论及其在科技文英译汉中的应用 Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory and its Application in E-C Translation of EST===

Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Nida’s_Functional_Equivalence_Theory_and_its_Application_in E-C_Translation_of_EST.docx]]--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 02:03, 30 November 2020 (UTC)

Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory and its Application in E-C Translation of EST.pptx]]--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]]--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 03:25, 30 November 2020 (UTC)

===Session 11,Topic 6:女性主义翻译 The Feminist Translation===

Handout for download：[[Media:Feminist Translation.doc]]--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:07, 30 November 2020 (UTC)

Classroom presentation：[[Media:Feminist Translation.pptx]]

==Session 12: Different Aspects==

===Homework from Session 11 (Nov 30, 2020), for Session 12 due on (Dec 7, 2020)===

1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. Here is the '''[[20201207_trans|homework page]]'''.

2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201207_trans|here]].

===Session 12, Topic 1: 政论文翻译 Translation of Political Text===

Classroom handout for download: [[Media:Translation of Political Text.docx]]--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 12:21, 4 December 2020 (UTC)

Classroom handout for download: [[Media:Translation of Political Text.pptx]] By Chen Jiaxin --[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 12:30, 4 December 2020 (UTC)

===Session 12, Topic 2: 诗歌翻译 Poem Translation===
Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Poem Translation.pptx]]--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 14:59, 6 December 2020 (UTC)

[[Media:Poem_Translation_handout.docx]] by Zhang Yujie& Yang Hairong--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 03:14, 7 December 2020 (UTC)

===Session 12, Topic 3: 旅游翻译 Tourism Translation===
Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Tourism Translation.pptx]] by Tan Xinjie & Wei Yafei --[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 09:53, 5 December 2020 (UTC)Weiyafei

[[Media:Tourism_Translation_handout.docx]] by Tan Xinjie & Wei Yafei--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 10:06, 5 December 2020 (UTC)Wei Yafei

==Session 13: East West comparison==

===Homework from Session 12 (Nov 30, 2020), for Session 13 due on (Dec 14, 2020)===

1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. Here is the '''[[20201214_trans|homework page]]'''.

2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201214_trans|here]].

===Topic 1:严复和泰特勒翻译标准之对比 A Comparison between Yan Fu's and Tytler's Translation Criteria===
[[Media:A Comparison Between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s Translation Criteria.pptx]]--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 07:15, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming
[[Media:A Comparison Between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s Translation Criteria.docx]]--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 06:52, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong

===Topic 2:中西翻译发展比较Comparison of the Development of Chinese and Western Translation===

[[Media:Comparison of the Development of Chinese and Western Translation.pptx]] by Liu Yi.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 15:38, 6 December 2020 (UTC)

[[Media:Comparison of the Development of Chinese and Western Translation.doc]] by Tan Yuanyuan.--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 15:47, 6 December 2020 (UTC)

===Topic 3:中西文化差异对翻译的影响The Influence of Chinese and Western Cultural Differences on Translation===
[[Media:Handout-The Influence of Chinese and Western Cultural Differences on Translation.doc]] by Yang Yue--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 05:10, 10 December 2020 (UTC)
[[Media:The Influence of Chinese and Western Cultural Differences on Translation.pptx]] by Yi Zichu--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 05:01, 10 December 2020 (UTC)

===Topic 4:中国佛经翻译与圣经翻译的比较Comparison Between the translation of Buddhist scriptures of China and Bible translation===
[[Media:The Comparison of the Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures and Bible translation.pptx]]by Xiao Ting--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 00:54, 13 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

[[Media:The Comparison of the Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures and Bible Translation.docx]]--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 02:07, 13 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia

===Topic 5:20世纪中叶以来中西翻译理论对比 Comparison of Chinese and Western translation theories since the mid-term of the 20th century===

[[Media:Comparison of Chinese and Western translation theories since the mid-term of the 20th century by Mo Ling.pptx]]--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 09:38, 11 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling

[[Media:Handout of comparison of Chinese and Western translation theories since the mid-term of the 20th century by Yuan Tianyi.doc]]

===Topic 6；中西思维方式差异在翻译中的体现——以习语为例 The Embodiment of the Differences between Chinese and Western Thinking Modes in Translation -- Taking Idioms as an Example===

Classroom handout for download: [[Media:The Embodiment of the Differences between Chinese and Western Thinking Modes in Translation -- Taking Idioms as an Example.docx]]--[[User:Chen Sha|Chen Sha]] --[[User:Chen Sha|Chen Sha]] ([[User talk:Chen Sha|talk]]) 14:43, 5 December 2020 (UTC)

Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:The Embodiment of the Differences between Chinese and Western Thinking Modes in Translation -- Taking Idioms as an Example.pptx]] By Chen Jiangning --[[User:Chen Sha|Chen Jiangning]]--[[User:Chen Sha|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 14:43, 5 December 2020 (UTC)

==Session 14: Strategies==
===Homework from Session 13 (Dec 14, 2020), for Session 14 due on (Dec 21, 2020)===

1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. Here is the '''[[20201221_trans|homework page]]'''.

2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201221_trans|here]].

===Topic 1；阿拉伯大征服时代与翻译学 The Era of Arab Conquest and Translatology===

Classroom handout for download: [[Media:The Era of Arab Conquest and Translatology.docx]] Ma Zhixing＆Wu kai --[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 10:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:The Era of Arab Conquest and Translatology.ppt]] Ma Zhixing＆Wu kai --[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 10:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===Topic 2；韦努蒂的抵抗式翻译策略 Resistancy Translation Strategy—Lawrence Venuti===

Classroom handout for download: [[Media:Resistancy Translation Strategy—Lawrence Venuti.docx]] Tang Yiran&Yang Ziling --[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 23:34, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Resistancy Translation Strategy—Lawrence Venuti.ppt]] Tang Yiran&Yang Ziling --[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 23:34, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

===Topic 3；英日译本对照--以《雪国》为例The Contrast of Japanese-English Translation--Taking "Snow Country" as an Example===

Classroom handout for download: [[Media:The Contrast of Differences in Japanese-English Xie Ziyi& Peng Yongliang.docx]]
--[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 05:48, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:The Contrast of Differences in Japanese-English Xie Ziyi& Peng Yongliang.pptx]]
--[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 05:48, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Session 15: Contemporary Translation Theories==

===Homework from Session 14 (Dec 21, 2020), for Session 15 due on (Dec 28, 2020)===

1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. Here is the '''[[20201228_trans|homework page]]'''.

2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201228_trans|here]].

===Topic 1 Contemporary Translation Theories ===

Classroom handout for download: [[Media:Contemporary Translation Theories.docx]]

Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Contemporary Translation Theories.pptx]]
--[[User:Sagara Seydou 3|Sagara Seydou 3]] ([[User talk:Sagara Seydou 3|talk]]) 08:07, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Session 16: Final Discussion==

==List of topics for presentations and handouts in class==
1 Emergence:
孟莹: 日本起源, 聂晓楼: 西方起源, 马淑雅: 中国起源, 彭锐宏: 人类起源

2 History:
周思庆张琪: 西方翻译史; 马娟刘智伟: 历史上中国著名的翻译家; 解帆张宇星: 现当代中国翻译演变; 凌子瑾李玉: 中国古代翻译史; 杨晨婷余妮: 中国近代翻译史; 周诗卿纪甜甜: 西方翻译理论简史

3 Development:
韩宛真邓锦霞: 机器翻译的发展; 蒋淇玮胡瑾：中国佛经翻译的发展; 吴琼张银柳: 口译未来的发展; 成于思龚钰冕: 翻译实践的发展; 郑华君李璐伊: 新中国成立后翻译的发展; 韩海洋彭育志：圣经翻译的发展

4 Early Literary Examples:
许鹏飞肖伊宁: 林纾的翻译; 许晶李凌月; 袁诗琦姚佳; 邹鑫雨曹润鑫:《红楼梦》的英译; 袁雨晨肖茜: 严复和《天演论》; 苏琳周玉娟

5 Early Theories:
徐梦蝶杨逸; 陈涵曾心媛; 陈静静高明珠; 文晓艺韦洪朗: 严复与林纾的翻译理论; 康浩宇漆凯: 玄奘翻译理论; 刘洋诺邬香: 系统翻译理论的早期尝试

6 (Western) Theories:
康灵凤莫南: 功能对等理论; 吴琪常慧月：多元系统理论; 纪甜甜姜好: 后殖民翻译理论; 许静游雨婷; 布拉格学派; 肖双玲王轩: 目的论; 李丽丽王源: 语言学派

7 Methods:
甘奉玉丁代凤; 赵晓燕张慧: 异化策略下的翻译方法; 张瑜谭星越: 语义翻译和交际翻译; 吴一露司妤: 直译和意译; 文偲荇李梦: 增译和减译; 林敏刘金惺琦

8 Style:
孔祥慧孔亚楠; 罗雨晴娄灿灿; 管钦清：不同翻译风格对比；林鑫李泳珊：文学风格可译与不可译; 曾雁湖胡慧芳

9 Translation Studies:
罗维嘉桂一枝; 彭小玲彭丹; 全美欣宋建茹:视听翻译;石迪文易欢; 姚诚张虎：中英语态对比及其翻译策略; 刘欧陈永相：不可译性及其转化策略

10 Theory and Practice:
彭娟陶冶; 吴子佳雷旷溪: 归化异化在翻译中的实践; 汤蓓王美玲; 蒋凤仪顾东方; 周园曲祝美梅; 阳慧张佩闻;

11 Different Aspects:
周艺文陈佳欣; 谭鑫洁魏亚菲; 张毓婕杨海容;

12 East West Comparison:
唐铭欧蓉; 谭媛媛刘艺: 中西翻译发展史及比较; 杨悦义子楚: 中西文化差异对翻译的影响; 肖婷徐佳：中国佛经翻译和圣经翻译的比较; 莫玲袁天翼; 陈莎陈江宁：中西方思维方式差异在翻译中的体现--以习语为例。

13 Strategies:
吴恺马智星: 阿拉伯大征服时代与翻译学; 汤伊然杨子泠(劳伦斯·韦努蒂的异化翻译策略); 彭永亮谢子熠

14 Contemporary translation Theories:
Sagara Seydo Nguyen, Thuy Hien (Helen)

==List of Topics for final exam papers in Translation Studies==

学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。

Ideas
*literal vs. free
*Faithful/loyal/foreignization/alienation/exotization vs. domestication/localization
*unit of translation
*contrastive analysis
*the equivalence problem (functional, dynamic)
*translatability vs untranslatability
*SLT vs TLT relation
*translation types, strategies, styles, methods
*communication factors, translator role in social setting
*cognitive factors
*machine translation
*translation quality assessment
*translation ethics / manipulation etc.

Suggested topics for final exam papers (chapters of book on translation studies)

Each student needs to prepare one small topic for a 5-min. classroom presentation (with a fellow student, who writes a handout about it) and needs to find a topic for a chapter of a book on Translation Studies. Alternatively to the classroom presentation, the student can also assist the teacher by preparing class, sorting the wiki page etc.

Here is the link to the list: [[Topics in Translation Studies]]

=Final Exam Papers=
The deadline has been extended to '''Dec 21, 2020'''. Please find a paper you want to proof read, contact the author, proof read (by copying each paragraph and make corrections/suggestions in the copy) and sign until Dec 19. The author then finalizes (works in the suggestions) until the final deadline Dec 21!
==Structure==
需要有topic、学生姓名、学号、专业、Abstract、Key words、题目、摘要、关键词、不同的章回（比如1. Introduction、2. Nida’s Theory、3. ……、4.……、5. Conclusion、References)、然后还需要每个阶段以后有来源。一个阶段不要超过100英文词。每个章回会有几个阶段没问题。每个阶段以后需要一个同学的这个阶段的修改。

==Tips for writing your final exam paper: How to indicate your references==
*You can use the existing book chapters here as an example.
*Please write the text and indicate ALL SOURCES with bibliographical references. That means: At least for every paragraph, sometimes for single sentences, you have to indicate at the end, where you have found this information. E.g. (Liu Miqing 2010, 17). This means you have found it in the book or paper written by Ms Liu on page 17. And then, you need to add a section at the end called "References". There you write the full version of the reference: Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: East China Normal University 华东师范大学. Similarly, you do it for papers: Jin Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.
*Do '''not''' write any references like in one of the sample chapters:

[1] dsalkfkdsa

[2] adsfadsfag

But only the following way:

(Liu Miqing 2010, 17) in the text

and then

'''References'''
*Jin Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.
*Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: East China Normal University 华东师范大学.

Also, please avoid using the three apostrophes like ' ' ' (without spaces). Use the equal signs to mark headers and subheaders instead. If your paper topic has two equal signs at the beginning and end of your topic, then use three equal signs for your sub headers. Example (without spaces):
= = Topic = =
< c e n t e r > Student Name, Student no. < / c e n t e r >
= = = Abstract = = =
This chapter is on ....
= = = Key Words = = =
Egg, Hen
= = = 题目 = = =
= = = 摘要 = = =
= = = 关键词 = = =
= = = Introduction = = =
Here starts the normal text of the chapter. Please remember to indicate the source of EACH PARAGRAPH, sometimes even of single sentences. You can indicate it like this. (Woesler 2020, 345) And don't forget to mention the full bibliographical entry beneath under ''References''.
= = = The Egg = = =
Bla, bla, bla
= = = The Hen = = =
Bla, bla, bla
= = = Conclusion = = =
Bla, bla, bla
= = = References = = =
Woesler, Martin. (2020). Responsibility and Ethics in Times of Corona. Woesler, Martin and Hans-Martin Sass eds. ''Medicine and Ethics in Times of Corona'' Muenster: LIT

==Sample papers==
You can find the full papers also on the Webpage [[History of Translation Studies]]). They are marked with "Sample paper".
* A Comparative Study between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory and My thoughts on the Two Theories
* An Analysis of the Book of Contemporary Translation Theories and Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications
* Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theroy
* Comparison of Derrida’s and Benjamin’s Translation View
* Impacts of Western Translation Theories on The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish
* On the Comparison between "Sublimation" an "Functonal Equivalence" Theories
* Study on Gladys’ Translation of The Border Town from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics
* The Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Chinese-English Communication
* Translators' Views on Translation Influence Their Translation Behavior

==Website to write your final exam paper on==
[[20220112_final_exam|final exam page]]

As a reference, here is the information about last year's final exam papers:

The website where everybody wrote their final exam paper on became too big and produced a database error. Therefore we split the website into 10 small websites. They are sorted like the chapters in the book. Please look for your name and find the right of the 10 small websites to edit your book chapter. Everybody also needs to help to improve other book chapters (copy a paragraph, paste it beneath, make your corrections in the paragraph and sign it).

Here you can write your Final Exam Papers:

*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1, (samples)]
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2, (samples)]
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3, students: 蒋凤仪 Jiang Fengyi，雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi, 郑华君 Zheng Huajun, 文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi, 陶冶 Tao Ye, 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan, 陈江宁 Chen Jiangning]
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4, students: 杨海容 Yang Hairong，游雨婷 You Yuting，王源 Wang Yuan，徐佳 Xu Jia，凌子瑾 Ling Zijin，石迪文 Shi Diwen，张玲 Zhang Ling，曾心媛 Zeng Xinyuan，姚诚 Yao Cheng，朱旭 Zhu Xu，许鹏飞 Xu Pengfei，赵晓燕 Zhao Xiaoyan，张琪 Zhang Qi，周园曲 Zhou Yuanqu]
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5, students: 李玉 Li Yu，林敏 Lin Min，文偲荇 Wen Sixing，周诗卿 Zhou Shiqing，朱素瑶 Zhu Suyao，胡百辉 Hu Baihui，马智星 Ma Zhixing, 胡瑾 Hu Jin，张毓婕 Zhang Yujie，顾东方 Gu Dongfang，高明珠 Gao Mingzhu，张虎 Zhang Hu，李璐伊 Li Luyi，袁诗琦 Yuan Shiqi，王美玲 Wang Meiling，康浩宇 Kang Haoyu，王轩 Wang Xuan，陈永相 Chen Yongxiang，莫玲 Mo Ling，袁天翼 Yuan Tianyi]
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6, students:汤蓓 Tang Bei欧蓉 Ou Rong，谭星越 Tan Xingyue，周罗平 Zhou Luoping，龚钰冕 Gong Yumian，邹鑫雨 Zou Xinyu，陈惠 Chen Hui，罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing，谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie]
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7, students:曾雁湖 Zeng Yanhu，邓锦霞 Deng Jinxia，姜好 Jiang Hao，管钦清 Guan Qinqing，唐铭 Tang Ming，娄灿灿 Lou Cancan，丁代凤 Ding Daifeng，苏琳 Su Lin，徐佳 Xu Jia，刘艺 Liu Yi，李凌月 Li Lingyue，马娟 Ma Juan，吴琪 Wu Qi，姚佳 Yao Jia，李海泉 Li Haiquan，吴琼 Wu Qiong，杨子泠 Yang Ziling，林敏 Lin Min，彭锐宏 Peng Ruihong ，汤伊然 Tang Yiran，阳慧 Yang Hui，刘智伟 Liu Zhiwei]
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8, students: 王煜 Wang Yu，方洁玲 Fang Jieling，许静 Xu Jing，周书尧 Zhou Shuyao，彭永亮 Peng Yongliang，宋建茹 Song Jianru，韦洪朗 Wei Honglang，魏亚菲 Wei Yafei，张雪仪 Zhang Xueyi，甘奉玉 Gan Fengyu，赵茜 Zhao Xi，吴恺 Wu Kai，周艺文 Zhou Yiwen，张维虹 Zhang Weihong，司妤 Si Yu]
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9, students: 易欢 Yi Huan，曾良 Zeng Liang，义子楚 Yi Zichu，欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling，石海瑶 Shi Haiyao，胡慧芳 Hu Huifang，吴一露 Wu Yilu，纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian, 桂一枝 Gui Yizhi，刘欧 Liu Ou，祝美梅 Zhu Meimei，谭媛媛 Tan Yuanyuan，张银柳 Zhang Yinliu，李泳珊 Li Yongshan，聂晓楼 Nie Xiaolou]
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10, students:陈静静 Chen Jingjing， Thuy Hien Nguyen Thuy Hien，肖茜 Xiao Xi，余妮 Yu Ni，韩宛真 Han Wanzhen，陈佳欣 Chen Jiaxin，成于思 Cheng Yusi，方洁玲 Fang Jieling，张慧 Zhang Hui，吴子佳 Wu Zijia，孔祥慧 Kong Xianghui，许晶 Xu Jing，周玉娟 Zhou Yujuan，曹润鑫 Cao Runxin，肖伊宁 Xiao Yining, Sagara Seydou，欧阳静兰 Ouyang Jinglan]
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_11 Part 11, students:李丽琴 Li Liqin, 张瑜 Zhang Yu, 刘怡瑜 Liu Yiyu, 李梦 Li Meng, 林鑫 Lin Xin, 罗维嘉 Luo Weijia, 漆凯 Qi Kai, 郭露 Guo Lu，张宇星 Zhang Yuxing, 陈涵 Chen Han, 李丽丽 Li Lili, 刘柳 Liu Liu, 陈莎 Chen Sha, 徐梦蝶 Xu Mengdie,彭丹 Peng Dan，谢子熠 Xie Ziyi，莫南 Mo Nan]
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_12 Part 12, students: 全美欣 Quan Meixin，何长琦 He Changqi，刘博 Liu Bo，刘金惺琦 liu Jinxingqi，谌孙福 Chen Sunfu，曾芳缘 Zeng Fangyuan，肖婷 Xiao Ting，常慧月 Chang Huiyue，彭娟 Peng Juan，彭小玲 Peng Xiaoling，杨悦 Yang Yue，肖双玲 Xiao Shuangling，彭育志 Peng Yuzhi，孟莹 Meng Ying]
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_13 Part 13, students: 杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng，杨逸 Yang Yi, 马淑雅 Ma Shuya, 雷方圆 Lei Fangyuan, 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen]
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_14 Part 14, students:周思庆 Zhou Siqing，蒋淇玮 Jiang Qiwei，瞿淼 Qu Miao，韩海洋 Han Haiyang，刘金惺琦 liu jinxingqi，解帆 Xie Fan，刘洋诺 Liu Yangnuo，袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen，邬香 Wu Xiang]

=Benefits=
This course is registered as a "EU Expert" diploma supplement course. Collect 10 such courses during your study and you receive a certificate by the Jean Monnet Chair.

=Misplaced things=
Handout 4 of Ren Xin --
贺骥.“世界文学”概念:维兰德首创：
Summary：主要讲述了人们发现维兰德首次提出“世界文学”的过程，维兰德对“世界文学”的概念以及与歌德的比较。

一、为何说维兰德首创“世界文学”？
1987 年，德国学者魏茨( Hans-Joachim Weitz，1904—2001) 在《阿卡迪亚》杂志上发表了一篇题为《维兰德是“世界文学”一词的首创者》的短文。魏茨声称他发现了德国作家维兰德( Christoph Martin Wieland，1733—1813) 在1790 至1813 年间亲笔书写的一则手记中首次提到“世界文学”。但维兰德于1813 年1 月20 日去世，他的同时代人并不知道他写有这则手记，歌德在不知情的情况下从1827 年1 月15 日起多次使用了“世界文学”这个词。维兰德与歌德对于“世界文学”的概念相近，但他没有详细论证。所以说，“世界文学”一次是维兰德首创，歌德第一次明确提出的
二、维兰德“世界文学”的概念与歌德的比较
1. 维兰德在创作早期作品时：世界文学就是世界各民族的文学名作的总集。该观点体现在《民族文学》文学是世界各民族的共同精神财富，世界文学就是所有时代所有民族的典范作品总集。
2. 和歌德一样，维兰德的世界文学概念带有言必称希腊的欧洲中心主义色彩，他的世界文学乃是以古希腊罗马文学为正典、以欧洲文学为核心的世界各民族文学经典的总集。“阅读最优秀的作家的杰作”乃是维兰德“世界文学”概念的核心: 杰作即古往今来世界各民族的文学经典。
3. 维兰德认为优秀作品的形成过程: 首先作家必须以阅世高人的文化修养和娴熟的艺术技巧创造有审美价值的“文学杰作”；其次是后世“最优秀的人们”对这些杰作的“宣扬”和“奉为样板”。

三、“世界文学”概念有三种定义:
( 1) 广义的“世界文学”指的是所有民族和所有时代文学作品的总和( Gesamtliteratur) ;
( 2) 狭义的“世界文学”指的是超时代的、具有普遍审美价值的世界各民族文学的典范作品总集( Kanon) ，换言之，“世界文学”就是具有世界声誉的文学杰作的荟萃，这种精英主义意义上的“世界文学”概念在当今学界占据了主导地位;
( 3) 歌德于1827 年提出的文学发展蓝图，它指的是国际性的文学交往( Kommunikation der Literatur) 和文化接触，交往的结果就是具有特性的各民族文学的融合。

Reference:
贺骥.“世界文学”概念:维兰德首创[J].社会科学,2014(07):176-182. --[[User:ImRx|ImRx]] ([[User talk:ImRx|talk]]) 13:24, 13 April 2018 (UTC)

[1]文飙.阿拉伯民间文学的珍品《一千零一夜》.
1.流传情况：
《一千零一夜》早在公元六世纪左右已在波斯、伊拉克和埃及产生并流传着。公元十世纪阿拨斯王朝统治时代汇集成书,后又经过数百年不断搜集、整理、加工和修改；大约到十六世纪才形成比较完整的总集。
2.故事发生的地点：多在当时阿拉伯世界两大中心城市— 巴格达及开罗。
3.《一千零一夜》，中文另一译名为《天方夜谭( 谈) 》的原因：
这个译名的来源说明中世纪时期阿拉伯帝国与中国的关系。阿拉伯半岛的麦加城在帝国中称为“ 圣城”, 城内有古庙名“ 天房”, 中国古嫂都译为“ 天方”, 实即“ 天房”之误。我国明朝以前称阿拉伯为黑衣大食国，明朝以后则称为“ 天方国”, 这就是旧译本称为《天方夜谭》的原因。
4.故事内容：《一千零一夜》是一部包罗万象的民间故事集, 有格言、谚语、童话, 王子公主的恋爱故事, 及市民冒险故事。这些故事的主角从底层的劳苦大众到最高的统治者哈里发。能够比较全面而深刻地反映中世纪东方的社会生活。
5.《一千零一夜》的起源：
在古代印度和中国为海岛中,有一个萨桑国。残暴的国王山鲁亚尔每夜娶一王后,翌晨即杀掉再娶。老百姓受此威胁,十分恐怖,纷纷携儿带女逃走,致使城中十室九空。然而国王仍照例命令宰相寻找女子供他虐杀。一天，宰相找遍民间，没找到一个,便满怀恐惧、忧郁地转回府邸来。宰相的大女儿山鲁佐德见父亲情状,问明情由,执意让父亲把她嫁给国王,宰相不得已才把女儿送进宫去。山鲁佐德一见国王,就悲伤地哭泣起来，她希望国王允许她在死之前能和妹妹再见一面,国王同意了,派人到宰相家召敦亚佐德进宫。姐妹俩高高兴兴地坐在床脚下谈笑。其时,敦亚佐德请求姐姐讲个故事消磨时间。山鲁佐德便征得国王许可,开始讲起故事来,借以引动国王的好奇心和兴趣,从而免遭杀戮。这样,日复一日,山鲁佐德一直讲了一千零一个夜晚,最后，终于使国王悔悟。
6.影响：
《一千零一夜》在世界各国广为传播。
它最早介绍到欧洲,对西方文化起过一定的积极作用,许多欧美文学艺术家,如但丁、乔叟、薄伽丘、莎士比亚、塞万提斯、莱辛等都或多或少地受到它的直接或间接的影响。
在我国，早在六十多年以前就有了《一千零一夜》的译本。

[2]冯辉.略论《一千零一夜》对世界文学的借鉴与影响.
摘要：《一千零一夜》对世界文学的借鉴与影响。荷马史诗中的巨人故事对《一千零一夜》的启发 ,《一千零一夜》对法国、英国、德国、中国作家的影响。
一、流传情况：
1.流传时间：多数学者认为:它的故事和手抄本在中近东地区开始流传的年代约在8 世纪中叶—9 世纪中叶。一些世界文学史家则认为:大约在十字军东征时期(1095— 1291), 《一千零一夜》的故事已通过民间传到欧洲。
2.流传情况：
a. 18 世纪初, 法国人加朗根据叙利亚抄本, 首次把《一千零一夜》译成法文出版, 以后在欧洲出现了各种文字的译本。
b. 中国1900 年有过译本, 以后不断的出现多种白话文本。新中国成立后, 纳训选译的3 卷本以及80 年代出版的全译本1 —6 卷, 收集了275 个故事。
二、《一千零一夜》对古希腊荷马史诗巨人故事的借鉴
《一千零一夜》第4 卷第172 个故事《辛伯达航海的故事》写三次航海的故事, 可以看出受到古希腊荷马史诗《奥德修纪》中独眼巨人故事的影响, 又带有阿拉伯民族的特色。
三、《一千零一夜》对世界文学的影响：
1.文艺复兴人文主义作家对《一千零一夜》中故事的扬弃与创新
a)法国：《一千零一夜》第2 卷第75 个故事《阿里·艾尔哲明的故事》与法国文艺复兴时期拉伯雷《巨人传》中第三代国王庞大固埃出生时的行囊装载十分相似。
b)英国：在《一千零一夜》第3 卷第152 个故事的《亚历山大大帝和弱小民族的故事》与英国文艺复兴时期的作家莎士比亚的《哈姆雷特》中有类似的情节，两个故事有历史延续性与巧妙的联系。
《一千零一夜》：
东征西讨的希腊国王亚历山大,一次路过一个弱小国家, 其民众各自门前准备好了坟墓, 家家一贫如洗, 安贫乐道, 所以并不怕亚历山大来争夺地盘。亚历山大十分好奇, 亲自见他们的国王。国王拿了两个头骨, 告诉他这是两个国王的头骨, 一个生前暴虐, 死后安拉让他下地狱;一个生前公正廉明, 爱护百姓, 死后安拉让他升入天堂。国王又问亚历山大:“ 到底你是这两个帝王中的哪一个呢?”年青的亚历山大受了感动, 要这个国王做他的宰相。国王拒绝了他, 说他虽拥有一个大帝国, 却有许多仇敌。国王虽穷, 他所有的一切“ 仅仅是知足” 。亚历山大感慨万千,告辞归去, 不再侵犯他们。
《哈姆雷特》：第五幕第一场墓地对话中
哈姆雷特面对死人头骨说道:“ 要是我们用想像推测下去, 谁知道亚历山大的高贵的尸体, 不就是塞在酒桶口上的泥土?”“ 凯撒死了, 你尊严的尸体, 也许变了泥把破墙填砌, 啊! 他从前是何等的英雄, 现在只好替人挡风遮雨。”
c)意大利：意大利文艺复兴时期的小说家卜伽丘的《十日谈》中的贵妇宴请国王吃鸡宴, 以打退国王邪念的故事, 在《一千零一夜》第4 卷第175 个故事《宰相夫人的故事》中有类似情节。
2.对18 世纪英国现实主义小说家笛福《鲁宾逊飘流记》的影响
把《辛伯达航海的故事》与《鲁宾逊飘流记》相比较, 辛伯达可以说是鲁宾逊典型的雏型与前身, 鲁宾逊则更加丰富, 更带时代特点。
1)不同点：
辛伯达是中世纪阿拉伯人中积极进取, 发展海外贸易,不断向外开拓勇于冒险的新兴商人, 他开初坐享父亲遗产,挥霍一空, 最后决定变卖家产七次到海上做冒险生意。
鲁宾逊是18 世纪英国资本主义原始积累时期的新资产阶级商人的代表, 父亲没有给他丰厚的资产, 他本人是不满现状的小商人, 三次海外冒险；
辛伯达是在第7次航海时在一个岛国居住了27 年才返回故乡, 鲁宾逊是在第三次航海时在一个荒岛上度过了28 年, 才返回故乡。
2)相似点：
两人都曾遭到过毁灭性的打击, 死里逃生,但每次都以顽强的毅力, 惊人的应变能力, 沉着应付, 化险为夷；发财致富的欲望, 对海外世界的好奇与向往, 每次都促使他们不安现状, 敢于做一次又一次的冒险。
3.对中国作家的影响
《一千零一夜》第1 卷第12 个故事《脚夫和巴格达三个女人的故事》中，脚夫诵的表达自己忠信的诗同中国现代作家钱钟书的长篇小说《围城》中的苏小姐自己写的诗相似。这里已改造成一首爱情诗, 方鸿渐当时并不知道是苏小姐自己写的诗, 说这首诗是借的外债,
四、小结
因为国别不同, 语言不通, 翻译技术有限，后来的作家们不一定能亲自看到这些《一千零一夜》中的故事原文。但阿拉伯文化与文学对欧洲文艺复兴运动及后来的世界文学的发展起到的推动作用和所作的贡献是世界发展史上所公认的事实。

[3]陆英英.《一千零一夜》在欧洲.
摘要：介绍了欧洲许多国家早期对《一千零一夜》的译本。《一千零一夜》译成欧洲各种文字后, 引起了欧洲人收集和研究东方文学的热望, 激起了他们了解东方的兴趣。《一千零一夜》对欧洲文学包括戏剧、小说、诗歌、诗剧都产生了巨大影响。
1.法国译本：
A.1704-1717年出现的法国安东尼·加仑的译本是《一千零一夜》——最著名的译本。为了迎合读者掺杂了许多自己想象的情节
B.1828年法国出版特雷布梯的译本 —— 增加情节，接近原版
C.1969年出版了勒内赫瓦姆的《一千零一夜》译本 —— 忠于原作
2.英国译本（几乎都是从法国译本转译而来）：
A.1811年乔纳森·斯科特出版的译本 —— 最突出
B.1838年，亨利·托伦斯打算给译文加注释, 但他只译了五十夜就死了
C.1839-1841年，爱德华·威廉·莱恩的《一千零一夜》三卷本（从阿文直译），删去了当时英国的道德传统所不能接受的故事, 并写了许多注释 —— 极具参考价值
D.1885年，理查德·伯顿的译本出版 —— 最完备的译本
E.英国军官伯顿（会讲阿拉伯语）—— 强烈殖民主义色彩
3.德国译本：
A.第一个把《一千零一夜》译成德文的是东方学家冯哈曼尔。
B.1837-1841年之间出现了凡勒的德译本 ——忠实原文，生涩
C.东方学家莱塔马教授 —— 德国最著名的译本
4.罗马尼亚译本：
A.1771年，出版的《哈伦·拉希德的故事》——罗马尼亚最早
B.1783年，修道院主教罗法伊勒出版了根据希腊文译出的全译本
C.1835-1838年格拉西姆·哥嘉出版《哈利曼或者阿拉伯神话故事》四卷本译本
D.1966-1976，罗马尼亚最大出版社——梅纳法出版社出版了十四卷本的《一千零一夜》
5.俄文译本：
A.萨利尔译的，东方学家卡利姆斯基出版的。
B.高尔基于1904年也译过。
C.列夫·托尔斯泰也译过几篇，如《皇帝和衬衣的故事》等。
6.捷克译本：
1958-1963年捷克斯洛伐克科学院出版的塔瓦外孜授译的《一千零一夜》全集。
7.波兰译本：
1774年出版了第一本——《阿拉伯传奇或一千零一夜》
8.威尼斯译本：
1757-1762年，出版了四卷本的《一千零一夜》和《一千零一日》故事集, 书名为《阿拉伯故事》。
9.希腊译本：
译者为布利兹威斯，译本分三卷。
10.此外还有葡萄牙语、荷兰语、丹麦语、瑞典语、匈牙利语等译本。
东方学家朝温在《阿拉伯著作一览》一书中用了一百二十页专门介绍《一千零一夜》的各种版本和文本。

参考文献：
[1]文飙. 阿拉伯民间文学的珍品《一千零一夜》[J].徐州师范学院学报,1978(02):59-64.
[2]冯辉. 略论《一千零一夜》对世界文学的借鉴与影响[J].河南教育学院学报(哲学社会科学版),2001(01):110-112.
[3]陆英英.《一千零一夜》在欧洲[J].阿拉伯世界,1983(02):84-90. --[[User:ImRx|ImRx]] ([[User talk:ImRx|talk]]) 13:34, 16 April 2018 (UTC)

[1]杨晓雨.佛经翻译与圣经翻译比较[J].考试周刊,2017(74):192.

摘要：中国翻译史的源头是佛经翻译，而西方翻译史则始于另一部宗教巨著———圣经翻译。中国的佛经翻译和西方的圣经翻译虽然在具体内容、翻译分期、信徒和对应的时代背景等方面有所差异，但两者都经历了直译、意译、直意译相结合的发展历程。本文对比了佛经翻译和圣经翻译，探求宗教类文献翻译中的共同特点。
1.佛经翻译
A.四个时期：
a. 创立时期（东汉末年到西晋），代表人物有安世高和支谦；
b.初步发展阶段是（晋代到隋朝），代表人物有道安和鸠摩罗什；
c.鼎盛时期（唐朝），代表人物为玄奘、不空；
d.逐渐结束于北宋。
B.翻译形式
最初由西域僧人的梵语口授，再找汉人加以润饰。音译。
后来出现精通汉语的印度高僧和熟练掌握梵语的中国高僧。直译为主。
C.翻译大家
三藏法师，从数量和翻译成就都无人能比。直译&意译结合。
2.圣经翻译
A.概况
圣经翻译是西方翻译史的起源。经历了希伯来文－希腊文－拉丁文的过程。
B.流传形式：手写本。
C.最早的圣经译本：公元前3-2世纪《圣经·旧约》（据《西方翻译简史》记载。后世也叫《七十子希腊文本》。
缺点：用词晦涩难懂，不易理解，跟当时的希腊语有较大的出入。
优点：此译本特别完整准确地还原了圣经原籍的内容。
D.翻译大家：a. 西塞罗—西方翻译史上最早的翻译理论家，主张活译。
b. 圣哲罗姆—翻译了第一部标准拉丁语圣经。直译和意译相结合。
3.佛经翻译和圣经翻译的相似性：
经历了直译—意译—直意译结合的过程。
A.最初翻译时，中西译者都是逐字逐句的直译。
原因：宗教经典神圣不可侵犯，译经僧侣对宗教经典抱有虔诚态度；
由于译者身份的局限性，缺乏专业的语言翻译基础。
B.随着经验的累积，译者们开始倡导意译。
代表人物：马丁路德
原因：受众人群都是普通老百姓，需要简单流畅、明晓易懂的语言才能让教义被大众所通晓。
C.主张直译&意译相结合。
代表人物：玄奘大师—《钦定本圣经》

[2]顾颍.从佛经与《圣经》翻译看中西方翻译思想——《中西方翻译思想比较》评析[J].常熟理工学院学报,2008(03):122-124.

摘要：作者认为比利时学者安德烈勒菲弗尔（当代文学翻译学术带头人，较有影响力）由于对中国翻译史缺乏深入研究，对中国的佛经翻译了解不透彻，在《中西方翻译思想比较》中提出“西方译者更为忠实原文, 而中国译者则倾向于归化原文”的观点较为片面。并提出佛经翻译和圣经翻译的共有规律：直译、意译两原则交替主导翻译活动并趋于成熟，直至最终实现两者的有机融合。

[3]姜晏.译介学视角下的中西方《圣经》翻译[J].青岛大学师范学院学报,2011,28(02):125-128.
摘要：《圣经》翻译的主要功能是服务于宗教的传播。但译者们对其“创造性叛逆”的翻译，使得《圣经》对世界各民族语言，包括对中国语言文学都产生了深远影响，同时推动各国文化交流、促进不同思想的包容。

1.翻译不只是语言文字的转换，而是应关注原文在外语和本族语转换过程中的信息的失落、变形、增添、扩散等问题。
2.《圣经》翻译对西方各国（民族）语言的影响 —— 不分析译本翻译的好坏，而是分析译本对译入语国家或民族的文化和语言所产生的影响。
A.4世纪，乌裴拉主教翻译成东日耳曼语。
8、9世纪，阿尔弗雷得等翻译成古英语。
这些标志着民族语言翻译的开始。
B.《圣经》翻译在13世纪达到了新的高潮。
C.马丁路德：把《圣经》新约和旧约翻译成德语，并且翻译成能被大众所接受的语言。他认为翻译就是让外语成为译者的本土化语言。
作用：消除了普通人对《圣经》的语言障碍，对统一德语和发展德语做出贡献。
D.威廉廷代尔的译本成为英国翻译史上最著名的英王钦定本的主要参照本。
作用：完全符合英语的用法习惯，增加了英语的表现力；
对英国散文、语言和文化发展起到了不可估量的作用。
3.《圣经》在汉译中的创造性叛逆
A.创造的叛逆性翻译是为了使《圣经》在新的环境中易于被受众接受。
B.特征：
a.显著的归化特征：吴经熊采用骚体，把外国的体裁中国化。
吴经熊翻译的《新约全集》:“天主聖子耶穌基督福音之濫觴，正如《意灑雅先知書》之所記云:吾遣使者，以先啟行; 為爾前驅，備爾行程。”
b.误译：严复的译本以中国士大夫为主要读者，因此他的译本符合士大夫的价值观，同时也降低阅读难度。
c.改编或删节：严复考虑到中国读者几千年来的儒家文化熏陶，迎合中国道德伦理和文化。
4.《圣经》汉译对中国语言文学的影响
a.丰富了汉语词汇，为现代汉语带来许多新意象和表达方式。如，天堂、伊甸园等。
b.影响中国现代文学的创作主体，许多意象来源于《圣经》中的典故。
c.影响许多中国著名的作家和文学理论家。如，鲁迅、冰心、徐志摩等。

[4] 曾志琼.浅析“圣经故事”包含的男权思想及其危害[J].西昌学院学报(自然科学版),2004(04):21-23.

《圣经》中包含的男权思想：
1.创世纪故事中包含的男权思想。
a.在上帝创世的神话中，男性亚当是用象征承载人类生命的泥土按上帝的形象创造出来的，而女性夏娃是作为男性的附属品用亚当的肋骨而创造出来的，目的是为亚当消除孤独寂寞。
b.创世纪故事中，包含“女人是祸水”思想。作为女性象征的夏娃经不住蛇的诱惑，偷吃了禁果，使人类受到上帝的惩罚，开始了苦难。
2.“圣经故事”中的先知先觉、基督英雄们都是男性。
人类历史的英雄史都是谱写男性的。整个圣经故事都是以男性英雄为主线而描绘基督教历史的。从最早制造方舟振救人类的挪亚，到带领以色列人出埃及，使以色列人摆脱埃及法老贵族奴役的摩西，到带领以色列人力战外族，为以色列人开缰拓土的约书亚，再到带领以色列人雪耻，赶走外族，使以色列人建国的大卫以及拯救人类的耶稣等等。
3.婚姻家庭中的男权思想、夫权思想
a.嫡长子制，忽视女性后代的存在。
b.多妻制。基督英雄们都是妻妾成群，可以主人的身份任意拥有女人。
c.休妻制。女性不论犯不犯错都可能被休。甚至可以被男性当财产、畜生一样送人。

[5]菲利斯·特丽波,周辉.女性主义诠释学与圣经研究[J].圣经文学研究, 2009(00):35-44.
摘要：作者认为出现在父权制社会的圣经充满了男性形象和语言，对《圣经》进行重新的诠释，以挑战圣经中的父权制。焦点是希伯来圣经，重点不仅仅落在不利于女性的事例上。考量了圣经中女性研究的三条女性主义进路。
1.阐释了一些不利于女性的故事。希伯来女子从生到死都属于男人，遭受到男性权威的虐待、凌辱。
2.重申被忽视的女性作为上帝的篇章和反抗父权制文化的女性形象。
3.利用前两种方式，同情地重新讲述关于妇女的故事
（作者菲利斯·特丽波被认为是在圣经文本基础上探索妇女与性别问题的领袖人物）

[6]林燕.女性主义圣经诠释概述[J].宗教学研究,2013(04):213-219.
女性经验是重新阐释圣经的基点。
女性主义圣经诠释随着女性神学的繁荣而发展。女性圣经诠释是不同于女性主义神学的独立学科，它具有独立的研究前提和范畴。
核心内容：对传统的圣经诠释和基督神学所建构的两性关系提出质疑和批判；寻找、重建圣经中被忽视、被遗忘的女性形象，恢复重建女性的地位和尊严；为争取女性在教会中担任圣职而斗争。

参考文献：
[1]杨晓雨.佛经翻译与圣经翻译比较[J].考试周刊,2017(74):192.
[2]顾颍.从佛经与《圣经》翻译看中西方翻译思想——《中西方翻译思想比较》评析[J].常熟理工学院学报,2008(03):122-124.
[3]姜晏.译介学视角下的中西方《圣经》翻译[J].青岛大学师范学院学报,2011,28(02):125-128.
[4]曾志琼.浅析“圣经故事”包含的男权思想及其危害[J].西昌学院学报(自然科学版),2004(04):21-23.
[5]菲利斯·特丽波,周辉.女性主义诠释学与圣经研究[J].圣经文学研究,2009(00):35-44.
[6]林燕.女性主义圣经诠释概述[J].宗教学研究,2013(04):213-219.--[[User:ImRx|ImRx]] ([[User talk:ImRx|talk]]) 02:42, 4 June 2018 (UTC)

《霍乱时期的爱情》
加夫列尔·加西亚·马尔克斯——拉美魔幻现实主义的领军人物
1967年，《百年孤独》；1982年，获诺贝尔奖；1985年，《霍乱时期的爱情》
故事是以费尔明娜和阿里萨、乌尔比诺医生爱恨悲欢的三角恋为主线，以阿里萨与其余622名女性形形色色的性欲与真情为副线。小说采用了顺时叙述。以乌尔比诺的棋友之死为故事的开始，先后讲述了：医生的婚后生活；阿里萨和费尔明娜如诗如梦的初恋，乌尔比诺追求费尔明娜并与之结婚；阿里萨的失望心情和纵欲寻欢；费尔明娜婚后生活的不快和孀居的孤独；阿里萨耐心点燃费尔明娜心中的爱火。
一.主要人物：
1.阿里萨：喜欢阅读、喜欢写诗。多愁善感，阴郁。一生中有过623个女人，但费尔明娜是他一生的挚爱。最后在他并不怎么上心的航运公司里获得了董事长的职位。
“费尔明娜，我等待这个机会，已经有51年9个月零4天了，在这段时间里，我一直爱着你，从我第一眼见到你，直到现在，我第一次向你表达我的誓言，我永远爱你，忠贞不渝。”这句话是在等待了半个世纪终于等到费尔明娜的丈夫死去后，阿里萨在葬礼之后再一次对费尔明娜隔了51年的第二次表白。
2.费尔明娜：她是骡子商人的女儿，美丽、智慧并且高傲。被阿里萨追求却遭到父亲的强烈反对，后来嫁给医生乌尔比诺。
3.乌尔比诺医生：擅长治疗霍乱的医生，黄金单身汉，知识渊博，外表帅气（虽然电影里图片很猥琐），热爱城市并致力于为他的城市他的家乡奉献，但实际上骨子里较懦弱，在和费尔明娜的婚姻里婆媳关系不合，他不敢冲撞他的母亲。“只有上帝知道我有多爱你。”

二.爱情&霍乱的隐喻关系
1.在追求费尔明娜的过程中，阿里萨生理和心理都经受了如霍乱症状一般的痛苦。在阿里萨对费尔明娜一见钟情后，“他开始寡言少语，茶饭不思，辗转反侧，彻夜难眠”。
等待费尔明娜回第一封信的时候“他腹泻，吐绿水，晕头转向，常常突然昏厥，脉搏微弱，呼吸沉重，像垂死之人一样冒着虚汗…”这些症状和霍乱的症状很相似。但事实上阿里萨并没有患上霍乱，后边医生的检查也可以证实。
所以，我们可以这样认为：爱情，在阿里萨身上的表现就如同霍乱对人的侵袭一样。在这本书中，霍乱也就代表爱情，所有的症状都是变相的爱。
但不同的是：疾病带来的恐惧是自私的，是从自我角度出发的，是害怕失去自己；而爱情带来的恐惧常常源自于所爱之人，是害怕失去对方。

2.在中国古代文学里也有关于爱情对疾病的意象。
在中国，因爱情引起的疾病叫做“相思病”，一般是因对某人的思念而生病。表现为焦虑、食欲不振、失眠、幻想、晕厥等类似生病的身体状态。
很著名的例子就是《红楼梦》中的林黛玉人物形象。还有《西厢记》张生为崔莺莺“为伊消得人憔悴”也是“相思病”的例子。这样的例证还有很多。
问题：如果爱情是一种病，能致病，那么医生能不能诊断并治愈因爱情引起的疾病呢？
大家都知道，林黛玉的身体一向比较弱，但是住在大观园中可以让黛玉有很好的物质条件治疗或者从中医角度来讲“调养”她的身体。看当时最好的医生, 吃的是最难得到的药材做成的药。可是在听到宝玉和宝钗成亲的消息后还是郁郁而终。说明在中国的古典文学中，医生并不可以治愈爱情引起的相思病。
我们再看西方文学里《变形记》——“所有人都知道, 真正的疾病和爱情疾病是很相似的: 意识变得虚弱, 眼神变得憔悴,膝盖变得无力… 上帝啊! 医生们真是无知啊! ”
还有《霍乱》里，母亲担心阿里萨得了霍乱,去看了医生。做了很多必要的医疗检查, 最后通过对阿里萨的性格了解以及与阿里萨的谈话确定了病因。医生最后能确诊阿里萨的爱情疾病并不是因为他高超的医术或者他的各种医学常识, 而是因为他本人的年纪来带的阅历以及对爱情和对阿里萨的了解得出的结论。
以及小说里医术高超的乌比尔诺医生, 虽然有广博深人的医学知识储量, 他研究霍乱是为了在医学层面上彻彻底底的治疗它。他一点也不懂爱, 不懂爱情。所以，乌比尔诺医生也不具有诊断爱情疾病的能力。
所以，中西方古典的文学作品中, 医生是并不赋有能力来诊断和治疗爱情所引起的疾病的。

三.主人公的青年、中年、老年三个阶段他们的爱情。
a.青年阶段——浪漫疯狂，以阿里萨和费尔明娜的初恋为主。因费尔明娜的醒悟接着拒绝阿里萨而结束——“不，请别这样，忘了吧”、“今天见到您，我发现我们之间不过是一场幻觉”。这个时期，阿里萨是以等待、信还有音乐追求费尔明娜的，我认为这三项几乎是在所有的爱情中都会或多或少起到作用的。
等待。自从阿里萨对费尔明娜一见倾心之后，他就每天在费尔明娜上学必经的道路上，捧着一本诗集在一棵杏树下假装看书，只为了一天能匆匆忙忙地看上她四次，风雨无阻。
信。最初阿里萨缺乏勇气向费尔明娜说出自己的爱意，于是开始给费尔明娜写信，从一张便条最后变成了70页的情书。也是在频繁通信中，打动了费尔明娜。
音乐。在因费尔明娜失眠的夜晚，他在费尔明娜的窗外演奏自创的爱的华尔兹。费尔明娜也是在他的音乐中更深刻的了解他。
总的来说，青年时期：他们的相爱过程短，不成熟，更多的是幻想。

b.中年阶段，主要是费尔明娜与乌尔比诺医生的婚姻以及阿里萨漫长的等待中的孤独狩猎生涯。
费&阿：隐秘顽强。阿里萨单相思，对抗时间和死亡。
阿里萨在被拒绝：先是自虐，后转移对费尔明娜及她丈夫的怨恨与诅咒，随后又对费尔明娜宽恕，决定和费尔明娜留在同一个城市，并且开始新一轮漫长的等待，他的单相思——对抗时间和死亡，等乌比尔诺医生死去。
爱情的失败也让阿里萨意识到自己的身份和社会地位配不上费尔明娜，逼迫着自己去经营生活，改变自己的社会地位。
阿里萨猎艳：通过性寻找爱，消除内心孤独感
同时他和众多女人发生肉体关系。但其实正是通过和其他女人的相处，来消除内心的孤独感，弥补得不到费尔明娜爱情的缺失。他也更加确认费尔明娜对他的不可替代，是他一生唯一的挚爱。
费&乌：世俗婚姻。陪伴，稳定、平淡。
在费尔明娜与乌尔比诺医生的婚姻中，他们互相陪伴，平淡也稳定。只有一次例外，就是乌尔比诺出轨芭芭拉林奇小姐，被费尔明娜发现后，医生经过长时间的内心矛盾并最终坦白。

c.老年阶段——理性智慧，以费尔明娜和阿里萨的黄昏恋为主。
阿里萨一直坚持到了医生去世。他以他的坚持和耐心打动了费尔明娜，让费尔明娜愿意接受他。他们开始了一段旅行，旅行结束的时候因为他们不愿面对现实所以不愿回去，最后乘着以霍乱为帆的船继续航行。

四.小说里讲述的各种各样的爱情可能。
开篇摄影师赫雷米亚与黑白混血女人之间隐蔽的恋情；
阿里萨和费尔明娜持续了半个世纪的柏拉图式的精神恋爱（包括他们青涩纯粹的初恋与年老时的黄昏恋）；
阿里萨对费尔明娜忠贞不渝的单相思；
费尔明娜与乌尔比诺医生的世俗婚姻爱情；
乌尔比诺与林奇小姐战战兢兢的婚外恋；
阿里萨和众多女人们纯粹的肉欲追逐的露水爱情；
阿里萨与14岁少女的洛丽塔式的忘年恋…
忠贞的爱、雀跃的爱、逃离的爱、私通的爱、狂热的爱、转瞬即逝的爱、生死相依的爱…
不同层次不同角色不同性质的爱情，这篇小说也堪称是“爱情的教科书”“陈列爱情的博物馆”

五.除了爱情之外的其他主题。
1.衰老。儿童摄影师赫雷米亚德圣阿莫尔的自杀；
岁月加于人的痕迹——表现在岁月加于主人公身上的痕迹（蹒跚的步态、上楼梯的速度、意外的跌倒、满是皱纹的皮肤、稀疏的头发）；
乌尔比诺医生、阿里萨想尽办法延缓衰老
2.死亡。小说中提到最多的是霍乱，也是整个故事发生的宏大背景。
借以描写这种难以治愈、神秘莫测的疾病来写死亡。因为霍乱预示着死亡，而且在当时几乎就等于死亡，当时地的生产力水平和医学发展不足以让人们去抗衡。
当人们被生理上的痛楚折磨时，往往无力也无心开出精神上的花朵。然而小说中描写的就是这样一种稀有的生命之花，因为爱情有勇气与苦难和死亡的疾病抗争。

阿里萨一生都在追求费尔米纳的爱情，即使面临死亡的抉择也义无反顾: 冷酷无情的费尔米纳的父亲最初阻挠女儿与他的爱情时，甚至用死亡来威胁阿里萨，但是阿里萨毫无畏惧，“‘朝我开枪吧!’他说，把一只手放在胸口上，‘没有比为爱情而死更光荣的事情了’”。因为有了爱情，所以阿里萨充满了无畏的勇气。他为了爱情不怕死，并且崇尚为爱而死。
同时阿里萨的爱情之路实质上是一直与死亡作斗争，他到年老时害怕衰老和死亡，因为他明白，只有乌尔比诺医生死去，他才有机会再接近费尔米纳，因此，他努力与时间、衰老、死亡作斗争，他要为爱好好活着，战胜时间，战胜衰老，跨越死亡，他要活过乌尔比诺，才能重获费尔明娜。
所以说这两个主题实际上也是与爱情密切相关的，因爱情而起的，可以归结到爱情主题上。

参考文献：
1.於珍珍.《霍乱时期的爱情》中的医生形象分析[J].才智,2014(32):318-319.
2.荣利. “滥情”的痴情者[D].浙江师范大学,2015.
3.谈清妍.爱情的乌托邦——解读《霍乱时期的爱情》中的爱情与死亡[J].襄樊学院学报,2009,30(06):51-54.
4.高小斐,孙世友.悲欢离合五十年——浅论《霍乱时期的爱情》中的爱情[J].才智, 2014(16):288.
5.李贞琤.疾病缠绕下的爱情——马尔克斯小说爱情主题与疾病主题关系探究[J].开封教育学院学报,2017,37(12):38-39+42.
6.姚婧.情感的疾病化书写——解读《霍乱时期的爱情》[J].名作欣赏,2015(17):125-128.--[[User:ImRx|ImRx]] ([[User talk:ImRx|talk]]) 03:00, 4 June 2018 (UTC)

handout of张传伟
世界主义与世界文学
一、世界主义

1、世界文学的定义：
(1) 各民族优秀文学的经典之总汇；
(2) 一种用于从总体上研究、评价和批评文学的全球的、跨文化的和比较的视角；(3)不同语言中的文学生产、流通、翻译和批评性选择的发展演变过程。

2、形成和发展
（1）词源探究
作为一个跨学科的理论概念和批评话语，世界主义可以追踪到古希腊的哲学思想那里，甚至这个术语本身就出自希腊语。我们今天在英文中所描述的世界主义( cosmopolitanism) 是由两个词组成的:cosmos在希腊语中，意为宇宙或世界，polis意为城市或城邦。这样我们就有了“世界”这个词。那些信仰其伦理道德的人便被人称为“世界主义者”( cosmopolites)，而他们的主张和理论教义便被称为“世界主义”。这就是世界主义概念就其字面意义而言的形成。
（2）后世发展
世界主义通常在三个层面得到讨论:哲学的、政治学和社会学的以及文化和文学的层面。哲学维度的世界主义可以追溯到柏拉图和亚里士多德的著作，这两位希腊先哲本质上并不赞成世界主义，在他们看来，人们通常生活在自己的城邦，并且依恋特定的政治教义，所以很容易与之相认同。当他们的城邦遭受外敌入侵时，公民们便会奋起抗击，保卫自己的城邦。对这些古希腊人来说，好的公民不应当与外邦人分享过多的利益。这一观点后来逐步发展为爱国主义和民族主义。在中国，爱国主义和民族主义对那些试图形成独特的中华民族和文化认同的知识分子一直有着极大的吸引力，一个特例就是五四时期，当时虽曾有人鼓吹过世界主义，但很快就销声匿迹，淹没在民族主义的汪洋大海中了，其原因恰在于当时的中国文化土壤和时代精神并不适合世界主义驻足。
但并不是所有古希腊先哲们都反对世界主义，另一些思想较为开放且见多识广的古希腊知识分子，尤其是犬儒派哲人迪奥格尼斯(Diogenes)则鼓吹一种较为普世的伦理道德，因为他并不把自己局限于特定的城邦，甚至公开宣称:“我是一个世界公民。”从此，“世界公民”(citizen of the world)便成了所有信奉世界主义的人所致力于追求的理想。当然，他们所追求的并非是特定的民族—国家的利益，而更是一种普世价值和全人类的共同利益。他们的这种理想和追求并不满足于局限在哲学和社会政治层面，他们还试图将其推而广之。
当代学者在讨论世界主义时很少引证这些远古时期的观点，但其中的某些观点却依然在现代哲学家的著作中得到响应和发展。启蒙时期的哲学家如康德则表示了对其的莫大兴趣，提出一种世界主义的法律或权利。19 世纪以前的不同形式的世界主义仅仅停留在哲学家的假想和论辩层面上的话，那么自19 世纪以来，那些有远大抱负的人便逐渐开始将世界主义付诸实践了，从哥伦布发现“新大陆”到世界贸易航线形成等都为全球化的进程奠定了基础。

二、世界文学

1、源起
歌德是德语“世界文学”( Weltliteratur) 一词的创制者，也是第一个明确提出世界文学观念的人。歌德关于世界文学的论述集中在1827-1830年间，归纳起来有三个要点: 其一，世界文学是一个对话和流通的平台，各民族文学可以通过进入这个平台相互交流、取长补短、相得益彰。其二，世界文学是一个合乎世界主义的理想，能够推动各民族文学逐渐打破孤立割裂状态，影响融合而形成一个有机的统一体。其三，世界文学是彰显民族文学价值的场所。歌德就站在德国的角度谈论世界文学，他渴望本民族文学在推动世界文学形成过程中扮演“光荣的”、“美好的”角色，对其他民族文学(例如法国文学) 所处的优势地位则十分敏感。

2、“世界文学”内涵
在《什么是世界文学？》一书中，丹穆若什以世界、文本和读者为中心，进一步阐释“世界文学”的三重定义：“世界文学是民族文学间的椭圆折射”“世界文学是从翻译中获益的文学”“世界文学不是指一套经典文本，而是指一种阅读模式——一种以超然的态度进入与我们自身时空不同的世界的形式”。首先，“椭圆折射”利用椭圆具备两个焦点的特性，指代世界文学的双重性质。世界文学具有两个核心要点——源文化和主体文化。一部文学作品如果想成为世界文学的一部分，需要从源文化出发，被他国文化空间接受。“接受”过程与接受主体的民族文化传统和价值需求相关。因此，世界文学既与源文化相关，又与主体文化相关，是一种双重折射。仔细分析，世界文学双重折射特性表明世界文学作品并非静止、孤立，而是在不同国家、不同文化间互相流通、交流、传播、碰撞。世界文学作品，不仅受到源文化熏陶，也经过主体文化的接受和改造。其次，由于语言障碍，世界文学作品的传播和流通必须依赖文学翻译。但是，文学语言在翻译过程中会有得失。丹穆若什认为翻译中对于得失的衡量是区分民族文学与世界文学的标志。具体来看，在翻译中受损的文学，“通常局限于本民族或本地区的传统内”；从翻译中获益的文学，“进入世界文学的范畴”。他进一步指出，民族文学进入世界文学，当范围扩大后，“风格上的损失会被深度上的扩张所抵消”。由此看出，世界文学作品源于民族文学而高于民族文学，价值取向超越民族特性，拥有“世界性”。最后，丹穆若什认为世界文学并非经典文本的简单集合，而是通过一种阅读，使读者超越自身时空，进入更加广阔的世界。作为阅读模式，一部作品能否成为世界文学，取决于其他国家、民族读者的阅读效果。一旦外国作品开始在读者脑中发生共鸣，世界文学就开始活动。这种“共鸣”，实际是不同民族文学作品的相同价值取向的融汇。作品自身价值取向被本国以外读者认可，超越民族性，成为世界性价值。由此看来，世界文学不代表文学作品数量的多少，而是作为一种阅读模式，“可以通过少量作品来深入体验，也可以通过大量作品来广泛探寻”，在世界范围内寻找共鸣。

3、“世界文学”与“世界的文学”
一般而言，“世界文学”和“世界的文学”这两个概念多半是在明确的不同语境中被运用：若说“世界文学”依然意味着作品之无可非议的重要性，那么，“世界的文学”则更多地指向世界上那些不怎么有名、却能展示新方向的文学；它们不同凡响、颇有魅力，却还未在读者意识中占有重要位置。也就是说，“世界的文学”未必就是审美和经典意义的上乘之作，或得到广泛接受的作品。谈论“世界的文学”，人们面对的是浩繁的书卷，无数作品和文化传统，难以把握的界线，并在挑选时怀有开放态度。
20 世纪70 年代，世界体系理论( World System Theory) 兴起于美国，对世界文学观念产生重大影响。以美国著名社会学家伊曼纽尔·沃勒斯坦( Immanuel Wallerstein) 为代表的世界体系理论的核心，是把人类社会看成一个由结构性经济联系及各种内在制度制约的一体化的体系，以此作为考察社会发展变迁的分析单位。这是对20 世纪五六十年代兴盛的以民族国家为分析单位、研究人类社会发展变迁的经典现代化理论的反拨。

4、世界文学与比较文学
世界文学与比较文学的关系引起西方学者的重视。一种声音认为，世界文学相比于比较文学，只是在原有学科体系基础上扩大比较范围。如大卫·费里斯指出：“比较文学应成为世界文学，只是扩大比较范围，比较方法不变。”另一种声音认为，比较文学与世界文学并行不悖，相互作用。“国别文学、比较文学和世界文学彼此间保持动态相互作用关系，都无法完全取代对方。”②对于读者来讲，世界文学仅存于国家空间。比如中国读者阅读海明威《老人与海》，即使该作品在世界范围内得到广泛认可，作为世界文学作品享誉中外，但对于中国读者而言，阅读的只是一部美国小说而已。比较研究作为方法，通用于国别文学、比较文学和世界文学研究。但是，如库班指出，“世界文学接受文本，即使代表特别的国家精神……也能穿过甚至超越他们的国家，语言和历史起源，有效解域本身”，世界文学关注世界性，超越民族性。今天西方学者老话重提，有一些新的阐释，但是，作为克服比较文学危机、面向未来的比较文学学科理论，尚缺乏指导性意义。全世界比较文学学者必须寻求比较文学理论的新突破。

三、中国文学的世界化与世界文学的中国化

1、中国文学的世界化
中国文学世界化并不只是中国作家获得国际大奖或是中国作家作品被翻译介绍到外国。世界化是中国文学作为全球化时代世界文学的主体之一，在世界文学中体现出中国主体性。
马克思《路易·波拿巴的雾月十八日》中说：“就像一个刚学会一种新语言的人总是要把它翻译成本国语言一样；只有当他能够不必在心里把新语言翻译成本国语言，当他能够忘掉本国语言来运用新语言的时候，他才算领会了新语言的精神，才算是运用自如。”后现代批评家们奉为圭臬的这篇名著中，马克思的话说出了中国的世界文学认证的真正价值。全球化时代中，世界文学是对自我认证，也是对他人的认证，中国文学从世界文学得到认证，同样，世界文学从中国文学得到认证。

2、世界文学的“中国化”
世界文学的“中国化”指很多学者表示怀疑，以为是将世界文学作品按中国的观念进行改造，甚至变成“红色经典”。我们必须解释清楚：世界文学的中国化并不是用中国文学标准来“化”世界文学，而是建构中国的世界文学阐释理论体系。这是完全正当的无可非议的，中国文学从不追求“文化权力中心”。但是中国文学必须建立中国的世界文学视域，中国如何看待世界文学史理论、世界文学经典的选编与世界文学翻译，这三大要素，缺一不可。

参考文献
[1]方维规.何谓世界文学?[J].文艺研究,2017(01):5-18.
[2]曹顺庆,李斌.比较文学未来发展之路——世界文学与比较文学变异学[J].中国高校社会科学,2016(06):39-47+154.
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西方文学的翻译

一、翻译内容、技法叙事
清末颇为兴盛的外国小说翻译一方面介绍了西方的文化思想,另一方面明显的汉民族文化特征仍不容忽视。因为近代译者多具有根深蒂固的中国文化观念,因此他们在翻译过程中对原著进行特殊的、比较主观的处理是特定历史阶段的产物。
在西方小说文化思想内容的翻译方面,“西方宗教观、伦理观与中国具体国情不同,其文学作品必然与中国文化发生抵悟,翻译者趋于沟通的心理,尽可能地使译作。与中国文化相通。”
在叙事技法的传递方面,“早期小说译者的文学修养主要源于中国传统文化,其译作的小说文体形式必然采用中国原有的通俗小说文体——章回体。在原著风格的翻译方面,“早期小说译者在翻译小说时非常注重小说的读者群,这些读者多属具有一定文化修养的文人阶层,其思维方式、审美习惯皆己定型。翻译者如果想拥有庞大的读者群,其译作就应该考虑到中国读者的阅读习惯与审美情趣,突出小说消闲、怡情的文学特征。因此,外国小说译作的汉化便成了翻译者有意追求的一种语言风格。

二、翻译方法和翻译文体
由于文学意识的不自觉、白话语体表达的幼稚性以及受众对象的特殊性等原因,在近代的文学翻译中,归化的手法、文言的文体和意译的方法颇受青睐。因此,“这种译述、意译的风气使得早期文学翻译的体例很不完备。”文学革命爆发后,文学翻译的目标读者出现“平民化”倾向,文学翻译文体走向通俗化、大众化,同时由于文学翻译中文学意识的不断增强,直译方法逐渐为越来越多的译者所使用,文学翻译开始走向异化。

三、近代翻译与意识形态的相互关系
译入语文化中的主流意识形态对中国近代翻译选材有着不容忽视的影响和操控作用。1840年—1919年的中国翻译史印证了勒菲弗尔的翻译理论。通过研究这个时期的翻译史,我们可以清楚看到,翻译作品的兴盛是随着各个历史阶段的主流意识形态的变化而变化的。例如“甲午战争的失败把中华民族的生死存亡摆在每个人的面前，……此时的意识形态可以归纳为‘开民智、求变革’,其目的是为了唤醒全体国民,进行思想和现代意识启蒙。小说因为其易普及
性被选作变革工具,成为资产阶级改良派医治`社会病'的良方。”

四、近代翻译在文化和语言方面的属性
中国近代翻译有层次区别,早期的科技翻译不同于后来的社科、文学翻译,前者主要是技术问题,后者主要是文化和语言问题。众所周知，文化翻译往往涉及到深层的语言体系问题。近代社会译者所深谙的古代汉语体系决定了近代翻译文学从根本上具有中国“古代性”。这样,“翻译者总是用旧思想、旧思维来理解和表达西方新思想、新思维,总是在旧有的语言体系中寻找相对应或相似的术语、概念、范畴和话语方式,因此,西方思想文化在翻译的过程就不知不觉地变了形,变得本土化、民族化了。
五、近代翻译的动机及其所带来的影响
近代译者为了让时人了解西方民主思想和先进的科技知识,大多有目的地选择政治小说、科学小说、侦探小说加以引进,其翻译动机就是要救国启民,因此他们的翻译观明显具有功利主义的性质。这一点对于我们理解近代的小说翻译理论和翻译策略大有裨益,对于译文中普遍存在的删改现象也就能够给予合理的解释。他明确地谈到“他们企图用中国传统文化和文学的规范去干预原文本,以此来调整读者对译文的反应,避免可能造成的文化障碍。运用这种策略和方法的目的,无非是趋利避害,把原文本中有利于译文读者的信息翻译出来,对那些不利于一译文读者或不实用的信息避而不译。”
参考文献
【1】吴莎,屠国元.论中国近代翻译选材与意识形态的关系(1840-1919)[J].外语与外语教学,2007(11):38-40.
【2】顾建新.清末民初文学翻译方法与文学翻译文体的发展[J].外语教学,2004(06):50-54.
【3】韩永芝.从文化排斥与文化认同看清末外国小说翻译[J].解放军外国语学院学报,2001(05):66-69.
【4】高玉.论中国近代翻译文学的“古代性”[J].华中师范大学学报(人文社会科学版),2000(04):66-72.
【5】陆国飞.近代外国小说译介中的功利主义思想[J].学术界,2007(04):236-239.

外国诗歌翻译
[1]郭建辉.外国诗歌的审美特征与外国诗歌的鉴赏[J].重庆工业高等专科学校学报,2001(03):93-95.
由于各民族的文化传统的不同影响，外国诗歌也呈现出不同的特点，详细分析了从《荷马史诗》与《圣经》到现代主义艾略特的《荒原》特点，以把握外国诗歌的审美特征。

[2]河洛易.中国现代诗歌翻译概述[J].解放军外国语学院学报,2000(05):105-108.
作为中国20世纪的诗歌翻译来说, 大致可分为七个阶段：1、诗歌翻译的前奏曲——近代诗歌翻译 (1840 年鸦片战争到 1919年“五四”运动)；2、现代诗歌翻译的开创期 (从1919 年新青年社到 1930年“左联”成立)；3、现代诗歌翻译的中期 (从 1930 年“左联”成立到 1937 年抗战开始)；4、现代诗歌翻译的后期 (从 1937年抗战开始到1949年中华人民共和国成立)；5、当代“十七年”的诗歌翻译 (从 1949 年新中国成立到“文化大革命”前夕)；6、当代“文革十年”的诗歌翻译 (文革十年)；7、当代新时期的诗歌翻译 (1976 年至今)。
外国诗歌的翻译不是一个自我封闭的静态系统，而是一个不断自我调整和适应的开放系统。

[3]熊辉.翻译诗歌对诗人创作的影响[J].文艺争鸣,2017(09):7-12.
翻译诗歌为百年新诗发展注入了生机和活力，学界目前多从创作技巧、形式艺术或思想情感的角度去论述前者对后者的影响，较少从创作实践的层面去思考二者的关联。实际上，新诗创作者由于接受了不同的文化而具有各自特殊的写作背景，翻译诗歌对新诗创作的影响也因为创作主体的多元化而呈现出复杂的格局：部分诗人直接阅读并翻译了外国诗歌，译诗对他们创作的影响主要停留在翻译过程或思维转换上；也有部分诗人通过阅读其他人翻译的作品而受到了译诗文本的影响，这部分人也包括那些参与翻译的诗人，因为他们自己在翻译诗歌的同时也可能会阅读别人的译作。

[4]熊辉.外国诗歌的翻译与中国现代新诗的文体创新[J].上海师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2013,42(03):70-76.
外国诗歌的翻译有助于中国新诗的文体创新,作者从语言层面的创造新字、改进语言句法和表达方式,形式层面的创造新形式、引入新形式等方面展开论述。在此基础上分析了这种在翻译的过程中创新的文体所具有的文体特征和文化属性,进而表明外国诗歌的翻译对中国新诗文体创新具有带动作用。

[5]李特夫,李国林.诗歌翻译研究:传统思路与现代视野[J].天津外国语学院学报,2004(01):31-36+47.
随着译学研究范式的转向、开拓与创新 ,各种译学思想得以不断重诂和修订，为我国诗歌翻译研究带来了新的启示。在对传统译诗观念进行简要回顾和思考的基础上，针对当前一些争议和疑难性问题提出了个人看法，并借鉴西方译论，就未来诗歌翻译研究有关问题进行了探讨。

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20211229 homework

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Liu Wei: /* 刘薇 Liú Wēi 国别女 202120081507 */

20211222 homework

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Liu Wei: /* 刘胜楠 Liú Shèngnán 翻译学女 202120081506 */

Hist Trans EN 9

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Liu Wei: /* reference */

=Chapter 9 刘薇 Contemporary American Translation History)=
[[Hist_Trans_EN_9]]

Liu Wei 刘薇 Hunan Normal University, China

==Abstract==
The United States is an important part of the "West", so when we talk about the conception of "West", it is impossible to exclude the United States.Therefore, this chapter recapitulates the development of contemporary American translation by introducing a series of theories of American translators.

==Key words==
translation theory of American, Eugene Nida,Robert Boogrand.

==Introduction==

In the field of translation studies, the situation in the United States is very special.Since the history of the United States itself is not long, we can not expect to talk about "ancient American translation theory", "medieval American translation theory", or even "modern American translation theory".American translation theory is mainly the "contemporary translation theory", which is developed after World War II (Guo Jianzhong, [introduction]: 2).Although the development of American translation theory is relatively short, there are still many influential translation theorists, such as Eugene Nida, Robert Boogrand, Andre Leverville, Lawrence Venudi, Edwin Gentzler and so on. They are constantly innovating and developing new theories in the field of translation.

==Chapter1 Characteristics of the local American translation theory ==

The development of contemporary American translation theory has three main characteristics: first, it inherits the tradition of European translation theory in terms of overall research methods;Second, the early studies were mostly influenced by the schools of American structural linguistics;Third, there is a tendency to catch up in research results.These characteristics are discussed one by one below.(Tan Zaixi,1999:237)

On the first point, the inheritance of European tradition in the overall research method of American translation theory is due to its unique language and cultural tradition.As an integral part of the whole culture, translation culture naturally presents the basic characteristics of the development of the whole culture.Since the American culture with English as the national language is mainly inherited from European culture, the development of American translation culture, as an integral part of American culture, also inherits European translation culture.Especially in the early stage of the development of American translation theory, many influential people engaged in translation studies were immigrants from Europe or descendants of recent European immigrants.

Take Thorman as an example: his translation theory work the art of translation published in 1901 is one of the earliest published works in the field of American translation theory, but the contents and discussion methods involved in the book have no obvious "American characteristics".On the contrary, it is more like a work belonging to Europe, especially the British translation tradition. Even the examples in the book are similar to the European, especially the British translation tradition.

The second characteristic of the tradition of American translation theory is that the early studies were greatly influenced by the schools of American structural linguistics, which can be said to be a more distinctive "American characteristic" in American translation studies.

American linguistic studies are at the forefront of the West in many aspects. There have been many linguistic schools, such as human language school, structuralism school, transformational generative school and so on. All kinds of schools have also had various direct or indirect effects on American translation studies.

The representative of American structuralist language school is Bloomfield. He adopts the method of behaviorism and believes that everything about language can be studied scientifically and objectively.He put forward a behaviorist semantic analysis method, which holds that meaning is the relationship between stimulus and language response.In 1950s, Chomsky's transformational generative theory replaced Bloomfield's theory and occupied the dominant position in American linguistics theory and occupied the dominant position in American linguistics.The influence of Chomsky's theory on translation studies mainly lies in his discussion of surface structure and deep structure.The concept of "deep" has led to large-scale semantic research. Because semantics is closely related to translation research, Chomsky's theory has promoted the development of translation theory in the United States and even the whole west.(Xie Tianzhen ,2003:200)

Therefore, under the influence of various linguistic theories, many people try to put forward new translation concepts and research methods. These people can be collectively referred to as the structural School of American translation theory.Among them, the main characters include Wojilin, Bolinger, Katz, Quinn and Eugene Nida.

Take Wojilin as an example. He is a human linguist.His greatest contribution is to put forward a multi-step translation method (also known as step-by-step translation method).The biggest advantage of his multi-step translation method is that the steps are clear, flexible and easy to master.

Using Chomsky's transformational generative theory, Boringer puts forward a concept of structural translation as opposed to lexical translation.Based on structural linguistics, Katz makes a profound analysis of the translatability of language and the philosophical problems in language and translation.Based on the discussion of strange language, Quinn expounds some basic problems of translation from the perspective of philosophy, which has aroused great repercussions in the field of western translation theory.(Tan Zaixi,1999:250)

The third characteristic of the development of American translation theory is that it has a tendency to catch up with others in research results.One of the most prominent scholars is Eugene Nida. Although he is an outstanding linguist, his views on "translation is science", "translation is communication", "translation must pay attention to reader response" and other aspects are an innovation and breakthrough to the previous views. In addition, after Eugene Nida, many scholars have put forward many new views because of their existence,It was only after World War II that American translation theory continued to catch up.

Therefore, we will focus on him in the next chapter.

==Chapter2 Eugene Nida's translation theory==

Eugene Albert Nida (1914 -) was born in Oklahoma City in the south central United States. He graduated from the University of California, Los Angeles in 1936. In 1943, he worked in Bloomfield and fries (Charles fries received his doctorate in linguistics under the guidance of two famous scholars. As the leading translation theory figure in contemporary America, Nida has also engaged in research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology and communication engineering. Before his retirement in the 1980s, he worked in the Translation Department of the American Holy Bible Association and served as the executive secretary of the translation department for a long time. He is mainly engaged in the Bible Organization of translation and revision of translations and the Bible Training and theoretical guidance for translators. He is proficient in many languages and has investigated and studied more than 100 languages, especially some small languages in Africa and Latin America. In 1968, he served as the president of the American language society. Although he does not take teaching as his career, he has extremely rich experience in Translation training and lecturing. In addition to a long-term part-time job, he speaks linguistics in the famous American summer In addition to teaching linguistics and translation courses in the Institute, he also served as a guest lecturer and professor in many American universities. He was often invited to give short-term lectures in Europe, Latin America, Africa and Asia, and won several honorary doctorates. In order to recognize his contribution to translation research, especially in the field of Bible translation research, the American Bible Association named the Institute after him in 2001 In particular, Nida has deep feelings for China. Since 1982, he has been invited to give lectures in China more than ten times, and has maintained close academic contacts and exchanges with many schools and academic colleagues in China for a long time.(Tan Zaixi,2000:247)

Nida is a prolific language and translation theorist. From 1945 to 2004, he published more than 200 articles and more than 40 works (including works cooperated and edited with others). Among them, there are more than 20 works on language and translation theory, and a collection of papers has been published.

His research achievements include "Toward a Science of Translating" published in 1964, "The Theory and Practice of Translation" Co authored with Charles Taber in 1969, "Com ponential Analysis of Meaning " published in 1975 and "language structure and Translation" . Nida's anthology "Language Structure and Translation : Essays by Eugene A. Nida，ed. by Anwar S. Dil" , "From One Language to Another" , co authored with de warrd in 1986, "The Sociolinguistics of Interlingual Communication" , published in 1996 and published in 2001 "Language and Culture :Contertsin Translating" .(Xie Tianzhen.2003:212)

Throughout Nida's translation thought, we can divide it into three main development stages: the linguistic stage with obvious American structuralism in the early stage, the stage of translation science and translation communication in the middle stage, and the stage of social semiotics.

The first major stage is the linguistic stage, from 1943 when he wrote his doctoral thesis "a summary of English syntax" to 1959 when he published "principles of translation from biblical translation".At this stage, he tries to clarify the structural nature of language through the description of syntax, morphology and language translation.In his early days, he was greatly influenced by American structuralist Bloomfield and human linguist Sapir, and paid attention to the collection and analysis of language materials in language research.Through the opportunity to visit and contact different languages all over the world, many examples of speech differences are collected.However, he does not regard speech differences as insurmountable obstacles between languages, but as different phenomena of the same essence.

The second development stage of Nida's translation thought is the stage of translation science and translation communication. It took 10 years from the publication of "principles of translation from biblical translation" in 1959 to the publication of "translation theory and practice" in 1969.The research achievements at this stage have played a key role in establishing Nida's authoritative position in the whole western translation theory circle.
By summarizing this main development period, the main contents of the following five aspects can be summarized:

（一）Translation science.Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill, but also a science.The so-called science here means that translation problems can be handled by "scientific approaches to language structure, semantic analysis and information theory", that is, a linguistic and descriptive method can be adopted to explain the translation process.If the principles and procedures of translation seem to be normative, it is only because they are generally considered to be the most useful in a specific scope of translation.Nida's view that "translation is science" has had great repercussions in the field of western linguistics and translation theory.

（二） Translation communication theory. Nida applies communication theory and information theory to translation studies and holds that translation is communication. After World War II, not only advertisers, politicians and businessmen attached great importance to the intelligibility of language, but also scholars, writers, editors, publishers and translators realized that any information would be worthless if it could not play a communicative role. Therefore, to judge whether a translation is successful, we must first see whether it can be immediately understood by the recipient and whether it can play a role in the communication of ideas, information and feelings. Therefore, in the field of translation research, various names and statements such as "communicative translation", "functional translation" and related "equal response theory", "equal effect theory", "equal role theory" and "equal power theory" have sprung up one after another. Nida's "translation is communication" and his "reader response theory" and "dynamic equivalence" discussed below“ "Functional equivalence" has become an important representative of the communicative school in the field of western translation studies.

Nida's theory of "translation is communication" is based on the theory of language commonality. Nida, like Jacobson, believes that all languages in the world have the same expression ability, which can enable native speakers of the language to express ideas, describe the world and carry out social communication. His argument is based on the same "identity" For example, in countries with relatively developed productive forces, many scientific and technological words will appear in their languages, while in countries with less developed or very low productive forces, there may be a lack of scientific and technological words in their languages. However, this does not mean that the latter has the same expressive ability as the former, but only shows that people have different requirements for languages in different languages, It is not because the language cannot produce scientific and technological vocabulary, but because the speakers of the language do not have or temporarily do not have the requirement to use scientific and technological vocabulary. Once there is such a requirement, there will be corresponding vocabulary in the language, or "native" scientific and technological vocabulary, or "foreign" vocabulary transplanted from foreign words. In short, the expression efficiency of various languages is the same.

Nida believes that the primary task of translation is to make it clear to the readers at a glance after reading the translation. That is to say, the translation should be fluent and natural, and the readers can understand it without the knowledge of the cultural background of the source language. This requires that rigid foreign words should be used as little as possible in translation, and expressions belonging to the receiving language should be used as much as possible. For example, in a Sudanese language, for If the expression "repent and reform" is translated directly, it will make people feel at a loss, and it should be translated into the local familiar "spitting on the ground in front of someone". For example, in the language without "Snow", white as snow may be puzzling, but it should be said "white as frost" or "white as egret hair" Another example is that in the ancient West, the habit of people meeting and greeting each other was "sacred kiss", but now it should become "very warm handshake".(Nida·Eugene,1996:234）

In a sense, the theory of translation communication is not only one of the main symbols of Nida's second development stage of translation thought, but also one of the biggest characteristics of his whole ideological system.Especially after the publication of translation theory and practice, Nida's translation communication theory has had a great impact on the western translation circles, including those in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union.

（三） Dynamic equivalence theory.The so-called dynamic equivalence translation is actually translation under the guidance of translation communication theory. Specifically, it refers to "reproducing the source language information with the closest (original) natural equivalence in the receiving language from semantics to style".In this definition, there are three key points: one is "nature", which means that the translation cannot have a translation cavity;The second is "close", which refers to selecting the translation with the closest meaning to the original text on the basis of "nature";The third is "equivalence", which is the core.Both "nature" and "close" serve to find equivalents.

（四） Translation function theory.From the perspective of sociolinguistics and language communicative function, Nida believes that translation must serve the reader.To judge whether a translation is correct or not, we must take the reader's response as the criterion.If the response of the target readers is basically the same as that of the original readers, the translation can be considered successful.

（五） Four step model.This refers to the translation process.Nida puts forward that the process of translation is: analysis, transfer (transfer the meaning obtained from the analysis from the source language to the receiving language), reorganization (reorganize the translation according to the rules of the receiving language), and inspection (detect the target text against the source text).Among these four steps, "analysis" is the most complex and key, which is the focus of Nida's translation research.The focus of the analysis is semantics. He distinguishes four parts of speech from the perspective of semantics: object words, activity words, abstract words and relational words.In semantic analysis, he introduced three methods: linear analysis, hierarchical analysis and component analysis.In the specific analysis of semantics, he focuses on grammatical meaning, referential meaning and connotative meaning (or emotional meaning and associative meaning).These distinction theories are of great significance to understand his translation thought.

Nida's research achievements in the 1980s can be regarded as the third stage of translation thought.He has made a series of modifications and supplements to his translation theory.He did not completely abandon the theory of the original communicative school, but further developed on the original basis and incorporated the useful elements of the original theory into a new model, which is the social semiotics model in the third development stage translation thought.

Compared with previous works, Eugene Nida has the following four changes and developments in from one language to another: first, based on the translation theory of social semiotics, he emphasizes that everything in the text has meaning, including speech form, so form cannot be easily sacrificed.That is to say, form is also meaningful. Sacrificing form means sacrificing meaning.Secondly, it points out that the rhetorical features of language play an important role in language communication, so we must pay attention to these features in translation.Third, the theory of "dynamic equivalence" is no longer used, but replaced by "functional equivalence", which is intended to make the meaning of the term clearer and easier to understand.Fourth, instead of using the distinction of grammatical meaning, referential meaning and associative meaning, meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, and all kinds of meaning are divided into referential meaning and associative meaning.From the whole historical process of the development of translation theory, it should be said that these changes are basically positive.(Nida·Eugene,1996:222）

Of course, his theory and works are not perfect.First, his theory focuses too much on solving the problems of communicative and intelligibility of translation, so its scope of application is limited.It is natural to emphasize the intelligibility of the translation in the field of Bible translation, but if the intelligibility of the translation is always put in the first place in the translation of secular literary works, it will inevitably lead to the simplification and even non literariness of the translated language.

Second, he no longer completely negates "formal correspondence", but believes that the expression form of the original text cannot be broken at will in translation.In order to expand the scope of application of his theory, he also added rhetoric.However, despite his amendments, he failed to elaborate more deeply on his new views.

Thirdly, Eugene Nida once put forward the proposition that "translation is science", and then basically abandoned this proposition.Whether he put forward or gave up, he did not put forward sufficient and convincing arguments, which can not be said to be a major defect.

Of course, Nida's theory and works are not perfect. Firstly, his theory focuses too much on solving the problems of communicative and intelligibility of translation, so its scope of application is limited. It is natural to emphasize the intelligibility of the translation in the field of Bible translation, but if the intelligibility of the translation is always put in the first place in the translation of secular literary works, it will inevitably lead to the simplification and even non literariness of the translated language. Newmark, a British translation theorist, once pointed out: "if we delete all the metaphors in the Bible that Doneda believes readers cannot understand, it will inevitably lead to a large loss of meaning." . an important feature of literary works is that they use more metaphorical and novel language. The author's real intention may have to taste and capture between the lines. If all the metaphorical images in the original work are deleted and all the associative meanings are clearly stated, the result will be that the translation is easy to understand, but it is dull and can't reach To the purpose of literature. In recent years, Nida has become more and more aware of this, and has constantly revised and improved some of his past views. For example, he later no longer focused on the intelligibility of the translation, but advocated a "three nature principle", that is, the principle of paying equal attention to comprehensibility, readability and acceptability. In addition, he no longer completely denied "formal correspondence" In order to expand the scope of application of his theory, he especially added rhetoric. However, despite Nida's amendments, he failed to make a more profound exposition of his new views; he was only aware of the existence of the problem rather than successfully solving the relevant problems Besides, Nida once put forward the proposition that "translation is science", and then basically gave up this proposition. Whether he put forward or gave up, he did not put forward sufficient and convincing arguments, which is a major defect.

Of course, flaws do not hide the jade. Looking at Nida's lifelong contributions, he is one of the most outstanding theoretical figures in the field of contemporary translation studies in the United States and even the whole west. The historical theory of the development of western translation theory should give him a heavy pen.(Tan Zaixi,2000:257)

==Chapter3 Robert Boogrand's translation theory==

Since the 1970s, more voices outside the structural language school and the communicative school have gradually emerged in the field of translation studies in the United States, especially the voice of discourse linguistics theory and discourse analysis represented by Robert Boogrand.
Boogrand teaches in the English Department of the University of Florida and is engaged in the study of literary discourse rhetoric and grammatical structure.In 1978, he published a book called "elements of translation theory of poetry"), which was listed as one of the Translation Studies Series edited by Holmes and attracted extensive attention.(Xie Tianzhen,2003:56)

Boogrand's view is: 1. The unit of translation is not a single word or sentence, but the whole text.2. Translation is a process of interaction among authors, translators and readers.3. What is worth studying is not the characteristics of the article itself, but the skills of language use reflected in these characteristics.

After the publication of the above translation theory works guided by the thought of discourse linguistics in 1978, Boogrand continued to engage in the research of language and translation along the same line, and more than ten relevant works (including Works CO authored and co edited with others) have been published successively, mainly including discourse, discourse and process: multidisciplinary discourse science exploration Linguistic Theory: Discourse of basic works, introduction to discourse linguistics, language discourse, Western and Middle East translation Boogrand has always expounded language and translation from the perspective of discourse linguistics, thus establishing his important position as the leader of discourse linguistics in the field of British and American translation studies. Boogrand's contribution as one of the pioneers of discourse analysis and discourse linguistics in translation studies is very important and worthy of full recognition.(Tan Zaixi,2000:256)

==Chapter4 Andre Lefevere's translation theory==

With the development of the times, translation studies in the United States, like other parts of the west, have been continuously improved in theoretical depth. By the 1990s, the focus of theorists' discussion on translation has gradually separated from the previous specific translation processes and methods, and turned more to the fundamental nature of translation, translation and ideology, translation and culture. This chapter introduces Andre Leverville's translation theory.
Andre Leverville, a professor of translation and comparative literature at the University of Texas at Austin, originally from Belgium, is a very important theoretical figure in the field of Contemporary Western comparative literature and translation research. We can discuss his main ideas from the following two aspects.(Tan Zaixi,2000:276)

(一)The cultural turn in translation studies. It is a common feature of all cultural schools to turn the focus of translation studies from the language structure and language form correspondence that language schools are most concerned about to the meaning and function of the target text and the source text in their respective cultural systems. He believes that any literature must survive in a certain social and cultural environment, and its meaning and value Value, as well as its interpretation and acceptance, will always be affected and restricted by a series of interrelated and mutually referenced factors, including both internal and external factors of literature. Therefore, as far as translation research is concerned, the goal of the research is far from limited to exploring the equivalence or equivalence of the two texts in language forms, but to explore at the same time.Study various cultural issues directly or indirectly related to translation activities.

（二） The concept of manipulation in translation. When talking about and describing the basic characteristics of the cultural school, we often can not do without using the word "manipulation". Here, "manipulation"It is not emotional, but a special term representing the concept of neutrality. According to the translation operation of Andre Leverville and others, the core meaning is that in the process of processing the source text and generating the target text, the translator has the right and will rewrite the text in order to achieve a certain purpose. Andre Leverville believes that translation is a reflection of the image of the text.Other literary forms such as literary criticism, biography, literary history, drama, film, fiction and so on are also the rewriting of the text image, and rewriting is the manipulation of the text.

（三） Obviously, the manipulative rewriting in Lefevere and his cultural school theory is not simply equivalent to "Rewriting" in the general sense, because in his view, all translation is rewriting, even the "most faithful"Translation is also a form of rewriting. As a translation manipulator, this rewriting or manipulation should be regarded as a cultural necessity in essence. In the process of translation, the translator is bound to be affected and restricted by various social and cultural factors. In addition to considering all the characteristics related to the source text, such as the original author's intention, the context of the source text and so on, the more important thing is toIt is necessary to consider a series of factors related to the target or receiving culture, such as the purpose of translation, the function of the target text, the expectations and reactions of readers, the requirements of clients and sponsors, and the review of the publishing and distribution organization of the work. The existence of these factors and the degree of constraints imposed by the translator on them vary from person to person constitute the inevitable "manipulation" condition of the translator on the text.(Lefevere·André,1980:100).

For "manipulation" in this sense, we can not judge it by moral value words such as "legitimate" or "improper", but only by the "appropriateness" criteria such as whether the target text has achieved the purpose of translation, whether it meets the expectations of the audience, and whether it can be accepted by the accepted culture.

==Chapter5 Lawrence Venudi's translation theory==

It is precisely because the cultural school or manipulation school, and even the polysystem school, in translation studies have established a relationship with the theory of domestication and Foreignization in translation, that a new group of scholars and viewpoints have emerged. In the field of American translation studies, Lawrence Wenudi is the most vocal theoretical figure on the issues of "domestication" and "Foreignization".
As an English professor at Temple University in Philadelphia, winudi is one of the most active and influential figures in the field of American translation theory since the 1990s. Winudi belongs to the deconstruction school in translation studies, that is, what genzler calls the "post structuralism school"In his works on translation studies, Venuti advocates that literary translation should not aim at eliminating alien features, but should try to show cultural differences in the target text.(Tan Zaixi,2000:278)

Venuti's main view is that it is wrong to require the translator to be invisible in translation; the translator should not be invisible in the translation, but should be visible. That is to say, translation should adopt the principle and strategy of "alienation" to keep the translation exotic and exotic, and read like the translation, rather than "domestication"So that the translation can be transformed completely in accordance with the ideology and creative norms of the target culture. It doesn't read like foreign works, but the original of the target language.(Xie Tianzhen,2003:278).

However, translation has never been carried out in an unaffected way. Foreignization translation and domestication translation are actually the products of translation activities affected. From the perspective of translation ethics, it is difficult to assert which is good or which is bad, because translation reality shows that the two play irreplaceable roles in the target language and culture and complete their respective missions.Therefore, the two kinds of translation will always coexist and complement each other.(Tan Zaixi,2000:279)

==Chapter6 Edwin Gensler's translation theory==

Edwin Genzler is the director of the translation center of Amherst University of Massachusetts, doctor of comparative literature and professor of translation. His famous translation work is contemporary translation theory published in 1993 and reprinted in 2001.(Xie Tianzhen,2003:290).

Genzler's contribution to translation theory is mainly reflected in the following three aspects:
First, it comprehensively combs the contemporary western translation theories, so as to clarify people's understanding of various western translation theory schools since World War II, and thus arouse the research interest in all kinds of contemporary western translation theories in the field of translation studies (including China's Translation Studies).In contemporary translation theory, Genzler studies translation from different perspectives such as scientific theory, polysystem theory and deconstruction. By exploring the "political reality" outside translation (literary translation practice), he outlines the outline of contemporary western translation research and guides readers to rethink a series of theoretical issues such as the definition and classification of translation.(Tan Zaixi,2000:300)

Secondly, on the basis of comprehensively and systematically combing various contemporary western translation thoughts and theories, Genzler puts forward a multi-channel cooperative translation research view of "fair treatment of all systems".He believes that contemporary translation theory, like literary theory, originates from structuralist theory.All these structuralist or post structuralist theories have been confined to their respective academic circles for a long time.Various schools have very special requirements for the terms used in this system, and the terms are limited;Their pursuit of "correctness" or "objectivity" of theory tends to be one-sided, and they all try to gain universal recognition in the academic circles at the expense of other perspectives.The result is only the continuous conflict between theories, but there is no due cooperation and exchange between theories, which leads to the marginalization of academic research.(Xie Tianzhen,2003:293)

Thirdly, Genzler puts forward a post structuralist interpretation model of the essence of translation.In translation, post structuralism and power, he analyzes the deconstruction (post structuralism) thoughts of Derrida, Spivak and others, as well as the translation thoughts of translation theorists such as Wenudi, Levin and Robinson under the influence of their deconstruction thoughts, and points out that the new translation interpretation model can no longer follow the past tradition and simply define translation as"The transformation from a single language to another single language", but it should be regarded as the transformation between a multicultural form environment and another equally multicultural form environment.

==Conclusion==

In addition to the above-mentioned important theoretical figures in the field of contemporary American translation studies, many others, such as Roberto Tradu, Daniel Shaw, Burton Raphael and so on, have also made achievements in translation theory. However, due to space constraints, they cannot be discussed in detail here.

Generally speaking, due to the historical origin and the influence of the subject's immigrant culture, the initial development of American translation studies depends on the inheritance and promotion of the tradition of European translation theory. With the evolution of the times, American translation studies catch up with each other in many aspects with rapid development and fruitful achievements, and walk in the forefront of western translation studies, becoming the driving force of contemporary western translation theory. On an important force for forward development.(Tan Zaixi,2000:301)

In addition to the above-mentioned important theoretical figures in the field of contemporary American translation studies, many others, such as Roberto Tradu, Daniel Shaw, Burton Raphael and so on, have also made achievements in translation theory. However, due to space constraints, they cannot be discussed in detail here.

==reference==

Lefevere·André. (1980). Translating literature [M]. New York:Clarendon Press.

Newmark·Peter. （1978）.The theory and the craft of translation [M].London:Rountledge Press.

Nida·Eugene.（1996）.The Sociolinguistics of Interlingual Communication [M]. Brussels:Editions du Hazard.

Katz·Jerrold J. （1966）.The Philosophy of Language [M]. New York:Harper and Row.

Pound，E. 1917. Notes on Elizabethan classicists [M]. New York:Clarendon Press.

Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (1999).《新编奈达论翻译》[M] New Nida on Translation. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司 Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.

Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2000).《翻译学》[M] Translatology. 武汉:湖北教育出版社 Wuhan: Hubei Education Press.

Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2003).《翻译研究新视野》[M].New perspectives in Translation Studies. 青岛:青岛出版社 Qingdao: Qingdao Press.

中国对外翻译出版公司（编).(1983).《翻译理论与翻译技巧论文集》[C].Collection of Papers on Translation Theory and Translation Skills. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.

中国对外翻译出版公司（编).(1983).《国外翻译理论评介文集》[C].A Review of Foreign Translation Theories. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司 Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.

--[[User:Liu Wei|Liu Wei]] ([[User talk:Liu Wei|talk]]) 16:11, 8 December 2021 (UTC)Liu Wei

Hist Trans EN 9

2021-12-19T12:53:51Z

Liu Wei: /* Conclusion */

=Chapter 9 刘薇 Contemporary American Translation History)=
[[Hist_Trans_EN_9]]

Liu Wei 刘薇 Hunan Normal University, China

==Abstract==
The United States is an important part of the "West", so when we talk about the conception of "West", it is impossible to exclude the United States.Therefore, this chapter recapitulates the development of contemporary American translation by introducing a series of theories of American translators.

==Key words==
translation theory of American, Eugene Nida,Robert Boogrand.

==Introduction==

In the field of translation studies, the situation in the United States is very special.Since the history of the United States itself is not long, we can not expect to talk about "ancient American translation theory", "medieval American translation theory", or even "modern American translation theory".American translation theory is mainly the "contemporary translation theory", which is developed after World War II (Guo Jianzhong, [introduction]: 2).Although the development of American translation theory is relatively short, there are still many influential translation theorists, such as Eugene Nida, Robert Boogrand, Andre Leverville, Lawrence Venudi, Edwin Gentzler and so on. They are constantly innovating and developing new theories in the field of translation.

==Chapter1 Characteristics of the local American translation theory ==

The development of contemporary American translation theory has three main characteristics: first, it inherits the tradition of European translation theory in terms of overall research methods;Second, the early studies were mostly influenced by the schools of American structural linguistics;Third, there is a tendency to catch up in research results.These characteristics are discussed one by one below.(Tan Zaixi,1999:237)

On the first point, the inheritance of European tradition in the overall research method of American translation theory is due to its unique language and cultural tradition.As an integral part of the whole culture, translation culture naturally presents the basic characteristics of the development of the whole culture.Since the American culture with English as the national language is mainly inherited from European culture, the development of American translation culture, as an integral part of American culture, also inherits European translation culture.Especially in the early stage of the development of American translation theory, many influential people engaged in translation studies were immigrants from Europe or descendants of recent European immigrants.

Take Thorman as an example: his translation theory work the art of translation published in 1901 is one of the earliest published works in the field of American translation theory, but the contents and discussion methods involved in the book have no obvious "American characteristics".On the contrary, it is more like a work belonging to Europe, especially the British translation tradition. Even the examples in the book are similar to the European, especially the British translation tradition.

The second characteristic of the tradition of American translation theory is that the early studies were greatly influenced by the schools of American structural linguistics, which can be said to be a more distinctive "American characteristic" in American translation studies.

American linguistic studies are at the forefront of the West in many aspects. There have been many linguistic schools, such as human language school, structuralism school, transformational generative school and so on. All kinds of schools have also had various direct or indirect effects on American translation studies.

The representative of American structuralist language school is Bloomfield. He adopts the method of behaviorism and believes that everything about language can be studied scientifically and objectively.He put forward a behaviorist semantic analysis method, which holds that meaning is the relationship between stimulus and language response.In 1950s, Chomsky's transformational generative theory replaced Bloomfield's theory and occupied the dominant position in American linguistics theory and occupied the dominant position in American linguistics.The influence of Chomsky's theory on translation studies mainly lies in his discussion of surface structure and deep structure.The concept of "deep" has led to large-scale semantic research. Because semantics is closely related to translation research, Chomsky's theory has promoted the development of translation theory in the United States and even the whole west.(Xie Tianzhen ,2003:200)

Therefore, under the influence of various linguistic theories, many people try to put forward new translation concepts and research methods. These people can be collectively referred to as the structural School of American translation theory.Among them, the main characters include Wojilin, Bolinger, Katz, Quinn and Eugene Nida.

Take Wojilin as an example. He is a human linguist.His greatest contribution is to put forward a multi-step translation method (also known as step-by-step translation method).The biggest advantage of his multi-step translation method is that the steps are clear, flexible and easy to master.

Using Chomsky's transformational generative theory, Boringer puts forward a concept of structural translation as opposed to lexical translation.Based on structural linguistics, Katz makes a profound analysis of the translatability of language and the philosophical problems in language and translation.Based on the discussion of strange language, Quinn expounds some basic problems of translation from the perspective of philosophy, which has aroused great repercussions in the field of western translation theory.(Tan Zaixi,1999:250)

The third characteristic of the development of American translation theory is that it has a tendency to catch up with others in research results.One of the most prominent scholars is Eugene Nida. Although he is an outstanding linguist, his views on "translation is science", "translation is communication", "translation must pay attention to reader response" and other aspects are an innovation and breakthrough to the previous views. In addition, after Eugene Nida, many scholars have put forward many new views because of their existence,It was only after World War II that American translation theory continued to catch up.

Therefore, we will focus on him in the next chapter.

==Chapter2 Eugene Nida's translation theory==

Eugene Albert Nida (1914 -) was born in Oklahoma City in the south central United States. He graduated from the University of California, Los Angeles in 1936. In 1943, he worked in Bloomfield and fries (Charles fries received his doctorate in linguistics under the guidance of two famous scholars. As the leading translation theory figure in contemporary America, Nida has also engaged in research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology and communication engineering. Before his retirement in the 1980s, he worked in the Translation Department of the American Holy Bible Association and served as the executive secretary of the translation department for a long time. He is mainly engaged in the Bible Organization of translation and revision of translations and the Bible Training and theoretical guidance for translators. He is proficient in many languages and has investigated and studied more than 100 languages, especially some small languages in Africa and Latin America. In 1968, he served as the president of the American language society. Although he does not take teaching as his career, he has extremely rich experience in Translation training and lecturing. In addition to a long-term part-time job, he speaks linguistics in the famous American summer In addition to teaching linguistics and translation courses in the Institute, he also served as a guest lecturer and professor in many American universities. He was often invited to give short-term lectures in Europe, Latin America, Africa and Asia, and won several honorary doctorates. In order to recognize his contribution to translation research, especially in the field of Bible translation research, the American Bible Association named the Institute after him in 2001 In particular, Nida has deep feelings for China. Since 1982, he has been invited to give lectures in China more than ten times, and has maintained close academic contacts and exchanges with many schools and academic colleagues in China for a long time.(Tan Zaixi,2000:247)

Nida is a prolific language and translation theorist. From 1945 to 2004, he published more than 200 articles and more than 40 works (including works cooperated and edited with others). Among them, there are more than 20 works on language and translation theory, and a collection of papers has been published.

His research achievements include "Toward a Science of Translating" published in 1964, "The Theory and Practice of Translation" Co authored with Charles Taber in 1969, "Com ponential Analysis of Meaning " published in 1975 and "language structure and Translation" . Nida's anthology "Language Structure and Translation : Essays by Eugene A. Nida，ed. by Anwar S. Dil" , "From One Language to Another" , co authored with de warrd in 1986, "The Sociolinguistics of Interlingual Communication" , published in 1996 and published in 2001 "Language and Culture :Contertsin Translating" .(Xie Tianzhen.2003:212)

Throughout Nida's translation thought, we can divide it into three main development stages: the linguistic stage with obvious American structuralism in the early stage, the stage of translation science and translation communication in the middle stage, and the stage of social semiotics.

The first major stage is the linguistic stage, from 1943 when he wrote his doctoral thesis "a summary of English syntax" to 1959 when he published "principles of translation from biblical translation".At this stage, he tries to clarify the structural nature of language through the description of syntax, morphology and language translation.In his early days, he was greatly influenced by American structuralist Bloomfield and human linguist Sapir, and paid attention to the collection and analysis of language materials in language research.Through the opportunity to visit and contact different languages all over the world, many examples of speech differences are collected.However, he does not regard speech differences as insurmountable obstacles between languages, but as different phenomena of the same essence.

The second development stage of Nida's translation thought is the stage of translation science and translation communication. It took 10 years from the publication of "principles of translation from biblical translation" in 1959 to the publication of "translation theory and practice" in 1969.The research achievements at this stage have played a key role in establishing Nida's authoritative position in the whole western translation theory circle.
By summarizing this main development period, the main contents of the following five aspects can be summarized:

（一）Translation science.Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill, but also a science.The so-called science here means that translation problems can be handled by "scientific approaches to language structure, semantic analysis and information theory", that is, a linguistic and descriptive method can be adopted to explain the translation process.If the principles and procedures of translation seem to be normative, it is only because they are generally considered to be the most useful in a specific scope of translation.Nida's view that "translation is science" has had great repercussions in the field of western linguistics and translation theory.

（二） Translation communication theory. Nida applies communication theory and information theory to translation studies and holds that translation is communication. After World War II, not only advertisers, politicians and businessmen attached great importance to the intelligibility of language, but also scholars, writers, editors, publishers and translators realized that any information would be worthless if it could not play a communicative role. Therefore, to judge whether a translation is successful, we must first see whether it can be immediately understood by the recipient and whether it can play a role in the communication of ideas, information and feelings. Therefore, in the field of translation research, various names and statements such as "communicative translation", "functional translation" and related "equal response theory", "equal effect theory", "equal role theory" and "equal power theory" have sprung up one after another. Nida's "translation is communication" and his "reader response theory" and "dynamic equivalence" discussed below“ "Functional equivalence" has become an important representative of the communicative school in the field of western translation studies.

Nida's theory of "translation is communication" is based on the theory of language commonality. Nida, like Jacobson, believes that all languages in the world have the same expression ability, which can enable native speakers of the language to express ideas, describe the world and carry out social communication. His argument is based on the same "identity" For example, in countries with relatively developed productive forces, many scientific and technological words will appear in their languages, while in countries with less developed or very low productive forces, there may be a lack of scientific and technological words in their languages. However, this does not mean that the latter has the same expressive ability as the former, but only shows that people have different requirements for languages in different languages, It is not because the language cannot produce scientific and technological vocabulary, but because the speakers of the language do not have or temporarily do not have the requirement to use scientific and technological vocabulary. Once there is such a requirement, there will be corresponding vocabulary in the language, or "native" scientific and technological vocabulary, or "foreign" vocabulary transplanted from foreign words. In short, the expression efficiency of various languages is the same.

Nida believes that the primary task of translation is to make it clear to the readers at a glance after reading the translation. That is to say, the translation should be fluent and natural, and the readers can understand it without the knowledge of the cultural background of the source language. This requires that rigid foreign words should be used as little as possible in translation, and expressions belonging to the receiving language should be used as much as possible. For example, in a Sudanese language, for If the expression "repent and reform" is translated directly, it will make people feel at a loss, and it should be translated into the local familiar "spitting on the ground in front of someone". For example, in the language without "Snow", white as snow may be puzzling, but it should be said "white as frost" or "white as egret hair" Another example is that in the ancient West, the habit of people meeting and greeting each other was "sacred kiss", but now it should become "very warm handshake".(Nida·Eugene,1996:234）

In a sense, the theory of translation communication is not only one of the main symbols of Nida's second development stage of translation thought, but also one of the biggest characteristics of his whole ideological system.Especially after the publication of translation theory and practice, Nida's translation communication theory has had a great impact on the western translation circles, including those in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union.

（三） Dynamic equivalence theory.The so-called dynamic equivalence translation is actually translation under the guidance of translation communication theory. Specifically, it refers to "reproducing the source language information with the closest (original) natural equivalence in the receiving language from semantics to style".In this definition, there are three key points: one is "nature", which means that the translation cannot have a translation cavity;The second is "close", which refers to selecting the translation with the closest meaning to the original text on the basis of "nature";The third is "equivalence", which is the core.Both "nature" and "close" serve to find equivalents.

（四） Translation function theory.From the perspective of sociolinguistics and language communicative function, Nida believes that translation must serve the reader.To judge whether a translation is correct or not, we must take the reader's response as the criterion.If the response of the target readers is basically the same as that of the original readers, the translation can be considered successful.

（五） Four step model.This refers to the translation process.Nida puts forward that the process of translation is: analysis, transfer (transfer the meaning obtained from the analysis from the source language to the receiving language), reorganization (reorganize the translation according to the rules of the receiving language), and inspection (detect the target text against the source text).Among these four steps, "analysis" is the most complex and key, which is the focus of Nida's translation research.The focus of the analysis is semantics. He distinguishes four parts of speech from the perspective of semantics: object words, activity words, abstract words and relational words.In semantic analysis, he introduced three methods: linear analysis, hierarchical analysis and component analysis.In the specific analysis of semantics, he focuses on grammatical meaning, referential meaning and connotative meaning (or emotional meaning and associative meaning).These distinction theories are of great significance to understand his translation thought.

Nida's research achievements in the 1980s can be regarded as the third stage of translation thought.He has made a series of modifications and supplements to his translation theory.He did not completely abandon the theory of the original communicative school, but further developed on the original basis and incorporated the useful elements of the original theory into a new model, which is the social semiotics model in the third development stage translation thought.

Compared with previous works, Eugene Nida has the following four changes and developments in from one language to another: first, based on the translation theory of social semiotics, he emphasizes that everything in the text has meaning, including speech form, so form cannot be easily sacrificed.That is to say, form is also meaningful. Sacrificing form means sacrificing meaning.Secondly, it points out that the rhetorical features of language play an important role in language communication, so we must pay attention to these features in translation.Third, the theory of "dynamic equivalence" is no longer used, but replaced by "functional equivalence", which is intended to make the meaning of the term clearer and easier to understand.Fourth, instead of using the distinction of grammatical meaning, referential meaning and associative meaning, meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, and all kinds of meaning are divided into referential meaning and associative meaning.From the whole historical process of the development of translation theory, it should be said that these changes are basically positive.(Nida·Eugene,1996:222）

Of course, his theory and works are not perfect.First, his theory focuses too much on solving the problems of communicative and intelligibility of translation, so its scope of application is limited.It is natural to emphasize the intelligibility of the translation in the field of Bible translation, but if the intelligibility of the translation is always put in the first place in the translation of secular literary works, it will inevitably lead to the simplification and even non literariness of the translated language.

Second, he no longer completely negates "formal correspondence", but believes that the expression form of the original text cannot be broken at will in translation.In order to expand the scope of application of his theory, he also added rhetoric.However, despite his amendments, he failed to elaborate more deeply on his new views.

Thirdly, Eugene Nida once put forward the proposition that "translation is science", and then basically abandoned this proposition.Whether he put forward or gave up, he did not put forward sufficient and convincing arguments, which can not be said to be a major defect.

Of course, Nida's theory and works are not perfect. Firstly, his theory focuses too much on solving the problems of communicative and intelligibility of translation, so its scope of application is limited. It is natural to emphasize the intelligibility of the translation in the field of Bible translation, but if the intelligibility of the translation is always put in the first place in the translation of secular literary works, it will inevitably lead to the simplification and even non literariness of the translated language. Newmark, a British translation theorist, once pointed out: "if we delete all the metaphors in the Bible that Doneda believes readers cannot understand, it will inevitably lead to a large loss of meaning." . an important feature of literary works is that they use more metaphorical and novel language. The author's real intention may have to taste and capture between the lines. If all the metaphorical images in the original work are deleted and all the associative meanings are clearly stated, the result will be that the translation is easy to understand, but it is dull and can't reach To the purpose of literature. In recent years, Nida has become more and more aware of this, and has constantly revised and improved some of his past views. For example, he later no longer focused on the intelligibility of the translation, but advocated a "three nature principle", that is, the principle of paying equal attention to comprehensibility, readability and acceptability. In addition, he no longer completely denied "formal correspondence" In order to expand the scope of application of his theory, he especially added rhetoric. However, despite Nida's amendments, he failed to make a more profound exposition of his new views; he was only aware of the existence of the problem rather than successfully solving the relevant problems Besides, Nida once put forward the proposition that "translation is science", and then basically gave up this proposition. Whether he put forward or gave up, he did not put forward sufficient and convincing arguments, which is a major defect.

Of course, flaws do not hide the jade. Looking at Nida's lifelong contributions, he is one of the most outstanding theoretical figures in the field of contemporary translation studies in the United States and even the whole west. The historical theory of the development of western translation theory should give him a heavy pen.(Tan Zaixi,2000:257)

==Chapter3 Robert Boogrand's translation theory==

Since the 1970s, more voices outside the structural language school and the communicative school have gradually emerged in the field of translation studies in the United States, especially the voice of discourse linguistics theory and discourse analysis represented by Robert Boogrand.
Boogrand teaches in the English Department of the University of Florida and is engaged in the study of literary discourse rhetoric and grammatical structure.In 1978, he published a book called "elements of translation theory of poetry"), which was listed as one of the Translation Studies Series edited by Holmes and attracted extensive attention.(Xie Tianzhen,2003:56)

Boogrand's view is: 1. The unit of translation is not a single word or sentence, but the whole text.2. Translation is a process of interaction among authors, translators and readers.3. What is worth studying is not the characteristics of the article itself, but the skills of language use reflected in these characteristics.

After the publication of the above translation theory works guided by the thought of discourse linguistics in 1978, Boogrand continued to engage in the research of language and translation along the same line, and more than ten relevant works (including Works CO authored and co edited with others) have been published successively, mainly including discourse, discourse and process: multidisciplinary discourse science exploration Linguistic Theory: Discourse of basic works, introduction to discourse linguistics, language discourse, Western and Middle East translation Boogrand has always expounded language and translation from the perspective of discourse linguistics, thus establishing his important position as the leader of discourse linguistics in the field of British and American translation studies. Boogrand's contribution as one of the pioneers of discourse analysis and discourse linguistics in translation studies is very important and worthy of full recognition.(Tan Zaixi,2000:256)

==Chapter4 Andre Lefevere's translation theory==

With the development of the times, translation studies in the United States, like other parts of the west, have been continuously improved in theoretical depth. By the 1990s, the focus of theorists' discussion on translation has gradually separated from the previous specific translation processes and methods, and turned more to the fundamental nature of translation, translation and ideology, translation and culture. This chapter introduces Andre Leverville's translation theory.
Andre Leverville, a professor of translation and comparative literature at the University of Texas at Austin, originally from Belgium, is a very important theoretical figure in the field of Contemporary Western comparative literature and translation research. We can discuss his main ideas from the following two aspects.(Tan Zaixi,2000:276)

(一)The cultural turn in translation studies. It is a common feature of all cultural schools to turn the focus of translation studies from the language structure and language form correspondence that language schools are most concerned about to the meaning and function of the target text and the source text in their respective cultural systems. He believes that any literature must survive in a certain social and cultural environment, and its meaning and value Value, as well as its interpretation and acceptance, will always be affected and restricted by a series of interrelated and mutually referenced factors, including both internal and external factors of literature. Therefore, as far as translation research is concerned, the goal of the research is far from limited to exploring the equivalence or equivalence of the two texts in language forms, but to explore at the same time.Study various cultural issues directly or indirectly related to translation activities.

（二） The concept of manipulation in translation. When talking about and describing the basic characteristics of the cultural school, we often can not do without using the word "manipulation". Here, "manipulation"It is not emotional, but a special term representing the concept of neutrality. According to the translation operation of Andre Leverville and others, the core meaning is that in the process of processing the source text and generating the target text, the translator has the right and will rewrite the text in order to achieve a certain purpose. Andre Leverville believes that translation is a reflection of the image of the text.Other literary forms such as literary criticism, biography, literary history, drama, film, fiction and so on are also the rewriting of the text image, and rewriting is the manipulation of the text.

（三） Obviously, the manipulative rewriting in Lefevere and his cultural school theory is not simply equivalent to "Rewriting" in the general sense, because in his view, all translation is rewriting, even the "most faithful"Translation is also a form of rewriting. As a translation manipulator, this rewriting or manipulation should be regarded as a cultural necessity in essence. In the process of translation, the translator is bound to be affected and restricted by various social and cultural factors. In addition to considering all the characteristics related to the source text, such as the original author's intention, the context of the source text and so on, the more important thing is toIt is necessary to consider a series of factors related to the target or receiving culture, such as the purpose of translation, the function of the target text, the expectations and reactions of readers, the requirements of clients and sponsors, and the review of the publishing and distribution organization of the work. The existence of these factors and the degree of constraints imposed by the translator on them vary from person to person constitute the inevitable "manipulation" condition of the translator on the text.(Lefevere·André,1980:100).

For "manipulation" in this sense, we can not judge it by moral value words such as "legitimate" or "improper", but only by the "appropriateness" criteria such as whether the target text has achieved the purpose of translation, whether it meets the expectations of the audience, and whether it can be accepted by the accepted culture.

==Chapter5 Lawrence Venudi's translation theory==

It is precisely because the cultural school or manipulation school, and even the polysystem school, in translation studies have established a relationship with the theory of domestication and Foreignization in translation, that a new group of scholars and viewpoints have emerged. In the field of American translation studies, Lawrence Wenudi is the most vocal theoretical figure on the issues of "domestication" and "Foreignization".
As an English professor at Temple University in Philadelphia, winudi is one of the most active and influential figures in the field of American translation theory since the 1990s. Winudi belongs to the deconstruction school in translation studies, that is, what genzler calls the "post structuralism school"In his works on translation studies, Venuti advocates that literary translation should not aim at eliminating alien features, but should try to show cultural differences in the target text.(Tan Zaixi,2000:278)

Venuti's main view is that it is wrong to require the translator to be invisible in translation; the translator should not be invisible in the translation, but should be visible. That is to say, translation should adopt the principle and strategy of "alienation" to keep the translation exotic and exotic, and read like the translation, rather than "domestication"So that the translation can be transformed completely in accordance with the ideology and creative norms of the target culture. It doesn't read like foreign works, but the original of the target language.(Xie Tianzhen,2003:278).

However, translation has never been carried out in an unaffected way. Foreignization translation and domestication translation are actually the products of translation activities affected. From the perspective of translation ethics, it is difficult to assert which is good or which is bad, because translation reality shows that the two play irreplaceable roles in the target language and culture and complete their respective missions.Therefore, the two kinds of translation will always coexist and complement each other.(Tan Zaixi,2000:279)

==Chapter6 Edwin Gensler's translation theory==

Edwin Genzler is the director of the translation center of Amherst University of Massachusetts, doctor of comparative literature and professor of translation. His famous translation work is contemporary translation theory published in 1993 and reprinted in 2001.(Xie Tianzhen,2003:290).

Genzler's contribution to translation theory is mainly reflected in the following three aspects:
First, it comprehensively combs the contemporary western translation theories, so as to clarify people's understanding of various western translation theory schools since World War II, and thus arouse the research interest in all kinds of contemporary western translation theories in the field of translation studies (including China's Translation Studies).In contemporary translation theory, Genzler studies translation from different perspectives such as scientific theory, polysystem theory and deconstruction. By exploring the "political reality" outside translation (literary translation practice), he outlines the outline of contemporary western translation research and guides readers to rethink a series of theoretical issues such as the definition and classification of translation.(Tan Zaixi,2000:300)

Secondly, on the basis of comprehensively and systematically combing various contemporary western translation thoughts and theories, Genzler puts forward a multi-channel cooperative translation research view of "fair treatment of all systems".He believes that contemporary translation theory, like literary theory, originates from structuralist theory.All these structuralist or post structuralist theories have been confined to their respective academic circles for a long time.Various schools have very special requirements for the terms used in this system, and the terms are limited;Their pursuit of "correctness" or "objectivity" of theory tends to be one-sided, and they all try to gain universal recognition in the academic circles at the expense of other perspectives.The result is only the continuous conflict between theories, but there is no due cooperation and exchange between theories, which leads to the marginalization of academic research.(Xie Tianzhen,2003:293)

Thirdly, Genzler puts forward a post structuralist interpretation model of the essence of translation.In translation, post structuralism and power, he analyzes the deconstruction (post structuralism) thoughts of Derrida, Spivak and others, as well as the translation thoughts of translation theorists such as Wenudi, Levin and Robinson under the influence of their deconstruction thoughts, and points out that the new translation interpretation model can no longer follow the past tradition and simply define translation as"The transformation from a single language to another single language", but it should be regarded as the transformation between a multicultural form environment and another equally multicultural form environment.

==Conclusion==

In addition to the above-mentioned important theoretical figures in the field of contemporary American translation studies, many others, such as Roberto Tradu, Daniel Shaw, Burton Raphael and so on, have also made achievements in translation theory. However, due to space constraints, they cannot be discussed in detail here.

Generally speaking, due to the historical origin and the influence of the subject's immigrant culture, the initial development of American translation studies depends on the inheritance and promotion of the tradition of European translation theory. With the evolution of the times, American translation studies catch up with each other in many aspects with rapid development and fruitful achievements, and walk in the forefront of western translation studies, becoming the driving force of contemporary western translation theory. On an important force for forward development.(Tan Zaixi,2000:301)

In addition to the above-mentioned important theoretical figures in the field of contemporary American translation studies, many others, such as Roberto Tradu, Daniel Shaw, Burton Raphael and so on, have also made achievements in translation theory. However, due to space constraints, they cannot be discussed in detail here.

==reference==

Lefevere·André. (1980). Translating literature [M]. New York:Clarendon Press.

Newmark·Peter. （1978）.The theory and the craft of translation [M].London:Rountledge Press.

Nida·Eugene.（1996）.The Sociolinguistics of Interlingual Communication [M]. Brussels:Editions du Hazard.

Katz·Jerrold J. （1966）.The Philosophy of Language [M]. New York:Harper and Row.

Pound，E. 1917. Notes on Elizabethan classicists [M]. New York:Clarendon Press.

Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (1999).《新编奈达论翻译》[M] New Nida on Translation. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司 Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.

Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2000).《翻译学》[M] Translatology. 武汉:湖北教育出版社 Wuhan: Hubei Education Press.

Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2003).《翻译研究新视野》[M].New perspectives in Translation Studies. 青岛:青岛出版社 Qingdao: Qingdao Press.

中国对外翻译出版公司（编).(1983).《翻译理论与翻译技巧论文集》[M].Collection of Papers on Translation Theory and Translation Skills. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.

中国对外翻译出版公司（编).(1983).《国外翻译理论评介文集》[M].A Review of Foreign Translation Theories. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司 Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.

--[[User:Liu Wei|Liu Wei]] ([[User talk:Liu Wei|talk]]) 16:11, 8 December 2021 (UTC)Liu Wei

Hist Trans EN 9

2021-12-19T12:52:55Z

Liu Wei: /* Chapter1 Characteristics of the local American translation theory */

=Chapter 9 刘薇 Contemporary American Translation History)=
[[Hist_Trans_EN_9]]

Liu Wei 刘薇 Hunan Normal University, China

==Abstract==
The United States is an important part of the "West", so when we talk about the conception of "West", it is impossible to exclude the United States.Therefore, this chapter recapitulates the development of contemporary American translation by introducing a series of theories of American translators.

==Key words==
translation theory of American, Eugene Nida,Robert Boogrand.

==Introduction==

In the field of translation studies, the situation in the United States is very special.Since the history of the United States itself is not long, we can not expect to talk about "ancient American translation theory", "medieval American translation theory", or even "modern American translation theory".American translation theory is mainly the "contemporary translation theory", which is developed after World War II (Guo Jianzhong, [introduction]: 2).Although the development of American translation theory is relatively short, there are still many influential translation theorists, such as Eugene Nida, Robert Boogrand, Andre Leverville, Lawrence Venudi, Edwin Gentzler and so on. They are constantly innovating and developing new theories in the field of translation.

==Chapter1 Characteristics of the local American translation theory ==

The development of contemporary American translation theory has three main characteristics: first, it inherits the tradition of European translation theory in terms of overall research methods;Second, the early studies were mostly influenced by the schools of American structural linguistics;Third, there is a tendency to catch up in research results.These characteristics are discussed one by one below.(Tan Zaixi,1999:237)

On the first point, the inheritance of European tradition in the overall research method of American translation theory is due to its unique language and cultural tradition.As an integral part of the whole culture, translation culture naturally presents the basic characteristics of the development of the whole culture.Since the American culture with English as the national language is mainly inherited from European culture, the development of American translation culture, as an integral part of American culture, also inherits European translation culture.Especially in the early stage of the development of American translation theory, many influential people engaged in translation studies were immigrants from Europe or descendants of recent European immigrants.

Take Thorman as an example: his translation theory work the art of translation published in 1901 is one of the earliest published works in the field of American translation theory, but the contents and discussion methods involved in the book have no obvious "American characteristics".On the contrary, it is more like a work belonging to Europe, especially the British translation tradition. Even the examples in the book are similar to the European, especially the British translation tradition.

The second characteristic of the tradition of American translation theory is that the early studies were greatly influenced by the schools of American structural linguistics, which can be said to be a more distinctive "American characteristic" in American translation studies.

American linguistic studies are at the forefront of the West in many aspects. There have been many linguistic schools, such as human language school, structuralism school, transformational generative school and so on. All kinds of schools have also had various direct or indirect effects on American translation studies.

The representative of American structuralist language school is Bloomfield. He adopts the method of behaviorism and believes that everything about language can be studied scientifically and objectively.He put forward a behaviorist semantic analysis method, which holds that meaning is the relationship between stimulus and language response.In 1950s, Chomsky's transformational generative theory replaced Bloomfield's theory and occupied the dominant position in American linguistics theory and occupied the dominant position in American linguistics.The influence of Chomsky's theory on translation studies mainly lies in his discussion of surface structure and deep structure.The concept of "deep" has led to large-scale semantic research. Because semantics is closely related to translation research, Chomsky's theory has promoted the development of translation theory in the United States and even the whole west.(Xie Tianzhen ,2003:200)

Therefore, under the influence of various linguistic theories, many people try to put forward new translation concepts and research methods. These people can be collectively referred to as the structural School of American translation theory.Among them, the main characters include Wojilin, Bolinger, Katz, Quinn and Eugene Nida.

Take Wojilin as an example. He is a human linguist.His greatest contribution is to put forward a multi-step translation method (also known as step-by-step translation method).The biggest advantage of his multi-step translation method is that the steps are clear, flexible and easy to master.

Using Chomsky's transformational generative theory, Boringer puts forward a concept of structural translation as opposed to lexical translation.Based on structural linguistics, Katz makes a profound analysis of the translatability of language and the philosophical problems in language and translation.Based on the discussion of strange language, Quinn expounds some basic problems of translation from the perspective of philosophy, which has aroused great repercussions in the field of western translation theory.(Tan Zaixi,1999:250)

The third characteristic of the development of American translation theory is that it has a tendency to catch up with others in research results.One of the most prominent scholars is Eugene Nida. Although he is an outstanding linguist, his views on "translation is science", "translation is communication", "translation must pay attention to reader response" and other aspects are an innovation and breakthrough to the previous views. In addition, after Eugene Nida, many scholars have put forward many new views because of their existence,It was only after World War II that American translation theory continued to catch up.

Therefore, we will focus on him in the next chapter.

==Chapter2 Eugene Nida's translation theory==

Eugene Albert Nida (1914 -) was born in Oklahoma City in the south central United States. He graduated from the University of California, Los Angeles in 1936. In 1943, he worked in Bloomfield and fries (Charles fries received his doctorate in linguistics under the guidance of two famous scholars. As the leading translation theory figure in contemporary America, Nida has also engaged in research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology and communication engineering. Before his retirement in the 1980s, he worked in the Translation Department of the American Holy Bible Association and served as the executive secretary of the translation department for a long time. He is mainly engaged in the Bible Organization of translation and revision of translations and the Bible Training and theoretical guidance for translators. He is proficient in many languages and has investigated and studied more than 100 languages, especially some small languages in Africa and Latin America. In 1968, he served as the president of the American language society. Although he does not take teaching as his career, he has extremely rich experience in Translation training and lecturing. In addition to a long-term part-time job, he speaks linguistics in the famous American summer In addition to teaching linguistics and translation courses in the Institute, he also served as a guest lecturer and professor in many American universities. He was often invited to give short-term lectures in Europe, Latin America, Africa and Asia, and won several honorary doctorates. In order to recognize his contribution to translation research, especially in the field of Bible translation research, the American Bible Association named the Institute after him in 2001 In particular, Nida has deep feelings for China. Since 1982, he has been invited to give lectures in China more than ten times, and has maintained close academic contacts and exchanges with many schools and academic colleagues in China for a long time.(Tan Zaixi,2000:247)

Nida is a prolific language and translation theorist. From 1945 to 2004, he published more than 200 articles and more than 40 works (including works cooperated and edited with others). Among them, there are more than 20 works on language and translation theory, and a collection of papers has been published.

His research achievements include "Toward a Science of Translating" published in 1964, "The Theory and Practice of Translation" Co authored with Charles Taber in 1969, "Com ponential Analysis of Meaning " published in 1975 and "language structure and Translation" . Nida's anthology "Language Structure and Translation : Essays by Eugene A. Nida，ed. by Anwar S. Dil" , "From One Language to Another" , co authored with de warrd in 1986, "The Sociolinguistics of Interlingual Communication" , published in 1996 and published in 2001 "Language and Culture :Contertsin Translating" .(Xie Tianzhen.2003:212)

Throughout Nida's translation thought, we can divide it into three main development stages: the linguistic stage with obvious American structuralism in the early stage, the stage of translation science and translation communication in the middle stage, and the stage of social semiotics.

The first major stage is the linguistic stage, from 1943 when he wrote his doctoral thesis "a summary of English syntax" to 1959 when he published "principles of translation from biblical translation".At this stage, he tries to clarify the structural nature of language through the description of syntax, morphology and language translation.In his early days, he was greatly influenced by American structuralist Bloomfield and human linguist Sapir, and paid attention to the collection and analysis of language materials in language research.Through the opportunity to visit and contact different languages all over the world, many examples of speech differences are collected.However, he does not regard speech differences as insurmountable obstacles between languages, but as different phenomena of the same essence.

The second development stage of Nida's translation thought is the stage of translation science and translation communication. It took 10 years from the publication of "principles of translation from biblical translation" in 1959 to the publication of "translation theory and practice" in 1969.The research achievements at this stage have played a key role in establishing Nida's authoritative position in the whole western translation theory circle.
By summarizing this main development period, the main contents of the following five aspects can be summarized:

（一）Translation science.Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill, but also a science.The so-called science here means that translation problems can be handled by "scientific approaches to language structure, semantic analysis and information theory", that is, a linguistic and descriptive method can be adopted to explain the translation process.If the principles and procedures of translation seem to be normative, it is only because they are generally considered to be the most useful in a specific scope of translation.Nida's view that "translation is science" has had great repercussions in the field of western linguistics and translation theory.

（二） Translation communication theory. Nida applies communication theory and information theory to translation studies and holds that translation is communication. After World War II, not only advertisers, politicians and businessmen attached great importance to the intelligibility of language, but also scholars, writers, editors, publishers and translators realized that any information would be worthless if it could not play a communicative role. Therefore, to judge whether a translation is successful, we must first see whether it can be immediately understood by the recipient and whether it can play a role in the communication of ideas, information and feelings. Therefore, in the field of translation research, various names and statements such as "communicative translation", "functional translation" and related "equal response theory", "equal effect theory", "equal role theory" and "equal power theory" have sprung up one after another. Nida's "translation is communication" and his "reader response theory" and "dynamic equivalence" discussed below“ "Functional equivalence" has become an important representative of the communicative school in the field of western translation studies.

Nida's theory of "translation is communication" is based on the theory of language commonality. Nida, like Jacobson, believes that all languages in the world have the same expression ability, which can enable native speakers of the language to express ideas, describe the world and carry out social communication. His argument is based on the same "identity" For example, in countries with relatively developed productive forces, many scientific and technological words will appear in their languages, while in countries with less developed or very low productive forces, there may be a lack of scientific and technological words in their languages. However, this does not mean that the latter has the same expressive ability as the former, but only shows that people have different requirements for languages in different languages, It is not because the language cannot produce scientific and technological vocabulary, but because the speakers of the language do not have or temporarily do not have the requirement to use scientific and technological vocabulary. Once there is such a requirement, there will be corresponding vocabulary in the language, or "native" scientific and technological vocabulary, or "foreign" vocabulary transplanted from foreign words. In short, the expression efficiency of various languages is the same.

Nida believes that the primary task of translation is to make it clear to the readers at a glance after reading the translation. That is to say, the translation should be fluent and natural, and the readers can understand it without the knowledge of the cultural background of the source language. This requires that rigid foreign words should be used as little as possible in translation, and expressions belonging to the receiving language should be used as much as possible. For example, in a Sudanese language, for If the expression "repent and reform" is translated directly, it will make people feel at a loss, and it should be translated into the local familiar "spitting on the ground in front of someone". For example, in the language without "Snow", white as snow may be puzzling, but it should be said "white as frost" or "white as egret hair" Another example is that in the ancient West, the habit of people meeting and greeting each other was "sacred kiss", but now it should become "very warm handshake".(Nida·Eugene,1996:234）

In a sense, the theory of translation communication is not only one of the main symbols of Nida's second development stage of translation thought, but also one of the biggest characteristics of his whole ideological system.Especially after the publication of translation theory and practice, Nida's translation communication theory has had a great impact on the western translation circles, including those in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union.

（三） Dynamic equivalence theory.The so-called dynamic equivalence translation is actually translation under the guidance of translation communication theory. Specifically, it refers to "reproducing the source language information with the closest (original) natural equivalence in the receiving language from semantics to style".In this definition, there are three key points: one is "nature", which means that the translation cannot have a translation cavity;The second is "close", which refers to selecting the translation with the closest meaning to the original text on the basis of "nature";The third is "equivalence", which is the core.Both "nature" and "close" serve to find equivalents.

（四） Translation function theory.From the perspective of sociolinguistics and language communicative function, Nida believes that translation must serve the reader.To judge whether a translation is correct or not, we must take the reader's response as the criterion.If the response of the target readers is basically the same as that of the original readers, the translation can be considered successful.

（五） Four step model.This refers to the translation process.Nida puts forward that the process of translation is: analysis, transfer (transfer the meaning obtained from the analysis from the source language to the receiving language), reorganization (reorganize the translation according to the rules of the receiving language), and inspection (detect the target text against the source text).Among these four steps, "analysis" is the most complex and key, which is the focus of Nida's translation research.The focus of the analysis is semantics. He distinguishes four parts of speech from the perspective of semantics: object words, activity words, abstract words and relational words.In semantic analysis, he introduced three methods: linear analysis, hierarchical analysis and component analysis.In the specific analysis of semantics, he focuses on grammatical meaning, referential meaning and connotative meaning (or emotional meaning and associative meaning).These distinction theories are of great significance to understand his translation thought.

Nida's research achievements in the 1980s can be regarded as the third stage of translation thought.He has made a series of modifications and supplements to his translation theory.He did not completely abandon the theory of the original communicative school, but further developed on the original basis and incorporated the useful elements of the original theory into a new model, which is the social semiotics model in the third development stage translation thought.

Compared with previous works, Eugene Nida has the following four changes and developments in from one language to another: first, based on the translation theory of social semiotics, he emphasizes that everything in the text has meaning, including speech form, so form cannot be easily sacrificed.That is to say, form is also meaningful. Sacrificing form means sacrificing meaning.Secondly, it points out that the rhetorical features of language play an important role in language communication, so we must pay attention to these features in translation.Third, the theory of "dynamic equivalence" is no longer used, but replaced by "functional equivalence", which is intended to make the meaning of the term clearer and easier to understand.Fourth, instead of using the distinction of grammatical meaning, referential meaning and associative meaning, meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, and all kinds of meaning are divided into referential meaning and associative meaning.From the whole historical process of the development of translation theory, it should be said that these changes are basically positive.(Nida·Eugene,1996:222）

Of course, his theory and works are not perfect.First, his theory focuses too much on solving the problems of communicative and intelligibility of translation, so its scope of application is limited.It is natural to emphasize the intelligibility of the translation in the field of Bible translation, but if the intelligibility of the translation is always put in the first place in the translation of secular literary works, it will inevitably lead to the simplification and even non literariness of the translated language.

Second, he no longer completely negates "formal correspondence", but believes that the expression form of the original text cannot be broken at will in translation.In order to expand the scope of application of his theory, he also added rhetoric.However, despite his amendments, he failed to elaborate more deeply on his new views.

Thirdly, Eugene Nida once put forward the proposition that "translation is science", and then basically abandoned this proposition.Whether he put forward or gave up, he did not put forward sufficient and convincing arguments, which can not be said to be a major defect.

Of course, Nida's theory and works are not perfect. Firstly, his theory focuses too much on solving the problems of communicative and intelligibility of translation, so its scope of application is limited. It is natural to emphasize the intelligibility of the translation in the field of Bible translation, but if the intelligibility of the translation is always put in the first place in the translation of secular literary works, it will inevitably lead to the simplification and even non literariness of the translated language. Newmark, a British translation theorist, once pointed out: "if we delete all the metaphors in the Bible that Doneda believes readers cannot understand, it will inevitably lead to a large loss of meaning." . an important feature of literary works is that they use more metaphorical and novel language. The author's real intention may have to taste and capture between the lines. If all the metaphorical images in the original work are deleted and all the associative meanings are clearly stated, the result will be that the translation is easy to understand, but it is dull and can't reach To the purpose of literature. In recent years, Nida has become more and more aware of this, and has constantly revised and improved some of his past views. For example, he later no longer focused on the intelligibility of the translation, but advocated a "three nature principle", that is, the principle of paying equal attention to comprehensibility, readability and acceptability. In addition, he no longer completely denied "formal correspondence" In order to expand the scope of application of his theory, he especially added rhetoric. However, despite Nida's amendments, he failed to make a more profound exposition of his new views; he was only aware of the existence of the problem rather than successfully solving the relevant problems Besides, Nida once put forward the proposition that "translation is science", and then basically gave up this proposition. Whether he put forward or gave up, he did not put forward sufficient and convincing arguments, which is a major defect.

Of course, flaws do not hide the jade. Looking at Nida's lifelong contributions, he is one of the most outstanding theoretical figures in the field of contemporary translation studies in the United States and even the whole west. The historical theory of the development of western translation theory should give him a heavy pen.(Tan Zaixi,2000:257)

==Chapter3 Robert Boogrand's translation theory==

Since the 1970s, more voices outside the structural language school and the communicative school have gradually emerged in the field of translation studies in the United States, especially the voice of discourse linguistics theory and discourse analysis represented by Robert Boogrand.
Boogrand teaches in the English Department of the University of Florida and is engaged in the study of literary discourse rhetoric and grammatical structure.In 1978, he published a book called "elements of translation theory of poetry"), which was listed as one of the Translation Studies Series edited by Holmes and attracted extensive attention.(Xie Tianzhen,2003:56)

Boogrand's view is: 1. The unit of translation is not a single word or sentence, but the whole text.2. Translation is a process of interaction among authors, translators and readers.3. What is worth studying is not the characteristics of the article itself, but the skills of language use reflected in these characteristics.

After the publication of the above translation theory works guided by the thought of discourse linguistics in 1978, Boogrand continued to engage in the research of language and translation along the same line, and more than ten relevant works (including Works CO authored and co edited with others) have been published successively, mainly including discourse, discourse and process: multidisciplinary discourse science exploration Linguistic Theory: Discourse of basic works, introduction to discourse linguistics, language discourse, Western and Middle East translation Boogrand has always expounded language and translation from the perspective of discourse linguistics, thus establishing his important position as the leader of discourse linguistics in the field of British and American translation studies. Boogrand's contribution as one of the pioneers of discourse analysis and discourse linguistics in translation studies is very important and worthy of full recognition.(Tan Zaixi,2000:256)

==Chapter4 Andre Lefevere's translation theory==

With the development of the times, translation studies in the United States, like other parts of the west, have been continuously improved in theoretical depth. By the 1990s, the focus of theorists' discussion on translation has gradually separated from the previous specific translation processes and methods, and turned more to the fundamental nature of translation, translation and ideology, translation and culture. This chapter introduces Andre Leverville's translation theory.
Andre Leverville, a professor of translation and comparative literature at the University of Texas at Austin, originally from Belgium, is a very important theoretical figure in the field of Contemporary Western comparative literature and translation research. We can discuss his main ideas from the following two aspects.(Tan Zaixi,2000:276)

(一)The cultural turn in translation studies. It is a common feature of all cultural schools to turn the focus of translation studies from the language structure and language form correspondence that language schools are most concerned about to the meaning and function of the target text and the source text in their respective cultural systems. He believes that any literature must survive in a certain social and cultural environment, and its meaning and value Value, as well as its interpretation and acceptance, will always be affected and restricted by a series of interrelated and mutually referenced factors, including both internal and external factors of literature. Therefore, as far as translation research is concerned, the goal of the research is far from limited to exploring the equivalence or equivalence of the two texts in language forms, but to explore at the same time.Study various cultural issues directly or indirectly related to translation activities.

（二） The concept of manipulation in translation. When talking about and describing the basic characteristics of the cultural school, we often can not do without using the word "manipulation". Here, "manipulation"It is not emotional, but a special term representing the concept of neutrality. According to the translation operation of Andre Leverville and others, the core meaning is that in the process of processing the source text and generating the target text, the translator has the right and will rewrite the text in order to achieve a certain purpose. Andre Leverville believes that translation is a reflection of the image of the text.Other literary forms such as literary criticism, biography, literary history, drama, film, fiction and so on are also the rewriting of the text image, and rewriting is the manipulation of the text.

（三） Obviously, the manipulative rewriting in Lefevere and his cultural school theory is not simply equivalent to "Rewriting" in the general sense, because in his view, all translation is rewriting, even the "most faithful"Translation is also a form of rewriting. As a translation manipulator, this rewriting or manipulation should be regarded as a cultural necessity in essence. In the process of translation, the translator is bound to be affected and restricted by various social and cultural factors. In addition to considering all the characteristics related to the source text, such as the original author's intention, the context of the source text and so on, the more important thing is toIt is necessary to consider a series of factors related to the target or receiving culture, such as the purpose of translation, the function of the target text, the expectations and reactions of readers, the requirements of clients and sponsors, and the review of the publishing and distribution organization of the work. The existence of these factors and the degree of constraints imposed by the translator on them vary from person to person constitute the inevitable "manipulation" condition of the translator on the text.(Lefevere·André,1980:100).

For "manipulation" in this sense, we can not judge it by moral value words such as "legitimate" or "improper", but only by the "appropriateness" criteria such as whether the target text has achieved the purpose of translation, whether it meets the expectations of the audience, and whether it can be accepted by the accepted culture.

==Chapter5 Lawrence Venudi's translation theory==

It is precisely because the cultural school or manipulation school, and even the polysystem school, in translation studies have established a relationship with the theory of domestication and Foreignization in translation, that a new group of scholars and viewpoints have emerged. In the field of American translation studies, Lawrence Wenudi is the most vocal theoretical figure on the issues of "domestication" and "Foreignization".
As an English professor at Temple University in Philadelphia, winudi is one of the most active and influential figures in the field of American translation theory since the 1990s. Winudi belongs to the deconstruction school in translation studies, that is, what genzler calls the "post structuralism school"In his works on translation studies, Venuti advocates that literary translation should not aim at eliminating alien features, but should try to show cultural differences in the target text.(Tan Zaixi,2000:278)

Venuti's main view is that it is wrong to require the translator to be invisible in translation; the translator should not be invisible in the translation, but should be visible. That is to say, translation should adopt the principle and strategy of "alienation" to keep the translation exotic and exotic, and read like the translation, rather than "domestication"So that the translation can be transformed completely in accordance with the ideology and creative norms of the target culture. It doesn't read like foreign works, but the original of the target language.(Xie Tianzhen,2003:278).

However, translation has never been carried out in an unaffected way. Foreignization translation and domestication translation are actually the products of translation activities affected. From the perspective of translation ethics, it is difficult to assert which is good or which is bad, because translation reality shows that the two play irreplaceable roles in the target language and culture and complete their respective missions.Therefore, the two kinds of translation will always coexist and complement each other.(Tan Zaixi,2000:279)

==Chapter6 Edwin Gensler's translation theory==

Edwin Genzler is the director of the translation center of Amherst University of Massachusetts, doctor of comparative literature and professor of translation. His famous translation work is contemporary translation theory published in 1993 and reprinted in 2001.(Xie Tianzhen,2003:290).

Genzler's contribution to translation theory is mainly reflected in the following three aspects:
First, it comprehensively combs the contemporary western translation theories, so as to clarify people's understanding of various western translation theory schools since World War II, and thus arouse the research interest in all kinds of contemporary western translation theories in the field of translation studies (including China's Translation Studies).In contemporary translation theory, Genzler studies translation from different perspectives such as scientific theory, polysystem theory and deconstruction. By exploring the "political reality" outside translation (literary translation practice), he outlines the outline of contemporary western translation research and guides readers to rethink a series of theoretical issues such as the definition and classification of translation.(Tan Zaixi,2000:300)

Secondly, on the basis of comprehensively and systematically combing various contemporary western translation thoughts and theories, Genzler puts forward a multi-channel cooperative translation research view of "fair treatment of all systems".He believes that contemporary translation theory, like literary theory, originates from structuralist theory.All these structuralist or post structuralist theories have been confined to their respective academic circles for a long time.Various schools have very special requirements for the terms used in this system, and the terms are limited;Their pursuit of "correctness" or "objectivity" of theory tends to be one-sided, and they all try to gain universal recognition in the academic circles at the expense of other perspectives.The result is only the continuous conflict between theories, but there is no due cooperation and exchange between theories, which leads to the marginalization of academic research.(Xie Tianzhen,2003:293)

Thirdly, Genzler puts forward a post structuralist interpretation model of the essence of translation.In translation, post structuralism and power, he analyzes the deconstruction (post structuralism) thoughts of Derrida, Spivak and others, as well as the translation thoughts of translation theorists such as Wenudi, Levin and Robinson under the influence of their deconstruction thoughts, and points out that the new translation interpretation model can no longer follow the past tradition and simply define translation as"The transformation from a single language to another single language", but it should be regarded as the transformation between a multicultural form environment and another equally multicultural form environment.

==Conclusion==

In addition to the above-mentioned important theoretical figures in the field of contemporary American translation studies, many others, such as Roberto Tradu, Daniel Shaw, Burton Raphael and so on, have also made achievements in translation theory. However, due to space constraints, they cannot be discussed in detail here.

Generally speaking, due to the historical origin and the influence of the subject's immigrant culture, the initial development of American translation studies depends on the inheritance and promotion of the tradition of European translation theory. With the evolution of the times, American translation studies catch up with each other in many aspects with rapid development and fruitful achievements, and walk in the forefront of western translation studies, becoming the driving force of contemporary western translation theory. On an important force for forward development.(Tan Zaixi,2000:301)

In addition to the above-mentioned important theoretical figures in the field of contemporary American translation studies, many others, such as Roberto Tradu, Daniel Shaw, Burton Raphael and so on, have also made achievements in translation theory. However, due to space constraints, they cannot be discussed in detail here.

Generally speaking, due to the historical origin and the influence of the subject's immigrant culture, the initial development of American translation studies depends on the inheritance and promotion of the tradition of European translation theory. With the evolution of the times, American translation studies catch up with each other in many aspects with rapid development and fruitful achievements, and walk in the forefront of western translation studies, becoming the driving force of contemporary western translation theory. On an important force for forward development.(corrected by--[[User:Zhou Junhui|Zhou Junhui]] ([[User talk:Zhou Junhui|talk]]) 08:48, 14 December 2021 (UTC))

==reference==

Lefevere·André. (1980). Translating literature [M]. New York:Clarendon Press.

Newmark·Peter. （1978）.The theory and the craft of translation [M].London:Rountledge Press.

Nida·Eugene.（1996）.The Sociolinguistics of Interlingual Communication [M]. Brussels:Editions du Hazard.

Katz·Jerrold J. （1966）.The Philosophy of Language [M]. New York:Harper and Row.

Pound，E. 1917. Notes on Elizabethan classicists [M]. New York:Clarendon Press.

Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (1999).《新编奈达论翻译》[M] New Nida on Translation. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司 Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.

Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2000).《翻译学》[M] Translatology. 武汉:湖北教育出版社 Wuhan: Hubei Education Press.

Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2003).《翻译研究新视野》[M].New perspectives in Translation Studies. 青岛:青岛出版社 Qingdao: Qingdao Press.

中国对外翻译出版公司（编).(1983).《翻译理论与翻译技巧论文集》[M].Collection of Papers on Translation Theory and Translation Skills. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.

中国对外翻译出版公司（编).(1983).《国外翻译理论评介文集》[M].A Review of Foreign Translation Theories. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司 Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.

--[[User:Liu Wei|Liu Wei]] ([[User talk:Liu Wei|talk]]) 16:11, 8 December 2021 (UTC)Liu Wei

Hist Trans EN 9

2021-12-19T12:51:00Z

Liu Wei: /* Introduction */

=Chapter 9 刘薇 Contemporary American Translation History)=
[[Hist_Trans_EN_9]]

Liu Wei 刘薇 Hunan Normal University, China

==Abstract==
The United States is an important part of the "West", so when we talk about the conception of "West", it is impossible to exclude the United States.Therefore, this chapter recapitulates the development of contemporary American translation by introducing a series of theories of American translators.

==Key words==
translation theory of American, Eugene Nida,Robert Boogrand.

==Introduction==

In the field of translation studies, the situation in the United States is very special.Since the history of the United States itself is not long, we can not expect to talk about "ancient American translation theory", "medieval American translation theory", or even "modern American translation theory".American translation theory is mainly the "contemporary translation theory", which is developed after World War II (Guo Jianzhong, [introduction]: 2).Although the development of American translation theory is relatively short, there are still many influential translation theorists, such as Eugene Nida, Robert Boogrand, Andre Leverville, Lawrence Venudi, Edwin Gentzler and so on. They are constantly innovating and developing new theories in the field of translation.

==Chapter1 Characteristics of the local American translation theory ==

The development of contemporary American translation theory has three main characteristics: first, it inherits the tradition of European translation theory in terms of overall research methods;Second, the early studies were mostly influenced by the schools of American structural linguistics;Third, there is a tendency to catch up in research results.These characteristics are discussed one by one below.(Tan Zaixi,1999:237)

On the first point, the inheritance of European tradition in the overall research method of American translation theory is due to its unique language and cultural tradition.As an integral part of the whole culture, translation culture naturally presents the basic characteristics of the development of the whole culture.Since the American culture with English as the national language is mainly inherited from European culture, the development of American translation culture, as an integral part of American culture, also inherits European translation culture.Especially in the early stage of the development of American translation theory, many influential people engaged in translation studies were immigrants from Europe or descendants of recent European immigrants.

Take Thorman as an example: his translation theory work the art of translation published in 1901 is one of the earliest published works in the field of American translation theory, but the contents and discussion methods involved in the book have no obvious "American characteristics".On the contrary, it is more like a work belonging to Europe, especially the British translation tradition. Even the examples in the book are similar to the European, especially the British translation tradition.

The second characteristic of the tradition of American translation theory is that the early studies were greatly influenced by the schools of American structural linguistics, which can be said to be a more distinctive "American characteristic" in American translation studies.

American linguistic studies are at the forefront of the West in many aspects. There have been many linguistic schools, such as human language school, structuralism school, transformational generative school and so on. All kinds of schools have also had various direct or indirect effects on American translation studies.

The representative of American structuralist language school is Bloomfield. He adopts the method of behaviorism and believes that everything about language can be studied scientifically and objectively.He put forward a behaviorist semantic analysis method, which holds that meaning is the relationship between stimulus and language response.In 1950s, Chomsky's transformational generative theory replaced Bloomfield's theory and occupied the dominant position in American linguistics theory and occupied the dominant position in American linguistics.The influence of Chomsky's theory on translation studies mainly lies in his discussion of surface structure and deep structure.The concept of "deep" has led to large-scale semantic research. Because semantics is closely related to translation research, Chomsky's theory has promoted the development of translation theory in the United States and even the whole west.(Xie Tianzhen ,2003:200)

Therefore, under the influence of various linguistic theories, many people try to put forward new translation concepts and research methods. These people can be collectively referred to as the structural School of American translation theory.Among them, the main characters include Wojilin, Bolinger, Katz, Quinn and Eugene Nida.

Take Wojilin as an example. He is a human linguist.His greatest contribution is to put forward a multi-step translation method (also known as step-by-step translation method).The biggest advantage of his multi-step translation method is that the steps are clear, flexible and easy to master.

Using Chomsky's transformational generative theory, Boringer puts forward a concept of structural translation as opposed to lexical translation.Based on structural linguistics, Katz makes a profound analysis of the translatability of language and the philosophical problems in language and translation.Based on the discussion of strange language, Quinn expounds some basic problems of translation from the perspective of philosophy, which has aroused great repercussions in the field of western translation theory.(Tan Zaixi,1999:250)

The third characteristic of the development of American translation theory is that it has a tendency to catch up with others in research results.One of the most prominent scholars is Eugene Nida. Although he is an outstanding linguist, his views on "translation is science", "translation is communication", "translation must pay attention to reader response" and other aspects are an innovation and breakthrough to the previous views. In addition, after Eugene Nida, many scholars have put forward many new views because of their existence,It was only after World War II that American translation theory continued to catch up.

Therefore, we will focus on him in the next chapter.

On the first point, the inheritance of European tradition in the overall research method of American translation theory is due to its unique language and cultural tradition.As an integral part of the whole culture, translation culture naturally presents the basic characteristics of the development of the whole culture.Since the American culture with English as the national language is mainly inherited from European culture, the development of American translation culture, as an integral part of American culture, also inherits European translation culture.Especially in the early stage of the development of American translation theory, many influential people engaged in translation studies were immigrants from Europe or descendants of recent European immigrants.(corrected by --[[User:Zhou Junhui|Zhou Junhui]] ([[User talk:Zhou Junhui|talk]]) 08:48, 14 December 2021 (UTC))

==Chapter2 Eugene Nida's translation theory==

Eugene Albert Nida (1914 -) was born in Oklahoma City in the south central United States. He graduated from the University of California, Los Angeles in 1936. In 1943, he worked in Bloomfield and fries (Charles fries received his doctorate in linguistics under the guidance of two famous scholars. As the leading translation theory figure in contemporary America, Nida has also engaged in research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology and communication engineering. Before his retirement in the 1980s, he worked in the Translation Department of the American Holy Bible Association and served as the executive secretary of the translation department for a long time. He is mainly engaged in the Bible Organization of translation and revision of translations and the Bible Training and theoretical guidance for translators. He is proficient in many languages and has investigated and studied more than 100 languages, especially some small languages in Africa and Latin America. In 1968, he served as the president of the American language society. Although he does not take teaching as his career, he has extremely rich experience in Translation training and lecturing. In addition to a long-term part-time job, he speaks linguistics in the famous American summer In addition to teaching linguistics and translation courses in the Institute, he also served as a guest lecturer and professor in many American universities. He was often invited to give short-term lectures in Europe, Latin America, Africa and Asia, and won several honorary doctorates. In order to recognize his contribution to translation research, especially in the field of Bible translation research, the American Bible Association named the Institute after him in 2001 In particular, Nida has deep feelings for China. Since 1982, he has been invited to give lectures in China more than ten times, and has maintained close academic contacts and exchanges with many schools and academic colleagues in China for a long time.(Tan Zaixi,2000:247)

Nida is a prolific language and translation theorist. From 1945 to 2004, he published more than 200 articles and more than 40 works (including works cooperated and edited with others). Among them, there are more than 20 works on language and translation theory, and a collection of papers has been published.

His research achievements include "Toward a Science of Translating" published in 1964, "The Theory and Practice of Translation" Co authored with Charles Taber in 1969, "Com ponential Analysis of Meaning " published in 1975 and "language structure and Translation" . Nida's anthology "Language Structure and Translation : Essays by Eugene A. Nida，ed. by Anwar S. Dil" , "From One Language to Another" , co authored with de warrd in 1986, "The Sociolinguistics of Interlingual Communication" , published in 1996 and published in 2001 "Language and Culture :Contertsin Translating" .(Xie Tianzhen.2003:212)

Throughout Nida's translation thought, we can divide it into three main development stages: the linguistic stage with obvious American structuralism in the early stage, the stage of translation science and translation communication in the middle stage, and the stage of social semiotics.

The first major stage is the linguistic stage, from 1943 when he wrote his doctoral thesis "a summary of English syntax" to 1959 when he published "principles of translation from biblical translation".At this stage, he tries to clarify the structural nature of language through the description of syntax, morphology and language translation.In his early days, he was greatly influenced by American structuralist Bloomfield and human linguist Sapir, and paid attention to the collection and analysis of language materials in language research.Through the opportunity to visit and contact different languages all over the world, many examples of speech differences are collected.However, he does not regard speech differences as insurmountable obstacles between languages, but as different phenomena of the same essence.

The second development stage of Nida's translation thought is the stage of translation science and translation communication. It took 10 years from the publication of "principles of translation from biblical translation" in 1959 to the publication of "translation theory and practice" in 1969.The research achievements at this stage have played a key role in establishing Nida's authoritative position in the whole western translation theory circle.
By summarizing this main development period, the main contents of the following five aspects can be summarized:

（一）Translation science.Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill, but also a science.The so-called science here means that translation problems can be handled by "scientific approaches to language structure, semantic analysis and information theory", that is, a linguistic and descriptive method can be adopted to explain the translation process.If the principles and procedures of translation seem to be normative, it is only because they are generally considered to be the most useful in a specific scope of translation.Nida's view that "translation is science" has had great repercussions in the field of western linguistics and translation theory.

（二） Translation communication theory. Nida applies communication theory and information theory to translation studies and holds that translation is communication. After World War II, not only advertisers, politicians and businessmen attached great importance to the intelligibility of language, but also scholars, writers, editors, publishers and translators realized that any information would be worthless if it could not play a communicative role. Therefore, to judge whether a translation is successful, we must first see whether it can be immediately understood by the recipient and whether it can play a role in the communication of ideas, information and feelings. Therefore, in the field of translation research, various names and statements such as "communicative translation", "functional translation" and related "equal response theory", "equal effect theory", "equal role theory" and "equal power theory" have sprung up one after another. Nida's "translation is communication" and his "reader response theory" and "dynamic equivalence" discussed below“ "Functional equivalence" has become an important representative of the communicative school in the field of western translation studies.

Nida's theory of "translation is communication" is based on the theory of language commonality. Nida, like Jacobson, believes that all languages in the world have the same expression ability, which can enable native speakers of the language to express ideas, describe the world and carry out social communication. His argument is based on the same "identity" For example, in countries with relatively developed productive forces, many scientific and technological words will appear in their languages, while in countries with less developed or very low productive forces, there may be a lack of scientific and technological words in their languages. However, this does not mean that the latter has the same expressive ability as the former, but only shows that people have different requirements for languages in different languages, It is not because the language cannot produce scientific and technological vocabulary, but because the speakers of the language do not have or temporarily do not have the requirement to use scientific and technological vocabulary. Once there is such a requirement, there will be corresponding vocabulary in the language, or "native" scientific and technological vocabulary, or "foreign" vocabulary transplanted from foreign words. In short, the expression efficiency of various languages is the same.

Nida believes that the primary task of translation is to make it clear to the readers at a glance after reading the translation. That is to say, the translation should be fluent and natural, and the readers can understand it without the knowledge of the cultural background of the source language. This requires that rigid foreign words should be used as little as possible in translation, and expressions belonging to the receiving language should be used as much as possible. For example, in a Sudanese language, for If the expression "repent and reform" is translated directly, it will make people feel at a loss, and it should be translated into the local familiar "spitting on the ground in front of someone". For example, in the language without "Snow", white as snow may be puzzling, but it should be said "white as frost" or "white as egret hair" Another example is that in the ancient West, the habit of people meeting and greeting each other was "sacred kiss", but now it should become "very warm handshake".(Nida·Eugene,1996:234）

In a sense, the theory of translation communication is not only one of the main symbols of Nida's second development stage of translation thought, but also one of the biggest characteristics of his whole ideological system.Especially after the publication of translation theory and practice, Nida's translation communication theory has had a great impact on the western translation circles, including those in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union.

（三） Dynamic equivalence theory.The so-called dynamic equivalence translation is actually translation under the guidance of translation communication theory. Specifically, it refers to "reproducing the source language information with the closest (original) natural equivalence in the receiving language from semantics to style".In this definition, there are three key points: one is "nature", which means that the translation cannot have a translation cavity;The second is "close", which refers to selecting the translation with the closest meaning to the original text on the basis of "nature";The third is "equivalence", which is the core.Both "nature" and "close" serve to find equivalents.

（四） Translation function theory.From the perspective of sociolinguistics and language communicative function, Nida believes that translation must serve the reader.To judge whether a translation is correct or not, we must take the reader's response as the criterion.If the response of the target readers is basically the same as that of the original readers, the translation can be considered successful.

（五） Four step model.This refers to the translation process.Nida puts forward that the process of translation is: analysis, transfer (transfer the meaning obtained from the analysis from the source language to the receiving language), reorganization (reorganize the translation according to the rules of the receiving language), and inspection (detect the target text against the source text).Among these four steps, "analysis" is the most complex and key, which is the focus of Nida's translation research.The focus of the analysis is semantics. He distinguishes four parts of speech from the perspective of semantics: object words, activity words, abstract words and relational words.In semantic analysis, he introduced three methods: linear analysis, hierarchical analysis and component analysis.In the specific analysis of semantics, he focuses on grammatical meaning, referential meaning and connotative meaning (or emotional meaning and associative meaning).These distinction theories are of great significance to understand his translation thought.

Nida's research achievements in the 1980s can be regarded as the third stage of translation thought.He has made a series of modifications and supplements to his translation theory.He did not completely abandon the theory of the original communicative school, but further developed on the original basis and incorporated the useful elements of the original theory into a new model, which is the social semiotics model in the third development stage translation thought.

Compared with previous works, Eugene Nida has the following four changes and developments in from one language to another: first, based on the translation theory of social semiotics, he emphasizes that everything in the text has meaning, including speech form, so form cannot be easily sacrificed.That is to say, form is also meaningful. Sacrificing form means sacrificing meaning.Secondly, it points out that the rhetorical features of language play an important role in language communication, so we must pay attention to these features in translation.Third, the theory of "dynamic equivalence" is no longer used, but replaced by "functional equivalence", which is intended to make the meaning of the term clearer and easier to understand.Fourth, instead of using the distinction of grammatical meaning, referential meaning and associative meaning, meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, and all kinds of meaning are divided into referential meaning and associative meaning.From the whole historical process of the development of translation theory, it should be said that these changes are basically positive.(Nida·Eugene,1996:222）

Of course, his theory and works are not perfect.First, his theory focuses too much on solving the problems of communicative and intelligibility of translation, so its scope of application is limited.It is natural to emphasize the intelligibility of the translation in the field of Bible translation, but if the intelligibility of the translation is always put in the first place in the translation of secular literary works, it will inevitably lead to the simplification and even non literariness of the translated language.

Second, he no longer completely negates "formal correspondence", but believes that the expression form of the original text cannot be broken at will in translation.In order to expand the scope of application of his theory, he also added rhetoric.However, despite his amendments, he failed to elaborate more deeply on his new views.

Thirdly, Eugene Nida once put forward the proposition that "translation is science", and then basically abandoned this proposition.Whether he put forward or gave up, he did not put forward sufficient and convincing arguments, which can not be said to be a major defect.

Of course, Nida's theory and works are not perfect. Firstly, his theory focuses too much on solving the problems of communicative and intelligibility of translation, so its scope of application is limited. It is natural to emphasize the intelligibility of the translation in the field of Bible translation, but if the intelligibility of the translation is always put in the first place in the translation of secular literary works, it will inevitably lead to the simplification and even non literariness of the translated language. Newmark, a British translation theorist, once pointed out: "if we delete all the metaphors in the Bible that Doneda believes readers cannot understand, it will inevitably lead to a large loss of meaning." . an important feature of literary works is that they use more metaphorical and novel language. The author's real intention may have to taste and capture between the lines. If all the metaphorical images in the original work are deleted and all the associative meanings are clearly stated, the result will be that the translation is easy to understand, but it is dull and can't reach To the purpose of literature. In recent years, Nida has become more and more aware of this, and has constantly revised and improved some of his past views. For example, he later no longer focused on the intelligibility of the translation, but advocated a "three nature principle", that is, the principle of paying equal attention to comprehensibility, readability and acceptability. In addition, he no longer completely denied "formal correspondence" In order to expand the scope of application of his theory, he especially added rhetoric. However, despite Nida's amendments, he failed to make a more profound exposition of his new views; he was only aware of the existence of the problem rather than successfully solving the relevant problems Besides, Nida once put forward the proposition that "translation is science", and then basically gave up this proposition. Whether he put forward or gave up, he did not put forward sufficient and convincing arguments, which is a major defect.

Of course, flaws do not hide the jade. Looking at Nida's lifelong contributions, he is one of the most outstanding theoretical figures in the field of contemporary translation studies in the United States and even the whole west. The historical theory of the development of western translation theory should give him a heavy pen.(Tan Zaixi,2000:257)

==Chapter3 Robert Boogrand's translation theory==

Since the 1970s, more voices outside the structural language school and the communicative school have gradually emerged in the field of translation studies in the United States, especially the voice of discourse linguistics theory and discourse analysis represented by Robert Boogrand.
Boogrand teaches in the English Department of the University of Florida and is engaged in the study of literary discourse rhetoric and grammatical structure.In 1978, he published a book called "elements of translation theory of poetry"), which was listed as one of the Translation Studies Series edited by Holmes and attracted extensive attention.(Xie Tianzhen,2003:56)

Boogrand's view is: 1. The unit of translation is not a single word or sentence, but the whole text.2. Translation is a process of interaction among authors, translators and readers.3. What is worth studying is not the characteristics of the article itself, but the skills of language use reflected in these characteristics.

After the publication of the above translation theory works guided by the thought of discourse linguistics in 1978, Boogrand continued to engage in the research of language and translation along the same line, and more than ten relevant works (including Works CO authored and co edited with others) have been published successively, mainly including discourse, discourse and process: multidisciplinary discourse science exploration Linguistic Theory: Discourse of basic works, introduction to discourse linguistics, language discourse, Western and Middle East translation Boogrand has always expounded language and translation from the perspective of discourse linguistics, thus establishing his important position as the leader of discourse linguistics in the field of British and American translation studies. Boogrand's contribution as one of the pioneers of discourse analysis and discourse linguistics in translation studies is very important and worthy of full recognition.(Tan Zaixi,2000:256)

==Chapter4 Andre Lefevere's translation theory==

With the development of the times, translation studies in the United States, like other parts of the west, have been continuously improved in theoretical depth. By the 1990s, the focus of theorists' discussion on translation has gradually separated from the previous specific translation processes and methods, and turned more to the fundamental nature of translation, translation and ideology, translation and culture. This chapter introduces Andre Leverville's translation theory.
Andre Leverville, a professor of translation and comparative literature at the University of Texas at Austin, originally from Belgium, is a very important theoretical figure in the field of Contemporary Western comparative literature and translation research. We can discuss his main ideas from the following two aspects.(Tan Zaixi,2000:276)

(一)The cultural turn in translation studies. It is a common feature of all cultural schools to turn the focus of translation studies from the language structure and language form correspondence that language schools are most concerned about to the meaning and function of the target text and the source text in their respective cultural systems. He believes that any literature must survive in a certain social and cultural environment, and its meaning and value Value, as well as its interpretation and acceptance, will always be affected and restricted by a series of interrelated and mutually referenced factors, including both internal and external factors of literature. Therefore, as far as translation research is concerned, the goal of the research is far from limited to exploring the equivalence or equivalence of the two texts in language forms, but to explore at the same time.Study various cultural issues directly or indirectly related to translation activities.

（二） The concept of manipulation in translation. When talking about and describing the basic characteristics of the cultural school, we often can not do without using the word "manipulation". Here, "manipulation"It is not emotional, but a special term representing the concept of neutrality. According to the translation operation of Andre Leverville and others, the core meaning is that in the process of processing the source text and generating the target text, the translator has the right and will rewrite the text in order to achieve a certain purpose. Andre Leverville believes that translation is a reflection of the image of the text.Other literary forms such as literary criticism, biography, literary history, drama, film, fiction and so on are also the rewriting of the text image, and rewriting is the manipulation of the text.

（三） Obviously, the manipulative rewriting in Lefevere and his cultural school theory is not simply equivalent to "Rewriting" in the general sense, because in his view, all translation is rewriting, even the "most faithful"Translation is also a form of rewriting. As a translation manipulator, this rewriting or manipulation should be regarded as a cultural necessity in essence. In the process of translation, the translator is bound to be affected and restricted by various social and cultural factors. In addition to considering all the characteristics related to the source text, such as the original author's intention, the context of the source text and so on, the more important thing is toIt is necessary to consider a series of factors related to the target or receiving culture, such as the purpose of translation, the function of the target text, the expectations and reactions of readers, the requirements of clients and sponsors, and the review of the publishing and distribution organization of the work. The existence of these factors and the degree of constraints imposed by the translator on them vary from person to person constitute the inevitable "manipulation" condition of the translator on the text.(Lefevere·André,1980:100).

For "manipulation" in this sense, we can not judge it by moral value words such as "legitimate" or "improper", but only by the "appropriateness" criteria such as whether the target text has achieved the purpose of translation, whether it meets the expectations of the audience, and whether it can be accepted by the accepted culture.

==Chapter5 Lawrence Venudi's translation theory==

It is precisely because the cultural school or manipulation school, and even the polysystem school, in translation studies have established a relationship with the theory of domestication and Foreignization in translation, that a new group of scholars and viewpoints have emerged. In the field of American translation studies, Lawrence Wenudi is the most vocal theoretical figure on the issues of "domestication" and "Foreignization".
As an English professor at Temple University in Philadelphia, winudi is one of the most active and influential figures in the field of American translation theory since the 1990s. Winudi belongs to the deconstruction school in translation studies, that is, what genzler calls the "post structuralism school"In his works on translation studies, Venuti advocates that literary translation should not aim at eliminating alien features, but should try to show cultural differences in the target text.(Tan Zaixi,2000:278)

Venuti's main view is that it is wrong to require the translator to be invisible in translation; the translator should not be invisible in the translation, but should be visible. That is to say, translation should adopt the principle and strategy of "alienation" to keep the translation exotic and exotic, and read like the translation, rather than "domestication"So that the translation can be transformed completely in accordance with the ideology and creative norms of the target culture. It doesn't read like foreign works, but the original of the target language.(Xie Tianzhen,2003:278).

However, translation has never been carried out in an unaffected way. Foreignization translation and domestication translation are actually the products of translation activities affected. From the perspective of translation ethics, it is difficult to assert which is good or which is bad, because translation reality shows that the two play irreplaceable roles in the target language and culture and complete their respective missions.Therefore, the two kinds of translation will always coexist and complement each other.(Tan Zaixi,2000:279)

==Chapter6 Edwin Gensler's translation theory==

Edwin Genzler is the director of the translation center of Amherst University of Massachusetts, doctor of comparative literature and professor of translation. His famous translation work is contemporary translation theory published in 1993 and reprinted in 2001.(Xie Tianzhen,2003:290).

Genzler's contribution to translation theory is mainly reflected in the following three aspects:
First, it comprehensively combs the contemporary western translation theories, so as to clarify people's understanding of various western translation theory schools since World War II, and thus arouse the research interest in all kinds of contemporary western translation theories in the field of translation studies (including China's Translation Studies).In contemporary translation theory, Genzler studies translation from different perspectives such as scientific theory, polysystem theory and deconstruction. By exploring the "political reality" outside translation (literary translation practice), he outlines the outline of contemporary western translation research and guides readers to rethink a series of theoretical issues such as the definition and classification of translation.(Tan Zaixi,2000:300)

Secondly, on the basis of comprehensively and systematically combing various contemporary western translation thoughts and theories, Genzler puts forward a multi-channel cooperative translation research view of "fair treatment of all systems".He believes that contemporary translation theory, like literary theory, originates from structuralist theory.All these structuralist or post structuralist theories have been confined to their respective academic circles for a long time.Various schools have very special requirements for the terms used in this system, and the terms are limited;Their pursuit of "correctness" or "objectivity" of theory tends to be one-sided, and they all try to gain universal recognition in the academic circles at the expense of other perspectives.The result is only the continuous conflict between theories, but there is no due cooperation and exchange between theories, which leads to the marginalization of academic research.(Xie Tianzhen,2003:293)

Thirdly, Genzler puts forward a post structuralist interpretation model of the essence of translation.In translation, post structuralism and power, he analyzes the deconstruction (post structuralism) thoughts of Derrida, Spivak and others, as well as the translation thoughts of translation theorists such as Wenudi, Levin and Robinson under the influence of their deconstruction thoughts, and points out that the new translation interpretation model can no longer follow the past tradition and simply define translation as"The transformation from a single language to another single language", but it should be regarded as the transformation between a multicultural form environment and another equally multicultural form environment.

==Conclusion==

In addition to the above-mentioned important theoretical figures in the field of contemporary American translation studies, many others, such as Roberto Tradu, Daniel Shaw, Burton Raphael and so on, have also made achievements in translation theory. However, due to space constraints, they cannot be discussed in detail here.

Generally speaking, due to the historical origin and the influence of the subject's immigrant culture, the initial development of American translation studies depends on the inheritance and promotion of the tradition of European translation theory. With the evolution of the times, American translation studies catch up with each other in many aspects with rapid development and fruitful achievements, and walk in the forefront of western translation studies, becoming the driving force of contemporary western translation theory. On an important force for forward development.(Tan Zaixi,2000:301)

In addition to the above-mentioned important theoretical figures in the field of contemporary American translation studies, many others, such as Roberto Tradu, Daniel Shaw, Burton Raphael and so on, have also made achievements in translation theory. However, due to space constraints, they cannot be discussed in detail here.

Generally speaking, due to the historical origin and the influence of the subject's immigrant culture, the initial development of American translation studies depends on the inheritance and promotion of the tradition of European translation theory. With the evolution of the times, American translation studies catch up with each other in many aspects with rapid development and fruitful achievements, and walk in the forefront of western translation studies, becoming the driving force of contemporary western translation theory. On an important force for forward development.(corrected by--[[User:Zhou Junhui|Zhou Junhui]] ([[User talk:Zhou Junhui|talk]]) 08:48, 14 December 2021 (UTC))

==reference==

Lefevere·André. (1980). Translating literature [M]. New York:Clarendon Press.

Newmark·Peter. （1978）.The theory and the craft of translation [M].London:Rountledge Press.

Nida·Eugene.（1996）.The Sociolinguistics of Interlingual Communication [M]. Brussels:Editions du Hazard.

Katz·Jerrold J. （1966）.The Philosophy of Language [M]. New York:Harper and Row.

Pound，E. 1917. Notes on Elizabethan classicists [M]. New York:Clarendon Press.

Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (1999).《新编奈达论翻译》[M] New Nida on Translation. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司 Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.

Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2000).《翻译学》[M] Translatology. 武汉:湖北教育出版社 Wuhan: Hubei Education Press.

Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2003).《翻译研究新视野》[M].New perspectives in Translation Studies. 青岛:青岛出版社 Qingdao: Qingdao Press.

中国对外翻译出版公司（编).(1983).《翻译理论与翻译技巧论文集》[M].Collection of Papers on Translation Theory and Translation Skills. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.

中国对外翻译出版公司（编).(1983).《国外翻译理论评介文集》[M].A Review of Foreign Translation Theories. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司 Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.

--[[User:Liu Wei|Liu Wei]] ([[User talk:Liu Wei|talk]]) 16:11, 8 December 2021 (UTC)Liu Wei

Hist Trans EN 9

2021-12-19T12:49:20Z

Liu Wei: /* Abstract */

=Chapter 9 刘薇 Contemporary American Translation History)=
[[Hist_Trans_EN_9]]

Liu Wei 刘薇 Hunan Normal University, China

==Abstract==
The United States is an important part of the "West", so when we talk about the conception of "West", it is impossible to exclude the United States.Therefore, this chapter recapitulates the development of contemporary American translation by introducing a series of theories of American translators.

==Key words==
translation theory of American, Eugene Nida,Robert Boogrand.

==Introduction==

In the field of translation studies, the situation in the United States is very special.Since the history of the United States itself is not long, we can not expect to talk about "ancient American translation theory", "medieval American translation theory", or even "modern American translation theory".American translation theory is mainly the "contemporary translation theory", which is developed after World War II (Guo Jianzhong, [introduction]: 2).Although the development of American translation theory is relatively short, there are still many influential translation theorists, such as Eugene Nida, Robert Boogrand, Andre Leverville, Lawrence Venudi, Edwin Gentzler and so on. They are constantly innovating and developing new theories in the field of translation.

In the field of translation studies, the situation in the United States is very special.Since the history of the United States itself is not long, we can not expect to talk about "ancient American translation theory", "medieval American translation theory", or even "modern American translation theory".American translation theory is mainly the "contemporary translation theory", which is developed after World War II (Guo Jianzhong, [introduction]: 2).Although the development of American translation theory is relatively short, there are still many influential translation theorists, such as Eugene Nida, Robert Boogrand, Andre Leverville, Lawrence Venudi, Edwin Gentzler and so on. They are constantly innovating and developing new theories in the field of translation. (corrected by --[[User:Zhou Junhui|Zhou Junhui]] ([[User talk:Zhou Junhui|talk]]) 08:48, 14 December 2021 (UTC))

==Chapter1 Characteristics of the local American translation theory ==

The development of contemporary American translation theory has three main characteristics: first, it inherits the tradition of European translation theory in terms of overall research methods;Second, the early studies were mostly influenced by the schools of American structural linguistics;Third, there is a tendency to catch up in research results.These characteristics are discussed one by one below.(Tan Zaixi,1999:237)

On the first point, the inheritance of European tradition in the overall research method of American translation theory is due to its unique language and cultural tradition.As an integral part of the whole culture, translation culture naturally presents the basic characteristics of the development of the whole culture.Since the American culture with English as the national language is mainly inherited from European culture, the development of American translation culture, as an integral part of American culture, also inherits European translation culture.Especially in the early stage of the development of American translation theory, many influential people engaged in translation studies were immigrants from Europe or descendants of recent European immigrants.

Take Thorman as an example: his translation theory work the art of translation published in 1901 is one of the earliest published works in the field of American translation theory, but the contents and discussion methods involved in the book have no obvious "American characteristics".On the contrary, it is more like a work belonging to Europe, especially the British translation tradition. Even the examples in the book are similar to the European, especially the British translation tradition.

The second characteristic of the tradition of American translation theory is that the early studies were greatly influenced by the schools of American structural linguistics, which can be said to be a more distinctive "American characteristic" in American translation studies.

American linguistic studies are at the forefront of the West in many aspects. There have been many linguistic schools, such as human language school, structuralism school, transformational generative school and so on. All kinds of schools have also had various direct or indirect effects on American translation studies.

The representative of American structuralist language school is Bloomfield. He adopts the method of behaviorism and believes that everything about language can be studied scientifically and objectively.He put forward a behaviorist semantic analysis method, which holds that meaning is the relationship between stimulus and language response.In 1950s, Chomsky's transformational generative theory replaced Bloomfield's theory and occupied the dominant position in American linguistics theory and occupied the dominant position in American linguistics.The influence of Chomsky's theory on translation studies mainly lies in his discussion of surface structure and deep structure.The concept of "deep" has led to large-scale semantic research. Because semantics is closely related to translation research, Chomsky's theory has promoted the development of translation theory in the United States and even the whole west.(Xie Tianzhen ,2003:200)

Therefore, under the influence of various linguistic theories, many people try to put forward new translation concepts and research methods. These people can be collectively referred to as the structural School of American translation theory.Among them, the main characters include Wojilin, Bolinger, Katz, Quinn and Eugene Nida.

Take Wojilin as an example. He is a human linguist.His greatest contribution is to put forward a multi-step translation method (also known as step-by-step translation method).The biggest advantage of his multi-step translation method is that the steps are clear, flexible and easy to master.

Using Chomsky's transformational generative theory, Boringer puts forward a concept of structural translation as opposed to lexical translation.Based on structural linguistics, Katz makes a profound analysis of the translatability of language and the philosophical problems in language and translation.Based on the discussion of strange language, Quinn expounds some basic problems of translation from the perspective of philosophy, which has aroused great repercussions in the field of western translation theory.(Tan Zaixi,1999:250)

The third characteristic of the development of American translation theory is that it has a tendency to catch up with others in research results.One of the most prominent scholars is Eugene Nida. Although he is an outstanding linguist, his views on "translation is science", "translation is communication", "translation must pay attention to reader response" and other aspects are an innovation and breakthrough to the previous views. In addition, after Eugene Nida, many scholars have put forward many new views because of their existence,It was only after World War II that American translation theory continued to catch up.

Therefore, we will focus on him in the next chapter.

On the first point, the inheritance of European tradition in the overall research method of American translation theory is due to its unique language and cultural tradition.As an integral part of the whole culture, translation culture naturally presents the basic characteristics of the development of the whole culture.Since the American culture with English as the national language is mainly inherited from European culture, the development of American translation culture, as an integral part of American culture, also inherits European translation culture.Especially in the early stage of the development of American translation theory, many influential people engaged in translation studies were immigrants from Europe or descendants of recent European immigrants.(corrected by --[[User:Zhou Junhui|Zhou Junhui]] ([[User talk:Zhou Junhui|talk]]) 08:48, 14 December 2021 (UTC))

==Chapter2 Eugene Nida's translation theory==

Eugene Albert Nida (1914 -) was born in Oklahoma City in the south central United States. He graduated from the University of California, Los Angeles in 1936. In 1943, he worked in Bloomfield and fries (Charles fries received his doctorate in linguistics under the guidance of two famous scholars. As the leading translation theory figure in contemporary America, Nida has also engaged in research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology and communication engineering. Before his retirement in the 1980s, he worked in the Translation Department of the American Holy Bible Association and served as the executive secretary of the translation department for a long time. He is mainly engaged in the Bible Organization of translation and revision of translations and the Bible Training and theoretical guidance for translators. He is proficient in many languages and has investigated and studied more than 100 languages, especially some small languages in Africa and Latin America. In 1968, he served as the president of the American language society. Although he does not take teaching as his career, he has extremely rich experience in Translation training and lecturing. In addition to a long-term part-time job, he speaks linguistics in the famous American summer In addition to teaching linguistics and translation courses in the Institute, he also served as a guest lecturer and professor in many American universities. He was often invited to give short-term lectures in Europe, Latin America, Africa and Asia, and won several honorary doctorates. In order to recognize his contribution to translation research, especially in the field of Bible translation research, the American Bible Association named the Institute after him in 2001 In particular, Nida has deep feelings for China. Since 1982, he has been invited to give lectures in China more than ten times, and has maintained close academic contacts and exchanges with many schools and academic colleagues in China for a long time.(Tan Zaixi,2000:247)

Nida is a prolific language and translation theorist. From 1945 to 2004, he published more than 200 articles and more than 40 works (including works cooperated and edited with others). Among them, there are more than 20 works on language and translation theory, and a collection of papers has been published.

His research achievements include "Toward a Science of Translating" published in 1964, "The Theory and Practice of Translation" Co authored with Charles Taber in 1969, "Com ponential Analysis of Meaning " published in 1975 and "language structure and Translation" . Nida's anthology "Language Structure and Translation : Essays by Eugene A. Nida，ed. by Anwar S. Dil" , "From One Language to Another" , co authored with de warrd in 1986, "The Sociolinguistics of Interlingual Communication" , published in 1996 and published in 2001 "Language and Culture :Contertsin Translating" .(Xie Tianzhen.2003:212)

Throughout Nida's translation thought, we can divide it into three main development stages: the linguistic stage with obvious American structuralism in the early stage, the stage of translation science and translation communication in the middle stage, and the stage of social semiotics.

The first major stage is the linguistic stage, from 1943 when he wrote his doctoral thesis "a summary of English syntax" to 1959 when he published "principles of translation from biblical translation".At this stage, he tries to clarify the structural nature of language through the description of syntax, morphology and language translation.In his early days, he was greatly influenced by American structuralist Bloomfield and human linguist Sapir, and paid attention to the collection and analysis of language materials in language research.Through the opportunity to visit and contact different languages all over the world, many examples of speech differences are collected.However, he does not regard speech differences as insurmountable obstacles between languages, but as different phenomena of the same essence.

The second development stage of Nida's translation thought is the stage of translation science and translation communication. It took 10 years from the publication of "principles of translation from biblical translation" in 1959 to the publication of "translation theory and practice" in 1969.The research achievements at this stage have played a key role in establishing Nida's authoritative position in the whole western translation theory circle.
By summarizing this main development period, the main contents of the following five aspects can be summarized:

（一）Translation science.Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill, but also a science.The so-called science here means that translation problems can be handled by "scientific approaches to language structure, semantic analysis and information theory", that is, a linguistic and descriptive method can be adopted to explain the translation process.If the principles and procedures of translation seem to be normative, it is only because they are generally considered to be the most useful in a specific scope of translation.Nida's view that "translation is science" has had great repercussions in the field of western linguistics and translation theory.

（二） Translation communication theory. Nida applies communication theory and information theory to translation studies and holds that translation is communication. After World War II, not only advertisers, politicians and businessmen attached great importance to the intelligibility of language, but also scholars, writers, editors, publishers and translators realized that any information would be worthless if it could not play a communicative role. Therefore, to judge whether a translation is successful, we must first see whether it can be immediately understood by the recipient and whether it can play a role in the communication of ideas, information and feelings. Therefore, in the field of translation research, various names and statements such as "communicative translation", "functional translation" and related "equal response theory", "equal effect theory", "equal role theory" and "equal power theory" have sprung up one after another. Nida's "translation is communication" and his "reader response theory" and "dynamic equivalence" discussed below“ "Functional equivalence" has become an important representative of the communicative school in the field of western translation studies.

Nida's theory of "translation is communication" is based on the theory of language commonality. Nida, like Jacobson, believes that all languages in the world have the same expression ability, which can enable native speakers of the language to express ideas, describe the world and carry out social communication. His argument is based on the same "identity" For example, in countries with relatively developed productive forces, many scientific and technological words will appear in their languages, while in countries with less developed or very low productive forces, there may be a lack of scientific and technological words in their languages. However, this does not mean that the latter has the same expressive ability as the former, but only shows that people have different requirements for languages in different languages, It is not because the language cannot produce scientific and technological vocabulary, but because the speakers of the language do not have or temporarily do not have the requirement to use scientific and technological vocabulary. Once there is such a requirement, there will be corresponding vocabulary in the language, or "native" scientific and technological vocabulary, or "foreign" vocabulary transplanted from foreign words. In short, the expression efficiency of various languages is the same.

Nida believes that the primary task of translation is to make it clear to the readers at a glance after reading the translation. That is to say, the translation should be fluent and natural, and the readers can understand it without the knowledge of the cultural background of the source language. This requires that rigid foreign words should be used as little as possible in translation, and expressions belonging to the receiving language should be used as much as possible. For example, in a Sudanese language, for If the expression "repent and reform" is translated directly, it will make people feel at a loss, and it should be translated into the local familiar "spitting on the ground in front of someone". For example, in the language without "Snow", white as snow may be puzzling, but it should be said "white as frost" or "white as egret hair" Another example is that in the ancient West, the habit of people meeting and greeting each other was "sacred kiss", but now it should become "very warm handshake".(Nida·Eugene,1996:234）

In a sense, the theory of translation communication is not only one of the main symbols of Nida's second development stage of translation thought, but also one of the biggest characteristics of his whole ideological system.Especially after the publication of translation theory and practice, Nida's translation communication theory has had a great impact on the western translation circles, including those in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union.

（三） Dynamic equivalence theory.The so-called dynamic equivalence translation is actually translation under the guidance of translation communication theory. Specifically, it refers to "reproducing the source language information with the closest (original) natural equivalence in the receiving language from semantics to style".In this definition, there are three key points: one is "nature", which means that the translation cannot have a translation cavity;The second is "close", which refers to selecting the translation with the closest meaning to the original text on the basis of "nature";The third is "equivalence", which is the core.Both "nature" and "close" serve to find equivalents.

（四） Translation function theory.From the perspective of sociolinguistics and language communicative function, Nida believes that translation must serve the reader.To judge whether a translation is correct or not, we must take the reader's response as the criterion.If the response of the target readers is basically the same as that of the original readers, the translation can be considered successful.

（五） Four step model.This refers to the translation process.Nida puts forward that the process of translation is: analysis, transfer (transfer the meaning obtained from the analysis from the source language to the receiving language), reorganization (reorganize the translation according to the rules of the receiving language), and inspection (detect the target text against the source text).Among these four steps, "analysis" is the most complex and key, which is the focus of Nida's translation research.The focus of the analysis is semantics. He distinguishes four parts of speech from the perspective of semantics: object words, activity words, abstract words and relational words.In semantic analysis, he introduced three methods: linear analysis, hierarchical analysis and component analysis.In the specific analysis of semantics, he focuses on grammatical meaning, referential meaning and connotative meaning (or emotional meaning and associative meaning).These distinction theories are of great significance to understand his translation thought.

Nida's research achievements in the 1980s can be regarded as the third stage of translation thought.He has made a series of modifications and supplements to his translation theory.He did not completely abandon the theory of the original communicative school, but further developed on the original basis and incorporated the useful elements of the original theory into a new model, which is the social semiotics model in the third development stage translation thought.

Compared with previous works, Eugene Nida has the following four changes and developments in from one language to another: first, based on the translation theory of social semiotics, he emphasizes that everything in the text has meaning, including speech form, so form cannot be easily sacrificed.That is to say, form is also meaningful. Sacrificing form means sacrificing meaning.Secondly, it points out that the rhetorical features of language play an important role in language communication, so we must pay attention to these features in translation.Third, the theory of "dynamic equivalence" is no longer used, but replaced by "functional equivalence", which is intended to make the meaning of the term clearer and easier to understand.Fourth, instead of using the distinction of grammatical meaning, referential meaning and associative meaning, meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, and all kinds of meaning are divided into referential meaning and associative meaning.From the whole historical process of the development of translation theory, it should be said that these changes are basically positive.(Nida·Eugene,1996:222）

Of course, his theory and works are not perfect.First, his theory focuses too much on solving the problems of communicative and intelligibility of translation, so its scope of application is limited.It is natural to emphasize the intelligibility of the translation in the field of Bible translation, but if the intelligibility of the translation is always put in the first place in the translation of secular literary works, it will inevitably lead to the simplification and even non literariness of the translated language.

Second, he no longer completely negates "formal correspondence", but believes that the expression form of the original text cannot be broken at will in translation.In order to expand the scope of application of his theory, he also added rhetoric.However, despite his amendments, he failed to elaborate more deeply on his new views.

Thirdly, Eugene Nida once put forward the proposition that "translation is science", and then basically abandoned this proposition.Whether he put forward or gave up, he did not put forward sufficient and convincing arguments, which can not be said to be a major defect.

Of course, Nida's theory and works are not perfect. Firstly, his theory focuses too much on solving the problems of communicative and intelligibility of translation, so its scope of application is limited. It is natural to emphasize the intelligibility of the translation in the field of Bible translation, but if the intelligibility of the translation is always put in the first place in the translation of secular literary works, it will inevitably lead to the simplification and even non literariness of the translated language. Newmark, a British translation theorist, once pointed out: "if we delete all the metaphors in the Bible that Doneda believes readers cannot understand, it will inevitably lead to a large loss of meaning." . an important feature of literary works is that they use more metaphorical and novel language. The author's real intention may have to taste and capture between the lines. If all the metaphorical images in the original work are deleted and all the associative meanings are clearly stated, the result will be that the translation is easy to understand, but it is dull and can't reach To the purpose of literature. In recent years, Nida has become more and more aware of this, and has constantly revised and improved some of his past views. For example, he later no longer focused on the intelligibility of the translation, but advocated a "three nature principle", that is, the principle of paying equal attention to comprehensibility, readability and acceptability. In addition, he no longer completely denied "formal correspondence" In order to expand the scope of application of his theory, he especially added rhetoric. However, despite Nida's amendments, he failed to make a more profound exposition of his new views; he was only aware of the existence of the problem rather than successfully solving the relevant problems Besides, Nida once put forward the proposition that "translation is science", and then basically gave up this proposition. Whether he put forward or gave up, he did not put forward sufficient and convincing arguments, which is a major defect.

Of course, flaws do not hide the jade. Looking at Nida's lifelong contributions, he is one of the most outstanding theoretical figures in the field of contemporary translation studies in the United States and even the whole west. The historical theory of the development of western translation theory should give him a heavy pen.(Tan Zaixi,2000:257)

==Chapter3 Robert Boogrand's translation theory==

Since the 1970s, more voices outside the structural language school and the communicative school have gradually emerged in the field of translation studies in the United States, especially the voice of discourse linguistics theory and discourse analysis represented by Robert Boogrand.
Boogrand teaches in the English Department of the University of Florida and is engaged in the study of literary discourse rhetoric and grammatical structure.In 1978, he published a book called "elements of translation theory of poetry"), which was listed as one of the Translation Studies Series edited by Holmes and attracted extensive attention.(Xie Tianzhen,2003:56)

Boogrand's view is: 1. The unit of translation is not a single word or sentence, but the whole text.2. Translation is a process of interaction among authors, translators and readers.3. What is worth studying is not the characteristics of the article itself, but the skills of language use reflected in these characteristics.

After the publication of the above translation theory works guided by the thought of discourse linguistics in 1978, Boogrand continued to engage in the research of language and translation along the same line, and more than ten relevant works (including Works CO authored and co edited with others) have been published successively, mainly including discourse, discourse and process: multidisciplinary discourse science exploration Linguistic Theory: Discourse of basic works, introduction to discourse linguistics, language discourse, Western and Middle East translation Boogrand has always expounded language and translation from the perspective of discourse linguistics, thus establishing his important position as the leader of discourse linguistics in the field of British and American translation studies. Boogrand's contribution as one of the pioneers of discourse analysis and discourse linguistics in translation studies is very important and worthy of full recognition.(Tan Zaixi,2000:256)

==Chapter4 Andre Lefevere's translation theory==

With the development of the times, translation studies in the United States, like other parts of the west, have been continuously improved in theoretical depth. By the 1990s, the focus of theorists' discussion on translation has gradually separated from the previous specific translation processes and methods, and turned more to the fundamental nature of translation, translation and ideology, translation and culture. This chapter introduces Andre Leverville's translation theory.
Andre Leverville, a professor of translation and comparative literature at the University of Texas at Austin, originally from Belgium, is a very important theoretical figure in the field of Contemporary Western comparative literature and translation research. We can discuss his main ideas from the following two aspects.(Tan Zaixi,2000:276)

(一)The cultural turn in translation studies. It is a common feature of all cultural schools to turn the focus of translation studies from the language structure and language form correspondence that language schools are most concerned about to the meaning and function of the target text and the source text in their respective cultural systems. He believes that any literature must survive in a certain social and cultural environment, and its meaning and value Value, as well as its interpretation and acceptance, will always be affected and restricted by a series of interrelated and mutually referenced factors, including both internal and external factors of literature. Therefore, as far as translation research is concerned, the goal of the research is far from limited to exploring the equivalence or equivalence of the two texts in language forms, but to explore at the same time.Study various cultural issues directly or indirectly related to translation activities.

（二） The concept of manipulation in translation. When talking about and describing the basic characteristics of the cultural school, we often can not do without using the word "manipulation". Here, "manipulation"It is not emotional, but a special term representing the concept of neutrality. According to the translation operation of Andre Leverville and others, the core meaning is that in the process of processing the source text and generating the target text, the translator has the right and will rewrite the text in order to achieve a certain purpose. Andre Leverville believes that translation is a reflection of the image of the text.Other literary forms such as literary criticism, biography, literary history, drama, film, fiction and so on are also the rewriting of the text image, and rewriting is the manipulation of the text.

（三） Obviously, the manipulative rewriting in Lefevere and his cultural school theory is not simply equivalent to "Rewriting" in the general sense, because in his view, all translation is rewriting, even the "most faithful"Translation is also a form of rewriting. As a translation manipulator, this rewriting or manipulation should be regarded as a cultural necessity in essence. In the process of translation, the translator is bound to be affected and restricted by various social and cultural factors. In addition to considering all the characteristics related to the source text, such as the original author's intention, the context of the source text and so on, the more important thing is toIt is necessary to consider a series of factors related to the target or receiving culture, such as the purpose of translation, the function of the target text, the expectations and reactions of readers, the requirements of clients and sponsors, and the review of the publishing and distribution organization of the work. The existence of these factors and the degree of constraints imposed by the translator on them vary from person to person constitute the inevitable "manipulation" condition of the translator on the text.(Lefevere·André,1980:100).

For "manipulation" in this sense, we can not judge it by moral value words such as "legitimate" or "improper", but only by the "appropriateness" criteria such as whether the target text has achieved the purpose of translation, whether it meets the expectations of the audience, and whether it can be accepted by the accepted culture.

==Chapter5 Lawrence Venudi's translation theory==

It is precisely because the cultural school or manipulation school, and even the polysystem school, in translation studies have established a relationship with the theory of domestication and Foreignization in translation, that a new group of scholars and viewpoints have emerged. In the field of American translation studies, Lawrence Wenudi is the most vocal theoretical figure on the issues of "domestication" and "Foreignization".
As an English professor at Temple University in Philadelphia, winudi is one of the most active and influential figures in the field of American translation theory since the 1990s. Winudi belongs to the deconstruction school in translation studies, that is, what genzler calls the "post structuralism school"In his works on translation studies, Venuti advocates that literary translation should not aim at eliminating alien features, but should try to show cultural differences in the target text.(Tan Zaixi,2000:278)

Venuti's main view is that it is wrong to require the translator to be invisible in translation; the translator should not be invisible in the translation, but should be visible. That is to say, translation should adopt the principle and strategy of "alienation" to keep the translation exotic and exotic, and read like the translation, rather than "domestication"So that the translation can be transformed completely in accordance with the ideology and creative norms of the target culture. It doesn't read like foreign works, but the original of the target language.(Xie Tianzhen,2003:278).

However, translation has never been carried out in an unaffected way. Foreignization translation and domestication translation are actually the products of translation activities affected. From the perspective of translation ethics, it is difficult to assert which is good or which is bad, because translation reality shows that the two play irreplaceable roles in the target language and culture and complete their respective missions.Therefore, the two kinds of translation will always coexist and complement each other.(Tan Zaixi,2000:279)

==Chapter6 Edwin Gensler's translation theory==

Edwin Genzler is the director of the translation center of Amherst University of Massachusetts, doctor of comparative literature and professor of translation. His famous translation work is contemporary translation theory published in 1993 and reprinted in 2001.(Xie Tianzhen,2003:290).

Genzler's contribution to translation theory is mainly reflected in the following three aspects:
First, it comprehensively combs the contemporary western translation theories, so as to clarify people's understanding of various western translation theory schools since World War II, and thus arouse the research interest in all kinds of contemporary western translation theories in the field of translation studies (including China's Translation Studies).In contemporary translation theory, Genzler studies translation from different perspectives such as scientific theory, polysystem theory and deconstruction. By exploring the "political reality" outside translation (literary translation practice), he outlines the outline of contemporary western translation research and guides readers to rethink a series of theoretical issues such as the definition and classification of translation.(Tan Zaixi,2000:300)

Secondly, on the basis of comprehensively and systematically combing various contemporary western translation thoughts and theories, Genzler puts forward a multi-channel cooperative translation research view of "fair treatment of all systems".He believes that contemporary translation theory, like literary theory, originates from structuralist theory.All these structuralist or post structuralist theories have been confined to their respective academic circles for a long time.Various schools have very special requirements for the terms used in this system, and the terms are limited;Their pursuit of "correctness" or "objectivity" of theory tends to be one-sided, and they all try to gain universal recognition in the academic circles at the expense of other perspectives.The result is only the continuous conflict between theories, but there is no due cooperation and exchange between theories, which leads to the marginalization of academic research.(Xie Tianzhen,2003:293)

Thirdly, Genzler puts forward a post structuralist interpretation model of the essence of translation.In translation, post structuralism and power, he analyzes the deconstruction (post structuralism) thoughts of Derrida, Spivak and others, as well as the translation thoughts of translation theorists such as Wenudi, Levin and Robinson under the influence of their deconstruction thoughts, and points out that the new translation interpretation model can no longer follow the past tradition and simply define translation as"The transformation from a single language to another single language", but it should be regarded as the transformation between a multicultural form environment and another equally multicultural form environment.

==Conclusion==

In addition to the above-mentioned important theoretical figures in the field of contemporary American translation studies, many others, such as Roberto Tradu, Daniel Shaw, Burton Raphael and so on, have also made achievements in translation theory. However, due to space constraints, they cannot be discussed in detail here.

Generally speaking, due to the historical origin and the influence of the subject's immigrant culture, the initial development of American translation studies depends on the inheritance and promotion of the tradition of European translation theory. With the evolution of the times, American translation studies catch up with each other in many aspects with rapid development and fruitful achievements, and walk in the forefront of western translation studies, becoming the driving force of contemporary western translation theory. On an important force for forward development.(Tan Zaixi,2000:301)

In addition to the above-mentioned important theoretical figures in the field of contemporary American translation studies, many others, such as Roberto Tradu, Daniel Shaw, Burton Raphael and so on, have also made achievements in translation theory. However, due to space constraints, they cannot be discussed in detail here.

Generally speaking, due to the historical origin and the influence of the subject's immigrant culture, the initial development of American translation studies depends on the inheritance and promotion of the tradition of European translation theory. With the evolution of the times, American translation studies catch up with each other in many aspects with rapid development and fruitful achievements, and walk in the forefront of western translation studies, becoming the driving force of contemporary western translation theory. On an important force for forward development.(corrected by--[[User:Zhou Junhui|Zhou Junhui]] ([[User talk:Zhou Junhui|talk]]) 08:48, 14 December 2021 (UTC))

==reference==

Lefevere·André. (1980). Translating literature [M]. New York:Clarendon Press.

Newmark·Peter. （1978）.The theory and the craft of translation [M].London:Rountledge Press.

Nida·Eugene.（1996）.The Sociolinguistics of Interlingual Communication [M]. Brussels:Editions du Hazard.

Katz·Jerrold J. （1966）.The Philosophy of Language [M]. New York:Harper and Row.

Pound，E. 1917. Notes on Elizabethan classicists [M]. New York:Clarendon Press.

Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (1999).《新编奈达论翻译》[M] New Nida on Translation. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司 Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.

Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2000).《翻译学》[M] Translatology. 武汉:湖北教育出版社 Wuhan: Hubei Education Press.

Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2003).《翻译研究新视野》[M].New perspectives in Translation Studies. 青岛:青岛出版社 Qingdao: Qingdao Press.

中国对外翻译出版公司（编).(1983).《翻译理论与翻译技巧论文集》[M].Collection of Papers on Translation Theory and Translation Skills. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.

中国对外翻译出版公司（编).(1983).《国外翻译理论评介文集》[M].A Review of Foreign Translation Theories. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司 Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.

--[[User:Liu Wei|Liu Wei]] ([[User talk:Liu Wei|talk]]) 16:11, 8 December 2021 (UTC)Liu Wei

20211222 homework

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Liu Wei: /* 刘薇 Liú Wēi 国别女 202120081507 */

History of Translations

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Liu Wei: /* Conclusion */

[[History_of_Translations|Overview Page of History of Translation]]

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=Rouabah Soumaya: History of translation in the Middle Ages=
[[Hist_Trans_EN_1]]
== Abstract==
The history of translation is seen variously as examining the role of translation in historical episodes through decades or investigating the phenomenon or understanding of translation itself historically. These different historiographical perspectives involve potentially different research aims, approaches, concepts, methods and scholarly interlocutors. The paper focuses on this question of disciplinary commensurability in historical studies, and draws parallels between the history of translation and translation in the middle ages. Themes addressed include the bible translation as , established historiographical norms and alternative, interdisciplinary approaches. It is argued that both the history of translation started with the translation of the Bible in the early BC comes, towards a reflexive, transnational history that seeks productive modes of engagement with other historical disciplines. By bringing to the attention of translation scholars some of the key debates in the history of translation and by identifying commonalities, this paper hopes to present an overall view of translation in the middle ages with slight knowledge of Bible translation in the early centuries of the middle ages, which starts from th5 to the 15 century.

== Keywords==
History of Translation , Bible Translation, Translation in the Middle Ages
medieval translation, medieval translator, translation and culture

== Introduction ==
This paper aims at a general review of the history of translation studies and the prevalent approaches from antiquity to the present in the west, in the form of a historical survey in which key theoretical developments are taken into account, focusing on approaches that have been developed during the twentieth century. Without a doubt, It is James Holme's seminal paper "the name and nature of translation studies" that draws up a disciplinary map for translation studies and serves as a springboard for researchers with its binary division of Translation Studies into two branches: "pure" and "applied." Its growth as a discipline goes back to the 1980s. As time elapses, translation studies, by achieving a certain institutional authority and coalescing with many a resurging disciplines and trends as cultural studies, linguistics, literary theory and criticism, brings a renewed aspect to translation theory.

In addition, this paper argues that English medieval translation can be considered as part of a cultural project in that the medieval translator is concerned more with the role and the function of translation in the target culture. Medieval translation theory derives from the classical theories of translation, however, prefaces to translations indicate that medieval translator appropriates the classical translation theory and uses it to serve the cultural and ideological objectives of translation in the middle Ages.

Key words: medieval translation, medieval translator, translation and culture, translation theory.
The pioneering work of Jeannette Beer and Roger Ellis has decidedly promoted medieval translation as a significant area, and has established medieval translation as the work of culturally responsible, academically oriented people of learning.

1 Susan
* Assist. Prof. Dr., Hacettepe University, Department of English Language and Literature
1 The problematic situation of Medieval translation in the academia is discussed by Ruth Evans in "Translating
Past Cultures?" in The Medieval Translator /Vied. Roger Ellis and Ruth Evans, the University of Exeter Press,
Medieval Translation and Cultural Transformation

== Early History of Translation==
The word ‘translation’ comes from a Latin term which means, “To bring or carry across”. Another relevant term comes from the Ancient Greek word of ‘metaphrasis’ which means, “To speak across” and from this, the term ‘metaphrase’ was born, which means a “word-for-word translation”. These terms have been at the heart of theories relating to translation throughout history and have given insight into when and where translation have been used throughout the ages.

It is known that translation was carried out as early as the Mesopotamian era when the Sumerian poem, Gilgamesh, was translated into Asian languages. This dates back to around the second millennium BC. Other ancient translated works include those carried out by Buddhist monks who translated Indian documents into Chinese. In later periods, Ancient Greek texts were also translated by Roman poets and were adapted to create developed literary works for entertainment. It is known that translation services were utilised in Rome by Cicero and Horace and that these uses were continued through to the 17th century, where newer practices were developed.

The history of translation has been a topic that has long been debated by scholars and historians, though it is widely accepted that translation pre-dates the bible. The bible tells of different languages as well as giving insight to the interaction of speakers from different areas. The need for translation has been apparent since the earliest days of human interaction, whether it be for emotional, trade or survival purposes.

The demand for translation services has continued to develop and is now more vital than ever, with businesses acknowledging the inability to expand internationally or succeed in penetrating foreign markets without translating marketing material and business documents.

It is significant to review the history of translation in different languages. There are divisions of period made by scholars like George Steiner. According to Steiner, the history of translation is divided into four periods. Starting from the Roman translators Cicero and Horace to Alexander Fraser Tytler is the first period; the second period extends up to Valery and from Valery to 1960s becomes the third period and the fourth period 1960s onwards. The history of translation is stressed out from 3000 B.C. Rosetta Stone is considered the most ancient work of Translation belonged to the second century B.C. Livius Andronicus translated Homer’s Odyssey named Odusia into Latin in 240 B.C. All that survives is parts of 46 scattered lines from 17 books of the Greek 24-book epic. In some lines, he translates literally, though in others more freely. His translation of the Odyssey had a great historical importance. Before then, the Mesopotamians and Egyptians had translated judicial and religious texts, but no one had yet translated a literary work written in a foreign language until the Roman Empire. Livius’ translation made this fundamental Greek text accessible to Romans, and advanced literary culture in Latin. This project was one of the best examples of translation as artistic process. The work was to be enjoyed on its own, and Livius strove to preserve the artistic quality of original. Since there was no tradition of epic in Italy before him, Livius must have faced enormous problems. For example, he used archaizing forms to make his language more solemn and intense. Barnstone Willis. The Poetics of Translation: History, Theory and Practice. London: Yale University Press, 1993. Print. Bassnett, Susan and Lefevere, Andre (Eds.). Translation, History and Culture. London: Pinter, 1990. Print.

When we talk about the history of translation, we should think of the theories and names that e merged at its different periods. In fact, each era is characterized by specific changes in translation history, but these changes differ from one place to another. For example, the developments of translation in the western world are not the same as those in the Arab world, as each nation knew particular incidents that led to the birth of particular theories. So, what marked the western translation? .By Marouane Zakhir English translator University of Soultan Moulay Slimane, Morocco

== Translation in the Western World==
For centuries, people believed in the relation between translation and the story of the tower of Babel in the Book of Genesis. According to the Bible, the descendants of Noah decided, after the great flood, to settle down in a plain in the land of Shinar. There, they committed a great sin. Instead of setting up a society that fits God's will, they decided to challenge His authority and build a tower that could reach Heaven. However, this plan was not completed, as God, recognizing their wish, regained control over them through a linguistic stratagem. He caused them to speak different languages so as not to understand each other. Then, he scattered them all over the earth. After that incident, the number of languages increased through diversion, and people started to look for ways to communicate, hence the birth of translation (Abdessalam Benabdelali, 2006) (1).

Actually, with the birth of translation studies and the increase of research in the domain, people started to get away from this story of Babel, and they began to look for specific dates and figures that mark the periods of translation history.

Researchers mention that writings on translation go back to the Romans. Eric Jacobson claims that translating is a Roman invention (see McGuire: 1980) (2). Cicero and Horace (first century BC) were the first theorists who distinguished between word-for-word translation and sense-for-sense translation. Their comments on translation practice influenced the following generations of translation up to the twentieth century.

Another period that knew a changing step in translation development was marked by St Jerome (fourth century CE). "His approach to translating the Greek Septuagint Bible into Latin would affect later translations of the scriptures." (Munday, 2001) (3)

The first important translation in the West was that of the Septuagint, a collection of Jewish Scriptures translated into early Koine Greek in Alexandria between the 3rd and "1st centuries B C E The dispersed Jews had forgotten their ancestral language and Throughout the .middle Ages, /Latin was the lingua franca of the western learned world. -Wikipedia .org/wiki/

The 9th1century Alfred the Great, king of Wessex in England, was far ahead of his time in commissioning 'vernacular Anglo -Saxon translations of Bede’s Ecclesiastical History and Boethius « Consolation of Philosophy ) meanwhile, the Christian church frowned on even partial adaptations of St . Jerome ‘s Vulgate of CA 384 CE, the Latin Bible . -Wikipedia .org/wiki/

The broad historic trends in Western translation practice may be illustrated on the example of translation into the English language .

The first fine translations into English were made in the "the century by Geoffrey Chaucer, who adapted from the Italian of Giovanni Boccaccio in his own Knight's Tal e and Troilus and Criseyde ; began a translation of the French -language Roman de la Rose 7 and completed a translation of Boethius from the Latin . Chaucer bounded an English poetic tradition on adaptations and translations from those earlier established literary languages . -Wikipedia .org/wiki/

The first great English translation was the Wycliffe (CA 1382), which showed the weaknesses of an under developed English prose . only at the end of the "15th century did the great age to English prose translation begin with Thomas Malory ‘s "le Morte D arthur”- Ban adaptation of Arthurian romances so free that it can, in fact, hardly be called a true translation . The first great Tudor translations are, accordingly, the Tyndale new Testament ( 1525), which influenced the Authorized Version (1611), and Lord Berners version of jean Froissart’s Chronicles ( 1523- 25) . - Wikipedia .org/wiki/

== History of Translation in the Middle Ages==
In the history of Europe, the middle Ages or medieval period lasted approximately from the Fifth to the late 15th centuries, similarly to the Post-classical period of global history. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and transitioned into the Renaissance and the Age of Discovery. The middle Ages is the middle period of the three traditional divisions of Western history: classical antiquity, the medieval period, and the modern period. The medieval period is itself subdivided into the Early, High, and Late Middle Ages.

This article is about medieval Europe. For a global history of the period between the 5th and 15th centuries, see Post-classical history. For other uses, see middle Ages (disambiguation).

"Medieval times" redirects here. For the dinner theatre, see Medieval Times.

Latin was the lingua franca of the Western learned world throughout the middle Ages, with few translations of Latin works into vernacular languages. In the 9th century, Alfred the Great, King of Wessex in England, was far ahead of his time in commissioning vernacular translations from Latin into English of Bede’s “Ecclesiastical History”and Boethius's “The Consolation of Philosophy”, which contributed to improve the underdeveloped English prose of that time.

It is argued that the knowledge and findings of Greek academics was developed and understood so widely thanks to the translation work of Arabic scholars. When the Greeks were conquered, Arabic scholars, who translated them and created their own versions of the scientific, entertainment and philosophical understandings took in their works. These Arabic versions were later translated into Latin, during the middle Ages, mostly throughout Spain and the resulting works provided the foundations of Renaissance academics.

Medieval times in human history – also referred to as the “Middles Ages” – was the time period that fell roughly between the fall of the Roman Empire in 476 CE and the 14th century. However, these years bear another moniker as well: the Dark Ages. There are valid reasons for that term. In the eyes of many historians, people during this age made little to no significant advancements that benefitted humankind. In addition, most notably, this was the period when the “Black Death” (the bubonic plague) killed an estimated 30 percent of the population of Europe.

However, the middle Ages were not completely “dark.” In fact, modern historians are taking a second look at this period with a more objective – and perhaps more generous – perspective. There is no doubt, for example, that religion flourished during this time. The Catholic Church came to prominence throughout Europe, and the rise of Islam was occurring simultaneously in the Middle East. It was there – particularly in urban centres such a Baghdad, Damascus and Cairo – that an extremely vibrant culture and intellectual society thrived.

The art of translation also made great strides during the middle Ages. Thanks to Alfred the Great (the king of England during the 9th century), The Consolation of Philosophy by Boethius and Ecclesiastical History by Bede were translated from Latin to English – a major feat that would have a great impact on the overall advancement of English prose during this period. Later, during the 12th and 13th centuries, the Toledo School of Translators (“Escuela de Traductores de Toledo”) worked on a wide variety of translations, including religious, scientific, philosophical and medical works. The original texts were created in Arabic, Hebrew and Greek, and all were translated into Castilian – and that formed the basis for the formation of the Spanish language. Also during the 13th century, English linguist Roger Bacon postulated the concept that a translator not only needed to be fully fluent in both the source and target languages of the work being translated, but also that a translator should be fully versed in the topic of the work to be translated – a tenet that still holds true in the language arts to this day.

One of the most notable translators during the middle Ages was also one of the most accomplished authors and poets – Geoffrey Chaucer. In fact, those historians who still maintain that the Dark Ages produced little to no significant contributions to humankind might do well to remember the works of Chaucer. In a lifetime that spanned some 60 years (from the 1340s until 1400), Chaucer earned the reputation as the “father of English literature.” However, that description only scratched the surface of Chaucer’s accomplishments. He was also a noted astronomer and philosopher, as well as a diplomat, bureaucrat and parliament member. Chaucer’s contributions to the language arts were no less significant; his use of Middle English (as opposed to Latin or French, which were the two most commonly used languages of the day) quite literally brought English into mainstream usage, as did his translations of numerous works from Italian, French and Latin into English.

It can truly be said that historians have given medieval times somewhat of a bad rap over the centuries. And while there’s no doubt that the accomplishments of linguists and others during the Middle Ages can’t come close to comparing with those of the Renaissance or later time periods, the contributions made during the “Dark Ages” should not be overlooked. In fact, from a linguistic point of view, this was an extremely crucial time. Not only were the basic principles of translation developed during the middle Ages, but also English itself began to take shape as a language of import for future years.

Studies on the theory and practice of medieval translation reveal therefore that the translation principles and the issues of translation theory in the Middle Ages derive from a long established tradition of translation theory developed by the classical authors. In practice, Roger Ellis states, medieval translation is heterogeneous; "every instance of practice that we may be tempted to erect into a principle has its answering opposite, sometimes in the same work (quoted in Evans, 1994: 27). Evidently, not only the critical approaches to translation in the Middle Ages but also theory and practice of translation of the period vary considerably. However, it seems that medieval translation utilises the translation and writing theories inherited from the classical authors to adopt a translational approach that recognises translation's vital role in the cultural transformation of the middle Ages. Page 96

This paper argues therefore that the medieval interest in translation can be considered as a cultural and political interest since the 1994. pp. 20-45. See Jeanette Beer, Medieval Translators and Their Craft.1989 and Roger Ellis (ed) assisted by Jocelyn Price, Stephen Medcalf and Peter Meredith. The Medieval Translator: The Theory and Practice of Translation in the Middle Ages: Papers Read at a Conference Held 20-23 August 1987 at the University of Wales Conference Centre, Gregynog //a//.Woodbridge, Suffolk: D.S. Brewer, 1989.

Rita Copeland, Rhetoric, Hermeneutics, and Translation in the Middle Ages: Academic Traditions and
Vernacular Texts. Cambridge, 1991. See particularly A. J. Minnis and A. B. Scots (eds) Medieval Literary
Theory and Criticism c.l 100-1375 The Commentary Tradition. Oxford, 1988.

Translations of the period are introduced as potential projects for cultural transformation. The formative role of translation in the middle Ages can be observed in medieval culture's awareness of the significance of cultural interaction. Medieval culture is a highly bookish culture, which contributed to the development of a vigorous translation activity in the Middle Ages. The recognition of the authority of the books seems to have led to the utilisation of the potential in translation for cultural education and transformation. As there was little or no difference between translation and original composition in the Middle Ages, translation was often considered in association with the pragmatic function of the book (Barratt, 1992:13-14).

In Geoffrey Chaucer's The Prologue to the Legend of Good Women, the fictional dialogue concerning the translations of the narrator provides an instructive interaction concerning translation activity as an integral part of cultural re-construction in the middle Ages.

The god of Love presents two works of Chaucer, the Troilus and Criseyde and the Romance of the Rose, as translations and questions the narrator's motives in choosing to translate works undermining the doctrine of Love (322-335). This fictional questioning introduces, in fact, the main attitude to translation in the middle Ages as it recognises the transformative role of translation on the target audience as an important issue the medieval translator recognises and aims at as the ultimate target of translation. Similarly, the narrator in Chaucer's Prologue to the Legend of Good Women argues that he wanted to teach the reader the true conduct in love through the experience of the lovers in the books he translated (471-474).

The translator in this fictional debate introduces the main objective of translation as making the works of foreign languages available to the linguistically disadvantaged audience for their cultural improvement. This rather pragmatic translational paradigm, moreover, introduces another important issue of medieval translation addressed by theoretical tradition of translation in the middle Ages. In fact, the translator accused of mistranslation in Chaucer's Prologue to the Legend of Good Women is also a writer, his accuser does not make a distinction between his role as a translator and his role as a writer.3 many of the medieval translators were also writers, and translation and interpretation were considered as important strategies in medieval composition. Moreover, most of the medieval translation activity from Latin into the vernacular involved a transfer of the past works into the vernacular by re-writing.
As Douglas Kelly argues, "such re-writing is 'translation' as literary invention, using pre-
existent source material. It is a variety of translation study « (1997: 48). Medieval reception of the translation theory of the classical antiquity as a principle governing creative activity led to a special sense of translation, that is, translation as "an 3 See the Prologue to the Legend of Good Women, lines 322-35 and 362-370. 97

".. And other bokes took me ...To reed upon ": Medieval Translation and Cultural Transformation 'unfaithful' yet artful interpretation or reinterpretation"(Kelly, 1997: 55), or "secondary translation" to put it in Copeland's words.

Identifying the important status of translation in the Middle Ages as a branch of writing reveals that the Middle Ages was not totally oblivious to the legacy of rhetorical and hermeneutic traditions of the classical antiquity. More importantly, it testifies to the significant function translation is given in the cultural transformation. As stated above, a theoretical understanding of translation in the middle Ages was largely dependent on the classical ideas of translation. Rita Copeland argues for the necessity of recognising the medieval awareness of the classical tradition as the strong theoretical foundation of Medieval translation.

==Translation in middle Ages (The Philological Perspective)==

Middle Ages epoch roughly represents the time between late fifth century and the fifteenth century A.D.in Europe. Middle Ages, however, continue until the advent of European Colonialism (about eighteenth century) in the 'Oriental' and African countries. With the spread of Christianity, translation takes a new role of disseminating the word of God. How to translate the divine words faithfully was a serious issue because of dogmatic and political concerns. “St. Jerome claims that he follows sense for sense approach rather than word for word approach when translating the New Testament in AD 384.”18 Since the aim of the divine text is to provide understanding and guidance, it seems logical to follow sense for sense approach. Thence, there is a possibility of intentional or unintentional change of meaning and the context; for these reasons, some scholars emphasize on the word for word translation approach. The first translation of the complete Bible into English was the Wycliffe Bible is which was produced between 1380 and 1384; “Wycliffe believes man should have direct contact with God and thus the Bible should be translated into language that man can understand, i.e. in the vernacular. Purvey believes translator should translate “after sentence (meaning),” not only after words. Martin Luther says, “... the meaning and subject matter must be considered, not the grammar, for the grammar should not rule over the meaning;”19 Criticism on sense for sense was widespread because it minimized the power of the church authorities, “while literal translation was bound up with the Bible and other religious and philosophical works, says Jeremy Monday; non-literal or non-accepted translation came to be seen and used as a weapon against the Church.”20“In the Western Europe this word-for-word versus sense-for-sense debate continued in one form or another until the twentieth century. The centrality of Bible to translation also explains the enduring theoretical questions about accuracy and fidelity to fixed source.”21 In the eighth and ninth century A.D., a large number of translations from Greek into Arabic gave rise to Arabic learning. “Scholars from Syria, a part of the Roman Empire (during 64B.C.-636A.D) came to Baghdad and translated Greek works of Physician Hippocrates (460-360 B.C.), philosophers Plato (427-327 B.C.) and Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) into Arabic during the eighth and ninth century A.D. Baghdad continued to be a centre of translations of Greek classics into Arabic even in the twentieth century A.D.”22 The dominance of religion is prominent in the Translation Era of Middle Ages. In this era, both the trends of Antiquity period can be seen in action, yet emphasis is again on the sense for sense approach.

==Translation In the middle Ages between the 12th and the 15 centuries;==

In the 12th and 13th centuries, the Toledo School of Translators (Escuela de Traductores de Toledo) became a meeting point for European scholars who — attracted by the high wages they were offered — came and settled down in Toledo, Spain, to translate major philosophical, religious, scientific and medical works from Arabic, Greek and Hebrew into Latin and Castilian. Toledo was a city of libraries offering a number of manuscripts, and one of the few places in medieval Europe where a Christian could be exposed to Arabic language and culture.

The Toledo School of Translators went through two distinct periods. Archbishop Raymond de Toledo, who advocated the translation of philosophical and religious works, led the first period (in the 12th century) mainly from classical Arabic into Latin. These Latin translations helped advance European Scholasticism, and thus European science and culture. King Alfonso X of Castile himself led the second period (in the 13th century). On top of philosophical and religious works, the scholars also translated scientific and medical works. Castilian — instead of Latin — became the final language, thus resulting in establishing the foundations of the modern Spanish language.

The translations of works on different sciences (astronomy, astrology, algebra, medicine) acted as a magnet for numerous scholars, who came from all over Europe to Toledo to learn first-hand about the contents of all those Arab, Greek and Hebrew works, before going back home to disseminate the acquired knowledge in European universities. While some Toledo translations of physical and cosmological works were accepted in most European universities in the early 1200s, the works of Aristotle and Arab philosophers were often banned, for example at the Sorbonne University in Paris.

Roger Bacon was a 13th-century English scholar heralded for his early exposition of a “universal grammar” (the concept that the ability to learn grammar is hard-wired into the brain). He was the first linguist to assess that a translator should know well both the source language and the target language to produce a good translation, and that the translator should be well versed in the discipline of the work he was translating. According to legend, after finding out that few translators did, Roger Bacon decided to do away with translation and translators altogether. However, his decision did not last long. He relied on many Toledo translations from Arabic into Latin to make major contributions in the fields of optics, astronomy, natural sciences, chemistry and mathematics.

Geoffrey Chaucer produced the first fine translations into English in the 14th century. Chaucer translated the “Roman de la Rose” from French, and Boethius’s works from Latin. He also adapted some works of the Italian humanist Giovanni Boccaccio to produce his own “Knight’s Tale” and “Troilus and Criseyde” (c.1385) in English. Chaucer is regarded as the founder of an English poetic tradition based on translations and adaptations of literary works in languages that were more “established” than English was at the time, beginning with Latin and Italian. The finest religious translation of that time was the “Wycliffe’s Bible” (1382-84), named after John Wycliffe, an English theologian who translated the Bible from Latin to English.

In the 15th century : Byzantine scholar Gemistus Pletho’s trip to Florence, Italy, pioneered the revival of Greek learning in Western Europe. Gemistus Pletho reintroduced Plato’s thought during the 1438-39 Council of Florence, in a failed attempt to reconcile the East-West schism (a 11th-century schism between the Eastern Orthodox and Catholic churches). During this Council, Pletho met Cosimo de Medici, the politician ruling Florence and a great patron of learning and the arts, and influenced him to found a Platonic Academy. Led by the Italian scholar and translator Marsilio Ficino, the Platonic Academy took over the translation into Latin of all Plato’s works, the “Enneads” of Plotinus and other Neo-Platonist works. Marsilio Ficino’s work — and Erasmus’ Latin edition of the New Testament — led to a new attitude to translation. For the first time, readers demanded rigor of rendering, as philosophical and religious beliefs depended on the exact words of Plato and Jesus (and Aristotle and others).

The great age of English prose translation began in the late 15th century with Thomas Malory’s “Le Morte d’Arthur” (1485), a free translation/adaptation of Arthurian romances about the legendary King Arthur, as well as Guinevere, Lancelot, Merlin and the Knights of the Round Table. Thomas Malory “interpreted” existing French and English stories about these figures while adding original material, e.g. the “Gareth” story about one of the Knights of the Round Table.4

== An Overview of Bible Translations in The Middle Ages==
The most significant turn in the history of translation came with the Bible translations. The efforts of translating the Bible from its original languages into over 2,000 others have spanned more than two millennia. Partial translation of the Bible into languages of English people can be stressed back to the end of the seventh century, including translations into Old English and Middle English. Over 450 versions have been created overtime.
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© 2012 ACADEMY PUBLISHER Manufactured in Finland.
doi:10.4304/tpls.2.1.77-85

Bible translations in the Middle Ages discussions are in contrast to Late Antiquity, when the Bibles available to most Christians were in the local vernacular. In a process seen in many other religions, as languages changed, and in Western Europe, languages with no tradition of being written down became dominant, the prevailing vernacular translations remained in place, despite gradually becoming sacred languages, incomprehensible to the majority of the population in many places. In Western Europe, the Latin Vulgate, itself originally a translation into the vernacular, was the standard text of the Bible, and full or partial translations into a vernacular language were uncommon until the Late Middle Ages and the Early Modern Period. A page from the luxury illuminated manuscript Wenceslas Bible, a German translation of the 1390s.[1] From Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia

During the Migration Period Christianity spread to various peoples who had not been part of the old Roman Empire, and whose languages had yet no written form, or only a very simple one, like runes. Typically, the Church itself was the first to attempt to capture these languages in written form, and Bible translations are often the oldest surviving texts in these newly written-down languages. Meanwhile, Latin was evolving into new distinct regional forms, the early versions of the Romance languages, for which new translations eventually became necessary. However, the Vulgate remained the authoritative text, used universally in the West for scholarship and the liturgy since the early development of the Romance languages had not come to full fruition, matching its continued use for other purposes such as religious literature and most secular books and documents. In the early middle Ages, anyone who could read at all could often read Latin, even in Anglo-Saxon England, where writing in the vernacular (Old English) was more common than elsewhere. A number of pre-reformation Old English Bible translations survive, as do many instances of glosses in the vernacular, especially in the Gospels and the Psalms.[4] Over time, biblical translations and adaptations were produced both within and outside the church, some as personal copies for religious or lay nobility, and others for liturgical or pedagogical purposes.[5][6] From Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia

The Bible was translated into various languages in late antiquity; the most important of these translations are those in the Syriac dialect of Aramaic (including the Peshitta and the Diatessaron gospel harmony), the Ge'ez language of Ethiopia, and, in Western Europe, Latin. The earliest Latin translations are collectively known as the Vetus Latina, but in the late fourth century, Jerome re-translated the Hebrew and Greek texts into the normal vernacular Latin of his day, in a version known as the Vulgate (Biblia vulgata) (meaning "common version", in the sense of "popular"). Jerome's translation gradually replaced most of the older Latin texts, and gradually ceased to be a vernacular version as the Latin language developed and divided. The earliest surviving complete manuscript of the entire Latin Bible is the Codex Amiatinus, produced in eighth century England at the double monastery of Wearmouth-Jarrow. By the end of late, antiquity the Bible was therefore available and used in all the major written languages then spoken by Christians. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia

== Conclusion ==
The history of translation studies and the resurgence and genesis of the approaches to this emerging discipline was marked by the first century (BCE) commentator Cicero and then St. Jerome whose word-for-word and sense-for-sense approaches to translation was a springboard for other approaches and trends to thrive. From the medieval ages until now, each decade was marked by a dominant concept such as translatability, equivalence etc. Whilst before the twentieth century translation was an element of language learning, the study of the field developed into an academic discipline only in the second half of the twentieth century, when this field achieved a certain institutional authority and developed as a distinct discipline. As this discipline moved towards the present, the level of sophistication and inventiveness did in fact soared and new concepts, methods, and research projects were developed which interacted with this discipline. The brief review here, albeit incomplete, reflects the current fragmentation of the field into subspecialties, some empirically oriented, some hermeneutic and literary and some influenced by various forms of linguistics and cultural studies which have culminated in productive syntheses. In short, translation studies is now a field which brings together approaches from a wide language and cultural studies, that for its own use, modifies them and develops new models specific to its own requirements.
SSN 1799-2591 Theory and Practice in Language Studies, Vol. 2, No. 1, pp. 77-85, January 2012
© 2012 ACADEMY PUBLISHER Manufactured in Finland.
doi:10.4304/tpls.2.1.77-85

== References ==
-A page from the luxury illuminated manuscript Wenceslas Bible, a German translation of the 1390s.[1] From Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia

-Barnstone Willis. The Poetics of Translation: History, Theory and Practice. London: Yale University Press, 1993. Print. Bassnett, Susan and Lefevere, Andre (Eds.). Translation, History and Culture. London: Pinter, 1990. Print. 2- Barnstone Willis. The Poetics of Translation: History, Theory and Practice. London: Yale University Press, 1993. Print. Bassnett, Susan and Lefevere, Andre (Eds.). Translation, History and Culture. London: Pinter, 1990. Print.

-Early history of translation .By Marouane Zakhir English translator University of Soultan Moulay Slimane, Morocco

-From Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia

-https//www.tandfonline.com// 5- https//www.tandfonline.com//

-Prologue to the Legend of Good Women, lines 322-35 and 362-370. 97 ".. And other bokes took me ...To reed upon ": Medieval Translation and Cultural Transformation 'unfaithful' yet artful interpretation or reinterpretation"(Kelly, 1997: 55), or "secondary translation" to put it in Copeland's words.

-Susan * Assist. Prof. Dr., Hacettepe University, Department of English Language and Literature The problematic situation of Medieval translation in the academia is discussed by Ruth Evans in "Translating Past Cultures?" in The Medieval Translator /Vied. Roger Ellis and Ruth Evans, the University of Exeter Press, Medieval Translation and Cultural Transformation .

-SSN 1799-2591 Theory and Practice in Language Studies, Vol. 2, No. 1, pp. 77-85, January 2012 © 2012 ACADEMY PUBLISHER Manufactured in Finland. doi:10.4304/tpls.2.1.77-85.

-This article is about medieval Europe. For a global history of the period between the 5th and 15th centuries, see Post-classical history. For other uses, see middle Ages (disambiguation). "Medieval times" redirects here. For the dinner theatre, see Medieval Times.

-the 1994. pp. 20-45. See Jeanette Beer, Medieval Translators and Their Craft.1989 and Roger Ellis (ed) assisted by Jocelyn Price, Stephen Medcalf and Peter Meredith. The Medieval Translator: The Theory and Practice of Translation in the Middle Ages: Papers Read at a Conference Held 20-23 August 1987 at the University of Wales Conference Centre, Gregynog //a//.Woodbridge, Suffolk: D.S. Brewer, 1989.

^ Rita Copeland, Rhetoric, Hermeneutics, and Translation in the Middle Ages: Academic Traditions and Vernacular Texts. Cambridge, 1991. See particularly A. J. Minnis and A. B. Scots (eds) Medieval Literary Theory and Criticism c.l 100-1375 The Commentary Tradition. Oxford, 1988.

-Wikipedia .org/wiki/

=Chapter 2 History of Modern and Contemporary Chinese Translation=
“中国现当代翻译史”

[[Hist_Trans_EN_2]]

Li Xichang, 李习长, Hunan Normal University, China

=Chapter 3 The Translation of Buddihist Sutra in Chinese Translation History=
“佛经翻译”

[[Hist_Trans_EN_3]]

Huang Zhuliang 黄柱梁 Hunan Normal University, China

=王镇隆 The Brief History of Bible's Chinese Translation=
== Abstract==
Bible is the only Christian classic. Many Bible translation versions in the territory of China, including the Chinese characters and the languages of ethnic minorities, are not only the important events and modern history publication with the largest circulation, translated versions of books in the modern translation history, but also the close relationship with the modern transformation of Chinese characters and the creation of minority languages. Three aspects of Bible translation history, information, research and outlook are described in this paper.

== 摘要==
圣经是基督教的唯一经典，圣经翻译则是中国近代翻译史上的重要事件。当时的中国境内，出现了包括汉语汉字和少数民族语言文字的众多圣经译本，这不仅使圣经成为中国近代史上出版发行量最大、翻译版本最多的书籍，而且对中国的汉语汉字的近代转型和少数民族文字创制产生了重要影响。本文从 3 个方面对圣经中译的历史、资料、研究及展望进行了叙述。

== Key Words==
History of the Bible translation；Research review;Academic outlook

== 关键词==
圣经中译史；研究回顾；学术展望

== The Overall Introduction of Bible Translation==
“Bible” translation has a pivotal position in the history of Western translation. From the beginning of the era to today, the translation of the “Bible” has never stopped. The range of languages involved, the number of translations, and the frequency of use of translations,etc., are unmatched by the translation of any other work. A birds-eye view of the history of “Bible” translation has the following important milestones: the first is the “Seventy Sons Greek Text” before the Era, the second is the “Popular Latin Text Bible” from the 4th to 5th centuries, and the later the national languages of the early Middle Ages. The ancient texts (such as Old German, Old French translations), modern texts since the 16th century Reformation Movement (such as the Lutheran version of Germany, the King James version, etc.) and various modern texts. All these translations have made indelible contributions to the spread and development of Christianity in the West, as well as the prosperity and development of the languages and cultures of various nations.

The “Bible” is the holy book of Christianity, including the “Old Testament” and “New Testament.” The Old Testament was written in BC. It is a classic of Judaism. It was inherited by Christianity from Judaism. The original text was in Hebrew. The New Testament was written in the second half of the first to second centuries, and the original text is in Greek. Throughout human history, language translation is almost as old as the language itself. Therefore, from the beginning of the era to today, the translation of the “Bible” has never stopped. The range of languages involved, the number of translations, and the frequency of use of the translations, etc., are unmatched by the translation of any other work. The translation of the "Bible" is mainly to spread the doctrine, so that people are influenced and accepted by the views. According to the “New Testament Acts” Chapter Two, Section One: The saints gathered on Pentecost, and they were all filled with the Holy Spirit, and spoke the words of other countries according to the eloquence given by the Holy Spirit. However, the translation at that time was mainly “interprete” or “interpretation.” Among them, St. Paul himself is a multilingual believer. He preached in Jerusalem, Athens and Rome in Hebrew, Greek and Italian respectively. The Bible was first translated from Hebrew into Greek, then into Latin, and then into Romanian, Portuguese, Spanish, Italian, and Walloon (wal-lon), German, French, Romance languages. English was then translated into various languages in the world, and the translations of its various texts were repeatedly revised by experts in the translation of the classics, which lasted more than ten centuries.

In the history of the translation of the Bible, it has gone through several milestone stages: the first is the “Seventy Sons Greek Text” before the era, the second is the “Popular Latin Text Bible” from the 4th to 5th centuries, and later it is the national languages of the early Middle Ages. Ancient texts (such as Old German, Old French translations), modern texts since the 16th century Reformation Movement (such as Luther, Casio Dorobin in Spain, King James Version in English, Nikon in Russia) and All kinds of modern texts (such as “American Standard Text” in English, “New English Bible” and “English Today”, etc.). “The Bible Old Testament” is the first important and earliest translation in ancient times in the West, and it was translated into Greek. The Old Testament was originally the official classic of Judaism, originally in Hebrew. The Jews have been scattered around for a long time and drifted overseas. Over time, they have forgotten the language of their ancestors and spoke foreign languages such as Arabic and Greek. Among them, Greek speakers accounted for the majority. In ancient times, the city of Alexandria in Egypt was the cultural and trade center of the eastern Mediterranean. The Jews living here accounted for two-fifths of the city’s total population. In the third century BC, in order to meet the increasingly urgent needs of these Greek-speaking Jews, the church decided to translate the Hebrew text of the Old Testament into a Greek text. In the second century BC, an unknown Jew once wrote an epistle article, which was later named “Letter of Aristeas” (“Letter of Aristeas”), which records that in the third century BC, Jerusalem At the request of Egyptian King Ptolemy II Feiradelphis (308-246 BC), Bishop Elizar sent translators to Alexandria to undertake the translation of the Old Testament. In this way, according to Ptolemy II's will, between 285 and 249 BC, 72 “noble” Jewish scholars gathered in the Library of Alexandria, Egypt, to perform this translation. According to legend, the 72 scholars came from 12 different Israeli tribes, with 6 from each tribe. After they came to the Library of Alexandria, they worked in pairs in 36 locations and translated them into 36 translations that were very similar to each other. Finally, 72 translators gathered together to compare and check the 36 translation manuscripts, and reached a consensus on the wording of the final version, and called it the “Seventy Son Text” or “Seventy Magi Translation”, that is, “Septuagint” (“Septuagint”), has since opened a precedent for collective translation in the history of translation. Soon after the translation of the “Seventy Sons”, the priests held a joint meeting with the Jewish leaders and pointed out: “This translation is well translated, pious, and very accurate.

Therefore, it must be kept as it is and cannot be changed.” We also regarded it as the classic translation. In fact, this Greek translation became the “second original”, and sometimes even replaced the Hebrew text and ascended to the throne of the “first original”. Many of the translations of the Bible in languages such as ancient Latin, Slavic, and Arabic are not based on the original Hebrew but on the Greek translation.

== Multilingualism in the Chinese version of the Bible==
According to the report of the World Union Bible Association in 2006, the new and Old Testament of the Bible has been translated into 301 different languages. If regional dialects and partial translations are included, the translated languages of the Bible have exceeded 2287 different languages. The Bible is the most widely circulated and translated book in the world.

If someone says that in Chinese history, the Bible has the largest number of translated versions, the largest number of Chinese language forms, both vernacular and classical Chinese, and the largest number of Chinese dialect forms. It has not only created nearly 10 ethnic minority languages, but also nearly 20 ethnic minority language translation books, but also the largest publication and circulation in modern history, There must be many people who don't believe it.

But this is the fact of history. The Chinese version of the Bible does have many historical “best”, which is related to the super pronunciation and super dialect nature of Chinese language and characters, the reform and cultural transformation of Chinese language and culture in the late Qing Dynasty and the early Republic of China, and the fact that most ethnic minorities in Southwest China have only language but no words. The period of the late Qing Dynasty and the beginning of the Republic of China, that is, the 1860s to the 1930s, was the period of the most drastic changes in Chinese language and characters, the period of the transformation of ancient Chinese and its culture into vernacular, the period of the widespread voice and hard practice of Chinese Latinization, the most active period of language and character reform, and the transformation and reform of Chinese language and characters, A variety of transitional writing methods have emerged due to text reform and stylistic changes. However, the reform and expression methods of multiple languages and characters in the late Qing Dynasty and the early Republic of China, some of which are even very short-lived transitional writing methods. The Bible has published translated versions in this text form. This can be best confirmed by many translations of the Bible, such as classical Chinese, half written and half spoken, vernacular, dialect Chinese characters, dialect church Roman characters, Wang Zhao Mandarin phonetic alphabets, Mandarin phonetic alphabets, Mandarin Roman characters, weituoma Pinyin, kuaizi, a variety of ethnic minority characters, blind characters and so on.

The large-scale cultural exchange and interaction between China and the west is an important historical phenomenon in the modern world. This cultural relationship has not only changed the cultural and political pattern all over the world, but also greatly affected the development of Chinese culture and society. Language contact is not only an important part of cultural relations, but also an important prerequisite for all other exchanges. The large-scale and multilingual cross-cultural in-depth language and cultural exchange is a modern cultural phenomenon gradually formed all over the world after the great discovery of geography. It is also a prominent manifestation in the history of China's modern foreign cultural relations, which is particularly different from previous dynasties.

The language and cultural exchange in modern China began with the arrival of Christian missionaries in China. As the only classic of Christian religion, the Bible inevitably involves the problems of how to translate into China’s local language, how to adapt to and influence the local ideology and culture in the historical process of Christian communication and translation.

The earliest translation of the Bible in China can be extended to the Tang Dynasty, which has a long history of thousands of years. Although the Bible translation activities have been interrupted, they continue to this day. In Taiwan and Hong Kong, the Bible translation is still not over.

== Bible Translation from Different Perspectives==
From the perspective of language, Bible translation can be divided into Chinese language and minority language. In addition to the Chinese translation (the Chinese translation is described in detail below), in the process of Bible translation, the missionaries took advantage of the Pinyin advantages of their Latin mother tongue and combined with the pronunciation of local minority languages to create Pinyin characters in the form of Latin letters for those southwest minorities who only have spoken language but no words, that is, bagri Miao Language (old Miao Language) in Northeast Yunnan Frame format: East Lisu, Funeng Renxi Lisu (old Lisu), Jingpo, Zawa, Lahu, Buyi, WA, etc. It also borrowed Chinese phonetic alphabets and modified and created Hu Zhizhong’s Miao language. They translated and published the complete Scriptures or section translations of Jingpo language, Zaiwa language, East Lisu language, West Lisu language, Yi language, Nuosu language and Gepo language, Lahu language, WA language, Naxi language, Dehong Dai language, Xishuangbanna Dai language, Huayao Dai language, Huamiao language, Chuanmiao language, heimiao language, Buyi language and other languages. Among them, Jingpo, Funeng Renxi Lisu and bagri Miao are still widely used in society, and Hu Zhizhong Miao is still used among religious believers in Kaili, Guizhou. These characters not only ended the history of these nationalities without characters, but also provided great reference and Enlightenment for the large-scale creation of characters for ethnic minorities in New China. In the northern minority languages, the missionaries also translated and published Bible translations in Mongolian (karmec Mongolian, kalka Mongolian, Buryat Mongolian), Tibetan (Tibetan Classical Chinese, Tibetan Ladakh dialect, Tibetan Lahore dialect), Manchu, Kazakh and Korean. In Taiwan, missionaries and today’s Taiwan Christian Church have also created Pinyin characters in the form of Latin letters for the Paiwan, Taiya, AMI, Taroko, Yamei, Bunun, Lukai, Dawu and other indigenous peoples, translated and published biblical translations, which are still in use today.

From the perspective of Chinese style, Chinese versions of the Bible can be divided into three categories:
1. Classical Chinese translation, that is, the translation of deep arts and Sciences: in history, there have been yangmano's direct interpretation of the Bible, daysun's translation, masman's translation, Morrison's translation, Guo Shili's translation, commissioned translation (or representative translation), bizhiwen / kebicun translation, Gaode translation, the printed version of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom, lianweiren translation, and Heshen's translation of Arts and Sciences.
2. Half written and half white translation, i.e. shallow liberal arts translation: in history, there have been Yang Ge's non shallow liberal arts translation, Shi Joseph's shallow liberal arts translation, Bao John / Ke Bicun translation and hehe shallow liberal arts translation.
3. Vernacular translation: China is a country with many dialects. Six of China's seven dialects have Bible translations. Among them, nine branches of five dialects, including Wu, min, Guangdong, Hakka and Mandarin, have biblical Chinese characters. They are Nanjing dialect translation, Beijing dialect translation, Hankou dialect translation, Tianjin dialect translation, Shanghai dialect translation, Ningbo Dialect translation, Suzhou dialect translation, Hangzhou dialect translation, Fuzhou dialect translation, Xiamen dialect translation, Shantou dialect translation, Guangzhou dialect translation, Hakka dialect translation Hakka Sanjiang dialect translation. In 1919, the vernacular intensive cost and official script appeared, which is the Bible translation used by the Christian Church of China.

From the perspective of Chinese text form, Bible translation can be basically divided into seven categories:
1. Chinese Character Edition: in history, there were classical Chinese character edition and vernacular Chinese Character Edition (including dialect Chinese Character Edition);
2. Roman script of church Dialect: missionaries spell the words of local dialects according to the Latin alphabet. There are 15 branches of the six dialects, including Nanjing dialect translation, Beijing dialect translation, Shandong dialect translation, Shanghai dialect translation, Ningbo Dialect translation, Hangzhou dialect translation, Wenzhou dialect translation, Jinhua dialect translation, Taizhou dialect translation, Fuzhou dialect translation Bible translations of Xiamen dialect, Shantou dialect, Xinghua dialect, Jianyang dialect, Shaowu dialect, Hainan dialect, Guangzhou dialect, Hakka Guangdong and Taiwan dialect, Hakka Wujingfu dialect, Hakka Tingzhou dialect and Hakka Jianning dialect;
3. Wang Zhao Mandarin phonetic alphabet: the Bible is spelled with Wang Zhao Mandarin phonetic alphabet. There have been Bible translations of Tianjin dialect, Hankou dialect, Hebei dialect and Jiaodong dialect;
4. Mandarin phonetic alphabet: there have been Bible translations of Fuzhou dialect and Jiaodong dialect;
5. Braille script；
6. Quick script: that is, the Bible translation of early sketch;
7. Weituoma Pinyin book.

In terms of publication forms, there are many kinds of publications, such as Chinese character edition, Chinese character and foreign language comparison edition, Chinese character and Mandarin phonetic alphabet comparison edition, Chinese character and Wang Zhao Mandarin phonetic alphabet comparison edition, Chinese character and church Roman character comparison edition, church Roman character and Mandarin phonetic alphabet comparison edition, etc. As far as the editions are concerned, there are single volume edition, multi volume edition, the New Testament, the Old Testament, the New Testament with psalms, the new and Old Testament, etc., with a total number of more than 1000. Based on the American Bible Society, the British Bible Society and the Scottish Bible Society, which had the greatest influence in old China and published and sold various versions of the Bible, a total of 225 million copies were sold from 1814 to 1934; From 1814 to 1950, 279351752 copies were sold.
After the founding of new China, the Chinese Christian Church basically took the heheguan vernacular Version (later called hehehe vernacular version, hereinafter referred to as hehe version) as the Bible translation dedicated to the church, and no other Chinese classical Chinese or dialect versions of the Bible were published. As of December 2007, the Christian Church of China has printed and distributed 50 million copies of Hehe vernacular books. China has become one of the countries with the largest number of printed Bibles in the world.

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== Conclusion==
== References==

== 叶维杰 Medieval Arabic Translation Movement=
== Abstract==
The Medieval Arabic Translation Movement(The Harakah al—Tarjamah) is also called the Translation Movement. It was a large-scale organized academic activity carried out by the Arab Empire in the Middle Ages to translate and introduce ancient Greek and Eastern scientific and cultural classics. The Abbasid Caliphate implemented a diversified and inclusive cultural policy, vigorously advocated and sponsored the translation of academic classics from ancient Greece, Rome, Persia, India and other countries into Arabic to absorb advanced cultural heritage. The Arabic translation movement preserved the natural sciences and humanities in ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and played an extremely important role in promoting the cultural revival of European political and cultural conditions in the late Middle Ages. The Hundred-Year Arab Translation Movement lasted for more than two hundred years, spanning the vast regions of Asia, Africa, and Europe, and blending ancient Eastern and Western cultures such as Persia, India, Greece, Rome, and Arabia. There are not many translation activities in the history of world civilization. Analyzing its causes, processes, results, and impacts is of great academic value for studying the phased development of human civilization and the commonality of human wisdom, and it is also of great help to deeply understand the Arab Islamic philosophy and culture.

== Key words==
Harakah al—Tarjamah, translation movement, Western culture, Islam

== Introduction==
The Harakah al—Tarjamah is also called the Translation Movement. The Centennial Arab Translation Movement lasted for more than two hundred years. The content of translation involved cultural achievements such as ancient Greek and Roman culture, Persian Mesopotamian culture, and ancient Indian culture. It spanned three continents and five seas in space and was the most extensive in human history. One of the major events. The Arab translation movement in the middle of the eighth century to the end of the tenth century not only changed the backward state of the Arab nation, but also gave birth to a strong Arab-Islamic culture; and its document translation was extremely important to the Renaissance movement in the later political and cultural state of Europe.The Arab Empire in the Middle Ages carried out large-scale and organized academic activities that translated and introduced ancient Greek and Eastern scientific and cultural classics. The Abbasid Caliphate implemented a diversified and inclusive cultural policy, vigorously advocated and sponsored the translation of academic classics from ancient Greece, Rome, Persia, India and other countries into Arabic to absorb advanced cultural heritage. The Arabic translation movement preserved the natural sciences and humanities in ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and played an extremely important role in promoting the cultural revival of European political and cultural conditions in the late Middle Ages. The Hundred-Year Arab Translation Movement lasted for more than two hundred years, spanning the vast regions of Asia, Africa, and Europe, and blending ancient Eastern and Western cultures such as Persia, India, Greece, Rome, and Arabia. There are not many translation activities in the history of world civilization. Analyzing its causes, processes, results, and impacts is of great academic value for studying the phased development of human civilization and the commonality of human wisdom, and it is also of great help to deeply understand the Arab Islamic philosophy and culture.

The Arabic translation movement can be divided into three periods: the first period is from the middle and late 8th century to the late 9th century. Translation activities in this period were mainly carried out with the support of the famous Caliph Mansour and Harun Rashid. The translated books are mainly Persian works, and the content mostly revolves around astronomy and medicine. The second period was from the early 9th century to the middle and late 9th century. The Caliph Maimon strongly supported this matter and achieved the golden age of the 100-year translation movement. The content involved ancient Greek philosophy, natural sciences, etc.; the last period was from the middle and late 9th century to the early 10th century. During this period, the support of the Caliphate and the pace of translation declined, and a lot of work was retranslation and revision of previous translations. At this time, the translation movement has also entered its end. The century-old translation movement with a history of more than 200 years changed the backwardness of the Arab nation and gave birth to Arab-Islamic culture, which had a significant impact on Arab society. This movement promoted the exchange of various cultures while preserving classics and ancient books. Rongtong has added an important heritage to the world cultural treasure house, and has had a positive and valuable impact on the development of world culture. This article will give a more systematic introduction to the movement, divided into the following three parts: the reasons for the translation movement, the Baghdad Translation Center of the translation movement, and the influence of the translation movement.

== The Background and Cause of Translation Movement ==

During the Umayyad dynasty, Arab Muslims were fully aware of the importance of absorbing the highly developed spiritual culture of foreign nations. In order to adapt to the actual needs of society, Khalid bin Yazid organized a group of people who were proficient in Syriac, Greek or Persian scholars, focusing on the translation of ancient books in medicine and pharmacology and chemistry, and have conducted translation explorations in a broader academic field. The beginning of the Arabic translation movement and its subsequent 200-year glorious achievements are mainly due to the following four factors:

1.Geographical factors:

Since Mansour, the second caliph of the Abbasid dynasty, established its capital in Baghdad, the important position of Baghdad as the political, economic and cultural center of the dynasty has been highlighted. Baghdad is located in the two rivers basin of West Asia and is located in the main traffic arteries between the East and the West. Throughout the history of civilizations in the world, rivers and civilizations have accompanied each other. The superior geographical location has created good conditions for cultural exchanges, accelerated the circulation of classics from various countries, and provided large-scale translation activities. Provides a wealth of source text.

Damascus, the capital of the former Umayyad dynasty, was handed over to Muslim rule after several regime changes. Prior to this, Damascus was an important center of Greco-Roman culture, with Greek as the official language, while the new capital of the Abbasid dynasty, Baghdad, was close to Persia. Ctesiphon, the old capital of the Sassanid Dynasty, was influenced by Persian culture before Islamic cultural rule. Therefore, during the translation movement at that time, a considerable number of Persian translators participated in the translation, and a large number of Persian classics were translated into Arabic and retained . "The Persian influence set back the original life of the Arabians, and paved the way for a new era characterized by the development of science and academic research." By translating classic works of other ethnic groups, cultural exchanges between different ethnic groups can be realized. Translation Played an important role as a bridge. At the same time, the Persian aristocracy made great contributions to the establishment of the Abbasid dynasty and was quite influential in the regime. The caliph also urgently needed the support of this force to promote cultural integration and identity identification among different ethnic groups. Therefore, geopolitical factors are undoubtedly one of the important driving forces for the vigorous development of the Abbasid dynasty translation movement.

2.Religious factors:

In the early days of the Umayyad dynasty, the domestic political situation was basically stable, but there were still some political opponents and religious scholars dissatisfied with the rule. The influence of Christianity still exists. Islam, as a relatively young faith, has impacted on different religions and cultures. Make efforts to gain a firm foundation. In the early days of the rise of Islam, the spread of teachings could only be done through word of mouth, and academic interpretation was mainly based on the Koran. Except for Arabic and Islam, the early Muslims failed to import advanced culture or science and technology into the conquered areas, and only focused on consolidating the rule of Islam in the Arab region. The purpose of early translation activities was limited to promoting the dissemination of Islamic culture. For religious purposes, the original intent of religious works was greatly changed during the translation process. Although this practice can play a certain missionary role, it violates the basic principles of translation, fails to accurately convey the original information, and loses the inheritance significance of the original.

After the establishment of the Abbasid dynasty, the Islamization of the empire further deepened, and at the same time a batch of fresh religious and cultural blood was injected. The Quran is more tolerant towards foreign denominations such as Judaism and Christianity. Especially for Christians, the Quran calls them “the closest people to Muslims”. Under the guidance of this doctrine, “The Abbasid Empire has become an Islamic empire instead of a Umayyad-style “Arab Empire”. A large number of infidels and Muslims intermarried, reducing the ideological gap between various ethnic groups. Translator The religious structure of the group has been substantially adjusted. The converts filtered by Islamic ideology brought an active academic atmosphere and non-Islamic theological concepts, and multidisciplinary systems such as linguistics, literature, law, philosophy, and mathematics were gradually formed.

Islamic culture was further enriched in the Abbasid dynasty. The spirit of advocating knowledge and scholarship became the spiritual source of the translation movement during this period. The increasingly diversified inner religious spirit became the source of the translation movement, and promoted the translators of different religions. Translation behavior and multiple beliefs collide with each other, the scale of translation continues to expand, and the types and content of translations are also enriched by the tolerance of religious and cultural attitudes. The prosperity of the translation movement was promoted by many factors. At the religious and cultural level, the acceptance of various religious beliefs is a prerequisite for the vigorous development of the translation movement. If Muslims completely reject paganism and force other believers to convert to Islam, the participation of Christians or Jews in translation activities will be greatly reduced, the diversity of translator groups will be combated, and the perspective of translation research will inevitably be affected.

3.Science and technology factors:

In terms of science and technology, two factors have jointly promoted the development of translation, one is the foundation of early document translation, and the other is the introduction of papermaking.

The Prophet Muhammad said: “Learning is divided into two categories: religious learning and physical learning (medicine).” Translators of the Umayyad Dynasty followed this precept and performed sporadic translations of works on medicine, philosophy, and chemistry. , Pave the way for the emergence of the golden age of the translation movement in the later dynasties. "As for the natural sciences such as medicine, logic, and mathematics of the Islamic nation, it has been systematic from the beginning. Because partial research on it has already been carried out in Greece, India, Persia and other countries, and it has been sorted and recorded. It’s the stage of analysis and analysis. In the Abbasid era, these subjects were completely translated into Arabic without starting from scratch. Perhaps, when the writers of the paraphrasing subjects saw the rigorous system of natural science, they copied their practices. Some styles that they think are good have been added.” The scientific inquiry and translations of works in early Islam facilitated the prosperity of the translation movement, and Abbasid translators only needed to review the documents based on the collated documents. Or retranslation, which greatly improves the accuracy of translation.

The status of the development of emerging technologies in the Arab translation movement is undeniable, but technological development is equally important to the spread of early civilizations and is not unique to the Abbasid dynasty, so it cannot be used as a unique motivation for the emergence of large-scale translation activities in the Abbasid dynasty. However, the introduction of papermaking technology did make an indelible contribution to the cultural heritage of the empire. The first paper mill in the empire was located in Samarkand on the Silk Road in Central Asia. In the centuries before it was conquered by Islam, this city was already one of the most prosperous cities in the Persian Empire, and it was the academic center of Persia until the Middle Ages. The smooth flow of Eastern Commercial Road brought papermaking technology to Muslim countries. The introduction of papermaking has obvious influence on the translation movement. The Arabs replaced expensive parchment with relatively inexpensive paper, which made writing records and book circulation more convenient and expanded. People's demand for academic works has promoted the large-scale emergence of translation movement.

4.Translation ability factor：

Maimon, the seventh caliph of the Abbasid dynasty, established a "wisdom palace" on the basis of the Mansour Royal Library to recruit academic elites from all walks of life for translation work. The historian Yakubi once described the academic style in Baghdad: "Scholars in Baghdad have a higher education level, where experts are more knowledgeable in tradition, grammarians are more reliable in syntax... Logicians think more clearly Missionaries are also more eloquent.” Although the translators of this period were not true translators, they all had received strict philosophical and logical training. Some Syrian Christians specially returned to Greece to study in order to improve their language skills. They used Syriac as their mother tongue as a translation agency and played an important role in the translation movement. The translators in the Abbasid period built bridges between different languages and cultures with their outstanding professional ability, serious translation attitude and unlimited enthusiasm for science, which became another important driving force for the vigorous development of translation movement.

With the popularization of academic knowledge and the dissemination of various books, the scientific and cultural literacy of translators has also been comprehensively improved. The increase in knowledge reserves in astronomy, medicine, philosophy, etc. makes translation activities not only at the level of mechanical code switching. , But based on understanding and even proficiency in the meaning of the text, improving the level of translation in terms of translation quality and translation speed.

== Baghdad Translation Center ==

Baghdad Translation Center:

Before the Arab conquest, there was a tradition of studying ancient Greek cultural classics and translating them into Syriac. With the expansion of Islamic countries and the spread of religion, Arabic was popularized as an official language. At that time, there were many Syrians, Persians, Egyptians, Jews, Bebers, Spanish, Sicilians, and even Italians have become Muslims, and the Arabic language has been greatly popularized. During the reign of the Caliph dynasty, due to its rulers' enthusiasm for academic research and translation, under the impetus of the rulers, the Arab region in the Middle Ages became the center of science and translation.

Baghdad was the capital of the Abbasid Caliph dynasty. The rulers of the dynasty strongly supported the translation and paid the translators a very substantial compensation. With the support of the caliph ruler, a large number of Syrian, ancient Persian and Sanskrit texts were translated. At that time, they were most interested in medicine and philosophy. The choice of translation work text was not only political and cultural, but the personal interests of the current caliph and courtiers were also important factors. The Arab world attaches great importance to astronomy and calendar, mainly for the service of its religion. They used astronomy and calendar to accurately calculate the exact time of the five prayers, so that they could give the correct latitude and longitude coordinates facing the holy city of Mecca in any Islamic mosque for pilgrimage and prayer, and accurately calculated the time of fasting The exact number of days of the period. Therefore, many caliphs of the Abbasid dynasty paid great attention to the translation of astronomy and calendar classics. During the reign of the third-generation caliph Harun Al-Rashid (Harun Al-Rashid, said to be the prototype of the protagonist in the story of "The Thousand and One Nights"), the "Treasury of Knowledge" library was Established, it contains a large number of trophies of Greek literature and science obtained by defeating Byzantium. By the time of the fourth caliph Al-Mamun (reigned 813-833), Mamun was built in Baghdad in 830 AD The “House of Wisdom” (House of Wisdom), which is larger than the “Treasure House of Knowledge”, aims to translate the scientific and philosophical works of ancient Greece into Arabic. A large number of ancient Syriac, ancient Persian, and texts can be obtained here. In addition to translation, it is worth mentioning that during this period, many ancient Greek texts were translated into Arabic and preserved. In the 9th and 10th centuries AD, the city of Baghdad was the center of a vast translation project whose goal was to translate ancient Greek scientific and philosophical works into Arabic. This event had a profound impact on the development of science and philosophy in the entire Arab world, and directly brought about the dramatic changes in the culture and ideas of the region at that time. At that time, Hunayn Ibn Ishaq was in charge of the translation work. He and his more than 90 people translated a large number of Plato and Aristotle's works: Plato's Dialogues and "The Utopia", Aristotle's Logic Essays Set The Organon, including Categories, On Interpretation, Pior Analytics, Posterior Analytics, Topics, On Sophistical Refutations, The Metaphysics.

In addition to noting the translations of the original authors, the Arab scientists of this period also contained translational elements in their own works. Al-Razi (865-925), the author of the most important medicinal work at the time, was a student of Hunayn’s disciple. His most famous "Medical Integration" actually had a lot of content compiled, and the book collected All the medical knowledge of ancient Greece, India and the Middle East that was known at that time.

Alchemy also emerged in Arab countries during this period. It was initiated by the "mystic" Jabir Ibn Hayyan. He put forward a doctrine in his legacy writings that all things, especially metals, are based on mercury and Formed by the interaction of sulfur. The alchemy of China and Alexandria also had the seeds of this doctrine. Arab alchemists adopted the four-element theory of ancient Greece and imagined that by changing the amount of the elements that make up a metal, one metal can be transformed into another metal.

In the Arab world in the Middle Ages, like other ancient civilizations, encyclopedic scholars also appeared. The most representative one is Omar Khayyam (1048-1131). He was proficient in calendar reforms and algebraic studies, but his " Quartet" made him famous soon after him. His Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam is popular all over the world, and there have been hundreds of versions so far. His poems are recognized as the treasure of world literature and become the pride of ancient Persian literature.

During this period, Al-Khwarizmi (?-835) introduced Indian numbers and Indian algorithms to Arab countries, and later spread them to the world through Europe, which is what we now call "Arabic numbers".

The "Palace of Wisdom" established in 830 AD was the result of Arab absorbing the cultural wealth of China, India, Persia, and ancient Greece. A large number of translation activities continued until the decline of the empire in the 13th century. Translation has had a profound impact on the development of science and philosophy throughout the Arab world. For translators in Baghdad, the translation works play the role of raw materials, and the translated text is not the goal, but the catalyst that stimulates the original ideas and products of knowledge. Therefore, translators regard translation as a creative process, and the translation is often accompanied by comments, summaries or explanatory notes to make the original text easier to understand. Translators are often experts in the field of their translation. In translation, they not only exert their own understanding and comprehensive ability, but also practice their own creativity. A new ideological system was established with the help of translation and became the basis of Arab-Muslim culture. In this context, the prosperous Arab astronomy took the lead in blooming flowers from here, forming the so-called "Baghdad School" of later generations. The works of Alaba during this period were translated into Latin by later European academic circles, which in turn influenced the entire Western civilization.

== The Influence of the Arabic Translation Movement ==

The Influence of the Translation Movement

The Abbasid dynasty was the golden age of the Arab translation movement. The academic research and cultural activities carried out on the basis of translation completely changed the early material and spiritual scarcity of the Arab nation, promoted the development of natural sciences in the Middle Ages, and gave birth to Arab- Islamic culture.

1.Promotion of the development of natural sciences:

In the golden age of the translation movement of the Abbasid dynasty, a large number of natural science and medical works from Persia and Greece were translated into Arabic. Translators learn astronomy and geography in the translation process, digest the source text and perform creative translation, use Arabic to annotate and explain the unclear or obscure meanings of the original text, and then use the target language that is easy for Muslims to output, which enhances The universality of the text promoted the popularization of Muslim science and culture. "In the eighty years after the establishment of the Abbasid dynasty, the cultural essence of the above-mentioned peoples has been recorded in Arabic. I didn’t know anything about arithmetic, geometry, medicine and other terms, and I knew Aristotle’s logic. Arabs who have never heard of philosophy can use Arabic to express Euclid’s most refined theories, express the law of sines in Indian mathematics, and express Aristotle’s Materialism, Ptolemy’s principles of astronomy, Galen’s medicine, Bizley’s motto, and the politics of the Persian king.” By studying translations, the Arabs built an Islamic medical system on the basis of native medicine. From theory to clinical practice, it has corrected and made up for the medical gap before the Abbasid dynasty. During the Abbasid period, medical achievements have been fruitful and have attracted worldwide attention. At the same time, research in the fields of pharmacology, botany, mathematics, and physics has gradually deepened, and many authoritative works have been published, which have made inestimable contributions to the development of modern science in China, the Arab world, and Europe, and even the development of human civilization. contribute.

Whether it is for the caliph’s personal preferences or serving in religious ceremonies, the translation of astrological and astronomical works has promoted the development of modern Arab science and technology. Some translators became astronomers or scientists by translating classics, thus realizing the transformation of their identities. After reading the translated works, many Arabs developed a keen interest in astronomy and mathematics, and then continued to translate. The main works of Euclid and Ptolemy were also translated into Arabic during this period. The translation of classics and scientific development promoted each other, and academic atmosphere became popular for a time.

2.The formation of Arab-Islamic culture:

While the natural sciences are developing vigorously, from the perspective of ideological and cultural analysis, the translation movement gave birth to Arab-Islamic culture. With the expansion of the Abbasid Empire, Islamic civilization was also brought to the vast conquered areas. Islam in the Umayyad period only existed as a foreign religion in the conquered areas. Christianity still has a profound influence there, and the beliefs of residents have not changed much. With the influence of various factors such as intermarriage and political dependence, the Islamization of the Arab empire has gradually advanced in the ruled areas and merged with the local culture into a splendid and complex Arab-Islamic culture. "After the 7th century, Islamic culture rose to become the mainstream culture of the Mediterranean. The Arab Empire became an important center of world culture at that time, and it radiated strongly outward."

The unification of language helps resolve ideological contradictions and promote national cultural identity. During the translation movement, the further popularization of Arabic became the official language of the empire, the civilization of neighboring countries gradually declined, and the status of Arab-Islamic culture gradually took shape. Without the prosperity of the Abbasid translation movement, there would be no new cultural construction of Islamic civilization. Since then, Arab-Islamic culture has shined in Spain. During the Arab rule of the Iberian Peninsula, it had a significant impact on the formation of Spanish national culture and language, and it also left a deep Arab imprint in the formation of European civilization. Although the Arab Empire fell apart due to religious and political struggles, the Arab-Islamic civilization left behind by the translation movement is still shining.

3.Having Promoted the Renaissance in Europe:

In the history of modern science, the Western Middle Ages has been given the image of a "dark age". In the Middle Ages from 500 to 1500 AD, because European countries pursued a religious theology and idealistic view of nature, the priests of the Roman Church only knew that they adhered to the dogma of their church. Religion seriously hindered the development of science. Therefore, Western science was here. The stage of development is unusually slow. The Christian churches in the West had brutally attacked the ancient Greek heritage and regarded this as a heritage related to idolatry that was harmful to the Christian faith. Christians were forbidden to learn more. At that time, the writings of most Greek philosophers and writers were despised. . The Byzantine emperor Constantine even closed the philosophical school in Athens in 529 AD, and this hostile attitude towards Greek heritage continued for centuries. Muslim scholars saved the Greek heritage by studying and in-depth annotations of the writings of Aristotle, Gran, and Ptolemy. It was through the labor of these Muslim scholars that the European countries that were shrouded in the dark age at that time realized their true and forgotten traditions of Greek science and philosophy. It is precisely because of the Arab world's translation of ancient Greek and Roman scientific and philosophical works that the natural and human sciences in ancient Greek and Roman cultures were preserved, so that the translation of Arabic documents in Europe in the late Middle Ages promoted European politics In this regard, the cultural revival is indispensable for the contribution of the Arab Translation Movement.

== Conclusion==

The Abbasid dynasty was the second hereditary dynasty of the Arab Empire, which lasted for more than five hundred years. The translation movement that flourished in this era pushed Arab-Islamic culture to its peak under the multiple combined forces. Although the power of the Arab empire in the second half of the 9th century was declining and the Caliphate came to an end, its cultural influence has never diminished. With the advancement of international cultural exchanges between countries, the Arab translation movement still has important practical significance:

First of all, cultural exchanges between countries in the world are becoming more and more frequent. Translation disciplines are no longer limited to the language field. Interdisciplinary translation has become a future trend. It is a new type of challenge;

secondly, a good academic environment is a prerequisite for promoting knowledge progress and achieving academic innovation. During the Abbasid dynasty, translation activities were organized and carried out on a large scale under the call of the state, focusing on and rewarding academic activities, and setting up academic institutions. The academic atmosphere of the entire Baghdad city was strong, and the natural sciences and social sciences had been developed by leaps and bounds. This provides a reference for the further construction of the academic environment of other countries.

Furthermore, the development of science and technology has closely linked the countries of the world, and the collision of multiculturalism has become the theme of the development of civilization in the world today. The reason for the success of the Arab translation movement is that Muslims' tolerance towards other religions and foreign cultures is a crucial part. This is also the main reason why Arab-Islamic culture has absorbed the millennium culture of ancient Greece and Rome in a century. In summary, the Abbasid dynasty’s open and inclusive attitude towards academic activities led the Arab translation movement into a golden age. The vigorous development of the translation movement during this period promoted the progress of the natural sciences of the Arab Empire, and laid a solid academic foundation for the early inheritance of science and culture, as well as the exchanges and mutual learning between Eastern and Western civilizations. Despite the decline of the Arab empire, the characteristics of Arab-Islamic culture will continue in new ways. In the contemporary era, the Abbasid dynasty translation movement provides the world with a deeper historical perspective, and provides a useful reference for the training of translators and cultural exchanges in various countries around the world.

Although the vigorous Arab translation movement for a century has been obliterated in the long river of history, the impact of the Arab-Islamic culture produced is far-reaching. Throughout the long history, one can still hear the voices of many Muslims and non-Muslim scholars struggling to translate manuscripts in the "Wisdom Hall", as well as their clamor for truth and academic culture; you can still hear the Arab Muslims in "for Allah" Under the slogan of "War", the screams of expansion riding on a war horse; I can still imagine the amazing scenes of Arab merchants traveling thousands of miles and sailing merchant ships to China and Scandinavia. Under the influence of the strong Arab-Islamic culture, the people of the Arab empire have discarded national and racial differences and formed a spirit of "Muslim brothers and sisters" psychologically. This strong culture and common psychological cognition give Arab-Islamic culture a tenacious vitality, and it still arouses echoes from time to time in Arab countries and the Islamic world.

== References==

= Brief history of French translation =
李怡 Li Yi ,Hunan Normal University ,China
== Abstract==
The purpose of this article is to make a brief introduction to the translation history of France. The history of French translation began in the Middle Ages: with the development of Christianity and nationalism, the royal family hired translators to translate the Bible. The Renaissance in the 16th century, as well as economic and educational development, increased the demand for reading and writing, thus promoting the development of translation, most of the translated works are classical works. Then two religious films appeared in France: Jansenists and Jesuit, which had a great influence on the translation schools of that time. During the Enlightenment in the 18th century, France was deeply influenced by Britain, so most of the works in this period were British progressive thoughts and literature. The Industrial Revolution in the second half of the 18th century increased French scientific and technological translation. With the progress of the French Revolution, French translators are more inclined to the economic and political and judicial fields. After the Second World War, the translation industry in France recovered and developed vigorously. France even set up ESIT（École Supérieure d'Interprètes et de Traducteurs）to train senior translators. In the 20th century, there appeared many translation theorists in France, which promoted the professionalization of translation.
== Key words==
Renaissance, French translation, contemporary, French Revolution
== Introduction==
As a developed country in the west, France has a very long translation history. Translators and translation theories emerge in endlessly, which can not be ignored in the history of translation. At the same time, with the development of globalization, translation theories in various countries learn from and integrate with each other. Among them, French translation theory also plays a very important role. Therefore, it is necessary to comb the history of French translation and study the translators of relevant times and their relevant theories.
==1.Medieval French translation based on Bible Translation==
In the middle ages, translation in various countries was deeply influenced by religion, especially the translation of the Bible, which greatly promoted the development of translation. In France, the royal family specially hired translators to translate various Latin and Greek works for the imperial court. The most prominent court interpreter was Nicholas Oresme of the Charles V Dynasty. Aristotle's works translated by him in 1377 had a great impact on the French translation and philosophy circles at that time. Jean de Vigne translated the Latin Bible in French in 1340. In addition, Jean de malkaraume, J argyropylos and others translated the works of Virgil, Ovid, Aristotle, Plato and contemporary writers at the same time.
==2.Renaissance: the development of French translation==
The Renaissance is the development period of French translation theory. The main representatives are Dolet and Jacques Amyot, especially the former. In the 16th century, there was an upsurge of translation in France. During this period, the focus of translation shifted from religious translation such as the Bible to classical literature translation. Religious translation abides by the translation principle of "word to word" . Its purpose is to follow the will of God and avoid blasphemy. This is irrefutable, so there are not many translation theories to speak of. However, as a new genre, the translation of literary works is different from the previous religious translation. Translators face many new problems, so translation theory came into being. Dolet and amyot are the most prominent representatives of translation theory in this period. They are both translators and translation theorists, and the latter wins especially by translation. Both their translation theories come from translation practice, so they are persuasive. Dolet is famous for his "five principles of translation". "Five principles of translation" comes from his paper on how to translate well published in 1540 ,La manière de bien traduire d’une langue à l’autre. 1. the translator must fully understand the content of the translated work; 2.The translator must be familiar with the target language and the target language; 3.The translator must avoid word by word translation; 4.The translator must adopt the popular language form; 5.The translator must select words and adjust word order to make the translation produce the effect of appropriate tone. (Tan Zaixi,2004:71)These five principles involve the criterion of "faithfulness" in translation, the translator's bilingual ability, translation methods, style and style of translation. Amyot is one of the greatest translators in the history of French translation. He is known as the "king of translation". His translation has had a great impact on that time and future generations. He follows two principles in Translation: 1. The translator must understand the original text and make great efforts in the translation of content; 2.The translation must be simple and natural without any decoration. The first involves the standard of faithfulness in translation, and the second involves the style of translation. These two principles are similar to the first and fifth of Dolet's five translation principles.

==3.The 17th century: the climax of French translation and various translation schools==
After the Renaissance, classicism deeply influenced France. In the translation circle at that time, people were engaged in the translation of classical works on a large scale. Translation has launched a magnificent "dispute between ancient and modern" around the translation methods of classical works. Some translators pay more attention to the past than the present: they pay attention to the imitation of words with sentences, and praise the so-called accurate translation method. Some translators prefer to use the opposite translation method.
In the 17th century, the most famous French translator was Perrot d’Ablancourt,, His translation is sophisticated and elegant, both meaningful and beautiful, and easy to understand. There are no words that need to be explained in order to clarify the meaning in the translation, and there are no annoying cliches. Therefore, he has a great reputation for a long time. His characteristic is to take an original work and grasp the main idea. No matter what the original style is, as long as the translation is literary and readable and can make contemporary readers love and welcome, he will do whatever he can to add or delete the content at any cost, and modify it if he can, regardless of the accuracy of the translation. At that time, this literary and beautiful translation method attracted many followers, but it was also criticized by many people as "beautiful but unfaithful".By the end of the 17th century, those who advocated free translation were overwhelmingly in favor, while those who really advocated accurate translation were few and far between. The earliest theorist to advocate accurate translation was Bachet de Méziriac in the mid-17th century. In December 1635, he published an essay entitled "on translation" at the French academy, stating that translators must observe three principles :1.do not stuff the original work with personal goods; 2.The original work shall not be abridged; 3.No alteration may be made detrimental to the original intention.
As one of the most influential translators in France in the 17th century, Daniel Huet, worshipped classical literature and clearly advocated accurate translation. He criticized both post-modern translators and unfaithful translators abranguel. He believes that the best translation method is: the translator first closely follows the original author's meaning; Secondly, if possible, stick to his words; Finally, try to reproduce his character as much as possible; The translator must carefully study the character of the original author, not delete, weaken, add and expand, and faithfully make it complete as the original. His translation principles are: the only goal of translation is to be accurate. Only by accurately imitating the original in language can it be possible to accurately convey the original author's meaning; The translator has no right to choose words or change word order arbitrarily, because "Deviation" from the original text will lead to deviation from the original meaning. His translation theory has been praised by many people, but due to the lack of practice, his theory is not attractive to translators.
In the 17th century, there were also two representatives from inaccurate translation to accurate translation,François Maucroix and Jacques de Tourreil.
François Maucroix is regarded by contemporary and later critics as one of the most outstanding French translators in the 17th century and the first person to translate demesne in the 17th century. In addition to demesne, he also translated the works of Plato and others. Maucroix received the education of the Jesuit Church in his early years, was greatly influenced by the Jesuit Church, loved debating literature, and paid attention to ingenious expression and beautiful language style.
His early translations were inaccurate in content, style or written expression. He liked to modernize ancient terms and expressions. In 1685, his style changed, and his translation became more accurate, which seemed to have completely corrected the defects of procrastination and weakness in his early translation. The reason can be seen from his letters with Boileau in the last decade of the 17th century. He regarded Boileau not only as the most important representative of classical literature, but also as an authority on translation theory. Therefore, he always sent the translation to Boileau for revision. Boileau read the manuscript carefully, criticized some paragraphs and put forward better translation methods. In his reply, Maucroix said that Poirot's criticism of some of his inaccurate translations was pertinent, and his opinions on the revision were also very good. He admitted that the inaccurate translation was a mistake and must be completely corrected. He finally realized that translators must adhere to the principle of accurate translation if they want to become real classicists.
Jacques de Tourreil also experienced a change from inaccurate translation to accurate translation, which is reflected in his translation of three different versions of Demosthenes. In 1691, he published his first translation, which was influenced by the education of the Jesuit and paid attention to elegant style rather than accurate content. Tourreil processed the original work in the most ingenious way to modernize the ancients. After the translation was published, it was immediately severely criticized by Racine. After being criticized, Tourreil published a revised version in 1710, but the revised version actually only made detailed changes to the original translation, and the guiding principle of translation remains unchanged, that is, we must "make the characteristics of the original work conform to the characteristics of our nation". The new translation has received various comments. On the one hand, the ancient school refers to Tourreil 's attempt to impose new ideas on Demosthenes, believing that he not only did not beautify the original work, but distorted and vilified the original work. On the other hand, the present school believes that Tourreil's unfaithful translation of the original is better than the original, which is worth applauding. Tourreil himself is an ancient school. Naturally, he doesn't appreciate the present school's praise and thinks that this praise is "the most severe criticism to the translator". After that, he revised the translation for the third time, which is very different from the first two versions. It was not only a rare and accurate translation at that time, but also extremely beautiful. The translator translates in strict accordance with the original work, neither adding or subtracting nor making changes. By this time Tourreil had fundamentally changed his point of view.
Discussing the history of French translation from the 17th century to the 18th century is bound to involve the influence of Jesuit and Jansenists. The main reason is that the people engaged in education at that time were members of these two schools. They had direct or indirect contact with each translation school through their own translation practice and teaching.
The Jesuit believes that classical literature is worth studying and learning only in the aspect that it provides moral education or guides people how to learn eloquence. The excavation of classical works is not because their contents are of great value, but because of their beautiful forms. Teachers believe that the purpose of teaching is not so much to enable students to obtain substantive knowledge as to enable them to obtain formal learning identity.
The works translated by Jesuit teachers or students generally have an obvious sign, that is, they do not pay much attention to the spiritual essence of the original work, but only pay attention to the expression of the original thought and the beauty of the translation style. In order to achieve this, translators often sacrifice the content, even misinterpret the original meaning, and religiously turn classical literary works. Therefore, the origin of inaccurate translation in the 17th century is often influenced by Jesuit thought.
Jansenists is the second school that directly or indirectly affects translation principles. They believe that once students can read and write, they should read these translations in order to obtain basic knowledge about the original author and facilitate more and better reading of the original works in the future. In the early days, the views of the janssenian translators and the Jesuit translators were basically the same. Later, the translators of Jansenists believed that the practice of style for style in translation was also dangerous. However, towards the middle of the 17th century, their views changed and they believed that the style of ancient Greek and Latin writers, especially the style of ancient Greek writers, was worth learning. They really appreciate classical works more than the Jesuits. They admit that the language style of the ancients is superior to that of the present, but the present enjoys more inspiration from God, so the present surpasses the ancients in terms of thought and morality. In this way, no matter from which perspective, their views are completely consistent with those of ancient school. But the translation of Jansenists is far less elegant and beautiful than that of the Jesuits.
==4.The decline of French translation in the 18th century and the translator Charles Batteux==
In the 18th century, France was not as powerful as in the 16th and 17th centuries, nor was it culturally complacent. So she began to look at other countries' literature, first of all England. For example, the novels of the contemporary British sentimentalist writer Richard Were translated into French, which had a great influence on the development of French sentimentalist literature. In particular, the Chinese culture, which had been introduced to Europe for a long time, became more active in France in the 18th century. Although the number of translations is large, the quality is often not high.
Charles Batteux was one of the most important translators in France in the 18th century. He was one of the most influential literary and translation theorists in France and the whole Europe in the 18th century. He edited and published a variety of translation books, translated aristoteles, Horace and many other classical works of ancient Greece and Rome, wrote Principes de Litterature, Cours de Belles-Lettres and other works. Batteux elaborated his thoughts and views on translation in The Principles of Treatise. His original views and excellent exposition made this book an important milestone in the development of translation theory in the 18th century.
The fifth part of Principes de Litterature deals with translation problems.The theory of Charles Batteux obviously has the characteristics of philosophers, linguists, philology and translation. In other words, Charles Batteux discusses the principles of translation mainly from the perspective of general linguistic skills, rather than literary creation. He proposed the following 12 rules for dealing with word order in translation: 1. We must not alter the order of what the original says, either as fact or inference. 2. We should also preserve the order of ideas in the original text. 3. No matter how long the original sentence is, it should be kept intact in the translation, for a sentence is a thought in which the different elements are related to each other, and their correlation constitutes a kind of harmony. 4.All the conjunctions in the original text should be preserved. It is these conjunctions, so to speak, that hold the sentence elements together. 5. All adverbs should be placed either before or after the verb, depending on the harmony and momentum of the sentence. 6.Symmetrical sentences should be translated into symmetrical sentences. 7. Colorful ideas should be expressed in as much space as possible in the translation so as to maintain the same brilliance. 8. Rhetorical devices and forms of speech used to express ideas must be preserved in the translation. 9. We must translate short and pithy sayings that people like, or translate them into words that are natural and can be used as proverbs. 10. Interpretation is incorrect and incomplete because it is no longer a translation but a commentary. However, if there is no other way to convey the meaning of the original text, the translator has no choice but to use interpretation. 11. For the sake of meaning, we must abandon all forms of expression in order to make ourselves intelligible; Abandon emotion in exchange for a lively translation; Give up harmony for the pleasure of translation. 12. The idea of the original text can be expressed in different forms, combined or broken up by the words used to express it, and expressed by verbs, adjectives, nouns and adverbs, as long as its essence remains unchanged（Tan Zaixi,2004:98）.

==5.The revival of French translation in the 19th century and its rich translators==
Another high tide of French translation came in the 19th century, when a large number of English, German, Italian, Spanish and Latin literary works were translated, such as Shakespeare, Milton, Byron, Shelley in England, Goethe and Schiller in Germany, Dante in Italy, and Spanish folk songs. The most prominent remains the translation of Shakespeare's works. If the 18th century was Shakespeare's Silver age in France, the 19th was the golden age. In the 19th century, people not only worshiped Shakespeare's works, but also worshipped him, and Shakespeare fever spread throughout France. From 1800 to 1910, at least eight different translations of Shakespeare's complete works were produced in France, of which francois-Victor Hugo is the best. Hugo's father was Victor Hugo, a great writer. With Hugo's assistance and cooperation, the complete works of Shakespeare were translated between 1859 and 1867. This translation has faithfully retained the unique rhythm of the play, so it has been praised by critics as the second milestone in the history of French translation of Shakespeare's plays, even more important than Letourne's famous translation in the late 18th century.
Famous French translators in the 19th century included Francoise-René de Chateaubriand, Gérard de Nerval, and Charles Baudelaire. Chateaubriand is another epoch-making translator in France after Amio. His translation is faithful and beautiful. His literal translation of Milton's Paradise Lost is one of the outstanding French translations with its melodious and poetic tone. Nerval is best known for his translation of Goethe's Faust in prose style. In 1830 Goethe saw Nerval's translation and praised it as better than his original. Baudelaire, another famous poet of this period, was one of the earliest French translators of American literature and the first translator of Allan Poe. For 13 years from 1852 to 1865, he wrote, translated and commented on the complete works of Allan Poe. Baudelaire found what he was pursuing in Allan Poe's works, and believed that he and the author were in the same spirit, so that the translation could be in touch with the author. The translation was smooth and natural, just like the French creation, and was listed as an excellent classic of French prose.
==6.The specialization of French translation in the 20th century and the maturity of translation theory==
The 20th century has been the heyday of French translation theory. The characteristics of French translation in this period are: since the end of the Second World War, due to practical needs, commercial, diplomatic, scientific and technological aspects of the translation boom(Chen Shunyi,2014:6), its momentum even more than literary translation, thus forming a major content of the development of modern western translation; The study of translation theory is unprecedented and has produced translation theorists who have an important influence on the history of translation in the world. Before the First World War, the two countries used the language of power in business transactions, and French, which was considered the language of diplomacy at international conferences and other diplomatic occasions, did not have much problem in translation. However, after the end of the First World War, French lost its dominance, and English rose to take the lead with French, forming a situation in which French and English were used together. The Paris Peace Conference of 1919 was the beginning of this situation. Later, the European Union has 24 official languages, which means that translation has become an indispensable part of daily work, whether it is communication between countries in other regions or between western countries. With the increase of cooperation between countries, the need for translators is increasing. To meet this need, a number of schools specializing in training translators have been set up. One of the most prominent is ESIT（École Supérieure d'Interprètes et de Traducteurs）.
ESIT was founded in 1957, set up the department of Oral translation and pen translation, initially only opened several European languages, since 1972 added Chinese, now a total of English, Chinese, Russian, Arabic, French, German, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, Danish, Swedish, Icelandic and other languages translation courses. Later, on the basis of the original two departments, the School added a department of Translation Studies, specializing in the study of language and translation theory, with the right to confer doctoral degrees. After graduation, most of the students apply for translation departments of international institutions, and some graduates apply for the work license of free translators to relevant institutions of various countries in order to work freely and not apply for the work license of free translators to international institutions. Over the years, ESIT has trained a number of senior translators for the foreign affairs departments of the United Nations, the European Community (EU) and western countries.
Another characteristic of modern French translation is that French translators are organized in large numbers, setting up various translation associations and establishing various translation publications. Each association has its own purpose and purpose to carry out its work effectively. There are two major translation associations in France: the Association of French Translators and the Association of French Literary Translators. The Association of French Literary Translators was founded in 1973 as a splinter from the Association of Translators. Its entry requirements are the most stringent of any of its kind. Only highly qualified translators are eligible to join. Applicants must have at least one translation, which is carefully reviewed against the original work by a special selection committee. The aims of the association are :1.to improve the quality of French literature and literary translation publications; 2.To protect the rights and interests of members in respect of copyright, remuneration and working conditions of translated works; 3.Do not participate in any political activities. Since its establishment, the association has held many lectures and lectures, and its members have published many articles on translation in such authoritative publications as le Monde and New Literature. Through this series of business activities, it has become the most distinctive and vocal translation organization in France.
In the first half of the 20th century, the French translation theorist J.Marouzeau is worth a book. He is a professor at the University of Paris and editor in chief of Année Philologique. In 1931, he published a pamphlet called La Traduction du Latin. The theory is as follows:1.Translation is, first of all, a skill. Maruzzo does not deny that translation is an art and a science, and that it is more of a skill. To master it, we mainly rely on rich practical experience, solid language knowledge and flexible translation methods. 2.In order to reach as many readers as possible, the translator's primary task, like linguists, educators and exegetists, is to reveal to the reader what the source text is, not what it covers. 3.The purpose of using a dictionary is not to translate, but to understand. It is a puzzling view, but it is not hard to discern the truth in it. He points out that translators must learn to use dictionaries, but must first understand what problems they are using them to solve. Latin, for example, is very different from French, he said. Latin words are not related to each other, and there is no strict word order, which must be added to a French translation to make the translation smooth. Dictionaries don't help in this respect. They define a particular word in inverse proportion to its simplicity, thus leaving the translator in a difficult position to choose between many different translations. Therefore, the main purpose of using a dictionary is not to find ready-made words, but to understand the meaning of the original text, to explain the text of the original text, and then produce a translation on this basis. At the same time, Marouzeau points out that words from different sources must be interpreted differently. 4.Translation is not guesswork. This is especially important. When encountering difficulties, the translator must carefully consider and avoid any "preconceived ideas", because in translation, the first thought of meaning or expression is often not the most correct or best. 5.Translation must be in living language. This was a popular idea in England in the 17th and 18th centuries. Marouzeau said that to translate Latin into French, if you need to introduce an old expression, you have to turn to a living language so that the translation is alive. That is to say, the translator must ask: if the original author were alive today and writing in French, how would he express the same thing? But Marouzeau also points out that this is not a generalization, and that for some passages, especially those of Ovid, "a bit of antiquity is most appropriate in French translation".
The following is an introduction to Georges Mounin, a famous French translation theorist in the second half of the 20th century. He devoted his life to the teaching and research of linguistics and translation theory with outstanding achievements. He is regarded as the founder and most important representative of linguistic theory in contemporary French translation studies. Major theoretical works include Le belles infidèles , Les problèmes théorique de la traduction, La machine à traduire: Histoire des problèmes linguistiques, Linguistique et traduction, Semiotic praxis, etc. Among them, Les problèmes théorique de la traduction is the most praised by contemporary Western translation theorists. As mentioned above, this book uses the basic theories and methods of modern linguistics to explain translation, and sets up the first clear-cut flag of linguistic school in the field of Translation studies in France.
The core idea of Mounin 's book is that he thinks translation belongs to linguistics, so it should be studied, understood and explained by means of modern linguistics. To establish an effective translation theory, it has to for translation and the translation of basic problems related to make a scientific understanding of these problems include the nature of translation, translation and the meaning of vocabulary, grammatical structure, the relationship between translation and the objective world, the world's image), the relationship between translation and language universals and language features, the relationship between the processing of language features in translation, and so on. Mounin 's discussion of translation theory revolves around these questions.
What exactly is a translation? What kind of discipline should translation studies belong to and what kind of methods should be adopted? And so on. Such problems have always been the most concerned by translation researchers but have not been properly explained. Mounin believes that translation is a special and universal language activity, which naturally belongs to the scope of linguistics research, and the research results of language science can be applied to the study of translation problems. Mounin admit that the translation of poetry, the literature such as drama, movies, many factors other than language and paralanguage does play an important role, but the basis of translation activity is mainly to the original and the translation of linguistic analysis, and applied linguistics is more than any other skilled experience can provide accurate and reliable. Of course, from another point of view, especially from the perspective of the development of translation studies as an independent discipline since the 1980s, the practice of classifying translation studies as linguistics has been outdated. However, even if translatology is regarded as an independent discipline, its independence is only relative. Since translation (interlingual and intralingual translation) necessarily involves language, translation studies should not and cannot be completely free from the influence of linguistics at any time. In this sense, Mounin's view of linguistic translation has always been positive.
Since the 1970s and 1980s, the interpretive school represented by Seleskovitch or the Paris School has emerged in the field of Translation studies in France and become the most remarkable and French characteristic in the post-modern period, thus forming the second major feature of the development of contemporary French translation theory. It should be said that this school does not negate the basic idea of the school of linguistics to study linguistic phenomena, but only opposes the pure linguistic orientation of the school of linguistics and focuses on the research method of form. Interpretive theory holds that translation is a linguistic act, but it requires the participation of extralinguistic knowledge. Whether it is diachronic linguistics in the 19th century, synchronic descriptive linguistics and contrastive structural linguistics in the 20th century, or the later transformational generative grammar theory, it ignores the pragmatic context as the main component of language communication, so it cannot reasonably explain translation problems. Based on practice, the theory of interpretation studies translation as a linguistic act, and interprets and conveys the meaning of language from linguistic factors, cultural factors, and extralinguistic factors, so as to give a scientific and reasonable explanation to the reality of translation.
An important feature of interpretive translation theory is to reveal the essence of translation as communicative behavior from practice. Interpretivism holds that translation is a kind of linguistic act, which, like language use, must be supported by non-linguistic knowledge. However, as an act, the object of translation is not language, but meaning, which is the communicative meaning of the text. The output of meaning requires the combination of nonverbal thoughts and signs, and the reception of meaning requires the conscious behavior of the addressee. The arrangement of words is only a means of meaning formation for the originator of words. The understanding and grasp of meaning need to get rid of the original language form. The acquisition of meaning is instantaneous, not staged. Meaning is not the sum of words, but an organic whole, and the comprehension of meaning is completed at the level of discourse.
According to the interpretive theory, language and thought are separated in the translation of translators. Language and thought are not exactly the same thing, but there is a constant two-way communication between them. Thought waves can be transformed into language, and language can be transformed into thought waves. Human knowledge and experience do not reside in the brain in the form of words.
Interpretive theory also holds that understanding requires the participation of cognitive knowledge; The process of comprehension is the process of interpretation. Interpretation is the prerequisite of translation, and translation cannot be carried out without interpretation. Translation, on the other hand, is interpretation. Interpretive translation is a translation of meaning equivalence, which is established between texts. If a translation is to be successful, it is necessary to seek the overall meaning equivalence between the source text and the target text, and the meaning equivalence needs to achieve cognitive and emotional equivalence. Translators use their own abilities to organically combine the cognitive content and emotional content of the source text into an indivisible whole, and then successfully express it. Only in this way can the equivalence of meaning be achieved, which is the essence of the interpretive theory.
The interpretive theory also focuses on fidelity. The translator cannot interpret at will, and his interpretation and understanding can only be faithful to the actual content of the speaker. Although the interpreter interprets in his own words, he conveys the meaning of the speaker and imitates the speaker's style. The interpreter should understand the overall style of the speech, and tend to be consistent with the speaker, should be as far as possible to get rid of the constraints of words, in order to accurately reflect the original style.
== Conclusion==
There may be many deficiencies and omissions in the simple combing of French translation history, but as a powerful and long-standing western developed country, France's translation process and theory have great research and reference significance for China and the world. The world is still developing, so is translation. With the development of modern science and technology, people explore translation more deeply, and new theories are constantly put forward. Therefore, we should seize the trend of the times, base ourselves on China, look at the world and seriously study these excellent theories.
== References==
[1]Chen Shunyi陈顺意（2014）.法国翻译理论源流Sources and schools of French translation theory.法国研究The French Study.
[2]Tan Zaixi谭载喜（2004）.西方翻译简史A Short History of Translation in the West.商务印书馆The Commercial Press.
[3]Xu Jun许均,Yuan Xiao一袁筱一(1998).当代法国翻译理论Contemporary Translation Study in France .湖北教育出版社Hubei Education Press.
[4]Liu Mingjiu柳鸣九,Zheng Kelu郑克鲁,Zhang Yinglun张英伦(1979).法国文学史History of French Literature,人民文学出版社People's Literature Publishing House
[5]Xie Tianzhen谢天振（2009）.中西翻译简史A brief history of Chinese and Western translation,外语教育与研究出版社Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.

=李新星A Comparative Study on The Translation history of Modern Chinese and Korean Literature under the Background of "Western Learning" (1894~1949) =
==Abstract==
The spreading of Western learning to the east is an extensive and far-reaching influence of modern Western culture on eastern civilization, which started from translation as a means of cultural communication.Scholars in China and Korea have always recognized the influence of the eastward spread of Western learning on the development of translation in their countries.However, most studies on modern and contemporary translation take the country as the boundary and rarely talk about the comparison and exchange between the two countries.In fact, although there are some individual differences between Chinese and Korean translation in modern times due to different national conditions, there are also many similarities and connections worthy of attention and research.From the perspective of translation history, this paper will explore the history of literary translation in China and Korea under the trend of western learning to the east, compare the commonness and individuality of the two countries' literary translation practices, explore the historical information behind the translation practices, and finally achieve the purpose of restoring the history of cultural (literary) exchanges between the two countries.

The spreading of western culture to the East was an extensive and far-reaching influence of modern Western culture on Eastern civilization, resulted from translation as a means of cultural communication.Scholars in China and Korea had always recognized the influence of the eastward spread of Western learning on the development of translation in their countries. However, most studies on modern and contemporary translation take the country as the boundary and rarely talk about the comparison and exchange between the two countries.In fact, regardless of some individual differences between Chinese and Korean translation in modern times due to different national conditions, there are also many similarities and connections worthy of attention and research.From the perspective of translation history, this paper will explore the history of literary translation in China and Korea under the trend of western learning to the East, compare the commonness and individuality of the two countries' literary translation practices, dig out the historical information behind the practices, and finally achieve the purpose of restoring the history of cultural exchanges between the two.--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 07:23, 11 December 2021 (UTC)

==Key words==
History of literary translation；“Western Learning”;China;Korea

==摘要==
西学东渐是近代西方文化对东方文明的一次广泛而深远的影响，而这影响首先是从作为文化交流的手段———翻译开始的。一直以来，中韩两国学者都认同西学东渐对本国翻译发展的影响，但现有的研究在探讨近现代翻译时大多以本国为界，很少谈及两国比较和交流。而实际上，虽然因为国情不同，中国与朝鲜半岛的近现代翻译存在一定的个体差异，但同时也有很多相似点和联系点值得关注和研究。本文将从翻译史视角出发，窥探西学东渐时代潮流下中韩两国文学翻译史的面貌，比较两国文学翻译实践的共性和个性，发掘翻译实践背后的历史信息，最终达到还原两国文化 (文学) 交流史的目的。

==关键词==
文学翻译史；“西学东渐”；中国；朝鲜（韩国）

==1.Introduction==
The spreading of Western learning to the east is an extensive and far-reaching influence of modern Western culture on Eastern civilization.Late 19th century to early 20th century,When the West had modernized and gradually replaced the East as the world's dominant power,The three East Asian countries ( China, Japan and Korea), which had been sleeping for a long time, were gradually awakened and embarked on the "journey" of modernization.Among them, In order to achieve a rich country and a strong army, Japan left Asia and entered Europe,Take the lead in taking a series of measures to actively learn from the West and introduce advanced ideas and culture.The main measure is to develop the translation of western literature.Under the influence of such a large environment, the translation of overseas literature in China and the Korean Peninsula has also set off a boom.It can be said that the influence of the eastward spreading of Western learning on the modernization of East Asia began with translation as a means of cultural exchange.
Some scholars have pointed out that in the process of modernization in East Asia represented by Japan,Translation plays an important role.Without translation, East Asia would not have been able to open the door to modernization.This is also true in modern China and the Korean Peninsula.It can be said that after entering the modern society, the cultural exchanges between the two countries were continued through translation --"A history of translation is not only a history of cultural exchange, but also a history of the dissemination of ideas".As we all know, the study of translation history is a "basic project" in the construction of translation discipline.Behrman, a famous translator and translation theorist, once pointed out that "the composition of translation history is the first task of modern translation theory, and self-reflection is the establishment of itself" .The history of literary translation is an important part of the study of translation history and an indispensable factor in the investigation of a country's literature and even the whole cultural background in a particular period.
In view of the above analysis, the author believes that in order to have a macro and in-depth understanding of the cultural exchanges between China and Korea in modern times.It is necessary for us to make a comparative study of literary translation between the two countries during this period (1894 ~ 1949).Writers believe that only by putting literary translation activities into a larger social and historical context can we have a clearer understanding of the translation practices of the two countries at that time.Therefore, from the perspective of translation history, this paper will explore the history of literary translation in China and Korea under the trend of western learning to the east, compare the commonness and individuality of the two countries'literary translation practices, explore the historical information behind the translation practices, and finally achieve the purpose of restoring the history of cultural (literary) exchanges between the two countries.

The spreading of Western learning to the east exerted an extensive and far-reaching influence on Eastern civilization.In the late 19th century to early 20th century,when the West had modernized and gradually replaced the East as the world's dominant power,the three East Asian countries (China,Japan and Korea),which had been sleeping for a long time, were gradually awakened and embarked on the "journey" of modernization. In order to attain prosperity, Japan left Asia and entered Europe, taking a series of measures to actively learn from the West and introduce advanced ideas and culture through the media of translation.Under the influence of such a univerasl situation, the translation of overseas literature in China and the Korean Peninsula had also set off a boom.It could be said that the influence of the eastward spreading of western learning on the modernization of East Asia began with translation as a means of cultural exchange.
Some scholars have pointed out that translation plays an important role in the process of modernization in East Asia represented by Japan.Without translation,East Asia would not have been able to open the door to modernization.This is also true in modern China and the Korean Peninsula.It can be said that after entering the modern society, the cultural exchanges between the two countries were continued through translation --"A history of translation is not only a history of cultural exchange, but also a history of the dissemination of ideas".As we all know, the study of translation history is a "basic project" in the construction of translation discipline.Behrman, a famous translator and translation theorist, once pointed out that "the composition of translation history is the first task of modern translation theory, and self-reflection is the establishment of itself".The history of literary translation is an important part of the study of translation history and an indispensable factor in the investigation of a country's literature and even the whole cultural background in a particular period.
In view of the above analysis, the author believes that in order to have a macro and in-depth understanding of the cultural exchanges between China and Korea in modern times.It is necessary for us to make a comparative study of literary translation between the two countries from 1894 to 1949. Only by putting literary translation activities into a larger social and historical context can we have a clearer understanding of the translation practices of the two countries at that time.Therefore, from the perspective of translation history, this paper will explore the history of literary translation in China and Korea under the trend of western learning to the East, compare the commonness and individuality of the two countries' literary translation practices, explore the historical information behind the practices, and finally achieve the purpose of restoring the history of cultural (literary) exchanges between the two countries.--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 07:34, 11 December 2021 (UTC)

==2. The origin and development of modern translation in both countries ==
After being opened to the outside world, western civilization flooded in. China and North Korea, which had been pursuing the policy of "closing the door to the outside world", began to "open their eyes to the world".From the government to the people, there has been an upsurge in the introduction of advanced Western civilization.Translation plays an important, even decisive role in this process.
====2.1The historical evolution of Modern Translation in China====
As is known to all, Among the three East Asian countries, China is the first to pay attention to the West and understand and learn the West through translation.In the 1860s, after the Westernization Movement, a climax of modern Chinese translation began slowly.Strictly speaking, this translation period can be further divided into two stages, namely, with the Sino-Japanese War of 1894 as the dividing line, the early stage was the translation period dominated by westernization school, and the later stage was the translation period dominated by reformists.If the translation during the Westernization Movement was the primary stage of modern Western learning translation in China, there were still many problems, then the translation activities led by reformists such as Kang Youwei, Liang Qichao and Yan Fu had a greater development in terms of scale, significance and function.From the perspective of translation history, they set up translation institutes and translated western books widely(Especially those that had a great influence on Meiji Restoration in Japan.)Training translation talents, etc.Its scale, breadth of subjects, quantity and quality are unmatched by translation in the Westernization period.It should be noted that since the 1880s, China's interest in learning from the West has shifted from science to politics, education system and so on.In the late Qing Dynasty and early period, literary works gradually became the main object of translation activities.In the minds of the Vixinists represented by Liang Qichao, novels have become the most appropriate tool for political reform, popular enlightenment and the modernization of the country.Thus, beginning in the late 19th and early 20th centuries,Foreign literature has been widely translated into China, and communication channels include not only modern media such as newspapers and magazines, but also single-line books and large-scale translation literature series, which have also produced a series of arguments and discussions on translation methods and techniques.Modern Chinese translation has also entered a new period, that is, from the Ming and Qing period of scientific and technological translation as the mainstream gradually to culture / literature / literary translation as the core of the translation activities period.Overall, the translation of modern foreign literature in China from the end of the 19th century to the period 1949 can be broken down into the following three stages.
The first stage was from the late Qing Dynasty and the early Republic of China to the May 4th Movement in 1919.In December 1898, Liang Qichao translated The Japanese political novel The Adventure of The Beautiful Woman in Qingyi Daily. In 1900, Zhou translated one of the most influential works in Japanese political fiction, Yano Ryuki's "On The Classics of America".Since then, many Japanese political novels have been translated and introduced to China.After a more concentrated translation of political novels, other genres, such as history, science and the popular detective novels, have also been introduced.After 1907, a variety of modern literary magazines sprang up, and a large number of translated novels were published in these magazines in serial form, among which the serialized translated novels in magazines such as "Novel Forest" and "New Novel Cluster" even occupied absolute space, forming the first climax of foreign novel translation.However, it should be emphasized that the translation of literary works in this period was still in the exploratory stage,Although there are a large number of works, there are problems in the selection of works, translation skills and strategies.
The second period is 1916 to 1936. This period can be further subdivided into the May Fourth Movement period and the Left Coalition Period.With the development of the New literature movement, Chinese literary translation has entered the most glorious period in the history of translation.Compared with the late Qing Dynasty, literary translation in this period was larger in scale, higher in quantity and quality, and its influence was unprecedented.It is worth emphasizing that almost all the heavyweights in the history of modern Chinese literature have participated in the translation and introduction.In addition to translation works, they also introduced various literary and artistic thoughts, and actively explored and discussed translation methods and theories.Especially with their active advocacy and hard work, The translation industry in China has been closely integrated with the struggle against imperialism and feudalism.It completely changed the chaotic and unprincipled state of translation circles before the May 4th Movement.In addition, it was from this time that China's translation of Soviet/Russian literature gradually reached its peak.It can be said that the mainstream of Chinese literature translation in the 1930s was Marxist literary trend of thought and progressive literature (especially Soviet/Russian literature).Of course, in addition to Russian/Soviet literature, this period has translated the literature of Britain, The United States, Japan, France, Germany and southeast Northern Europe and Asia.
The third period is from 1937 to 1949. After the war of Resistance against Japan broke out.The translation community, like the rest of the country, has concentrated all its efforts on the cause of saving the nation from extinction and striving for liberation.Therefore, the pace of development of Translation in China slowed down during this period.In spite of this, Chinese writers and translators have overcome various difficulties and translated and published many excellent foreign literary works.During this period, there was a wide range of translations, ranging from western European classical literature to war literature at that time, and even ancient Greek literature and Jewish literature.In terms of genres, there are novels, poems, plays, prose and even some academic works on literary history.A number of famous translators in the history of Chinese translation literature, such as Zhu Shenghao, Ge Baoquan, Fu Lei, Liang Shiqiu, Lin Yutang and so on, are active in literary translation.Of course, the biggest characteristic of this period was the translation of the Soviet Union and other countries anti-fascist war works, in particular, the establishment of the revolutionary translation group "Times Press", published the revolutionary translation publication "Soviet Literature", a large number of Soviet literary and artistic works.

====2.2 The situation of modern and contemporary Translation on the Korean Peninsula and the Influence of China==
==
From the end of the 19th century, western civilization began to flow into East Asia on a large scale, and Korea was further plunged into the situation of internal troubles and foreign aggression. Faced with the complicated situation at home and abroad, the enlightened intellectuals of Korea further realized that translating Western books was an important task at that time. As early as 1886, The "Seoul Weekly" published by Powen Bureau had a column specially emphasizing the importance of translation, and proposed to establish a special translation agency to translate foreign books. And six years later, another important newspaper of the day 《Huangcheng News 》also commented, stressing that translation is an important means to enrich the country and strengthen the army and realize modern civilization. We call for the establishment of specialized translation institutions under the guidance of the government "to strengthen the guidance and management of translation. On behalf of this, not only all kinds of news media actively propagated, but also some intellectuals at that time called for the realization of civilization and the prosperity of the country and the strength of the army by translating overseas literature and learning advanced western experience. As a result, the Korean Peninsula at that time set off a boom in the translation of overseas works, especially literary works. Of course, as in China, one of the preconditions for translating Western books in the Korean Peninsula was the development of modern media, which provided a platform for the dissemination of written works at that time. After the 1895-1895 revolution, modern schools were established one after another, and special language schools were set up, which played a positive role in understanding overseas and spreading Western culture, and reserved talents for the translation and introduction of foreign literature.
Generally speaking, the history of translation of foreign works on the Korean Peninsula from 1895 to 1949 can be divided into the following five stages: Patriotic enlightenment period (1895-1910), translation literature awakening period (1911-1919), translation into the proper period (1920-1935), dark Period (1936-1945), Regeneration period (1945 ~1949). We can refer to Kim Byung-chul's Studies on the History of Modern Korean Translation Literature, the earliest and only work on the history of modern Korean Translation literature. However, it is worth noting that Kim Byung-chul's pioneering work has carefully combed and studied the translation history of modern Korean literature from both macro and micro perspectives. However, there is no introduction to the translation of Chinese and Japanese literature. In fact, in the whole modern and modern period, although the communication between China and South Korea seems not as active and close as that in ancient times, the spiritual, political and cultural ties that have connected the two countries for thousands of years have not disappeared overnight. This point can be seen from the early stage of The History of Korean translated literature with China as the medium of translation activities and the late continuous translation of Modern Chinese literature.
The first stage (1895-1910) is the period of patriotic enlightenment，The main function of translation in this period was "enlightenment of civilization, independence, social and political enlightenment", and the translation activities inevitably had obvious purpose and utility. The patriotic enlighteners represented by Xuan CAI, Zhang Zhiyuan, Shen Caihao and Zhou Shijing received Chinese education from childhood and were deeply influenced by Confucian culture. Most of the works translated from The Korean Peninsula during this period were biographies of great men, history of the war, history of independence and geographical history. Almost all the translated works are from Chinese and Japanese versions. According to statistics, there were about 37 separate editions of such works translated in the Korean Peninsula before 1910, among which 16 were based on Chinese translations, not including those published in newspapers and magazines. In particular, it is worth emphasizing the important works in the early history of Korean literature, such as The History of The Fall of Vietnam, the Biography of the Three Masters of the Founding of Italy, and so on.The Biography of the Patriotic Lady was introduced to the Korean Peninsula based on the Chinese version. In addition, the Japanese Ryoki Yano's Korean single version of The Book On The Nation and the United States (1908, Translated by Hyun Gonglian) was based on zhou Kui's Chinese version in 1907. It is also highly likely that The first western literary work to be officially translated into Korea, Robin Sun Crusoe (1908, translated by Kim Chan), was translated into Chinese. In a word, China's influence cannot be ignored in the history of translated literature during the Korean civilization period.
The second stage (1910 ~ 1919) is called "the Awakening period of Translated literature". The translation activities of this period did have many characteristics different from those of the previous period. For example, many translations clearly identify the original author and translator; There appeared some literary magazines that paid attention to translation, such as Youth, New Star, Youth, Light of Learning and New Wenjie.“Three Lights", and "Tai Xi Literature and Art News" founded in 1918 with the main purpose of translating foreign literary works; At the beginning, it was consciously emphasized that translation should be based on the original text rather than through a third language. Translation methods also began to emphasize the separation from the earlier simple emphasis on the transmission of content translation, summary translation, abbreviated translation, etc. It puts forward the importance of respecting the original text and being faithful to the original text, and actively practices it. Kim Il and other important figures in the history of Korean translation literature have officially started their translation activities. And so on. All these indicate that the translation activities on the Korean Peninsula have "awakened" and are ready for further progress on the right track.
Generally speaking, since 1908, when Juvenile was first published，The Translated literature of the Korean Peninsula further broke away from the original utilitarian and purist nature and began to enter the era of "pure literature and art" translation. Since then, a great deal of Western literature has been translated into The Korean peninsula, and the quality of translation in this period is significantly higher than that of the Patriotic Enlightenment period. In addition to new novelists such as Lee Sang-hyup, Lee Hae-jo and Ahn Guk-seon, the translators also include famous figures in the history of literature such as Choi Nam-seon, Hong Myung-hee and Lee Kwang-soo, as well as some publishers and media workers. It is worth noting that some scholars believe that literary exchanges between China and Korea ended after Japan annexed the Korean Peninsula in 1910. This view is obviously somewhat arbitrary. According to incomplete statistics, at least 20 Chinese translations were introduced to the Korean Peninsula through the medium of Chinese translations, although the translation activities based on Chinese translations were not as active as in the Enlightenment period. These works include not only reprints of Chinese vernacular novels in Ming and Qing Dynasties, but also western novels based on Chinese translations. Among these Chinese translations of western novels, 8 are from the large western literature translation series "Shuobo Congshu", which was planned and published by the Shanghai Commercial Press in 1903. Choi Chan-sik, a famous writer of new novels at the time, recalled that recalled that he began writing a new novel after translating a book in the "Shaobo Series" published in Shanghai, China. These data show that even at a time when Japan's control over the Korean Peninsula was increasing, China's translation and media activities still have a certain influence on Korean intellectuals. In other words, under the new historical conditions, the cultural exchanges between the two countries are still struggling to continue in a new form.
The third stage (1920-1935) marked the beginning of joseon's translation literature. According to Kim byung-chul's statistics, at least 600 foreign literary works have been translated to the Korean Peninsula in various forms since the 1920s, Genres include fiction, poetry, drama, essays, fairy tales, and some literary criticism, Countries involved Britain, the United States, Germany, France, Russia, India and so on. Of course, this statistic does not include the translation of Chinese literature. In fact, after the 1920s, one of the biggest changes in the history of Sino-Korean translation was the movement that was then in China and the new literary works began to be translated and introduced to the Korean Peninsula. According to incomplete statistics, about 30 kinds of modern Chinese literary works including novels were translated and translated in the Korean Peninsula during the colonial period (In addition to the only collection of Chinese Short Stories during the colonial period), 16 plays, 41 poems, 3 essays, 1 fairy tale, etc., and more than a dozen literary criticism. If we add the Chinese classical literature translated in this period, we can say that after 1920, the translation of Chinese literature in the Korean Peninsula is relatively comprehensive and continuous, which should not be excluded from the history of Korean translated literature.
The fourth stage (1936-1945) was a dark period for the entire Korean Peninsula. In terms of translated literature, Japan has strengthened its control over public opinion and media by strengthening its policy of suppressing national language, The flood of Japanese books, coupled with the growing economic collapse on the Korean peninsula, has put pressure on the publishing industry and reduced the number of magazines, Access to foreign books has also been blocked, resulting in a huge blow to translation activities on the Korean Peninsula. This was the darkest period in the history of Translated literature on the Korean Peninsula. Although there were sporadic translations of Chinese literary works, they only catered to the political needs of the Japanese colonial government and chose some works that were irrelevant to politics and even covered up and beautified its militarist ambitions. In 1940, for example, Three Thousand Miles magazine ran a special collection of "New Chinese literature,"The content of the works is either daily life, love or traditional art, which has nothing to do with politics, and the original translations are entirely dependent on Japanese translations. The content of the works is either daily life, love or traditional art, which has nothing to do with politics, and the original translations are entirely dependent on Japanese translations.
In the fifth stage (1945-1949), the Korean Peninsula was finally liberated from Japanese colonial rule. The country was in ruins and all walks of life seemed to be full of hope, but at the same time, it was in a sudden chaos. At this time, translation has gradually entered the recovery period. From the point of view of countries, the United States and the Soviet Union were the most translated works, which obviously reflected the political situation and ideology at that time. However, the translation and study of modern Chinese literature also ushered in a brief bright period. Many researchers from academic schools joined the ranks of translation, and the translation of their works also moved toward specialization and systematization, with the emergence of selected Modern Chinese Short Stories (1946), Short Stories of Lu Xun (1946), Selected Modern Chinese Poems (1947) and other individual editions. He even published the history of Modern Chinese Literature (1949), the first book of Chinese studies in Korea. Compared with the colonial period, translation at this time was no longer subject to many restrictions, and further got rid of the early enlightenment and utilitarian color in nature. It began to attempt to approach modern Chinese literary works from the perspective of aesthetics and pure literature and carried out systematic and professional research. Translators seem to want to make up for the many regrets of the colonial period and are eager to translate and study modern Chinese literature in an all-round way. Unfortunately, this boom came to an abrupt end after the outbreak of the war in 1950, and The cause of Chinese literary translation fell into recession again.

==3. Differences and Similarities in the translation history of Modern Chinese and Korean literature==
Differences and similarities in the translation history of Modern Chinese and Korean literature
As is known to all, since the 1970s, translation studies have achieved a "cultural" shift, and the scope of research has expanded from the purely linguistic category to the non-linguistic category of culture, ideology, power relations, politics and so on.The literariness and thinking of literary works determine that literary translation has the dual orientation of ideology and poetics.Therefore, the study of literary translation should be connected with the socio-historical background and the poetic background so as to analyze and explain the important translation phenomena in depth.Throughout the history of modern literary translation in China and South Korea, we will find that the biggest similarity is that the "cultural political practice" (Venuti) of translation has always been controlled by ideology.Under the environment of western learning spreading eastward, one of the main social ideologies in East Asia was"Modern transformation".As an important means of modernization transformation, translation not only has an impact on the political and economic development of China and Korea, but also plays an important role in the two countries' acceptance of Western civilization, dissemination of new knowledge, formation of new culture, and the development of their own language and literature.In the process of sorting out the translation history of modern Chinese and Korean literature, we can clearly find that there are many similarities and intersections, and of course there are individual differences.Whether similarities or differences arise, some of them are related to the social ideology of the two countries, and some are related to the influence of the translator's personal ideology.It can be said that ideology permeates all aspects of modern translation in both countries, especially the change and development of social ideology plays a significant role in the evolution of translation.Below, this paper will compare and analyze the similarities and differences of literary translation between the two countries from several aspects.
(1) The nature and motivation of translation
In terms of the nature of translation, the modern translation activities in China and South Korea have obvious utilitarian, effective and political characteristics.Before the formal launch of literary translation, China had gone through a long stage of translating and introducing western scientific and technological books for the purpose of learning from the West, strengthening industrial development and achieving a prosperous country and a strong army.After the failure of the Reform movement of 1898, the development of Chinese foreign literature translation was in fact based on the translation of novels.One of the reasons is that Liang Qichao, the leader of the Reformists, put forward the slogan of "novel revolution" and advocated the translation of political novels, blowing the horn of literary translation. At the same time, a group of literary translators represented by Lin Shu actively engaged in translation practice, which also promoted the development of literary translation at that time.At that time, the purpose of literary translation was also to enlightening the people, reforming the society and giving play to the unique role of literary thought in shaping the "consciousness of the world".After the May 4th Movement, political demands still played a leading role in the selection of translators despite literary factors.On the other hand, the Korean Peninsula, because of the late opening of port and the depth of the country's internal troubles and foreign aggression, had no time to translate western literature as China and Japan did in terms of promoting industrial development and enriching the country and strengthening its armed forces.For them, translation is first of all a means of understanding the outside world, and its direct purpose is to get rid of the control of foreign forces and achieve independence.Therefore, the modern translation of the Korean Peninsula did not go through the stage of large-scale scientific translation, but from the very beginning, a part of social science translation and a large number of literary translation, including political novels, biographies of great men and so on.In particular, the translation of literary works has always occupied an important position in the modern translation of the Korean Peninsula.It is worth mentioning that liang Qichao had a great influence on literary translation during the Period of Korean Civilization.It was under his influence that a large number of political novels were translated and introduced to the Korean Peninsula, and played an important role in the transformation of thoughts and concepts in the Korean Peninsula in the modern period and the emergence and development of modern literature.Of course, after entering the period of colonial rule, the Translation of the Korean Peninsula became more colonial,In many ways, it is more influenced and restricted by Japan. Although there is also the pursuit of literature, the final translation inevitably has a strong political nature.In a word, the translation activities in the first half of the 20th century in both countries are determined by both literary factors and social ideology, but in the final analysis, the latter always plays a dominant role.Due to the special historical environment and similar fate, translation in both countries has strong utilitarian, utility and political characteristics to a large extent, which are the manifestation of the "manipulation" of translation by the ideological form.
(2) The source of the translation
There is no doubt that in all stages of modern translation history, the sources of translated works in the two countries are closely related to Japan, but there are differences in the specific range of sources and degree of dependence on Japan.In fact, before the late Qing Dynasty, a large number of Western scientific and technological books translated in China were basically based on the original Western language.In the translation period dominated by the Reformists, due to the vigorous development of Japanese translation and the characteristics of easy learning and understanding of Japanese, Liang Qichao and Kang Youwei advocated the translation of foreign works from Japanese. It was not until then that A large number of Japanese translations were carried out in China.
After the May 4th Movement, Translation in China flourished, with translators of various languages appearing in large numbers and many intellectuals participating in translation activities.At this time, the original versions of Chinese translations are also varied, including Japanese and English versions, and many are directly translated from the original.On the other hand, due to the influence of history, during the whole period of the Korean Peninsula, the translation of foreign books mainly consisted of Japanese and Chinese versions, and few of them were directly translated from the original.After entering the period of colonial rule, due to Japan's rule and influence on the Korean Peninsula in various fields, there were fewer and fewer translation cases based on The Chinese version, and the Japanese version took the dominant position.However, due to the increasing number of intellectuals focusing on Western language and literature (such as the emergence of the "Overseas Literature School" in 1926), the call for translation based on the original text became stronger and stronger.After all, most of the Korean intellectuals of the "overseas literary school" studied in Japan,Therefore, although they put forward the slogan of "translation from the original text", their translation activities are still directly or indirectly influenced by the Japanese knowledge system.In short, if the modern times of East Asia are "modern times of translation", as a bridge of translation in East Asia, Japanese translation is based on the original text or English.In China, there are both literal translation of the original text and retranslation of English and Japanese versions. On the other hand, Korean translation sources are a little bit unitary, basically retranslating some Chinese and most Japanese versions.However, from another point of view, the translation path of the Korean Peninsula at that time was the most complicated among the three countries, which could be the path of "Japanese → Korean", "Western → Chinese → Korean" or even "Western → Japanese → Chinese → Korean".
At that time, many Korean intellectuals were fluent in both Chinese and Japanese, so it was difficult to refer to only one source in the translation process.For example, The book On The Classics and The United States (1908), marked with the "translation" of Xuan Gonglian, was published with reference to both the Japanese and Chinese versions.Kim Kyo-je, a famous writer of new novels in the early modern period, translated or reprinted 11 novels at least four were translated to the Korean Peninsula through the path of "Western → Chinese → Korean";While Li Haichao translated Iron World (1908), the translation path is "Western → Japanese → Chinese → Korean" .
In Korea at that time, this kind of double, triple or even multiple retranslation is very common. For this reason, the modern Korean Peninsula is also called "retranslated modern times" by scholars.
(3) Topic selection and content of the translated work
Corresponding to the nature, motivation and characteristics of translation, there are not only similarities and intersecting points, but also their own characteristics in the topic selection of translated works.For example, the pilgrim's Progress, a religious novel by English novelist John Bunyan (1628-1688), was among the first western literary works translated in both countries.
This fact reflects the important role of western missionaries in the translation history of the two countries.Aesop's Fables is also one of the earliest and most frequently translated western literary works in both countries.Aesop's Fables was translated many times in both countries and included in the textbooks of the time as a children's book.After entering the modern and contemporary period, both countries highly respected historical and biographical works and political novels, and had a period of concentrated translation.For example, political novels such as "A Journey with the Wind", "Jingguo Meiyu" and "Iron World" have been translated into Chinese and English respectively.In addition, many historical and biographical works (especially the history of subjugations) were translated into The Korean Peninsula through Chinese media at that time, such as The Founding of Switzerland and Fifteen Little Heroes. As well as liang Qichao's writings or translations of the hundred Days' Coup, The History of the Fall of Vietnam, the biography of the three Heroes of the Founding of Italia, The biography of Madame Roland, and the biography of Hungarian patriot Gasus, etc.History books such as A New History of Tai Xi, a Brief History of Russia, A War in the Middle East and modern History of Egypt were also translated from Chinese versions. In the whole period of civilization, the Korean Peninsula concentrated on the translation of history, biographical works and political novels, although there is no lack of Japanese influence, but obviously The Influence of China can not be ignored.Due to reasons such as politics, current affairs and the market, the two countries in politics, history and biography of before and after the translation in the first decade of the 20th century gradually into the low tide, and other types of novels, such as science fiction, detective novels, western pure literary fiction and gradually be translated a lot, at the same time, poetry translation have greater development.It is worth mentioning that translation in both countries reached a new climax after the late decade of the first decade of the 20th century.In terms of the number and diversity of genres, China is far more diverse than The Korean Peninsula, but there are some interesting intersections in the literary translation topics of the two countries, such as Shakespeare, Hardy, Stevenson and Conan Doyle in The UK, Tolstoy, Gorky and Chekov in Russia, Tagore in India,Norway's Ibsen and other works have had a great influence in both countries.It is worth mentioning that there are obvious differences between the two countries in the topic selection of translated works as follows. The first is the translation of Japanese literature
The problem. As we all know, Japanese literature plays a very important role in the history of Chinese translation of foreign literature in the 20th century.On the Korean Peninsula, although the influence of Japanese literature is beyond doubt, and the translation of Japanese literature in the first half of the 20th century can be said to run through the whole modern translation activities of the Korean Peninsula, but the translation of Japanese literature in the Korean Peninsula itself is very few.
The reasons are mainly related to the special political and historical background of the Korean Peninsula and the control and infiltration of Japanese language in the Korean Peninsula after entering the colonial period, as well as the role of national emotional factors.Secondly, the translation and introduction of the other side's literature. In the first half of the 20th century, the literature of the two countries was not the main target of translation in each other's country, but this does not mean that there is no overlap between them. On the whole, the Korean Peninsula paid more and deeper attention to Chinese literature than China did to Korean literature during this period.After entering the modern society, under the extremely complicated and difficult cultural environment, the Korean Peninsula continued to translate Chinese vernacular novels and some classical poems in the Ming and Qing dynasties, and at the same time carried out a relatively concentrated translation of Liang Qichao, the pioneer of Chinese novel revolution. However, what is more noteworthy is his continuous translation and introduction of New Chinese literature, which started in the second half of the 1910s.Due to the special historical and geographical relationship, Korea is the first country in the world to notice China's new cultural movement except Japan. At that time, many magazines and newspapers on the Korean Peninsula introduced and reported the New Chinese literature. Some Korean intellectuals had deep feelings about the innovative atmosphere in The Chinese literary circle and hoped to provide necessary reference for the improvement and innovation of their own literature through the translation and introduction of The new Chinese literature.In a word, during the Period of Japanese rule, the Translation and introduction of modern Chinese literature in The Korean Peninsula was quite comprehensive, and many famous writers and works in the history of Chinese literature were involved in the topic selection, which played an important role in the study of Chinese literature in Korea. On the contrary, China's translation of Korean literature at that time was very limited, mainly due to the concern of "weak and weak ethnic literature", and also influenced by the war ideology of anti-japanese and national salvation, nationalism. However, in the huge history of modern Chinese literature translation, the translation of Korean literature is just a drop in the ocean and has not received enough attention. All in all, the depth and breadth of the translation of each other's works is extremely unbalanced.
(4) The translator's main body, translation strategies and methods
There are also similarities between the two countries on the subject of translators in the history of modern translation literature. In the early stage of translation activities, western missionaries played a great role. Later, famous intellectuals, social activists and literary scholars of the two countries realized the importance of translation, actively participated in translation activities, and became the leading leaders of modern translation in the two countries.For example, yan Fu, Liang Qichao and Lin Shu were active translators in early China, while xuan CAI, Pu Yinzhi, Shen Caihao and other famous scholars, thinkers and social activists led the translation during the Korean Peninsula's enlightenment period. After entering the decade of the 20th century, the translation of the two countries gradually entered the climax.Many Chinese writers, including Lu Xun, Guo Moruo and Zhou Zuoren, actively translated while writing. Choi Nam-sun and Lee Kwang-soo, leaders of Korean literature in the first decade of the 20th century, also actively translated their works.In addition, famous writers of new novels such as Lee Hae-jo, Ahn Guk-seon, and Choi Chan-sik were motivated and motivated by translation activities. With the development of translation, a number of specialized literary translators have emerged in both countries. In addition, some new women at that time also participated in the translation, such as Bing Xin from China and Kim Myung-soon from Korea.In terms of translation strategies or ways, early modern translation system is far from mature, highly standard translation way, utilitarian purpose, color thick, many translators from themselves and the needs of the audience, or excerpts and delete any reduction of the original (AD, Jane), or add their own opinions and comments in the process of translation, the tai shang ganying pian), Or in the form of translation only summarize the general idea (synopsis), for example, liang Qichao and Cui Nanshan's translation to a large extent are abridged, synopsis or translation.Generally speaking, the forms and methods of translation at that time were characterized by diversity and hybridity, which were similar in China and Korea. The reason is related to the mainstream ideology of the translation leaders who hoped to enlighten the people, enrich the country and strengthen the army through translation as soon as possible.
(5) Disputes on "Literary translation"
After literary translation gradually got on the right track and became the mainstream of translation works in the two countries, translators in the two countries gained further insights on the application, methods and techniques of translation and gradually began to express their own views on translation, whose discussions cover all aspects of translation. Such as translation methods, translation skills, translation and the status of translators, the role of translation. The opinions of different translators are bound to be different. Therefore, in the modern and contemporary period, both China and South Korea had debates on translation (literary translation). The focus and theme of the debate are similar, such as "translatable or untranslatable", "literal translation versus free translation" and so on.It is well known that in the history of modern Chinese translation, especially in the May Fourth Movement period, many writers began their literary career by translating foreign literature, and most of them published discussions on translation. The differences between different translators and groups have led to several famous debates in the history of Chinese translation. For example, lu Xun and Zhou Zuoren proposed Literal translation and related debates are typical examples. In addition, in the history of modern Chinese translation, there are also debates on "translated names", "translatable or not translatable literary works", translation methods such as mistranlation, hard translation and dead translation, and translation paths such as literal translation or retranslation.The 1920s was a period when the history of modern and contemporary translation in Korea was on the right track. Many newspapers and magazines published discussions on translation and related debates. In the history of modern translation on the Korean Peninsula, one of the most famous disputes about translation is the dispute between Jin Yi and Liang Zhudong about "literal translation" and "free translation" in poetry translation. Liang zhudong believes that poetry is untranslatable and should be literal compared with free translation. Jin Yi believes that although poetry is untranslatable, if translators exert their own subjective initiative, it can completely improve the value of translated poetry and even become a new creation. However, it is interesting that although Liang zhudong praised the method of "literal translation", he criticized the "overseas literature school" that focused on foreign literature at that time for being too rigid in the way of literal translation, and believed that "literal translation" should be organically combined with "free translation".In fact, the debate between literal translation and free translation, or "domestication" and "foreignization", is closely related to ideology.
The debate between translators in the two countries over these issues is actually carried out at the ideological level. According to venuti, a famous translation theorist of deconstruction school, the choice of translation strategy is determined by ideology.
(6) The influence of translation on the languages and literature of the two countries
In fact, the greatest influence of modern literary translation on China and South Korea is reflected in the development of characters and literature. First of all, translation must be carried out with language as the carrier. Under normal circumstances, the translated language is naturally the lingua franca of a country and a nation, but for China and South Korea in the late 19th and 20th centuries, a common problem emerged in the process of translation in terms of language carrier: At that time, both countries had two parallel language systems, which coincided with the social and cultural transition, so language translation became a very interesting topic.As we all know, in the late 19th century and the early 20th century, There were two languages in China: Classical Chinese and vernacular Chinese. Vernacular Chinese was still in the ascendant, while classical Chinese still played an important role in written and literary translation. Of course, the classical Chinese at this time refers to the late Qing Dynasty and the early Republic of China common "shallow classical Chinese", it is different from the past obscure ancient prose, but in classical Chinese mixed with common sayings, is a kind of literary language between ancient Classical Chinese and vernacular.For example, Lin Shu, a great modern translator, translated foreign literature in classical Chinese. His translation was not only welcomed by readers at that time, but also had a great influence on many famous Chinese intellectuals. In the late Qing Dynasty and the early Republic of China, there were both classical Chinese and vernacular Chinese translations, and the classical Chinese translations were more than the vernacular ones, but basically the two languages co-existed peacefully. In the process of translation, the needs of the audience should be considered. The same translator can translate in both vernacular and classical Chinese. The same foreign novel may have both classical and vernacular translations.It was not until after the New Culture Movement that the vernacular style gradually occupied the main position in written language. After the 1920s, the translated works in China were mainly in vernacular. For the development of modern Chinese vernacular, it can be said that the impact of translation is extremely far-reaching. Chinese vernacular can be divided into "traditional vernacular" and "modern vernacular".The traditional vernacular is based on a Dream of Red Mansions.
The vernacular of China represented by such vernacular classics as Water Margin, which is not influenced by western language. The "modern vernacular" is based on the traditional vernacular, influenced by oral and ancient prose and with the color of European, that is, the May 4th Movement advocated vernacular, namely the so-called European vernacular.It is worth noting that this Kind of European vernacular was actually created by western missionaries in China at that time, and the tool of missionaries to create European vernacular is translation. In order to spread religion and western culture smoothly, they translated a large number of Western books, including holy books, and consciously chose words and styles more suitable for ordinary people to read in the process of translation, which was the prototype of vernacular Chinese vigorously advocated by the May Fourth Movement.Similar to the situation in China, the Korean Peninsula in the late 19th and early 20th centuries also had two basic styles, namely, the mixed style of Chinese and Chinese and the pure Style of Chinese. It was only after the 1894-1895 Revolution that the Korean Peninsula's national language began to be widely used. It takes time for any language style to emerge and mature, and the Korean Peninsula's "pure Korean style" is no exception,In 1921, Korean language researchers formed the Korean Language Research Society under the influence of the Zhou Dynasty, which served as an opportunity for the further establishment of the modern Korean language. Before this, mixed Chinese and Korean language played an important role in the written language of the Korean Peninsula for a long time.In fact, the so-called mixed Chinese characters are based on Chinese characters, sometimes using Korean characters. The difference is that some mark Korean characters on Chinese characters, and some do not even mark Korean characters, but only Chinese characters. There is another special case, that is, the pure Chinese style with Korean auxiliary words and endings, such as the "hanging out Chinese style" used by Shen Caihao in the translation of the Biography of the Three Heroes of the Foundation of Itri.It is worth mentioning that it was also western missionaries who initially carried out translation activities in Korean. In order to preach, they carried out translation activities mainly aimed at the "Bible" in the Korean Peninsula, using the Korean language, which was not popular and was not valued by the Korean intellectuals at that time. The purpose of using The Korean language was to make the translated holy book easier for more ordinary people to accept. Kim Byeong-cheol holds that it is the translation of sacred books in the native Korean language that gave birth to the main form of modern literature on the Korean Peninsula, namely the "new novel", and thus promoted the "unity of language and language" and the emergence of modern literature in Korea.In general, the influence of translation on the development of Chinese and Korean characters and literature is far more than that. It can be said that the expansion of sentence structure, the change of style, the enrichment of vocabulary, the improvement of expressive force and the perfection of grammar system of the two languages are all inseparable from translation. In a word, translation has played an indispensable role in the unification of language and language in the history of Chinese and English literature. In addition to its role in language, translation also has a profound influence on the development of modern literature in both countries. As is known to all, the translation and introduction of a large number of foreign novels not only brought strong shock and impact to the literary circles of the two countries at that time, but also provided a lot of reference for the realization of the literary transformation of the two countries.It can be said that in the process of the collision, integration and evolution of eastern and western literature, literary translation plays a decisive external role in the transformation of Chinese and Korean literature from classical form to modern form, and has a great impact on the literary concept, literary type, narrative mode and expression mode. In this regard, researchers in China and South Korea have given positive descriptions.
==4. conclusion==
There are many similarities between China and South Korea in modern times. Under the environment of western learning spreading to the east, both of them were knocked out of the country by the West, suffered the invasion of western powers and Japan successively, and passively started the journey of modernization. Under the circumstance of deepening national crisis of domestic and foreign invasion, the enlightened intellectuals of the two countries have carried out the exploration of saving the nation from extinction, and translation is an important means for them to achieve this goal. To be specific, the historical context of the spreading of Western learning from the end of the 19th century endowed the two countries with unique historical characteristics. Due to the similarity of historical, cultural and political background and mainstream ideology, the translation of modern and contemporary literature in the two countries also presents many similarities and even intersecting points. As analyzed above, the most obvious common point in the modern translation history of China and Korea is ideology Influence throughout. For China and Korea at that time, one of the mainstream ideologies was "modernization transformation", and translation was the driving force for the modernization transformation process of the two countries. Therefore, utilitarianism and purposefulness run through the development of modern translation in both countries. In addition to the mainstream social ideology, the translator's personal ideology also has a great influence on literary translation in both countries.For example, the early translation phenomenon led by Western missionaries and the later translation activities led by intellectuals of the two countries were all carried out by translators for their personal purposes under the influence of the general environment at that time. It can be said that it is because of the influence of the subliminal form of the western learning spreading to the east that the modern and modern translations of the two countries show many similarities or similarities. Comparing the literary translation of the two countries in terms of specific content, we can find many similarities in details. For example, western missionaries played an important role at the beginning. After entering the 20th century, the translation of both countries was deeply influenced by Japan. The translation groups of the two countries were the best intellectuals and representatives of the new culture at that time. When they translated foreign works, they also carried out various discussions and even debates about translation. Translation activities have broadened the horizons of the people of the two countries and enriched their languages, literature and even culture.

It is worth mentioning that cultural exchanges between the two countries have also been continued through translation. Of course, due to the differences in specific situations, there are some differences in literary translation between the two countries while showing common features. The author believes that the biggest difference lies in the scale of translation. To be specific, from the number of translated works and translators, the discussion and construction of translation theories, the importance attached to translation, and the influence and status of translation in the history of national literature, Chinese modern translation is obviously higher. The main reason is that the translation environment and background of the two countries at that time are different, that is, the difference between complete colonies and semi-colonies. Although the Qing Dynasty fell under the background of the competition of western powers, China did not completely become a colony of any power, so it was relatively free and independent in political and cultural development. However, because Korea was annexed and ruled by Japan, it was difficult to develop modernization independently. The whole society was highly dependent on Japan, and it was also greatly restricted and influenced by Japan in terms of ideology. Translation activities were no exception.

As mentioned above, the purpose of the author's comparative study of Chinese and Korean contemporary literature translation is to restore the contemporary and contemporary literary exchanges between the two countries, and at the same time to provide necessary background for the mutual translation and introduction of the contemporary and contemporary literature of the two countries. However, the study of Chinese and Korean modern literature translation is a polyphonic and polysemy subject with a very wide range of coverage. Due to the limited space and author's ability, this paper only generalizes and arranges the subject from a macro perspective, and many details are not developed in depth. Translated works by the capacity of, for example, the sources of the related works and so on, for more exist in the two countries pay fork points to explore, in the evaluation of literature translation of words between the two countries and the specific influence of literature, especially under the background of their literary translation between the two countries the properties and significance of literary translation, etc, if you can carry out further discussion and exploration of the content, The research results will be more rich and three-dimensional.

There were many similarities between China and South Korea in modern times. Under the environment of western learning spreading to the East, both of them were knocked out of the country by the West, suffered the invasion of western powers and Japan successively, and passively started the journey of modernization. Under the circumstance of deepening national crisis of domestic and foreign invasion, the enlightened intellectuals of the two countries had carried out the exploration of saving the nation from extinction.Translation was an important means for them to achieve this goal. To be specific, the historical context of the spreading of Western learning from the end of the 19th century endowed the two countries with unique historical characteristics. Due to the similarity of historical, cultural and political background and mainstream ideology, the translation of literature in the two countries also presented many similarities and even intersecting points. As analyzed above, the most obvious common point was ideology influence. For China and Korea at that time, one of the mainstream ideologies was "modernization transformation",for which translation was the driving force. Therefore, utilitarianism and purposefulness ran through the development of modern translation in both countries. In addition to the mainstream social ideology, the translator's personal ideology also has a great influence on literary translation in both countries.For example,the early translation phenomenon led by Western missionaries and the later translation activities led by intellectuals of the two countries were all carried out by translators for their personal purposes under the influence of the general environment at that time. Without doubt, the influence of the subliminal form of the western learning spreading to the east constituted similarities between the two countries.Comparing the literary translation of the two countries in terms of specific content,we found many similarities in details. For example, western missionaries played an important role at the beginning. After entering the 20th century, the translation of both countries was deeply influenced by Japan. The translation groups of the two countries were the best intellectuals and representatives of the new culture at that time. When they translated foreign works, they also carried out various discussions and even debates about translation. Translation activities had broadened the horizons of the people and enriched their languages, literature and even culture.

It is worth mentioning that cultural exchanges between the two countries have also been continued through translation. Of course, due to the differences in specific situations, there are some differences in literary translation between the two countries while showing common features. The author believes that the biggest difference lies in the scale of translation. To be specific, from the number of translated works and translators, the discussion and construction of translation theories, the importance attached to translation to the influence and status of translation in the history of national literature, Chinese modern translation was obviously higher. The main reason was that the translation environment and background of the two countries at that time were different, that is, the difference between complete colonies and semi-colonies. Although the Qing dynasty fell under the background of the competition of western powers, China did not completely become a colony of any power, so it was relatively free and independent in political and cultural development. However, because Korea was annexed and ruled by Japan, it was difficult to develop modernization independently. The whole society was highly dependent on Japan, and it was also greatly restricted and influenced by Japan in terms of ideology. Translation activities were no exception.

As mentioned above, the purpose of the author's comparative study of Chinese and Korean contemporary literature translation is to restore the literary exchanges between the two countries, and at the same time to provide necessary background for the two countries. However, the study of Chinese and Korean modern literature translation is a polyphonic and polysemy subject with a very wide range of coverage. Due to the limited space and author's ability, this paper only generalized and arranged the subject from a macro perspective, and many details were not developed in depth, such as the sources of the related works,the evaluation of literature translation of words, the properties and significance of literary translation and so on. This paper will be more rich and three-dimensional with further discussion and exploration of the content.--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 07:59, 11 December 2021 (UTC)

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*金鹤哲: 《1949 年以前韩国文学汉译和意识形态因素》，《中国比较文学》2009 年第 4 期，第 66 页。
*金旭东[韩]: 《翻译与韩国的近代》，首尔: 小明出版社，2010，第25~28页。
*王秉钦、王颉: 《20世纪中国翻译思想史》，南开大学出版社，2004，第31页。
*许钧: 《面向中西交流的翻译史研究》，《解放军外国语学院学报》2014 年第 5 期，第 140 页。
*许钧、袁筱一编著《当代法国翻译理论》，南京大学出版社，1998，第 128 页。
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=刘沛婷 Western Translation history in Renaissance)=

刘沛婷 Liu Peiting, Hunan Normal University, China

==Abstract==
The Renaissance is not only an important period in the history of literature and technology, but also a turning point in the history of western translation. During this period, the translation of religious and literary works gradually flourished, and translators constantly put forward new translation concepts and tried translation practices.The soaring of national consciousness and national languages contributed to the characteristic ideas of translation in the Renaissance. Especially France, Britain and Germany had made outstanding contributions to the evolution and progress of the entire translation history during this period.This chapter is to have a brief introduction to the translation history in Renaissance, conduct a detailed explaination from the three countries of France, Britan and Germany respectively and illustrate some representative translators and translation theories with the hope to show the magnificent translation achievements in Renaisance and the evolvement of human translation history.

==Key words==
Translation history; renaissance; France; Britain; Germany

Translation history; Renaissance; France; Britain; Germany--[[User:Liu Wei|Liu Wei]] ([[User talk:Liu Wei|talk]]) 12:44, 14 December 2021 (UTC)Liu Wei

==Introduction==

The period from around the fourteenth until the mid-seventeenth century has conventionally been designated as the Renaissance,referring to the rediscovery and revitalization of the literature, art and science of ancient Greece and Rome. The term was devised by Italian humanists who sought to reaffirm their own continuity with the classical humanist heritage after an interlude of Middle Ages (Habib 2011：79).It was a great revolution in intellect and culture. It is also “the greatest progressive revolution that mankind has so far experienced, a time which called for giants and produced giants”.Renaissance takes spreading humanism thought as one of the main forms of expression, involving all aspects of the cultural field, including the ancient Greek, Roman works and contemporary European works. In the process of studying and reviving classical culture, as well as developing and spreading new ideas, translation obviously plays an important role. The magnificent Renaissance itself included and depended on an unprecedented scale of translation activities. Therefore, it marks not only a great development in literature, art and science, but also an important milestone in the history of translation.(Engels 1972：445)

Originated in Italy in the 15th century, and in the 16th century Renaissance swept Europe, (especially Western European countries) and gradually formed a climax. At that time, western society was filled with a spirit of seeking and conquering the objective world. When this spirit was reflected in the translation field, translators were full of ambition and spared no effort to constantly discover new literary styles, excavate new cultural heritages and transplant new ideas to their motherland. Many translators translated classic works related to politics, philosophy, social system, literature and art of past glorious countries into their national languages as reference for the development of their own countries. All achievements in translation were compared to "trophies" in literature and knowledge. Next, we are to have a review on translations history of France, Britain and Germany, three major Western European countries in the high tide of Renaissance.

From the 14th century to the middle of the 17th century, it is the Renaissance, which refers to the rediscovery and Renaissance of ancient Greek and Roman literature, art and science. The word "Renaissance" was designed by Italian Humanists who tried to reaffirm their continuity with the heritage of classical humanism, which was a great intellectual and cultural revolution. This is also "the greatest progressive revolution that mankind has experienced so far, an era that needs giants and produces giants".

The Renaissance takes the dissemination of humanism as one of the main forms of expression, involving all aspects of the cultural field, including ancient Greek, Roman and contemporary European works. Translation obviously plays an important role in the study and revival of classical culture and the development and dissemination of new ideas. The brilliant renaissance itself included and relied on unprecedented translation activities. Therefore, it not only marks the great development of literature, art and science, but also an important milestone in the history of translation. (Engels 1972:445)

The Renaissance originated in Italy in the 15th century, The 16th century swept Europe (especially in Western European countries) and gradually reached a climax. At that time, western society was full of the spirit of pursuing and conquering the objective world. When this spirit was reflected in the field of translation, translators were full of ambition, spared no effort to constantly discover new styles, excavate new cultural heritage and transplant new ideas to their motherland. Many translators put the politics of past brilliant countries into practice , philosophy, social system, literature and art are translated into their own national language as a reference for their own development. All translation achievements are compared to "trophies" of literature and knowledge. Next, we will review the translation history of France, Britain and Germany in the climax of the Renaissance. --[[User:Liu Wei|Liu Wei]] ([[User talk:Liu Wei|talk]]) 12:52, 14 December 2021 (UTC)Liu Wei

==1.History of Translation in France==

In France, during this period, the wind of restoring ancient styles began to prevail, ancient languages were valued, and ancient writers were respected. A large number of literary works of Italian humanists, such as Dante, Petrarch and Boccaccio, were introduced to France, which opened people's eyes and promoted the development of French humanist movement. Therefore, the focus of translation in France shifted from religious works to Italian classical literature works. The increasingly translation activities constituted a climax of translation history in France.Translators generally believed that translating literary works was much more difficult than translating religious works. Although translation began to reach a new climax, most of the translations were the "by-products" of literary creation, with low quality and little influence. However, in the climax of translation in France in the 16th century, there were two outstanding contributors , one is Jacques Amyot and the other is Etienne Dolet.(Tan Zaixi,2000:21)

Jacques Amyot was considered the king of translation in France. His first translation, Heliodoros’ ''Aethiopica'', was completed in 1547. Later, he translated Diodorus Siculus’s ''Bibliotheca Historica'' and, in 1559 he translated Ploutarchos’s ''Vies des Hommes illustrus'', which was Amyot’s most famous work. Amyot advocated translators’ thorough understanding of the original text and plain expressions without embellishment. He emphasized the unity of content and form, free translation and literal translation. In his translation, he borrowed words from Greek and Latin and simultaneously created a large number of words in politics, philosophy, science, literature, music and so on. He fused common people language and academic language, and therefore formed an independent style of translation and greatly enriched the French vocabulary. At that time, the French language is still in a state of confusion, Amyot and other humanists made tremendous contributions to unify the French national language.

Another great man in translation history of France was Etienne Dolet. As a famous translation theorist, Dolet advocated targeted texts’ faithfulness to the original work, which is the fundamental and indispensable principle in translation. Dolet believed that an excellent translator must be proficient in both source language and target language. He was aware of the weakness of word-by-word translation and emphasized that the translation should be consistent with the original text in style through various rhetorical devices. Ballard,a French translation theorist, argued that dolet’ translation principles constituted the rudiment of the French translation theory. What he proposed was the universal principles for translation.(Xu Jun and Yuan Xiaoyi,1998:284)

Jacques Amyot set an example for the following translation works in France in the 16th century; Etienne Dolet’s translation theories were of great significance and were the first systematic principles of translation, which were ahead of those of Germany and Britain and advanced translation studies into a higher level. Thanks to their efforts, France had earned a place in translation history during Renaissance period.

==2. History of Translation in Britain==

In Britain, the Renaissance came later than in the main countries of continental Europe, but Britain gradually kept up with others countries. During this period, the British capitalist economy developed rapidly, productivity improved greatly, and the country became increasingly prosperous , which has laid a solid material foundation for the development of literature and translation. Especially since Elizabeth came to the throne in the mid-16th century by the early 17th century, translation was flourishing. On the one hand, religious translation is in the ascendant, on the other hand, a great deal of literature from Greece, Rome and other contemporary countries was translated into English, which made English translation activities in this period one of the peaks of translation activities in Europe and even the world. Literary translation ranged from history and philosophy to poetry and drama, with the occurrence of a large number of excellent translators,who introduced ancient ingenuity to Britain, offering serious lessons not only to the Queen and politicians, but also plots and materials for dramatists and readers with the purpose of serving their country. At that time, many translators were not scholars, they were not bound by any strict translation theory, they could translate what they had at their own will. Many translations are not directly from the original texts, but from the translations or even the translation of the translation. Therefore, the scope and quantity of translation are unprecedented in Britain.In the aspect of religious translation, the translator was also influenced by humanism and the Reformation, a new understanding of the Bible arose, as well as a new attitude and a new way of dealing with the translation of the Bible. People advocated accurate translation in religious works, while for literature, the unbridled freedom of traditional translation methods persisted throughout the Elizabethan era.(Tan Zaixi,2004:71)

In Britain, the Renaissance began later than the major countries in continental Europe, but Britain developed rapidly and produced many achievements.

During this period, the British capitalist economy developed rapidly, the productivity increased greatly, and the country prospered day by day, which laid a solid material foundation for the development of literature and translation. Especially since Elizabeth ascended the throne in the middle of the 16th century and the beginning of the 17th century, translation has developed vigorously. On the one hand, religious translation is in the ascendant. On the other hand, a large number of literary works from contemporary countries such as Greece and Rome have been translated into English, which makes English translation activities in this period one of the peaks of translation activities in Europe and even the world. Literary translation ranges from history and philosophy to poetry and drama. A large number of excellent translators have emerged. They introduced the originality of ancient times into Britain, which not only provided serious lessons for the queen and politicians, but also provided plot and materials for playwrights and readers, in order to serve the country. At that time, many translators were not scholars. They were not bound by any strict translation theory. They could translate what they had at will. Many translations are not directly from the original text, but from the translation, or even the translation of the translation. Therefore, the scope and quantity of translation are unprecedented in the UK. In religious translation, the translator has also been influenced by humanism and religious reform, has a new understanding of the Bible, and has a new attitude and method to the translation of the Bible. People advocate accurate translation in religious works, while in literary works, the unbridled freedom of traditional translation methods continued throughout the Elizabethan era. (Tan Zaixi, 2004:71) --[[User:Liu Wei|Liu Wei]] ([[User talk:Liu Wei|talk]]) 12:59, 14 December 2021 (UTC)Liu Wei

====2.1 Translation of Douglas and Cheke====

Gavin Douglas (1475-1522), a famous Scottish poet and translator, published his translation of Virgil’s epic Poem ''The Aeneid'' in the early 16th century. He began his preface with a eulogy of Virgil and then launched into a serious critique of the overly liberal medieval translation. He criticized Caxton's French translation as unfaithful, as far from Virgil's original work, and "as different from the devil as st. Austin" . Douglass did not translate word by word, but freely translated. He said that if translator encountered difficult words, sentences, rhymes, one had to deviate from the original text. Douglass had added new content and new meaning to translation principles, and thus had a certain value (Amos,1920:129)

Towards the middle of the 16th century, an important figure in translation was John Cheke (1514-1557). He was a humanist and supporter of the Reformation, as well as a polyglot authority on Greek at the time and served as Principal Regent Chair Professor at Cambridge university. As a result of his popularity, Cambridge became one of the academic centers in Britain, and its students were well versed in translation and language studies.Cheke was a tireless translator,who had translated many Greek works and the Bible. Characteristically, he used only pure English words or words of Saxon origin in any case, and did not adopt any foreign words. He thought the English language was rich enough without borrowing foreign words. Because of his insist on pure English words and expressions in his translation, he sometimes had to use vulgar, old and remote words, so that the style of his translation was sometimes forced and stiff.
Cheke's theory had a great influence on contemporary translators. Many other translators often mentioned Cheke's translation views in their own translations. At that time, the main criterion for evaluating a translated work was whether it was authentic and easy to be understood by compatriots. At the same time, the study of foreign grammar and contrastive vocabulary also appeared in language studies. The translator aimed to turn the translation into a textbook for students of language and translation to imitate. Some translators also use word-for-word translation to provide guidance to students. Abraham Fleming, for example, translated Virgil's Poems "according to grammatical rules." He "used plain and understandable words so as to accommodate those who are slow in comprehension, since the translator's aim is to use straightforward language structures to ease the difficulties of those whose grammatical concepts are vague, rather than to devise ways to satisfy the desires of grander humanists" (Amos,1920:109).

====2.2 Translation from Thomas North to Georga Chapman====

However, in the translation of classical masterpieces, translators tended to shift from one extreme to another. In order to avoid word-for-word translation, translators adopted excessively free translation, which was not only for the expression of words but also for the treatment of the substance of the content. Nicholas Udall(1505-1556) created the first British comedy ''Ralph Roister Doister''. In 1542 he translated Erasmus's ''Book of Proverbs'', and later presided over Erasmus's Latin translation, including the Gospel of Luke, which was published in 1548. In the preface to the translation of the ''New Testament'', he discussed various issues related to translation: the treatment of translators, the expansion of English vocabulary, the treatment of sentence structure of the translation, Erasmus's style and the stylistic characteristics of different authors. In his opinion, translation should not follow rigid rules. He advocated the use of liberal translation without deviation from the original meaning, and the translation should be readable and understandable to the general readers.

The most famous translation work of the whole Elizabethan period was the English version of ''The live of the Noble Grecians and Romans'' by translator Thomas North (1535-1601).He studied at Cambridge University in his early years, and later worked in London, where he met many translation lovers and gradually became interested in translation. In 1557 he translated ''Diall of Princes'' from a French translation and later he translated an oriental allegory from an Italian translated version in 1601. ''The live of the Noble Grecians and Romans'' was translated in 1579. This translation was not from the original Greek version, but from Amyot's French translation. However, it was still considered as an excellent epoch-making translation. North did not express any unique views on translation, but he was famous for his excellent translation in the western translation circle with three main characteristics:(1)because it is not from the original Greek, the style of the translation is different from Plutarch's style; The original text is elegant while his translation is plain. (2) North's style is also different from that of Amio in the French translation, which he used as a model. He not only changes the wording of the French translation, but also its spirit. Like Amio's French translation, North's is another masterpiece based on Plutarch's original subject. (3) Though he knew little of the classical language, North was a master of The English language, and his translations were so simple and fluent, so elegant and idiomatic, that readers might have taken them for the original if they had not read the plot. North's translation was praised by Shakespeare, who drew his inspirations from this translated works and cited its expressions, which can be considered a terrific contribution of translation to literature. The prose style adopted by ''The live of the Noble Grecians and Romans'' is novel and elegant, neither rigid nor grotesque, and hence it has become an enduring model in the history of English translation.(Tan Zaixi, 2004:76)

Philemon Holland (1552-1637) was the most outstanding English translator of the 16th century, whose works outnumbered those of his contemporaries. He had been a surgeon and headmaster of Coventry General School. He was a learned translator and scholar, fluent in Greek and Latin, proficient in ancient writing and proverbs, as well as rhetoric. His classical works were not translated but directly from the Original Greek and Latin texts, and the subject matter was also varied. He translated Livy's Romane Historie in 1600 and Pliny's Natural Historie in 1601, Plutarch's Moralia in 1603, and translated Zitonius's The Historie of The Twelve Caesars in 1606. Hollander is better known in British translation circles than North or Florio, known as the Elizabethan "translator general" who truly understood "the secret of translation." Holland's translation has two main characteristics :(1) translation must serve the reality; (2) Translation must be stylistic. In the preface to his translation of Natural History, he emphasized, "the practicality of the content of the translation, which should be suitable not only for learned people, but also for the uncivilized peasants in the countryside and for the industrious craftsmen in the cities”. Hollander was particular about the style of his translation. Like other translators of his time, he used a slow prose style, and the translation was always longer than the original. In his translation he tried to be authentic, not foreign. He does not use artificial language, but popular style. Like Cheke before him, he also preferred archaic words to foreign ones out of love for the language of his own country. What’s more, he believed that the style of the original work must be reflected in the translation, and that different works must adopt different styles without adding differences. Hollander had left behind more than just translations, but a series of works with distinctive stylistic characteristics that could withstand even the rigors of modern stylist analysis and provide the modern reader with great pleasure.(Amos,1920:86)

Georga Chapman (1559-1634) was another outstanding translator, whose greatest contribution is that his translations serve as a bridge between the 16th and 17th centuries. He spent his early years as a student at Oxford University before writing poetry and plays. But it was mainly his translations that made him famous in the literary world. He translated the first seven books of the Iliad in 1598, completed the epic in 1611, and the Odyssey in 1616. The translator's profound attainments and outstanding achievements made his translation a literary masterpiece of the time. Chapman adopted two different styles to translate the same poetic style of the original work, that is, he translated Iliad in sonnet and Odyssey in heroic couplet. In contrast, the former is more appropriate and decent than the latter. In his translation, Chapman made extensive use of mythological dictionaries, referred to early reviews of Homer's work. However, both in content and style, the translation is not completely consistent with the original work. It has transformed the characters in the poem, and added elements of moral preaching to the value of wisdom and the expression and restraint of feelings. Chapman is unblemished as a translator. As a poet, however, he was blameless. His translation has achieved great success mainly because of his extraordinary creative ability as a poet and superb ability to control language.
Chapman also made some contributions to the theoretical issues of translation. In the preface of his translation, he clearly put forward the principles guiding the translation of poetry, thus filling some gaps in translation theory in the 16th century, especially in the later period. In principle, he was against too much strictness as well as too much freedom. He said, "I despise the translators for being trapped in the mire of word-for-word translation, losing the living soul of their native language and blackening the original author with stiff language. At the same time, I abhors the use of complicated language to express the meaning” (Amos,1920:130) . Of all that he opposed, the first was word for word translation,which was considered the most unnatural and absurd. According to the views of translation theories such as Horace, who had insight and a prudent attitude that the translator should not follow the original number of words and word order, but follow its material composition and sentences, carefully weigh sentences, and then use the most appropriate expressions and form to express and decorate the translation. Chapman believed that word-by-word translation was a common fault of translators, and even he himself was inevitable. But those mistakes could be overcome. Although the expression of meaning and language style of Greek and English are different, the translator could compare the translation with the original text in meaning and style as long as he carefully identified, understood the spirit of the original text and had a thorough understanding of its grammar and vocabulary and thus approximately achieved "formal correspondence". Chapman's theory was carried on by many translators of the 17th and 18th centuries. This was obviously because he opposed both extremes, and it was easier to argue for a compromise.(Catford,1965:32)

====2.3 Translation of Tyndale and Fulke====

In the 16th century, the translation of the English Bible also flourished. Since the introduction of ethnic translation in the Middle Ages, the Bible had been increasingly read. It had the same appeal for all classes of people, which prompted translators to combine the accuracy required by scholars with the intelligibility required by ordinary people, thus promoting the overall development of translation art and theory. In this respect, religious translation in England in the 16th century was more effective than literary translation. Tyndale and Fulke were the main representatives of bible translation.

William Tyndale (1494-1536) was an erudite humanist and protestant reformist. In 1523, his translation of the New Testament from Greek from a Protestant standpoint was opposed and persecuted by the English church authorities and was not allowed to be published. He fled to Germany in 1524 and, after many twists and turns, had his translation first published in 1525. In 1526, he smuggled the translation back to England against the will of the Church, trying to spread Protestant ideas through the new translation of the Bible and convert The English people to Protestants. The church authorities immediately took measures to lay siege. The Bishop of London claimed to have found 2,000 errors in Tyndale's translation. Thomas More, a famous humanist, attacked his translation very unkindly, and the priests bought all the copies they could get and burned them to prevent their proliferation. Uncompromising, Tyndale continued to translate the Bible in his own way: he translated the first book of the Old Testament in 1530, completed The Book of Jonah in 1531, and published the revised New Testament in 1534. The church authorities had no choice but to burn Tyndale in 1536 for heresy.
Tyndale's translation, however, had not disappeared but was republished after Tyndale's martyrdom and became increasingly influential, serving as the main reference version and as the model for all English translations for centuries to come. The greatest achievement of Tyndale's translation is that it takes into account the needs of academe, conciseness and literariness, and integrates these three elements into the style of English translation of the Bible. Tyndale paid special attention to the popularity of the translation, trying to use the authentic English vocabulary and ordinary narrative expressions of vivid and specific expressions, which makes his text simple and natural without being pedantic.(Tan Zaixi,2004:80)

If Tyndale made a special contribution to the practical translation of the Bible in the 16th century, then it was William Fulke (1538-1589)who made the greatest achievements in the theoretical study of bible translation. Fulke was a scholar of The Bible with humanistic thoughts. Without translating the Bible completely, he had great views on translation theory. In 1589 he published a book entitled in Defence of the Sincere and True Translation of the Holy Scriptures into the English Tongue. It must be pointed out that Fulke did not systematically discuss the universal principles of translation as Dolet did. Instead, he only talked about the facts and refuted Gregory Martin's views, and expounded the theoretical issues in a rather chaotic manner. To sum up, there were mainly two aspects as follows:
(1)Translation can have nothing to do with faith. Fulke, influenced by Erasmus's linguistic approach, disagreed with Martin's assertion of theological authority over scientific scholarship. Translators, he believed, must be fluent in many languages so that they could make accurate judgments about the teachings of the saints without blindly following them. The power of a translator lies in his solid linguistic ability, not in his belief in God. He said, The translator cannot be called an unfaithful heretic as long as the translation conforms to the language and meaning of the original text, even if the motive is not good (Amos,1920:71). Fulke never accepted Martin's strict translation formulas, nor did he submit to unproven authoritative theories, even from the leaders of his own faction. Fulke’s point of view is obviously a challenge to the theological authority of Augustine with its purpose to liberate the Bible translation from the narrow theological tradition and win the right for ordinary people to translate and interpret the Bible.
(2)The Translation of the Bible must respect linguistic habits. If the translator has difficulty in understanding the original text, he/she should turn to the language habits of ancient non-religious writers, while one encounters difficulties in diction, translator should refer to the language habits of contemporary secular writers and the general public. Fulke added: "We are not lords dictating the way people speak. If we were, we would teach them how to use language better. Since we cannot change the way people speak, we have to follow Aristotle's instructions and use the language of ordinary people." Therefore, religious usage should give way to common usage if it is in conflict with common usage. In translation, words and expressions that are most easily understood must be used so that those who do not know their etymological meaning can understand them. At the same time, if words have been misused over a long period of time, with meanings that do not correspond to the original meaning of the words, or have been misused to increase the ambiguity of the words, the translator should not follow blindly, but should look to the root and choose the words according to their original meaning, that is, according to the meaning used in the time when the Bible was written. In translating the Bible into English, Fulke did not advocate excessive borrowing of foreign words but tapping the expressive potential of English itself and paying attention to the use of expressions in line with English habits. Fulke acknowledged that English had a small vocabulary compared with older languages, but argued that this could not be compensated for by making up words, but by using Old English words again.
Clearly, some of Mr Fulke's views are limited and conservative. Many of the foreign words he objects to have been adopted as part of the English vocabulary. But many of his criticisms of Martin are convincing, and his work has been generally praised by the translators of the Bible. Some of his observations on language are so incisive that they are still of great reference value to the study of modern English.(Amos,1920:72)

==3.History of Translation in Germany==

In Germany, the national self-consciousness was further strengthened, and the trend of mechanical imitation of Latin gradually disappeared in the 15th century.

====3.1 Dominant Ideas in German Translation====

Linguists realized the unique style and expressive ability of German, and hence shifted the focus of translation from the original language to the target language. Free translation took the place of word-to-word translation and occupied the dominant position. The only reason for translators to object literal translation is its convenience for readers to understand word-by-word translation.
Gradually, scholars recognized that Hebrew, Greek, and Latin all have distinct features, especially in terms of idiomatic expressions. Similarly, since German is an independent language, it also has its own unique expressions that cannot be translated word by word into other languages, nor can expressions in other languages be translated word by word into German. Based an an understanding of the nature and differences of languages as well as a growing sense of nationality and desire to develop the national language, more and more historians and scholars have begun to use German idiomatic expressions rather than imitate Latin.
Against the background of this trend of thought, the free translators gradually changed their inferiority in the debates with the literal translators in the 15th century, and rightly put forward another profound reason against literal translation: German is an independent language with its own rules that must be respected; German has its own language style, which cannot be destroyed by imitation of other languages. This was the dominant idea in German translation throughout the 16th century.

====3.2 Translation of Reuchlin, Erasmus and Luther====

Johannes Reuchlin(1455-1522) aroused great academic interest in Hebrew. In 1515, he wrote Epistolae Obscurorum Virorum, exposing the narrow-mouthing ignorance of the scholars and monks, which led to a fierce debate between the reformers and conservatives in the church. At the same time, he was also very knowledgeable about translation theory. He mainly translated two works, ''Batrachom Yomachia'' (1510) and ''Septem Psalmos Poenitentiales'' (1512), using word-for-word translation. This contradicts his own remarks about translation.
However, its actual content and general principles could not be compared to those of the literal translation school in the 15th century. The literatrists of the 15th century only emphasized the imitation of certain rhetorical forms of the text, while Reuchlin understood the value of rhythm and the difference between the text and the translation. He believed that the form of the original was so closely integrated with the original that it could not be preserved in the target language. Just like Homer's works alive only in Greek, it would detract from the aesthetic value of literature when translated into any other language. The purpose of literal translation was not to ask the translator to imitate the style of the original text, but to make readers pay attention to the style of the original text and appreciate its literary value.(Tan Zaixi,2004:56)

Another outstanding representatives of a new approach to literary study and new insights into translation theory in the 16th century was Desiderius Erasmus (1466-1536), who was born in a priest's family in Rotterdam, Netherlands. His early education was influenced by The Canon of Augustine. After studying in Paris, he lived successively in Britain, Germany, Italy and Switzerland, accepting humanism and opposing scholasticism. He was knowledgeable, good at language studies, and had profound attainments in Greek and Latin literature, especially his incisive treatises on literature and style.
Erasmus advocated that the original work must be respected. Before Erasmus, the Translation of the Bible in Various European countries was in a state of confusion. Erasmus bitterly pointed out that the translation and commentary of the Bible must be faithful to the original text, because no translation can fully translate the "language of God" as the Bible itself. Early theologians did not understand Hebrew or Greek and could not understand the original text of the Bible, so the truth of the Bible was covered up, distorted, or ossified into dogma. To uncover this truth, we must go back to the source. It is truth, not authority, that should be respected. What’s more, he claimed that translator must have a rich knowledge of language. He believed that to interpret the ''New Testament'' correctly it was necessary to learn ancient Greek; Anyone who wished to pursue theological studies must first be able to read the classics and learn Greek semantics, meanings, and rhetoric. Also, he realized the great importance of style in translation and attached great importance to readers’ requirements. There is no doubt that Erasmus' translation theory is the result of his humanistic thought, his mastery of multiple languages as well as his appreciation of literary styles. His translation principles and methods have exerted great influence on both contemporary and later translators.

Martin Luther (149-146) was the founder of the European Religious Reform movement and the Protestant Church reformer. Luther translated the Bible, known as “the first bible of common people” in the history by using the people's language, which played a great role in unifying the German language and laid a foundation for the formation and development of modern German.
He also proposed that translation should adopt common people language and only appropriate free translation can bring the original enlightening thoughts of Bible into light. (Luther,1530:124) Grammatical correction and semantic coherence were of great value during translation. Translation was so challenging that it requires collective wisdom and repeatedly revisions.
Luther had also put forward seven rules for translation: the word order of the original text can be changed; modal particles can be used reasonably; necessary conjunctions can be added; words in the original text that do not have an equivalent can be omitted; phrases can be used to translate individual words; figurative usage and non-figurative usage can be changed flexibly; the accuracy of variant forms and explanations should be strengthened. Although Luther’s translation practice received a great deal of criticism, his translation of Bible his was considered to be the earliest written language in German and opened a new era in the development of modern German. It endowed him with the highest reputation and the most profound influence in Germany.(Xie Tianzhen,2009:23)

==Conclusion==
It could be seen from the above sections that one of the biggest characteristics of Western translation during the Renaissance was the parallel and independent development of the translation of western European national languages. The use of Latin, though still having some market, was a tributary in both writing and translation. Before the Renaissance, especially before the middle ages, when we talked about western translation, we mostly meant translation in Latin. Since the Renaissance, with the gradual formation and consolidation of national states and the development of national languages, western translation had turned to national languages,especially French, English and German.The translation activities in the Renaissance period were basically devoid of disciplinary consciousness, and the theories were fragmentary and unsystematic. Most of the authors were translation practitioners, and most of the theories were empirical. Thanks to the translators in these three countries who were devoted themselves to the study of translation principles and the transmission of classic works, their consistant and pain-staking efforts had pushed the translation theory to anew level and left countlessly valueable translated works.Therefore, the Renaissance could be said to be a turning point in the history of western translation. In short, the Renaissance marks that the translation of national languages has been firmly on the historical stage, and that translation practice and theory have broken away from the dark Middle Ages.It also laid a solid foundation for the contemporary translation. (Pan Wenguo,2002:23)

As can be seen from the above chapters, in the Renaissance, the greatest feature of western translation theory was the parallel and independent development of Western European national language translation. Although before the Renaissance, especially before the middle ages, when we talk about western translation, we mainly refer to Latin translation. However, since the Renaissance, with the gradual formation and consolidation of the nation-state and the development of national languages, western translation has turned to national languages, especially French, English and German.

However, we have to pay attention to the shortcomings of translation activities in the Renaissance. First, translators' translation theories are scattered and fragmented, lacking discipline consciousness and systematicness. Second, most translators are empirical, and the quality of their works is uneven.

Because the translators of these three countries are committed to the study of translation principles and the dissemination of classical works, their unremitting efforts have pushed translation theory to a new height and left countless valuable translation works. Therefore, the Renaissance can be said to be a turning point in the history of western translation. In short, the Renaissance marks that the translation of national languages has been firmly on the historical stage, and the translation practice and theory have been separated from the dark middle ages. This has also laid a solid foundation for contemporary translation. (Pan Wenguo, 2002:23) --[[User:Liu Wei|Liu Wei]] ([[User talk:Liu Wei|talk]]) 13:11, 14 December 2021 (UTC)Liu Wei

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Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2000). 翻译学[M] Translation Studies. 武汉：湖北教育出版社 Wuhan: Hubei Educational Press.

Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2004).西方翻译简史[M] A Short History of Translation in the West. 北京：商务印书馆 Beijing: The Commercial Press.

Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2003). 翻译研究新视野[M] New Perspective for Translation Studies. 青岛：青岛出版社 Qingdao: Qingdao Publishing.

Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2009).中西翻译简史[M] A Brief History of Translation in China and the West.北京:北京外语教学与研究出版社 Beijing:Foreign Language Teachinng and Research Press.

Xu Jun, Yuan Xiaoyi 许钧，袁筱一. (1998). 当代法国翻译理论[M] Contemporary Translation Thoery in France.南京：南京大学出版社 Nanjing: Nanjing University.

=刘薇 Contemporary American Translation History)=

Liu Wei 刘薇 Hunan Normal University, China

==Abstract==
The United States is an important part of the "West", so when we talk about the conception of "West", it is impossible not to include the United States.Therefore, this chapter combs the development of contemporary American translation by introducing a series of theories of American Translators.

The United States is an important part of the "West", so when we talk about the conception of "West", it is impossible to exclude the United States.Therefore, this chapter recapitulates the development of contemporary American translation by introducing a series of theories of American Translators. (corrected by--[[User:Zhou Junhui|Zhou Junhui]] ([[User talk:Zhou Junhui|talk]]) 08:48, 14 December 2021 (UTC))

==Key words==
translation theory of American, Eugene Nida,Robert Boogrand.

==Introduction==

In the field of translation studies, the situation in the United States is very special.Since the history of the United States itself is not long, we can not expect to talk about "ancient American translation theory", "medieval American translation theory", or even "modern American translation theory".American translation theory is mainly the "contemporary translation theory", which is developed after World War II (Guo Jianzhong, [introduction]: 2).Although the development of American translation theory is relatively short, there are still many influential translation theorists, such as Eugene Nida, Robert Boogrand, Andre Leverville, Lawrence Venudi, Edwin Gentzler and so on. They are constantly innovating and developing new theories in the field of translation.

In the field of translation studies, the situation in the United States is very special.Since the history of the United States itself is not long, we can not expect to talk about "ancient American translation theory", "medieval American translation theory", or even "modern American translation theory".American translation theory is mainly the "contemporary translation theory", which is developed after World War II (Guo Jianzhong, [introduction]: 2).Although the development of American translation theory is relatively short, there are still many influential translation theorists, such as Eugene Nida, Robert Boogrand, Andre Leverville, Lawrence Venudi, Edwin Gentzler and so on. They are constantly innovating and developing new theories in the field of translation. (corrected by --[[User:Zhou Junhui|Zhou Junhui]] ([[User talk:Zhou Junhui|talk]]) 08:48, 14 December 2021 (UTC))

==Chapter1 Characteristics of the local American translation theory ==

The development of contemporary American translation theory has three main characteristics: first, it inherits the tradition of European translation theory in terms of overall research methods;Second, the early studies were mostly influenced by the schools of American structural linguistics;Third, there is a tendency to catch up in research results.These characteristics are discussed one by one below.(Tan Zaixi,1999:237)

On the first point, the inheritance of European tradition in the overall research method of American translation theory is due to its unique language and cultural tradition.As an integral part of the whole culture, translation culture naturally presents the basic characteristics of the development of the whole culture.Since the American culture with English as the national language is mainly inherited from European culture, the development of American translation culture, as an integral part of American culture, also inherits European translation culture.Especially in the early stage of the development of American translation theory, many influential people engaged in translation studies were immigrants from Europe or descendants of recent European immigrants.

Take Thorman as an example: his translation theory work the art of translation published in 1901 is one of the earliest published works in the field of American translation theory, but the contents and discussion methods involved in the book have no obvious "American characteristics".On the contrary, it is more like a work belonging to Europe, especially the British translation tradition. Even the examples in the book are similar to the European, especially the British translation tradition.

The second characteristic of the tradition of American translation theory is that the early studies were greatly influenced by the schools of American structural linguistics, which can be said to be a more distinctive "American characteristic" in American translation studies.

American linguistic studies are at the forefront of the West in many aspects. There have been many linguistic schools, such as human language school, structuralism school, transformational generative school and so on. All kinds of schools have also had various direct or indirect effects on American translation studies.

The representative of American structuralist language school is Bloomfield. He adopts the method of behaviorism and believes that everything about language can be studied scientifically and objectively.He put forward a behaviorist semantic analysis method, which holds that meaning is the relationship between stimulus and language response.In 1950s, Chomsky's transformational generative theory replaced Bloomfield's theory and occupied the dominant position in American linguistics theory and occupied the dominant position in American linguistics.The influence of Chomsky's theory on translation studies mainly lies in his discussion of surface structure and deep structure.The concept of "deep" has led to large-scale semantic research. Because semantics is closely related to translation research, Chomsky's theory has promoted the development of translation theory in the United States and even the whole west.(Xie Tianzhen ,2003:200)

Therefore, under the influence of various linguistic theories, many people try to put forward new translation concepts and research methods. These people can be collectively referred to as the structural School of American translation theory.Among them, the main characters include Wojilin, Bolinger, Katz, Quinn and Eugene Nida.

Take Wojilin as an example. He is a human linguist.His greatest contribution is to put forward a multi-step translation method (also known as step-by-step translation method).The biggest advantage of his multi-step translation method is that the steps are clear, flexible and easy to master.

Using Chomsky's transformational generative theory, Boringer puts forward a concept of structural translation as opposed to lexical translation.Based on structural linguistics, Katz makes a profound analysis of the translatability of language and the philosophical problems in language and translation.Based on the discussion of strange language, Quinn expounds some basic problems of translation from the perspective of philosophy, which has aroused great repercussions in the field of western translation theory.(Tan Zaixi,1999:250)

The third characteristic of the development of American translation theory is that it has a tendency to catch up with others in research results.One of the most prominent scholars is Eugene Nida. Although he is an outstanding linguist, his views on "translation is science", "translation is communication", "translation must pay attention to reader response" and other aspects are an innovation and breakthrough to the previous views. In addition, after Eugene Nida, many scholars have put forward many new views because of their existence,It was only after World War II that American translation theory continued to catch up.

Therefore, we will focus on him in the next chapter.

On the first point, the inheritance of European tradition in the overall research method of American translation theory is due to its unique language and cultural tradition.As an integral part of the whole culture, translation culture naturally presents the basic characteristics of the development of the whole culture.Since the American culture with English as the national language is mainly inherited from European culture, the development of American translation culture, as an integral part of American culture, also inherits European translation culture.Especially in the early stage of the development of American translation theory, many influential people engaged in translation studies were immigrants from Europe or descendants of recent European immigrants.(corrected by --[[User:Zhou Junhui|Zhou Junhui]] ([[User talk:Zhou Junhui|talk]]) 08:48, 14 December 2021 (UTC))

==Chapter2 Eugene Nida's translation theory==

Eugene Albert Nida (1914 -) was born in Oklahoma City in the south central United States. He graduated from the University of California, Los Angeles in 1936. In 1943, he worked in Bloomfield and fries (Charles fries received his doctorate in linguistics under the guidance of two famous scholars. As the leading translation theory figure in contemporary America, Nida has also engaged in research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology and communication engineering. Before his retirement in the 1980s, he worked in the Translation Department of the American Holy Bible Association and served as the executive secretary of the translation department for a long time. He is mainly engaged in the Bible Organization of translation and revision of translations and the Bible Training and theoretical guidance for translators. He is proficient in many languages and has investigated and studied more than 100 languages, especially some small languages in Africa and Latin America. In 1968, he served as the president of the American language society. Although he does not take teaching as his career, he has extremely rich experience in Translation training and lecturing. In addition to a long-term part-time job, he speaks linguistics in the famous American summer In addition to teaching linguistics and translation courses in the Institute, he also served as a guest lecturer and professor in many American universities. He was often invited to give short-term lectures in Europe, Latin America, Africa and Asia, and won several honorary doctorates. In order to recognize his contribution to translation research, especially in the field of Bible translation research, the American Bible Association named the Institute after him in 2001 In particular, Nida has deep feelings for China. Since 1982, he has been invited to give lectures in China more than ten times, and has maintained close academic contacts and exchanges with many schools and academic colleagues in China for a long time.(Tan Zaixi,2000:247)

Nida is a prolific language and translation theorist. From 1945 to 2004, he published more than 200 articles and more than 40 works (including works cooperated and edited with others). Among them, there are more than 20 works on language and translation theory, and a collection of papers has been published.

His research achievements include "Toward a Science of Translating" published in 1964, "The Theory and Practice of Translation" Co authored with Charles Taber in 1969, "Com ponential Analysis of Meaning " published in 1975 and "language structure and Translation" . Nida's anthology "Language Structure and Translation : Essays by Eugene A. Nida，ed. by Anwar S. Dil" , "From One Language to Another" , co authored with de warrd in 1986, "The Sociolinguistics of Interlingual Communication" , published in 1996 and published in 2001 "Language and Culture :Contertsin Translating" .(Xie Tianzhen.2003:212)

Throughout Nida's translation thought, we can divide it into three main development stages: the linguistic stage with obvious American structuralism in the early stage, the stage of translation science and translation communication in the middle stage, and the stage of social semiotics.

The first major stage is the linguistic stage, from 1943 when he wrote his doctoral thesis "a summary of English syntax" to 1959 when he published "principles of translation from biblical translation".At this stage, he tries to clarify the structural nature of language through the description of syntax, morphology and language translation.In his early days, he was greatly influenced by American structuralist Bloomfield and human linguist Sapir, and paid attention to the collection and analysis of language materials in language research.Through the opportunity to visit and contact different languages all over the world, many examples of speech differences are collected.However, he does not regard speech differences as insurmountable obstacles between languages, but as different phenomena of the same essence.

The second development stage of Nida's translation thought is the stage of translation science and translation communication. It took 10 years from the publication of "principles of translation from biblical translation" in 1959 to the publication of "translation theory and practice" in 1969.The research achievements at this stage have played a key role in establishing Nida's authoritative position in the whole western translation theory circle.
By summarizing this main development period, the main contents of the following five aspects can be summarized:

（一）Translation science.Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill, but also a science.The so-called science here means that translation problems can be handled by "scientific approaches to language structure, semantic analysis and information theory", that is, a linguistic and descriptive method can be adopted to explain the translation process.If the principles and procedures of translation seem to be normative, it is only because they are generally considered to be the most useful in a specific scope of translation.Nida's view that "translation is science" has had great repercussions in the field of western linguistics and translation theory.

（二） Translation communication theory. Nida applies communication theory and information theory to translation studies and holds that translation is communication. After World War II, not only advertisers, politicians and businessmen attached great importance to the intelligibility of language, but also scholars, writers, editors, publishers and translators realized that any information would be worthless if it could not play a communicative role. Therefore, to judge whether a translation is successful, we must first see whether it can be immediately understood by the recipient and whether it can play a role in the communication of ideas, information and feelings. Therefore, in the field of translation research, various names and statements such as "communicative translation", "functional translation" and related "equal response theory", "equal effect theory", "equal role theory" and "equal power theory" have sprung up one after another. Nida's "translation is communication" and his "reader response theory" and "dynamic equivalence" discussed below“ "Functional equivalence" has become an important representative of the communicative school in the field of western translation studies.

Nida's theory of "translation is communication" is based on the theory of language commonality. Nida, like Jacobson, believes that all languages in the world have the same expression ability, which can enable native speakers of the language to express ideas, describe the world and carry out social communication. His argument is based on the same "identity" For example, in countries with relatively developed productive forces, many scientific and technological words will appear in their languages, while in countries with less developed or very low productive forces, there may be a lack of scientific and technological words in their languages. However, this does not mean that the latter has the same expressive ability as the former, but only shows that people have different requirements for languages in different languages, It is not because the language cannot produce scientific and technological vocabulary, but because the speakers of the language do not have or temporarily do not have the requirement to use scientific and technological vocabulary. Once there is such a requirement, there will be corresponding vocabulary in the language, or "native" scientific and technological vocabulary, or "foreign" vocabulary transplanted from foreign words. In short, the expression efficiency of various languages is the same.

Nida believes that the primary task of translation is to make it clear to the readers at a glance after reading the translation. That is to say, the translation should be fluent and natural, and the readers can understand it without the knowledge of the cultural background of the source language. This requires that rigid foreign words should be used as little as possible in translation, and expressions belonging to the receiving language should be used as much as possible. For example, in a Sudanese language, for If the expression "repent and reform" is translated directly, it will make people feel at a loss, and it should be translated into the local familiar "spitting on the ground in front of someone". For example, in the language without "Snow", white as snow may be puzzling, but it should be said "white as frost" or "white as egret hair" Another example is that in the ancient West, the habit of people meeting and greeting each other was "sacred kiss", but now it should become "very warm handshake".(Nida·Eugene,1996:234）

In a sense, the theory of translation communication is not only one of the main symbols of Nida's second development stage of translation thought, but also one of the biggest characteristics of his whole ideological system.Especially after the publication of translation theory and practice, Nida's translation communication theory has had a great impact on the western translation circles, including those in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union.

（三） Dynamic equivalence theory.The so-called dynamic equivalence translation is actually translation under the guidance of translation communication theory. Specifically, it refers to "reproducing the source language information with the closest (original) natural equivalence in the receiving language from semantics to style".In this definition, there are three key points: one is "nature", which means that the translation cannot have a translation cavity;The second is "close", which refers to selecting the translation with the closest meaning to the original text on the basis of "nature";The third is "equivalence", which is the core.Both "nature" and "close" serve to find equivalents.

（四） Translation function theory.From the perspective of sociolinguistics and language communicative function, Nida believes that translation must serve the reader.To judge whether a translation is correct or not, we must take the reader's response as the criterion.If the response of the target readers is basically the same as that of the original readers, the translation can be considered successful.

（五） Four step model.This refers to the translation process.Nida puts forward that the process of translation is: analysis, transfer (transfer the meaning obtained from the analysis from the source language to the receiving language), reorganization (reorganize the translation according to the rules of the receiving language), and inspection (detect the target text against the source text).Among these four steps, "analysis" is the most complex and key, which is the focus of Nida's translation research.The focus of the analysis is semantics. He distinguishes four parts of speech from the perspective of semantics: object words, activity words, abstract words and relational words.In semantic analysis, he introduced three methods: linear analysis, hierarchical analysis and component analysis.In the specific analysis of semantics, he focuses on grammatical meaning, referential meaning and connotative meaning (or emotional meaning and associative meaning).These distinction theories are of great significance to understand his translation thought.

Nida's research achievements in the 1980s can be regarded as the third stage of translation thought.He has made a series of modifications and supplements to his translation theory.He did not completely abandon the theory of the original communicative school, but further developed on the original basis and incorporated the useful elements of the original theory into a new model, which is the social semiotics model in the third development stage translation thought.

Compared with previous works, Eugene Nida has the following four changes and developments in from one language to another: first, based on the translation theory of social semiotics, he emphasizes that everything in the text has meaning, including speech form, so form cannot be easily sacrificed.That is to say, form is also meaningful. Sacrificing form means sacrificing meaning.Secondly, it points out that the rhetorical features of language play an important role in language communication, so we must pay attention to these features in translation.Third, the theory of "dynamic equivalence" is no longer used, but replaced by "functional equivalence", which is intended to make the meaning of the term clearer and easier to understand.Fourth, instead of using the distinction of grammatical meaning, referential meaning and associative meaning, meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, and all kinds of meaning are divided into referential meaning and associative meaning.From the whole historical process of the development of translation theory, it should be said that these changes are basically positive.(Nida·Eugene,1996:222）

Of course, his theory and works are not perfect.First, his theory focuses too much on solving the problems of communicative and intelligibility of translation, so its scope of application is limited.It is natural to emphasize the intelligibility of the translation in the field of Bible translation, but if the intelligibility of the translation is always put in the first place in the translation of secular literary works, it will inevitably lead to the simplification and even non literariness of the translated language.

Second, he no longer completely negates "formal correspondence", but believes that the expression form of the original text cannot be broken at will in translation.In order to expand the scope of application of his theory, he also added rhetoric.However, despite his amendments, he failed to elaborate more deeply on his new views.

Thirdly, Eugene Nida once put forward the proposition that "translation is science", and then basically abandoned this proposition.Whether he put forward or gave up, he did not put forward sufficient and convincing arguments, which can not be said to be a major defect.

Of course, Nida's theory and works are not perfect. Firstly, his theory focuses too much on solving the problems of communicative and intelligibility of translation, so its scope of application is limited. It is natural to emphasize the intelligibility of the translation in the field of Bible translation, but if the intelligibility of the translation is always put in the first place in the translation of secular literary works, it will inevitably lead to the simplification and even non literariness of the translated language. Newmark, a British translation theorist, once pointed out: "if we delete all the metaphors in the Bible that Doneda believes readers cannot understand, it will inevitably lead to a large loss of meaning." . an important feature of literary works is that they use more metaphorical and novel language. The author's real intention may have to taste and capture between the lines. If all the metaphorical images in the original work are deleted and all the associative meanings are clearly stated, the result will be that the translation is easy to understand, but it is dull and can't reach To the purpose of literature. In recent years, Nida has become more and more aware of this, and has constantly revised and improved some of his past views. For example, he later no longer focused on the intelligibility of the translation, but advocated a "three nature principle", that is, the principle of paying equal attention to comprehensibility, readability and acceptability. In addition, he no longer completely denied "formal correspondence" In order to expand the scope of application of his theory, he especially added rhetoric. However, despite Nida's amendments, he failed to make a more profound exposition of his new views; he was only aware of the existence of the problem rather than successfully solving the relevant problems Besides, Nida once put forward the proposition that "translation is science", and then basically gave up this proposition. Whether he put forward or gave up, he did not put forward sufficient and convincing arguments, which is a major defect.

Of course, flaws do not hide the jade. Looking at Nida's lifelong contributions, he is one of the most outstanding theoretical figures in the field of contemporary translation studies in the United States and even the whole west. The historical theory of the development of western translation theory should give him a heavy pen.(Tan Zaixi,2000:257)

==Chapter3 Robert Boogrand's translation theory==

Since the 1970s, more voices outside the structural language school and the communicative school have gradually emerged in the field of translation studies in the United States, especially the voice of discourse linguistics theory and discourse analysis represented by Robert Boogrand.
Boogrand teaches in the English Department of the University of Florida and is engaged in the study of literary discourse rhetoric and grammatical structure.In 1978, he published a book called "elements of translation theory of poetry"), which was listed as one of the Translation Studies Series edited by Holmes and attracted extensive attention.(Xie Tianzhen,2003:56)

Boogrand's view is: 1. The unit of translation is not a single word or sentence, but the whole text.2. Translation is a process of interaction among authors, translators and readers.3. What is worth studying is not the characteristics of the article itself, but the skills of language use reflected in these characteristics.

After the publication of the above translation theory works guided by the thought of discourse linguistics in 1978, Boogrand continued to engage in the research of language and translation along the same line, and more than ten relevant works (including Works CO authored and co edited with others) have been published successively, mainly including discourse, discourse and process: multidisciplinary discourse science exploration Linguistic Theory: Discourse of basic works, introduction to discourse linguistics, language discourse, Western and Middle East translation Boogrand has always expounded language and translation from the perspective of discourse linguistics, thus establishing his important position as the leader of discourse linguistics in the field of British and American translation studies. Boogrand's contribution as one of the pioneers of discourse analysis and discourse linguistics in translation studies is very important and worthy of full recognition.(Tan Zaixi,2000:256)

==Chapter4 Andre Lefevere's translation theory==

With the development of the times, translation studies in the United States, like other parts of the west, have been continuously improved in theoretical depth. By the 1990s, the focus of theorists' discussion on translation has gradually separated from the previous specific translation processes and methods, and turned more to the fundamental nature of translation, translation and ideology, translation and culture. This chapter introduces Andre Leverville's translation theory.
Andre Leverville, a professor of translation and comparative literature at the University of Texas at Austin, originally from Belgium, is a very important theoretical figure in the field of Contemporary Western comparative literature and translation research. We can discuss his main ideas from the following two aspects.(Tan Zaixi,2000:276)

(一)The cultural turn in translation studies. It is a common feature of all cultural schools to turn the focus of translation studies from the language structure and language form correspondence that language schools are most concerned about to the meaning and function of the target text and the source text in their respective cultural systems. He believes that any literature must survive in a certain social and cultural environment, and its meaning and value Value, as well as its interpretation and acceptance, will always be affected and restricted by a series of interrelated and mutually referenced factors, including both internal and external factors of literature. Therefore, as far as translation research is concerned, the goal of the research is far from limited to exploring the equivalence or equivalence of the two texts in language forms, but to explore at the same time.Study various cultural issues directly or indirectly related to translation activities.

（二） The concept of manipulation in translation. When talking about and describing the basic characteristics of the cultural school, we often can not do without using the word "manipulation". Here, "manipulation"It is not emotional, but a special term representing the concept of neutrality. According to the translation operation of Andre Leverville and others, the core meaning is that in the process of processing the source text and generating the target text, the translator has the right and will rewrite the text in order to achieve a certain purpose. Andre Leverville believes that translation is a reflection of the image of the text.Other literary forms such as literary criticism, biography, literary history, drama, film, fiction and so on are also the rewriting of the text image, and rewriting is the manipulation of the text.

（三） Obviously, the manipulative rewriting in Lefevere and his cultural school theory is not simply equivalent to "Rewriting" in the general sense, because in his view, all translation is rewriting, even the "most faithful"Translation is also a form of rewriting. As a translation manipulator, this rewriting or manipulation should be regarded as a cultural necessity in essence. In the process of translation, the translator is bound to be affected and restricted by various social and cultural factors. In addition to considering all the characteristics related to the source text, such as the original author's intention, the context of the source text and so on, the more important thing is toIt is necessary to consider a series of factors related to the target or receiving culture, such as the purpose of translation, the function of the target text, the expectations and reactions of readers, the requirements of clients and sponsors, and the review of the publishing and distribution organization of the work. The existence of these factors and the degree of constraints imposed by the translator on them vary from person to person constitute the inevitable "manipulation" condition of the translator on the text.(Lefevere·André,1980:100).

For "manipulation" in this sense, we can not judge it by moral value words such as "legitimate" or "improper", but only by the "appropriateness" criteria such as whether the target text has achieved the purpose of translation, whether it meets the expectations of the audience, and whether it can be accepted by the accepted culture.

==Chapter5 Lawrence Venudi's translation theory==

It is precisely because the cultural school or manipulation school, and even the polysystem school, in translation studies have established a relationship with the theory of domestication and Foreignization in translation, that a new group of scholars and viewpoints have emerged. In the field of American translation studies, Lawrence Wenudi is the most vocal theoretical figure on the issues of "domestication" and "Foreignization".
As an English professor at Temple University in Philadelphia, winudi is one of the most active and influential figures in the field of American translation theory since the 1990s. Winudi belongs to the deconstruction school in translation studies, that is, what genzler calls the "post structuralism school"In his works on translation studies, Venuti advocates that literary translation should not aim at eliminating alien features, but should try to show cultural differences in the target text.(Tan Zaixi,2000:278)

Venuti's main view is that it is wrong to require the translator to be invisible in translation; the translator should not be invisible in the translation, but should be visible. That is to say, translation should adopt the principle and strategy of "alienation" to keep the translation exotic and exotic, and read like the translation, rather than "domestication"So that the translation can be transformed completely in accordance with the ideology and creative norms of the target culture. It doesn't read like foreign works, but the original of the target language.(Xie Tianzhen,2003:278).

However, translation has never been carried out in an unaffected way. Foreignization translation and domestication translation are actually the products of translation activities affected. From the perspective of translation ethics, it is difficult to assert which is good or which is bad, because translation reality shows that the two play irreplaceable roles in the target language and culture and complete their respective missions.Therefore, the two kinds of translation will always coexist and complement each other.(Tan Zaixi,2000:279)

==Chapter6 Edwin Gensler's translation theory==

Edwin Genzler is the director of the translation center of Amherst University of Massachusetts, doctor of comparative literature and professor of translation. His famous translation work is contemporary translation theory published in 1993 and reprinted in 2001.(Xie Tianzhen,2003:290).

Genzler's contribution to translation theory is mainly reflected in the following three aspects:
First, it comprehensively combs the contemporary western translation theories, so as to clarify people's understanding of various western translation theory schools since World War II, and thus arouse the research interest in all kinds of contemporary western translation theories in the field of translation studies (including China's Translation Studies).In contemporary translation theory, Genzler studies translation from different perspectives such as scientific theory, polysystem theory and deconstruction. By exploring the "political reality" outside translation (literary translation practice), he outlines the outline of contemporary western translation research and guides readers to rethink a series of theoretical issues such as the definition and classification of translation.(Tan Zaixi,2000:300)

Secondly, on the basis of comprehensively and systematically combing various contemporary western translation thoughts and theories, Genzler puts forward a multi-channel cooperative translation research view of "fair treatment of all systems".He believes that contemporary translation theory, like literary theory, originates from structuralist theory.All these structuralist or post structuralist theories have been confined to their respective academic circles for a long time.Various schools have very special requirements for the terms used in this system, and the terms are limited;Their pursuit of "correctness" or "objectivity" of theory tends to be one-sided, and they all try to gain universal recognition in the academic circles at the expense of other perspectives.The result is only the continuous conflict between theories, but there is no due cooperation and exchange between theories, which leads to the marginalization of academic research.(Xie Tianzhen,2003:293)

Thirdly, Genzler puts forward a post structuralist interpretation model of the essence of translation.In translation, post structuralism and power, he analyzes the deconstruction (post structuralism) thoughts of Derrida, Spivak and others, as well as the translation thoughts of translation theorists such as Wenudi, Levin and Robinson under the influence of their deconstruction thoughts, and points out that the new translation interpretation model can no longer follow the past tradition and simply define translation as"The transformation from a single language to another single language", but it should be regarded as the transformation between a multicultural form environment and another equally multicultural form environment.

==Conclusion==

In addition to the above-mentioned important theoretical figures in the field of contemporary American translation studies, many others, such as Roberto Tradu, Daniel Shaw, Burton Raphael and so on, have also made achievements in translation theory. However, due to space constraints, they cannot be discussed in detail here.

Generally speaking, due to the historical origin and the influence of the subject's immigrant culture, the initial development of American translation studies depends on the inheritance and promotion of the tradition of European translation theory. With the evolution of the times, American translation studies catch up with each other in many aspects with rapid development and fruitful achievements, and walk in the forefront of western translation studies, becoming the driving force of contemporary western translation theory. On an important force for forward development.(Tan Zaixi,2000:301)

In addition to the above-mentioned important theoretical figures in the field of contemporary American translation studies, many others, such as Roberto Tradu, Daniel Shaw, Burton Raphael and so on, have also made achievements in translation theory. However, due to space constraints, they cannot be discussed in detail here.

Generally speaking, due to the historical origin and the influence of the subject's immigrant culture, the initial development of American translation studies depends on the inheritance and promotion of the tradition of European translation theory. With the evolution of the times, American translation studies catch up with each other in many aspects with rapid development and fruitful achievements, and walk in the forefront of western translation studies, becoming the driving force of contemporary western translation theory. On an important force for forward development.(corrected by--[[User:Zhou Junhui|Zhou Junhui]] ([[User talk:Zhou Junhui|talk]]) 08:48, 14 December 2021 (UTC))

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Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (1999).《新编奈达论翻译》[M] New Nida on Translation. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司 Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.

Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2000).《翻译学》[M] Translatology. 武汉:湖北教育出版社 Wuhan: Hubei Education Press.

Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2003).《翻译研究新视野》[M].New perspectives in Translation Studies. 青岛:青岛出版社 Qingdao: Qingdao Press.

中国对外翻译出版公司（编).(1983).《翻译理论与翻译技巧论文集》[M].Collection of Papers on Translation Theory and Translation Skills. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.

中国对外翻译出版公司（编).(1983).《国外翻译理论评介文集》[M].A Review of Foreign Translation Theories. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司 Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.

--[[User:Liu Wei|Liu Wei]] ([[User talk:Liu Wei|talk]]) 16:11, 8 December 2021 (UTC)Liu Wei

=周俊辉Translation of Science and Technology in Late Qing Dynasty and Early Republic of China=
[[Hist_Trans_EN_10]]

=周玖Translation of Science and Technology in Ancient China=
[[Hist_Trans_EN_11]]

=钟雨露Western Translation History in the Old Ages=
[[Hist_Trans_EN_12]]

=钟义菲: The Chinese Translation History in Mordern Age=
[[Hist_Trans_EN_13]]

=魏楚璇: Western translation history in the Modern and Contemporary Ages=
[[Hist_Trans_EN_14]]

=Mahzad Heydarian: Where Persian Language Meets Translation=

Where Persian Language Meets Translation

By Mahzad Sadat Heydarian

Hunan Normal University- China

This paper is a journey to the history of Persian language and the presence of translation into/from Persian in different historical eras. Translation has been influenced by many social and intercultural factors throughout history; in this paper, its functions from ancient Persia to the contemporary era will be surveyed.

Key Words: Translation history, Persian language, Arabic influence, Medieval era

Persian Language, known as the language of great literary works by Hafez, Khayyam, Rumi and many other classical and modern poets and writers, has always been an interesting subject to study. Looking for its roots and origins and how it is changing and developing has been the interest of many linguists around the world. Like other important languages, Persian has developed and gradually changed in different eras in history. It seems that writings on translation history suffer from severe shortcomings. What is overlooked by the researchers of Persian translation history is to clarify the distinction between oral and written translation. These two have proved to be completely different subjects while they have been mixed when the writers judge its ups and downs in a specific period of time. Moreover, in the relatively limited knowledge of Persian translation history, the thematic classification of translations (e.g. literary, scientific, etc.) have not been considered.

Another common but important deficiency of such historiography is the lack of scientific consideration of the source and target texts, based on advances in the study of translation during the past three decades. The socio-cultural aspects of translation have rarely been surveyed, nor has the linguistic process of evolution of Persian historically been studied. Despite the importance of such inquiries, in most studies done by the Persian writers we could rarely find traces of identifying the direction of source and target texts, let alone contemplating the process and product as two imperative factors in any study of translation. Abdolhossein Azarang, whose history of translation comes with these problems admits that none of available historical books, including his, could be mentioned as a survey without offering at least a set of simple comparisons between the source and target texts in each era (Azarang, “Tarikhe” 9).

To our knowledge Persian has gone through three main changes over the years: starting from Old Persian, in transformed into Middle Persian, also known as Pahlavi, and was finally modernized into contemporary Persian—which is in use today in Iran, Afghanistan and parts of Central Asia. Persian is a branch of the Indo-European languages. As Ahmad Karimi-Hakkak (493) mentions “Over a millennium this language has been the primary means of daily discourse as well as the language of science, art and literature on the Iranian plateau.” He indicates that “Old Persian was brought into Iranian plateau in the second millennium BC by Eurasian steppes. In time, it became the language of the Achamenians (559-339 BC), a dynasty of kings who established the largest, most powerful empire in the ancient world” (493).

Among the encyclopedic references, Britannica has put forward a good remark for the root and divisions of Middle Persian with more detailed information. It mentions that:
Middle Persian is known in three forms, not entirely homogeneous—inscriptional Middle Persian, Pahlavi (often more precisely called Book Pahlavi), and Manichaean Middle Persian. The Middle Persian form belongs to the period 300 BCE to 950 CE and was, like Old Persian, the language of southwestern Iran. In the northeast and northwest the language spoken was Parthian, which is known from inscriptions and from Manichaean texts. There are no significant linguistic differences in the Parthian of these two sources. Most Parthian belongs to the first three centuries CE.

Nonetheless, the Middle Persian script was abandoned in favor of the Arabic script and led to many new linguistic alterations in Persian. According to Karimi-Hakkak “The new script was far simpler and more advanced. In addition, where the Arabic script lacked essentially Persian consonants these were added to it. In short, the adoption of the Arabic script for Persian did not give rise to ruptures as significant as certain modernist reformers have assumed it did” (494). Therefore, the start of the most significant change in the Persian language dates back to the seventh century when Islam started to take over the Iranian plateau. This led Persian to find many new scopes. By adopting the Arabic alphabet, Persian became even stronger and further blossomed into many classical literary works in the following centuries.

Among the encyclopedic references, Britannica has put forward a good remark for the root and divisions of Middle Persian with more detailed information. It mentions that: Middle Persian is known in three forms, not entirely homogeneous—inscriptional Middle Persian, Pahlavi (often more precisely called Book Pahlavi), and Manichaean Middle Persian. The Middle Persian form belongs to the period 300 BCE to 950 CE and was, like Old Persian, the language of southwestern Iran. In the northeast and northwest the language spoken was Parthian, which is known from inscriptions and from Manichaean texts. There are no significant linguistic differences in the Parthian of these two sources. Most Parthian belongs to the first three centuries CE.

Nonetheless, the Middle Persian script was abandoned in favor of the Arabic script and led to many new linguistic alterations in Persian. According to Karimi-Hakkak “The new script was far simpler and more advanced. In addition, where the Arabic script lacked essentially Persian consonants these were added to it. In short, the adoption of the Arabic script for Persian did not give rise to ruptures as significant as certain modernist reformers have assumed it did” (494). Therefore, the start of the most significant change in the Persian language dates back to the seventh century when Islam started to take over the Iranian plateau. This led Persian to find many new scopes. By adopting the Arabic alphabet, Persian became even stronger and further blossomed into many classical literary works in the following centuries.

The need for translation soon of course rose in a language like Persian spoken by large populations and used by different dynasties. Persian language had remained consistent and independent by asking the translation firstly and more importantly from Arabic. The language itself has neither been replaced by any other languages nor substantially changed during the centuries. That is why a Persian speaker today can effortlessly understand and enjoy the language of Hafez or Rudaki, the famous poets who lived in the 14th and 9th centuries, respectively.

The need for translation soon of course rose in a language like Persian spoken by large populations and used by different dynasties. Persian language had remained consistent and independent by asking the translation firstly and more importantly from Arabic. The language itself has neither been replaced by any other languages nor substantially changed during the centuries. That is why a Persian speaker today can effortlessly understand and enjoy the language of Hafez or Rudaki, the famous poets who lived in the 14th and 9th centuries, respectively.

The traces of written translation in different periods of the history of Persian language have mostly been based on the king’s demands or special order by one of the influential people in the royal court, mostly for their immediate political needs. This history, before the last century, has was interwoven with political, sometimes military and less commonly scientific texts. Therefore, individual or freelance translators who had been engaged in translation of literary works, or the Persian scientists who were keen to translate texts into Persian are absent in many historical periods. Azarang (15), studying the history of Safavid dynasty (1501–1736), in which Iran had lot of communications with Europe, has associated this strange phenomenon to the lack of concern and interest for learning and evolving in Persian travelers or dispatched students who commute to western countries. He believes that Iran missed a unique opportunity to use the scientific benefits for fundamental changes during Safavid dynasty, which was concurrent with the scientific and industrial transformations of Europe. As we will see, the attempts for translating texts for Iranian users were mostly confined to translation into Arabic instead of Persian as the main language of the whole plateau in post-Islamic era. The new movement of translating texts from different subjects into Persian was seen some 100 years after Safavid kings, during mid-Qajar era (1795–1925).

In this article a historical investigation of Persian translation is presented based on what is available in collecting books and articles, mostly based on four important references: Karimi-Hakkak’s article in Encyclopedia of Translation Studies (1998), Daeratol’ma’aref-e Bozorg-e Eslami (2008), Behrouz Karoubi’s important article (2017), and Azarang’s detailed chronological event book (2015). The study has been divided into five sections based on the five historical periods: Ancient Persia, Medieval Persian, The Mongol Era, Post-Mongol Era, and the Modern Period. This is more or less the same division done by Karimi-Hakkak, as the main resource of this article, but with a specific extension. This investigation refers primarily to translation into Persian and some comparatively rare cases of translation from Persian into the other languages, will exclusively be dealt with.

Ancient Persia (Before 651)
Karimi-Hakkak (493) mentions that “Translation into Persian has a long and eventful history; it has played an important part in the evolution of Iranian and Iranate civilizations throughout Western Asia and beyond.” We see the first traces of translation in medieval Persia, in which close contact and interface between Arabic and Persian occurred. He claims that “The Achamenian empire was multilingual, and many of its documents were written not only in various language of the empire, but in Babylonian and Elamite as well. Still our information about specific translation activities among these languages is too sketchy to allow any in-depth discussion of trends and patterns.” Later on, only with the formation of the Sasanian dynasty in Persia (AD 224–652) and the rise of Middle Persian the first authentic historical information about intercultural exchange could be found.

Behistun Inscription as the unique masterpiece in Achamenian’s era is an exclusive phenomenon in the history of translation of the world; Azarang argues that it is one of the most important translated texts in that era as well as one of the examples of precise translation. Translation of Behistun inscribed stone seems to be done by a number of trusted linguists who probably checked the texts’ conformity more than once. This translation shows that a precise translation accompanied by artistic delicacies on the stones had reached a very good level in that time (35).

Scholarship suggests that Old Persian was transmitted orally, as we have no written records from that time. There is Avesta, a religious book in what scholars have termed Avestan, a language closely related to Old Persian. Even though it was committed to writing in the fourth century AD, Avesta contains some Zoroastrian hymns thought to be in older Iranian languages” (qtd. in Karimi-Hakkak 493).

Medieval Persian (651-1206)
In the post Islamic era, the most significant translation works included nearly all of extant translations are from middle Persian into Arabic. This took place, as Karimi-Hakkak mentions, in the hope to save religious or literary works from destruction by transferring them into the newly spread and mostly accepted language which was Arabic at the time.

We do not still have access to any written works that reveals the exact historical events in Iran during 100 years after the Arab conquest in the middle of seventh century. We could not find an example of written translated practice in that century either. We know that written Persian had not yet developed much in that time and was not yet common around the country. Furthermore, according to Azarang, knowing the relation between some Iranians and Arab people seems not to be possible at the end of the century to understand the related linguistic relations. In the second century after Islam, however, we have evidence to show that some Iranian scientists who learned Arabic started to translate medieval works from Persian to Arabic in the fields of philosophy, logic, astronomy, medicine, pharmacology, ethics, and culture (Azarang, 95).

In Medieval era almost all Persian writers and scholars were bilingual, as the dominant language especially for writing was Arabic; by most of experts and philosophers. Karimi-Hakkak puts forward a list of famous internationally recognized Persian celebrities when he states that “in addition to the historian Tabari and physician and philosopher Avicenna, three of the greatest Islamic theologians – the Shi’ite Mohammad Tusi (d. 1076), the Sunni reformist Mohammad al-Ghazāli (d. 1111), and the Mo‘tazelite Zamakhshari (d. 1144) – who was also a great grammarian and lexicographer – can be counted among these, as can the jurist and philosopher Fakhr al-Din Rāzi (d. 1209)”. These men sometimes prepared Persian versions of the works they had written originally in Arabic, or supervised their students in such tasks. This is one reason why the border between translation and original work, as envisaged in that culture, appears blurred to us (496).

This fluidity enabled medieval Persian scientists and philosophers to be original authors and translators at the same time. The absence of proprietary concerns in medieval times further undermines modern-day efforts to distinguish writing from translation. Acts of borrowing, adaptation and appropriation were undertaken in ways that transcend modern classifications. The corpus of philosophical and scientific works in Persian is replete with bilingual texts or hybrids, as well as those in which text and commentary are in two different languages. There are also numerous texts of an indeterminate character; these may or may not be considered original works with later commentaries or annotated translations. Within the terms of medieval Persia, such works must be assumed to have originated in Arabic unless proven otherwise (496).

According to Mary Boyce, there was an unfortunate fact that none of the literature of the Parthian period has survived in its original because of their oral form. She explains that our knowledge about Parthian literature is thus mainly through recensions, redactions, or partial translations in Middle Persian (1157–1158). Karimi-Hakkak mentions: “We also know that the Sasanian kings encouraged translations from Greek and Latin. Much historical knowledge, lost to the Persians as a result of the chaos that followed Alexander’s conquest in 330 BC, was regained in this way. The Sasanian monarch Shapur I commissioned many translations from Greek and Indian works to be incorporated into collections of religious texts” (494).

Even for the extensive Sassanian literature which we know for certain that many works of other languages were translated into Middle Persian [must be rephrased], we have regrettably no knowledge about the linguistic features of translation that were used by the translators at that time or strategies which have been prevalent (qtd. in Karoubi 596).

Many translated works have been reported by Younes Keramati in the 14th century, which were from Persian and Iranian Arabic into Greek. The territories under the rule of the Trabzon Empire, from the early 14th century, witnessed a short resurrection of the translation of Persian works into Greek. The importance of translation between the two languages could be shown when we see that the translation of an astronomical work attributed to Shamsuddin Bukharaei, an Iranian scientist, led to the creation of the new Persian astronomical era in the Trabzon Empire. Among many important translated works, another Byzantine physician named Georgios Choniates translated an important Persian toxicology into Greek. Keramati believes that the superiority of Iranian education in Greece through translation (whether from Arabic or Persian) is proved by the fact that in that age, compared to the translation of many Persian works, not a single work has been translated from Greek into Persian (35). In an encyclopedic research, Ahmad Pakatchi argues that in translation from Persian to Turkish of Kharazmi, examples of literary works abound. Among them, instead of a precise translation, a kind of literary re-creation has taken place. A good example of this kinds is Khosrow and Shirin from Qutb Kharazmi (in 1341) which is the recreation of the famous poetry of Masnavi of Khosrow and Shirin by Nezami Ganjavi. In addition, the translation of Attar Neyshabouri’s Tazkerat al-Awliya is less changed because of its nature as simple prose but its translation has been done with some variations.

As argued by Karimi-Hakkak (494), “in the second half of the seventh century, Islam began to spread over the Iranian plateau gradually but steadily. This marks a unique turning point in the life of Iranians, not only religiously, but culturally and linguistically as well. The Persian language constitutes the most tangible link between Islamic and pre-Islamic Iranian cultures.”

Rozveh or Ruzbeh, better known by his Muslim name ‘Abdollāh Ebn-Al-Moqaffa’ (executed about 759), translated the Panchatantra and Khotay-namak (a collection of mythical legends of Persian kings and heroes) into Arabic. In all likelihood, he is also responsible for the translation into Arabic of accounts of the sixth century reformist prophet Mazdak, and that of his followers. Such texts, later translated from Arabic back into New Persian (Karoubi, 494).

Hediscovered two parallel tendencies in the eighth and ninth centuries. “The first, consisted of a series of translations made from extant texts into Arabic, later translated back into Persian. The second activity, undertaken by Persian converts to Islam, took the shape primarily of commentaries on the holy Qur’ān’ which could not be translated. Translation strategies were especial in that time in which ‘texts were subjected. to a variety of changes; they were simplified, annotated, abridged, illustrated with pictures and diagrams, mended through sequels, or otherwise altered to suit the specific needs of the patron and the new readership” (Karoubi, 495).

The Mongol Era (1206–1368)

In line with this classification Karimi-Hakkak states that “following the Mongol and Tartar invasions of the thirteenth through fifteenth centuries, new patterns of interaction emerged between Persian on the one hand and a number of Indian and Turkic languages on the other, making this history even more complex and multifarious.”
The Mongol conquest of Iran in the thirteenth century gradually put an end to the influence of the Arabic-speaking neighbors of the country and, as a result, led to the reduction of works composed in the Arabic language and the increase in works originally written in Persian. Karoubi refers to Mo’jam as one good example of this tendency. The book is written by Shams-e Qays-e Rāzi’s, as an effort of literary criticism that was originally composed in Arabic and, following the Mongol invasion, rewritten in Persian. In the preface to his book, Qays-e Rāzi claims that he had rewritten it in Persian on the request of many Persian poets and literati who did not possess sufficient knowledge of Arabic and were questioning the rationale behind composing a work on Persian poetic prosody in Arabic, because in their view such a work would be useful neither for the Arab audience, who had no familiarity with Persian language, nor for the Persian readers (see Shams-e Qays-e Rāzi, 1232/ 1935, pp. 17–18) (qtd. in Karoubi 598).
Nasir al-Din Tusi (d. 1274) translated the Greek basic manuals of mathematics and geometry, including Euclid’s Elements and Theodosius’s Spherica into Arabic, and the astrological judgements of Ptolemy from Arabic into Persian. In each case, he added his own comments to his translations (Karimi-Hakkak 496).

The Post-Mongol Era (1368-1789)

According to Karimi-Hakkak (497), “by the thirteenth century, Persian was becoming well established in India as the language of religious, literary and legal learning and communication. A number of important translations began to be made from Sanskrit and other Indian languages into Persian.”
The variations of translation and using different languages in India have been mentioned by him as a result of creation of more multilingual society in the region. He indicates that ‘[w]ords trafficked more freely between Persian and other languages, and a degree of tolerance emerged towards mixed usages. This in turn gave rise to a divergence between the Persian of Iran proper and that of India and Central Asia. Furthermore, translations were now made into Persian not so much from Arabic but from Indian and Turkic languages, as well as English and Russian’.

1. The Modern Period in Iran (after 1789)

Karimi-Hakkak (497-498) mentions that with the dominance Russia over Central Asia in the latter part of the nineteenth century, ‘almost all translation activity in Persian-speaking Central Asia was realigned with Chaghatay (later Uzbek) and Russian languages. The latter part of the nineteenth century was very important for the translation movement in Iran and for Persian language’. He adds ‘after a century and a half of political instability, the Qajar dynasty (ruled 1795–1925) had returned a semblance of stability to Iranian society early in the century. More or less regular cultural contact with Europe had begun with the dispatch of Iranian students to Europe, adding to the pressing need for inter-governmental contact”. (497)

Azarang (2015) and Karoubi (2017) see the measures done by the famous Qajar Prince, Abbas Mirza, (1789–1833) in the said era as the turning point in the history of translation in Iran. Karoubi mentions that:

Following their humiliating defeat by the numerically inferior but technologically superior Russian forces in the Russo-Persian wars (1804–1828), the Iranians started to realize that over 1000 years of having limited political exchange had kept them technologically inferior. Therefore, the defeat in the Russo-Persian war served as a wake-up call for the Iranians to resort to translation as the main means to compensate for their weaknesses. Abbās Mirzā, the Qajar crown prince of Persia, played a very influential role in the initiation of the new translation movement by commissioning the first translations from modern European languages into Persian and dispatching a number of Iranian students to western Europe for education, some of whom later became involved in translation activities. It was also during his reign that lithographic printing was for the first time introduced into Iran. (P. 598)

According to a travelogue written by Pierre Amédée Jaubert, the French diplomat and orientalist, who met Fat’h Ali Shah the king of Iran at the time, the king himself was very interested in acquiring the western knowledge, industry and culture, and therefore sought the ways in his mind for transmission of those aspects. Through the relation stablished between French and Iran, Napoleon Bonaparte sent a number of French officers and military experts to Iran. It was when the information about the French army and military regulations was begun to be translated into Persian (Azarang 221) seemingly with supervision of Abbas Mirza.

Azarang designates the names of some pioneer translators which were ordered by Abbas Mirza as well as the Western educated individuals who had involved in the new historical movement of translation in the same era. Mirza Saleh Shirazi who was sent to England, for acquiring the printing technology was one of these names. Karimi-Hakkak referred to this phenomenon in era of Qajar Dynasty as “renaissance of translation activity in Iran”. (498)

The Next part of this article is the main extract from Karimi-Hakkak article in Encyclopedia of Translation Studies which is the best expression of the history of translation in Iran, since Qajar dynasty.

The new translation movement was propelled primarily by the perceived need to gain access to European sciences and technology. Anxious to modernize the Iranian army and bureaucracy, the Qajar state followed the dispatching of groups of students to Europe by the establishment of a polytechnic College, modelled after European institutions of higher education. Established in Tehran in 1852 and known as Dār al-Fonūn (House of Techniques), this institution played a crucial part in modernizing Iran. European teachers were hired to teach a variety of subjects, often with Iranians as their assistants and interpreters. They also prepared a number of textbooks in various sciences which were based largely on European scientific works. Thus, translation and interpreting began to play a crucial part in the evolution of pedagogical processes in modern Iran. (498)

Many early Iranian translators of European works were graduates of Dār al-Fonūn. Chief among them was Mohammad-Hasan Khān, better known as E‘temād al-Saltaneh, the last title the court bestowed on him. From 1871 to 1896 E‘temad al-Saltaneh headed a new government office called Dār al-Tarjomeh (House of Translation), designed to coordinate government-sponsored translation and interpreting activities. The office was charged with supervising all state-sponsored translation activities. Under E‘temād al-Saltaneh’s tutelage, many significant European works were made available to Iranians, often from French and frequently in more or less free versions which approached adaptation. (498)

Soon, translation activity was directed towards disciplines such as history, politics and literature and became an integral part of various modernization projects. It was almost always undertaken to make Iranians conscious of their own backwardness, in spite of a glorious past. European orientalists had been studying Persian literature and Iranian history with interest and enthusiasm for over a century, and the Romantics had glorified Persian culture and civilization, particularly of pre-Islamic times. Iranians had to be made aware of these works if they were to strive to regain the glory of their ancient culture. (498)

In broader terms, translation has been at the base of a great many philosophical and scientific enquiries, cultural speculations, social activities and political agendas in Iran throughout the modern period. It has been the chief means of introducing Iranians to new ideas, schools of thought and literary trends. It has been considered a necessary component of the drive towards modernity, no less so in the Islamic republic than in the monarchial state which preceded it. As a result, it has been pursued with an enthusiasm and determination unparalleled in the history of the Persian language. Today, almost all important works of Western civilization, from Aristotle and Plato to examples of the latest trends in American or French fiction, are available in Persian translation. (499)

At the same time, translation has at times been viewed as an easy road to fame, if not to fortune, particularly in the social sciences and literature. While it has attracted much talent, it has at times had a negative impact on the evolution of the culture. It has certainly thwarted efforts to explore possibilities of political, social or cultural development which do not fit into Western patterns. Be that as it may, the importance of translation as a cultural activity has encouraged almost all notable intellectuals of contemporary Iran to try their hand at it. Rarely have these intellectuals specialized in fields such as literature or the social sciences. Instead, the impulse to translate seems to follow the search for relevance or the perceived need to buttress or justify one’s own position, politically, philosophically or aesthetically. (499)

Meanwhile, translation had remained a central component of the language learning process, particularly at university level. However, the activity was pursued in fairly traditional ways which were not always conducive to training competent, professional translators and interpreters. The main activity consisted of actual translations, with little discussion of the theoretical underpinnings or the principles governing the actual process of text production. Typically, students would offer their own translations, discussions would ensue, and a text would be suggested as the best possible rendition of a given original. (500)

Through the 1970s, efforts were undertaken at Tehran University, the College of Translation and elsewhere, to introduce a new approach to teaching literary translation from English into Persian and vice versa. Teaching was based essentially on examining existing translations and discussing their relative merits and shortcomings. It also aimed to instil a sense of the comparative grammars of the languages and texts involved. Extensive discussions of the style, diction and context of each text replaced the requirement of text production. Important as it is, translation pedagogy has never been studied in Iran as a crucial component of translation activity. (500)

Azarang, refers to the absolute superiority of French as the source language in Persian translation in the early decades of 20th century. As an example, in one Iranian year around 1921-1922, only four literary titles were translated into Persian, among which not a single book was selected from English. He adds by quoting Ramezani’s comment that: ‘The number of selected stories and plays between 1921 and 1932 was a total of 180 titles. At that time, names of books translated from English to Persian were rarely seen. In addition, even those English-language works may have been re-translated from French into Persian, such as the stories of Jack London, an American author whose translations were translated from French into Persian some decades later. Quoting the available evidence, he states that it was only in later years that works by English-language authors such as Shakespeare, Dickens, Alan Poe, O’Henry and others were translated into Persian, while it is not possible to say precisely which of the works has been directly translated from English. (Azarang, “Translation from English”, 60).

References:

Azarang, Abdolhossein. Tärikhe Tarjome dar Iran [The History of Translation in Iran]. Ghoghnous, 2015.

--- “Translation from English to Persian.” Great Islamic Encyclopedia. The Center for the Great Islamic Encyclopedia, vol. XV, 2008, pp. 59-68.

Boyce, Mary. “Parthian writings and literature.” Cambridge history of Iran, edited by E. Yarshater, Cambridge University Press, vol. 3.2, 1983, pp. 1151–1165.

Britannica [Online Encyclopedia), https://www.britannica.com/topic/Iranian-languages#ref603427.Accessed 8 Sep 2020.

Daeratol’ma’aref-e Bozorg-e Eslami [Great Islamic Encyclopedia]. vol. XV, The Center for the Great Islamic Encyclopedia, 2008.

Karoubi, Behrouz. “A concise history of translation in Iran from antiquity to the present time.” Perspectives, vol. 25, no.4, 2017, pp. 594-608. doi:10.1080/0907676X.2016.1277248
Keramati, Younes. “Translation from Arabic and Persian to Greec”. Great Islamic Encyclopedia. The Center for the Great Islamic Encyclopedia, vol. 15, 2008, pp. 34-36.

Karimi-Hakkak, Ahmad. “Persian tradition”, Routledge encyclopedia of translation studies, edited by Mona Baker and Gabriela Saldanha, Routledge, 1998, pp. 493–501.

Pakatchi, Ahmad. “Translation from Arabic and Persian to oriental Turkic”. Great Islamic Encyclopedia. The Center for the Great Islamic Encyclopedia, vol. XV, 2008, pp. 45-47.

Parsi Nejad, Iraj. “Translation from European languages to Persian”. Great Islamic Encyclopedia. The Center for the Great Islamic Encyclopedia, vol. XV, 2008, pp. 56-59.

Rezaee Baghbidi. Hassan. “Translation from Sanskrit and Pahlavi to Arabic”. Great Islamic Encyclopedia. The Center for the Great Islamic Encyclopedia, vol. XV, 2008, pp. 24-33.

=Akira Jantarat： History of Chinese-Thai literature Translation in 19th century=
[[Hist_Trans_EN_17]]

=Jawad Ahmad; History of Translation=

[[Hist_Trans_EN_18]]

=Bible Translation in Christian History=
Benjamin Wellsand, Hunan Normal University, China
[[Hist_Trans_EN_18]]

==Abstract==
The history of Christianity is rich in translations. Why is this the case? What is the motivation behind all this translation effort? The present work will explain the rationale behind the perceived need for translation. It will describe the multicultural context that aided the church in communicating in a heart language. An awkward struggle in the Middle Ages will leave the future of the church in question. What created this polar shift in the West from the church's original course bearings? How and why did the church recover? What remains of centuries of Christian diligence to get the Word into the words of the other? Through historical events, life experiences of translators, and the tales that live on in the translations themselves will answer these questions and encourage the reader to enter the exciting and vast history of Bible translation.

==Key Words==
Aramaic language—refers to the Semitic dialect of a Middle Eastern people written in a Phoenician alphabet and first appearing in the 11th century B.C.E and growing to the peak of prominence in the 8th century B.C.E.

Free Translation—a translator’s decision to avoid as many target audience misunderstandings as possible due to linguistic and cultural differences with the source text’s culture

Functional or Dynamic Translation—a translator’s decision to focus more attention on communicating the meaning of the source text with concern for the target text

Grassroots theology—the lived experience of the church that then develops into a theological framework

Greek language—refers to that Greek developed in the 4th century B.C.E. and utilized by the Greco-Roman Empire

Heart language—the native language of a person from which the deepest emotional meanings are expressed

Hebrew language—refers to the ancient Jewish dialect spoken between the 10th century B.C.E. and the 4th century C.E.

Literal Translation—a translator’s decision to focus attention primarily on what the source text says

Septuagint—the Greek translations of the Hebrew Old Testament

Vernacular language—an expression or mode of expression that is a part of everyday communication and not yet in written form

==Introduction==
Translation of the biblical text has been a practice of the Christian church since its very origin. The founding of the church during the Jewish festival of Pentecost, as recorded in the Bible itself, involved Jesus’ disciples communicating the gospel message in the language of Parthians, Medes, Mesopotamians, and Egyptians, among others. (cf. Acts 2.7-11) The final vision of the multitude of the saved in heaven are described as a “people of God from every tribe and language and people and nation." (Rev. 5.9) The New Testament, although authored by primarily Hebrew-speaking Jews, was first written in the lingua franca, koine Greek, of the day. Whereas Buddhists and Muslims identify their sacred texts and faiths inseparably from the original languages of Sanskrit, Pali and Arabic, the Christian faith has sought to translate the biblical texts immediately and directly into the vernacular language of the people to accelerate its global spread.

On a historical basis, the Christian faith has been criticized regarding colonialism and the destruction of cultures. One such case occurred in the sixteenth-century with the Japanese. Giant ships (in comparison to the Japanese) came to dock on the island from Portugal. Many transactions were made between the Portuguese traders and the local Japanese damaiyo. When trade agreements went south, as it did in the case of Portugal and Japan, the Portuguese missionaries were associated with the politics and kicked out of the country. They were ousted under the accusations of encouraging Japanese to eat horses and cows, misleading people through science and medicine, and trading Japanese slaves. (Doughill 2012: l. 1064) Although the missionaries had done no such things, they were targeted along with the Portuguese government for these criminal acts.

There are cases where the colonial form of the church has not come to intentionally destroy but has assumed cultural superiority and inadvertently added to the host culture their own country of origin’s cultural forms. Late 19th century missionaries to Africa felt that the Western-style structure of a dwelling was an indicator of modern progress. In 1879, the magistrate of Gatberg declared:

It is not only that the requirement of modesty necessitates the providing of some sort of clothing, however simple; but Christian morality desires also a dwelling corresponding to human dignity, decency, and purity. Building plays an important part in the mission. First the missionary builds a simple small house for himself, to which he soon adds a school and a church. Generally, he must himself superintend this work; often enough, indeed, he must execute it with his own hand, and it stands him in good stead to have been a tradesman at home. But he induces the natives also to help him, and much patience as it requires on his part, he undertakes to instruct them. Gradually his word and his example produce their effect, and the converts from heathenism begin to build new and more decent dwellings for themselves. (Warneck 1888: 80)

There is no denying that the church has struggled to decontextualize the faith from their home culture and properly contextualize it into the host culture. This has led to the host culture’s Christianity looking eerily similar to the missionary’s, at best, or a faith that forever remains foreign to the host culture, at worst. Yet, as Lamin Sanneh notes, Christian missionaries have often played a key role in the preservation of cultures:

The translation enterprise had two major steps. One was the creation of a vernacular alphabet for societies that lacked a literary tradition. The other step was to shake the existing literary tradition free of its esoteric, elitist predilection by recasting it as a popular medium. Both steps stimulated an indigenous response and encouraged the discovery of local resources for the appropriation of Christianity. (Sanneh 1987: 333)

The translation of the biblical text into another language is not simply a greater convenience to the reader in the target culture but accomplishes far more as language extends much deeper than a mere form of communication.

Benjamin L. Whorf’s theory of linguistic relativity holds that language influences thought and not thought that influences language. For him, “linguistics is essentially the quest of meaning." (Carroll 1956: 73) George C. Lichtenberg, another pioneer of linguistics, is famously quoted as saying, “Our false philosophy is incorporated in our whole language; we cannot talk, so to say, without talking incorrectly. We do not consider that speaking, irrespective of its content, presents a philosophy." (Loewenberg 1943-44: 102) Richard D. Lewis illustrated this point with an interaction between himself, an Englishman, and a former Zulu chief who received a doctorate in philology at Oxford as they discussed the color green. As the Zulu pointed to a leaf in the sun, a leaf in the shade, a wet leaf in the sun and one in the shade, bush leaves, leaves in the wind, rivers, pools, tree trunks, and crocodiles, all to which Lewis responded with a single answer: green. Yet his Zulu friend had reached thirty-nine different terms for green with no trouble at all (Lewis 2006, 9). Paul G. Hiebert writes, “We examine the language to discover the categories the people use in their thinking." (Hiebert 2008: 90)

Christians, like Hiebert, recognize that true conversion of a person’s mind can only happen if it takes place on three levels of the individual: belief, behavior, and worldview. “Too often conversion takes place at the surface levels of behavior and beliefs; but if worldviews are not transformed, the gospel is interpreted in terms of pagan worldviews, and the result is Christo-paganism." (Hiebert 2008: 69) And, since worldview is linked to language, it goes without saying that the biblical text and Christian terminology must be placed in the language of the people in order for one to be truly Christian within their culture.

Grassroots theology is a term coined by Simon Chan. While it is true that theology is something that is viewed as coming down from God in the Christian faith, theology cannot be totally divorced from what happens on the physical earth among humanity. The idea behind grassroots theology is that theology takes place within the community of the faithful and will necessarily carry cultural characteristics of the host culture. The African context finds a great deal of suffering through poverty and illness and filial concerns extend to deceased ancestors. This has led African Christians to recognize Jesus as the Healer who can bring help for those suffering from disease. They will point to Messianic prophecies like, “the eyes of the blind shall be opened, and the ears of the deaf unstopped; then shall the lame man leap like a deer, and the tongue of the mute sing for joy." (Isa. 35.5-6) They also find him to be the fulfillment for their need of an ancestral role as a mediator between the earthly and spiritual realms. They draw attention to Paul’s letter to Timothy, “For there is one God, and there is one mediator between God and men, the man Christ Jesus." (1 Tim. 2.5) The same can be said of Latin Americans attraction to the Holy Spirit and those giftings associated with him and South Asia’s attention to fear-power aspects of the gospel message coming from a culture steeped in animism and folk religions.

Randy Dignan has learned from his own bilingual experience “that language isn’t understood only by the mind. Language can also be heard with the heart." (Dignan 2020: 13) The term heart language holds to the conviction that, while one can read and communicate in a second language, when in the most intimate and troubling circumstances an individual will automatically revert to his or her native tongue. This is since our native form of speech is not only natural but the language in which we communicate most deeply and freely. When the Japanese Christian, Shusaku Endo, reflected on the 250 years of suffering that the church in Japan had to endure and how the church was forced to recant their faith publicly and remove all religious symbols, he reverted to his native language to express his spiritual thoughts. The Japanese character chin (meaning silence) stood as a symbol as one “looks starkly into the darkness, but [creates] characters and language that somehow inexplicably move beyond” that darkness." (Fujimura 2016: 74) What in Shusaku Endo’s mind best describes the Japanese Christian’s experience of suffering? Chin. When speaking of things closest to us, humans, all of us, speak from the language closest to our heart—our native one.

The early church set the pattern as it was birthed within a multilingual context and immediately entered translation efforts. Colonialism remains a constant threat as one culture takes the Christian faith into another foreign cultural context. Conversion is defined by the church as an experience that involves an individual who possesses a former way of life modeled after a specific pattern of behavior and a particular spiritual influence and then that way of life is abruptly interrupted and overturned by an encounter with Jesus. (cf. Eph. 2.1-7) That experience involves a love for God with all of one’s heart, soul, mind, and strength. (cf. Mk. 12.30) What reaches to the depths of heart and soul is one’s language that reaches to worldview levels. Christianity is a faith that is intended to engulf the entire person from head to toe and from belief to action. The development of a grassroots theology involves the heart language of the people and has historically manifested the capacity to preserve cultures. This is a work on the history of translation in the church.

[1] Papias’ writings are only available to us through the records kept by Eusebius. In these records, there are two extant quotes regarding authorship of the gospels. In regard to the gospel of Matthew, he writes, “Matthew composed the gospel in the Hebrew dialect and each translated them as best he could.” The early church understood this to mean that Matthew had originally written his gospel in Hebrew and it was soon after translated into Greek. However, scholars, such as D. A. Carson and Douglas J. Moo, have brought the validity of this interpretation of Papias’ statement into question. (See 2005: 161-162)

==1. The Early Church And Translation==
The early church was a multicultural and multilingual group of people. The church had its start within Jerusalem during a Jewish festival known as Pentecost. It was during this festival that Jews would converge within the city from the Jewish diaspora that had been created through centuries of occupation and exile. The Jews living among foreign lands had taken on the culture and languages of their captors and captive neighbors. When they came back to worship at the centralized Jerusalem Temple in 30 C.E., there was a complex and diverse representation of culture and a need for the Hebrew speakers to communicate in the languages of the diaspora.

As noted above, Greek had long been the lingua franca by this time and translation of the church’s sacred text had already taken place. What is known as the Septuagint (LXX) was the Greek version(s) of the Hebrew Old Testament. Rather than referencing a specific translation, since there is no single identifiable text, the LXX is, in the words of Emanuel Tov, “the nature of the individual translation units” and “the nature of the Greek Scripture as a whole (p3).” The fictitious origins of the title Septuagint come from the tale of 70 translators who were said to have gathered in Alexandria during the reign of Ptolemy II and the translation was miraculously accomplished within seventy-two days. Despite the fictitious tale of its beginning and the difficulty in identifying exactly what the Septuagint text contains, there is no doubt that the translations existed, and that Jesus’s apostles utilized them regularly in their writing of the New Testament text.

The New Testament does not qualify as a written translation of a Hebrew text, but it is a written Greek text that is translated from Jewish thought. The Jewish concepts of Temple, Levitical priesthood, Messiah, animal sacrifice, along with many other Old Testament imagery and thought are written down in Greek. It is interesting that there are assumptions made by biblical scholars that, since the biblical writers were writing in Greek, they must have been borrowing from Greek thought to communicate to a Greek audience. A common example can be found in the beginning of the gospel of John and its use of word (or logos). The text reads, “In the beginning was the Word and the Word was with God, and the Word was God." (Jn. 1.1) Many find the apostle John borrowing from Platonic philosophy and following in the footsteps of Hellenistic, Jewish philosopher, Philo who connected Greek Sophia (or Wisdom) with the logos, which was the knowledge, reason, and consciousness of the God of the Old Testament that assisted humans in life.

Despite the face value validity of this being a moment of contextualization by the apostle John of Hebrew concepts into Greek thought, there may be a more reasonable explanation. Ronald A. Nash points out that it makes more sense to take logos not back to Greek philosophy primarily but to Hebrew thought in Genesis 1, since the writers had Jewish minds. In every activity of creation, as it is recorded in the Hebrew Old Testament, God is described as one who speaks all things into existence. “And God said, ‘Let there be light.'" (Gen. 1.3) It is the word of God that brought all of creation into existence. John takes the Hebrew thought regarding the spoken beginning of the cosmos and uses the Greek term logos as a title for Jesus to connect him with the origins of creation for the New Testament Greek audience.

Regardless of how thoughts were communicated in translation, the fact remains that the early church was diligent from the start to ensure the biblical text made it into the hands of every people group encountered in their own language. The earliest translation of the Greek New Testament was either Syriac or Coptic. The Coptic version was translated by Egyptians of the north-western province in the third century. Today, there are five or six different identifiable Syriac versions that arise out of more than 350 extant manuscripts and the Peshitta is the earliest known translation following the LXX. By 200 C.E. there was an estimated seven translations, thirteen by the sixth century, and fifty-seven by the nineteenth century. In 2020, the Bible has been translated in whole into 704 languages, New Testament-only translations in 1,551 languages, and partial translations in another 1,160.

[2] See D. Butler Pratt. 1907. “The Gospel of John from the Standpoint of Greek Tragedy.” The Biblical World. 30 (6): 448-459. The University of Chicago Press. and Ronald Williamson. 1970. Philo and the Epistle to the Hebrews. Leiden: E. J. Brill.

==2. Motivation and Opposition to Translation in the Middle Ages==
Emperor Diocletian had divided the Roman Empire into two sectors: the predominantly Latin-speaking western and the majority Greek-speaking eastern territories. Later in history with the weakening of the Roman Empire and a diversity of Germanic tribes occupying the west, the Eastern empire of Byzantium (led by a conviction as the rightful heirs of the Roman Empire) desired to reunite the former glory of Rome and, under the rule of Emperor Justinian I, successfully expanded its imperial authority from east to most of the former Roman western territory. There developed between Rome in the west and Constantinople in the east a politically driven religious rivalry after an alliance of the Frankish king, Pepin the Younger and the bishop of Rome. The political divide between the Franks and the Byzantines persisted to the point of the creation of two different leaders of the church, the Roman pope in the west and the Constantinian patriarch in the east. The Great Schism began in 1054 C.E. when the Byzantine patriarch Michael I Celarius sent a letter to the Roman bishop of Trani to debate the use of unleavened rather than leavened bread in the context of corporate worship with the claim of unleavened bread as a Jewish and not a Christian practice. The conflict was referred to the western capital city of Rome where pope Leo refused to make any concessions regarding the issue.

In 1079 C.E. a letter was written by Vratislaus I, duke of Bohemia, requesting the pope of Rome allow his monks to do officiate in Slavonic recitations. Pope Gregory VII responded:

Know that we can by no means favorably answer this your petition. For it is clear to those who reflect often upon it, that not without reason has it pleased Almighty God that holy scripture should be a secret in certain places, lest, if it were plainly apparent to all men, perchance it would be little esteemed and be subject to disrespect; or it might be falsely understood by those of mediocre learning, and lead to error … we forbid what you have so imprudently demanded of the authority of St. Peter, and we command you to resist this vain rashness with all your might, to the honor of Almighty God. (Deansely 1920: 24)

One wonders if the recent signs of a schism and concern over who held church authority, either the patriarch or the pope, did not significantly influence such a verdict. In this case, it was likely not so much a concern over the misuse of the biblical text as it was a deterrent of Greek and Slavic influence from the eastern church having a hold on western adherents to the Christian faith.

Vernacular translations did exist for royalty in nearly all European countries, such as those produced for John II of France or Charles V of Rome. Vernacular translations that were free adaptations, paraphrases, or rhymed verse were allowed among the laity for single books or portions of the Bible because such “a work was considered safer than the literal translation of the sacred text.” (Deansely 1920, 19) The fact that the Waldensians were early proponents of vernacular translation and viewed as a heretical group in the Roman church did not help the cause. This ascetic sect held that vows of apostolic poverty led to spiritual perfection. A native German and founder of the Waldensians, Peter Waldo, was a man with the will and financial means to have the New Testament translated into Franco-Provençal by a cleric from Lyon. The sect was not as keen on the Old Testament and so there was no completed translation work. The Lollards, or followers of Wycliffe, were viewed with theological suspicion by the church in Rome as well. John Wycliffe, an English philosopher and University of Oxford professor, believed that God was sovereign over all and that all men were on an equal footing under his reign and were not in submission to any other mediatory ecclesiastical power. Margaret Deansely claims that this “also led logically to the demand for a translated Bible” from the Latin vulgate to English. (Deansley 1920: 227) If everyone was under God and the divine mandate, then it is only fitting that each person be given that text in an understandable linguistic form. Wycliffe used the existence of translations among the nobility as a basis for a request for translations available to commoners.

In 1412, the English archbishop Thomas Arundel wrote to pope John XXII charging that Wycliffe had “fill[ed] up the measure of his malice, he devised the expedient of a new translation of the scriptures into the mother tongue.” (Deansely 1920: 238) His Constitutions that were authored against Wycliffe post-humously and against the existing Lollard community, according to Shannon McSheffrey, “were probably responsible for a freeze on English translations of scripture” with only one surviving license for an English Bible in the fifteenth century, the Lollard translation remained the “most widely circulated of vernacular manuscripts.” (McSheffrey 2005: 63) Margaret Aston found that, despite the church in Rome’s crackdown on vernacular translation, the Lollards cause continued to influence the Reformers through their written publications. Martin Luther utilized the Commentarius in Apocalypsin ante Centum Annos æditus, Robert Redman produced a work heavily dependent on The Lanterne of light, and William Thynne’s The Plowman’s Tale has its source in an original fourteenth-century Lollard poem. The fires for vernacular translation had been rekindled in the church of the west. Jacob van Liesveldt published a Dutch translation in 1526; Jacques Lefèvre d’Étaples completed the French Antwerp Bible in 1530; Luther’s German translation emerged in 1534; Maximus of Gallipoli printed a Greek translation of the New Testament in 1638; a completed Hungarian Bible immerged in 1590; Giovanni Diodati translated the Bible into Italian in 1607; João Ferreira d'Almeida printed a Portuguese New Testament in 1681; in 1550 a full translation arrived in Denmark; and Luther’s version of the New Testament was reprinted in part in the Swyzerdeutsch dialect by 1525. In 1953, Wycliffe Bible Translators was founded and currently has a global alliance of over 100 organizations that serve in Bible translation movements and language communities around the world and has been a part of vernacular translation in more than 700 languages.

==3. Defining Forms of Biblical Translation==
In translation of the biblical text, the best possible translation scenario is one that comes from the original Hebrew-Aramaic Old Testament (including the later LXX translations) and Greek New Testament languages. There are Bible versions that are translated based on previous translations, but this is not ideal as it removes the translators from the linguistic source context. Ancient Greek has single words with multiple meanings, like bar in English that can refer to an establishment that serves alcohol and a metal object or hua in Chinese that can be read either as a verb or a noun. This can lead to inconsistencies in translation. For example, the Chinese Union Version (CUV), which is the most used Chinese version, translates the Greek word aletheia as chengshi (or honesty). John uses aletheia nineteen times in the Gospel of John and only once in John 16.7 does the word carry the meaning of honesty. It is clear in this passage that the meaning is honesty as it is a description of how Jesus speaks with his disciples. A single word in one language can also carry more information than in another. The Greek word hamartánein (or sin) in 1 John 1.9 is a present active verb for sin. The JMSJ Chinese version adds jixu (or continue) which is a word not found in Greek, but best expresses the original meaning with the addition of a word not found in the source text.

When translation issues arise like the latter example given above, there are translator decisions that must be made on how to best translate a source text’s meaning into the target text. There are translators who make the decision to stay as close to the source language as possible. This is known as a literal translation of the source text. Leland Ryken states that a literal translation approach is concerned more with “what the original text says [than] what it means.” (Ryken 2009, l. 323) This may lead to a translator sacrificing ease of the recipient audience’s understanding for the sake of an aim to stay faithful to the text. However, there are cases where literal translation has worked best. Toshikazu Foley notes how the Chinese Union Version takes a literal approach in Philippians 1.8 when it translates the Greek word splagknois (or the most inward parts of a man where emotions are felt) as xinchang (or heart-intestines). This phrase carries the meaning of someone with a “good heart” or “merciful and kind.” While Today’s Chinese Version (TCV) takes a more dynamic approach and follows Today’s English Version’s (TEV) translation as heart. In this instance, what the Greek text says and what it means can transfer to the Chinese text.

Continuing with the Philippians 1.8 scenario, the Greek word splagknois (or the most inward parts of a man where emotions are felt) cannot be directly translated into English in the same way that it can with the Chinese term xinchang (or heart-intestines). For an English translator to take a literal translation approach and simply make a direct translation as “I long after you all in the bowels of Jesus Christ,” it would lead to a great misunderstanding by the English audience. The TEV translator has made the decision to surrender a literal translation out of concern for the target audience. This is known as a dynamic or functional equivalence translation. Ryken gives the following description: “Functional equivalence seeks something in the receptor language that produces the same effect (and therefore allegedly serves the same function) as the original statement, no matter how far removed the new statement might be from the original.” (Ryken 2009: l. 263)

There are varying degrees of helpfulness when a translator is forced to move into the realm of dynamic equivalence. A comparison of two translation results from 2 Timothy 2.3 can be used to illustrate. The Chinese Union Version reads, “You want to suffer with me, like a good soldier of Christ Jesus.” While the Today’s Chinese Version reads, “As a loyal soldier of Christ Jesus, you have to share in the suffering.” In the surrounding context, Paul has just explained his own suffering in chapter one and speaks intimately of Timothy as his son in chapter two and expects Timothy to propagate his message further. The CUV follows the context more closely as Timothy follows in the ministry of his spiritual “father” before him and, as he shares Paul’s message, will also share in his sufferings.

Those translators that are very target text oriented in avoidance of difficult language and cultural differences, can leave the realm of translation and enter that of interpretation. To pursue Ryken’s description further, the free translation approach is primarily concerned with what the text means in its communication. The Concise Bible (JMSJ) takes great liberty in its translation of 1 Corinthians 1.23. Where the Chinese New Version translates, “We preach the crucified Christ; a stumbling block to the Jews and stupidity to the foreigner”, the JMSJ reads:

“But all we proclaim is the Christ who was nailed to the cross to atone for people's sin. Jews hate this kind of message [, because their hope is in a political, military leader leading them to break free from Roman rule, and not the crucified Jesus]. People of other races think this kind of message is very foolish [, because they don't believe Jesus becoming sin and dying on a cross for people is Savior and Lord.]”

A non-native speaker could examine the Chinese New Version and JMSJ and recognize just by the stark contrast in Chinese character counts between the two versions that the JMSJ has gone to great lengths to communicate the meaning of the source text to its Chinese target audience.

==Conclusion==
The Christian church was birthed in a multilingual environment that was the result of seemingly endless years of exile which the superior kingdoms of Babylon, Assyria, Medo-Persia, Greece, and Rome forced upon the Jewish population. The Christians believe, in the pen of the apostle Paul, “we know that for those who love God all things work together for good, for those who are called according to his purpose.” (Rom. 8.28) The kingdoms aggressively destroyed and pillaged and uprooted families, friends, and neighbors from their promised land and decimated the Temple. The Jews were left without a king, a name, and, from all outward appearances, a God. Yet this landless state of a people, that commonly struggled with ethnocentrism, propelled them into a crash course with foreign language studies. Genesis 31.47; Jeremiah 10.11; Ezra 4.8-6.18; 7.12-26; and Daniel 2.4-7.28 are all portions of the Old Testament that were not written in Hebrew, but in Aramaic. Aramaic was the official language used circa 700-200 B.C.E. and remnants of its widespread usage were found in parts of Babylon, Egypt, Palestine, Arabia, Assyria, and other ancient regions. The LXX translations quoted in the New Testament also attest to the Greco-Roman occupation and the Jews ability to adapt to their surrounding cultures. When the Holy Spirit descends with tongues of fire, the followers of Jesus tongues are alight with the diversity mirroring the surrounding effects of a melting pot of cultural diversity. The first Christians (primarily Jewish) were already equipped to communicate the gospel message of Jesus on a worldview level in the heart language of their former oppressors.

The cultures that interacted, and at points even dominated the Palestinian culture, were the first ones to experience the early church’s fervent cross-cultural evangelistic efforts through the means of translation. Peter J. Williams gives this historical comment: “The oldest records in Syriac are pagan or secular, but from the mid-second century onward, the influence of Christianity could be felt in Syriac-speaking culture, and from the fourth century, this influence dominated literary output.” (Williams 2013: 143) The most notable of these early Christian texts is Tatian’s Diatessaron (the earliest known harmony of the four Gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke and John) around 170 C.E. Philip Jenkins lists Syria among the Near Eastern places of origin where, “during the first few centuries [Christianity] had its greatest centers, its most prestigious churches and monasteries.” (Jenkins 2008: l. 47) It was the theological struggles of this church that led to the early articulation of key doctrines, like the hypostatic union of Christ that sets forth the relationship between his divine and human natures.

The utilization of koine Greek pressed the church outward with a global missional front. One that, as previously noted, preserves the languages of outlying and isolated cultures and plants the Christian faith firmly in the local cultural context to ensure its perseverance. Before the writings of the New Testament are even completed, the church is already seen in transition from a primarily Jewish body to a predominantly Greek one. The apostle Paul queried the apostle Peter, both of Jewish descent, “If you, though a Jew, live like a Gentile and not like a Jew, how can you force the Gentiles to live like Jews?” (Gal. 2.14) And the church in its infancy is described in the midst of a racial dilemma: “Now in these days when the disciples were increasing in number, a complaint by the Hellenists arose against the Hebrews because their widows were being neglected in the daily distribution.” (Acts 6.1) These were not signs of stagnation but were natural growing pains of a church that was oriented outward. Although the church seems to struggle or lose its focus from time to time, overall, it has been at the forefront of linguistic translation and has made the Bible the most popular and well-read text in all the world for centuries.

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